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diff --git a/38143.txt b/38143.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cb603f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/38143.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17874 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 12, Slice 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 4 + "Grasshopper" to "Greek Language" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: November 26, 2011 [EBook #38143] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SLICE 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE GREAT REBELLION: "The king's line was steadily rolled up + from left to right, the Parliamentary troopers captured his guns + and regiment after the regiment broke up." added 'the'. + + ARTICLE GREECE: "The revenue accruing to the government in 1905 was + 1,418,158 dr., as compared with 583,991 dr. in 1883. The increase + is mainly due to improved administration." 'accruing' amended from + 'accuring'. + + ARTICLE GREECE: "If we would judge fairly of tyranny, and of what + it contributed to the development of Greece ..." 'If' amended from + 'It'. + + ARTICLE GREECE: "It failed still more significantly to unite Greece + north of the Isthmus. It left Greece weaker and more divided than + it found it (see the concluding words of Xenophon's Hellenics)." + 'significantly' amended from 'signally'. + + ARTICLE GREECE: "The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure to + grasp the principles of historical criticism, to understand the + nature of military operations, and to appreciate the importance of + chronology." 'to' amended from 'too'. + + ARTICLE GREECE: "Four of Plutarch's Lives are concerned with this + period, viz. Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon and Pericles. From the + Aristides little can be gained." 'Plutarch's' amended from + 'Plutatch's'. + + ARTICLE GREECE: "It was evident, however, that nothing could be + gained by an appeal to arms, the powers not being prepared to apply + coercion to Turkey." 'It' amended from 'In'. + + ARTICLE GREEK ART: "In the same graves with the pottery are + sometimes found plaques of gold or bronze, and towards the end of + the geometric age these sometimes bear scenes from mythology, + treated with the greatest simplicity." 'sometimes' amended from + 'somtimes'. + + ARTICLE GREEK LANGUAGE: "The ancestry of the Greek towns of Sicily + has been explained by Thucydides (vi. 2-5). Selinus, a colony of + Megara, betrays its origin in its dialect." 'betrays' amended from + 'bewrays'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XII, SLICE IV + + GRASSHOPPER to GREEK LANGUAGE + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + GRASSHOPPER GRAY, THOMAS + GRASS OF PARNASSUS GRAY, WALTER DE + GRATE GRAY + GRATIAN GRAYLING + GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS GRAYS THURROCK + GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE GRAZ + GRATTAN, HENRY GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO + GRATTIUS [FALISCUS] GREAT AWAKENING + GRAUDENZ GREAT BARRIER REEF + GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH GREAT BARRINGTON + GRAVAMEN GREAT BASIN + GRAVE GREAT BEAR LAKE + GRAVEL GREAT CIRCLE + GRAVELINES GREAT FALLS + GRAVELOTTE GREAT HARWOOD + GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY + GRAVESEND GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE + GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS + GRAVINA GREAT REBELLION + GRAVITATION GREAT SALT LAKE + GRAVY GREAT SLAVE LAKE + GRAY, ASA GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN + GRAY, DAVID GREAVES, JOHN + GRAY, ELISHA GREBE + GRAY, HENRY PETERS GRECO, EL + GRAY, HORACE GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897 + GRAY, JOHN DE GREECE + GRAY, JOHN EDWARD GREEK ART + GRAY, PATRICK GRAY GREEK FIRE + GRAY, ROBERT GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF + GRAY, SIR THOMAS GREEK LANGUAGE + + + + +GRASSHOPPER (Fr. _sauterelle_, Ital. _grillo_, Ger. _Grashupfer_, +_Heuschrecke_, Swed. _Grashoppa_), names applied to orthopterous insects +belonging to the families _Locustidae_ and _Acridiidae_. They are +especially remarkable for their saltatory powers, due to the great +development of the hind legs, which are much longer than the others and +have stout and powerful thighs, and also for their stridulation, which +is not always an attribute of the male only. The distinctions between +the two families may be briefly stated as follows:--The _Locustidae_ +have very long thread-like antennae, four-jointed tarsi, a long +ovipositor, the auditory organs on the tibiae of the first leg and the +stridulatory organ in the wings; the _Acridiidae_ have short stout +antennae, three-jointed tarsi, a short ovipositor, the auditory organs +on the first abdominal segment, and the stridulatory organ between the +posterior leg and the wing. The term "grasshopper" is almost synonymous +with LOCUST (q.v.). Under both "grasshopper" and "locust" are included +members of both families above noticed, but the majority belong to the +_Acridiidae_ in both cases. In Britain the term is chiefly applicable to +the large green grasshopper (_Locusta_ or _Phasgonura viridissima_) +common in most parts of the south of England, and to smaller and much +better-known species of the genera _Stenobothrus_, _Gomphocerus_ and +_Tettix_, the latter remarkable for the great extension of the pronotum, +which often reaches beyond the extremity of the body. All are vegetable +feeders, and, as in all orthopterous insects, have an incomplete +metamorphosis, so that their destructive powers are continuous from the +moment of emergence from the egg till death. The migratory locust +(_Pachytylus cinerascens_) may be considered only an exaggerated +grasshopper, and the Rocky Mountain locust (_Caloptenus spretus_) is +still more entitled to the name. In Britain the species are not of +sufficient size, nor of sufficient numerical importance, to do any great +damage. The colours of many of them assimilate greatly to those of their +habitats; the green of the _Locusta viridissima_ is wonderfully similar +to that of the herbage amongst which it lives, and those species that +frequent more arid spots are protected in the same manner. Yet many +species have brilliantly coloured under-wings (though scarcely so in +English forms), and during flight are almost as conspicuous as +butterflies. Those that belong to the _Acridiidae_ mostly lay their eggs +in more or less cylindrical masses, surrounded by a glutinous secretion, +in the ground. Some of the _Locustidae_ also lay their eggs in the +ground, but others deposit them in fissures in trees and low plants, in +which the female is aided by a long flattened ovipositor, or process at +the extremity of the abdomen, whereas in the _Acridiidae_ there is only +an apparatus of valves. The stridulation or "song" in the latter is +produced by friction of the hind legs against portions of the wings or +wing-covers. To a practised ear it is perhaps possible to distinguish +the "song" of even closely allied species, and some are said to produce +a sound differing by day and night. + + + + +GRASS OF PARNASSUS, in botany, a small herbaceous plant known as +_Parnassia palustris_ (natural order _Saxifragaceae_), found on wet +moors and bogs in Britain but less common in the south. The white +regular flower is rendered very attractive by a circlet of scales, +opposite the petals, each of which bears a fringe of delicate filaments +ending in a yellow knob. These glisten in the sunshine and look like a +drop of honey. Honey is secreted by the base of each of the scales. + +[Illustration: Grass of Parnassus (_Parnassia palustris_). 1, one of the +gland-bearing scales enlarged.] + + + + +GRATE (from Lat. _crates_, a hurdle), the iron or steel receptacle for a +domestic fire. When coal replaced logs and irons were found to be +unsuitable for burning the comparatively small lumps, and for this +reason and on account of the more concentrated heat of coal it became +necessary to confine the area of the fire. Thus a basket or cage came +into use, which, as knowledge of the scientific principles of heating +increased, was succeeded by the small grate of iron and fire-brick set +close into the wall which has since been in ordinary use in England. In +the early part of the 19th century polished steel grates were +extensively used, but the labour and difficulty of keeping them bright +were considerable, and they were gradually replaced by grates with a +polished black surface which could be quickly renewed by an application +of black-lead. The most frequent form of the 18th-century grate was +rather high from the hearth, with a small hob on each side. The brothers +Adam designed many exceedingly elegant grates in the shape of movable +baskets ornamented with the paterae and acanthus leaves, the swags and +festoons characteristic of their manner. The modern dog-grate is a +somewhat similar basket supported upon dogs or andirons, fixed or +movable. In the closing years of the 19th century a "well-grate" was +invented, in which the fire burns upon the hearth, combustion being +aided by an air-chamber below. + + + + +GRATIAN (FLAVIUS GRATIANUS AUGUSTUS), Roman emperor 375-383, son of +Valentinian I. by Severa, was born at Sirmium in Pannonia, on the 18th +of April (or 23rd of May) 359. On the 24th of August 367 he received +from his father the title of Augustus. On the death of Valentinian (17th +of November 375) the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant son (by a +second wife Justina) emperor under the title of Valentinian II. (q.v.). +Gratian acquiesced in their choice; reserving for himself the +administration of the Gallic provinces, he handed over Italy, Illyria +and Africa to Valentinian and his mother, who fixed their residence at +Milan. The division, however, was merely nominal, and the real authority +remained in the hands of Gratian. The eastern portion of the empire was +under the rule of his uncle Valens. In May 378 Gratian completely +defeated the Lentienses, the southernmost branch of the Alamanni, at +Argentaria, near the site of the modern Colmar. When Valens met his +death fighting against the Goths near Adrianople on the 9th of August in +the same year, the government of the eastern empire devolved upon +Gratian, but feeling himself unable to resist unaided the incursions of +the barbarians, he ceded it to Theodosius (January 379). With Theodosius +he cleared the Balkans of barbarians. For some years Gratian governed +the empire with energy and success, but gradually he sank into +indolence, occupied himself chiefly with the pleasures of the chase, and +became a tool in the hands of the Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop +Ambrose. By taking into his personal service a body of Alani, and +appearing in public in the dress of a Scythian warrior, he aroused the +contempt and resentment of his Roman troops. A Roman named Maximus took +advantage of this feeling to raise the standard of revolt in Britain and +invaded Gaul with a large army, upon which Gratian, who was then in +Paris, being deserted by his troops, fled to Lyons, where, through the +treachery of the governor, he was delivered over to one of the rebel +generals and assassinated on the 25th of August 383. + +The reign of Gratian forms an important epoch in ecclesiastical history, +since during that period orthodox Christianity for the first time became +dominant throughout the empire. In dealing with pagans and heretics +Gratian, who during his later years was greatly influenced by Ambrose, +bishop of Milan, exhibited severity and injustice at variance with his +usual character. He prohibited heathen worship at Rome; refused to wear +the insignia of the pontifex maximus as unbefitting a Christian; removed +the altar of Victory from the senate-house at Rome, in spite of the +remonstrance of the pagan members of the senate, and confiscated its +revenues; forbade legacies of real property to the Vestals; and +abolished other privileges belonging to them and to the pontiffs. For +his treatment of heretics see the church histories of the period. + + AUTHORITIES.--Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii.-xxxi.; Aurelius Victor, + _Epit._ 47; Zosimus iv. vi.; Ausonius (Gratian's tutor), especially + the _Gratiarum actio pro consulatu_; Symmachus x. epp. 2 and 61; + Ambrose, _De fide_, prolegomena to _Epistolae_ 11, 17, 21, _Consolatio + de obitu Valentiniani_; H. Richter, _Das westromische Reich, besonders + unter den Kaisern Gratian, Valentinian II. und Maximus_ (1865); A. de + Broglie, _L'Eglise et l'empire romain au IV^e siecle_ (4th ed., 1882); + H. Schiller, _Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit_, iii., iv. 31-33; + Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch. 27; R. Gumpoltsberger, _Kaiser + Gratian_ (Vienna, 1879); T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (Oxford, + 1892), vol. i.; Tillemont, _Hist. des empereurs_, v.; J. Wordsworth in + Smith's _Dictionary of Christian Biography_. (J. H. F.) + + + + +GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS, compiler of the _Concordia discordantium canonum_ +or _Decretum Gratiani_, and founder of the science of canon law, was +born about the end of the 11th century at Chiusi in Tuscany or, +according to another account, at Carraria near Orvieto. In early life he +appears to have been received into the Camaldulian monastery of Classe +near Ravenna, whence he afterwards removed to that of San Felice in +Bologna, where he spent many years in the preparation of the +_Concordia_. The precise date of this work cannot be ascertained, but +it contains references to the decisions of the Lateran council of 1139, +and there is fair authority for believing that it was completed while +Pope Alexander III. was still simply professor of theology at +Bologna,--in other words, prior to 1150. The labours of Gratian are said +to have been rewarded with the bishopric of Chiusi, but if so he appears +never to have been consecrated; at least his name is not in any +authentic list of those who have occupied that see. The year of his +death is unknown. + + For some account of the _Decretum Gratiani_ and its history see CANON + LAW. The best edition is that of Friedberg (_Corpus juris canonici_, + Leipzig, 1879). Compare Schultze, _Zur Geschichte der Litteratur uber + das Decret Gratians_ (1870), _Die Glosse zum Decret Gratians_ (1872), + and _Geschichte der Quellen und Litteratur des kanonischen Rechts_ (3 + vols., Stuttgart, 1875). + + + + +GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE (1805-1872), French author and +theologian, was born at Lille on the 10th of March 1805. He was educated +at the Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, and, after a period of mental +struggle which he has described in _Souvenirs de ma jeunesse_, he was +ordained priest in 1832. After a stay at Strassburg as professor of the +Petit Seminaire, he was appointed director of the College Stanislas in +Paris in 1842 and, in 1847, chaplain of the Ecole Normale Superieure. He +became vicar-general of Orleans in 1861, professor of ethics at the +Sorbonne in 1862, and, on the death of Barante, a member of the French +Academy in 1867, where he occupied the seat formerly held by Voltaire. +Together with M. Petetot, _cure_ of Saint Roch, he reconstituted the +Oratory of the Immaculate Conception, a society of priests mainly +devoted to education. Gratry was one of the principal opponents of the +definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, but in this respect he +submitted to the authority of the Vatican Council. He died at Montreux +in Switzerland on the 6th of February 1872. + + His chief works are: _De la connaissance de Dieu_, opposing Positivism + (1855); _La Logique_ (1856); _Les Sources, conseils pour la conduite + de l'esprit_ (1861-1862); _La Philosophie du credo_ (1861); + _Commentaire sur l'evangile de Saint Matthieu_ (1863); _Jesus-Christ, + lettres a M. Renan_ (1864); _Les Sophistes et la critique_ (in + controversy with E. Vacherot) (1864); _La Morale et la loi de + l'histoire_, setting forth his social views (1868); _Mgr. l'eveque + d'Orleans et Mgr. l'archeveque de Malines_ (1869), containing a clear + exposition of the historical arguments against the doctrine of papal + infallibility. There is a selection of Gratry's writings and + appreciation of his style by the Abbe Pichot, in _Pages choisies des + Grands Ecrivains_ series, published by Armand-Colin (1897). See also + the critical study by the oratorian A. Chauvin, _L'Abbe Gratry_ + (1901); _Le Pere Gratry_ (1900), and _Les Derniers Jours du Pere + Gratry et son testament spirituel_, (1872), by Cardinal Adolphe + Perraud, Gratry's friend and disciple. + + + + +GRATTAN, HENRY (1746-1820), Irish statesman, son of James Grattan, for +many years recorder of Dublin, was born in Dublin on the 3rd of July +1746. He early gave evidence of exceptional gifts both of intellect and +character. At Trinity College, Dublin, where he had a distinguished +career, he began a lifelong devotion to classical literature and +especially to the great orators of antiquity. He was called to the Irish +bar in 1772, but never seriously practised the law. Like Flood, with +whom he was on terms of friendship, he cultivated his natural genius for +eloquence by study of good models, including Bolingbroke and Junius. A +visit to the English House of Lords excited boundless admiration for +Lord Chatham, of whose style of oratory Grattan contributed an +interesting description to _Baratariana_ (see FLOOD, HENRY). The +influence of Flood did much to give direction to Grattan's political +aims; and it was through no design on Grattan's part that when Lord +Charlemont brought him into the Irish parliament in 1775, in the very +session in which Flood damaged his popularity by accepting office, +Grattan quickly superseded his friend in the leadership of the national +party. Grattan was well qualified for it. His oratorical powers were +unsurpassed among his contemporaries. He conspicuously lacked, indeed, +the grace of gesture which he so much admired in Chatham; he had not the +sustained dignity of Pitt; his powers of close reasoning were inferior +to those of Fox and Flood. But his speeches were packed with epigram, +and expressed with rare felicity of phrase; his terse and telling +sentences were richer in profound aphorisms and maxims of political +philosophy than those of any other statesman save Burke; he possessed +the orator's incomparable gift of conveying his own enthusiasm to his +audience and convincing them of the loftiness of his aims. + +The principal object of the national party was to set the Irish +parliament free from constitutional bondage to the English privy +council. By virtue of Poyning's Act, a celebrated statute of Henry VII., +all proposed Irish legislation had to be submitted to the English privy +council for its approval under the great seal of England before being +passed by the Irish parliament. A bill so approved might be accepted or +rejected, but not amended. More recent English acts had further +emphasized the complete dependence of the Irish parliament, and the +appellate jurisdiction of the Irish House of Lords had also been +annulled. Moreover, the English Houses claimed and exercised the power +to legislate directly for Ireland without even the nominal concurrence +of the parliament in Dublin. This was the constitution which Molyneux +and Swift had denounced, which Flood had attacked, and which Grattan was +to destroy. The menacing attitude of the Volunteer Convention at +Dungannon greatly influenced the decision of the government in 1782 to +resist the agitation no longer. It was through ranks of volunteers drawn +up outside the parliament house in Dublin that Grattan passed on the +16th of April 1782, amidst unparalleled popular enthusiasm, to move a +declaration of the independence of the Irish parliament. "I found +Ireland on her knees," Grattan exclaimed, "I watched over her with a +paternal solicitude; I have traced her progress from injuries to arms, +and from arms to liberty. Spirit of Swift, spirit of Molyneux, your +genius has prevailed! Ireland is now a nation!" After a month of +negotiation the claims of Ireland were conceded. The gratitude of his +countrymen to Grattan found expression in a parliamentary grant of +L100,000, which had to be reduced by one half before he would consent to +accept it. + +One of the first acts of "Grattan's parliament" was to prove its loyalty +to England by passing a vote for the support of 20,000 sailors for the +navy. Grattan himself never failed in loyalty to the crown and the +English connexion. He was, however, anxious for moderate parliamentary +reform, and, unlike Flood, he favoured Catholic emancipation. It was, +indeed, evident that without reform the Irish House of Commons would not +be able to make much use of its newly won independence. Though now free +from constitutional control it was no less subject than before to the +influence of corruption, which the English government had wielded +through the Irish borough owners, known as the "undertakers," or more +directly through the great executive officers. "Grattan's parliament" +had no control over the Irish executive. The lord lieutenant and his +chief secretary continued to be appointed by the English ministers; +their tenure of office depended on the vicissitudes of English, not +Irish, party politics; the royal prerogative was exercised in Ireland on +the advice of English ministers. The House of Commons was in no sense +representative of the Irish people. The great majority of the people +were excluded as Roman Catholics from the franchise; two-thirds of the +members of the House of Commons were returned by small boroughs at the +absolute disposal of single patrons, whose support was bought by a +lavish distribution of peerages and pensions. It was to give stability +and true independence to the new constitution that Grattan pressed for +reform. Having quarrelled with Flood over "simple repeal" Grattan also +differed from him on the question of maintaining the Volunteer +Convention. He opposed the policy of protective duties, but supported +Pitt's famous commercial propositions in 1785 for establishing free +trade between Great Britain and Ireland, which, however, had to be +abandoned owing to the hostility of the English mercantile classes. In +general Grattan supported the government for a time after 1782, and in +particular spoke and voted for the stringent coercive legislation +rendered necessary by the Whiteboy outrages in 1785; but as the years +passed without Pitt's personal favour towards parliamentary reform +bearing fruit in legislation, he gravitated towards the opposition, +agitated for commutation of tithes in Ireland, and supported the Whigs +on the regency question in 1788. In 1792 he succeeded in carrying an +Act conferring the franchise on the Roman Catholics; in 1794 in +conjunction with William Ponsonby he introduced a reform bill which was +even less democratic than Flood's bill of 1783. He was as anxious as +Flood had been to retain the legislative power in the hands of men of +property, for "he had through the whole of his life a strong conviction +that while Ireland could best be governed by Irish hands, democracy in +Ireland would inevitably turn to plunder and anarchy."[1] At the same +time he desired to admit the Roman Catholic gentry of property to +membership of the House of Commons, a proposal that was the logical +corollary of the Relief Act of 1792. The defeat of Grattan's mild +proposals helped to promote more extreme opinions, which, under French +revolutionary influence, were now becoming heard in Ireland. + +The Catholic question had rapidly become of the first importance, and +when a powerful section of the Whigs joined Pitt's ministry in 1794, and +it became known that the lord-lieutenancy was to go to Lord Fitzwilliam, +who shared Grattan's views, expectations were raised that the question +was about to be settled in a manner satisfactory to the Irish Catholics. +Such seems to have been Pitt's intention, though there has been much +controversy as to how far Lord Fitzwilliam (q.v.) had been authorized to +pledge the government. After taking Grattan into his confidence, it was +arranged that the latter should bring in a Roman Catholic emancipation +bill, and that it should then receive government support. But finally it +appeared that the viceroy had either misunderstood or exceeded his +instructions; and on the 19th of February 1795 Fitzwilliam was recalled. +In the outburst of indignation, followed by increasing disaffection in +Ireland, which this event produced, Grattan acted with conspicuous +moderation and loyalty, which won for him warm acknowledgments from a +member of the English cabinet.[2] That cabinet, however, doubtless +influenced by the wishes of the king, was now determined firmly to +resist the Catholic demands, with the result that the country rapidly +drifted towards rebellion. Grattan warned the government in a series of +masterly speeches of the lawless condition to which Ireland had been +driven. But he could now count on no more than some forty followers in +the House of Commons, and his words were unheeded. He retired from +parliament in May 1797, and departed from his customary moderation by +attacking the government in an inflammatory "Letter to the citizens of +Dublin." + +At this time religious animosity had almost died out in Ireland, and men +of different faiths were ready to combine for common political objects. +Thus the Presbyterians of the north, who were mainly republican in +sentiment, combined with a section of the Roman Catholics to form the +organization of the United Irishmen, to promote revolutionary ideas +imported from France; and a party prepared to welcome a French invasion +soon came into existence. Thus stimulated, the increasing disaffection +culminated in the rebellion of 1798, which was sternly and cruelly +repressed. No sooner was this effected than the project of a legislative +union between the British and Irish parliaments, which had been from +time to time discussed since the beginning of the 18th century, was +taken up in earnest by Pitt's government. Grattan from the first +denounced the scheme with implacable hostility. There was, however, much +to be said in its favour. The constitution of Grattan's parliament +offered no security, as the differences over the regency question had +made evident that in matters of imperial interest the policy of the +Irish parliament and that of Great Britain would be in agreement; and at +a moment when England was engaged in a life and death struggle with +France it was impossible for the ministry to ignore the danger, which +had so recently been emphasized by the fact that the independent +constitution of 1782 had offered no safeguard against armed revolt. The +rebellion put an end to the growing reconciliation between Roman +Catholics and Protestants; religious passions were now violently +inflamed, and the Orangemen and Catholics divided the island into two +hostile factions. It is a curious circumstance, in view of the +subsequent history of Irish politics, that it was from the Protestant +Established Church, and particularly from the Orangemen, that the +bitterest opposition to the union proceeded; and that the proposal found +support chiefly among the Roman Catholic clergy and especially the +bishops, while in no part of Ireland was it received with more favour +than in the city of Cork. This attitude of the Catholics was caused by +Pitt's encouragement of the expectation that Catholic emancipation, the +commutation of tithes, and the endowment of the Catholic priesthood, +would accompany or quickly follow the passing of the measure. + +When in 1799 the government brought forward their bill it was defeated +in the Irish House of Commons. Grattan was still in retirement. His +popularity had temporarily declined, and the fact that his proposals for +parliamentary reform and Catholic emancipation had become the watchwords +of the rebellious United Irishmen had brought upon him the bitter +hostility of the governing classes. He was dismissed from the privy +council; his portrait was removed from the hall of Trinity College; the +Merchant Guild of Dublin struck his name off their rolls. But the +threatened destruction of the constitution of 1782 quickly restored its +author to his former place in the affections of the Irish people. The +parliamentary recess had been effectually employed by the government in +securing by lavish corruption a majority in favour of their policy. On +the 15th of January 1800 the Irish parliament met for its last session; +on the same day Grattan secured by purchase a seat for Wicklow; and at a +late hour, while the debate was proceeding, he appeared to take his +seat. "There was a moment's pause, an electric thrill passed through the +House, and a long wild cheer burst from the galleries."[3] Enfeebled by +illness, Grattan's strength gave way when he rose to speak, and he +obtained leave to address the House sitting. Nevertheless his speech was +a superb effort of oratory; for more than two hours he kept his audience +spellbound by a flood of epigram, of sustained reasoning, of eloquent +appeal. After prolonged debates Grattan, on the 26th of May, spoke +finally against the committal of the bill, ending with an impassioned +peroration in which he declared, "I will remain anchored here with +fidelity to the fortunes of my country, faithful to her freedom, +faithful to her fall."[4] These were the last words spoken by Grattan in +the Irish parliament. + +The bill establishing the union was carried through its final stages by +substantial majorities. The people remained listless, giving no +indications of any eager dislike of the government policy. "There were +absolutely none of the signs which are invariably found when a nation +struggles passionately against what it deems an impending tyranny, or +rallies around some institution which it really loves."[5] One of +Grattan's main grounds of opposition to the union had been his dread of +seeing the political leadership in Ireland pass out of the hands of the +landed gentry; and he prophesied that the time would come when Ireland +would send to the united parliament "a hundred of the greatest rascals +in the kingdom."[6] Like Flood before him, Grattan had no leaning +towards democracy; and he anticipated that by the removal of the centre +of political interest from Ireland the evil of absenteeism would be +intensified. + +For the next five years Grattan took no active part in public affairs; +it was not till 1805 that he became a member of the parliament of the +United Kingdom. He modestly took his seat on one of the back benches, +till Fox brought him forward to a seat near his own, exclaiming, "This +is no place for the Irish Demosthenes!" His first speech was on the +Catholic question, and though some doubt had been felt lest Grattan, +like Flood, should belie at Westminster the reputation made in Dublin, +all agreed with the description of his speech by the Annual Register as +"one of the most brilliant and eloquent ever pronounced within the walls +of parliament." When Fox and Grenville came into power in 1806 Grattan +was offered, but refused to accept, an office in the government. In the +following year he showed the strength of his judgment and character by +supporting, in spite of consequent unpopularity in Ireland, a measure +for increasing the powers of the executive to deal with Irish disorder. +Roman Catholic emancipation, which he continued to advocate with +unflagging energy though now advanced in age, became complicated after +1808 by the question whether a veto on the appointment of Roman Catholic +bishops should rest with the crown. Grattan supported the veto, but a +more extreme Catholic party was now arising in Ireland under the +leadership of Daniel O'Connell, and Grattan's influence gradually +declined. He seldom spoke in parliament after 1810, the most notable +exception being in 1815, when he separated himself from the Whigs and +supported the final struggle against Napoleon. His last speech of all, +in 1819, contained a passage referring to the union he had so +passionately resisted, which exhibits the statesmanship and at the same +time the equable quality of Grattan's character. His sentiments with +regard to the policy of the union remained, he said, unchanged; but "the +marriage having taken place it is now the duty, as it ought to be the +inclination, of every individual to render it as fruitful, as profitable +and as advantageous as possible." In the following summer, after +crossing from Ireland to London when out of health to bring forward the +Catholic question once more, he became seriously ill. On his death-bed +he spoke generously of Castlereagh, and with warm eulogy of his former +rival, Flood. He died on the 6th of June 1820, and was buried in +Westminster Abbey close to the tombs of Pitt and Fox. His statue is in +the outer lobby of the Houses of Parliament at Westminster. Grattan had +married in 1782 Henrietta Fitzgerald, a lady descended from the ancient +family of Desmond, by whom he had two sons and two daughters. + +The most searching scrutiny of his private life only increases the +respect due to the memory of Grattan as a statesman and the greatest of +Irish orators. His patriotism was untainted by self-seeking; he was +courageous in risking his popularity for what his sound judgment showed +him to be the right course. As Sydney Smith said with truth of Grattan +soon after his death: "No government ever dismayed him. The world could +not bribe him. He thought only of Ireland; lived for no other object; +dedicated to her his beautiful fancy, his elegant wit, his manly +courage, and all the splendour of his astonishing eloquence."[7] + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Henry Grattan, _Memoirs of the Life and Times of the + Right Hon. H. Grattan_ (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); _Grattan's + Speeches_ (ed. by H. Grattan, junr., 1822); _Irish Parl. Debates_; W. + E. H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_ (8 vols., + London, 1878-1890) and _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_ + (enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903). For the controversy concerning the + recall of Lord Fitzwilliam see, in addition to the foregoing, Lord + Rosebery, _Pitt_ (London, 1891); Lord Ashbourne, _Pitt: Some Chapters + of his Life_ (London, 1898); _The Pelham Papers (Brit. Mus. Add. + MSS._, 33118); _Carlisle Correspondence_; _Beresford Correspondence_; + _Stanhope Miscellanies_; for the Catholic question, W. J. Amhurst, + _History of Catholic Emancipation_ (2 vols., London, 1886); Sir Thomas + Wyse, _Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association of Ireland_ + (London, 1829); W. J. MacNeven, _Pieces of Irish History_ (New York, + 1807) containing an account of the United Irishmen; for the volunteer + movement Thomas MacNevin, _History of the Volunteers of 1782_ (Dublin, + 1845); _Proceedings of the Volunteer Delegates of Ireland 1784_ (Anon. + Pamph. Brit. Mus.). See also F. Hardy, _Memoirs of Lord Charlemont_ + (London, 1812); Warden Flood, _Memoirs of Henry Flood_ (London, 1838); + Francis Plowden, _Historical Review of the State of Ireland_ (London, + 1803); Alfred Webb, _Compendium of Irish Biography_ (Dublin, 1878); + Sir Jonah Barrington, _Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation_ (London, + 1833); W. J. O'Neill Daunt, _Ireland and her Agitators_; Lord + Mountmorres, _History of the Irish Parliament_ (2 vols., London, + 1792); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._ (4 vols., + London, 1845 and 1894); Lord Stanhope, _Life of William Pitt_ (4 + vols., London, 1861); Thomas Davis, _Life of J. P. Curran_ (Dublin, + 1846)--this contains a memoir of Grattan by D. O. Madden, and + Grattan's reply to Lord Clare on the question of the Union; Charles + Phillips, _Recollections of Curran and some of his Contemporaries_ + (London, 1822); J. A. Froude, _The English in Ireland_ (London, 1881); + J. G. McCarthy, _Henry Grattan: an Historical Study_ (London, 1886); + Lord Mahon's _History of England_, vol. vii. (1858). With special + reference to the Union see _Castlereagh Correspondence_; _Cornwallis + Correspondence_; _Westmorland Papers_ (Irish State Paper Office). + (R. J. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] W. E. H. Lecky, _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_, i. 127 + (enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903). + + [2] _Ibid._ i. 204. + + [3] _Ibid._ i. 241. + + [4] _Grattan's Speeches_, iv. 23. + + [5] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, + viii. 491. Cf. _Cornwallis Correspondence_, iii. 250. + + [6] W. E. H. Lecky, _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_, i. 270. + + [7] Sydney Smith's _Works_, ii. 166-167. + + + + +GRATTIUS [FALISCUS], Roman poet, of the age of Augustus, author of a +poem on hunting (_Cynegetica_), of which 541 hexameters remain. He was +possibly a native of Falerii. The only reference to him in any ancient +writer is incidental (Ovid, _Ex Ponto_, iv. 16. 33). He describes +various kinds of game, methods of hunting, the best breeds of horses and +dogs. + + There are editions by R. Stern (1832); E. Bahrens in _Poetae Latini + Minores_ (i., 1879) and G. G. Curcio in _Poeti Latini Minori_ (i., + 1902), with bibliography; see also H. Schenkl, _Zur Kritik des G._ + (1898). There is a translation by Christopher Wase (1654). + + + + +GRAUDENZ (Polish _Grudziadz_), a town in the kingdom of Prussia, +province of West Prussia, on the right bank of the Vistula, 18 m. S.S.W. +of Marienwerder and 37 m. by rail N.N.E. of Thorn. Pop. (1885) 17,336, +(1905) 35,988. It has two Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches, +and a synagogue. It is a place of considerable manufacturing activity. +The town possesses a museum and a monument to Guillaume Rene Courbiere +(1733-1811), the defender of the town in 1807. It has fine promenades +along the bank of the Vistula. Graudenz is an important place in the +German system of fortifications, and has a garrison of considerable +size. + +Graudenz was founded about 1250, and received civic rights in 1291. At +the peace of Thorn in 1466 it came under the lordship of Poland. From +1665 to 1759 it was held by Sweden, and in 1772 it came into the +possession of Prussia. The fortress of Graudenz, which since 1873 has +been used as a barracks and a military depot and prison, is situated on +a steep eminence about 1-1/2 m. north of the town and outside its +limits. It was completed by Frederick the Great in 1776, and was +rendered famous through its defence by Courbiere against the French in +1807. + + + + +GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH (1701-1759), German musical composer, the youngest +of three brothers, all more or less musical, was born on the 7th of May +1701 at Wahrenbruck in Saxony. His father held a small government post +and he gave his children a careful education. Graun's beautiful soprano +voice secured him an appointment in the choir at Dresden. At an early +age he composed a number of sacred cantatas and other pieces for the +church service. He completed his studies under Johann Christoph Schmidt +(1664-1728), and profited much by the Italian operas which were +performed at Dresden under the composer Lotti. After his voice had +changed to a tenor, he made his debut at the opera of Brunswick, in a +work by Schurmann, an inferior composer of the day; but not being +satisfied with the arias assigned him he re-wrote them, so much to the +satisfaction of the court that he was commissioned to write an opera for +the next season. This work, _Polydorus_ (1726), and five other operas +written for Brunswick, spread his fame all over Germany. Other works, +mostly of a sacred character, including two settings of the _Passion_, +also belong to the Brunswick period. Frederick the Great, at that time +crown prince of Prussia, heard the singer in Brunswick in 1735, and +immediately engaged him for his private chapel at Rheinsberg. There +Graun remained for five years, and wrote a number of cantatas, mostly to +words written by Frederick himself in French, and translated into +Italian by Boltarelli. On his accession to the throne in 1740, Frederick +sent Graun to Italy to engage singers for a new opera to be established +at Berlin. Graun remained a year on his travels, earning universal +applause as a singer in the chief cities of Italy. After his return to +Berlin he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra +(_Kapellmeister_) with a salary of 2000 thalers (L300). In this capacity +he wrote twenty-eight operas, all to Italian words, of which the last, +_Merope_ (1756), is perhaps the most perfect. It is probable that Graun +was subjected to considerable humiliation from the arbitrary caprices of +his royal master, who was never tired of praising the operas of Hasse +and abusing those of his _Kapellmeister_. In his oratorio _The Death of +Jesus_ Graun shows his skill as a contrapuntist, and his originality of +melodious invention. In the Italian operas he imitates the florid style +of his time, but even in these the recitatives occasionally show +considerable dramatic power. Graun died on the 8th of August 1759, at +Berlin, in the same house in which, thirty-two years later, Meyerbeer +was born. + + + + +GRAVAMEN. (from Lat. _gravare_, to weigh down; _gravis_, heavy), a +complaint or grievance, the ground of a legal action, and particularly +the more serious part of a charge against an accused person. In English +the term is used chiefly in ecclesiastical cases, being the technical +designation of a memorial presented from the Lower to the Upper House of +Convocation, setting forth grievances to be redressed, or calling +attention to breaches in church discipline. + + + + +GRAVE. (1) (From a common Teutonic verb, meaning "to dig"; in O. Eng. +_grafan_; cf. Dutch _graven_, Ger. _graben_), a place dug out of the +earth in which a dead body is laid for burial, and hence any place of +burial, not necessarily an excavation (see FUNERAL RITES and BURIAL). +The verb "to grave," meaning properly to dig, is particularly used of +the making of incisions in a hard surface (see ENGRAVING). (2) A title, +now obsolete, of a local administrative official for a township in +certain parts of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire; it also sometimes appears +in the form "grieve," which in Scotland and Northumberland is used for +sheriff (q.v.), and also for a bailiff or under-steward. The origin of +the word is obscure, but it is probably connected with the German +_graf_, count, and thus appears as the second part of many Teutonic +titles, such as landgrave, burgrave and margrave. "Grieve," on the other +hand, seems to be the northern representative of O.E. _gerefa_, reeve; +cf. "sheriff" and "count." (3) (From the Lat. _gravis_, heavy), weighty, +serious, particularly with the idea of dangerous, as applied to diseases +and the like, of character or temperament as opposed to gay. It is also +applied to sound, low or deep, and is thus opposed to "acute." In music +the term is adopted from the French and Italian, and applied to a +movement which is solemn or slow. (4) To clean a ship's bottom in a +specially constructed dock, called a "graving dock." The origin of the +word is obscure; according to the _New English Dictionary_ there is no +foundation for the connexion with "greaves" or "graves," the refuse of +tallow, in candle or soap-making, supposed to be used in "graving" a +ship. It may be connected with an O. Fr. _grave_, mod. _greve_, shore. + + + + +GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS, the name given to deposits of rounded, +subangular, water-worn stones, mingled with finer material such as sand +and clay. The word "gravel" is adapted from the O. Fr. _gravele_, mod. +_gravelle_, dim. of _grave_, coarse sand, sea-shore, Mod. Fr. _greve_. +The deposits are produced by the attrition of rock fragments by moving +water, the waves and tides of the sea and the flow of rivers. Extensive +beds of gravel are forming at the present time on many parts of the +British coasts where suitable rocks are exposed to the attack of the +atmosphere and of the sea waves during storms. The flint gravels of the +coast of the Channel, Norfolk, &c., are excellent examples. When the sea +is rough the lesser stones are washed up and down the beach by each +wave, and in this way are rounded, worn down and finally reduced to +sand. These gravels are constantly in movement, being urged forward by +the shore currents especially during storms. Large banks of gravel may +be swept away in a single night, and in this way the coast is laid bare +to the erosive action of the sea. Moreover, the movement of the gravel +itself wears down the subjacent rocks. Hence in many places barriers +have been erected to prevent the drift of the pebbles and preserve the +land, while often it has been found necessary to protect the shores by +masonry or cement work. Where the pebbles are swept along to a +projecting cape they may be carried onwards and form a long spit or +submarine bank, which is constantly reduced in size by the currents and +tides which flow across it (e.g. Spurn Head at the mouth of the Humber). +The Chesil Bank is the best instance in Britain of a great accumulation +of pebbles constantly urged forward by storms in a definite direction. +In the shallower parts of the North Sea considerable areas are covered +with coarse sand and pebbles. In deeper water, however, as in the +Atlantic, beyond the 100 fathom line pebbles are very rare, and those +which are found are mostly erratics carried southward by floating +icebergs, or volcanic rocks ejected by submarine volcanoes. + +In many parts of Britain, Scandinavia and North America there are marine +gravels, in every essential resembling those of the sea-shore, at +levels considerably above high tide. These gravels often lie In +flat-topped terraces which may be traced for great distances along the +coast. They are indications that the sea at one time stood higher than +it does at present, and are known to geologists as "raised beaches." In +Scotland such beaches are known 25, 50 and 100 ft. above the present +shores. In exposed situations they have old shore cliffs behind them; +although their deposits are mainly gravelly there is much fine sand and +silt in the raised beaches of sheltered estuaries and near river mouths. + +River gravels occur most commonly in the middle and upper parts of +streams where the currents in times of flood are strong enough to +transport fairly large stones. In deltas and the lower portions of large +rivers gravel deposits are comparatively rare and indicate periods when +the volume of the stream was temporarily greatly increased. In the +higher torrents also, gravels are rare because transport is so effective +that no considerable accumulations can form. In most countries where the +drainage is of a mature type, river gravels occur in the lower parts of +the courses of the rivers as banks or terraces which lie some distance +above the stream level. Individual terraces usually do not persist for a +long space but are represented by a series of benches at about the same +altitude. These were once continuous, and have been separated by the +stream cutting away the intervening portions as it deepened and +broadened its channel. Terraces of this kind often occur in successive +series at different heights, and the highest are the oldest because they +were laid down at a time when the stream flowed at their level and mark +the various stages by which the valley has been eroded. While marine +terraces are nearly always horizontal, stream terraces slope downwards +along the course of the river. + +The extensive deposits of river gravels in many parts of England, +France, Switzerland, North America, &c., would indicate that at some +former time the rivers flowed in greater volume than at the present day. +This is believed to be connected with the glacial epoch and the +augmentation of the streams during those periods when the ice was +melting away. Many changes in drainage have taken place since then; +consequently wide sheets of glacial and fluvio-glacial gravel lie spread +out where at present there is no stream. Often they are commingled with +sand, and where there were temporary post-glacial lakes deposits of +silt, brick clay and mud have been formed. These may be compared to the +similar deposits now forming in Greenland, Spitzbergen and other +countries which are at present in a glacial condition. + +As a rule gravels consist mainly of the harder kinds of stone because +these alone can resist attrition. Thus the gravels formed from chalk +consist almost entirely of flint, which is so hard that the chalk is +ground to powder and washed away, while the flint remains little +affected. Other hard rocks such as chert, quartzite, felsite, granite, +sandstone and volcanic rocks very frequently are largely represented in +gravels, while coal, limestone and shale are far less common. The size +of the pebbles varies from a fraction of an inch to several feet; it +depends partly on the fissility of the original rocks and partly on the +strength of the currents of water; coarse gravels indicate the action of +powerful eroding agents. In the Tertiary systems gravels occur on many +horizons, e.g. the Woolwich and Reading beds, Oldhaven beds and Bagshot +beds of the Eocene of the London basin. They do not essentially differ +from recent gravel deposits. But in course of time the action of +percolating water assisted by pressure tends to convert gravels into +firm masses of conglomerate by depositing carbonate of lime, silica and +other substances in their interstices. Gravels are not usually so +fossiliferous as finer deposits of the same age, partly because their +porous texture enables organic remains to be dissolved away by water, +and partly because shells and other fossils are comparatively fragile +and would be broken up during the accumulation of the pebbles. The rock +fragments in conglomerates, however, sometimes contain fossils which +have not been found elsewhere. (J. S. F.) + + + + +GRAVELINES (Flem. _Gravelinghe_), a fortified seaport town of northern +France, in the department of Nord and arrondissement of Dunkirk, 15 m. +S.W. of Dunkirk on the railway to Calais. Pop. (1906) town, 1858; +commune, 6284. Gravelines is situated on the Aa, 1-1/4 m. from its mouth +in the North Sea. It is surrounded by a double circuit of ramparts and +by a tidal moat. The river is canalized and opens out beneath the +fortifications into a floating basin. The situation of the port is one +of the best in France on the North Sea, though its trade has suffered +owing to the nearness of Calais and Dunkirk and the silting up of the +channel to the sea. It is a centre for the cod and herring fisheries. +Imports consist chiefly of timber from Northern Europe and coal from +England, to which eggs and fruit are exported. Gravelines has +paper-manufactories, sugar-works, fish-curing works, salt-refineries, +chicory-roasting factories, a cannery for preserved peas and other +vegetables and an important timber-yard. The harbour is accessible to +vessels drawing 18 ft. at high tides. The greater part of the population +of the commune of Gravelines dwells in the maritime quarter of +Petit-Fort-Philippe at the mouth of the Aa, and in the village of Les +Huttes (to the east of the town), which is inhabited by the fisher-folk. + +The canalization of the Aa by a count of Flanders about the middle of +the 12th century led to the foundation of Gravelines (_grave-linghe_, +meaning "count's canal."). In 1558 it was the scene of the signal +victory of the Spaniards under the count of Egmont over the French. It +finally passed from the Spaniards to the French by the treaty of the +Pyrenees in 1659. + + + + +GRAVELOTTE, a village of Lorraine between Metz and the French frontier, +famous as the scene of the battle of the 18th of August 1870 between the +Germans under King William of Prussia and the French under Marshal +Bazaine (see METZ and FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). The battlefield extends from +the woods which border the Moselle above Metz to Roncourt, near the +river Orne. Other villages which played an important part in the battle +of Gravelotte were Saint Privat, Amanweiler or Amanvillers and +Sainte-Marie-aux-Chenes, all lying to the N. of Gravelotte. + + + + +GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846- ), Irish writer, was born in Dublin, +the son of the bishop of Limerick. He was educated at Windermere +College, and took high honours at Dublin University. In 1869 he entered +the Civil Service as clerk in the Home Office, where he remained until +he became in 1874 an inspector of schools. He was a constant contributor +of prose and verse to the _Spectator_, _The Athenaeum_, _John Bull_, and +_Punch_, and took a leading part in the revival of Irish letters. He was +for several years president of the Irish Literary Society, and is the +author of the famous ballad of "Father O'Flynn" and many other songs and +ballads. In collaboration with Sir C. V. Stanford he published _Songs of +Old Ireland_ (1882), _Irish Songs and Ballads_ (1893), the airs of which +are taken from the Petrie MSS.; the airs of his _Irish Folk-Songs_ +(1897) were arranged by Charles Wood, with whom he also collaborated in +_Songs of Erin_ (1901). + +His brother, Charles L. Graves (b. 1856), educated at Marlborough and at +Christ Church, Oxford, also became well known as a journalist, author of +two volumes of parodies, _The Hawarden Horace_ (1894) and _More Hawarden +Horace_ (1896), and of skits in prose and verse. An admirable musical +critic, his _Life and Letters of Sir George Grove_ (1903) is a model +biography. + + + + +GRAVESEND, a municipal and parliamentary borough, river-port and market +town of Kent, England, on the right bank of the Thames opposite Tilbury +Fort, 22 m. E. by S. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. +Pop. (1901) 27,196. It extends about 2 m. along the river bank, +occupying a slight acclivity which reaches its summit at Windmill Hill, +whence extensive views are obtained of the river, with its windings and +shipping. The older and lower part of the town is irregularly built, +with narrow and inconvenient streets, but the upper and newer portion +contains several handsome streets and terraces. Among several piers are +the town pier, erected in 1832, and the terrace pier, built in 1845, at +a time when local river-traffic by steamboat was specially prosperous. +Gravesend is a favourite resort of the inhabitants of London, both for +excursions and as a summer residence; it is also a favourite yachting +centre. The principal buildings are the town-hall, the parish church of +Gravesend, erected on the site of an ancient building destroyed by fire +in 1727; Milton parish church, a Decorated and Perpendicular building +erected in the time of Edward II.; and the county courts. Milton Mount +College is a large institution for the daughters of Congregational +ministers. East of the town are the earthworks designed to assist +Tilbury Fort in obstructing the passage up river of an enemy's force. +They were originally constructed on Vauban's system in the reign of +Charles II. Rosherville Gardens, a popular resort, are in the western +suburb of Rosherville, a residential quarter named after James Rosher, +an owner of lime works. They were founded in 1843 by George Jones. +Gravesend, which is within the Port of London, has some import trade in +coal and timber, and fishing, especially of shrimps, is carried on +extensively. The principal other industries are boat-building, +ironfounding, brewing and soap-boiling. Fruit and vegetables are largely +grown in the neighbourhood for the London market. Since 1867 Gravesend +has returned a member to parliament, the borough including Northfleet to +the west. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 +councillors. Area, 1259 acres. + +In the Domesday Survey "Gravesham" is entered among the bishop of +Bayeux's lands, and a "hythe" or landing-place is mentioned. In 1401 +Henry IV. granted the men of Gravesend the sole right of conveying in +their own vessels all persons travelling between London and Gravesend, +and this right was confirmed by Edward IV. in 1462. In 1562 the town was +granted a charter of incorporation by Elizabeth, which vested the +government in 2 portreeves and 12 jurats, but by a later charter of 1568 +one portreeve was substituted for the two. Charles I. incorporated the +town anew under the title of the mayor, jurats and inhabitants of +Gravesend, and a further charter of liberties was granted by James II. +in 1687. A Thursday market and fair on the 13th of October were granted +to the men of Gravesend by Edward III. in 1367; Elizabeth's charters +gave them a Wednesday market and fairs on the 24th of June and the 13th +of October, with a court of pie-powder; by the charter of Charles I. +Thursday and Saturday were made the market days, and these were changed +again to Wednesday and Saturday by a charter of 1694, which also granted +a fair on the 23rd of April; the fairs on these dates have died out, but +the Saturday market is still held. + +From the beginning of the 17th century Gravesend was the chief station +for East Indiamen; most of the ships outward bound from London stopped +here to victual. A customs house was built in 1782. Queen Elizabeth +established Gravesend as the point where the corporation of London +should welcome in state eminent foreign visitors arriving by water. +State processions by water from Gravesend to London had previously taken +place, as in 1522, when Henry VIII. escorted the emperor Charles V. A +similar practice was maintained until modern times; as when, on the 7th +of March 1863, the princess Alexandra was received here by the prince of +Wales (King Edward VII.) three days before their marriage. Gravesend +parish church contains memorials to "Princess" Pocahontas, who died when +preparing to return home from a visit to England in 1617, and was buried +in the old church. A memorial pulpit from the state of Indiana, U.S.A., +made of Virginian wood, was provided in 1904, and a fund was raised for +a stained-glass window by ladies of the state of Virginia. + + + + +GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO (1664-1718), Italian litterateur and +jurisconsult, was born at Roggiano, a small town near Cosenza, in +Calabria, on the 20th of January 1664. He was descended from a +distinguished family, and under the direction of his maternal uncle, +Gregorio Caloprese, who possessed some reputation as a poet and +philosopher, received a learned education, after which he studied at +Naples civil and canon law. In 1689 he came to Rome, where in 1695 he +united with several others of literary tastes in forming the Academy of +Arcadians. A schism occurred in the academy in 1711, and Gravina and his +followers founded in opposition to it the Academy of Quirina. From +Innocent XII. Gravina received the offer of various ecclesiastical +honours, but declined them from a disinclination to enter the clerical +profession. In 1699 he was appointed to the chair of civil law in the +college of La Sapienza, and in 1703 he was transferred to the chair of +canon law. He died at Rome on the 6th of January 1718. He was the +adoptive father of Metastasio. + + Gravina is the author of a number of works of great erudition, the + principal being his _Origines juris civilis_, completed in 3 vols. + (1713) and his _De Romano imperio_ (1712). A French translation of the + former appeared in 1775, of which a second edition was published in + 1822. His collected works were published at Leipzig in 1737, and at + Naples, with notes by Mascovius, in 1756. + + + + +GRAVINA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the province of +Bari, from which it is 63 m. S.W. by rail (29 m. direct), 1148 ft. above +sea-level. Pop. (1901) 18,197. The town is probably of medieval origin, +though some conjecture that it occupies the site of the ancient Blera, a +post station on the Via Appia. The cathedral is a basilica of the 15th +century. The town is surrounded with walls and towers, and a castle of +the emperor Frederick II. rises above the town, which later belonged to +the Orsini, dukes of Gravina; just outside it are dwellings and a church +(S. Michele) all hewn in the rock, and now abandoned. + + Prehistoric remains in the district (remains of ancient settlements, + _tumuli_, &c.) are described by V. di Cicco in _Notizie degli scavi_ + (1901), p. 217. + + + + +GRAVITATION (from Lat. _gravis_, heavy), in physical science, that +mutual action between masses of matter by virtue of which every such +mass tends toward every other with a force varying directly as the +product of the masses and inversely as the square of their distances +apart. Although the law was first clearly and rigorously formulated by +Sir Isaac Newton, the fact of the action indicated by it was more or +less clearly seen by others. Even Ptolemy had a vague conception of a +force tending toward the centre of the earth which not only kept bodies +upon its surface, but in some way upheld the order of the universe. John +Kepler inferred that the planets move in their orbits under some +influence or force exerted by the sun; but the laws of motion were not +then sufficiently developed, nor were Kepler's ideas of force +sufficiently clear, to admit of a precise statement of the nature of the +force. C. Huygens and R. Hooke, contemporaries of Newton, saw that +Kepler's third law implied a force tending toward the sun which, acting +on the several planets, varied inversely as the square of the distance. +But two requirements necessary to generalize the theory were still +wanting. One was to show that the law of the inverse square not only +represented Kepler's third law, but his first two laws also. The other +was to show that the gravitation of the earth, following one and the +same law with that of the sun, extended to the moon. Newton's researches +showed that the attraction of the earth on the moon was the same as that +for bodies at the earth's surface, only reduced in the inverse square of +the moon's distance from the earth's centre. He also showed that the +total gravitation of the earth, assumed as spherical, on external +bodies, would be the same as if the earth's mass were concentrated in +the centre. This led at once to the statement of the law in its most +general form. + +The law of gravitation is unique among the laws of nature, not only in +its wide generality, taking the whole universe in its scope, but in the +fact that, so far as yet known, it is absolutely unmodified by any +condition or cause whatever. All other forms of action between masses of +matter, vary with circumstances. The mutual action of electrified +bodies, for example, is affected by their relative or absolute motion. +But no conditions to which matter has ever been subjected, or under +which it has ever been observed, have been found to influence its +gravitation in the slightest degree. We might conceive the rapid motions +of the heavenly bodies to result in some change either in the direction +or amount of their gravitation towards each other at each moment; but +such is not the case, even in the most rapidly moving bodies of the +solar system. The question has also been raised whether the action of +gravitation is absolutely instantaneous. If not, the action would not be +exactly in the line adjoining the two bodies at the instant, but would +be affected by the motion of the line joining them during the time +required by the force to pass from one body to the other. The result of +this would be seen in the motions of the planets around the sun; but the +most refined observations show no such effect. It is also conceivable +that bodies might gravitate differently at different temperatures. But +the most careful researches have failed to show any apparent +modification produced in this way except what might be attributed to the +surrounding conditions. The most recent and exhaustive experiment was +that of J. H. Poynting and P. Phillips (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 76A, p. 445). +The result was that the change, if any, was less than 1/10 of the force +for one degree change of temperature, a result too minute to be +established by any measures. + +Another cause which might be supposed to modify the action of +gravitation between two bodies would be the interposition of masses of +matter between them, a cause which materially modifies the action of +electrified bodies. The question whether this cause modifies gravitation +admits of an easy test from observation. If it did, then a portion of +the earth's mass or of that of any other planet turned away from the sun +would not be subjected to the same action of the sun as if directly +exposed to that action. Great masses, as those of the great planets, +would not be attracted with a force proportional to the mass because of +the hindrance or other effect of the interposed portions. But not the +slightest modification due to this cause is shown. The general +conclusion from everything we see is that a mass of matter in Australia +attracts a mass in London precisely as it would if the earth were not +interposed between the two masses. + +We must therefore regard the law in question as the broadest and most +fundamental one which nature makes known to us. + +It is not yet experimentally proved that variation as the inverse square +is absolutely true at all distances. Astronomical observations extend +over too brief a period of time to show any attraction between different +stars except those in each other's neighbourhood. But this proves +nothing because, in the case of distances so great, centuries or even +thousands of years of accurate observation will be required to show any +action. On the other hand the enigmatical motion of the perihelion of +Mercury has not yet found any plausible explanation except on the +hypothesis that the gravitation of the sun diminishes at a rate slightly +greater than that of the inverse square--the most simple modification +being to suppose that instead of the exponent of the distance being +exactly -2, it is -2.000 000 161 2. + +The argument is extremely simple in form. It is certain that, in the +general average, year after year, the force with which Mercury is drawn +toward the sun does vary from the exact inverse square of its distance +from the sun. The most plausible explanation of this is that one or more +masses of matter move around the sun, whose action, whether they are +inside or outside the orbit of Mercury, would produce the required +modification in the force. From an investigation of all the observations +upon Mercury and the other three interior planets, Simon Newcomb found +it almost out of the question that any such mass of matter could exist +without changing either the figure of the sun itself or the motion of +the planes of the orbits of either Mercury or Venus. The qualification +"almost" is necessary because so complex a system of actions comes into +play, and accurate observations have extended through so short a period, +that the proof cannot be regarded as absolute. But the fact that careful +and repeated search for a mass of matter sufficient to produce the +desired effect has been in vain, affords additional evidence of its +non-existence. The most obvious test of the reality of the required +modifications would be afforded by two other bodies, the motions of +whose pericentres should be similarly affected. These are Mars and the +moon. Newcomb found an excess of motions in the perihelion of Mars +amounting to about 5' per century. But the combination of observations +and theory on which this is based is not sufficient fully to establish +so slight a motion. In the case of the motion of the moon around the +earth, assuming the gravitation of the latter to be subject to the +modification in question, the annual motion of the moon's perigee +should be greater by 1.5' than the theoretical motion. E. W. Brown is +the first investigator to determine the theoretical motions with this +degree of precision; and he finds that there is no such divergence +between the actual and the computed motion. There is therefore as yet no +ground for regarding any deviation from the law of inverse square as +more than a possibility. (S. N.) + + +GRAVITATION CONSTANT AND MEAN DENSITY OF THE EARTH + +The law of gravitation states that two masses M1 and M2, distant d from +each other, are pulled together each with a force G. M1M2/d^2, where G +is a constant for all kinds of matter--the _gravitation constant_. The +acceleration of M2 towards M1 or the force exerted on it by M1 per unit +of its mass is therefore GM1/d^2. Astronomical observations of the +accelerations of different planets towards the sun, or of different +satellites towards the same primary, give us the most accurate +confirmation of the distance part of the law. By comparing accelerations +towards different bodies we obtain the ratios of the masses of those +different bodies and, in so far as the ratios are consistent, we obtain +confirmation of the mass part. But we only obtain the ratios of the +masses to the mass of some one member of the system, say the earth. We +do not find the mass in terms of grammes or pounds. In fact, astronomy +gives us the product GM, but neither G nor M. For example, the +acceleration of the earth towards the sun is about 0.6 cm/sec.^2 at a +distance from it about 15 X 10^12 cm. The acceleration of the moon +towards the earth is about 0.27 cm/sec.^2 at a distance from it about 4 +X 10^10 cm. If S is the mass of the sun and E the mass of the earth we +have 0.6 = GS/(15 X 10^12)^2 and 0.27 = GE/(4 X 10^10)^2 giving us GS +and GE, and the ratio S/E = 300,000 roughly; but we do not obtain either +S or E in grammes, and we do not find G. + +The aim of the experiments to be described here may be regarded either +as the determination of the mass of the earth in grammes, most +conveniently expressed by its mass / its volume, that is by its "mean +density" [Delta], or the determination of the "gravitation constant" G. +Corresponding to these two aspects of the problem there are two modes of +attack. Suppose that a body of mass m is suspended at the earth's +surface where it is pulled with a force w vertically downwards by the +earth--its weight. At the same time let it be pulled with a force p by a +measurable mass M which may be a mountain, or some measurable part of +the earth's surface layers, or an artificially prepared mass brought +near m, and let the pull of M be the same as if it were concentrated at +a distance d. The earth pull may be regarded as the same as if the earth +were all concentrated at its centre, distant R. + +Then + + w = G . (4/3)[pi]R^3[Delta]m/R^2 = G . (4/3)[pi]R[Delta]m, (1) + +and + + p = GMm/d^2 (2) + +By division + + 3M w + [Delta] = --------- . --. + 4[pi]Rd^2 p + +If then we can arrange to observe w/p we obtain [Delta], the mean +density of the earth. + +But the same observations give us G also. For, putting m = w/g in (2), +we get + + d^2 p + G = --- . -- . g. + M w + +In the second mode of attack the pull p between two artificially +prepared measured masses M1, M2 is determined when they are a distance d +apart, and since p = G . M1M2/d^2 we get at once G = pd^2/M1M2. But we +can also deduce [Delta]. For putting w = mg in (1) we get + + g 1 + [Delta] = 3/4 -- . -----. + G [pi]R + +Experiments of the first class in which the pull of a known mass is +compared with the pull of the earth maybe termed experiments on the mean +density of the earth, while experiments of the second class in which the +pull between two known masses is directly measured may be termed +experiments on the gravitation constant. + +We shall, however, adopt a slightly different classification for the +purpose of describing methods of experiment, viz:-- + + 1. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of a natural + mass as in the Schiehallion experiment. + + 2. Determination of the attraction between two artificial masses as in + Cavendish's experiment. + + 3. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of an + artificial mass as in experiments with the common balance. + +It is interesting to note that the possibility of gravitation +experiments of this kind was first considered by Newton, and in both of +the forms (1) and (2). In the _System of the World_ (3rd ed., 1737, p. +40) he calculates that the deviation by a hemispherical mountain, of the +earth's density and with radius 3 m., on a plumb-line at its side will +be less than 2 minutes. He also calculates (though with an error in his +arithmetic) the acceleration towards each other of two spheres each a +foot in diameter and of the earth's density, and comes to the conclusion +that in either case the effect is too small for measurement. In the +_Principia_, bk. iii., prop. x., he makes a celebrated estimate that the +earth's mean density is five or six times that of water. Adopting this +estimate, the deviation by an actual mountain or the attraction of two +terrestrial spheres would be of the orders calculated, and regarded by +Newton as immeasurably small. + +Whatever method is adopted the force to be measured is very minute. This +may be realized if we here anticipate the results of the experiments, +which show that in round numbers [Delta] = 5.5 and G = 1/15,000,000 when +the masses are in grammes and the distances in centimetres. + +Newton's mountain, which would probably have density about [Delta]/2 +would deviate the plumb-line not much more than half a minute. Two +spheres 30 cm. in diameter (about 1 ft.) and of density 11 (about that +of lead) just not touching would pull each other with a force rather +less than 2 dynes, and their acceleration would be such that they would +move into contact if starting 1 cm. apart in rather over 400 seconds. + +From these examples it will be realized that in gravitation experiments +extraordinary precautions must be adopted to eliminate disturbing forces +which may easily rise to be comparable with the forces to be measured. +We shall not attempt to give an account of these precautions, but only +seek to set forth the general principles of the different experiments +which have been made. + + +I. _Comparison of the Earth Pull with that of a Natural Mass._ + +_Bouguer's Experiments._--The earliest experiments were made by Pierre +Bouguer about 1740, and they are recorded in his _Figure de la terre_ +(1749). They were of two kinds. In the first he determined the length of +the seconds pendulum, and thence _g_ at different levels. Thus at Quito, +which may be regarded as on a table-land 1466 toises (a toise is about +6.4 ft.) above sea-level, the seconds pendulum was less by 1/1331 than +on the Isle of Inca at sea-level. But if there were no matter above the +sea-level, the inverse square law would make the pendulum less by 1/1118 +at the higher level. The value of _g_ then at the higher level was +greater than could be accounted for by the attraction of an earth ending +at sea-level by the difference 1/1118-1/1331 = 1/6983, and this was put +down to the attraction of the plateau 1466 toises high; or the +attraction of the whole earth was 6983 times the attraction of the +plateau. Using the rule, now known as "Young's rule," for the attraction +of the plateau, Bouguer found that the density of the earth was 4.7 +times that of the plateau, a result certainly much too large. + +In the second kind of experiment he attempted to measure the horizontal +pull of Chimborazo, a mountain about 20,000 ft. high, by the deflection +of a plumb-line at a station on its south side. Fig. 1 shows the +principle of the method. Suppose that two stations are fixed, one on the +side of the mountain due south of the summit, and the other on the same +latitude but some distance westward, away from the influence of the +mountain. Suppose that at the second station a star is observed to pass +the meridian, for simplicity we will say directly overhead, then a +plumb-line will hang down exactly parallel to the observing telescope. +If the mountain were away it would also hang parallel to the telescope +at the first station when directed to the same star. But the mountain +pulls the plumb-line towards it and the star appears to the north of the +zenith and evidently mountain pull/earth pull = tangent of angle of +displacement of zenith. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Bouguer's Plumb-line Experiment on the +attraction of Chimborazo.] + +Bouguer observed the meridian altitude of several stars at the two +stations. There was still some deflection at the second station, a +deflection which he estimated as 1/14 that at the first station, and he +found on allowing for this that his observations gave a deflection of 8 +seconds at the first station. From the form and size of the mountain he +found that if its density were that of the earth the deflection should +be 103 seconds, or the earth was nearly 13 times as dense as the +mountain, a result several times too large. But the work was carried on +under enormous difficulties owing to the severity of the weather, and no +exactness could be expected. The importance of the experiment lay in its +proof that the method was possible. + +_Maskelyne's Experiment._--In 1774 Nevil Maskelyne (_Phil. Trans._, +1775, p. 495) made an experiment on the deflection of the plumb-line by +Schiehallion, a mountain in Perthshire, which has a short ridge nearly +east and west, and sides sloping steeply on the north and south. He +selected two stations on the same meridian, one on the north, the other +on the south slope, and by means of a zenith sector, a telescope +provided with a plumb-bob, he determined at each station the meridian +zenith distances of a number of stars. From a survey of the district +made in the years 1774-1776 the geographical difference of latitude +between the two stations was found to be 42.94 seconds, and this would +have been the difference in the meridian zenith difference of the same +star at the two stations had the mountain been away. But at the north +station the plumb-bob was pulled south and the zenith was deflected +northwards, while at the south station the effect was reversed. Hence +the angle between the zeniths, or the angle between the zenith distances +of the same star at the two stations was greater than the geographical +42.94 seconds. The mean of the observations gave a difference of 54.2 +seconds, or the double deflection of the plumb-line was 54.2 - 42.94, +say 11.26 seconds. + +The computation of the attraction of the mountain on the supposition +that its density was that of the earth was made by Charles Hutton from +the results of the survey (_Phil. Trans._, 1778, p. 689), a computation +carried out by ingenious and important methods. He found that the +deflection should have been greater in the ratio 17804 : 9933 say 9 : 5, +whence the density of the earth comes out at 9/5 that of the mountain. +Hutton took the density of the mountain at 2.5, giving the mean density +of the earth 4.5. A revision of the density of the mountain from a +careful survey of the rocks composing it was made by John Playfair many +years later (_Phil. Trans._, 1811, p. 347), and the density of the earth +was given as lying between 4.5588 and 4.867. + +Other experiments have been made on the attraction of mountains by +Francesco Carlini (_Milano Effem. Ast._, 1824, p. 28) on Mt. Blanc in +1821, using the pendulum method after the manner of Bouguer, by Colonel +Sir Henry James and Captain A. R. Clarke (_Phil. Trans._, 1856, p. 591), +using the plumb-line deflection at Arthur's Seat, by T. C. Mendenhall +(_Amer. Jour. of Sci._ xxi. p. 99), using the pendulum method on +Fujiyama in Japan, and by E. D. Preston (_U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey +Rep._, 1893, p. 513) in Hawaii, using both methods. + +_Airy's Experiment._--In 1854 Sir G. B. Airy (_Phil. Trans._ 1856, p. +297) carried out at Harton pit near South Shields an experiment which he +had attempted many years before in conjunction with W. Whewell and R. +Sheepshanks at Dolcoath. This consisted in comparing gravity at the top +and at the bottom of a mine by the swings of the same pendulum, and +thence finding the ratio of the pull of the intervening strata to the +pull of the whole earth. The principle of the method may be understood +by assuming that the earth consists of concentric spherical shells each +homogeneous, the last of thickness h equal to the depth of the mine. Let +the radius of the earth to the bottom of the mine be R, and the mean +density up to that point be [Delta]. This will not differ appreciably +from the mean density of the whole. Let the density of the strata of +depth h be [delta]. Denoting the values of gravity above and below by +g_a and g_b we have + + [pi]R^3[Delta] + g_b = G (4/3) -------------- = G . (4/3) [pi]R[Delta], + R^2 + +and + + [pi]R^3[Delta] + g_a = G (4/3) -------------- + G . 4[pi]h[delta] + (R + h)^2 + +(since the attraction of a shell h thick on a point just outside it is +G . 4[pi](R + h)^2h[delta]/(R + h)^2 = G . 4[pi]h[delta]). Therefore + + / 2h 3h [delta] \ + g_a = G . (4/3) [pi]R[Delta] ( 1 - -- + -- ------- ) nearly, + \ R R [Delta] / + +whence + + g_a 2h 3h [delta] + --- = 1 - -- + -- -------, + g_b R R [Delta] + +and + + [Delta] 3h / / 2h g_a \ + ------- = -- / ( -1 + -- + --- ). + [delta] R / \ R g_b / + +Stations were chosen in the same vertical, one near the pit bank, +another 1250 ft. below in a disused working, and a "comparison" clock +was fixed at each station. A third clock was placed at the upper station +connected by an electric circuit to the lower station. It gave an +electric signal every 15 seconds by which the rates of the two +comparison clocks could be accurately compared. Two "invariable" seconds +pendulums were swung, one in front of the upper and the other in front +of the lower comparison clock after the manner of Kater, and these +invariables were interchanged at intervals. From continuous observations +extending over three weeks and after applying various corrections Airy +obtained g_b/g_a = 1.00005185. Making corrections for the irregularity +of the neighbouring strata he found [Delta]/[delta] = 2.6266. W. H. +Miller made a careful determination of [delta] from specimens of the +strata, finding it 2.5. The final result taking into account the +ellipticity and rotation of the earth is [Delta] = 6.565. + +_Von Sterneck's Experiments._--(_Mitth. des K.U.K. Mil. Geog. Inst. zu +Wien_, ii, 1882, p. 77; 1883, p. 59; vi., 1886, p. 97). R. von Sterneck +repeated the mine experiment in 1882-1883 at the Adalbert shaft at +Pribram in Bohemia and in 1885 at the Abraham shaft near Freiberg. He +used two invariable half-seconds pendulums, one swung at the surface, +the other below at the same time. The two were at intervals +interchanged. Von Sterneck introduced a most important improvement by +comparing the swings of the two invariables with the same clock which by +an electric circuit gave a signal at each station each second. This +eliminated clock rates. His method, of which it is not necessary to give +the details here, began a new era in the determinations of local +variations of gravity. The values which von Sterneck obtained for +[Delta] were not consistent, but increased with the depth of the second +station. This was probably due to local irregularities in the strata +which could not be directly detected. + +All the experiments to determine [Delta] by the attraction of natural +masses are open to the serious objection that we cannot determine the +distribution of density in the neighbourhood with any approach to +accuracy. The experiments with artificial masses next to be described +give much more consistent results, and the experiments with natural +masses are now only of use in showing the existence of irregularities +in the earth's superficial strata when they give results deviating +largely from the accepted value. + + +II. _Determination of the Attraction between two Artificial Masses._ + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Cavendish's Apparatus. + +h h, torsion rod hung by wire l g,; x, x, attracted balls hung from its +ends; WW, attracting masses.] + +_Cavendish's Experiment_ (_Phil. Trans._, 1798, p. 469).--This +celebrated experiment was planned by the Rev. John Michell. He completed +an apparatus for it but did not live to begin work with it. After +Michell's death the apparatus came into the possession of Henry +Cavendish, who largely reconstructed it, but still adhered to Michell's +plan, and in 1797-1798 he carried out the experiment. The essential +feature of it consisted in the determination of the attraction of a lead +sphere 12 in. in diameter on another lead sphere 2 in. in diameter, the +distance between the centres being about 9 in., by means of a torsion +balance. Fig. 2 shows how the experiment was carried out. A torsion rod +hh 6 ft. long, tied from its ends to a vertical piece mg, was hung by a +wire lg. From its ends depended two lead balls xx each 2 in. in +diameter. The position of the rod was determined by a scale fixed near +the end of the arm, the arm itself carrying a vernier moving along the +scale. This was lighted by a lamp and viewed by a telescope T from the +outside of the room containing the apparatus. The torsion balance was +enclosed in a case and outside this two lead spheres WW each 12 in. in +diameter hung from an arm which could turn round an axis Pp in the line +of gl. Suppose that first the spheres are placed so that one is just in +front of the right-hand ball x and the other is just behind the +left-hand ball x. The two will conspire to pull the balls so that the +right end of the rod moves forward. Now let the big spheres be moved +round so that one is in front of the left ball and the other behind the +right ball. The pulls are reversed and the right end moves backward. The +angle between its two positions is (if we neglect cross attractions of +right sphere on left ball and left sphere on right ball) four times as +great as the deflection of the rod due to approach of one sphere to one +ball. + + The principle of the experiment may be set forth thus. Let 2a be the + length of the torsion rod, m the mass of a ball, M the mass of a large + sphere, d the distance between the centres, supposed the same on each + side. Let [theta] be the angle through which the rod moves round when + the spheres WW are moved from the first to the second of the positions + described above. Let [mu] be the couple required to twist the rod + through 1 radian. Then [mu][theta] = 4GMma/d^2. But [mu] can be found + from the time of vibration of the torsion system when we know its + moment of inertia I, and this can be determined. If T is the period + [mu] = 4[pi]^2I/T^2, whence G = [pi]^2d^2I[theta]/T^2Mma, or putting + the result in terms of the mean density of the earth [Delta] it is + easy to show that, if L, the length of the seconds pendulum, is put + for g/[pi]^2, and C for 2[pi]R, the earth's circumference, then + + L Mma T^2 + [Delta] = (3/2) -- ---- -------. + C d^2I [theta] + +The original account by Cavendish is still well worth studying on +account of the excellence of his methods. His work was undoubtedly very +accurate for a pioneer experiment and has only really been improved upon +within the last generation. Making various corrections of which it is +not necessary to give a description, the result obtained (after +correcting a mistake first pointed out by F. Baily) is [Delta] = 5.448. +In seeking the origin of the disturbed motion of the torsion rod +Cavendish made a very important observation. He found that when the +masses were left in one position for a time the attracted balls crept +now in one direction, now in another, as if the attraction were varying. +Ultimately he found that this was due to convection currents in the case +containing the torsion rod, currents produced by temperature +inequalities. When a large sphere was heated the ball near it tended to +approach and when it was cooled the ball tended to recede. Convection +currents constitute the chief disturbance and the chief source of error +in all attempts to measure small forces in air at ordinary pressure. + +_Reich's Experiments_ (_Versuche uber die mittlere Dichtigkeit der Erde +mittelst der Drehwage_, Freiberg, 1838; "Neue Versuche mit der +Drehwage," _Leipzig Abh. Math. Phys._ i., 1852, p. 383).--In 1838 F. +Reich published an account of a repetition of the Cavendish experiment +carried out on the same general lines, though with somewhat smaller +apparatus. The chief differences consisted in the methods of measuring +the times of vibration and the deflection, and the changes were hardly +improvements. His result after revision was [Delta] = 5.49. In 1852 he +published an account of further work giving as result [Delta]= 5.58. It +is noteworthy that in his second paper he gives an account of +experiments suggested by J. D. Forbes in which the deflection was not +observed directly, but was deduced from observations of the time of +vibration when the attracting masses were in different positions. + + Let T1 be the time of vibration when the masses are in one of the + usual attracting positions. Let d be the distance between the centres + of attracting mass and attracted ball, and [delta] the distance + through which the ball is pulled. If a is the half length of the + torsion rod and [theta] the deflection, [delta] = a[theta]. Now let + the attracting masses be put one at each end of the torsion rod with + their centres in the line through the centres of the balls and d from + them, and let T2 be the time of vibration. Then it is easy to show + that + + [delta]/d = a[theta]/d = (T1 - T2)/(T1 + T2). + + This gives a value of [theta] which may be used in the formula. The + experiments by this method were not consistent, and the mean result + was [Delta] = 6.25. + +_Baily's Experiment_ (_Memoirs of the Royal Astron. Soc._ xiv.).--In +1841-1842 Francis Baily made a long series of determinations by +Cavendish's method and with apparatus nearly of the same dimensions. The +attracting masses were 12-in. lead spheres and as attracted balls he +used various masses, lead, zinc, glass, ivory, platinum, hollow brass, +and finally the torsion rod alone without balls. The suspension was also +varied, sometimes consisting of a single wire, sometimes being bifilar. +There were systematic errors running through Baily's work, which it is +impossible now wholly to explain. These made the resulting value of +[Delta] show a variation with the nature of the attracted masses and a +variation with the temperature. His final result [Delta] = 5.6747 is not +of value compared with later results. + +_Cornu and Baille's Experiment_ (_Comptes rendus_, lxxvi., 1873, p. 954; +lxxxvi., 1878, pp. 571, 699, 1001; xcvi., 1883, p. 1493).--In 1870 MM. +A. Cornu and J. Baille commenced an experiment by the Cavendish method +which was never definitely completed, though valuable studies of the +behaviour of the torsion apparatus were made. They purposely departed +from the dimensions previously used. The torsion balls were of copper +about 100 gm. each, the rod was 50 cm. long, and the suspending wire was +4 metres long. On each side of each ball was a hollow iron sphere. Two +of these were filled with mercury weighing 12 kgm., the two spheres of +mercury constituting the attracting masses. When the position of a mass +was to be changed the mercury was pumped from the sphere on one side to +that on the other side of a ball. To avoid counting time a method of +electric registration on a chronograph was adopted. A provisional result +was [Delta] = 5.56. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of a Section of Professor Boys's +Apparatus.] + +_Boys's Experiment_ (_Phil. Trans._, A., 1895, pt. i., p. 1).--Professor +C. V. Boys having found that it is possible to draw quartz fibres of +practically any degree of fineness, of great strength and true in their +elasticity, determined to repeat the Cavendish experiment, using his +newly invented fibres for the suspension of the torsion rod. He began by +an inquiry as to the best dimensions for the apparatus. He saw that if +the period of vibration is kept constant, that is, if the moment of +inertia I is kept proportional to the torsion couple per radian [mu], +then the deflection remains the same however the linear dimensions are +altered so long as they are all altered in the same proportion. Hence we +are driven to conclude that the dimensions should be reduced until +further reduction would make the linear quantities too small to be +measured with exactness, for reduction in the apparatus enables +variations in temperature and the consequent air disturbances to be +reduced, and the experiment in other ways becomes more manageable. +Professor Boys took as the exactness to be sought for 1 in 10,000. He +further saw that reduction in length of the torsion rod with given balls +is an advantage. For if the rod be halved the moment of inertia is +one-fourth, and if the suspending fibre is made finer so that the +torsion couple per radian is also one-fourth the time remains the same. +But the moment of the attracting force is halved only, so that the +deflection against one-fourth torsion is doubled. In Cavendish's +arrangement there would be an early limit to the advantage in reduction +of rod in that the mass opposite one ball would begin seriously to +attract the other ball. But Boys avoided this difficulty by suspending +the balls from the ends of the torsion rod at different levels and by +placing the attracting masses at these different levels. Fig. 3 +represents diagrammatically a vertical section of the arrangement used +on a scale of about 1/10. The torsion rod was a small rectangular mirror +about 2.4 cm. wide hung by a quartz fibre about 43 cm. long. From the +sides of this mirror the balls were hung by quartz fibres at levels +differing by 15 cm. The balls were of gold either about 5 mm. in +diameter and weighing about 1.3 gm. or about 6.5 mm. in diameter and +weighing 2.65 gm. The attracting masses were lead spheres, about 10 cm. +in diameter and weighing about 7.4 kgm. each. These were suspended from +the top of the case which could be rotated round the central tube, and +they were arranged so that the radius to the centre from the axis of the +torsion system made 65 deg. with the torsion rod, the position in which +the moment of the attraction was a maximum. The torsion rod mirror +reflected a distant scale by which the deflection could be read. The +time of vibration was recorded on a chronograph. The result of the +experiment, probably the best yet made, was [Delta] = 5.527; G = 6.658 X +10^-8. + +_Braun's Experiment_ (_Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-naturw. Cl._ +64, p. 187, 1896).--In 1896 Dr K. Braun, S.J., gave an account of a very +careful and excellent repetition of the Cavendish experiment with +apparatus much smaller than was used in the older experiments, yet much +larger than that used by Boys. A notable feature of the work consisted +in the suspension of the torsion apparatus in a receiver exhausted to +about 4 mm. of mercury, a pressure at which convection currents almost +disappear while "radiometer" forces have hardly begun. For other +ingenious arrangements the original paper or a short abstract in +_Nature_, lvi., 1897, p. 127, may be consulted. The attracted balls +weighed 54 gm. each and were 25 cm. apart. The attracting masses were +spheres of mercury each weighing 9 kgm. and brought into position +outside the receiver. Braun used both the deflection method and the time +of vibration method suggested to Reich by Forbes. The methods gave +almost identical results and his final values are to three decimal +places the same as those obtained by Boys. + +_G. K. Burgess's Experiment_ (_Theses presentees a la faculte des +sciences de Paris pour obtenir le titre de docteur de l'universite de +Paris_, 1901).--This was a Cavendish experiment in which the torsion +system was buoyed up by a float in a mercury bath. The attracted masses +could thus be made large, and yet the suspending wire could be kept +fine. The torsion beam was 12 cm. long, and the attracted balls were +lead spheres each 2 kgm. From the centre of the beam depended a vertical +steel rod with a varnished copper hollow float at its end, entirely +immersed in mercury. The surface of the mercury was covered with dilute +sulphuric acid to remove irregularities due to varying surface tension +acting on the steel rod. The size of the float was adjusted so that the +torsion fibre of quartz 35 cm. long had only to carry a weight of 5 to +10 gm. The time of vibration was over one hour. The torsion couple per +radian was determined by preliminary experiments. The attracting masses +were each 10 kgm. turning in a circle 18 cm. in diameter. The results +gave [Delta] = 5.55 and G = 6.64 X 10^-8. + +_Eotvos's Experiment_ (_Ann. der Physik und Chemie_, 1896, 59, P. +354).--In the course of investigations on local variations of gravity by +means of the torsion balance, R. Eotvos devised a method for determining +G somewhat like the vibration method used by Reich and Braun. Two +pillars were built up of lead blocks 30 cm. square in cross section, 60 +cm. high and 30 cm. apart. A torsion rod somewhat less than 30 cm. long +with small weights at the ends was enclosed in a double-walled brass +case of as little depth as possible, a device which secured great +steadiness through freedom from convection currents. The suspension was +a platinum wire about 150 cm. long. The torsion rod was first set in the +line joining the centres of the pillars and its time of vibration was +taken. Then it was set with its length perpendicular to the line joining +the centres and the time again taken. From these times Eotvos was able +to deduce G = 6.65 X 10^-8 whence [Delta] = 5.53. This is only a +provisional value. The experiment was only as it were a by-product in +the course of exceedingly ingenious work on the local variation in +gravity for which the original paper should be consulted. + +_Wilsing's Experiment_ (_Publ. des astrophysikalischen Observ. zu +Potsdam_, 1887, No. 22, vol. vi. pt. ii.; pt. iii. p. 133).--We may +perhaps class with the Cavendish type an experiment made by J. Wilsing, +in which a vertical "double pendulum" was used in place of a horizontal +torsion system. Two weights each 540 gm. were fixed at the ends of a rod +1 metre long. A knife edge was fixed on the rod just above its centre of +gravity, and this was supported so that the rod could vibrate about a +vertical position. Two attracting masses, cast-iron cylinders each 325 +kgm., were placed, say, one in front of the top weight on the pendulum +and the other behind the bottom weight, and the position of the rod was +observed in the usual mirror and scale way. Then the front attracting +mass was dropped to the level of the lower weight and the back mass was +raised to that of the upper weight, and the consequent deflection of the +rod was observed. By taking the time of vibration of the pendulum first +as used in the deflection experiment and then when a small weight was +removed from the upper end a known distance from the knife edge, the +restoring couple per radian deflection could be found. The final result +gave [Delta] = 5.579. + +_J. Joly's suggested Experiment_ (_Nature_ xli., 1890, p. 256).--Joly +has suggested that G might be determined by hanging a simple pendulum in +a vacuum, and vibrating outside the case two massive pendulums each with +the same time of swing as the simple pendulum. The simple pendulum would +be set swinging by the varying attraction and from its amplitude after a +known number of swings of the outside pendulums G could be found. + + +III. _Comparison of the Earth Pull on a body with the Pull of an +Artificial Mass by Means of the Common Balance._ + +The principle of the method is as follows:--Suppose a sphere of mass m +and weight w to be hung by a wire from one arm of a balance. Let the +mass of the earth be E and its radius be R. Then w = GEm/R^2. Now +introduce beneath m a sphere of mass M and let d be the distance of its +centre from that of m. Its pull increases the apparent weight of m say +by [delta]w. Then [delta]w = GMm/d^2. Dividing we obtain [delta]w/w = +MR^2/Ed^2, whence E = MR^2w/d^2[delta]w; and since g = GE/R^2, G can be +found when E is known. + +_Von Jolly's Experiment_ (_Abhand. der k. bayer. Akad. der Wiss._ 2 Cl. +xiii. Bd. 1 Abt. p. 157, and xiv. Bd. 2 Abt. p. 3).--In the first of +these papers Ph. von Jolly described an experiment in which he sought to +determine the decrease in weight with increase of height from the +earth's surface, an experiment suggested by Bacon (_Nov. Org._ Bk. 2, +S36), in the form of comparison of rates of two clocks at different +levels, one driven by a spring, the other by weights. The experiment in +the form carried out by von Jolly was attempted by H. Power, R. Hooke, +and others in the early days of the Royal Society (Mackenzie, _The Laws +of Gravitation_). Von Jolly fixed a balance at the top of his laboratory +and from each pan depended a wire supporting another pan 5 metres below. +Two 1-kgm. weights were first balanced in the upper pans and then one +was moved from an upper to the lower pan on the same side. A gain of 1.5 +mgm. was observed after correction for greater weight of air displaced +at the lower level. The inverse square law would give a slightly greater +gain and the deficiency was ascribed to the configuration of the land +near the laboratory. In the second paper a second experiment was +described in which a balance was fixed at the top of a tower and +provided as before with one pair of pans just below the arms and a +second pair hung from these by wires 21 metres below. Four glass globes +were prepared equal in weight and volume. Two of these were filled each +with 5 kgm. of mercury and then all were sealed up. The two heavy globes +were then placed in the upper pans and the two light ones in the lower. +The two on one side were now interchanged and a gain in weight of about +31.7 mgm. was observed. Air corrections were eliminated by the use of +the globes of equal volume. Then a lead sphere about 1 metre radius was +built up of blocks under one of the lower pans and the experiment was +repeated. Through the attraction of the lead sphere on the mass of +mercury when below the gain was greater by 0.589 mgm. This result gave +[Delta] = 5.692. + +_Experiment of Richarz and Krigar-Menzel_ (_Anhang zu den Abhand. der k. +preuss. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin_, 1898).--In 1884 A. Konig and F. +Richarz proposed a similar experiment which was ultimately carried out +by Richarz and O. Krigar-Menzel. In this experiment a balance was +supported somewhat more than 2 metres above the floor and with scale +pans above and below as in von Jolly's experiment. Weights each 1 kgm. +were placed, say, in the top right pan and the bottom left pan. Then +they were shifted to the bottom right and the top left, the result +being, after corrections for change in density of air displaced through +pressure and temperature changes, a gain in weight of 1.2453 mgm. on the +right due to change in level of 2.2628 metres. Then a rectangular column +of lead 210 cm. square cross section and 200 cm. high was built up under +the balance between the pairs of pans. The column was perforated with +two vertical tunnels for the passage of the wires supporting the lower +pans. On repeating the weighings there was now a decrease on the right +when a kgm. was moved on that side from top to bottom while another was +moved on the left from bottom to top. This decrease was 0.1211 mgm. +showing a total change due to the lead mass of 1.2453 + 0.1211 = 1.3664 +mgm. and this is obviously four times the attraction of the lead mass on +one kgm. The changes in the positions of the weights were made +automatically. The results gave [Delta] = 5.05 and G = 6.685 X 10^-8. + +_Poynting's Experiment_ (_Phil. Trans._, vol. 182, A, 1891, P. 565).--In +1878 J. H. Poynting published an account of a preliminary experiment +which he had made to show that the common balance was available for +gravitational work. The experiment was on the same lines as that of von +Jolly but on a much smaller scale. In 1891 he gave an account of the +full experiment carried out with a larger balance and with much greater +care. The balance had a 4-ft. beam. The scale pans were removed, and +from the two arms were hung lead spheres each weighing about 20 kgm. at +a level about 120 cm. below the beam. The balance was supported in a +case above a horizontal turn-table with axis vertically below the +central knife edge, and on this turn-table was a lead sphere weighing +150 kgm.--the attracting mass. The centre of this sphere was 30 cm. +below the level of the centres of the hanging weights. The turn-table +could be rotated between stops so that the attracting mass was first +immediately below the hanging weight on one side, and then immediately +under that on the other side. On the same turn-table but at double the +distance from the centre was a second sphere of half the weight +introduced merely to balance the larger sphere and keep the centre of +gravity at the centre of the turn-table. Before the introduction of this +sphere errors were introduced through the tilting of the floor of the +balance room when the turn-table was rotated. Corrections of course had +to be made for the attraction of this second sphere. The removal of the +large mass from left to right made an increase in weight on that side of +about 1 mgm. determined by riders in a special way described in the +paper. To eliminate the attraction on the beam and the rods supporting +the hanging weights another experiment was made in which these weights +were moved up the rods through 30 cm. and on now moving the attracting +sphere from left to right the gain on the right was only about 1/2 mgm. +The difference, 4/5 mgm., was due entirely to change in distance of the +attracted masses. After all corrections the results gave [Delta] = 5.493 +and G = 6.698 X 10^-8. + +_Final Remarks._--The earlier methods in which natural masses were used +have disadvantages, as already pointed out, which render them now quite +valueless. Of later methods the Cavendish appears to possess advantages +over the common balance method in that it is more easy to ward off +temperature variations, and so avoid convection currents, and probably +more easy to determine the actual value of the attracting force. For the +present the values determined by Boys and Braun may be accepted as +having the greatest weight and we therefore take + + _Mean density of the earth_ [Delta] = 5.527 + _Constant of gravitation_ G = 6.658 X 10^-8. + +Probably [Delta] = 5.53 and G = 6.66 X 10^-8 are correct to 1 in 500. + + AUTHORITIES.--J. H. Poynting, _The Mean Density of the Earth_ (1894), + gives an account of all work up to the date of publication with a + bibliography; A. Stanley Mackenzie, _The Laws of Gravitation_ (1899), + gives annotated extracts from various papers, some historical notes + and a bibliography. _A Bibliography of Geodesy, Appendix 8, Report for + 1902 of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey_ includes a very complete + bibliography of gravitational work. (J. H. P.) + + + + +GRAVY, a word usually confined to the natural juices which come from +meat during cooking. In early uses (in the _New English Dictionary_ the +quotations date from the end of the 14th to the beginning of the 16th +centuries) it meant a sauce of broth flavoured with spices and almonds. +The more modern usage seems to date from the end of the 16th century. +The word is obscure in origin. It has been connected with "graves" or +"greaves," the refuse of tallow in the manufacture of soap or candles. +The more probable derivation is from the French. In Old French the word +is almost certainly _grane_, and is derived from _grain_, "something +used in cooking." The word was early read and spelled with a u or v +instead of n, and the corruption was adopted in English. + + + + +GRAY, ASA (1810-1888), American botanist, was born at Paris, Oneida +county, N.Y., on the 18th of November 1810. He was the son of a farmer, +and received no formal education except at the Fairfield (N.Y.) academy +and the Fairfield medical school. From Dr James Hadley, the professor of +chemistry and _materia medica_ he obtained his first instruction in +science (1825-1826). In the spring of 1827 he first began to collect and +identify plants. His formal education, such as it was, ended in February +1831, when he took the degree of M.D. His first contribution to +descriptive botany appeared in 1835, and thereafter an uninterrupted +series of contributions to systematic botany flowed from his pen for +fifty-three years. In 1836 his first botanical text-book appeared under +the title _Elements of Botany_, followed in 1839 by his _Botanical +Text-Book for Colleges, Schools, and Private Students_ which developed +into his _Structural Botany_. He published later _First Lessons in +Botany and Vegetable Physiology_ (1857); _How Plants Grow_ (1858); +_Field, Forest, and Garden_ Botany (1869); _How Plants Behave_ (1872). +These books served the purpose of developing popular interest in +botanical studies. His most important work, however, was his _Manual of +the Botany of the Northern United States_, the first edition of which +appeared in 1847. This manual has passed through a large number of +editions, is clear, accurate and compact to an extraordinary degree, and +within its geographical limits is an indispensable book for the student +of American botany. + +Throughout his life Gray was a diligent writer of reviews of books on +natural history subjects. Often these reviews were elaborate essays, for +which the books served merely as texts; often they were clear and just +summaries of extensive works; sometimes they were sharply critical, +though never ill-natured or unfair; always they were interesting, lively +and of literary as well as scientific excellence. The greater part of +Gray's strictly scientific labour was devoted to a _Flora_ of North +America, the plan of which originated with his early teacher and +associate, John Torrey of New York. The second volume of Torrey and +Gray's _Flora_ was completed in 1843; but for forty years thereafter +Gray gave up a large part of his time to the preparation of his +_Synoptical Flora_ (1878). He lived at the period when the flora of +North America was being discovered, described and systematized; and his +enthusiastic labours in this fresh field placed him at the head of +American botanists and on a level with the most famous botanists of the +world. In 1856 he published a paper on the distribution of plants under +the title _Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States_; and +this paper was followed in 1859 by a memoir on the botany of Japan and +its relations to that of North America, a paper of which Sir J. D. +Hooker said that "in point of originality and far-reaching results [it] +was its author's _opus magnum_." It was Gray's study of plant +distribution which led to his intimate correspondence with Charles +Darwin during the years in which Darwin was elaborating the doctrines +that later became known as Darwinism. From 1855 to 1875 Gray was both a +keen critic and a sympathetic exponent of the Darwinian principles. His +religious views were those of the Evangelical bodies in the Protestant +Church; so that, when Darwinism was attacked as equivalent to atheism, +he was in position to answer effectively the unfounded allegation that +it was fatal to the doctrine of design. He taught that "the most +puzzling things of all to the old-school teleologists are the +_principia_ of the Darwinian." He openly avowed his conviction that the +present species are not special creations, but rather derived from +previously existing species; and he made his avowal with frank courage, +when this truth was scarcely recognized by any naturalists, and when to +the clerical mind evolution meant atheism. + +In 1842 Gray accepted the Fisher professorship of natural history in +Harvard University. On his accession to this chair the university had no +herbarium, no botanical library, few plants of any value, and but a +small garden, which for lack of money had never been well stocked or +well arranged. He soon brought together, chiefly by widespread +exchanges, a valuable herbarium and library, and arranged the garden; +and thereafter the development of these botanical resources was part of +his regular labours. The herbarium soon became the largest and most +valuable in America, and on account of the numerous type specimens it +contains it is likely to remain a collection of national importance. +Nothing of what Gray did for the botanical department of the university +has been lost; on the contrary, his labours were so well directed that +everything he originated and developed has been enlarged, improved and +placed on stable foundations. He himself made large contributions to the +establishment by giving it all his own specimens, many books and no +little money, and by his will he gave it the royalties on his books. +During his long connexion with the university he brought up two +generations of botanists and he always took a strong personal interest +in the researches and the personal prospects of the young men who had +studied under him. His scientific life was mainly spent in the herbarium +and garden in Cambridge; but his labours there were relieved by numerous +journeys to different parts of the United States and to Europe, all of +which contributed to his work on the Synoptical Flora. He lived to a +good age--long enough, indeed, to receive from learned societies at home +and abroad abundant evidence of their profound respect for his +attainments and services. He died at Cambridge, Mass., on the 30th of +January 1888. + + His _Letters_ (1893) were edited by his wife; and his _Scientific + Papers_ (1888) by C. S. Sargent. (C. W. E.) + + + + +GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861), Scottish poet, the son of a hand-loom weaver, +was born at Merkland, near Glasgow, on the 29th of January 1838. His +parents resolved to educate him for the church, and through their +self-denial and his own exertions as a pupil teacher and private tutor +he was able to complete a course of four sessions at the university of +Glasgow. He began to write poetry for _The Glasgow Citizen_ and began +his idyll on the Luggie, the little stream that ran through Merkland. +His most intimate companion at this time was Robert Buchanan, the poet; +and in May 1860 the two agreed to proceed to London, with the idea of +finding literary employment. Shortly after his arrival in London Gray +introduced himself to Monckton Milnes, afterwards Lord Houghton, with +whom he had previously corresponded. Lord Houghton tried to persuade him +to return to Scotland, but Gray insisted on staying in London. He was +unsuccessful in his efforts to place Gray's poem, "The Luggie," in _The +Cornhill Magazine_, but gave him some light literary work. He also +showed him great kindness when a cold which had seized him assumed the +serious form of consumption, and sent him to Torquay; but as the disease +made rapid progress, an irresistible longing seized Gray to return to +Merkland, where he arrived in January 1861, and died on the 3rd of +December following, having the day before had the gratification of +seeing a printed specimen copy of his poem "The Luggie," published +eventually by the exertions of Sydney Dobell. He was buried in the Auld +Aisle Churchyard, Kirkintilloch, where in 1865 a monument was erected by +"friends far and near" to his memory. + +"The Luggie," the principal poem of Gray, is a kind of reverie in which +the scenes and events of his childhood and his early aspirations are +mingled with the music of the stream which he celebrates. The series of +sonnets, "In the Shadows," was composed during the latter part of his +illness. Most of his poems necessarily bear traces of immaturity, and +lines may frequently be found in them which are mere echoes from +Thomson, Wordsworth or Tennyson, but they possess, nevertheless, +distinct individuality, and show a real appreciation of natural beauty. + + _The Luggie and other Poems_, with an introduction by R. Monckton + Milnes, and a brief memoir by James Hedderwick, was published in 1862; + and a new and enlarged edition of Gray's _Poetical Works_, edited by + Henry Glassford Bell, appeared in 1874. See also _David Gray and other + Essays_, by Robert Buchanan (1868), and the same writer's poem on + David Gray, in _Idyls and Legends of Inverburn_. + + + + +GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901), American electrician, was born in Barnesville, +Belmont county, Ohio, on the 2nd of August 1835. He worked as a +carpenter and in a machine shop, reading in physical science at the +same time, and for five years studied at Oberlin College, where he +taught for a time. He then investigated the subject of telegraphy, and +in 1867 patented a telegraphic switch and annunciator. Experimenting in +the transmittal of electro-tones and of musical tones by wire, he +utilized in 1874 animal tissues in his receivers, and filed, on the 14th +of February 1876, a caveat for the invention of a telephone, only a few +hours after the filing of an application for a patent by Alexander +Graham Bell. (See TELEPHONE.) The caveat was disregarded; letters patent +No. 174,465 were granted to Bell, whose priority of invention was upheld +in 1888 by the United States Supreme Court (see _Molecular Telephone +Co._ v. _American Bell Telephone Co._, 126 U.S. 1). Gray's experiments +won for him high praise and the decoration of the Legion of Honour at +the Paris Exposition of 1878. He was for a time a manufacturer of +electrical apparatus, particularly of his own inventions; and was chief +electrical expert of the Western Electric Company of Chicago. At the +Columbian Exposition of 1893 Gray was chairman of the International +Congress of Electricians. He died at Newtonville, Massachusetts, on the +21st of January 1901. Among his later inventions were appliances for +multiplex telegraphy and the telautograph, a machine for the electric +transmission of handwriting. He experimented in the submarine use of +electric bells for signalling. + + Gray wrote, besides scientific addresses and many monographs, + _Telegraphy and Telephony_ (1878) and _Electricity and Magnetism_ + (1900). + + + + +GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-1877). American portrait and genre painter, was +born in New York on the 23rd of June 1819. He was a pupil of Daniel +Huntington there, and subsequently studied in Rome and Florence. Elected +a member of the National Academy of Design in 1842, he succeeded +Huntington as president in 1870, holding the position until 1871. The +later years of his life were devoted to portrait work. He was strongly +influenced by the old Italian masters, painting in mellow colour with a +classical tendency. One of his notable canvases was an allegorical +composition called "The Birth of our Flag" (1875). He died in New York +City on the 12th of November 1877. + + + + +GRAY, HORACE (1828-1902), American jurist, was born in Boston, +Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1828. He graduated at Harvard in +1845; was admitted to the bar in 1851, and in 1854-1861 was reporter to +the Supreme Court of Massachusetts. He practised law, first in +partnership with Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar, and later with Wilder Dwight +(1823-1862) and Charles F. Blake; was appointed associate justice of the +state Supreme Court on the 23rd of August 1864, becoming chief-justice +on the 5th of September 1873; and was associate justice of the Supreme +Court of the United States from December 1881 to August 1902, resigning +only a few weeks before his death at Nahant, Mass., on the 15th of +September 1902. Gray had a fine sense of the dignity of the bench, and a +taste for historical study. His judgments were unmistakably clear and +contained the essence of earlier opinions. A great case lawyer, he was a +much greater judge, the variety of his knowledge and his contributions +to admiralty and prize law and to testamentary law being particularly +striking; in constitutional law he was a "loose" rather than a "strict" +constructionist. + + See Francis C. Lowell, "Horace Gray," in _Proceedings of the American + Academy_, vol. 39, pp. 627-637 (Boston, 1904). + + + + +GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214), bishop of Norwich, entered Prince John's +service, and at his accession (1199) was rapidly promoted in the church +till he became bishop of Norwich in September 1200. King John's attempt +to force him into the primacy in 1205 started the king's long and fatal +quarrel with Pope Innocent III. De Gray was a hard-working royal +official, in finance, in justice, in action, using his position to +enrich himself and his family. In 1209 he went to Ireland to govern it +as justiciar. He adopted a forward policy, attempting to extend the +English frontier northward and westward, and fought a number of +campaigns on the Shannon and in Fermanagh. But in 1212 he suffered a +great defeat. He assimilated the coinage of Ireland to that of England, +and tried to effect a similar reform in Irish law. De Gray was a good +financier, and could always raise money: this probably explains the +favour he enjoyed from King John. In 1213 he is found with 500 knights +at the great muster at Barham Downs, when Philip Augustus was +threatening to invade England. After John's reconciliation with Innocent +he was one of those exempted from the general pardon, and was forced to +go in person to Rome to obtain it. At Rome he so completely gained over +Innocent that the pope sent him back with papal letters recommending his +election to the bishopric of Durham (1213); but he died at St Jean +d'Audely in Poitou on his homeward journey (October 1214). + + + + +GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800-1875), English naturalist, born at Walsall, +Staffordshire, in 1800, was the eldest of the three sons of S. F. Gray, +of that town, druggist and writer on botany, and author of the +_Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia_, &c., his grandfather being S. F. +Gray, who translated the _Philosophia Botanica_ of Linnaeus for the +_Introduction to Botany_ of James Lee (1715-1795). Gray studied at St +Bartholomew's and other hospitals for the medical profession, but at an +early age was attracted to the pursuit of botany. He assisted his father +by collecting notes on botany and comparative anatomy and zoology in Sir +Joseph Banks's library at the British Museum, aided by Dr W. E. Leach, +assistant keeper, and the systematic synopsis of the _Natural +Arrangement of British Plants_, 2 vols., 1821, was prepared by him, his +father writing the preface and introduction only. In consequence of his +application for membership of the Linnaean Society being rejected in +1822, he turned to the study of zoology, writing on zoophytes, shells, +_Mollusca_ and _Papilionidae_, still aided by Dr Leach at the British +Museum. In December 1824 he obtained the post of assistant in that +institution; and from that date to December 1839, when J. G. Children +retired from the keepership, he had so zealously applied himself to the +study, classification and improvement of the national collection of +zoology that he was selected as the fittest person to be entrusted with +its charge. Immediately on his appointment as keeper, he took in hand +the revision of the systematic arrangement of the collections; +scientific catalogues followed in rapid succession; the department was +raised in importance; its poverty as well as its wealth became known, +and whilst increased grants, donations and exchanges made good many +deficiencies, great numbers of students, foreign as well as English, +availed themselves of its resources to enlarge the knowledge of zoology +in all its branches. In spite of numerous obstacles, he worked up the +department, within a few years of his appointment as keeper, to such a +state of excellence as to make it the rival of the cabinets of Leiden, +Paris and Berlin; and later on it was raised under his management to the +dignity of the largest and most complete zoological collection in the +world. Although seized with paralysis in 1870, he continued to discharge +the functions of keeper of zoology, and to contribute papers to the +_Annals of Natural History_, his favourite journal, and to the +transactions of a few of the learned societies; but at Christmas 1874, +having completed half a century of official work, he resigned office, +and died in London on the 7th of March 1875. + +Gray was an exceedingly voluminous writer, and his interests were not +confined to natural history only, for he took an active part in +questions of public importance of his day, such as slave emancipation, +prison discipline, abolition of imprisonment for debt, sanitary and +municipal organizations, the decimal system, public education, extension +of the opening of museums, &c. He began to publish in 1820, and +continued till the year of his death. + + The titles of the books, memoirs and miscellaneous papers written by + him, accompanied by a few notes, fill a privately printed list of 56 + octavo pages with 1162 entries. + + + + +GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6TH BARON (d. 1612), was descended from Sir Andrew +Gray (c. 1390-1469) of Broxmouth and Foulis, who was created a Scottish +peer as Lord Gray, probably in 1445. Andrew was a leading figure in +Scottish politics during the reigns of James I. and his two successors, +and visited England as a hostage, a diplomatist and a pilgrim. The 2nd +Lord Gray was his grandson Andrew (d. 1514), and the 4th lord was the +latter's grandson Patrick (d. 1582), a participant in Scottish politics +during the stormy time of Mary, queen of Scots. Patrick's son, Patrick, +the 5th lord (d. 1609), married Barbara, daughter of William, 2nd Lord +Ruthven, and their son Patrick, known as the "Master of Gray," is the +subject of this article. Educated at Glasgow University and brought up +as a Protestant, young Patrick was married early in life to Elizabeth +Lyon, daughter of Lord Glamis, whom he repudiated almost directly; and +afterwards went to France, where he joined the friends of Mary, queen of +Scots, became a Roman Catholic, and assisted the French policy of the +Guises in Scotland. He returned and took up his residence again in +Scotland in 1583, and immediately began a career of treachery and +intrigue, gaining James's favour by disclosing to him his mother's +secrets, and acting in agreement with James Stewart, earl of Arran, in +order to keep Mary a prisoner in England. In 1584 he was sent as +ambassador to England, to effect a treaty between James and Elizabeth +and to exclude Mary. His ambition incited him at the same time to +promote a plot to secure the downfall of Arran. This was supported by +Elizabeth, and was finally accomplished by letting loose the lords +banished from Scotland for their participation in the rebellion called +the Raid of Ruthven, who, joining Gray, took possession of the king's +person at Stirling in 1585, the league with England being ratified by +the parliament in December. Gray now became the intermediary between the +English government and James on the great question of Mary's execution, +and in 1587 he was despatched on an embassy to Elizabeth, ostensibly to +save Mary's life. Gray had, however, previously advised her secret +assassination and had endeavoured to overcome all James's scruples; and +though he does not appear to have carried treachery so far as to advise +her death on this occasion, no representations made by him could have +had any force or weight. The execution of Mary caused his own downfall +and loss of political power in Scotland; and after his return he was +imprisoned on charges of plots against Protestantism, of endeavouring to +prevent the king's marriage, and of having been bribed to consent to +Mary's death. He pleaded guilty of sedition and of having obstructed the +king's marriage, and was declared a traitor; but his life was spared by +James and he was banished from the country, but permitted to return in +1589, when he was restored to his office of master of the wardrobe to +which he had been appointed in 1585. His further career was marked by +lawlessness and misconduct. In 1592, together with the 5th Lord +Bothwell, he made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the king at Falkland, +and the same year earned considerable discredit by bringing groundless +accusations against the Presbyterian minister, Robert Bruce; while after +the king's accession to the English throne he was frequently summoned +before the authorities on account of his conduct. Notwithstanding, he +never lost James's favour. In 1609 he succeeded his father as 6th Baron +Gray, and died in 1612. + +Gray was an intimate friend of Sir Philip Sidney, but, if one of the +ablest, handsomest and most fascinating, he was beyond doubt one of the +most unscrupulous men of his day. He married as his second wife in 1585 +Mary Stewart, daughter of Robert, earl of Orkney, and had by her, +besides six daughters, a son, Andrew (d. 1663), who succeeded him as 7th +Baron Gray. Andrew, who served for a long time in the French army, was a +supporter, although not a very prominent one, of Charles I. and +afterwards of Charles II. He was succeeded as 8th Lord Gray by Patrick +(d. 1711), a son of his daughter Anne, and Patrick's successor was his +kinsman and son-in-law John (d. 1724). On the extinction of John's +direct line in 1878 the title of Lord Gray, passed to George Stuart, +earl of Moray. In 1606 Gray had been ranked sixth among the Scottish +baronies. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in _Dict. of Nat. Biog._, and authorities there + quoted; Gray's relation concerning the surprise at Stirling + (_Bannatyne Club Publns._ i. 131, 1827); Andrew Lang, _History of + Scotland_, vol. ii. (1902); Peter Gray, _The Descent and Kinship of + Patrick, Master of Gray_ (1903); _Gray Papers_ (Bannatyne Club, 1835); + _Hist. MSS. Comm., Marq. of Salisbury's MSS._ + + + + + +GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872), first bishop of Cape Town and metropolitan of +South Africa, was born at Bishop Wearmouth, Durham, and was the son of +Robert Gray, bishop of Bristol. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and +took orders in 1833. After holding the livings of Whitworth, Durham, +1834-1845, and Stockton-on-Tees, 1845-1847, he was consecrated bishop of +Cape Town in 1847; the bishopric having been endowed through the +liberality of Miss (afterwards Baroness) Burdett-Coutts. Until 1853 he +was a suffragan of Canterbury, but in that year he formally resigned his +see and was reappointed by letters patent metropolitan of South Africa +in view of the contemplated establishment of the suffragan dioceses of +Graham's Town and Natal. In that capacity his coercive jurisdiction was +twice called in question, and in each case the judicial committee of the +privy council decided against him. The best-known case is that of Bishop +Colenso, whom Gray deposed and excommunicated in 1863. The spiritual +validity of the sentence was upheld by the convocation of Canterbury and +the Pan-Anglican synod of 1867, but legally Colenso remained bishop of +Natal. The privy council decisions declared, in effect, that the +Anglican body in South Africa was on the footing of a voluntary +religious society. Gray, accepting this position, obtained its +recognition by the mother church as the Church of the Province of South +Africa, in full communion with the Church of England. The first +provincial synod was held in 1870. During his episcopate Bishop Gray +effected a much-needed organization of the South African church, to +which he added five new bishoprics, all carved out of the original +diocese of Cape Town. It was also chiefly owing to his suggestions that +the universities' mission to Central Africa was founded. + + + + +GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369), English chronicler, was a son of Sir +Thomas Gray, who was taken prisoner by the Scots at Bannockburn and who +died about 1344. The younger Thomas was present at the battle of +Neville's Cross in 1346; in 1355, whilst acting as warden of Norham +Castle, he was made a prisoner, and during his captivity in Edinburgh +Castle he devoted his time to studying the English chroniclers, Gildas, +Bede, Ranulf Higdon and others. Released in 1357 he was appointed warden +of the east marches towards Scotland in 1367, and he died about 1369. +Gray's work, the _Scalacronica_ (so called, perhaps, from the +scaling-ladder in the crest of the Grays), is a chronicle of English +history from the earliest times to about the year 1362. It is, however, +only valuable for the reigns of Edward I. and Edward II. and part of +that of Edward III., being especially so for the account of the wars +between England and Scotland, in which the author's father and the +author himself took part. Writing in Norman-French, Gray tells of +Wallace and Bruce, of the fights at Bannockburn, Byland and Dupplin, and +makes some mention of the troubles in England during the reign of Edward +II. He also narrates the course of the war in France between 1355 and +1361; possibly he was present during some of these campaigns. + + The _Scalacronica_ was summarized by John Leland in the 16th century; + the part dealing with the period from 1066 to the end, together with + the prologue, was edited for the Maitland Club by J. Stevenson (1836); + and the part from 1274 to 1362 was translated into English by Sir + Herbert Maxwell (Glasgow, 1907). In the extant manuscript, which is in + Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, there is a gap extending from about + 1340 to 1355, and Gray's account of this period is only known from + Leland's summary. + + + + +GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771), English poet, the fifth and sole surviving +child of Philip and Dorothy Gray, was born in London on the 26th of +December 1716. His mother's maiden name was Antrobus, and in partnership +with her sister Mary she kept a millinery shop in Cornhill. This and the +house connected with it were the property of Philip Gray, a +money-scrivener, who married Dorothy in 1706 and lived with her in the +house, the sisters renting the shop from him and supporting themselves +by its profits. Philip Gray had impaired the fortune which he inherited +from his father, a wealthy London merchant; yet he was sufficiently +well-to-do, and at the close of his life was building a house upon some +property of his own at Wanstead. But he was selfish and brutal, and in +1735 his wife took some abortive steps to obtain a separation from him. +At this date she had given birth to twelve children, of whom Thomas was +the only survivor. He owed his life as well as his education to this +"careful, tender mother," as he calls her. The child was suffocating +when she opened one of his veins with her own hand. He went at her +expense to Eton in 1727, and was confided to the care of her brother, +William Antrobus, one of the assistant-masters, during some part at +least of his school-life. + +At Eton Gray's closest friends were Horace Walpole, Richard West (son of +the lord chancellor of Ireland and grandson of the famous Bishop +Burnet), and Thomas Ashton, afterwards fellow of Eton. This little +coterie was dubbed "the Quadruple Alliance"; its members were studious +and literary, and took little part in the amusements of their fellows. +In 1734 Gray matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, of which his uncle, +Robert Antrobus, had been a fellow. At Cambridge he had once more the +companionship of Walpole and Ashton who were at King's, but West went to +Christchurch, Oxford. Gray made at this time the firmest and most +constant friendship of his life with Thomas Wharton (not the poet +Warton) of Pembroke College. He was maintained by his mother, and his +straitened means were eked out by certain small exhibitions from his +college. His conspicuous abilities and known devotion to study perhaps +atoned in the eyes of the authorities for his indifference to the +regular routine of study; for mathematics in particular he had an +aversion which was the one exception to his almost limitless curiosity +in other directions. During his first Cambridge period he learnt Italian +"like any dragon," and made translations from Guarini, Dante and Tasso, +some of which have been preserved. In September 1738 he is in the agony +of leaving college, nor can we trace his movements with any certainty +for a while, though it may be conjectured that he spent much time with +Horace Walpole, and made in his company some fashionable acquaintances +in London. On the 29th of March 1739, he started with Walpole for a long +continental tour, for the expenses of which it is probable that his +father, for once, came in some measure to his assistance. In Paris, Gray +visited the great with his friend, studied the picture-galleries, went +to tragedies, comedies, operas and cultivated there that taste for the +French classical dramatists, especially Racine, whom he afterwards tried +to imitate in the fragmentary "Agrippina." It is characteristic of him +that he travels through France with Caesar constantly in his hands, ever +noting and transcribing. In the same way, in crossing the Alps and in +Piedmont, he has "Livy in the chaise with him and Silius Italicus too." +In Italy he made a long sojourn, principally at Florence, where +Walpole's lifelong correspondent, Horace Mann, was British envoy, and +received and treated the travellers most hospitably. But Rome and Naples +are also described in Gray's letters, sometimes vividly, always +amusingly, and in his notes are almost catalogued. Herculaneum, an +object of intense interest to the young poet and antiquary, had been +discovered the year before. At length in April 1741 Gray and Walpole set +out northwards for Reggio. Here they quarrelled. Gray, "never a boy," +was a student, and at times retiring; Walpole, in his way a student too, +was at this time a very social being, somewhat too frivolous, and, what +was worse, too patronizing. He good-humouredly said at a later date, +"Gray loves to find fault," and this fault-finding was expressed, no +doubt with exaggeration, in a letter to Ashton, who violated Gray's +confidence. The rupture followed, and with two friends, John Chute of +the Vyne, Hampshire, and the young Francis Whithed, Gray went to Venice +to see the doge wed the Adriatic on Ascension Day. Thence he returned +home attended only by a _laquais de voyage_, visiting once more the +Grande Chartreuse where he left in the album of the brotherhood those +beautiful alcaics, _O Tu severa Religio loci_, which reveal his +characteristic melancholy (enhanced by solitude and estrangement) and +that sense of the glory as distinct from the horror of mountain scenery +to which perhaps he was the first of Englishmen to give adequate +expression. On the 18th of September 1741 we find him in London, +astonishing the street boys with his deep ruffles, large bag-wig and +long sword, and "mortified" under the hands of the English barber. On +the 6th of November his father died; Philip Gray had, it is evident, +been less savage and niggardly at last to those who were dependent upon +him, and his death left his wife and son some measure of assured peace +and comfort. + +London was Gray's headquarters for more than a year, with occasional +visits to Stoke Poges, to which his mother and Mary Antrobus had retired +from business to live with their sister, Mrs Rogers. At Stoke he heard +of the death of West, to whom he had sent the "Ode on Spring," which was +returned to him unopened. It was an unexpected blow, shocking in all its +circumstances, especially if we believe the story that his friend's +frail life was brought to a close by the discovery that the mother whom +he tenderly loved had been an unfaithful wife, and, as some say, +poisoned her husband. About this tragedy Gray preserved a mournful +silence, broken only by the pathetic sonnet, and some Latin lines, in +which he laments his loss. The year 1742, was, for him, fruitful in +poetic effort, of which, however, much was incomplete. The "Agrippina," +the _De principiis Cogitandi_, the splenetic "Hymn to Ignorance" in +which he contemplates his return to the university, remain fragments; +but besides the two poems already mentioned, the "Ode on a Distant +Prospect of Eton College" and the "Hymn to Adversity," perhaps the most +faultless of his poems, were written before the close of the summer. +After hesitating between Trinity Hall and Peterhouse, he returned to the +latter, probably as a fellow-commoner. He had hitherto neglected to read +for a degree; he proceeded to that of LL.B. in 1744. In 1745 a +reconciliation with Walpole, long desired probably on both sides, was +effected through the kind offices of Chute's sister. In 1746 he spent +his time between Cambridge, Stoke and London; was much with Walpole; +graphically describes the trial of the Scottish rebel lords, and studied +Greek with avidity; but "the muse," which by this time perhaps had +stimulated him to begin the "Elegy," "has gone, and left him in much +worse company." In town he finds his friends Chute and Whithed returned +to England, and "flaunts about" in public places with them. The year +1747 produced only the ode on Walpole's cat, and we gather that he is +mainly engaged in reading with a very critical eye, and interesting +himself more in the troubles of Pembroke College, in which he almost +seems to live, than in the affairs of Peterhouse. In this year also be +made the acquaintance of Mason, his future biographer. In 1748 he first +came before the public, but anonymously, in Dodsley's _Miscellany_, in +which appeared the Eton ode, the ode on spring, and that on the cat. In +the same year he sent to Wharton the beginning of the didactic poem, +"The Alliance of Education and Government," which remains a fragment. +His aunt, Mary Antrobus, died in 1749. + +There is little to break the monotony of his days till 1750, when from +Stoke he sent Walpole "a thing to which he had at last put an end." The +"thing" was the "Elegy." It was shown about in manuscript by his +admiring friend; it was impudently pirated, and Gray had it printed by +Dodsley in self-defence. Even thus it had "a pinch or two in its +cradle," of which it long bore the marks. The publication led to the one +incident in Gray's life which has a touch of romance. At Stokehouse had +come to live the widowed Lady Cobham, who learnt that the author of the +"Elegy" was her neighbour. At her instance, Lady Schaub, her visitor, +and Miss Speed, her protegee, paid him a call; the poet was out, and his +quiet mother and aunts were somewhat flustered at the apparition of +these women of fashion, whose acquaintance Gray had already made in +town. Hence the humorous "Long Story." A platonic affection sprang up +between Gray and Miss Speed; rumour, upon the death of Lady Cobham, said +that they were to be married, but the lady escaped this mild destiny to +become the Baroness de la Peyriere, afterwards Countess Viry, and a +dangerous political _intriguante_. + +In 1753 all Gray's completed poems, except the sonnet on the death of +West, were published by Dodsley in a handsome volume illustrated by +Richard Bentley, the son of the celebrated master of Trinity. To these +designs we owe the verses to the artist which were posthumously +published from a MS. torn at the end. In the same year Gray's mother +died and was buried in the churchyard at Stoke Poges, the scene of the +"Elegy," in the same grave with Mary Antrobus. A visit to his friend Dr +Wharton at Durham later in the year revives his earlier impressions of +that bolder scenery which is henceforth to be in the main the framework +of his muse. Already in 1752 he had almost completed "The Progress of +Poesy," in which, and in "The Bard," the imagery is largely furnished +forth by mountain and torrent. The latter poem long held fire; Gray was +stimulated to finish it by hearing the blind Welsh harper Parry at +Cambridge. Both odes were the first-fruits of the press which Walpole +had set up at Strawberry Hill, and were printed together there in 1757. +They are genuinely Pindaric, that is, with corresponding strophes, +antistrophes and epodes. As the Greek motto prefixed to them implies, +they were vocal to the intelligent only; and these at first were few. +But the odes, if they did not attain the popularity of the "Elegy," +marked an epoch in the history of English poetry, and the influence of +"The Bard" may be traced even in that great but very fruitful imposture, +the pseudo-Ossian of Macpherson. Gray yields to the impulse of the +Romantic movement; he has long been an admirer of ballad poetry; before +he wrote "The Bard" he had begun to study Scandinavian literature, and +the two "Norse Odes," written in 1761, were in style and metrical form +strangely anticipative of Coleridge and Scott. Meanwhile his Cambridge +life had been vexed by the freaks of the fellow-commoners of Peterhouse, +a peculiarly riotous set. He had suffered great inconvenience for a time +by the burning of his property in Cornhill, and so nervous was he on the +subject of fire that he had provided himself with a rope-ladder by which +he might descend from his college window. Under this window a +hunting-party of these rude lads raised in the early morning the cry of +fire; the poet's night-capped head appeared and was at once withdrawn. +This, or little more than this, was the simple fact out of which arose +the legend still current at Cambridge. The servile authorities of +Peterhouse treated Gray's complaints with scant respect, and he migrated +to Pembroke College. "I left my lodgings," he said, "because the rooms +were noisy, and the people of the house dirty." + +In 1758 died Mrs Rogers, and Gray describes himself as employed at Stoke +in "dividing nothing" between himself and the surviving aunt, Mrs +Oliffe, whom he calls "the spawn of Cerberus and the Dragon of Wantley." +In 1759 he availed himself of the MS. treasures of the British Museum, +then for the first time open to the public, made a very long sojourn in +town, and in 1761 witnessed the coronation of George III., of which to +his friend Brown of Pembroke he wrote a very vivacious account. In his +last years he revealed a craving for a life less sedentary than +heretofore. He visited various picturesque districts of Great Britain, +exploring great houses and ruined abbeys; he was the pioneer of the +modern tourist, noting and describing in the spirit now of the poet, now +of the art-critic, now of the antiquary. In 1762 he travelled in +Yorkshire and Derbyshire; in 1764 in the Lowlands of Scotland, and +thence went to Southampton and its neighbourhood. In 1765 he revisits +Scotland; he is the guest of Lord Strathmore at Glamis; and revels in +"those monstrous creatures of God," the Highland mountains. His most +notable achievement in this direction was his journey among the English +lakes, of which he wrote an interesting account to Wharton; and even in +1770, the year before his death, he visited with his young friend Norton +Nicholls "five of the most beautiful counties of the kingdom," and +descended the Wye for 40 m. In all these quests he displays a physical +energy which surprises and even perplexes us. His true academic status +was worthily secured in 1768, when the duke of Grafton offered him the +professorship of modern history which in 1762 he had vainly endeavoured +to obtain from Bute. He wrote in 1769 the "Installation Ode" upon the +appointment of Grafton as chancellor of the university. It was almost +the only instance in which he successfully executed a task, not, in the +strictest sense, self-imposed; the great founders of the university are +tactfully memorized and pass before us in a kind of heraldic splendour. +He bore with indifference the taunts to which, from Junius and others, +he was exposed for this tribute to his patron. He was contemplating a +journey to Switzerland to visit his youthful friend de Bonstetten when, +in the summer of 1771, he was conscious of a great decline in his +physical powers. He was seized with a sudden illness when dining in his +college hall, and died of gout in the stomach on the 30th of July 1771. +His last moments were attended by his cousin Mary Antrobus, postmistress +through his influence at Cambridge and daughter of his Eton tutor; and +he was laid beside his beloved mother in the churchyard of Stoke Poges. + +Owing to his shyness and reserve he had few intimate friends, but to +these his loss was irreparable; for to them he revealed himself either +in boyish levity and banter, or wise and sympathetic counsel and tender +and yet manly consolation; to them he imparted his quiet but keen +observation of passing events or the stores of his extensive reading in +literature ancient, medieval or modern; and with Proteus-like variety he +writes at one time as a speculative philosopher, at another as a critic +in art or music, at another as a meteorologist and nature-lover. His +friendship with the young, after his migration to Pembroke College, is a +noteworthy trait in his character. With Lord Strathmore and the Lyons +and with William Palgrave he conversed as an elder brother, and Norton +Nicholls of Trinity Hall lost in him a second father, who had taught him +to think and feel. The brilliant young foreigner, de Bonstetten, looked +back after a long and chequered career with remembrance still vivid to +the days in which the poet so soon to die taught him to read Shakespeare +and Milton in the monastic gloom of Cambridge. With the elderly +"Levites" of the place he was less in sympathy; they dreaded his +sarcastic vein; they were conscious that he laughed at them, and in the +polemics of the university he was somewhat of a free lance, fighting for +his own hand. Lampoons of his were privately circulated with effect, and +that he could be the fiercest of satirists the "Cambridge Courtship" on +the candidature of Lord Sandwich for the office of high steward, and the +verses on Lord Holland's mimic ruins at Westgate, sufficiently prove. +The faculty which he displayed in humour and satire was denied to his +more serious muse; there all was the fruit of long delay; of that higher +inspiration he had a thin but very precious vein, and the sublimity +which he undoubtedly attained was reached by an effort of which captious +and even sympathetic criticism can discover the traces. In his own time +he was regarded as an innovator, for like Collins he revived the poetic +diction of the past, and the adverse judgments of Johnson and others +upon his work are in fact a defence of the current literary traditions. +Few men have published so little to so much effect; few have attained to +fame with so little ambition. His favourite maxim was "to be employed is +to be happy," but he was always employed in the first instance for the +satisfaction of his own soul, and to this end and no other he made +himself one of the best Greek scholars at Cambridge in the interval +between Bentley and Porson. His genius was receptive rather than +creative, and it is to be regretted that he lacked energy to achieve +that history of English poetry which he once projected, and for which he +possessed far more knowledge and insight than the poet Thomas Warton, to +whom he resigned the task. He had a fine taste in music, painting and +architecture; and his correspondence includes a wide survey of such +European literature as was accessible to him, with criticisms, sometimes +indeed a little limited and insular, yet of a singularly fresh and +modern cast. In person he was below the middle height, but well-made, +and his face, in which the primness of his features was redeemed by his +flashing eyes, was the index of his character. There was a touch of +affectation in his demeanour, and he was sometimes reticent and +secretive even to his best friends. He was a refined Epicurean in his +habits, and a deist rather than a Christian in his religious beliefs; +but his friend, Mrs Bonfoy, had "taught him to pray" and he was keenly +alive to the dangers of a flippant scepticism. In a beautiful alcaic +stanza he pronounces the man supremely happy who in the depths of the +heart is conscious of the "fount of tears," and his characteristic +melancholy, except in the few hours when it was indeed black, was not a +pitiable state; rather, it was one secret of the charm both of the man +and of the poet. + + A very complete bibliography of Gray will be found in Dr. Bradshaw's + edition of the poems in the Aldine series. Dodsley published ten of + the poems, exclusive of the "Long Story," in 1768. Mason's _Life of + Gray_ (1778) included the poems and some hitherto unpublished + fragments, with a selection from his letters, much garbled. Mathias in + 1814 reprinted Mason's edition and added much from Gray's MS. + commentaries together with some more of his translations. The most + exhaustive edition of Gray's writings was achieved by the Rev. John + Mitford, who first did justice to the correspondence with Wharton and + Norton Nicholls (5 vols., Pickering, 1836-1843; correspondence of Gray + and Mason, Bentley, 1853); see also the edition of the works by Edmund + Gosse (4 vols., 1884); the Life by the same in Eng. Men of Letters + (2nd ed., 1889); some further relics are given in _Gray and His + Friends_ by D. C. Tovey (Cambridge, 1890); and a new edition of the + letters copiously annotated by D. C. Tovey is in the Standard Library + (1900-1907). Nicholl's _Illustrations_, vol. vi. p. 805, quoted by + Professor Kittredge in the _Nation_, Sept. 12th, 1900, gives the true + story of Gray's migration to Pembroke College. Matthew Arnold's essay + on Gray in Ward's _English Poets_ is one of the minor classics of + literary criticism. (D. C. To.) + + + + +GRAY (or GREY), WALTER DE (d. 1255), English prelate and statesman, was +a nephew of John de Gray, bishop of Norwich, and was educated at Oxford. +He owed his early and rapid preferment in church and state to the favour +of King John, becoming the king's chancellor in 1205, and being chosen +bishop of Lichfield in 1210. He was, however, not allowed to keep this +bishopric, but he became bishop of Worcester in 1214, resigning his +office as chancellor in the same year. Gray was with John when the king +signed Magna Carta in June 1215; soon after this event he left England +on the king's business, and it was during his absence that he was forced +into the archbishopric of York, owing his election to the good offices +of John and of Pope Innocent III. He took a leading part in public +affairs during the minority of Henry III., and was regarded with much +favour by this king, who employed him on important errands to foreign +potentates, and left him as guardian of England when he went to France +in 1242. Afterwards the archbishop seems to have been less favourably +disposed towards Henry, and for a time he absented himself from public +business; however, in 1255, he visited London to attend a meeting of +parliament, and died at Fulham on the 1st of May 1255. Gray was always +anxious to assert his archiepiscopal authority over Scotland, and to +maintain it against the archbishop of Canterbury, but in neither case +was he very successful. He built the south transept of the minster at +York and bought for his see the village, afterwards called Bishopthorpe, +which is still the residence of the archbishop of York. He was also +generous to the church at Ripon. Gray was regarded by his contemporaries +as an avaricious, but patriotic man. + + + + +GRAY, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Haute-Saone, situated on the declivity of a hill on the +left bank of the Saone, 36 m. S.W. of Vesoul by the Eastern railway. +Pop. (1906) 5742. The streets of the town are narrow and steep, but it +possesses broad and beautiful quays and has a busy port. Three bridges, +one dating from the 18th century, unite it to suburbs on the right bank +of the river, on which is the railway-station from which lines branch +off to Auxonne, Dijon, Besancon and Culmont-Chalindrey. The principal +buildings are the Gothic church, restored in the style of the +Renaissance but with a modern portal, and the hotel de ville, built by +the Spaniards in 1568. The latter building has a handsome facade +decorated with columns of red granite. Gray is the seat of a subprefect +and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of +commerce, a communal college and a small museum. It has large +flour-mills; among the other industries is the manufacture of machinery +and iron goods. There is also a considerable transit traffic in goods +from the south of France and the colonies, and trade in iron, corn, +provisions, vegetables, wine, wood, &c., much of which is carried by +river. Gray was founded in the 7th century. Its fortifications were +destroyed by Louis XIV. During the Franco-German War General von Werder +concentrated his army corps in the town and held it for a month, making +it the _point d'appui_ of movements towards Dijon and Langres, as well +as towards Besancon. + +Gray gave its name to the distinguished English family of de Gray, Gray +or Grey, Anschitel de Gray being mentioned as an Oxfordshire tenant in +Domesday. + + + + +GRAYLING (_Thymallus_), fishes belonging to the family _Salmonidae_. The +best known are the "poisson bleu" of the Canadian voyageurs, and the +European species, _Thymallus vulgaris_ (the _Asch_ or _Asche_ of +Germany, _ombre_ of France, and _temola_ of Upper Italy). This latter +species is esteemed on account of its agreeable colours (especially of +the dorsal fin), its well-flavoured flesh, and the sport it affords to +anglers. The grayling differ from the genus _Salmo_ in the smaller mouth +with comparatively feeble dentition, in the larger scales, and +especially in the much greater development of the dorsal fin, which +contains 20 to 24 rays. These beautiful fishes, of which five or six +species are known, inhabit the fresh waters of Europe, Siberia and the +northern parts of North America. The European species, _T. vulgaris_ or +_vexillifer_, attains, though rarely, a length of 2 ft. The colours +during life are remarkably changeable and iridescent; small dark spots +are sometimes present on the body; the very high dorsal fin is +beautifully marked with purplish bands and ocelli. In England and +Scotland the grayling appears to have had originally a rather irregular +distribution, but it has now been introduced into a great number of +rivers; it is not found in Ireland. It is more generally distributed in +Scandinavia and Russia, and the mountain streams of central Europe +southwards to the Alpine water of Upper Italy. Specimens attaining to a +weight of 4 lb. are very scarce. + + + + +GRAYS THURROCK, or GRAYS, an urban district in the south-eastern +parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the Thames, 20 m. E. by S. +from London by the London, Tilbury & Southend railway. Pop. (1901) +13,834. The church of St Peter and St Paul, wholly rebuilt, retains some +Norman work. The town takes its name from a family of Gray who held the +manor for three centuries from 1149. There are an endowed and two +training ship schools. Roman remains have been found in the vicinity; +and the geological formations exhibiting the process of silting up of a +former river channel are exposed in the quarries, and contain large +mammalian remains. The town has trade in bricks, lime and cement. + + + + +GRAZ [GRATZ], the capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland of Styria, +140 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 138,370. It is picturesquely +situated on both banks of the Mur, just where this river enters a broad +and fertile valley, and the beauty of its position has given rise to the +punning French description, _La Ville des graces sur la riviere de +l'amour_. The main town lies on the left bank of the river at the foot +of the Schlossberg (1545 ft.) which dominates the town. The beautiful +valley traversed by the Mur, known as the Grazer Feld and bounded by the +Wildonerberge, extends to the south; to the S.W. rise the Bacher Gebirge +and the Koralpen; to the N. the Schockel (4745 ft.), and to the N.W. the +Alps of Upper Styria. On the Schlossberg, which can be ascended by a +cable tramway, beautiful parks have been laid out, and on its top is the +bell-tower, 60 ft. high, and the quaint clock-tower, 52 ft. high, which +bears a gigantic clock-dial. At the foot of the Schlossberg is the +Stadt-Park. + +Among the numerous churches of the city the most important is the +cathedral of St Aegidius, a Gothic building erected by the emperor +Frederick III. in 1450-1462 on the site of a previous church mentioned +as early as 1157. It has been several times modified and redecorated, +more particularly in 1718. The present copper spire dates from 1663. The +interior is richly adorned with stained-glass windows of modern date, +costly shrines, paintings and tombs. In the immediate neighbourhood of +the cathedral is the mausoleum church erected by the emperor Ferdinand +II. Worthy of mention also are the parish church, a Late Gothic +building, finished in 1520, and restored in 1875, which possesses an +altar piece by Tintoretto; the Augustinian church, appropriated to the +service of the university since 1827; the small Leech Kirche, an +interesting building in Early Gothic style, dating from the 13th +century, and the Herz Jesu-Kirche, a building in Early Gothic style, +finished in 1891, with a tower 360 ft. high. Of the secular buildings +the most important is the Landhaus, where the local diet holds its +sittings, erected in the 16th century in the Renaissance style. It +possesses an interesting portal and a beautiful arcaded court, and +amongst the curiosities preserved here is the Styrian hat. In its +neighbourhood is the Zeughaus or arsenal, built in 1644, which contains +a very rich collection of weapons of the 15th-17th centuries, and which +is maintained exactly in the same condition as it was 250 years ago. The +town hall, built in 1807, and rebuilt in 1892 in the German Renaissance +style, and the imperial castle, dating from the 11th century, now used +as government offices, are also worth notice. + +At the head of the educational institutions is the university founded in +1586 by the Austrian archduke Charles Francis, and restored in 1817 +after an interruption of 45 years. It is now housed in a magnificent +building, finished in 1895, and is endowed with numerous scientific +laboratories and a rich library. It had in 1901 a teaching staff of 161 +professors and lecturers, and 1652 students, including many Italians +from the Kustenland and Dalmatia. The Joanneum Museum, founded in 1811 +by the archduke John Baptist, has become very rich in many departments, +and an additional huge building in the rococo style was erected in 1895 +for its accommodation. The technical college, founded in 1814 by the +archduke John Baptist, had in 1901 about 400 pupils. + +An active trade, fostered by abundant railway communications, is +combined with manufactures of iron and steel wares, paper, chemicals, +vinegar, physical and optical instruments, besides artistic printing and +lithography. The extensive workshops of the Southern railway are at +Graz, and since the opening of the railway to the rich coal-fields of +Koflach the number of industrial establishments has greatly increased. + +Amongst the numerous interesting places in the neighbourhood are: the +Hilmteich, with the Hilmwarte, about 100 ft. high; and the Rosenberg +(1570 ft.), whence the ascent of the Platte (2136 ft.) with extensive +view is made. At the foot of the Rosenberg is Maria Grun, with a large +sanatorium. All these places are situated to the N. of Graz. On the left +bank of the Mur is the pilgrimage church of Maria Trost, built in 1714; +on the right bank is the castle of Eggenberg, built in the 17th century. +To the S.W. is the Buchkogel (2150 ft.), with a magnificent view, and a +little farther south is the watering-place of Tobelbad. + +_History._--Graz may possibly have been a Roman site, but the first +mention of it under its present name is in a document of A.D. 881, after +which it became the residence of the rulers of the surrounding district, +known later as Styria. Its privileges were confirmed by King Rudolph I. +in 1281. Surrounded with walls and fosses in 1435, it was able in 1481 +to defend itself against the Hungarians under Matthias Corvinus, and in +1529 and 1532 the Turks attacked it with as little success. As early as +1530 the Lutheran doctrine was preached in Graz by Seifried and Jacob +von Eggenberg, and in 1540 Eggenberg founded the Paradies or Lutheran +school, in which Kepler afterwards taught. But the archduke Charles +burned 20,000 Protestant books in the square of the present lunatic +asylum, and succeeded by his oppressive measures in bringing the city +again under the authority of Rome. From the earlier part of the 15th +century Graz was the residence of one branch of the family of Habsburg, +a branch which succeeded to the imperial throne in 1619 in the person of +Ferdinand II. New fortifications were constructed in the end of the 16th +century by Franz von Poppendorf, and in 1644 the town afforded an asylum +to the family of Ferdinand III. The French were in possession of the +place in 1797 and again in 1805; and in 1809 Marshal Macdonald having, +in accordance with the terms of the peace of Vienna, entered the citadel +which he had vainly besieged, blew it all up with the exception of the +bell-tower and the citizens' or clock tower. It benefited greatly during +the 19th century from the care of the archduke John and received +extended civic privileges in 1860. + + See Ilwof and Peters, _Graz, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt_ + (Graz, 1875); G. Fels, _Graz und seine Umgebung_ (Graz, 1898); L. + Mayer, _Die Stadt der Grazien_ (Graz, 1897), and Hofrichter, + _Ruckblicke in die Vergangenheit von Graz_ (Graz, 1885). + + + + +GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO (1503-1583), Italian author, was born at +Florence on the 22nd of March 1503, of good family both by his father's +and mother's side. Of his youth and education all record appears to be +lost, but he probably began early to practise as an apothecary. In 1540 +he was one of the founders of the Academy of the Humid (degli Umidi) +afterwards called "della Fiorentina," and later took a prominent part in +the establishment of the more famous Accademia della Crusca. In both +societies he was known as _Il Lasca_ or _Leuciscus_, and this pseudonym +is still frequently substituted for his proper name. His temper was what +the French happily call a difficult one, and his life was consequently +enlivened or disturbed by various literary quarrels. His Humid brethren +went so far as to expel him for a time from the society--the chief +ground of offence being apparently his ruthless criticism of the +"Arameans," a party of the academicians who maintained that the +Florentine or Tuscan tongue was derived from the Hebrew, the Chaldee, or +some other branch of the Semitic. He was readmitted in 1566, when his +friend Salviati was "consul" of the academy. His death took place on the +18th of February 1583. Il Lasca ranks as one of the great masters of +Tuscan prose. His style is copious and flexible; abundantly idiomatic, +but without any affectation of being so, it carries with it the force +and freshness of popular speech, while it lacks not at the same time a +flavour of academic culture. His principal works are _Le Cene_ (1756), a +collection of stories in the manner of Boccaccio, and a number of prose +comedies, _La Gelosia_ (1568), _La Spiritata_ (1561), _I Parentadi_, _La +Arenga_, _La Sibilla_, _La Pinzochera_, _L' Arzigogolo_. The stories, +though of no special merit as far as the plots are concerned, are told +with verve and interest. A number of miscellaneous poems, a few letters +and _Four Orations to the Cross_ complete the list of Grazzini's extant +works. + + He also edited the works of Berni, and collected _Tutti i trionfi, + larri, mascherate, e canti carnascialaschi, andati per Firenze dal + tempo del magnifico Lorenzo de' Medici fino all' anno 1559_. In 1868 + Adamo Rossi published in his _Ricerche per le biblioteche di Perugia_ + three "novelle" by Grazzini, from a MS. of the 16th century in the + "Comunale" of Perugia: and in 1870 a small collection of those poems + which have been left unpublished by previous editors appeared at + Poggibonsi, _Alcune Poesie inedite_. See Pietro Fanfani's "Vita del + Lasca," prefixed to his edition of the _Opere di A. Grazzini_ + (Florence, 1857). + + + + +GREAT AWAKENING, the name given to a remarkable religious revival +centring in New England in 1740-1743, but covering all the American +colonies in 1740-1750. The word "awakening" in this sense was frequently +(and possibly first) used by Jonathan Edwards at the time of the +Northampton revival of 1734-1735, which spread through the Connecticut +Valley and prepared the way for the work in Rhode Island, Massachusetts +and Connecticut (1740-1741) of George Whitefield, who had previously +been preaching in the South, especially at Savannah, Georgia. He, his +immediate follower, Gilbert Tennent (1703-1764), other clergymen, such +as James Davenport, and many untrained laymen who took up the work, +agreed in the emotional and dramatic character of their preaching, in +rousing their hearers to a high pitch of excitement, often amounting to +frenzy, in the undue stress they put upon "bodily effects" (the physical +manifestations of an abnormal psychic state) as proofs of conversion, +and in their unrestrained attacks upon the many clergymen who did not +join them and whom they called "dead men," unconverted, unregenerate and +careless of the spiritual condition of their parishes. Jonathan Edwards, +Benjamin Colman (1675-1747), and Joseph Bellamy, recognized the +viciousness of so extreme a position. Edwards personally reprimanded +Whitefield for presuming to say of any one that he was unconverted, and +in his _Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival of Religion_ devoted +much space to "showing what things are to be corrected, or avoided, in +promoting this work." Edwards' famous sermon at Enfield in 1741 so +affected his audience that they cried and groaned aloud, and he found +it necessary to bid them be still that he might go on; but Davenport +and many itinerants provoked and invited shouting and even writhing, and +other physical manifestations. At its May session in 1742 the General +Court of Massachusetts forbade itinerant preaching save with full +consent from the resident pastor; in May 1743 the annual ministerial +convention, by a small plurality, declared against "several errors in +doctrine and disorders in practice which have of late obtained in +various parts of the land," against lay preachers and disorderly revival +meetings; in the same year Charles Chauncy, who disapproved of the +revival, published _Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Religion in New +England_; and in 1744-1745 Whitefield, upon his second tour in New +England, found that the faculties of Harvard and Yale had officially +"testified" and "declared" against him and that most pulpits were closed +to him. Some separatist churches were formed as a result of the +Awakening; these either died out or became Baptist congregations. To the +reaction against the gross methods of the revival has been ascribed the +religious apathy of New England during the last years of the 18th +century; but the martial and political excitement, beginning with King +George's War (i.e. the American part of the War of the Austrian +Succession) and running through the American War of Independence and the +founding of the American government, must be reckoned at the least as +contributing causes. + + See Joseph Tracy, _The Great Awakening_ (Boston, 1842); Samuel P. + Hayes, "An Historical Study of the Edwardean Revivals," in _The + American Journal of Psychology_, vol. 13 (Worcester, Mass., 1902); and + Frederick M. Davenport, _Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals_ (New + York, 1905), especially chapter viii. pp. 94-131. (R. We.) + + + + +GREAT BARRIER REEF, a vast coral reef extending for 1200 m. along the +north-east coast of Australia (q.v.). The channel within it is protected +from heavy seas by the reef, and is a valuable route of communication +for coasting steamers. The reef itself is also traversed by a number of +navigable passages. + + + + +GREAT BARRINGTON, a township of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., +on the Housatonic river, in the Berkshire hills, about 25 m. S.W. of +Pittsfield. Pop. (1890) 4612; (1900) 5854, of whom 1187 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 5926. Its area is about 45 sq. m. The +township is traversed by a branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford +railroad, and the Berkshire Street railway (controlled by the N.Y., N.H. +& H.) has its southern terminus here. Within the township are three +villages--Great Barrington (the most important), Housatonic and Van +Deusenville; the first two are about 5 m. apart. The village of Great +Barrington, among the hills, is well known as a summer resort. The +Congregational church with its magnificent organ (3954 pipes) is worthy +of mention. There is a public library in the village of Great Barrington +and another in the village of Housatonic. Monument Mt. (1710 ft.), +partly in Stockbridge, commands a fine view of the Berkshires and the +Housatonic Valley. The Sedgwick School (for boys) was removed from +Hartford, Connecticut, to Great Barrington in 1869. There are various +manufactures, including cotton-goods (in the village of Housatonic), and +electric meters, paper, knit goods and counterpanes (in the village of +Great Barrington); and marble and blue stone are quarried here; but the +township is primarily given over to farming. The fair of the Housatonic +Agricultural Society is held here annually during September; and the +district court of South Berkshire sits here. The township was +incorporated in 1761, having been, since 1743, the "North Parish of +Sheffield"; the township of Sheffield, earlier known as the "Lower +Housatonic Plantation" was incorporated in 1733. Great Barrington was +named in honour of John Shute (1678-1734), Viscount Barrington of +Ardglass (the adjective "Great" being added to distinguish it from +another township of the same name). In 1761-1787 it was the shire-town. +Great Barrington was a centre of the disaffection during Shays's +rebellion, and on the 12th of September 1786 a riot here prevented the +sitting of court. Samuel Hopkins, one of the most eminent of American +theologians, was pastor here in 1743-1769; General Joseph Dwight +(1703-1765), a merchant, lawyer and brigadier-general of Massachusetts +militia, who took part in the Louisburg expedition in 1745 and later in +the French and Indian War, lived here from 1758 until his death; and +William Cullen Bryant lived here as a lawyer and town clerk in +1816-1825. + + See C. J. Taylor, _History of Great Barrington_ (Great Barrington, + 1882). + + + + +GREAT BASIN, an area in the western Cordilleran region of the United +States of America, about 200,000 sq. m. in extent, characterized by +wholly interior drainage, a peculiar mountain system and extreme +aridity. Its form is approximately that of an isosceles triangle, with +the sharp angle extending into Lower California, W. of the Colorado +river; the northern edge being formed by the divide of the drainage +basin of the Columbia river, the eastern by that of the Colorado, the +western by the central part of the Sierra Nevada crest, and by other +high mountains. The N. boundary and much of the E. is not conspicuously +uplifted, being plateau, rather than mountain. The W. half of Utah, the +S.W. corner of Wyoming, the S.E. corner of Idaho, a large area in S.E. +Oregon, much of S. California, a strip along the E. border of the +last-named state, and almost the whole of Nevada are embraced within the +limits of the Great Basin. + +The Great Basin is not, as its name implies, a topographic cup. Its +surface is of varied character, with many independent closed basins +draining into lakes or "playas," none of which, however, has outlet to +the sea. The mountain chains, which from their peculiar geologic +character are known as of the "Basin Range type" (not exactly +conterminous in distribution with the Basin), are echeloned in short +ranges running from N. to S. Many of them are fault block mountains, the +crust having been broken and the blocks tilted so that there is a steep +face on one side and a gentle slope on the other. This is the Basin +Range type of mountain. These mountains are among the most recent in the +continent, and some of them, at least, are still growing. In numerous +instances clear evidence of recent movements along the fault planes has +been discovered; and frequent earthquakes testify with equal force to +the present uplift of the mountain blocks. The valleys between the +tilted mountain blocks are smooth and often trough-like, and are often +the sites of shallow salt lakes or playas. By the rain wash and wind +action detritus from the mountains is carried to these valley floors, +raising their level, and often burying low mountain spurs, so as to +cause neighbouring valleys to coalesce. The plateau "lowlands" in the +centre of the Basin are approximately 5000 ft. in altitude. Southward +the altitude falls, Death valley and Coahuila valley being in part below +the level of the sea. The whole Basin is marked by three features of +elevation--the Utah basin, the Nevada basin and, between them, the +Nevada plateau. + +Over the lowlands of the Basin, taken generally, there is an average +precipitation of perhaps 6-7 in., while in the Oregon region it is twice +as great, and in the southern parts even less. The mountains receive +somewhat more. The annual evaporation from water surfaces is from 60 to +150 in. (60 to 80 on the Great Salt Lake). The reason for the arid +climate differs in different sections. In the north it is due to the +fact that the winds from the Pacific lose most of their moisture, +especially in winter, on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada; in the +south it is due to the fact that the region lies in a zone of calms, and +light, variable winds. Precipitation is largely confined to local +showers, often of such violence as to warrant the name "cloud bursts," +commonly applied to the heavy down-pours of this desert region. It is +these heavy rains, of brief duration, when great volumes of water +rapidly run off from the barren slopes, that cause the deep channels, or +arroyas, which cross the desert. Permanent streams are rare. Many +mountains are quite without perennial streams, and some lack even +springs. Few of the mountain creeks succeed in reaching the arid plains, +and those that do quickly disappear by evaporation or by seepage into +the gravels. In the N.W. there are many permanent lakes without outlet +fed by the mountain streams; others, snow fed, occur among the Sierra +Nevada; and some in the larger mountain masses of the middle region. +Almost all are saline. The largest of all, Great Salt Lake, is +maintained by the waters of the Wasatch and associated plateaus. No +lakes occur south of Owens in the W. and Sevier in the E. (39 deg.); +evaporation below these limits is supreme. Most of the small closed +basins, however, contain "playas," or alkali mud flats, that are +overflowed when the tributary streams are supplied with storm water. + +Save where irrigation has reclaimed small areas, the whole region is a +vast desert, though locally only some of the interior plains are known +as "deserts." Such are the Great Salt Lake and Carson deserts in the +north, the Mohave and Colorado and Amargosa (Death Valley) deserts of +the south-west. Straggling forests, mainly of conifers, characterize the +high plateaus of central Utah. The lowlands and the lower mountains, +especially southward, are generally treeless. Cottonwoods line the +streams, salt-loving vegetation margins the bare playas, low bushes and +scattered bunch-grass grow over the lowlands, especially in the north. +Gray desert plants, notably cactuses and other thorny plants, partly +replace in the south the bushes of the north. Except on the scattered +oases, where irrigation from springs and mountain streams has reclaimed +small patches, the desert is barren and forbidding in the extreme. There +are broad plains covered with salt and alkali, and others supporting +only scattered bunch grass, sage bush, cactus and other arid land +plants. There are stony wastes, or alluvial fans, where mountain streams +emerge upon the plains, in time of flood, bringing detritus in their +torrential courses from the mountain canyons and depositing it along the +mountain base. The barrenness extends into the mountains themselves, +where there are bare rock cliffs, stony slopes and a general absence of +vegetation. With increasing altitude vegetation becomes more varied and +abundant, until the tree limit is reached; then follows a forest belt, +which in the highest mountains is limited above by cold as it is below +by aridity. + +The successive explorations of B. L. E. Bonneville, J. C. Fremont and +Howard Stansbury (1806-1863) furnished a general knowledge of the +hydrographic features and geological lacustrine history of the Great +Basin, and this knowledge was rounded out by the field work of the U.S. +Geological Survey from 1879 to 1883, under the direction of Grove Karl +Gilbert. The mountains are composed in great part of Paleozoic strata, +often modified by vulcanism and greatly denuded and sculptured by wind +and water erosion. The climate in late geologic time was very different +from that which prevails to-day. In the Pleistocene period many large +lakes were formed within the Great Basin; especially, by the fusion of +small catchment basins, two great confluent bodies of water--Lake +Lahontan (in the Nevada basin) and Lake Bonneville (in the Utah basin). +The latter, the remnants of which are represented to-day by Great Salt, +Sevier and Utah Lakes, had a drainage basin of some 54,000 sq. m. + + See G. K. Gilbert in Wheeler Survey, _U.S. Geographical Survey West of + the Hundredth Meridian_, vol. iii.; Clarence King and others in the + _Report of the Fortieth Parallel Survey_ (U.S. Geol. Exploration of + the Fortieth Parallel); G. K. Gilbert's _Lake Bonneville_ (U.S. + Geological Survey, _Monographs_, No. 1, 1890), also I. C. Russell's + _Lake Lahontan_ (Same, No. 11, 1885), with references to other + publications of the Survey. For reference to later geological + literature, and discussion of the Basin Ranges, see J. E. Spurr, + _Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer._ vol. 12, 1901, p. 217; and G. D. Louderback, + same, vol. 15, 1904, p. 280; also general bibliographies issued by the + U.S. Geol. Survey (e.g. _Bull._ 301, 372 and 409). + + + + +GREAT BEAR LAKE, an extensive sheet of fresh water in the north-west of +Canada, between 65 deg. and 67 deg. N., and 117 deg. and 123 deg. W. It +is of very irregular shape, has an estimated area of 11,200 sq. m., a +depth of 270 ft., and is upwards of 200 ft. above the sea. It is 175 m. +in length, and from 25 to 45 in breadth, though the greatest distance +between its northern and southern arms is about 180 m. The Great Bear +river discharges its waters into the Mackenzie river. It is full of +fish, and the neighbouring country, though barren and uncultivated, +contains quantities of game. + + + + +GREAT CIRCLE. The circle in which a sphere is cut by a plane is called a +"great circle," when the cutting plane passes through the centre of +sphere. Treating the earth as a sphere, the meridians of longitude are +all great circles. Of the parallels of latitude, the equator only is a +great circle. The shortest line joining any two points is an arc of a +great circle. For "great circle sailing" see NAVIGATION. + + + + +GREAT FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Cascade county, Montana, +U.S.A., 99 m. (by rail) N.E. of Helena, on the S. bank of the Missouri +river, opposite the mouth of the Sun river, at an altitude of about 3300 +ft. It is 10 m. above the Great Falls of the Missouri, from which it +derives its name. Pop. (1890) 3979; (1900) 14,930, of whom 4692 were +foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,948. It has an area of about 8 sq. m. It +is served by the Great Northern and the Billings & Northern (Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy system) railways. The city has a splendid park +system of seven parks (about 530 acres) with 15 m. of boulevards.[1] +Among the principal buildings are a city hall, court house, high school, +commercial college, Carnegie library, the Columbus Hospital and Training +School for Nurses (under the supervision of the Sisters of Charity), and +the Montana Deaconess hospital. There is a Federal land office in the +city. Great Falls lies in the midst of a region exceptionally rich in +minerals--copper, gold, silver, lead, iron, gypsum, limestone, sapphires +and bituminous coal being mined in the neighbourhood. Much grain is +grown in the vicinity, and the city is an important shipping point for +wool, live-stock and cereals. Near Great Falls the Missouri river, +within 7-1/2 m., contracts from a width of about 900 to 300 yds. and +falls more than 500 ft., the principal falls being the Black Eagle Falls +(50 ft.), from which power is derived for the city's street railway and +lighting plant, the beautiful Rainbow Falls (48 ft.) and Great Falls (92 +ft.). Giant Spring Fall, about 20 ft. high, is a cascade formed by a +spring on the bank of the river near Rainbow Falls. The river furnishes +very valuable water-power, partly utilized by large manufacturing +establishments, including flour mills, plaster mills, breweries, iron +works, mining machinery shops, and smelting and reduction works. The +Boston & Montana copper smelter is one of the largest in the world; it +has a chimney stack 506 ft. high, and in 1908 employed 1200 men in the +smelter and 2500 in its mining department. Great Falls ranked second (to +Anaconda) among the cities of the state in the value of the factory +product of 1905, which was $13,291,979, showing an increase of 42.4% +since 1900. The city owns and operates its water-supply system. Great +Falls was settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in 1888. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Great Falls was a pioneer among the cities of the state in the + development of a park system. When the city was first settled its + site was a "barren tract of sand, thinly covered with buffalo-grass + and patches of sage brush." The first settler, Paris Gibson, of + Minneapolis, began the planting of trees, which, though not + indigenous, grew well. The city's sidewalks are bordered by strips of + lawn, in which there is a row of trees, and the city maintains a + large nursery where trees are grown for this purpose. A general state + law (1901) placing the parking of cities on a sound financial basis + is due very largely to the impulse furnished by Great Falls. See an + article, "Great Falls, the Pioneer Park City of Montana," by C. H. + Forbes-Lindsay, in the _Craftsman_ for November 1908. + + + + +GREAT HARWOOD, an urban district in the Darwen parliamentary division of +Lancashire, England, 4-1/2 m. N.E. of Blackburn, on the Lancashire and +Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 12,015. It is of modern growth, a +township of cotton operatives, with large collieries in the vicinity. An +agricultural society is also maintained. + + + + +GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY (1844-1896), British engineer, was born at +Grahamstown, Cape Colony, on the 6th of August 1844. He migrated to +England in 1859, and in 1864 was a pupil of P. W. Barlow, from whom he +became acquainted with the shield system of tunnelling with which his +name is especially associated. Barlow, indeed, had a strong belief in +the shield, and was the author of a scheme for facilitating the traffic +of London by the construction of underground railways running in +cast-iron tubes constructed by its aid. To show what the method could +do, it was resolved to make a subway under the Thames near the Tower, +but the troubles encountered by Sir M. I. Brunel in the Thames Tunnel, +where also a shield was employed, made engineers hesitate to undertake +the subway, even though it was of very much smaller dimensions (6 ft. 7 +in. internal diameter) than the tunnel. At this juncture Greathead came +forward and offered to take up the contract; and he successfully carried +it through in 1869 without finding any necessity to resort to the use of +compressed air, which Barlow in 1867 had suggested might be employed in +water-bearing strata. After this he began to practise on his own +account, and mainly divided his time between railway construction and +taking out patents for improvements in his shield, and for other +inventions such as the "Ejector" fire-hydrant. Early in the 'eighties he +began to work in conjunction with a company whose aim was to introduce +into London from America the Hallidie system of cable traction, and in +1884 an act of Parliament was obtained authorizing what is now the City +& South London Railway--a tube-railway to be worked by cables. This was +begun in 1886, and the tunnels were driven by means of the Greathead +shield, compressed air being used at those points where water-bearing +gravel was encountered. During the progress of the works electrical +traction became so far developed as to be superior to cables; the idea +of using the latter was therefore abandoned, and when the railway was +opened in 1890 it was as an electrical one. Greathead was engaged in two +other important underground lines in London--the Waterloo & City and the +Central London. He lived to see the tunnels of the former completed +under the Thames, but the latter was scarcely begun at the time of his +death, which happened at Streatham, in the south of London, on the 21st +of October 1896. + + + + +GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE. The connected string of five +fresh-water inland seas, Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and +Ontario, lying in the interior of North America, between the Dominion of +Canada on the north and the United States of America on the south, and +forming the head-waters of the St Lawrence river system, are +collectively and generally known as "The Great Lakes." From the head of +lake Superior these lakes are navigable to Buffalo, at the foot of lake +Erie, a distance of 1023 m., for vessels having a draught of 20 ft.; +from Buffalo to Kingston, 191 m. farther, the draught is limited, by the +depth in the Welland canal, to 14 ft.; lake Superior, the largest and +most westerly of the lakes, empties, through the river St Mary, 55 m. +long, into lake Huron. From Point Iroquois, which may be considered the +foot of the lake, to Sault Ste Marie, St Mary's Falls, St Mary's Rapids +or the Soo, as it is variously called, a distance of 14 m., there is a +single channel, which has been dredged by the United States government, +at points which required deepening, to give a minimum width of 800 ft. +and a depth of 23 ft. at mean stage water. Below the Sault, the river, +on its course to lake Huron, expands into several lakes, and is divided +by islands into numerous contracted passages. There are two navigated +channels; the older one, following the international boundary-line by +way of lake George, has a width of 150 to 300 ft., and a depth of 17 +ft.; it is buoyed but not lighted, and is not capable of navigation by +modern large freighters; the other, some 12 m. shorter, an artificial +channel dredged by the United States government in their own territory, +has a minimum width of 300 ft. and depth of 20 ft. It is elaborately +lighted throughout its length. A third channel, west of all the islands, +was designed for steamers bound down, the older channel being reserved +for upbound boats. + +Between lake Superior and lake Huron there is a fall of 20 ft. of which +the Sault, in a distance of 1/2 m., absorbs from 18 to 19-1/2 ft., the +height varying as the lakes change in level. The enormous growth of +inter-lake freight traffic has justified the construction of three +separate locks, each overcoming the rapids by a single lift--two side by +side on the United States and one on the Canadian side of the river. +These locks, the largest in the world, are all open to Canadian and +United States vessels alike, and are operated free from all taxes or +tolls on shipping. The Canadian ship canal, opened to traffic on the 9th +of September 1895, was constructed through St Mary Island, on the north +side of the rapids, by the Canadian government, at a cost of $3,684,227, +to facilitate traffic and to secure to Canadian vessels an entrance to +lake Superior without entering United States territory. The canal is +5967 ft. long between the extremities of the entrance piers, has one +lock 900 ft. long and 60 ft. wide, with a depth on the sills at the +lowest known water-level of 20-1/2 ft. The approaches to the canal are +dredged to 18 ft. deep, and are well buoyed and lighted. On the United +States side of the river the length of the canal is 1-2/3 m., the +channel outside the locks having a width varying from 108 to 600 ft. and +depth of 25 ft. The locks of 1855 were closed in 1886, to give place to +the Poe lock. The Weitzel lock, opened to navigation on the 1st of +September 1881, was built south of the old locks, the approach being +through the old canal. Its chamber is 515 ft. long between lock gates, +and 80 ft. wide, narrowing to 60 ft. at the gates. The length of the +masonry walls is 717 ft., height 39-1/2 ft., with 17 ft. over mitre +sills at mean stage of water. The Poe lock, built because the Weitzel +lock, large and fully equipped as it is, was insufficient for the +rapidly growing traffic, was opened on the 3rd of August 1896. Its +length between gates is 800 ft.; width 100 ft.; length of masonry walls +1100 ft.; height 43-1/2 to 45 ft., with 22 ft. on the mitre sill at mean +stage. + +The expenditure by the United States government on the canal, with its +several locks, and on improving the channel through the river, +aggregated fourteen million dollars up to the end of 1906.[1] Plans were +prepared in 1907 for a third United States lock with a separate canal +approach. + +The canals are closed every winter, the average date of opening up to +1893 being the 1st of May, and of closing the 1st of December. The +pressure of business since that time, aided possibly by some slight +climatic modification, has extended the season, so that the average date +of opening is now ten days earlier and of closing twelve days later. The +earliest opening was in 1902 on the 1st of April, and the latest closing +in 1904 on the 20th of December. + + The table below gives the average yearly commerce for periods of five + years, and serves to show the rapid increase in freight growth. + +_Statement of the commerce through the several Sault Ste Marie canals, +averaged for every five years._[2] + + +------------+--------+------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+---------+------------+---------+------------+ + | | Pass- | Registered | Passen-| Coal. | Flour. | Wheat. | Other | General | Salt. | Iron Ore. | Lumber. | Total | + | Years. | ages. | Tonnage. | gers. | Net Tons. | Barrels. | Bushels. | Grains. |Merchandise.| Barrels.| Net Tons. | M. ft. | Freight. | + | | | | | | | | Bushels. | Net Tons. | | | B.M. | Net Tons. | + +------------+--------+------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+---------+------------+---------+------------+ + | 1855-1859* | 387 | 192,207 | 6,206 | 4,672 | 19,555 | None. | 34,612 | 2,249 | 1,248 | 27,206 | 320 | 55,797 | + | 1880-1884 | 4,457 | 2,267,166 | 34,607 | 463,431 | 681,726 | 5,435,601 | 936,346 | 81,966 | 107,225 | 867,999 | 79,144 | 2,184,731 | + | 1885-1889 | 7,908 | 4,901,105 | 29,434 | 1,398,441 | 1,838,325 | 18,438,085 | 1,213,815 | 74,447 | 175,725 | 2,497,403 | 197,605 | 5,441,297 | + | 1890-1894 | 11,965 | 9,912,589 | 24,609 | 2,678,805 | 5,764,766 | 34,875,971 | 1,738,706 | 87,540 | 231,178 | 4,939,909 | 510,482 | 10,627,349 | + | 1895-1899 | 18,352 | 18,451,447 | 40,289 | 3,270,842 | 8,319,699 | 57,227,269 | 23,349,134 | 164,426 | 282,156 | 10,728,075 | 832,968 | 19,354,974 | + | 1900-1904 | 19,374 | 26,199,795 | 54,093 | 5,457,019 | 7,021,839 | 56,269,265 | 26,760,533 | 646,277 | 407,263 | 20,020,487 | 999,944 | 31,245,565 | + | 1906 alone | 22,155 | 41,098,324 | 63,033 | 8,739,630 | 6,495,350 | 84,271,358 | 54,343,155 | 1,134,851 | 468,162 | 35,357,042 | 900,631 | 51,751,080 | + +------------+--------+------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+---------+------------+---------+------------+ + * The first five years of operation. + +Around the canals have grown up two thriving towns, one on the Michigan, +the other on the Ontario side of the river, with manufactories driven by +water-power derived from the Sault. The outlet of lake Michigan, the +only lake of the series lying wholly in United States territory, is at +the Strait of Mackinac, near the point where the river St Mary reaches +lake Huron. With lake Michigan are connected the Chicago Sanitary and +Ship canal, the Illinois and Michigan, and the Illinois and Mississippi +canals, for which see Illinois. With lake Huron is always included +Georgian Bay as well as the channel north of Manitoulin Island. As it is +principally navigated as a connecting waterway between lakes Superior +and Michigan and lake Erie it has no notable harbours on it. It empties +into lake Erie through the river St Clair, lake St Clair and the river +Detroit. On these connecting waters are several important manufacturing +and shipping towns, and through this chain passes nearly all the traffic +of the lakes, both that to and from lake Michigan ports, and also that +of lake Superior. The tonnage of a single short season of navigation +exceeds in the aggregate 60,000,000 tons. Extensive dredging and +embankment works have been carried on by the United States government in +lake St Clair and the river Detroit, and a 20-ft. channel now exists, +which is being constantly improved. Lake St Clair is nearly circular, 25 +m. in diameter, with the north-east quadrant filled by the delta of the +river St Clair. It has a very flat bottom with a general depth of only +21 ft., shoaling very gradually, usually to reed beds that line the low +swampy shores. To enter the lake from river St Clair two channels have +been provided, with retaining walls of cribwork, one for upward, the +other for downward bound vessels. Much dredging has also been necessary +at the outlet of the lake into river Detroit. A critical point in that +river is at Limekiln crossing, a cut dredged through limestone rock +above the Canadian town of Amherstburg. The normal depth here before +improvement was 12-1/2-15 ft.; by a project of 1902 a channel 600 ft. +wide and 21 ft. deep was planned; there are separate channels for up- +and down-bound vessels. To prevent vessels from crowding together in the +cut, the Canadian government maintains a patrol service here, while the +United States government maintains a similar patrol in the St Mary +channel. + +The Grand Trunk railway opened in 1891 a single track tunnel under the +river St Clair, from Sarnia to Port Huron. It is 6026 ft. long, a +cylinder 20 ft. in diameter, lined with cast iron in flanged sections. A +second tunnel was undertaken between Detroit and Windsor, under the +river Detroit. + +From Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie, the river Niagara runs +northwards 36 m. into lake Ontario. To overcome the difference of 327 +ft. in level between lakes Erie and Ontario, the Welland canal, +accommodating vessels of 255 ft. in length, with a draught of 14 ft., +was built, and is maintained by Canada. The Murray canal extends from +Presqu'ile Bay, on the north shore of lake Ontario, a distance of 6-1/2 +m., to the headquarters of the Bay of Quinte. Trent canal is a term +applied to a series of water stretches in the interior of Ontario which +are ultimately designed to connect lake Huron and lake Ontario. At +Peterboro a hydraulic balance-lock with a lift of 65 ft., 140 ft. in +length and 33 ft. clear in width, allowing a draught of 8 ft., has been +constructed. The ordinary locks are 134 by 33 ft. with a draught of 6 +ft. When the whole route of 200 m. is completed, there will not be more +than 15 m. of actual canal, the remaining portion of the waterway being +through lakes and rivers. For the Erie canal, between that lake and the +Hudson river, see ERIE and NEW YORK. + +The population of the states and provinces bordering on the Great Lakes +is estimated to be over 35,000,000. In Pennsylvania and Ohio, south of +lake Erie, there are large coal-fields. Surrounding lake Michigan and +west of lake Superior are vast grain-growing plains, and the prairies of +the Canadian north-west are rapidly increasing the area and quantity of +wheat grown; while both north and south of lake Superior are the most +extensive iron mines in the world, from which 35 million tons of ore +were shipped in 1906. The natural highway for the shipment of all these +products is the Great Lakes, and over them coal is distributed westwards +and grain and iron ore are concentrated eastwards. The great quantity of +coarse freights, that could only be profitably carried long distances by +water, has revolutionized the type of vessel used for its +transportation, making large steamers imperative, consolidating +interests and cheapening methods. It is usual for the vessels in the +grain trade and in the iron-ore trade to make their up trips empty; but +in consequence of the admirable facilities provided at terminal points, +they make very fast time, and carry freight very cheaply. The cost of +freight per ton-mile fell from 23/100 cent in 1887 to 8/100 cent in +1898; since then the rate has slightly risen, but keeps well below 1/10 +cent per ton-mile. + +The traffic on the lakes may be divided into three classes, passenger, +package freight and bulk freight. Of passenger boats the largest are 380 +ft. long by 44 ft. beam, having a speed of over 20 m. an hour, making +the round trip between Buffalo and Chicago 1800 m., or Buffalo and +Duluth 2000 m., every week. They carry no freight. The Canadian Pacific +railway runs a line of fine Tyne-built passenger and freight steamers +between Owen Sound and Fort William, and these two lines equal in +accommodation transatlantic passenger steamers. On lake Michigan many +fine passenger boats run out of Chicago, and on lake Ontario there are +several large and fast Canadian steamers on routes radiating from +Toronto. The package freight business, that is, the transportation of +goods in enclosed parcels, is principally local; all the through +business of this description is controlled by lines run by the great +trunk railways, and is done in boats limited in beam to 50 ft. to admit +them through bridges over the rivers at Chicago and Buffalo. By far the +greatest number of vessels on the lakes are bulk freighters, and the +conditions of the service have developed a special type of vessel. +Originally sailing vessels were largely used, but these have practically +disappeared, giving place to steamers, which have grown steadily in size +with every increase in available draught. In 1894 there was no vessel on +the lakes with a capacity of over 5000 tons; in 1906 there were 254 +vessels of a greater capacity, 12 of them carrying over 12,000 tons +each. For a few years following 1890 many large barges were built, +carrying up to 8000 tons each, intended to be towed by a steamer. It was +found, however, that the time lost by one boat of the pair having to +wait for the other made the plan unprofitable and no more were built. +Following 1888 some 40 whale-back steamers and barges, having oval +cross-sections without frames or decks, were built, but experience +failed to demonstrate any advantage in the type, and their construction +has ceased. The modern bulk freighter is a vessel 600 ft. long, 58 ft. +beam, capable of carrying 14,000 tons on 20 ft. draught, built with a +midship section practically rectangular, the coefficient frequently as +high as .98, with about two-thirds of the entire length absolutely +straight, giving a block coefficient up to .87. The triple-expansion +machinery and boilers, designed to drive the boat at a speed of 12 m. an +hour, are in the extreme stern, and the pilot house and quarters in the +extreme bow, leaving all the cargo space together. Hatches are spaced at +multiples of 12 ft. throughout the length and are made as wide as +possible athwartships to facilitate loading and unloading. The vessels +are built on girder frames and fitted with double bottoms for strength +and water ballast. This type of vessel can be loaded in a few minutes, +and unloaded by self-filling grab buckets up to ten tons capacity, +worked hydraulically, in six or eight hours. The bulk freight generally +follows certain well-defined routes; iron ore is shipped east from ports +on both sides of lake Superior and on the west side of lake Michigan to +rail shipping points on the south shore of lake Erie. Wheat and other +grains from Duluth find their way to Buffalo, as do wheat, corn (maize) +and other grains from Chicago. Wheat from the Canadian north-west is +distributed from Fort William and Port Arthur to railway terminals on +Georgian Bay, to Buffalo, and to Port Colborne for trans-shipment to +canal barges for Montreal, and coal is distributed from lake Erie to all +western points. The large shipping trade is assisted by both governments +by a system of aids to navigation that mark every channel and danger. +There are also life-saving stations at all dangerous points. + +The Great Lakes never freeze over completely, but the harbours and often +the connecting rivers are closed by ice. The navigable season at the +Sault is about 7-1/2 months; in lake Erie it is somewhat longer. The +season of navigation has been slightly lengthened since 1905, by using +powerful tugs as ice-breakers in the spring and autumn, the Canadian +government undertaking the service at Canadian terminal ports, chiefly +at Fort William and Port Arthur, the most northerly ports, where the +season is naturally shortest, and the Lake Carriers' Association, a +federation of the freighting steamship owners, acting in the river St +Mary. Car ferries run through the winter across lake Michigan and the +Strait of Mackinac, across the rivers St Clair and Detroit, and across +the middle of lakes Erie and Ontario. The largest of these steamers is +350 ft. long by 56 ft. wide, draught 14 ft., horse power 3500, speed 13 +knots. She carries on four tracks 30 freight cars, with 1350 tons of +freight. Certain passenger steamers run on lake Michigan, from Chicago +north, all the winter. + +The level of the lakes varies gradually, and is affected by the general +character of the season, and not by individual rainfalls. The variations +of level of the several lakes do not necessarily synchronize. There is +an annual fluctuation of about 1 ft. in the upper lakes, and in some +seasons over 2 ft. in the lower lakes; the lowest point being at the end +of winter and the highest in midsummer. In lake Michigan the level has +ranged from a maximum in the years 1859, 1876 and 1886, to a minimum +nearly 5 ft. lower in 1896. In lake Ontario there is a range of 5-1/2 ft. +between the maximum of May 1870 and the minimum of November 1895. In +consequence of the shallowness of lake Erie, its level is seriously +disturbed by a persistent storm; a westerly gale lowers the water at its +upper end exceptionally as much as 7 ft., seriously interfering with the +navigation of the river Detroit, while an easterly gale produces a +similar effect at Buffalo. (For physiographical details see articles on +the several lakes, and UNITED STATES.) + +There is geological evidence to show that the whole basin of the lakes +has in recent geological times gradually changed in level, rising to the +north and subsiding southwards; and it is claimed that the movement is +still in gradual progress, the rate assigned being .42 ft. per 100 m. +per century. The maintenance of the level of the Great Lakes is a matter +of great importance to the large freight boats, which always load to the +limit of depth at critical points in the dredged channels or in the +harbours. Fears have been entertained that the water power canals at +Sault Ste Marie, the drainage canal at Chicago and the dredged channel +in the river Detroit will permanently lower the levels respectively of +lake Superior and of the Michigan-Huron-Erie group. An international +deep-waterway commission exists for the consideration of this question, +and army engineers appointed by the United States government have worked +on the problem.[3] Wing dams in the rivers St Mary and Niagara, to +retard the discharges, have been proposed as remedial measures. The +Great Lakes are practically tideless, though some observers claim to +find true tidal pulsations, said to amount to 3-1/2 in. at spring tide +at Chicago. Secondary undulations of a few minutes in period, ranging +from 1 to 4 in., are well marked. + +The Great Lakes are well stocked with fish of commercial value. These +are largely gathered from the fishermen by steam tenders, and taken +fresh or in frozen condition to railway distributing points. In lakes +Superior and Huron salmon-trout (_Salvelinus namaycush_, Walb) are +commercially most important. They ordinarily range from 10 to 50 lb. in +weight, and are often larger. In Georgian Bay the catches of whitefish +(_Coregonus clupeiformis_, Mitchill) are enormous. In lake Erie +whitefish, lesser whitefish, erroneously called lake-herring (_C. +artedi_, Le Sueur), and sturgeon (_Acipenser rubicundus_, Le Sueur) are +the most common. There is good angling at numerous points on the lakes +and their feeders. The river Nipigon, on the north shore of lake +Superior, is famous as a stream abounding in speckled trout (_Salvelinus +fontinalis_, Mitchill) of unusual size. Black bass (_Micropterus_) are +found from Georgian Bay to Montreal, and the maskinonge (_Esox +nobilior_, Le Sueur), plentiful in the same waters, is a very game fish +that often attains a weight of 70 lb. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--E. Channing and M. F. Lansing, _Story of the Great + Lakes_ (New York, 1909), for an account of the lakes in history; and + for shipping, &c., J. O. Curwood, _The Great Lakes_ (New York, 1909); + _U.S. Hydrographic office publication_, No 108, "Sailing directions + for the Great Lakes," Navy Department (Washington, 1901, seqq.); + _Bulletin No. 17_, "Survey of Northern and North-western Lakes," Corps + of Engineers, U.S. War Department, U.S. Lake Survey Office (Detroit, + Mich., 1907); _Annual reports of Canadian Department of Marine and + Fisheries_ (Ottawa, 1868 seqq.). (W. P. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals. Col. + Chas. E. L. B. Davis, U.S.A., engineer in charge, 1907. + + [2] Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals, + published annually by the U.S. engineer officer in charge. + + [3] Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, in _Report of War + Department, U.S._ 1898, p. 3776. + + + + +GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS, the ancient Oriental-Greek-Roman deity +commonly known as Cybele (q.v.) in Greek and Latin literature from the +time of Pindar. She was also known under many other names, some of which +were derived from famous places of worship: as Dindymene from Mt. +Dindymon, Mater Idaea from Mt. Ida, Sipylene from Mt. Sipylus, Agdistis +from Mt. Agdistis or Agdus, Mater Phrygia from the greatest stronghold +of her cult; while others were reflections of her character as a great +nature goddess: e.g. Mountain Mother, Great Mother of the Gods, Mother +of all Gods and all Men. As the great Mother deity whose worship +extended throughout Asia Minor she was known as Ma or Ammas. Cybele is +her favourite name in ancient and modern literature, while Great Mother +of the Gods, or Great Idaean Mother of the Gods (_Mater Deum Magna_, +_Mater Deum Magna Idaea_), the most frequently recurring epigraphical +title, was her ordinary official designation. + +The legends agree in locating the rise of the worship of the Great +Mother in Asia Minor, in the region of loosely defined geographical +limits which comprised the Phrygian empire of prehistoric times, and was +more extensive than the Roman province of Phrygia (Diod. Sic. iii. 58; +Paus. vii. 17; Arnob. v. 5; Firm. Mat. _De error._, 3; Ovid, _Fasti_, +iv. 223 ff.; Sallust. Phil. _De diis et mundo_, 4; Jul. _Or._ v. 165 +ff.). Her best-known early seats of worship were Mt. Ida, Mt. Sipylus, +Cyzicus, Sardis and Pessinus, the last-named city, in Galatia near the +borders of Roman Phrygia, finally becoming the strongest centre of the +cult. She was known to the Romans and Greeks as essentially Phrygian, +and all Phrygia was spoken of as sacred to her (Schol. Apollon. Rhod. +_Argonautica_, i. 1126). It is probable, however, that the Phrygian +race, which invaded Asia Minor from the north in the 9th century B.C., +found a great nature goddess already universally worshipped there, and +blended her with a deity of their own. The Asiatic-Phrygian worship thus +evolved was further modified by contact with the Syrians and +Phoenicians, so that it acquired strong Semitic characteristics. The +Great Mother known to the Greeks and Romans was thus merely the Phrygian +form of the nature deity of all Asia Minor. + +From Asia Minor the cult of the Great Mother spread first to Greek +territory. It found its way into Thrace at an early date, was known in +Boeotia by Pindar in the 6th century, and entered Attica near the +beginning of the 4th century (Grant Showerman, _The Great Mother of the +Gods_, _Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin_, No. 43, Madison, +1901). At Peiraeus, where it probably arrived by way of the Aegean +islands, it existed privately in a fully developed state, that is, +accompanied by the worship of Attis, at the beginning of the 4th +century, and publicly two centuries later (D. Comparetti, _Annales_, +1862, pp. 23 ff.). The Greeks from the first saw in the Great Mother a +resemblance to their own Rhea, and finally identified the two +completely, though the Asiatic peculiarities of the cult were never +universally popular with them (Showerman, p. 294). In her less Asiatic +aspect, i.e. without Attis, she was sometimes identified with Gaia and +Demeter. It was in this phase that she was worshipped in the Metroon at +Athens. In reality, the Mother Goddess appears under three aspects: +Rhea, the Homeric and Hesiodic goddess of Cretan origin; the Phrygian +Mother, with Attis; and the Greek Great Mother, a modified form of the +Phrygian Mother, to be explained as the original goddess of the +Phrygians of Europe, communicated to the Greek stock before the Phrygian +invasion of Asia Minor and consequent mingling with Asiatic stocks (cf. +Showerman, p. 252). + +In 204 B.C., in obedience to the Sibylline prophecy which said that +whenever an enemy from abroad should make war on Italy he could be +expelled and conquered if the Idaean Mother were brought to Rome from +Pessinus, the cult of the Great Mother, together with her sacred symbol, +a small meteoric stone reputed to have fallen from the heavens, was +transferred to Rome and established in a temple on the Palatine (Livy +xxix. 10-14). Her identification by the Romans with Maia, Ops, Rhea, +Tellus and Ceres contributed to the establishment of her worship on a +firm footing. By the end of the Republic it had attained prominence, and +under the Empire it became one of the three most important cults in the +Roman world, the other two being those of Mithras and Isis. Epigraphic +and numismatic evidence prove it to have penetrated from Rome as a +centre to the remotest provinces (Showerman, pp. 291-293). During the +brief revival of paganism under Eugenius in A.D. 394, occurred the last +appearance of the cult in history. Besides the temple on the Palatine, +there existed minor shrines of the Great Mother near the present church +of St Peter, on the Sacra Via on the north slope of the Palatine, near +the junction of the Almo and the Tiber, south of the city (_ibid._ +311-314). + +In all her aspects, Roman, Greek and Oriental, the Great Mother was +characterized by essentially the same qualities. Most prominent among +them was her universal motherhood. She was the great parent of gods and +men, as well as of the lower orders of creation. "The winds, the sea, +the earth and the snowy seat of Olympus are hers, and when from her +mountains she ascends into the great heavens, the son of Cronus himself +gives way before her" (Apollon. Rhod. _Argonautica_, i. 1098). She was +known as the All-begetter, the All-nourisher, the Mother of all the +Blest. She was the great, fruitful, kindly earth itself. Especial +emphasis was placed upon her maternity over wild nature. She was called +the Mountain Mother; her sanctuaries were almost invariably upon +mountains, and frequently in caves, the name Cybele itself being by some +derived from the latter; lions were her faithful companions. Her +universal power over the natural world finds beautiful expression in +Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonautica_, i. 1140 ff. She was also a chaste and +beautiful deity. Her especial affinity with wild nature was manifested +by the orgiastic character of her worship. Her attendants, the +Corybantes, were wild, half demonic beings. Her priests, the Galli, were +eunuchs attired in female garb, with long hair fragrant with ointment. +Together with priestesses, they celebrated her rites with flutes, horns, +castanets, cymbals and tambourines, madly yelling and dancing until +their frenzied excitement found its culmination in self-scourging, +self-laceration or exhaustion. Self-emasculation sometimes accompanied +this delirium of worship on the part of candidates for the priesthood +(Showerman, pp. 234-239). The _Attis_ of Catullus (lxiii.) is a +brilliant treatment of such an episode. + +Though her cult sometimes existed by itself, in its fully developed state +the worship of the Great Mother was accompanied by that of Attis (q.v.). +The cult of Attis never existed independently. Like Adonis and Aphrodite, +Baal and Astarte, &c., the two formed a duality representing the relations +of Mother Nature to the fruits of the earth. There is no positive evidence +to prove the existence of the cult publicly in this phase in Greece before +the 2nd century B.C., nor in Rome before the Empire, though it may have +existed in private (Showerman, "Was Attis at Rome under the Republic?" in +_Transactions of the American Philological Association_, vol. 31, 1900, +pp. 46-59; Cumont, s.v. "Attis," De Ruggiero's _Dizionario epigrafico_ and +Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, Supplement; Hepding, _Attis, seine +Mythen und seine Kult_, Giessen, 1903, p. 142). + +The philosophers of the late Roman Empire interpreted the Attis legend +as symbolizing the relations of Mother Earth to her children the fruits. +Porphyrius says that Attis signified the flowers of spring time, and was +cut off in youth because the flower falls before the fruit (Augustine, +_De civ. Dei_, vii. 25). Maternus (_De error._ 3) interprets the love of +the Great Mother for Attis as the love of the earth for her fruits; his +emasculation as the cutting of the fruits; his death as their +preservation; and his resurrection as the sowing of the seed again. + +At Rome the immediate direction of the cult of the Great Mother devolved +upon the high priest, _Archigallus_, called Attis, a high priestess, +_Sacerdos Maxima_, and its support was derived, at least in part, from a +popular contribution, the _stips_. Besides other priests, priestesses +and minor officials, such as musicians, curator, &c., there were certain +colleges connected with the administration of the cult, called +_cannophori_ (reed-bearers) and _dendrophori_ (branch-bearers). The +Quindecimvirs exercised a general supervision over this cult, as over +all other authorized cults, and it was, at least originally, under the +special patronage of a club or sodality (Showerman, pp. 269-276). Roman +citizens were at first forbidden to take part in its ceremonies, and the +ban was not removed until the time of the Empire. + +The main public event in the worship of the Great Mother was the annual +festival, which took place originally on the 4th of April, and was +followed on the 5th by the Megalesia, games instituted in her honour on +the introduction of the cult. Under the Empire, from Claudius on, the +Megalesia lasted six days, April 4-10, and the original one day of the +religious festival became an annual cycle of festivals extending from +the 15th to the 27th of March, in the following order. (1) The 15th of +March, _Canna intrat_--the sacrifice of a six-year-old bull in behalf of +the mountain fields, the high priest, a priestess and the _cannophori_ +officiating, the last named carrying reeds in procession in +commemoration of the exposure of the infant Attis on the reedy banks of +the stream Gallus in Phrygia. (This may have been originally a phallic +procession. Cf. Showerman, _American Journal of Philol._ xxvii. 1; +_Classical Journal_ i. 4.) (2) The 22nd of March, _Arbor intrat_--the +bearing in procession of the sacred pine, emblem of Attis' +self-mutilation, death and immortality, to the temple on the Palatine, +the symbol of the Mother's cave, by the _dendrophori_, a gild of workmen +who made the Mother, among other deities, a patron. (3) The 24th of +March, _Dies sanguinis_--a day of mourning, fasting and abstinence, +especially sexual, commemorating the sorrow of the Mother for Attis, her +abstinence from food and her chastity. The frenzied dance and +self-laceration of the priests in commemoration of Attis' deed, and the +submission to the act of consecration by candidates for the priesthood, +was a special feature of the day. The _taurobolium_ (q.v.) was often +performed on this day, on which probably took place the initiation of +mystics. (4) The 25th of March, _Hilaria_--one of the great festal days +of Rome, celebrated by all the people. All mourning was put off, and +good cheer reigned in token of the return of the sun and spring, which +was symbolized by the renewal of Attis' life. (5) The 26th of March, +_Requietio_--a day of rest and quiet. (6) The 27th of March, +_Lavatio_--the crowning ceremony of the cycle. The silver statue of the +goddess, with the sacred meteoric stone, the _Acus_, set in its head, +was borne in gorgeous procession and bathed in the Almo, the remainder +of the day being given up to rejoicing and entertainment, especially +dramatic representation of the legend of the deities of the day. Other +ceremonies, not necessarily connected with the annual festival, were the +taurobolium (q.v.), the sacrifice of a bull, and the _criobolium_ +(q.v.), the sacrifice of a ram, the latter being the analogue of the +former, instituted for the purpose of giving Attis special recognition. +The baptism of blood, which was the feature of these ceremonies, was +regarded as purifying and regenerating (Showerman, _Great Mother_, pp. +277-284). + +The Great Mother figures in the art of all periods both in Asia and +Europe, but is especially prominent in the art of the Empire. No work of +the first class, however, was inspired by her. She appears on coins, in +painting and in all forms of sculpture, usually with mural crown and +veil, well draped, seated on a throne, and accompanied by two lions. +Other attributes which often appear are the patera, tympanum, cymbals, +sceptre, garlands and fruits. Attis and his attributes, the pine, +Phrygian cap, pedum, syrinx and torch, also appear. The Cybele of +Formia, now at Copenhagen, is one of the most famous representations of +the goddess. The Niobe of Mt. Sipylus is really the Mother. In +literature she is the subject of frequent mention, but no work of +importance, with the exception of Catullus lxiii., is due to her +inspiration. Her importance in the history of religion is very great. +Together with Isis and Mithras, she was a great enemy, and yet a great +aid to Christianity. The gorgeous rites of her worship, its mystic +doctrine of communion with the divine through enthusiasm, its promise of +regeneration through baptism of blood in the taurobolium, were features +which attracted the masses of the people and made it a strong rival of +Christianity; and its resemblance to the new religion, however +superficial, made it, in spite of the scandalous practices which grew up +around it, a stepping-stone to Christianity when the tide set in against +paganism. + + AUTHORITIES.--Grant Showerman, "The Great Mother of the Gods," + _Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin_, No. 43; _Philology and + Literature Series_, vol. i. No. 3 (Madison, 1901); Hugo Hepding, + _Attis, seine Mythen und seine Kult_ (Giessen, 1903); Rapp, _Roscher's + Ausfuhrliches Lexicon der griechischen und romischen Mythologie s.v._ + "Kybele"; Drexler, _ibid._ s.v. "Meter." See ROMAN RELIGION, GREEK + RELIGION, ATTIS, CORYBANTES; for the great "Hittite" portrayal of the + Nature Goddess at Pteria, see PTERIA. (G. Sn.) + + + + +GREAT REBELLION (1642-52), a generic name for the civil wars in England +and Scotland, which began with the raising of King Charles I.'s standard +at Nottingham on the 22nd of August 1642, and ended with the surrender +of Dunottar Castle to the Parliament's troops in May 1652. It is usual +to classify these wars into the First Civil War of 1642-46, and the +Second Civil War of 1648-52. During most of this time another civil war +was raging in Ireland. Its incidents had little or no connexion with +those of the Great Rebellion, but its results influenced the struggle in +England to a considerable extent. + +1. _First Civil War (1642-46)._--It is impossible rightly to understand +the events of this most national of all English wars without some +knowledge of the motive forces on both sides. On the side of the king +were enlisted the deep-seated loyalty which was the result of two +centuries of effective royal protection, the pure cavalier spirit +foreshadowing the courtier era of Charles II., but still strongly tinged +with the old feudal indiscipline, the militarism of an expert soldier +nobility, well represented by Prince Rupert, and lastly a widespread +distrust of extreme Puritanism, which appeared unreasonable to Lord +Falkland and other philosophic statesmen and intolerable to every other +class of Royalists. The foot of the Royal armies was animated in the +main by the first and last of these motives; in the eyes of the sturdy +rustics who followed their squires to the war the enemy were rebels and +fanatics. To the cavalry, which was composed largely of the higher +social orders, the rebels were, in addition, bourgeois, while the +soldiers of fortune from the German wars felt all the regular's contempt +for citizen militia. Thus in the first episodes of the First Civil War +moral superiority tended to be on the side of the king. On the other +side, the causes of the quarrel were primarily and apparently political, +ultimately and really religious, and thus the elements of resistance in +the Parliament and the nation were at first confused, and, later, strong +and direct. Democracy, moderate republicanism and the simple desire for +constitutional guarantees could hardly make head of themselves against +the various forces of royalism, for the most moderate men of either +party were sufficiently in sympathy to admit compromise. But the +backbone of resistance was the Puritan element, and this waging war at +first with the rest on the political issue soon (as the Royalists +anticipated) brought the religious issue to the front. The Presbyterian +system, even more rigid than that of Laud and the bishops--whom no man +on either side supported save Charles himself--was destined to be +supplanted by the Independents and their ideal of free conscience, but +for a generation before the war broke out it had disciplined and trained +the middle classes of the nation (who furnished the bulk of the rebel +infantry, and later of the cavalry also) to centre their whole +will-power on the attainment of their ideals. The ideals changed during +the struggle, but not the capacity for striving for them, and the men +capable of the effort finally came to the front and imposed their ideals +on the rest by the force of their trained wills. + +Material force was throughout on the side of the Parliamentary party. +They controlled the navy, the nucleus of an army which was in process of +being organized for the Irish war, and nearly all the financial +resources of the country. They had the sympathies of most of the large +towns, where the trained bands, drilled once a month, provided cadres +for new regiments. Further, by recognizing the inevitable, they gained a +start in war preparations which they never lost. The earls of Warwick, +Essex and Manchester and other nobles and gentry of their party +possessed great wealth and territorial influence. Charles, on the other +hand, although he could, by means of the "press" and the +lords-lieutenant, raise men without authority from Parliament, could not +raise taxes to support them, and was dependent on the financial support +of his chief adherents, such as the earls of Newcastle and Derby. Both +parties raised men when and where they could, each claiming that the law +was on its side--for England was already a law-abiding nation--and +acting in virtue of legal instruments. These were, on the side of the +Parliament, its own recent "Militia Ordinance"; on that of the king, the +old-fashioned "Commissions of Array." In Cornwall the Royalist leader, +Sir Ralph Hopton, indicted the enemy before the grand jury of the county +as disturbers of the peace, and had the _posse comitatus_ called out to +expel them. The local forces in fact were everywhere employed by +whichever side could, by producing valid written authority, induce them +to assemble. + +2. _The Royalist and Parliamentarian Armies._--This thread of local +feeling and respect for the laws runs through the earlier operations of +both sides almost irrespective of the main principles at stake. Many a +promising scheme failed because of the reluctance of the militiamen to +serve beyond the limits of their own county, and, as the offensive lay +with the king, his cause naturally suffered far more therefrom than that +of the enemy. But the real spirit of the struggle was very different. +Anything which tended to prolong the struggle, or seemed like want of +energy and avoidance of a decision, was bitterly resented by the men of +both sides, who had their hearts in the quarrel and had not as yet +learned by the severe lesson of Edgehill that raw armies cannot bring +wars to a speedy issue. In France and Germany the prolongation of a war +meant continued employment for the soldiers, but in England "we never +encamped or entrenched ... or lay fenced with rivers or defiles. Here +were no leaguers in the field, as at the story of Nuremberg,[1] neither +had our soldiers any tents or what they call heavy baggage. 'Twas the +general maxim of the war--Where is the enemy? Let us go and fight them. +Or ... if the enemy was coming ... Why, what should be done! Draw out +into the fields and fight them." This passage from the _Memoirs of a +Cavalier_, ascribed to Defoe, though not contemporary evidence, is an +admirable summary of the character of the Civil War. Even when in the +end a regular professional army is evolved--exactly as in the case of +Napoleon's army--the original decision-compelling spirit permeated the +whole organization. From the first the professional soldiers of fortune, +be their advice good or bad, are looked upon with suspicion, and nearly +all those Englishmen who loved war for its own sake were too closely +concerned for the welfare of their country to attempt the methods of the +Thirty Years' War in England. The formal organization of both armies was +based on the Swedish model, which had become the pattern of Europe after +the victories of Gustavus Adolphus, and gave better scope for the +_moral_ of the individual than the old-fashioned Spanish and Dutch +formations in which the man in the ranks was a highly finished +automaton. + +3. _Campaign of 1642._--When the king raised his standard at Nottingham +on the 22nd of August 1642, war was already in progress on a small scale +in many districts, each side endeavouring to secure, or to deny to the +enemy, fortified country-houses, territory, and above all arms and +money. Peace negotiations went on in the midst of these minor events +until there came from the Parliament an ultimatum so aggressive as to +fix the warlike purpose of the still vacillating court at Nottingham, +and, in the country at large, to convert many thousands of waverers to +active Royalism. Ere long Charles--who had hitherto had less than 1500 +men--was at the head of an army which, though very deficient in arms and +equipment, was not greatly inferior in numbers or enthusiasm to that of +the Parliament. The latter (20,000 strong exclusive of detachments) was +organized during July, August and September about London, and moved +thence to Northampton under the command of Robert, earl of Essex. + +At this moment the military situation was as follows. Lord Hertford in +south Wales, Sir Ralph Hopton in Cornwall, and the young earl of Derby +in Lancashire, and small parties in almost every county of the west and +the midlands, were in arms for the king. North of the Tees, the earl of +Newcastle, a great territorial magnate, was raising troops and supplies +for the king, while Queen Henrietta Maria was busy in Holland arranging +for the importation of war material and money. In Yorkshire opinion was +divided, the royal cause being strongest in York and the North Riding, +that of the Parliamentary party in the clothing towns of the West Riding +and also in the important seaport of Hull. The Yorkshire gentry made an +attempt to neutralize the county, but a local struggle soon began, and +Newcastle thereupon prepared to invade Yorkshire. The whole of the south +and east as well as parts of the midlands and the west and the important +towns of Bristol and Gloucester were on the side of the Parliament. A +small Royalist force was compelled to evacuate Oxford on the 10th of +September. + +On the 13th of September the main campaign opened. The king--in order to +find recruits amongst his sympathizers and arms in the armouries of the +Derbyshire and Staffordshire trained bands, and also to be in touch with +his disciplined regiments in Ireland by way of Chester--moved westward +to Shrewsbury, Essex following suit by marching from Northampton to +Worcester. Near the last-named town a sharp cavalry engagement (Powick +Bridge) took place on the 23rd between the advanced cavalry of Essex's +army and a force under Prince Rupert which was engaged in protecting the +retirement of the Oxford detachment. The result of the fight was the +instantaneous overthrow of the rebel cavalry, and this gave the Royalist +troopers a confidence in themselves and in their brilliant leader which +was not destined to be shaken until they met Cromwell's Ironsides. +Rupert soon withdrew to Shrewsbury, where he found many Royalist +officers eager to attack Essex's new position at Worcester. But the road +to London now lay open and it was decided to take it. The intention was +not to avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals desired to fight Essex +before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it +impossible to postpone the decision; in Clarendon's words, "it was +considered more counsellable to march towards London, it being morally +sure that the earl of Essex would put himself in their way," and +accordingly the army left Shrewsbury on the 12th of October, gaining two +days' start of the enemy, and moved south-east via Bridgnorth, +Birmingham and Kenilworth. This had the desired effect. Parliament, +alarmed for its own safety, sent repeated orders to Essex to find the +king and bring him to battle. Alarm gave place to determination when it +was discovered that Charles was enlisting papists and seeking foreign +aid. The militia of the home counties was called out, a second army +under the earl of Warwick was formed round the nucleus of the London +trained bands, and Essex, straining every nerve to regain touch with the +enemy, reached Kineton, where he was only 7 m. from the king's +headquarters at Edgecote, on the 22nd. + +4. _Battle of Edgehill._--Rupert promptly reported the enemy's presence, +and his confidence dominated the irresolution of the king and the +caution of Lord Lindsey, the nominal commander-in-chief. Both sides had +marched widely dispersed in order to live, and the rapidity with which, +having the clearer purpose, the Royalists drew together helped +considerably to neutralize Essex's superior numbers. During the morning +of the 23rd the Royalists formed in battle order on the brow of Edgehill +facing towards Kineton. Essex, experienced soldier as he was, had +distrusted his own raw army too much to force a decision earlier in the +month, when the king was weak; he now found Charles in a strong position +with an equal force to his own 14,000, and some of his regiments were +still some miles distant. But he advanced beyond Kineton, and the enemy +promptly left their strong position and came down to the foot of the +hill, for, situated as they were, they had either to fight wherever they +could induce the enemy to engage, or to starve in the midst of hostile +garrisons. Rupert was on the right of the king's army with the greater +part of the horse, Lord Lindsey and Sir Jacob Astley in the centre with +the foot, Lord Wilmot (with whom rode the earl of Forth, the principal +military adviser of the king) with a smaller body of cavalry on the +left. In rear of the centre were the king and a small reserve. Essex's +order was similar. Rupert charged as soon as his wing was deployed, and +before the infantry of either side was ready. Taking ground to his right +front and then wheeling inwards at full speed he instantly rode down the +Parliamentary horse opposed to him. Some infantry regiments of Essex's +left centre shared the same fate as their cavalry. On the other wing +Forth and Wilmot likewise swept away all that they could see of the +enemy's cavalry, and the undisciplined Royalists of both wings pursued +the fugitives in wild disorder up to Kineton, where they were severely +handled by John Hampden's infantry brigade (which was escorting the +artillery and baggage of Essex's army). Rupert brought back only a few +rallied squadrons to the battlefield, and in the meantime affairs there +had gone badly for the king. The right and centre of the Parliamentary +foot (the left having been brought to a halt by Rupert's charge) +advanced with great resolution, and being at least as ardent as, and +much better armed than, Lindsey's men, engaged them fiercely and slowly +gained ground. Only the best regiments on either side, however, +maintained their order, and the decision of the infantry battle was +achieved mainly by a few Parliamentary squadrons. One regiment of +Essex's right wing only had been the target of Wilmot's charge, the +other two had been at the moment invisible, and, as every Royalist troop +on the ground, even the king's guards, had joined in the mad ride to +Kineton, these, Essex's life-guard, and some troops that had rallied +from the effect of Rupert's charge--amongst them Captain Oliver +Cromwell's--were the only cavalry still present. All these joined with +decisive effect in the attack on the left of the royal infantry. The +king's line was steadily rolled up from left to right, the Parliamentary +troopers captured his guns and regiment after regiment broke up. Charles +himself stood calmly in the thick of the fight, but he had not the skill +to direct it. The royal standard was taken and retaken, Lindsey and Sir +Edmund Verney, the standard-bearer, being killed. By the time that +Rupert returned both sides were incapable of further effort and +disillusioned as to the prospect of ending the war at a blow. + +On the 24th Essex retired, leaving Charles to claim the victory and to +reap its results. Banbury and Oxford were reoccupied by the Royalists, +and by the 28th Charles was marching down the Thames valley on London. +Negotiations were reopened, and a peace party rapidly formed itself in +London and Westminster. Yet field fortifications sprang up around +London, and when Rupert stormed and sacked Brentford on the 12th of +November the trained bands moved out at once and took up a position at +Turnham Green, barring the king's advance. Hampden, with something of +the fire and energy of his cousin Cromwell, urged Essex to turn both +flanks of the Royal army via Acton and Kingston, but experienced +professional soldiers urged him not to trust the London men to hold +their ground while the rest manoeuvred. Hampden's advice was undoubtedly +premature. A Sedan or Worcester was not within the power of the +Parliamentarians of 1642, for, in Napoleon's words, "one only manoeuvres +around a fixed point," and the city levies at that time were certainly +not, _vis-a-vis_ Rupert's cavalry, a fixed point. As a matter of fact, +after a slight cannonade at Turnham Green on the 13th, Essex's +two-to-one numerical superiority of itself compelled the king to retire +to Reading. Turnham Green has justly been called the Valmy of the +English Civil War. Like Valmy, without being a battle, it was a victory, +and the tide of invasion came thus far, ebbed, and never returned. + +5. _The Winter of 1642-43._--In the winter, while Essex lay inactive at +Windsor, Charles by degrees consolidated his position in the region of +Oxford. The city was fortified as a reduit for the whole area, and +Reading, Wallingford, Abingdon, Brill, Banbury and Marlborough +constituted a complete defensive ring which was developed by the +creation of smaller posts from time to time. In the north and west, +winter campaigns were actively carried on. "It is summer in Yorkshire, +summer in Devon, and cold winter at Windsor," said one of Essex's +critics. At the beginning of December Newcastle crossed the Tees, +defeated Hotham, the Parliamentary commander in the North Riding, then +joining hands with the hard-pressed Royalists at York, established +himself between that city and Pontefract. Lord Fairfax and his son Sir +Thomas, who commanded for the Parliament in Yorkshire, had to retire to +the district between Hull and Selby, and Newcastle was free to turn his +attention to the Puritan "clothing towns" of the West Riding--Leeds, +Halifax and Bradford. The townsmen, however, showed a determined front, +the younger Fairfax with a picked body of cavalry rode through +Newcastle's lines into the West Riding to help them, and about the end +of January 1643 the earl gave up the attempt to reduce the towns. He +continued his march southward, however, and gained ground for the king +as far as Newark, so as to be in touch with the Royalists of +Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Leicestershire (who, especially about +Newark and Ashby-de-la-Zouch, were strong enough to neutralize the local +forces of the Parliament), and to prepare the way for the further +advance of the army of the north when the queen's convoy should arrive +from over-seas. + +In the west Sir Ralph Hopton and his friends, having obtained a true +bill from the grand jury against the Parliamentary disturbers of the +peace, placed themselves at the head of the county militia and drove the +rebels from Cornwall, after which they raised a small force for general +service and invaded Devonshire (November 1642). Subsequently a +Parliamentary army under the earl of Stamford was withdrawn from south +Wales to engage Hopton, who had to retire into Cornwall. There, however, +the Royalist general was free to employ the militia again, and thus +reinforced he won a victory over a part of Stamford's forces at Bradock +Down near Liskeard (January 19, 1643) and resumed the offensive. About +the same time Hertford, no longer opposed by Stamford, brought over the +South Wales Royalists to Oxford, and the fortified area around that +place was widened by the capture of Cirencester on the 2nd of February. +Gloucester and Bristol were now the only important garrisons of the +Roundheads in the west. In the midlands, in spite of a Parliamentary +victory won by Sir William Brereton at Nantwich on the 28th of January, +the Royalists of Shropshire, Staffordshire and Leicestershire soon +extended their influence through Ashby-de-la-Zouch into Nottinghamshire +and joined hands with their friends at Newark. Further, around Chester a +new Royalist army was being formed under Lord Byron, and all the efforts +of Brereton and of Sir John Gell, the leading supporter of the +Parliament in Derbyshire, were required to hold their own, even before +Newcastle's army was added to the list of their enemies. Lord Brooke, +who commanded for the Parliament in Warwickshire and Staffordshire and +was looked on by many as Essex's eventual successor, was killed in +besieging Lichfield cathedral on the 2nd of March, and, though the +cathedral soon capitulated, Gell and Brereton were severely handled in +the indecisive battle of Hopton Heath near Stafford on the 19th of +March, and Prince Rupert, after an abortive raid on Bristol (March 7), +marched rapidly northward, storming Birmingham en route, and recaptured +Lichfield cathedral. He was, however, soon recalled to Oxford to take +part in the main campaign. The position of affairs for the Parliament +was perhaps at its worst in January. The Royalist successes of November +and December, the ever-present dread of foreign intervention, and the +burden of new taxation which the Parliament now found itself compelled +to impose, disheartened its supporters. Disorders broke out in London, +and, while the more determined of the rebels began thus early to think +of calling in the military assistance of the Scots, the majority were +for peace on any conditions. But soon the position improved somewhat; +Stamford in the west and Brereton and Gell in the midlands, though hard +pressed, were at any rate in arms and undefeated, Newcastle had failed +to conquer the West Riding, and Sir William Waller, who had cleared +Hampshire and Wiltshire of "malignants," entered Gloucestershire early +in March, destroyed a small Royalist force at Highnam (March 24), and +secured Bristol and Gloucester for the Parliament. Finally, some of +Charles's own intrigues opportunely coming to light, the waverers, +seeing the impossibility of plain dealing with the court, rallied again +to the party of resistance, and the series of negotiations called by the +name of the Treaty of Oxford closed in April with no more result than +those which had preceded Edgehill and Turnham Green. About this time +too, following and improving upon the example of Newcastle in the north, +Parliament ordered the formation of the celebrated "associations" or +groups of counties banded together by mutual consent for defence. The +most powerful and best organized of these was that of the eastern +counties (headquarters Cambridge), where the danger of attack from the +north was near enough to induce great energy in the preparations for +meeting it, and at the same time too distant effectively to interfere +with these preparations. Above all, the Eastern Association was from the +first guided and inspired by Colonel Cromwell. + +6. _The Plan of Campaign, 1643._--The king's plan of operations for the +next campaign, which was perhaps inspired from abroad, was more +elaborate than the simple "point" of 1642. The king's army, based on the +fortified area around Oxford, was counted sufficient to use up Essex's +forces. On either hand, therefore, in Yorkshire and in the west, the +Royalist armies were to fight their way inwards towards London, after +which all three armies, converging on that place in due season, were to +cut off its supplies and its sea-borne revenue and to starve the +rebellion into surrender. The condition of this threefold advance was of +course that the enemy should not be able to defeat the armies in detail, +i.e. that he should be fixed and held in the Thames valley; this +secured, there was no purely military objection against operating in +separate armies from the circumference towards the centre. It was on the +rock of local feeling that the king's plan came to grief. Even after the +arrival of the queen and her convoy, Newcastle had to allow her to +proceed with a small force, and to remain behind with the main body, +because of Lancashire and the West Riding, and above all because the +port of Hull, in the hands of the Fairfaxes, constituted a menace that +the Royalists of the East Riding refused to ignore. Hopton's advance +too, undertaken without the Cornish levies, was checked in the action of +Sourton Down (Dartmoor) on the 25th of April, and on the same day Waller +captured Hereford. Essex had already left Windsor to undertake the siege +of Reading, the most important point in the circle of fortresses round +Oxford, which after a vain attempt at relief surrendered to him on the +26th of April. Thus the opening operations were unfavourable, not indeed +so far as to require the scheme to be abandoned, but at least delaying +the development until the campaigning season was far advanced. + +7. _Victories of Hopton._--But affairs improved in May. The queen's +long-expected convoy arrived at Woodstock on the 13th. The earl of +Stamford's army, which had again entered Cornwall, was attacked in its +selected position at Stratton and practically annihilated by Hopton (May +16). This brilliant victory was due above all to Sir Bevil Grenville and +the lithe Cornishmen, who, though but 2400 against 5400 and destitute of +artillery, stormed "Stamford Hill," killed 300 of the enemy, and +captured 1700 more with all their guns, colours and baggage. Devon was +at once overrun by the victors. Essex's army, for want of material +resources, had had to be content with the capture of Reading, and a +Royalist force under Hertford and Prince Maurice (Rupert's brother) +moved out as far as Salisbury to hold out a hand to their friends in +Devonshire, while Waller, the only Parliamentary commander left in the +field in the west, had to abandon his conquests in the Severn valley to +oppose the further progress of his intimate friend and present enemy, +Hopton. Early in June Hertford and Hopton united at Chard and rapidly +moved, with some cavalry skirmishing, towards Bath, where Waller's army +lay. Avoiding the barrier of the Mendips, they moved round via Frome to +the Avon. But Waller, thus cut off from London and threatened with +investment, acted with great skill, and some days of manoeuvres and +skirmishing followed, after which Hertford and Hopton found themselves +on the north side of Bath facing Waller's entrenched position on the top +of Lansdown Hill. This position the Royalists stormed on the 5th of +July. The battle of Lansdown was a second Stratton for the Cornishmen, +but this time the enemy was of different quality and far differently +led, and they had to mourn the loss of Sir Bevil Grenville and the +greater part of their whole force. At dusk both sides stood on the flat +summit of the hill, still firing into one another with such energy as +was not yet expended, and in the night Waller drew off his men into +Bath. "We were glad they were gone," wrote a Royalist officer, "for if +they had not, I know who had within the hour." Next day Hopton was +severely injured by the explosion of a wagon containing the reserve +ammunition, and the Royalists, finding their victory profitless, moved +eastward to Devizes, closely followed by the enemy. On the 10th of July +Sir William Waller took post on Roundway Down, overlooking Devizes, and +captured a Royalist ammunition column from Oxford. On the 11th he came +down and invested Hopton's foot in Devizes itself, while the Royalist +cavalry, Hertford and Maurice with them, rode away towards Salisbury. +But although the siege was pressed with such vigour that an assault was +fixed for the evening of the 13th, the Cornishmen, Hopton directing the +defence from his bed, held out stubbornly, and on the afternoon of July +13th Prince Maurice's horsemen appeared on Roundway Down, having ridden +to Oxford, picked up reinforcements there, and returned at full speed to +save their comrades. Waller's army tried its best, but some of its +elements were of doubtful quality and the ground was all in Maurice's +favour. The battle did not last long. The combined attack of the Oxford +force from Roundway and of Hopton's men from the town practically +annihilated Waller's army. Very soon afterwards Rupert came up with +fresh Royalist forces, and the combined armies moved westward. Bristol, +the second port of the kingdom, was their objective, and in four days +from the opening of the siege it was in their hands (July 26), Waller +with the beaten remnant of his army at Bath being powerless to +intervene. The effect of this blow was felt even in Dorsetshire. Within +three weeks of the surrender Prince Maurice with a body of fast-moving +cavalry overran that county almost unopposed. + +8. _Adwalton Moor._--Newcastle meanwhile had resumed operations against +the clothing towns, this time with success. The Fairfaxes had been +fighting in the West Riding since January with such troops from the Hull +region as they had been able to bring across Newcastle's lines. They and +the townsmen together were too weak for Newcastle's increasing forces, +and an attempt was made to relieve them by bringing up the Parliament's +forces in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and the Eastern +Association. But local interests prevailed again, in spite of Cromwell's +presence, and after assembling at Nottingham, the midland rebels quietly +dispersed to their several counties (June 2). The Fairfaxes were left to +their fate, and about the same time Hull itself narrowly escaped capture +by the queen's forces through the treachery of Sir John Hotham, the +governor, and his son, the commander of the Lincolnshire +Parliamentarians. The latter had been placed under arrest at the +instance of Cromwell and of Colonel Hutchinson, the governor of +Nottingham Castle; he escaped to Hull, but both father and son were +seized by the citizens and afterwards executed. More serious than an +isolated act of treachery was the far-reaching Royalist plot that had +been detected in Parliament itself, for complicity in which Lord Conway, +Edmund Waller the poet, and several members of both Houses were +arrested. The safety of Hull was of no avail for the West Riding towns, +and the Fairfaxes underwent a decisive defeat at Adwalton (Atherton) +Moor near Bradford on the 30th of June. After this, by way of +Lincolnshire, they escaped to Hull and reorganized the defence of that +place. The West Riding perforce submitted. + +The queen herself with a second convoy and a small army under Henry +(Lord) Jermyn soon moved via Newark, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Lichfield and +other Royalist garrisons to Oxford, where she joined her husband on the +14th of July. But Newcastle (now a marquis) was not yet ready for his +part in the programme. The Yorkshire troops would not march on London +while the enemy was master of Hull, and by this time there was a solid +barrier between the royal army of the north and the capital. Roundway +Down and Adwalton Moor were not after all destined to be fatal, though +peace riots in London, dissensions in the Houses, and quarrels amongst +the generals were their immediate consequences. A new factor had arisen +in the war--the Eastern Association. + +9. _Cromwell and the Eastern Association._--This had already intervened +to help in the siege of Reading and had sent troops to the abortive +gathering at Nottingham, besides clearing its own ground of +"malignants." From the first Cromwell was the dominant influence. Fresh +from Edgehill, he had told Hampden, "You must get men of a spirit that +is likely to go as far as gentlemen will go," not "old decayed +serving-men, tapsters and such kind of fellows to encounter gentlemen +that have honour and courage and resolution in them," and in January +1643 he had gone to his own county to "raise such men as had the fear of +God before them and made some conscience of what they did." These men, +once found, were willing, for the cause, to submit to a rigorous +training and an iron discipline such as other troops, fighting for +honour only or for profit only, could not be brought to endure.[2] The +result was soon apparent. As early as the 13th of May, Cromwell's +regiment of horse--recruited from the horse-loving yeomen of the eastern +counties--demonstrated its superiority in the field in a skirmish near +Grantham, and in the irregular fighting in Lincolnshire during June and +July (which was on the whole unfavourable to the Parliament), as +previously in pacifying the Eastern Association itself, these Puritan +troopers distinguished themselves by long and rapid marches that may +bear comparison with almost any in the history of the mounted arm. When +Cromwell's second opportunity came at Gainsborough on the 28th of July, +the "Lincolneer" horse who were under his orders were fired by the +example of Cromwell's own regiment, and Cromwell, directing the whole +with skill, and above all with energy, utterly routed the Royalist horse +and killed their general, Charles Cavendish. + +In the meantime the army of Essex had been inactive. After the fall of +Reading a serious epidemic of sickness had reduced it to impotence. On +the 18th of June the Parliamentary cavalry was routed and John Hampden +mortally wounded at Chalgrove Field near Chiselhampton, and when at last +Essex, having obtained the desired reinforcements, moved against Oxford +from the Aylesbury side, he found his men demoralized by inaction, and +before the menace of Rupert's cavalry, to which he had nothing to +oppose, he withdrew to Bedfordshire (July). He made no attempt to +intercept the march of the queen's convoys, he had permitted the Oxford +army, which he should have held fast, to intervene effectually in the +midlands, the west, and the south-west, and Waller might well complain +that Essex, who still held Reading and the Chilterns, had given him +neither active nor passive support in the critical days preceding +Roundway Down. Still only a few voices were raised to demand his +removal, and he was shortly to have an opportunity of proving his skill +and devotion in a great campaign and a great battle. The centre and the +right of the three Royalist armies had for a moment (Roundway to +Bristol) united to crush Waller, but their concentration was +short-lived. Plymouth was to Hopton's men what Hull was to +Newcastle's--they would not march on London until the menace to their +homes was removed. Further, there were dissensions among the generals +which Charles was too weak to crush, and consequently the original plan +reappears--the main Royalist army to operate in the centre, Hopton's +(now Maurice's) on the right, Newcastle on the left towards London. +While waiting for the fall of Hull and Plymouth, Charles naturally +decided to make the best use of his time by reducing Gloucester, the one +great fortress of the Parliament in the west. + +10. _Siege and Relief of Gloucester._--This decision quickly brought on +a crisis. While the earl of Manchester (with Cromwell as his +lieutenant-general) was appointed to head the forces of the Eastern +Association against Newcastle, and Waller was given a new army +wherewith again to engage Hopton and Maurice, the task of saving +Gloucester from the king's army fell to Essex, who was heavily +reinforced and drew his army together for action in the last days of +August. Resort was had to the press-gang to fill the ranks, recruiting +for Waller's new army was stopped, and London sent six regiments of +trained bands to the front, closing the shops so that every man should +be free to take his part in what was thought to be the supreme trial of +strength. + +On the 26th, all being ready, Essex started. Through Aylesbury and round +the north side of Oxford to Stow-on-the-Wold the army moved resolutely, +not deterred by want of food and rest, or by the attacks of Rupert's and +Wilmot's horse on its flank. On the 5th of September, just as Gloucester +was at the end of its resources, the siege was suddenly raised and the +Royalists drew off to Painswick, for Essex had reached Cheltenham and +the danger was over. Then, the field armies being again face to face and +free to move, there followed a series of skilful manoeuvres in the +Severn and Avon valleys, at the end of which the Parliamentary army +gained a long start on its homeward road via Cricklade, Hungerford and +Reading. But the Royalist cavalry under Rupert, followed rapidly by +Charles and the main body from Evesham, strained every nerve to head off +Essex at Newbury, and after a sharp skirmish on Aldbourne Chase on the +18th of September succeeded in doing so. On the 19th the whole Royal +army was drawn up, facing west, with its right on Newbury and its left +on Enborne Heath. Essex's men knew that evening that they would have to +break through by force--there was no suggestion of surrender. + +11. _First Battle of Newbury, September 20, 1643._--The ground was +densely intersected by hedges except in front of the Royalists' left +centre (Newbury Wash) and left (Enborne Heath), and, practically, +Essex's army was never formed in line of battle, for each unit was +thrown into the fight as it came up its own road or lane. On the left +wing, in spite of the Royalist counter-strokes, the attack had the best +of it, capturing field after field, and thus gradually gaining ground to +the front. Here Lord Falkland was killed. On the Reading road itself +Essex did not succeed in deploying on to the open ground on Newbury +Wash, but victoriously repelled the royal horse when it charged up to +the lanes and hedges held by his foot. On the extreme right of the +Parliamentary army, which stood in the open ground of Enborne Heath, +took place a famous incident. Here two of the London regiments, fresh to +war as they were, were exposed to a trial as severe as that which broke +down the veteran Spanish infantry at Rocroi in this same year. Rupert +and the Royalist horse again and again charged up to the squares of +pikes, and between each charge his guns tried to disorder the Londoners, +but it was not until the advance of the royal infantry that the trained +bands retired, slowly and in magnificent order, to the edge of the +heath. The result of it all was that Essex's army had fought its hardest +and failed to break the opposing line. But the Royalists had suffered so +heavily, and above all the valour displayed by the rebels had so +profoundly impressed them, that they were glad to give up the disputed +road and withdraw into Newbury. Essex thereupon pursued his march, +Reading was reached on the 22nd after a small rearguard skirmish at +Aldermaston, and so ended one of the most dramatic episodes of English +history. + +12. _Hull and Winceby._--Meanwhile the siege of Hull had commenced. The +Eastern Association forces under Manchester promptly moved up into +Lincolnshire, the foot besieging Lynn (which surrendered on the 16th of +September) while the horse rode into the northern part of the county to +give a hand to the Fairfaxes. Fortunately the sea communications of Hull +were open. On the 18th of September part of the cavalry in Hull was +ferried over to Barton, and the rest under Sir Thomas Fairfax went by +sea to Saltfleet a few days later, the whole joining Cromwell near +Spilsby. In return the old Lord Fairfax, who remained in Hull, received +infantry reinforcements and a quantity of ammunition and stores from the +Eastern Association. On the 11th of October Cromwell and Fairfax +together won a brilliant cavalry action at Winceby, driving the +Royalist horse in confusion before them to Newark, and on the same day +Newcastle's army around Hull, which had suffered terribly from the +hardships of continuous siege work, was attacked by the garrison and so +severely handled that next day the siege was given up. Later, Manchester +retook Lincoln and Gainsborough, and thus Lincolnshire, which had been +almost entirely in Newcastle's hands before he was compelled to +undertake the siege of Hull, was added in fact as well as in name to the +Eastern Association. + +Elsewhere, in the reaction after the crisis of Newbury, the war +languished. The city regiments went home, leaving Essex too weak to hold +Reading, which the Royalists reoccupied on the 3rd of October. At this +the Londoners offered to serve again, and actually took part in a minor +campaign around Newport Pagnell, which town Rupert attempted to fortify +as a menace to the Eastern Association and its communications with +London. Essex was successful in preventing this, but his London +regiments again went home, and Sir William Waller's new army in +Hampshire failed lamentably in an attempt on Basing House (November 7), +the London trained bands deserting _en bloc_. Shortly afterwards Arundel +surrendered to a force under Sir Ralph, now Lord Hopton (December 9). + +13. _The "Irish Cessation" and the Solemn League and +Covenant._--Politically, these months were the turning-point of the war. +In Ireland, the king's lieutenant, by order of his master, made a truce +with the Irish rebels (Sept. 15). Charles's chief object was to set free +his army to fight in England, but it was believed universally that Irish +regiments--in plain words, papists in arms--would shortly follow. Under +these circumstances his act united against him nearly every class in +Protestant England, above all brought into the English quarrel the armed +strength of Presbyterian Scotland. Yet Charles, still trusting to +intrigue and diplomacy to keep Scotland in check, deliberately rejected +the advice of Montrose, his greatest and most faithful lieutenant, who +wished to give the Scots employment for their army at home. Only ten +days after the "Irish cessation," the Parliament at Westminster swore to +the Solemn League and Covenant, and the die was cast. It is true that +even a semblance of Presbyterian theocracy put the "Independents" on +their guard and definitely raised the question of freedom of conscience, +and that secret negotiations were opened between the Independents and +Charles on that basis, but they soon discovered that the king was merely +using them as instruments to bring about the betrayal of Aylesbury and +other small rebel posts. All parties found it convenient to interpret +the Covenant liberally for the present, and at the beginning of 1644 the +Parliamentary party showed so united a front that even Pym's death +(December 8, 1643) hardly affected its resolution to continue the +struggle. + +The troops from Ireland, thus obtained at the cost of an enormous +political blunder, proved to be untrustworthy after all. Those serving +in Hopton's army were "mutinous and shrewdly infected with the +rebellious humour of England." When Waller's Londoners surprised[3] and +routed a Royalist detachment at Alton (December 13, 1643), half the +prisoners took the Covenant. Hopton had to retire, and on the 6th of +January 1644 Waller recaptured Arundel. Byron's Cheshire army was in no +better case. Newcastle's retreat from Hull and the loss of Gainsborough +had completely changed the situation in the midlands, Brereton was +joined by the younger Fairfax from Lincolnshire, and the Royalists were +severely defeated for a second time at Nantwich (January 25). As at +Alton, the majority of the prisoners (amongst them Colonel George Monk) +took the Covenant and entered the Parliamentary army. In Lancashire, as +in Cheshire, Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire, the cause +of the Parliament was in the ascendant. Resistance revived in the West +Riding towns, Lord Fairfax was again in the field in the East Riding, +and even Newark was closely besieged by Sir John Meldrum. More important +news came in from the north. The advanced guard of the Scottish army had +passed the Tweed on the 19th of January, and the marquis of Newcastle +with the remnant of his army would soon be attacked in front and rear at +once. + +14. _Newark and Cheriton (March 1644)._--As in 1643, Rupert was soon on +his way to the north to retrieve the fortunes of his side. Moving by the +Welsh border, and gathering up garrisons and recruits snowball-wise as +he marched, he went first to Cheshire to give a hand to Byron, and then, +with the utmost speed, he made for Newark. On the 20th of March 1644 he +bivouacked at Bingham, and on the 21st he not only relieved Newark but +routed the besiegers' cavalry. On the 22nd Meldrum's position was so +hopeless that he capitulated on terms. But, brilliant soldier as he was, +the prince was unable to do more than raid a few Parliamentary posts +around Lincoln, after which he had to return his borrowed forces to +their various garrisons and go back to Wales--laden indeed with captured +pikes and muskets--to raise a permanent field army. But Rupert could not +be in all places at once. Newcastle was clamorous for aid. In +Lancashire, only the countess of Derby, in Lathom House, held out for +the king, and her husband pressed Rupert to go to her relief. Once, too, +the prince was ordered back to Oxford to furnish a travelling escort for +the queen, who shortly after this gave birth to her youngest child and +returned to France. The order was countermanded within a few hours, it +is true, but Charles had good reason for avoiding detachments from his +own army. On the 29th of March, Hopton had undergone a severe defeat at +Cheriton near New Alresford. In the preliminary manoeuvres and in the +opening stages of the battle the advantage lay with the Royalists, and +the earl of Forth, who was present, was satisfied with what had been +achieved and tried to break off the action. But Royalist indiscipline +ruined everything. A young cavalry colonel charged in defiance of +orders, a fresh engagement opened, and at the last moment Waller +snatched a victory out of defeat. Worse than this was the news from +Yorkshire and Scotland. Charles had at last assented to Montrose's plan +and promised him the title of marquis, but the first attempt to raise +the Royalist standard in Scotland gave no omen of its later triumphs. In +Yorkshire Sir Thomas Fairfax, advancing from Lancashire through the West +Riding, joined his father. Selby was stormed on the 11th of April, and +thereupon Newcastle, who had been manoeuvring against the Scots in +Durham, hastily drew back, sent his cavalry away, and shut himself up +with his foot in York. Two days later the Scottish general, Alexander +Leslie, Lord Leven, joined the Fairfaxes and prepared to invest that +city. + +15. _Plans of Campaign for 1644._--The original plan of the +Parliamentary "Committee of Both Kingdoms," which directed the military +and civil policy of the allies after the fashion of a modern cabinet, +was to combine Essex's and Manchester's armies in an attack upon the +king's army, Aylesbury being appointed as the place of concentration. +Waller's troops were to continue to drive back Hopton and to reconquer +the west, Fairfax and the Scots to invest Newcastle's army, while in the +midlands Brereton and the Lincolnshire rebels could be counted upon to +neutralize, the one Byron, the others the Newark Royalists. But Waller, +once more deserted by his trained bands, was unable to profit by his +victory of Cheriton, and retired to Farnham. Manchester, too, was +delayed because the Eastern Association was still suffering from the +effects of Rupert's Newark exploit--Lincoln, abandoned by the rebels on +that occasion, was not reoccupied till the 6th of May. Moreover, Essex +found himself compelled to defend his conduct and motives to the +Committee of Both Kingdoms, and as usual was straitened for men and +money. But though there were grave elements of weakness on the other +side, the Royalists considered their own position to be hopeless. Prince +Maurice was engaged in the fruitless siege of Lyme Regis, Gloucester was +again a centre of activity and counterbalanced Newark, and the situation +in the north was practically desperate. Rupert himself came to Oxford +(April 25) to urge that his new army should be kept free to march to aid +Newcastle, who was now threatened--owing to the abandonment of the +enemy's original plan--by Manchester as well as Fairfax and Leven. There +was no further talk of the concentric advance of three armies on London. +The fiery prince and the methodical earl of Brentford (Forth) were at +one at least in recommending that the Oxford area with its own garrison +and a mobile force in addition should be the pivot of the field armies' +operations. Rupert, needing above all adequate time for the development +of the northern offensive, was not in favour of abandoning any of the +barriers to Essex's advance. Brentford, on the other hand, thought it +advisable to contract the lines of defence, and Charles, as usual +undecided, agreed to Rupert's scheme and executed Brentford's. Reading, +therefore, was dismantled early in May, and Abingdon given up shortly +afterwards. + +16. _Cropredy Bridge._--It was now possible for the enemy to approach +Oxford, and Abingdon was no sooner evacuated than (May 26) Waller's and +Essex's armies united there--still, unfortunately for their cause, under +separate commanders. From Abingdon Essex moved direct on Oxford, Waller +towards Wantage, where he could give a hand to Massey, the energetic +governor of Gloucester. Affairs seemed so bad in the west (Maurice with +a whole army was still vainly besieging the single line of low +breastworks that constituted the fortress of Lyme) that the king +despatched Hopton to take charge of Bristol. Nor were things much better +at Oxford; the barriers of time and space and the supply area had been +deliberately given up to the enemy, and Charles was practically forced +to undertake extensive field operations with no hope of success save in +consequence of the enemy's mistakes. The enemy, as it happened, did not +disappoint him. The king, probably advised by Brentford, conducted a +skilful war of manoeuvre in the area defined by Stourbridge, Gloucester, +Abingdon and Northampton, at the end of which Essex, leaving Waller to +the secondary work, as he conceived it, of keeping the king away from +Oxford and reducing that fortress, marched off into the west with most +of the general service troops to repeat at Lyme Regis his Gloucester +exploit of 1643. At one moment, indeed, Charles (then in Bewdley) rose +to the idea of marching north to join Rupert and Newcastle, but he soon +made up his mind to return to Oxford. From Bewdley, therefore, he moved +to Buckingham--the distant threat on London producing another evanescent +citizen army drawn from six counties under Major-General Browne--and +Waller followed him closely. When the king turned upon Browne's motley +host, Waller appeared in time to avert disaster, and the two armies +worked away to the upper Cherwell. Brentford and Waller were excellent +strategists of the 17th century type, and neither would fight a pitched +battle without every chance in his favour. Eventually on the 29th of +June the Royalists were successful in a series of minor fights about +Cropredy Bridge, and the result was, in accordance with continental +custom, admitted to be an important victory, though Waller's main army +drew off unharmed. In the meantime, Essex had relieved Lyme (June 15) +and occupied Weymouth, and was preparing to go farther. The two rebel +armies were now indeed separate. Waller had been left to do as best he +could, and a worse fate was soon to overtake the cautious earl. + +17. _Campaign of Marston Moor._--During these manoeuvres the northern +campaign had been fought to an issue. Rupert's courage and energy were +more likely to command success in the English Civil War than all the +conscientious caution of an Essex or a Brentford. On the 16th of May he +left Shrewsbury to fight his way through hostile country to Lancashire, +where he hoped to re-establish the Derby influence and raise new forces. +Stockport was plundered on the 25th, the besiegers of Lathom House +utterly defeated at Bolton on the 28th. Soon afterwards he received a +large reinforcement under General Goring, which included 5000 of +Newcastle's cavalry. The capture of the almost defenceless town of +Liverpool--undertaken as usual to allay local fears--did not delay +Rupert more than three or four days, and he then turned towards the +Yorkshire border with greatly augmented forces. On the 14th of June he +received a despatch from the king, the gist of which was that there was +a time-limit imposed on the northern enterprise. If York were lost or +did not need his help, Rupert was to make all haste southward via +Worcester. "If York be relieved and you beat the rebels' armies of both +kingdoms, then, but otherways not, I may possibly make a shift upon the +defensive to spin out time until you come to assist me." + +Charles did manage to "spin out time." But it was of capital importance +that Rupert had to do his work upon York and the allied army in the +shortest possible time, and that, according to the despatch, there were +only two ways of saving the royal cause, "having relieved York by +beating the Scots," or marching with all speed to Worcester. Rupert's +duty, interpreted through the medium of his temperament, was clear +enough. Newcastle still held out, his men having been encouraged by a +small success on the 17th of June, and Rupert reached Knaresborough on +the 30th. At once Leven, Fairfax and Manchester broke up the siege of +York and moved out to meet him. But the prince, moving still at high +speed, rode round their right flank via Boroughbridge and Thornton +Bridge and entered York on the north side. Newcastle tried to dissuade +Rupert from fighting, but his record as a general was scarcely +convincing as to the value of his advice. Rupert curtly replied that he +had orders to fight, and the Royalists moved out towards Marston Moor +(q.v.) on the morning of July 2, 1644. The Parliamentary commanders, +fearing a fresh manoeuvre, had already begun to retire towards +Tadcaster, but as soon as it became evident that a battle was impending +they turned back. The battle of Marston Moor began about four in the +afternoon. It was the first real trial of strength between the best +elements on either side, and it ended before night with the complete +victory of the Parliamentary armies. The Royalist cause in the north +collapsed once for all, Newcastle fled to the continent, and only +Rupert, resolute as ever, extricated 6000 cavalry from the _debacle_ and +rode away whence he had come, still the dominant figure of the war. + +18. _Independency._--The victory gave the Parliament entire control of +the north, but it did not lead to the definitive solution of the +political problem, and in fact, on the question of Charles's place in a +new Constitution, the victorious generals quarrelled even before York +had surrendered. Within three weeks of the battle the great army was +broken up. The Yorkshire troops proceeded to conquer the isolated +Royalist posts in their county, the Scots marched off to besiege +Newcastle-on-Tyne and to hold in check a nascent Royalist army in +Westmorland. Rupert in Lancashire they neglected entirely. Manchester +and Cromwell, already estranged, marched away into the Eastern +Association. There, for want of an enemy to fight, their army was forced +to be idle, and Cromwell and the ever-growing Independent element +quickly came to suspect their commander of lukewarmness in the cause. +Waller's army, too, was spiritless and immobile. On the 2nd of July, +despairing of the existing military system, he made to the Committee of +Both Kingdoms the first suggestion of the New Model,--"My lords," he +wrote, "till you have an army merely your own, that you may command, it +is ... impossible to do anything of importance." Browne's trained band +army was perhaps the most ill-behaved of all--once the soldiers +attempted to murder their own general. Parliament in alarm set about the +formation of a new general service force (July 12), but meantime both +Waller's and Browne's armies (at Abingdon and Reading respectively) +ignominiously collapsed by mutiny and desertion. It was evident that the +people at large, with their respect for the law and their anxiety for +their own homes, were tired of the war. Only those men--such as +Cromwell--who has set their hearts on fighting out the quarrel of +conscience, kept steadfastly to their purpose. Cromwell himself had +already decided that the king himself must be deprived of his authority, +and his supporters were equally convinced. But they were relatively few. +Even the Eastern Association trained bands had joined in the +disaffection in Waller's army, and that unfortunate general's suggestion +of a professional army, with all its dangers, indicated the only means +of enforcing a peace such as Cromwell and his friends desired. There +was this important difference, however, between Waller's idea and +Cromwell's achievement--that the professional soldiers of the New Model +were disciplined, led, and in all things inspired by "godly" officers. +Godliness, devotion to the cause, and efficiency were indeed the only +criteria Cromwell applied in choosing officers. Long before this he had +warned the Scottish major-general Lawrence Crawford that the precise +colour of a man's religious opinions mattered nothing compared with his +devotion to them, and had told the committee of Suffolk, "I had rather +have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what he fights for and +loves what he knows than that which you call a 'gentleman' and is +nothing else. I honour a gentleman that is so indeed ... but seeing it +was necessary the work must go on, better plain men than none." If "men +of honour and birth" possessed the essentials of godliness, devotion, +and capacity, Cromwell preferred them, and as a fact only seven out of +thirty-seven of the superior officers of the original New Model were not +of gentle birth. + +19. _Lostwithiel._--But all this was as yet in the future. Essex's +military promenade in the west of England was the subject of immediate +interest. At first successful, this general penetrated to Plymouth, +whence, securely based as he thought, he could overrun Devon. +Unfortunately for him he was persuaded to overrun Cornwall as well. At +once the Cornishmen rose, as they had risen under Hopton, and the king +was soon on the march from the Oxford region, disregarding the armed +mobs under Waller and Browne. Their state reflected the general +languishing of the war spirit on both sides, not on one only, as Charles +discovered when he learned that Lord Wilmot, the lieutenant-general of +his horse, was in correspondence with Essex. Wilmot was of course placed +under arrest, and was replaced by the dissolute General Goring. But it +was unpleasantly evident that even gay cavaliers of the type of Wilmot +had lost the ideals for which they fought, and had come to believe that +the realm would never be at peace while Charles was king. Henceforward +it will be found that the Royalist foot, now a thoroughly professional +force, is superior in quality to the once superb cavalry, and that not +merely because its opportunities for plunder, &c., are more limited. +Materially, however, the immediate victory was undeniably with the +Royalists. After a brief period of manoeuvre, the Parliamentary army, +now far from Plymouth found itself surrounded and starving at +Lostwithiel, on the Fowey river, without hope of assistance. The horse +cut its way out through the investing circle of posts, Essex himself +escaped by sea, but Major-General Skippon, his second in command, had to +surrender with the whole of the foot on the 2nd of September. The +officers and men were allowed to go free to Portsmouth, but their arms, +guns and munitions were the spoil of the victors. There was now no +trustworthy field force in arms for the Parliament south of the Humber, +for even the Eastern Association army was distracted by its religious +differences, which had now at last come definitely to the front and +absorbed the political dispute in a wider issue. Cromwell already +proposed to abolish the peerage, the members of which were inclined to +make a hollow peace, and had ceased to pay the least respect to his +general, Manchester, whose scheme for the solution of the quarrel was an +impossible combination of Charles and Presbyterianism. Manchester for +his part sank into a state of mere obstinacy, refusing to move against +Rupert, even to besiege Newark, and actually threatened to hang Colonel +Lilburne for capturing a Royalist castle without orders. + +20. _Operations of Essex's, Waller's and Manchester's Armies._--After +the success of Lostwithiel there was little to detain Charles's main +army in the extreme west, and meanwhile Banbury, a most important point +in the Oxford circle, and Basing House (near Basingstoke) were in danger +of capture. Waller, who had organized a small force of reliable troops, +had already sent cavalry into Dorsetshire with the idea of assisting +Essex, and he now came himself with reinforcements to prevent, so far as +lay in his power, the king's return to the Thames valley. Charles was +accompanied of course only by his permanent forces and by parts of +Prince Maurice's and Hopton's armies--the Cornish levies had as usual +scattered as soon as the war receded from their borders. Manchester +slowly advanced to Reading, Essex gradually reorganized his broken army +at Portsmouth, while Waller, far out to the west at Shaftesbury, +endeavored to gain the necessary time and space for a general +concentration in Wiltshire, where Charles would be far from Oxford and +Basing and, in addition, outnumbered by two to one. But the work of +rearming Essex's troops proceeded slowly for want of money, and +Manchester peevishly refused to be hurried either by his more vigorous +subordinates or by the Committee of Both Kingdoms, saying that the army +of the Eastern Association was for the guard of its own employers and +not for general service. He pleaded the renewed activity of the Newark +Royalists as his excuse, forgetting that Newark would have been in his +hands ere this had he chosen to move thither instead of lying idle for +two months. As to the higher command, things had come to such a pass +that, when the three armies at last united, a council of war, consisting +of three army commanders, several senior officers, and two civilian +delegates from the Committee, was constituted. When the vote of the +majority had determined what was to be done, Essex, as lord general of +the Parliament's first army, was to issue the necessary orders for the +whole. Under such conditions it was not likely that Waller's hopes of a +great battle at Shaftesbury would be realized. On the 8th of October he +fell back, the royal army following him step by step and finally +reaching Whitchurch on the 20th of October. Manchester arrived at +Basingstoke on the 17th, Waller on the 19th, and Essex on the 21st. +Charles had found that he could not relieve Basing (a mile or two from +Basingstoke) without risking a battle with the enemy between himself and +Oxford;[4] he therefore took the Newbury road and relieved Donnington +Castle near Newbury on the 22nd. Three days later Banbury too was +relieved by a force which could now be spared from the Oxford garrison. +But for once the council of war on the other side was for fighting a +battle, and the Parliamentary armies, their spirits revived by the +prospect of action and by the news of the fall of Newcastle and the +defeat of a sally from Newark, marched briskly. On the 26th they +appeared north of Newbury on the Oxford road. Like Essex in 1643, +Charles found himself headed off from the shelter of friendly +fortresses, but beyond this fact there is little similarity between the +two battles of Newbury, for the Royalists in the first case merely drew +a barrier across Essex's path. On the present occasion the eager +Parliamentarians made no attempt to force the king to attack them; they +were well content to attack him in his chosen position themselves, +especially as he was better off for supplies and quarters than they. + +21. _Second Newbury._--The second battle of Newbury is remarkable as +being the first great manoeuvre-battle (as distinct from "pitched" +battle) of the Civil War. A preliminary reconnaissance by the +Parliamentary leaders (Essex was not present, owing to illness) +established the fact that the king's infantry held a strong line of +defence behind the Lambourn brook from Shaw (inclusive) to Donnington +(exclusive), Shaw House and adjacent buildings being held as an advanced +post. In rear of the centre, in open ground just north of Newbury, lay +the bulk of the royal cavalry. In the left rear of the main line, and +separated from it by more than a thousand yards, lay Prince Maurice's +corps at Speen, advanced troops on the high ground west of that village, +but Donnington Castle, under its energetic governor Sir John Boys, +formed a strong post covering this gap with artillery fire. The +Parliamentary leaders had no intention of flinging their men away in a +frontal attack on the line of the Lambourn, and a flank attack from the +east side could hardly succeed owing to the obstacle presented by the +confluence of the Lambourn and the Kennet, hence they decided on a wide +turning movement via Chieveley, Winterbourne and Wickham Heath, against +Prince Maurice's position--a decision which, daring and energetic as it +was, led only to a modified success, for reasons which will appear. The +flank march, out of range of the castle, was conducted with punctuality +and precision. The troops composing it were drawn from all three armies +and led by the best fighting generals, Waller, Cromwell, and Essex's +subordinates Balfour and Skippon. Manchester at Clay Hill was to stand +fast until the turning movement had developed, and to make a vigorous +holding attack on Shaw House as soon as Waller's guns were heard at +Speen. But there was no commander-in-chief to co-ordinate the movements +of the two widely separated corps, and consequently no co-operation. +Waller's attack was not unexpected, and Prince Maurice had made ready to +meet him. Yet the first rush of the rebels carried the entrenchments of +Speen Hill, and Speen itself, though stoutly defended, fell into their +hands within an hour, Essex's infantry recapturing here some of the guns +they had had to surrender at Lostwithiel. But meantime Manchester, in +spite of the entreaties of his staff, had not stirred from Clay Hill. He +had made one false attack already early in the morning, and been +severely handled, and he was aware of his own deficiencies as a general. +A year before this he would have asked for and acted upon the advice of +a capable soldier, such as Cromwell or Crawford, but now his mind was +warped by a desire for peace on any terms, and he sought only to avoid +defeat pending a happy solution of the quarrel. Those who sought to gain +peace through victory were meanwhile driving Maurice back from hedge to +hedge towards the open ground at Newbury, but every attempt to emerge +from the lanes and fields was repulsed by the royal cavalry, and indeed +by every available man and horse, for Charles's officers had gauged +Manchester's intentions, and almost stripped the front of its defenders +to stop Waller's advance. Nightfall put an end to the struggle around +Newbury, and then--too late--Manchester ordered the attack on Shaw +House. It failed completely in spite of the gallantry of his men, and +darkness being then complete it was not renewed. In its general course +the battle closely resembled that of Freiburg (q.v.), fought the same +year on the Rhine. But, if Waller's part in the battle corresponded in a +measure to Turenne's, Manchester was unequal to playing the part of +Conde, and consequently the results, in the case of the French won by +three days' hard fighting, and even then comparatively small, were in +the case of the English practically nil. During the night the royal army +quietly marched away through the gap between Waller's and Manchester's +troops. The heavy artillery and stores were left in Donnington Castle, +Charles himself with a small escort rode off to the north-west to meet +Rupert, and the main body gained Wallingford unmolested. An attempt at +pursuit was made by Waller and Cromwell with all the cavalry they could +lay hands on, but it was unsupported, for the council of war had decided +to content itself with besieging Donnington Castle. A little later, +after a brief and half-hearted attempt to move towards Oxford, it +referred to the Committee for further instructions. Within the month +Charles, having joined Rupert at Oxford and made him general of the +Royalist forces vice Brentford, reappeared in the neighbourhood of +Newbury. Donnington Castle was again relieved (November 9) under the +eyes of the Parliamentary army, which was in such a miserable condition +that even Cromwell was against fighting, and some manoeuvres followed, +in the course of which Charles relieved Basing House and the +Parliamentary armies fell back, not in the best order, to Reading. The +season for field warfare was now far spent, and the royal army retired +to enjoy good quarters and plentiful supplies around Oxford. + +22. _The Self-denying Ordinance._--On the other side, the dissensions +between the generals had become flagrant and public, and it was no +longer possible for the Houses of Parliament to ignore the fact that the +army must be radically reformed. Cromwell and Waller from their places +in parliament attacked Manchester's conduct, and their attack ultimately +became, so far as Cromwell was concerned, an attack on the Lords, most +of whom held the same views as Manchester, and on the Scots, who +attempted to bring Cromwell to trial as an "incendiary." At the crisis +of their bitter controversy Cromwell suddenly proposed to stifle all +animosities by the resignation of all officers who were members of +either House, a proposal which affected himself not less than Essex and +Manchester. The first "self-denying ordinance" was moved on the 9th of +December, and provided that "no member of either house shall have or +execute any office or command ...," &c. This was not accepted by the +Lords, and in the end a second "self-denying ordinance" was agreed to +(April 3, 1645), whereby all the persons concerned were to resign, but +without prejudice to their reappointment. Simultaneously with this, the +formation of the New Model was at last definitely taken into +consideration. The last exploit of Sir William Waller, who was not +re-employed after the passing of the ordinance, was the relief of +Taunton, then besieged by General Goring's army. Cromwell served as his +lieutenant-general on this occasion, and we have Waller's own testimony +that he was in all things a wise, capable and respectful subordinate. +Under a leader of the stamp of Waller, Cromwell was well satisfied to +obey, knowing the cause to be in good hands. + +23. _Decline of the Royalist Cause._--A raid of Goring's horse from the +west into Surrey and an unsuccessful attack on General Browne at +Abingdon were the chief enterprises undertaken on the side of the +Royalists during the early winter. It was no longer "summer in Devon, +summer in Yorkshire" as in January 1643. An ever-growing section of +Royalists, amongst whom Rupert himself was soon to be numbered, were for +peace; many scores of loyalist gentlemen, impoverished by the loss of +three years' rents of their estates and hopeless of ultimate victory, +were making their way to Westminster to give in their submission to the +Parliament and to pay their fines. In such circumstances the old +decision-seeking strategy was impossible. The new plan, suggested +probably by Rupert, had already been tried with strategical success in +the summer campaign of 1644. As we have seen, it consisted essentially +in using Oxford as the centre of a circle and striking out radially at +any favourable target--"manoeuvring about a fixed point," as Napoleon +called it. It was significant of the decline of the Royalist cause that +the "fixed point" had been in 1643 the king's field army, based indeed +on its great entrenched camp, Banbury-Cirencester-Reading-Oxford, but +free to move and to hold the enemy wherever met, while now it was the +entrenched camp itself, weakened by the loss or abandonment of its outer +posts, and without the power of binding the enemy if they chose to +ignore its existence, that conditioned the scope and duration of the +single remaining field army's enterprises. + +24. _The New Model Ordinance._--For the present, however, Charles's +cause was crumbling more from internal weakness than from the blows of +the enemy. Fresh negotiations for peace which opened on the 29th of +January at Uxbridge (by the name of which place they are known to +history) occupied the attention of the Scots and their Presbyterian +friends, the rise of Independency and of Cromwell was a further +distraction, and over the new army and the Self-denying Ordinance the +Lords and Commons were seriously at variance. But in February a fresh +mutiny in Waller's command struck alarm into the hearts of the +disputants. The "treaty" of Uxbridge came to the same end as the treaty +of Oxford in 1643, and a settlement as to army reform was achieved on +the 15th of February. Though it was only on the 25th of March that the +second and modified form of the ordinance was agreed to by both Houses, +Sir Thomas Fairfax and Philip Skippon (who were not members of +parliament) had been approved as lord general and major-general (of the +infantry) respectively of the new army as early as the 21st of January. +The post of lieutenant-general and cavalry commander was for the moment +left vacant, but there was little doubt as to who would eventually +occupy it. + +25. _Victories of Montrose._--In Scotland, meanwhile, Montrose was +winning victories which amazed the people of the two kingdoms. +Montrose's royalism differed from that of Englishmen of the 17th century +less than from that of their forefathers under Henry VIII. and +Elizabeth. To him the king was the protector of his people against +Presbyterian theocracy, scarcely less offensive to him than the +Inquisition itself, and the feudal oppression of the great nobles. +Little as this ideal corresponded to the Charles of reality, it inspired +in Montrose not merely romantic heroism but a force of leadership which +was sufficient to carry to victory the nobles and gentry, the wild +Highlanders and the experienced professional soldiers who at various +times and places constituted his little armies. His first unsuccessful +enterprise has been mentioned above. It seemed, in the early stages of +his second attempt (August 1644), as if failure were again inevitable, +for the gentry of the northern Lowlands were overawed by the prevailing +party and resented the leadership of a lesser noble, even though he were +the king's lieutenant over all Scotland. Disappointed of support where +he most expected it, Montrose then turned to the Highlands. At Blair +Athol he gathered his first army of Royalist clansmen, and good fortune +gave him also a nucleus of trained troops. A force of disciplined +experienced soldiers (chiefly Irish Macdonalds and commanded by Alastair +of that name) had been sent over from Ireland earlier in the year, and, +after ravaging the glens of their hereditary enemies the Campbells, had +attempted without success, now here, now there, to gather the other +clans in the king's name. Their hand was against every man's, and when +he finally arrived in Badenoch, Alastair Macdonald was glad to protect +himself by submitting to the authority of the king's lieutenant. + +There were three hostile armies to be dealt with, +besides--ultimately--the main covenanting army far away in England. The +duke of Argyll, the head of the Campbells, had an army of his own clan +and of Lowland Covenanter levies, Lord Elcho with another Lowland army +lay near Perth, and Lord Balfour of Burleigh was collecting a third +(also composed of Lowlanders) at Aberdeen. Montrose turned upon Elcho +first, and found him at Tippermuir near Perth on the 1st of September +1644. The Royalists were about 3000 strong and entirely foot, only +Montrose himself and two others being mounted, while Elcho had about +7000 of all arms. But Elcho's townsmen found that pike and musket were +clumsy weapons in inexperienced hands, and, like Mackay's regulars at +Killiecrankie fifty years later, they wholly failed to stop the rush of +the Highland swordsmen. Many hundreds were killed in the pursuit, and +Montrose slept in Perth that night, having thus accounted for one of his +enemies. Balfour of Burleigh was to be his next victim, and he started +for Aberdeen on the 4th. As he marched, his Highlanders slipped away to +place their booty in security. But the Macdonald regulars remained with +him, and as he passed along the coast some of the gentry came in, though +the great western clan of the Gordons was at present too far divided in +sentiment to take his part. Lord Lewis Gordon and some Gordon horse were +even in Balfour's army. On the other hand, the earl of Airlie brought in +forty-four horsemen, and Montrose was thus able to constitute two wings +of cavalry on the day of battle. The Covenanters were about 2500 strong +and drawn up on a slope above the How Burn[5] just outside Aberdeen +(September 13, 1644). Montrose, after clearing away the enemy's +skirmishers, drew up his army in front of the opposing line, the foot in +the centre, the forty-four mounted men, with musketeers to support them, +on either flank. The hostile left-wing cavalry charged piecemeal, and +some bodies of troops did not engage at all. On the other wing, however, +Montrose was for a moment hard pressed by a force of the enemy that +attempted to work round to his rear. But he brought over the small band +of mounted men that constituted his right wing cavalry, and also some +musketeers from the centre, and destroyed the assailants, and when the +ill-led left wing of the Covenanters charged again, during the absence +of the cavalry, they were mown down by the close-range volleys of +Macdonald's musketeers. Shortly afterwards the centre of Balfour's army +yielded to pressure and fled in disorder. Aberdeen was sacked by order +of Montrose, whose drummer had been murdered while delivering a message +under a flag of truce to the magistrates. + +26. _Inverlochy._--Only Argyll now remained to be dealt with. The +Campbells were fighting men from birth, like Montrose's own men, and had +few townsmen serving with them. Still there were enough of the latter +and of the impedimenta of regular warfare with him to prevent Argyll +from overtaking his agile enemy, and ultimately after a "hide-and-seek" +in the districts of Rothiemurchus, Blair Athol, Banchory and +Strathbogie, Montrose stood to fight at Fyvie Castle, repulsed Argyll's +attack on that place and slipped away again to Rothiemurchus. There he +was joined by Camerons and Macdonalds from all quarters for a grand raid +on the Campbell country; he himself wished to march into the Lowlands, +well knowing that he could not achieve the decision in the Grampians, +but he had to bow, not for the first time nor the last, to local +importunity. The raid was duly executed, and the Campbells' boast, "It's +a far cry to Loch Awe," availed them little. In December and January the +Campbell lands were thoroughly and mercilessly devastated, and Montrose +then retired slowly to Loch Ness, where the bulk of his army as usual +dispersed to store away its plunder. Argyll, with such Highland and +Lowland forces as he could collect after the disaster, followed Montrose +towards Lochaber, while the Seaforths and other northern clans marched +to Loch Ness. Caught between them, Montrose attacked the nearest. The +Royalists crossed the hills into Glen Roy, worked thence along the +northern face of Ben Nevis, and descended like an avalanche upon +Argyll's forces at Inverlochy (February 2, 1645). As usual, the Lowland +regiments gave way at once--Montrose had managed in all this to keep +with him a few cavalry--and it was then the turn of the Campbells. +Argyll escaped in a boat, but his clan, as a fighting force, was +practically annihilated, and Montrose, having won four victories in +these six winter months, rested his men and exultingly promised Charles +that he would come to his assistance with a brave army before the end of +the summer. + +27. _Organization of the New Model Army._--To return to the New Model. +Its first necessity was regular pay; its first duty to serve wherever it +might be sent. Of the three armies that had fought at Newbury only one, +Essex's, was in a true sense a general service force, and only one, +Manchester's, was paid with any regularity. Waller's army was no better +paid than Essex's and no more free from local ties than Manchester's. It +was therefore broken up early in April, and only 600 of its infantry +passed into the New Model. Essex's men, on the other hand, wanted but +regular pay and strict officers to make them excellent soldiers, and +their own major-general, Skippon, managed by tact and his personal +popularity to persuade the bulk of the men to rejoin. Manchester's army, +in which Cromwell had been the guiding influence from first to last, was +naturally the backbone of the New Model. Early in April Essex, +Manchester, and Waller resigned their commissions, and such of their +forces as were not embodied in the new army were sent to do local +duties, for minor armies were still maintained, General Poyntz's in the +north midlands, General Massey's in the Severn valley, a large force in +the Eastern Association, General Browne's in Buckinghamshire, &c., +besides the Scots in the north. + +The New Model originally consisted of 14,400 foot and 7700 horse and +dragoons. Of the infantry only 6000 came from the combined armies, the +rest being new recruits furnished by the press.[6] Thus there was +considerable trouble during the first months of Fairfax's command, and +discipline had to be enforced with unusual sternness. As for the enemy, +Oxford was openly contemptuous of "the rebels' new brutish general" and +his men, who seemed hardly likely to succeed where Essex and Waller had +failed. But the effect of the Parliament's having "an army all its own" +was soon to be apparent. + +28. _First Operations of 1645._--On the Royalist side the campaign of +1645 opened in the west, whither the young prince of Wales (Charles II.) +was sent with Hyde (later earl of Clarendon), Hopton and others as his +advisers. General (Lord) Goring, however, now in command of the Royalist +field forces in this quarter, was truculent, insubordinate and +dissolute, though on the rare occasions when he did his duty he +displayed a certain degree of skill and leadership, and the influence of +the prince's counsellors was but small. As usual, operations began with +the sieges necessary to conciliate local feeling. Plymouth and Lyme were +blocked up, and Taunton again invested. The reinforcement thrown into +the last place by Waller and Cromwell was dismissed by Blake (then a +colonel in command of the fortress and afterwards the great admiral of +the Commonwealth), and after many adventures rejoined Waller and +Cromwell. The latter generals, who had not yet laid down their +commissions, then engaged Goring for some weeks, but neither side having +infantry or artillery, and both finding subsistence difficult in +February and March and in country that had been fought over for two +years past, no results were to be expected. Taunton still remained +unrelieved, and Goring's horse still rode all over Dorsetshire when the +New Model at last took the field. + +29. _Rupert's Northern March._--In the midlands and Lancashire the +Royalist horse, as ill-behaved even as Goring's men, were directly +responsible for the ignominious failure with which the king's main army +began its year's work. Prince Maurice was joined at Ludlow by Rupert and +part of his Oxford army early in March, and the brothers drove off +Brereton from the siege of Beeston Castle and relieved the pressure on +Lord Byron in Cheshire. So great was the danger of Rupert's again +invading Lancashire and Yorkshire that all available forces in the +north, English and Scots, were ordered to march against him. But at this +moment the prince was called back to clear his line of retreat on +Oxford. The Herefordshire and Worcestershire peasantry, weary of +military exactions, were in arms, and though they would not join the +Parliament, and for the most part dispersed after stating their +grievances, the main enterprise was wrecked. This was but one of many +ill-armed crowds--"Clubmen" as they were called--that assembled to +enforce peace on both parties. A few regular soldiers were sufficient to +disperse them in all cases, but their attempt to establish a third party +in England was morally as significant as it was materially futile. The +Royalists were now fighting with the courage of despair, those who still +fought against Charles did so with the full determination to ensure the +triumph of their cause, and with the conviction that the only possible +way was the annihilation of the enemy's armed forces, but the majority +were so weary of the war that the earl of Manchester's Presbyterian +royalism--which had contributed so materially to the prolongation of the +struggle--would probably have been accepted by four-fifths of all +England as the basis of a peace. It was, in fact, in the face of almost +universal opposition that Fairfax and Cromwell and their friends at +Westminster guided the cause of their weaker comrades to complete +victory. + +30. _Cromwell's Raid._--Having without difficulty rid himself of the +Clubmen, Rupert was eager to resume his march into the north. It is +unlikely that he wished to join Montrose, though Charles himself +favoured that plan, but he certainly intended to fight the Scottish +army, more especially as after Inverlochy it had been called upon to +detach a large force to deal with Montrose. But this time there was no +Royalist army in the north to provide infantry and guns for a pitched +battle, and Rupert had perforce to wait near Hereford till the main +body, and in particular the artillery train, could come from Oxford and +join him. It was on the march of the artillery train to Hereford that +the first operations of the New Model centred. The infantry was not yet +ready to move, in spite of all Fairfax's and Skippon's efforts, and it +became necessary to send the cavalry by itself to prevent Rupert from +gaining a start. Cromwell, then under Waller's command, had come to +Windsor to resign his commission as required by the Self-denying +Ordinance. Instead, he was placed at the head of a brigade of his own +old soldiers, with orders to stop the march of the artillery train. On +the 23rd of April he started from Watlington north-westward. At dawn on +the 24th he routed a detachment of Royalist horse at Islip. On the same +day, though he had no guns and only a few firearms in the whole force, +he terrified the governor of Bletchingdon House into surrender. Riding +thence to Witney, Cromwell won another cavalry fight at +Bampton-in-the-Bush on the 27th, and attacked Faringdon House, though +without success, on the 29th. Thence he marched at leisure to Newbury. +He had done his work thoroughly. He had demoralized the Royalist +cavalry, and, above all, had carried off every horse on the countryside. +To all Rupert's entreaties Charles could only reply that the guns could +not be moved till the 7th of May, and he even summoned Goring's cavalry +from the west to make good his losses. + +31. _Civilian Strategy._--Cromwell's success thus forced the king to +concentrate his various armies in the neighbourhood of Oxford, and the +New Model had, so Fairfax and Cromwell hoped, found its target. But the +Committee of Both Kingdoms on the one side, and Charles, Rupert and +Goring on the other, held different views. On the 1st of May Fairfax, +having been ordered to relieve Taunton, set out from Windsor for the +long march to that place; meeting Cromwell at Newbury on the 2nd, he +directed the lieutenant-general to watch the movements of the king's +army, and himself marched on to Blandford, which he reached on the 7th +of May. Thus Fairfax and the main army of the Parliament were marching +away in the west while Cromwell's detachment was left, as Waller had +been left the previous year, to hold the king as best he could. On the +very evening that Cromwell's raid ended, the leading troops of Goring's +command destroyed part of Cromwell's own regiment near Faringdon, and on +the 3rd Rupert and Maurice appeared with a force of all arms at Burford. +Yet the Committee of Both Kingdoms, though aware on the 29th of Goring's +move, only made up its mind to stop Fairfax on the 3rd, and did not send +off orders till the 5th. These orders were to the effect that a +detachment was to be sent to the relief of Taunton, and that the main +army was to return. Fairfax gladly obeyed, even though a siege of Oxford +and not the enemy's field army was the objective assigned him. But long +before he came up to the Thames valley the situation was again changed. +Rupert, now in possession of the guns and their teams, urged upon his +uncle the resumption of the northern enterprise, calculating that with +Fairfax in Somersetshire, Oxford was safe. Charles accordingly marched +out of Oxford on the 7th towards Stow-on-the-Wold, on the very day, as +it chanced, that Fairfax began his return march from Blandford. But +Goring and most of the other generals were for a march into the west, in +the hope of dealing with Fairfax as they had dealt with Essex in 1644. +The armies therefore parted as Essex and Waller had parted at the same +place in 1644, Rupert and the king to march northward, Goring to return +to his independent command in the west. Rupert, not unnaturally wishing +to keep his influence with the king and his authority as general of the +king's army unimpaired by Goring's notorious indiscipline, made no +attempt to prevent the separation, which in the event proved wholly +unprofitable. The flying column from Blandford relieved Taunton long +before Goring's return to the west, and Colonel Weldon and Colonel +Graves, its commanders, set him at defiance even in the open country. As +for Fairfax, he was out of Goring's reach preparing for the siege of +Oxford. + +32. _Charles in the Midlands._--On the other side also the generals were +working by data that had ceased to have any value. Fairfax's siege of +Oxford, ordered by the Committee on the 10th of May, and persisted in +after it was known that the king was on the move, was the second great +blunder of the year and was hardly redeemed, as a military measure, by +the visionary scheme of assembling the Scots, the Yorkshiremen, and the +midland forces to oppose the king. It is hard to understand how, having +created a new model army "all its own" for general service, the +Parliament at once tied it down to a local enterprise, and trusted an +improvised army of local troops to fight the enemy's main army. In +reality the Committee seems to have been misled by false information to +the effect that Goring and the governor of Oxford were about to declare +for the Parliament, but had they not despatched Fairfax to the relief of +Taunton in the first instance the necessity for such intrigues would not +have arisen. However, Fairfax obeyed orders, invested Oxford, and, so +far as he was able without a proper siege train, besieged it for two +weeks, while Charles and Rupert ranged the midlands unopposed. At the +end of that time came news so alarming that the Committee hastily +abdicated their control over military operations and gave Fairfax a +free hand. "Black Tom" gladly and instantly abandoned the siege and +marched northward to give battle to the king. + +Meanwhile Charles and Rupert were moving northward. On the 11th of May +they reached Droitwich, whence after two days' rest they marched against +Brereton. The latter hurriedly raised the sieges he had on hand, and +called upon Yorkshire and the Scottish army there for aid. But only the +old Lord Fairfax and the Yorkshiremen responded. Leven had just heard of +new victories won by Montrose, and could do no more than draw his army +and his guns over the Pennine chain into Westmorland in the hope of +being in time to bar the king's march on Scotland via Carlisle. + +33. _Dundee._--After the destruction of the Campbells at Inverlochy, +Montrose had cleared away the rest of his enemies without difficulty. He +now gained a respectable force of cavalry by the adhesion of Lord Gordon +and many of his clan, and this reinforcement was the more necessary as +detachments from Leven's army under Baillie and Hurry--disciplined +infantry and cavalry--were on the march to meet him. The Royalists +marched by Elgin and through the Gordon country to Aberdeen, and thence +across the Esk to Coupar-Angus, where Baillie and Hurry were encountered. +A war of manoeuvre followed, in which they thwarted every effort of the +Royalists to break through into the Lowlands, but in the end retired into +Fife. Montrose thereupon marched into the hills with the intention of +reaching the upper Forth and thence the Lowlands, for he did not disguise +from himself the fact that there, and not in the Highlands, would the +quarrel be decided, and was sanguine--over-sanguine, as the event +proved--as to the support he would obtain from those who hated the kirk +and its system. But he had called to his aid the semi-barbarous +Highlanders, and however much the Lowlands resented a Presbyterian +inquisition, they hated and feared the Highland clans beyond all else. He +was equally disappointed in his own army. For a war of positions the +Highlanders had neither aptitude nor inclination, and at Dunkeld the +greater part of them went home. If the small remnant was to be kept to +its duty, plunder must be found, and the best objective was the town of +Dundee. With a small force of 750 foot and horse Montrose brilliantly +surprised that place on the 4th of April, but Baillie and Hurry were not +far distant, and before Montrose's men had time to plunder the prize they +were collected to face the enemy. His retreat from Dundee was considered +a model operation by foreign students of the art of war (then almost as +numerous as now), and what surprised them most was that Montrose could +rally his men after a sack had begun. The retreat itself was remarkable +enough. Baillie moved parallel to Montrose on his left flank towards +Arbroath, constantly heading him off from the hills and attempting to pin +him against the sea. Montrose, however, halted in the dark so as to let +Baillie get ahead of him and then turned sharply back, crossed Baillie's +track, and made for the hills. Baillie soon realized what had happened +and turned back also, but an hour too late. By the 6th the Royalists were +again safe in the broken country of the Esk valley. But Montrose +cherished no illusions as to joining the king at once; all he could do, +he now wrote, was to neutralize as many of the enemy's forces as +possible. + +34. _Auldearn._--For a time he wandered in the Highlands seeking +recruits. But soon he learned that Baillie and Hurry had divided their +forces, the former remaining about Perth and Stirling to observe him, +the latter going north to suppress the Gordons. Strategy and policy +combined to make Hurry the objective of the next expedition. But the +soldier of fortune who commanded the Covenanters at Aberdeen was no mean +antagonist. Marching at once with a large army (formed on the nucleus of +his own trained troops and for the rest composed of clansmen and +volunteers) Hurry advanced to Elgin, took contact with Montrose there, +and, gradually and skilfully retiring, drew him into the hostile country +round Inverness. Montrose fell into the trap, and Hurry took his +measures to surprise him at Auldearn so successfully that (May 9) +Montrose, even though the indiscipline of some of Hurry's young +soldiers during the night march gave him the alarm, had barely time to +form up before the enemy was upon him. But the best strategy is of no +avail when the battle it produces goes against the strategist, and +Montrose's tactical skill was never more conspicuous than at Auldearn. +Alastair Macdonald with most of the Royalist infantry and the Royal +standard was posted to the right (north) of the village to draw upon +himself the weight of Hurry's attack; only enough men were posted in the +village itself to show that it was occupied, and on the south side, out +of sight, was Montrose himself with a body of foot and all the Gordon +horse. It was the prototype, on a small scale, of Austerlitz. Macdonald +resisted sturdily while Montrose edged away from the scene of action, +and at the right moment and not before, though Macdonald had been driven +back on the village and was fighting for life amongst the gardens and +enclosures, Montrose let loose Lord Gordon's cavalry. These, abandoning +for once the pistol tactics of their time, charged home with the sword. +The enemy's right wing cavalry was scattered in an instant, the nearest +infantry was promptly ridden down, and soon Hurry's army had ceased to +exist. + +35. _Campaign of Naseby._--If the news of Auldearn brought Leven to the +region of Carlisle, it had little effect on his English allies. Fairfax +was not yet released from the siege of Oxford, in spite of the protests +of the Scottish representatives in London. Massey, the active and +successful governor of Gloucester, was placed in command of a field +force on the 25th of May, but he was to lead it against, not the king, +but Goring. At that moment the military situation once more changed +abruptly. Charles, instead of continuing his march on to Lancashire, +turned due eastward towards Derbyshire. The alarm at Westminster when +this new development was reported was such that Cromwell, in spite of +the Self-Denying Ordinance, was sent to raise an army for the defence of +the Eastern Association. Yet the Royalists had no intentions in that +direction. Conflicting reports as to the condition of Oxford reached the +royal headquarters in the last week of May, and the eastward march was +made chiefly to "spin out time" until it could be known whether it would +be necessary to return to Oxford, or whether it was still possible to +fight Leven in Yorkshire--his move into Westmorland was not yet +known--and invade Scotland by the easy east coast route. + +Goring's return to the west had already been countermanded and he had +been directed to march to Harborough, while the South Wales Royalists +were also called in towards Leicester. Later orders (May 26) directed +him to Newbury, whence he was to feel the strength of the enemy's +positions around Oxford. It is hardly necessary to say that Goring found +good military reasons for continuing his independent operations, and +marched off towards Taunton regardless of the order. He redressed the +balance there for the moment by overawing Massey's weak force, and his +purse profited considerably by fresh opportunities for extortion, but he +and his men were not at Naseby. Meanwhile the king, at the geographical +centre of England, found an important and wealthy town at his mercy. +Rupert, always for action, took the opportunity, and Leicester was +stormed and thoroughly pillaged on the night of the 30th-31st of May. +There was the usual panic at Westminster, but, unfortunately for +Charles, it resulted in Fairfax being directed to abandon the siege of +Oxford and given _carte blanche_ to bring the Royal army to battle +wherever it was met. On his side the king had, after the capture of +Leicester, accepted the advice of those who feared for the safety of +Oxford--Rupert, though commander-in-chief, was unable to insist on the +northern enterprise--and had marched to Daventry, where he halted to +throw supplies into Oxford. Thus Fairfax in his turn was free to move, +thanks to the insubordination of Goring, who would neither relieve +Oxford nor join the king for an attack on the New Model. The +Parliamentary general moved from Oxford towards Northampton so as to +cover the Eastern Association. On the 12th of June the two armies were +only a few miles apart, Fairfax at Kislingbury, Charles at Daventry, +and, though the Royalists turned northward again on the 13th to resume +the Yorkshire project under the very eyes of the enemy, Fairfax followed +close. On the night of the 13th Charles slept at Lubenham, Fairfax at +Guilsborough. Cromwell, just appointed lieutenant-general of the New +Model, had ridden into camp on the morning of the 13th with fresh +cavalry from the eastern counties, Colonel Rossiter came up with more +from Lincolnshire on the morning of the battle, and it was with an +incontestable superiority of numbers and an overwhelming moral advantage +that Fairfax fought at Naseby (q.v.) on the 14th of June. The result of +the battle, this time a decisive battle, was the annihilation of the +Royal army. Part of the cavalry escaped, a small fraction of it in +tolerable order, but the guns and the baggage train were taken, and, +above all, the splendid Royal infantry were killed or taken prisoners to +a man. + +36. _Effects of Naseby._--After Naseby, though the war dragged on for +another year, the king never succeeded in raising an army as good as, or +even more numerous than, that which Fairfax's army had so heavily +outnumbered on the 14th of June. That the fruits of the victory could +not be gathered in a few weeks was due to a variety of hindrances rather +than to direct opposition--to the absence of rapid means of +communication, the paucity of the forces engaged on both sides +relatively to the total numbers under arms, and from time to time to the +political exigencies of the growing quarrel between Presbyterians and +Independents. As to the latter, within a few days of Naseby, the Scots +rejoiced that the "back of the malignants was broken," and demanded +reinforcements as a precaution against "the insolence of others," i.e. +Cromwell and the Independents--"to whom alone the Lord has given the +victory of that day." Leven had by now returned to Yorkshire, and a +fortnight after Naseby, after a long and honourable defence by Sir +Thomas Glemham, Carlisle fell to David Leslie's besieging corps. +Leicester was reoccupied by Fairfax on the 18th, and on the 20th Leven's +army, moving slowly southward, reached Mansfield. This move was +undertaken largely for political reasons, i.e. to restore the +Presbyterian balance as against the victorious New Model. Fairfax's army +was intended by its founders to be a specifically English army, and +Cromwell for one would have employed it against the Scots almost as +readily as against malignants. But for the moment the advance of the +northern army was of the highest military importance, for Fairfax was +thereby set free from the necessity of undertaking sieges. Moreover, the +publication of the king's papers taken at Naseby gave Fairfax's troops a +measure of official and popular support which a month before they could +not have been said to possess, for it was now obvious that they +represented the armed force of England against the Irish, Danes, French, +Lorrainers, &c., whom Charles had for three years been endeavouring to +let loose on English soil. Even the Presbyterians abandoned for the time +any attempt to negotiate with the king, and advocated a vigorous +prosecution of the war. + +37. _Fairfax's Western Campaign._--This, in the hands of Fairfax and +Cromwell, was likely to be effective. While the king and Rupert, with +the remnant of their cavalry, hurried into South Wales to join Sir +Charles Gerard's troops and to raise fresh infantry, Fairfax decided +that Goring's was the most important Royalist army in the field, and +turned to the west, reaching Lechlade on the 26th, less than a fortnight +after the battle of Naseby. One last attempt was made to dictate the +plan of campaign from Westminster, but the Committee refused to pass on +the directions of the Houses, and he remained free to deal with Goring +as he desired. Time pressed; Charles in Monmouthshire and Rupert at +Bristol were well placed for a junction with Goring, which would have +given them a united army 15,000 strong. Taunton, in spite of Massey's +efforts to keep the field, was again besieged, and in Wilts and Dorset +numerous bands of Clubmen were on foot which the king's officers were +doing their best to turn into troops for their master. But the process +of collecting a fresh royal army was slow, and Goring and his +subordinate, Sir Richard Grenville, were alienating the king's most +devoted adherents by their rapacity, cruelty and debauchery. Moreover, +Goring had no desire to lose the independent command he had extorted at +Stow-on-the-Wold in May. Still, it was clear that he must be disposed +of as quickly as possible, and Fairfax requested the Houses to take +other measures against the king (June 26). This they did by paying up +the arrears due to Leven's army and bringing it to the Severn valley. On +the 8th of July Leven reached Alcester, bringing with him a +Parliamentarian force from Derbyshire under Sir John Gell. The design +was to besiege Hereford. + +38. _Langport._--By that time Fairfax and Goring were at close quarters. +The Royalist general's line of defence faced west along the Yeo and the +Parrett between Yeovil and Bridgwater, and thus barred the direct route +to Taunton. Fairfax, however, marched from Lechlade via Marlborough and +Blandford--hindered only by Clubmen--to the friendly posts of Dorchester +and Lyme, and with these as his centre of operations he was able to turn +the headwaters of Goring's river-line via Beaminster and Crewkerne. The +Royalists at once abandoned the south and west side of the rivers--the +siege of Taunton had already been given up--and passed over to the north +and east bank. Bridgwater was the right of this second line as it had +been the left of the first; the new left was at Ilchester. Goring could +thus remain in touch with Charles in south Wales through Bristol, and +the siege of Taunton having been given up there was no longer any +incentive for remaining on the wrong side of the water-line. But his +army was thoroughly demoralized by its own licence and indiscipline, and +the swift, handy and resolute regiments of the New Model made short work +of its strong positions. On the 7th of July, demonstrating against the +points of passage between Ilchester and Langport, Fairfax secretly +occupied Yeovil. The post at that place, which had been the right of +Goring's first position, had, perhaps rightly, been withdrawn to +Ilchester when the second position was taken up, and Fairfax repaired +the bridge without interruption. Goring showed himself unequal to the +new situation. He might, if sober, make a good plan when the enemy was +not present to disturb him, and he certainly led cavalry charges with +boldness and skill. But of strategy in front of the enemy he was +incapable. On the news from Yeovil he abandoned the line of the Yeo as +far as Langport without striking a blow, and Fairfax, having nothing to +gain by continuing his detour through Yeovil, came back and quietly +crossed at Long Sutton, west of Ilchester (July 9). Goring had by now +formed a new plan. A strong rearguard was posted at Langport and on high +ground east and north-east of it to hold Fairfax, and he himself with +the cavalry rode off early on the 8th to try and surprise Taunton. This +place was no longer protected by Massey's little army, which Fairfax had +called up to assist his own. But Fairfax, who was not yet across Long +Sutton bridge, heard of Goring's raid in good time, and sent Massey +after him with a body of horse. Massey surprised a large party of the +Royalists at Ilminster on the 9th, wounded Goring himself, and pursued +the fugitives up to the south-eastern edge of Langport. On the 10th +Fairfax's advanced guard, led by Major Bethel of Cromwell's own +regiment, brilliantly stormed the position of Goring's rearguard east of +Langport, and the cavalry of the New Model, led by Cromwell himself, +swept in pursuit right up to the gates of Bridgwater, where Goring's +army, dismayed and on the point of collapse, was more or less rallied. +Thence Goring himself retired to Barnstaple. His army, under the +regimental officers, defended itself in Bridgwater resolutely till the +23rd of July, when it capitulated. The fall of Bridgwater gave Fairfax +complete control of Somerset and Dorset from Lyme to the Bristol +channel. Even in the unlikely event of Goring's raising a fresh army, he +would now have to break through towards Bristol by open force, and a +battle between Goring and Fairfax could only have one result. Thus +Charles had perforce to give up his intention of joining Goring--his +recruiting operations in south Wales had not been so successful as he +hoped, owing to the apathy of the people and the vigour of the local +Parliamentary leaders--and to resume the northern enterprise begun in +the spring. + +39. _Schemes of Lord Digby._--This time Rupert would not be with him. +The prince, now despairing of success and hoping only for a peace on the +best terms procurable, listlessly returned to his governorship of +Bristol and prepared to meet Fairfax's impending attack. The influence +of Rupert was supplanted by that of Lord Digby. As sanguine as Charles +and far more energetic, he was for the rest of the campaign the guiding +spirit of the Royalists, but being a civilian he proved incapable of +judging the military factors in the situation from a military +standpoint, and not only did he offend the officers by constituting +himself a sort of confidential military secretary to the king, but he +was distrusted by all sections of Royalists for his reckless optimism. +The resumption of the northern enterprise, opposed by Rupert and +directly inspired by Digby, led to nothing. Charles marched by +Bridgnorth, Lichfield and Ashbourne to Doncaster, where on the 18th of +August he was met by great numbers of Yorkshire gentlemen with promises +of fresh recruits. For a moment the outlook was bright, for the +Derbyshire men with Gell were far away at Worcester with Leven, the +Yorkshire Parliamentarians engaged in besieging Scarborough Castle, +Pontefract and other posts. But two days later he heard that David +Leslie with the cavalry of Leven's army was coming up behind him, and +that, the Yorkshire sieges being now ended, Major-General Poyntz's force +lay in his front. It was now impossible to wait for the new levies, and +reluctantly the king turned back to Oxford, raiding Huntingdonshire and +other parts of the hated Eastern Association _en route_. + +40. _Montrose's Last Victories._--David Leslie did not pursue him. +Montrose, though the king did not yet know it, had won two more battles, +and was practically master of all Scotland. After Auldearn he had turned +to meet Baillie's army in Strathspey, and by superior mobility and skill +forced that commander to keep at a respectful distance. He then turned +upon a new army which Lindsay, titular earl of Crawford, was forming in +Forfarshire, but that commander betook himself to a safe distance, and +Montrose withdrew into the Highlands to find recruits (June). The +victors of Auldearn had mostly dispersed on the usual errand, and he was +now deserted by most of the Gordons, who were recalled by the chief of +their clan, the marquess of Huntly, in spite of the indignant +remonstrances of Huntly's heir, Lord Gordon, who was Montrose's warmest +admirer. Baillie now approached again, but he was weakened by having to +find trained troops to stiffen Lindsay's levies, and a strong force of +the Gordons had now been persuaded to rejoin Montrose. The two armies +met in battle near Alford on the Don; little can be said of the +engagement save that Montrose had to fight cautiously and tentatively as +at Aberdeen, not in the decision-forcing spirit of Auldearn, and that in +the end Baillie's cavalry gave way and his infantry was cut down as it +stood. Lord Gordon was amongst the Royalist dead (July 2). The plunder +was put away in the glens before any attempt was made to go forward, and +thus the Covenanters had leisure to form a numerous, if not very +coherent, army on the nucleus of Lindsay's troops. Baillie, much against +his will, was continued in the command, with a council of war (chiefly +of nobles whom Montrose had already defeated, such as Argyll, Elcho and +Balfour) to direct his every movement. Montrose, when rejoined by the +Highlanders, moved to meet him, and in the last week of July and the +early part of August there were manoeuvres and minor engagements round +Perth. About the 7th of August Montrose suddenly slipped away into the +Lowlands, heading for Glasgow. Thereupon another Covenanting army began +to assemble in Clydesdale. But it was clear that Montrose could beat +mere levies, and Baillie, though without authority and despairing of +success, hurried after him. Montrose then, having drawn Baillie's +Fifeshire militia far enough from home to ensure their being +discontented, turned upon them on the 14th of August near Kilsyth. +Baillie protested against fighting, but his aristocratic masters of the +council of war decided to cut off Montrose from the hills by turning his +left wing. The Royalist general seized the opportunity, and his advance +caught them in the very act of making a flank march (August 15). The +head of the Covenanters' column was met and stopped by the furious +attack of the Gordon infantry, and Alastair Macdonald led the men of his +own name and the Macleans against its flank. A breach was made in the +centre of Baillie's army at the first rush, and then Montrose sent in +the Gordon and Ogilvy horse. The leading half of the column was +surrounded, broken up and annihilated. The rear half, seeing the fate of +its comrades, took to flight, but in vain, for the Highlanders pursued +_a outrance_. Only about one hundred Covenanting infantry out of six +thousand escaped. Montrose was now indeed the king's lieutenant in all +Scotland. + +41. _Fall of Bristol._--But Charles was in no case to resume his +northern march. Fairfax and the New Model, after reducing Bridgwater, +had turned back to clear away the Dorsetshire Clubmen and to besiege +Sherborne Castle. On the completion of this task, it had been decided to +besiege Bristol, and on the 23rd of August--while the king's army was +still in Huntingdon, and Goring was trying to raise a new army to +replace the one he had lost at Langport and Bridgwater--the city was +invested. In these urgent circumstances Charles left Oxford for the west +only a day or two after he had come in from the Eastern Association +raid. Calculating that Rupert could hold out longest, he first moved to +the relief of Worcester, around which place Leven's Scots, no longer +having Leslie's cavalry with them to find supplies, were more occupied +with plundering their immediate neighbourhood for food than with the +siege works. Worcester was relieved on the 1st of September by the king. +David Leslie with all his cavalry was already on the march to meet +Montrose, and Leven had no alternative but to draw off his infantry +without fighting. Charles entered Worcester on the 8th, but he found +that he could no longer expect recruits from South Wales. Worse was to +come. A few hours later, on the night of the 9th-10th, Fairfax's army +stormed Bristol. Rupert had long realized the hopelessness of further +fighting--the very summons to surrender sent in by Fairfax placed the +fate of Bristol on the political issue,--the lines of defence around the +place were too extensive for his small force, and on the 11th he +surrendered on terms. He was escorted to Oxford with his men, conversing +as he rode with the officers of the escort about peace and the future of +his adopted country. Charles, almost stunned by the suddenness of the +catastrophe, dismissed his nephew from all his offices and ordered him +to leave England, and for almost the last time called upon Goring to +rejoin the main army--if a tiny force of raw infantry and disheartened +cavalry can be so called--in the neighbourhood of Raglan. But before +Goring could be brought to withdraw his objections Charles had again +turned northward towards Montrose. A weary march through the Welsh hills +brought the Royal army on the 22nd of September to the neighbourhood of +Chester. Charles himself with one body entered the city, which was +partially invested by the Parliamentarian colonel Michael Jones, and the +rest under Sir Marmaduke Langdale was sent to take Jones's lines in +reverse. But at the opportune moment Poyntz's forces, which had followed +the king's movements since he left Doncaster in the middle of August, +appeared in rear of Langdale, and defeated him in the battle of Rowton +Heath (September 24), while at the same time a sortie of the king's +troops from Chester was repulsed by Jones. Thereupon the Royal army +withdrew to Denbigh, and Chester, the only important seaport remaining +to connect Charles with Ireland, was again besieged. + +42. _Philiphaugh._--Nor was Montrose's position, even after Kilsyth, +encouraging, in spite of the persistent rumours of fighting in +Westmorland that reached Charles and Digby. Glasgow and Edinburgh were +indeed occupied, and a parliament summoned in the king's name. But +Montrose had now to choose between Highlanders and Lowlanders. The +former, strictly kept away from all that was worth plundering, rapidly +vanished, even Alastair Macdonald going with the rest. Without the +Macdonalds and the Gordons, Montrose's military and political +resettlement of Scotland could only be shadowy, and when he demanded +support from the sturdy middle classes of the Lowlands, it was not +forgotten that he had led Highlanders to the sack of Lowland towns. Thus +his new supporters could only come from amongst the discontented and +undisciplined Border lords and gentry, and long before these moved to +join him the romantic conquest of Scotland was over. On the 6th of +September David Leslie had recrossed the frontier with his cavalry and +some infantry he had picked up on the way through northern England. +Early on the morning of the 13th he surprised Montrose at Philiphaugh +near Selkirk. The king's lieutenant had only 650 men against 4000, and +the battle did not last long. Montrose escaped with a few of his +principal adherents, but his little army was annihilated. Of the veteran +Macdonald infantry, 500 strong that morning, 250 were killed in the +battle and the remainder put to death after accepting quarter. The +Irish, even when they bore a Scottish name, were, by Scotsmen even more +than Englishmen, regarded as beasts to be knocked on the head. After +Naseby the Irishwomen found in the king's camp were branded by order of +Fairfax; after Philiphaugh more than 300 women, wives or followers of +Macdonald's men, were butchered. Montrose's Highlanders at their worst +were no more cruel than the sober soldiers of the kirk. + +43. _Digby's Northern Expedition._--Charles received the news of +Philiphaugh on the 28th of September, and gave orders that the west +should be abandoned, the prince of Wales should be sent to France, and +Goring should bring up what forces he could to the Oxford region. On the +4th of October Charles himself reached Newark (whither he had marched +from Denbigh after revictualling Chester and suffering the defeat of +Rowton Heath). The intention to go to Montrose was of course given up, +at any rate for the present, and he was merely waiting for Goring and +the Royalist militia of the west--each in its own way a broken reed to +lean upon. A hollow reconciliation was patched up between Charles and +Rupert, and the court remained at Newark for over a month. Before it set +out to return to Oxford another Royalist force had been destroyed. On +the 14th of October, receiving information that Montrose had raised a +new army, the king permitted Langdale's northern troops to make a fresh +attempt to reach Scotland. At Langdale's request Digby was appointed to +command in this enterprise, and, civilian though he was, and disastrous +though his influence had been to the discipline of the army, he led it +boldly and skilfully. His immediate opponent was Poyntz, who had +followed the king step by step from Doncaster to Chester and back to +Welbeck, and he succeeded on the 15th in surprising Poyntz's entire +force of foot at Sherburn. Poyntz's cavalry were soon after this +reported approaching from the south, and Digby hoped to trap them also. +At first all went well and body after body of the rebels was routed. But +by a singular mischance the Royalist main body mistook the Parliamentary +squadrons in flight through Sherburn for friends, and believing all was +lost took to flight also. Thus Digby's cavalry fled as fast as Poyntz's +and in the same direction, and the latter, coming to their senses first, +drove the Royalist horse in wild confusion as far as Skipton. Lord Digby +was still sanguine, and from Skipton he actually penetrated as far as +Dumfries. But whether Montrose's new army was or was not in the +Lowlands, it was certain that Leven and Leslie were on the Border, and +the mad adventure soon came to an end. Digby, with the mere handful of +men remaining to him, was driven back into Cumberland, and on the 24th +of October, his army having entirely disappeared, he took ship with his +officers for the Isle of Man. Poyntz had not followed him beyond +Skipton, and was now watching the king from Nottingham, while Rossiter +with the Lincoln troops was posted at Grantham. The king's chances of +escaping from Newark were becoming smaller day by day, and they were not +improved by a violent dispute between him and Rupert, Maurice, Lord +Gerard and Sir Richard Willis, at the end of which these officers and +many others rode away to ask the Parliament for leave to go over-seas. +The pretext of the quarrel mattered little, the distinction between the +views of Charles and Digby on the one hand and Rupert and his friends on +the other was fundamental--to the latter peace had become a political as +well as a military necessity. Meanwhile south Wales, with the single +exception of Raglan Castle, had been overrun by the Parliamentarians. +Everywhere the Royalist posts were falling. The New Model, no longer +fearing Goring, had divided, Fairfax reducing the garrisons of Dorset +and Devon, Cromwell those of Hampshire. Amongst the latter was the +famous Basing House, which was stormed at dawn on the 14th of October +and burnt to the ground. Cromwell, his work finished, returned to +headquarters, and the army wintered in the neighbourhood of Crediton. + +44. _End of the First War._--The military events of 1646 call for no +comment. The only field army remaining to the king was Goring's, and +though Hopton, who sorrowfully accepted the command after Goring's +departure, tried at the last moment to revive the memories and the local +patriotism of 1643, it was of no use to fight against the New Model with +the armed rabble that Goring turned over to him. Dartmouth surrendered +on January 18, Hopton was defeated at Torrington on February 16, and +surrendered the remnant of his worthless army on March 14. Exeter fell +on April 13. Elsewhere, Hereford was taken on December 17, 1645, and the +last battle of the war was fought and lost at Stow-on-the-Wold by Lord +Astley on March 21, 1646. Newark and Oxford fell respectively on May 6 +and June 24. On August 31 Montrose escaped from the Highlands. On the +19th of the same month Raglan Castle surrendered, and the last Royalist +post of all, Harlech Castle, maintained the useless struggle until March +13, 1647. Charles himself, after leaving Newark in November 1645, had +spent the winter in and around Oxford, whence, after an adventurous +journey, he came to the camp of the Scottish army at Southwell on May 5, +1646. + +45. _Second Civil War (1648-52)._--The close of the First Civil War left +England and Scotland in the hands potentially of any one of the four +parties or any combination of two or more that should prove strong enough +to dominate the rest. Armed political Royalism was indeed at an end, but +Charles, though practically a prisoner, considered himself and was, almost +to the last, considered by the rest as necessary to ensure the success of +whichever amongst the other three parties could come to terms with him. +Thus he passed successively into the hands of the Scots, the Parliament +and the New Model, trying to reverse the verdict of arms by coquetting +with each in turn. The Presbyterians and the Scots, after Cornet Joyce of +Fairfax's horse seized upon the person of the king for the army (June 3, +1647), began at once to prepare for a fresh civil war, this time against +Independency, as embodied in the New Model--henceforward called the +Army--and after making use of its sword, its opponents attempted to +disband it, to send it on foreign service, to cut off its arrears of pay, +with the result that it was exasperated beyond control, and, remembering +not merely its grievances but also the principle for which it had fought, +soon became the most powerful political party in the realm. From 1646 to +1648 the breach between army and parliament widened day by day until +finally the Presbyterian party, combined with the Scots and the remaining +Royalists, felt itself strong enough to begin a second civil war. + +46. _The English War._--In February 1648 Colonel Poyer, the +Parliamentary governor of Pembroke Castle, refused to hand over his +command to one of Fairfax's officers, and he was soon joined by some +hundreds of officers and men, who mutinied, ostensibly for arrears of +pay, but really with political objects. At the end of March, encouraged +by minor successes, Poyer openly declared for the king. Disbanded +soldiers continued to join him in April, all South Wales revolted, and +eventually he was joined by Major-General Laugharne, his district +commander, and Colonel Powel. In April also news came that the Scots +were arming and that Berwick and Carlisle had been seized by the English +Royalists. Cromwell was at once sent off at the head of a strong +detachment to deal with Laugharne and Poyer. But before he arrived +Laugharne had been severely defeated by Colonel Horton at St Fagans (May +8). The English Presbyterians found it difficult to reconcile their +principles with their allies when it appeared that the prisoners taken +at St Fagans bore "We long to see our King" on their hats; very soon in +fact the English war became almost purely a Royalist revolt, and the war +in the north an attempt to enforce a mixture of Royalism and +Presbyterianism on Englishmen by means of a Scottish army. The former +were disturbers of the peace and no more. Nearly all the Royalists who +had fought in the First Civil War had given their parole not to bear +arms against the Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, foremost +amongst them the old Lord Astley, who had fought the last battle for the +king in 1646, refused to break their word by taking any part in the +second war. Those who did so, and by implication those who abetted them +in doing so, were likely to be treated with the utmost rigour if +captured, for the army was in a less placable mood in 1648 than in 1645, +and had already determined to "call Charles Stuart, that man of blood, +to an account for the blood he had shed." On the 21st of May Kent rose +in revolt in the king's name. A few days later a most serious blow to +the Independents was struck by the defection of the navy, from command +of which they had removed Vice-Admiral Batten, as being a Presbyterian. +Though a former lord high admiral, the earl of Warwick, also a +Presbyterian, was brought back to the service, it was not long before +the navy made a purely Royalist declaration and placed itself under the +command of the prince of Wales. But Fairfax had a clearer view and a +clearer purpose than the distracted Parliament. He moved quickly into +Kent, and on the evening of June 1 stormed Maidstone by open force, +after which the local levies dispersed to their homes, and the more +determined Royalists, after a futile attempt to induce the City of +London to declare for them, fled into Essex. In Cornwall, +Northamptonshire, North Wales and Lincolnshire the revolt collapsed as +easily. Only in South Wales, Essex and the north of England was there +serious fighting. In the first of these districts Cromwell rapidly +reduced all the fortresses except Pembroke, where Laugharne, Poyer and +Powel held out with the desperate courage of deserters. In the north, +Pontefract was surprised by the Royalists, and shortly afterwards +Scarborough Castle declared for the king. Fairfax, after his success at +Maidstone and the pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce +Essex, where, under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir +Charles Lucas, the Royalists were in arms in great numbers. He soon +drove the enemy into Colchester, but the first attack on the town was +repulsed and he had to settle down to a long and wearisome siege _en +regle_. A Surrey rising, remembered only for the death of the young and +gallant Lord Francis Villiers in a skirmish at Kingston (July 7), +collapsed almost as soon as it had gathered force, and its leaders, the +duke of Buckingham and the earl of Holland, escaped, after another +attempt to induce London to declare for them, to St Albans and St Neots, +where Holland was taken prisoner. Buckingham escaped over-seas. + +47. _Lambert in the North._--By the 10th of July therefore the military +situation was well defined. Cromwell held Pembroke, Fairfax Colchester, +Lambert Pontefract under siege; elsewhere all serious local risings had +collapsed, and the Scottish army had crossed the Border. It is on the +adventures of the latter that the interest of the war centres. It was by +no means the veteran army of Leven, which had long been disbanded. For +the most part it consisted of raw levies, and as the kirk had refused to +sanction the enterprise of the Scottish parliament, David Leslie and +thousands of experienced officers and men declined to serve. The duke of +Hamilton proved to be a poor substitute for Leslie; his army, too, was +so ill provided that as soon as England was invaded it began to plunder +the countryside for the bare means of sustenance. Major-General Lambert, +a brilliant young general of twenty-nine, was more than equal to the +situation. He had already left the sieges of Pontefract and Scarborough +to Colonel Rossiter, and hurried into Cumberland to deal with the +English Royalists under Sir Marmaduke Langdale. With his cavalry he got +into touch with the enemy about Carlisle and slowly fell back, fighting +small rearguard actions to annoy the enemy and gain time, to Bowes and +Barnard Castle. Langdale did not follow him into the mountains, but +occupied himself in gathering recruits and supplies of material and food +for the Scots. Lambert, reinforced from the midlands, reappeared early +in June and drove him back to Carlisle with his work half finished. +About the same time the local horse of Durham and Northumberland were +put into the field by Sir A. Hesilrige, governor of Newcastle, and under +the command of Colonel Robert Lilburne won a considerable success (June +30) at the river Coquet. This reverse, coupled with the existence of +Langdale's force on the Cumberland side, practically compelled Hamilton +to choose the west coast route for his advance, and his army began +slowly to move down the long _couloir_ between the mountains and the +sea. The campaign which followed is one of the most brilliant in English +history. + +48. _Campaign of Preston._--On the 8th of July the Scots, with Langdale +as advanced guard, were about Carlisle, and reinforcements from Ulster +were expected daily. Lambert's horse were at Penrith, Hexham and +Newcastle, too weak to fight and having only skilful leading and +rapidity of movement to enable them to gain time. Far away to the south +Cromwell was still tied down before Pembroke, Fairfax before Colchester. +Elsewhere the rebellion, which had been put down by rapidity of action +rather than sheer weight of numbers, smouldered, and Prince Charles and +the fleet cruised along the Essex coast. Cromwell and Lambert, however, +understood each other perfectly, while the Scottish commanders +quarrelled with Langdale and each other. Appleby Castle surrendered to +the Scots on the 31st of July, whereat Lambert, who was still hanging on +to the flank of the Scottish advance, fell back from Barnard Castle to +Richmond so as to close Wensleydale against any attempt of the invaders +to march on Pontefract. All the restless energy of Langdale's horse was +unable to dislodge him from the passes or to find out what was behind +that impenetrable cavalry screen. The crisis was now at hand. Cromwell +had received the surrender of Pembroke on the 11th, and had marched off, +with his men unpaid, ragged and shoeless, at full speed through the +midlands. Rains and storms delayed his march, but he knew that Hamilton +in the broken ground of Westmorland was still worse off. Shoes from +Northampton and stockings from Coventry met him at Nottingham, and, +gathering up the local levies as he went, he made for Doncaster, where +he arrived on the 8th of August, having gained six days in advance of +the time he had allowed himself for the march. He then called up +artillery from Hull, exchanged his local levies for the regulars who +were besieging Pontefract, and set off to meet Lambert. On the 12th he +was at Wetherby, Lambert with horse and foot at Otley, Langdale at +Skipton and Gargrave, Hamilton at Lancaster, and Sir George Monro with +the Scots from Ulster and the Carlisle Royalists (organized as a +separate command owing to friction between Monro and the generals of the +main army) at Hornby. On the 13th, while Cromwell was marching to join +Lambert at Otley, the Scottish leaders were still disputing as to +whether they should make for Pontefract or continue through Lancashire +so as to join Lord Byron and the Cheshire Royalists. + +49. _Preston Fight._--On the 14th Cromwell and Lambert were at Skipton, +on the 15th at Gisburn, and on the 16th they marched down the valley of +the Ribble towards Preston with full knowledge of the enemy's +dispositions and full determination to attack him. They had with them +horse and foot not only of the army, but also of the militia of +Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland and Lancashire, and withal were heavily +outnumbered, having only 8600 men against perhaps 20,000 of Hamilton's +command. But the latter were scattered for convenience of supply along +the road from Lancaster, through Preston, towards Wigan, Langdale's corps +having thus become the left flank guard instead of the advanced guard. +Langdale called in his advanced parties, perhaps with a view to resuming +the duties of advanced guard, on the night of the 13th, and collected +them near Longridge. It is not clear whether he reported Cromwell's +advance, but, if he did, Hamilton ignored the report, for on the 17th +Monro was half a day's march to the north, Langdale east of Preston, and +the main army strung out on the Wigan road, Major-General Baillie with a +body of foot, the rear of the column, being still in Preston. Hamilton, +yielding to the importunity of his lieutenant-general, the earl of +Callendar, sent Baillie across the Ribble to follow the main body just as +Langdale, with 3000 foot and 500 horse only, met the first shock of +Cromwell's attack on Preston Moor. Hamilton, like Charles at Edgehill, +passively shared in, without directing, the battle, and, though +Langdale's men fought magnificently, they were after four hours' struggle +driven to the Ribble. Baillie attempted to cover the Ribble and Darwen +bridges on the Wigan road, but Cromwell had forced his way across both +before nightfall. Pursuit was at once undertaken, and not relaxed until +Hamilton had been driven through Wigan and Winwick to Uttoxeter and +Ashbourne. There, pressed furiously in rear by Cromwell's horse and held +up in front by the militia of the midlands, the remnant of the Scottish +army laid down its arms on the 25th of August. Various attempts were made +to raise the Royalist standard in Wales and elsewhere, but Preston was +the death-blow. On the 28th of August, starving and hopeless of relief, +the Colchester Royalists surrendered to Lord Fairfax. The victors in the +Second Civil War were not merciful to those who had brought war into the +land again. On the evening of the surrender of Colchester, Sir Charles +Lucas and Sir George Lisle were shot. Laugharne, Poyer and Powel were +sentenced to death, but Poyer alone was executed on the 25th of April +1649, being the victim selected by lot. Of five prominent Royalist peers +who had fallen into the hands of the Parliament, three, the duke of +Hamilton, the earl of Holland, and Lord Capel, one of the Colchester +prisoners and a man of high character, were beheaded at Westminster on +the 9th of March. Above all, after long hesitations, even after renewal +of negotiations, the army and the Independents "purged" the House of +their ill-wishers, and created a court for the trial and sentence of the +king. The more resolute of the judges nerved the rest to sign the +death-warrant, and Charles was beheaded at Whitehall on the 30th of +January. + +50. _Cromwell in Ireland._--The campaign of Preston was undertaken under +the direction of the Scottish parliament, not the kirk, and it needed +the execution of the king to bring about a union of all Scottish parties +against the English Independents. Even so, Charles II. in exile had to +submit to long negotiations and hard conditions before he was allowed to +put himself at the head of the Scottish armies. The marquis of Huntly +was executed for taking up arms for the king on the 22nd of March 1649. +Montrose, under Charles's directions, made a last attempt to rally the +Scottish Royalists early in 1650. But Charles merely used Montrose as a +threat to obtain better conditions for himself from the Covenanters, and +when the noblest of all the Royalists was defeated (Carbisdale, April +27), delivered up to his pursuers (May 4), and executed (May 21, 1650), +he was not ashamed to give way to the demands of the Covenanters, and to +place himself at the head of Montrose's executioners. His father, +whatever his faults, had at least chosen to die for an ideal, the Church +of England. Charles II. now proposed to regain the throne by allowing +Scotland to impose Presbyterianism on England, and dismissed all the +faithful Cavaliers who had followed him to exile. Meanwhile, Ireland, in +which a fresh war, with openly anti-English and anti-Protestant objects, +had broken out in 1648, was thoroughly reduced to order by Cromwell, who +beat down all resistance by his skill, and even more by his ruthless +severity, in a brief campaign of nine months (battle of Rathmines near +Dublin, won by Colonel Michael Jones, August 2, 1649; storming of +Drogheda, September 11, and of Wexford, October 11, by Cromwell; capture +of Kilkenny, March 28, 1650, and of Clonmel, May 10). Cromwell returned +to England at the end of May 1650, and on June 26 Fairfax, who had been +anxious and uneasy since the execution of the king, resigned the +command-in-chief of the army to his lieutenant-general. The pretext, +rather than the reason, of Fairfax's resignation was his unwillingness +to lead an English army to reduce Scotland. + +51. _The Invasion of Scotland._--This important step had been resolved +upon as soon as it was clear that Charles II. would come to terms with +the Covenanters. From this point the Second Civil War becomes a war of +England against Scotland. Here at least the Independents carried the +whole of England with them. No Englishman cared to accept a settlement +at the hands of a victorious foreign army, and on the 28th of June, five +days after Charles II. had sworn to the Covenant, the new lord-general +was on his way to the Border to take command of the English army. About +the same time a new militia act was passed that was destined to give +full and decisive effect to the national spirit of England in the great +final campaign of the war. Meanwhile the motto _frappez fort, frappez +vite_ was carried out at once by the regular forces. On the 19th of July +1650 Cromwell made the final arrangements at Berwick-on-Tweed. +Major-General Harrison, a gallant soldier and an extreme Independent, +was to command the regular and auxiliary forces left in England, and to +secure the Commonwealth against Royalists and Presbyterians. Cromwell +took with him Fleetwood as lieutenant-general and Lambert as +major-general, and his forces numbered about 10,000 foot and 5000 horse. +His opponent David Leslie (his comrade of Marston Moor) had a much +larger force, but its degree of training was inferior, it was more than +tainted by the political dissensions of the people at large, and it was, +in great part at any rate, raised by forced enlistment. On the 22nd of +July Cromwell crossed the Tweed. He marched on Edinburgh by the sea +coast, through Dunbar, Haddington and Musselburgh, living almost +entirely on supplies landed by the fleet which accompanied him--for the +country itself was incapable of supporting even a small army--and on the +29th he found Leslie's army drawn up and entrenched in a position +extending from Leith to Edinburgh. + +52. _Operations around Edinburgh._--The same day a sharp but indecisive +fight took place on the lower slopes of Arthur's Seat, after which +Cromwell, having felt the strength of Leslie's line, drew back to +Musselburgh. Leslie's horse followed him up sharply, and another action +was fought, after which the Scots assaulted Musselburgh without success. +Militarily Leslie had the best of it in these affairs, but it was +precisely this moment that the kirk party chose to institute a searching +three days' examination of the political and religious sentiments of his +army. The result was that the army was "purged" of 80 officers and 3000 +soldiers as it lay within musket shot of the enemy. Cromwell was more +concerned, however, with the supply question than with the distracted +army of the Scots. On the 6th of August he had to fall back as far as +Dunbar to enable the fleet to land supplies in safety, the port of +Musselburgh being unsafe in the violent and stormy weather which +prevailed. He soon returned to Musselburgh and prepared to force Leslie +to battle. In preparation for an extended manoeuvre three days' rations +were served out. Tents were also issued, perhaps for the first time in +the civil wars, for it was a regular professional army, which had to be +cared for, made comfortable and economized, that was now carrying on the +work of the volunteers of the first war. Even after Cromwell started on +his manoeuvre, the Scottish army was still in the midst of its political +troubles, and, certain though he was that nothing but victory in the +field would give an assured peace, he was obliged to intervene in the +confused negotiations of the various Scottish parties. At last, however, +Charles II. made a show of agreeing to the demands of his strange +supporters, and Leslie was free to move. Cromwell had now entered the +hill country, with a view to occupying Queensferry and thus blocking up +Edinburgh. Leslie had the shorter road and barred the way at +Corstorphine Hill (August 21). Cromwell, though now far from his base, +manoeuvred again to his right, Leslie meeting him once more at Gogar +(August 27). The Scottish lines at that point were strong enough to +dismay even Cromwell, and the manoeuvre on Queensferry was at last given +up. It had cost the English army severe losses in sick, and much +suffering in the autumn nights on the bleak hillsides. + +53. _Dunbar._--On the 28th Cromwell fell back on Musselburgh, and on the +31st, after embarking his non-effective men, to Dunbar. Leslie followed +him up, and wished to fight a battle at Dunbar on Sunday, the 1st of +September. But again the kirk intervened, this time to forbid Leslie to +break the Sabbath, and the unfortunate Scottish commander could only +establish himself on Doon Hill (see DUNBAR) and send a force to +Cockburnspath to bar the Berwick road. He had now 23,000 men to +Cromwell's 11,000, and proposed, _faute de mieux_, to starve Cromwell +into surrender. But the English army was composed of "ragged soldiers +with bright muskets," and had a great captain of undisputed authority at +their head. Leslie's, on the other hand, had lost such discipline as it +had ever possessed, and was now, under outside influences, thoroughly +disintegrated. Cromwell wrote home, indeed, that he was "upon an +engagement very difficult," but, desperate as his position seemed, he +felt the pulse of his opponent and steadily refused to take his army +away by sea. He had not to wait long. It was now the turn of Leslie's +men on the hillside to endure patiently privation and exposure, and +after one night's bivouac, Leslie, too readily inferring that the enemy +was about to escape by sea, came down to fight. The battle of Dunbar +(q.v.) opened in the early morning of the 3rd of September. It was the +most brilliant of all Oliver's victories. Before the sun was high in the +heavens the Scottish army had ceased to exist. + +54. _Royalism in Scotland._--After Dunbar it was easy for the victorious +army to overrun southern Scotland, more especially as the dissensions of +the enemy were embittered by the defeat of which they had been the prime +cause. The kirk indeed put Dunbar to the account of its own remissness +in not purging their army more thoroughly, but, as Cromwell wrote on the +4th of September, the kirk had "done its do." "I believe their king will +set up on his own score," he continued, and indeed, now that the army of +the kirk was destroyed and they themselves were secure behind the Forth +and based on the friendly Highlands, Charles and the Cavaliers were in a +position not only to defy Cromwell, but also to force the Scottish +national spirit of resistance to the invader into a purely Royalist +channel. Cromwell had only received a few drafts and reinforcements from +England, and for the present he could but block up Edinburgh Castle +(which surrendered on Christmas eve), and try to bring up adequate +forces and material for the siege of Stirling--an attempt which was +frustrated by the badness of the roads and the violence of the weather. +The rest of the early winter of 1650 was thus occupied in semi-military, +semi-political operations between detachments of the English army and +certain armed forces of the kirk party which still maintained a +precarious existence in the western Lowlands, and in police work against +the moss-troopers of the Border counties. Early in February 1651, still +in the midst of terrible weather, Cromwell made another resolute but +futile attempt to reach Stirling. This time he himself fell sick, and +his losses had to be made good by drafts of recruits from England, many +of whom came most unwillingly to serve in the cold wet bivouacs that the +newspapers had graphically reported.[7] + +55. _The English Militia._--About this time there occurred in England +two events which had a most important bearing on the campaign. The first +was the detection of a widespread Royalist-Presbyterian conspiracy--how +widespread no one knew, for those of its promoters who were captured and +executed certainly formed but a small fraction of the whole number. +Harrison was ordered to Lancashire in April to watch the north Welsh, +Isle of Man and Border Royalists, and military precautions were taken in +various parts of England. The second was the revival of the militia. +Since 1644 there had been no general employment of local forces, the +quarrel having fallen into the hands of the regular armies by force of +circumstances. The New Model, though a national army, resembled +Wellington's Peninsular army more than the soldiers of the French +Revolution and the American Civil War. It was now engaged in prosecuting +a war of aggression against the hereditary foe over the Border--strictly +the task of a professional army with a national basis. The militia was +indeed raw and untrained. Some of the Essex men "fell flat on their +faces on the sound of a cannon." In the north of England Harrison +complained to Cromwell of the "badness" of his men, and the lord general +sympathized, having "had much such stuff" sent him to make good the +losses in trained men. Even he for a moment lost touch with the spirit +of the people. His recruits were unwilling drafts for foreign service, +but in England the new levies were trusted to defend their homes, and +the militia was soon triumphantly to justify its existence on the day of +Worcester. + +56. _Inverkeithing._--While David Leslie organized and drilled the +king's new army beyond the Forth, Cromwell was, slowly and with frequent +relapses, recovering from his illness. The English army marched to +Glasgow in April, then returned to Edinburgh. The motives of the march +and that of the return are alike obscure, but it may be conjectured +that, the forces in England under Harrison having now assembled in +Lancashire, the Edinburgh-Newcastle-York road had to be covered by the +main army. Be this as it may, Cromwell's health again broke down and his +life was despaired of. Only late in June were operations actively +resumed between Stirling and Linlithgow. At first Cromwell sought +without success to bring Leslie to battle, but he stormed Callendar +House near Falkirk on July 13, and on the 16th of July he began the +execution of a brilliant and successful manoeuvre. A force from +Queensferry, covered by the English fleet, was thrown across the Firth +of Forth to Northferry. Lambert followed with reinforcements, and +defeated a detachment of Leslie's army at Inverkeithing on the 20th. +Leslie drew back at once, but managed to find a fresh strong position in +front of Stirling, whence he defied Cromwell again. At this juncture +Cromwell prepared to pass his whole army across the firth. His +contemplated manoeuvre of course gave up to the enemy all the roads into +England, and before undertaking it the lord general held a consultation +with Harrison, as the result of which that officer took over the direct +defence of the whole Border. But his mind was made up even before this, +for on the day he met Harrison at Linlithgow three-quarters of his whole +army had already crossed into Fife. Burntisland, surrendered to Lambert +on the 29th, gave Cromwell a good harbour upon which to base his +subsequent movements. On the 30th of July the English marched upon +Perth, and the investment of this place, the key to Leslie's supply +area, forced the crisis at once. Whether Leslie would have preferred to +manoeuvre Cromwell from his vantage-ground or not is immaterial; the +young king and the now predominant Royalist element at headquarters +seized the long-awaited opportunity at once, and on the 31st, leaving +Cromwell to his own devices, the Royal army marched southward to raise +the Royal standard in England. + +57. _The Third Scottish Invasion of England._--Then began the last and +most thrilling campaign of the Great Rebellion. Charles II. expected +complete success. In Scotland, _vis-a-vis_ the extreme Covenanters, he +was a king on conditions, and he was glad enough to find himself in +England with some thirty solidly organized regiments under Royalist +officers and with no regular army in front of him. He hoped, too, to +rally not merely the old faithful Royalists, but also the overwhelming +numerical strength of the English Presbyterians to his standard. His +army was kept well in hand, no excesses were allowed, and in a week the +Royalists covered 150 m.--in marked contrast to the duke of Hamilton's +ill-fated expedition of 1648. On the 8th of August the troops were given +a well-earned rest between Penrith and Kendal. + +But the Royalists were mistaken in supposing that the enemy was taken +aback by their new move. Everything had been foreseen both by Cromwell +and by the Council of State in Westminster. The latter had called out +the greater part of the militia on the 7th. Lieutenant-General Fleetwood +began to draw together the midland contingents at Banbury, the London +trained bands turned out for field service no fewer than 14,000 strong. +Every suspected Royalist was closely watched, and the magazines of arms +in the country-houses of the gentry were for the most part removed into +the strong places. On his part Cromwell had quietly made his +preparations. Perth passed into his hands on the 2nd of August, and he +brought back his army to Leith by the 5th. Thence he despatched Lambert +with a cavalry corps to harass the invaders. Harrison was already at +Newcastle picking the best of the county mounted troops to add to his +own regulars. On the 9th Charles was at Kendal, Lambert hovering in his +rear, and Harrison marching swiftly to bar his way at the Mersey. +Fairfax emerged for a moment from his retirement to organize the +Yorkshire levies, and the best of these as well as of the Lancashire, +Cheshire and Staffordshire militias were directed upon Warrington, which +point Harrison reached on the 15th, a few hours in front of Charles's +advanced guard. Lambert too, slipping round the left flank of the enemy, +joined Harrison, and the English fell back (16th), slowly and without +letting themselves be drawn into a fight, along the London road. + +58. _Campaign of Worcester._--Cromwell meanwhile, leaving Monk with the +least efficient regiments to carry on the war in Scotland, had reached +the Tyne in seven days, and thence, marching 20 m. a day in extreme +heat--with the country people carrying their arms and equipment--the +regulars entered Ferrybridge on the 19th, at which date Lambert, +Harrison and the north-western militia were about Congleton.[8] It +seemed probable that a great battle would take place between Lichfield +and Coventry about the 25th or 26th of August, and that Cromwell, +Harrison, Lambert and Fleetwood would all take part in it. But the scene +and the date of the _denouement_ were changed by the enemy's movements. +Shortly after leaving Warrington the young king had resolved to abandon +the direct march on London and to make for the Severn valley, where his +father had found the most constant and the most numerous adherents in +the first war, and which had been the centre of gravity of the English +Royalist movement of 1648. Sir Edward Massey, formerly the Parliamentary +governor of Gloucester, was now with Charles, and it was hoped that he +would induce his fellow-Presbyterians to take arms. The military quality +of the Welsh border Royalists was well proved, that of the +Gloucestershire Presbyterians not less so, and, based on Gloucester and +Worcester as his father had been based on Oxford, Charles II. hoped, not +unnaturally, to deal with an Independent minority more effectually than +Charles I. had done with a Parliamentary majority of the people of +England. But even the pure Royalism which now ruled in the invading army +could not alter the fact that it was a Scottish army, and it was not an +Independent faction but all England that took arms against it. Charles +arrived at Worcester on the 22nd of August, and spent five days in +resting the troops, preparing for further operations, and gathering and +arming the few recruits who came in. It is unnecessary to argue that the +delay was fatal; it was a necessity of the case foreseen and accepted +when the march to Worcester had been decided upon, and had the other +course, that of marching on London via Lichfield, been taken the battle +would have been fought three days earlier with the same result. As +affairs turned out Cromwell merely shifted the area of his concentration +two marches to the south-west, to Evesham. Early on the 28th Lambert +surprised the passage of the Severn at Upton, 6 m. below Worcester, and +in the action which followed Massey was severely wounded. Fleetwood +followed Lambert. The enemy was now only 16,000 strong and disheartened +by the apathy with which they had been received in districts formerly +all their own. Cromwell, for the first and last time in his military +career, had a two-to-one numerical superiority. + +59. _The "Crowning Mercy."_--He took his measures deliberately. Lilburne +from Lancashire and Major Mercer with the Worcestershire horse were to +secure Bewdley Bridge on the enemy's line of retreat. Lambert and +Fleetwood were to force their way across the Teme (a little river on +which Rupert had won his first victory in 1642) and attack St John's, +the western suburb of Worcester. Cromwell himself and the main army were +to attack the town itself. On the 3rd of September, the anniversary of +Dunbar, the programme was carried out exactly. Fleetwood forced the +passage of the Teme, and the bridging train (which had been carefully +organized for the purpose) bridged both the Teme and the Severn. Then +Cromwell on the left bank and Fleetwood on the right swept in a +semicircle 4 m. long up to Worcester. Every hedgerow was contested by +the stubborn Royalists, but Fleetwood's men would not be denied, and +Cromwell's extreme right on the eastern side of the town repelled, after +three hours' hard fighting, the last desperate attempt of the Royalists +to break out. It was indeed, as a German critic[9] has pointed out, the +prototype of Sedan. Everywhere the defences were stormed as darkness +came on, regulars and militia fighting with equal gallantry, and the few +thousands of the Royalists who escaped during the night were easily +captured by Lilburne and Mercer, or by the militia which watched every +road in Yorkshire and Lancashire. Even the country people brought in +scores of prisoners, for officers and men alike, stunned by the +suddenness of the disaster, offered no resistance. Charles escaped after +many adventures, but he was one of the few men in his army who regained +a place of safety. The Parliamentary militia were sent home within a +week. Cromwell, who had ridiculed "such stuff" six months ago, knew them +better now. "Your new raised forces," he wrote to the House, "did +perform singular good service, for which they deserve a very high +estimation and acknowledgment." Worcester resembled Sedan in much more +than outward form. Both were fought by "nations in arms," by citizen +soldiers who had their hearts in the struggle, and could be trusted not +only to fight their hardest but to march their best. Only with such +troops would a general dare to place a deep river between the two halves +of his army or to send away detachments beforehand to reap the fruits of +victory, in certain anticipation of winning the victory with the +remainder. The sense of duty, which the raw militia possessed in so high +a degree, ensured the arrival and the action of every column at the +appointed time and place. The result was, in brief, one of those rare +victories in which a pursuit is superfluous--a "crowning mercy," as +Cromwell called it. There is little of note in the closing operations. +Monk had completed his task by May 1652; and Scotland, which had twice +attempted to impose its will on England, found itself reduced to the +position of an English province under martial law. The details of its +subjection are uninteresting after the tremendous climax of Worcester. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Earl of Clarendon, _The History of the Rebellion_ + (Oxford, 1702-1704, ed. W. D. Macray, Oxford, 1888); R. Baillie, + _Letters and Journals_ (Bannatyne Society, 1841); T. Carlyle, + _Cromwell's Letters and Speeches_ (new edition, S. C. Lomas, London, + 1904); _Fairfax Correspondence_ (ed. R. Bell, London, 1849); E. + Borlace, _History of the Irish Rebellion_ (London, 1675); R. Bellings, + _Fragmentum historicum, or the ... War in Ireland_ (London, 1772); J. + Heath, _Chronicle of the late Intestine War_ (London, 1676); _Military + Memoir of Colonel Birch_ (Camden Society, new series, vol. vii., + 1873); _Autobiography of Captain John Hodgson_ (edition of 1882); + Papers on the earl of Manchester, Camden Society, vol. viii., and + _English Historical Review_, vol. iii.; J. Ricraft, _Survey of + England's Champions_ (1647, reprinted, London, 1818); ed. E. + Warburton, _Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers_ (London, + 1849); J. Vicars, _Jehovah-Jireh_ (1644), and _England's Worthies_ + (1647), the latter reprinted in 1845: Anthony a Wood, _History and + Antiquities of the University of Oxford_ (ed. J. Gutch, Oxford, + 1792-1795); Margaret, duchess of Newcastle, Life of _William + Cavendish, duke of Newcastle_ (ed. C. H. Firth, London, 1886); Lucy + Hutchinson, _Memoir of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson_ (ed. C. H. + Firth, Oxford, 1896); _Memoirs of Edward Ludlow_ (ed. C. H. Firth, + Oxford, 1892); S. Ashe and W. Goode, _The Services of the Earl of + Manchester's Army_ (London, 1644); H. Cary, _Memorials of the Great + Civil War_ (London, 1842); Patrick Gordon, _Passages from the Diary of + Patrick Gordon_ (Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1859); J. Gwynne, _Military + Memoirs of the Civil War_ (ed. Sir W. Scott, Edinburgh, 1822); + _Narratives of Hamilton's Expedition_, 1648 (C. H. Firth, Scottish + Historical Society, Edinburgh, 1904); Lord Hopton, _Bellum Civile_ + (Somerset Record Society, London, 1902); _Irish War of 1641_ (Camden + Society, old series, vol. xiv., 1841); _Iter Carolinum, Marches of + Charles I. 1641-1649_ (London, 1660); Hugh Peters, _Reports from the + Armies of Fairfax and Cromwell_ (London, 1645-1646); "Journal of the + Marches of Prince Rupert" (ed. C. H. Firth, _Engl. Historical Review_, + 1898); J. Sprigge, _Anglia Rediviva_ (London, 1847, reprinted Oxford, + 1854); R. Symonds, _Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army, 1644-1645_ + (ed. C. E. Long, Camden Society, old series, 1859); J. Corbet, _The + Military Government of Gloucester_ (London, 1645); M. Carter, + _Expeditions of Kent, Essex and Colchester_ (London, 1650); _Tracts + relating to the Civil War in Lancashire_ (ed. G. Ormerod, Chetham + Society, London, 1844); _Discourse of the War in Lancashire_ (ed. W. + Beament, Chetham Society, London, 1864); Sir M. Langdale, _The late + Fight at Preston_ (London, 1648); _Journal of the Siege of Lathom + House_ (London, 1823); J. Rushworth, _The Storming of Bristol_ + (London, 1645); S. R. Gardiner _History of the Great Civil War_ + (London, 1886); and _History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_ + (London, 1903); C. H. Firth, _Oliver Cromwell_ (New York and London, + 1900); _Cromwell's Army_ (London, 1902); "The Raising of the + Ironsides," _Transactions R. Hist. Society_, 1899 and 1901; papers in + _English Historical Review_, and memoirs of the leading personages of + the period in _Dictionary of National Biography_; T. S. Baldock, + _Cromwell as a Soldier_ (London, 1899); F. Hoenig, _Oliver Cromwell_ + (Berlin, 1887-1889); Sir J. Maclean, _Memoirs of the Family of Poyntz_ + (Exeter, 1886); Sir C. Markham, _Life of Fairfax_ (London, 1870); M. + Napier, _Life and Times of Montrose_ (Edinburgh, 1840); W. B. + Devereux, _Lives of the Earls of Essex_ (London, 1853); W. G. Ross, + _Mil. Engineering in the Civil War_ (R. E. Professional Papers, 1887); + "The Battle of Naseby," _English Historical Review_, 1888; _Oliver + Cromwell and his Ironsides_ (Chatham, 1869); F. N. Maude, _Cavalry, + its Past and Future_ (London, 1903); E. Scott, _Rupert, Prince + Palatine_ (London, 1899); M. Stace, _Cromwelliana_ (London, 1870); C. + S. Terry, _Life and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven_ + (London, 1899); Madame H. de Witt, _The Lady of Lathom_ (London, + 1869); F. Maseres, _Tracts relating to the Civil War_ (London, 1815); + P. A. Charrier, _Cromwell_ (London, 1905), also paper in _Royal United + Service Institution Journal_, 1906; T. Arnold and W. G. Ross, + "Edgehill," _English Historical Review_, 1887; _The History of Basing + House_ (Basingstoke, 1869); E. Broxap, "The Sieges of Hull," _English + Historical Review_, 1905; J. Willis Bund, _The Civil War in + Worcestershire_ (Birmingham, 1905); C. Coates, _History of Reading_ + (London, 1802); F. Drake, _Eboracum: History of the City of York_ + (London, 1736); N. Drake, _Siege of Pontefract Castle_ (Surtees + Society Miscellanea, London, 1861); G. N. Godwin, _The Civil War in + Hampshire_ (2nd ed., London, 1904); J. F. Hollings, _Leicester during + the Civil War_ (Leicester, 1840); R. Holmes, _Sieges of Pontefract + Castle_ (Pontefract, 1887); A. Kingston, _East Anglia and the Civil + War_ (London, 1897); H. E. Maiden, "Maidstone, 1648," _English Hist. + Review_, 1892; W. Money, _Battles of Newbury_ (Newbury, 1884); J. R. + Phillips, _The Civil War in Wales and the Marches_ (London, 1874); G. + Rigaud, _Lines round Oxford_ (1880); G. Roberts, _History of Lyme_ + (London, 1834); [R. Robinson] _Sieges of Bristol_ (Bristol, 1868); [J. + H. Round] _History of Colchester Castle_ (Colchester, 1882) and "The + Case of Lucas and Lisle," _Transactions of R. Historical Society_, + 1894; R. R. Sharpe, _London and the Kingdom_ (London, 1894); I. + Tullie, _Siege of Carlisle_ (1840); E. A. Walford, "Edgehill," + _English Hist. Review_, 1905; J. Washbourne, _Bibliotheca + Gloucestrensis_ (Gloucester, 1825); J. Webb, _Civil War in + Herefordshire_(London, 1879). (C. F. A.) + + FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Gustavus Adolphus before the battle of the Alte Veste (see THIRTY + YEARS' WAR). + + [2] "Making not money but that which they took to be the public + felicity to be their end they were the more engaged to be valiant" + (Baxter). + + [3] For the third time within the year the London trained bands + turned out in force. It was characteristic of the early years of the + war that imminent danger alone called forth the devotion of the + citizen soldier. If he was employed in ordinary times (e.g. at Basing + House) he would neither fight nor march with spirit. + + [4] Charles's policy was still, as before Marston Moor, to "spin out + time" until Rupert came back from the north. + + [5] The ground has been entirely built over for many years. + + [6] The Puritans had by now disappeared almost entirely from the + ranks of the infantry. _Per contra_ the officers and sergeants and + the troopers of the horse were the sternest Puritans of all, the + survivors of three years of a disheartening war. + + [7] The tents were evidently issued for regular marches, not for + cross-country manoeuvres against the enemy. These manoeuvres, as we + have seen, often took several days. The _bon general ordinaire_ of + the 17th and 18th centuries framed his manoeuvres on a smaller scale + so as not to expose his expensive and highly trained soldiers to + discomfort and the consequent temptation to desert. + + [8] The lord general had during his march thrown out successively two + flying columns under Colonel Lilburne to deal with the Lancashire + Royalists under the earl of Derby. Lilburne entirely routed the enemy + at Wigan on the 25th of August. + + [9] Fritz Hoenig, _Cromwell_. + + + + +GREAT SALT LAKE, a shallow body of highly concentrated brine in the N.W. +part of Utah, U.S.A., lying between 118.8 deg. and 113.2 deg. W. long, +and between 40.7 deg. and 41.8 deg. lat. Great Salt Lake is 4218 ft. +above sea-level. It has no outlet, and is fed chiefly by the Jordan, the +Weber and the Bear rivers, all draining the mountainous country to the +E. and S.E. The irregular outline of the lake has been compared to the +roughly drawn hand, palm at the S., thumb (exaggerated in breadth) +pointing N.E., and the fingers (crowded together and drawn too small) +reaching N. + +No bathymetric survey of the lake has been made, but the maximum depth +is 60 ft. and the mean depth less than 20 ft., possibly as little as 13 +ft. The lake in 1906 was approximately 75 m. long., from N.W. to S.E., +and had a maximum width of 50 m. and an area of 1750 sq. m. This area is +not constant, as the water is very shallow at the margins, and the +relation between supply from precipitation, &c., and loss by evaporation +is variable, there being an annual difference in the height of the water +of 15-18 in. between June (highest) and November (lowest), and besides a +difference running through longer cycles: in 1850 the water was lower +and the lake smaller than by any previous observations (the area and +general outline were nearly the same again in 1906); then the water rose +until 1873; and between 1886 and 1902 the fall in level was 11.6 ft. The +range of rise and fall from 1845 to 1886 was 13 ft., this being the rise +in 1865-1886. With the fall of water there is an increase in the +specific gravity, which in 1850 was 1.17, and in September 1901 was +1.179; in 1850 the proportion of solids by weight was 22.282%, in +September 1901 it was 25.221; at the earlier of these dates the solids +in a litre of water weighed 260.69 grams, at the latter date 302.122 +grams. The exact cause of this cyclic variation is unknown: the low +level of 1906 is usually regarded as the result of extensive irrigation +and ploughing in the surrounding country, which have robbed the lake, in +part, of its normal supply of water. It is also to be noted that the +rise and fall of the lake level have been coincident, respectively, with +continued wet and dry cycles. That the lake will soon dry up entirely +seems unlikely, as there is a central trough, 25 to 30 m. wide, about 40 +ft. deep, running N.W. and S.E. The area and shore-line of the lake are +evidently affected by a slight surface tilt, for during the same +generation that has seen the recent fall of the lake level the +shore-line is in many cases 2 m. from the old, and fences may be seen a +mile or more out in the lake. The lake bed is for the most part clear +sand along the margin, and in deeper water is largely coated with crusts +of salt, soda and gypsum. + +The lake is a novel and popular bathing resort, the specific gravity of +the water being so great that one cannot sink or entirely submerge +oneself. There are well-equipped bathing pavilions at Garfield and +Saltair on the S. shore of the lake about 20 m. from Salt Lake City. The +bathing is invigorating; it must be followed by a freshwater bath +because of the incrustation of the body from the briny water. The large +amount of salt in the water makes both fauna and flora of the lake +scanty; there are a few algae, the larvae of an _Ephydra_ and of a +_Tipula_ fly, specimens of what seems to be _Corixa decolor_, and in +great quantities, so as to tint the surface of the water, the brine +shrimp, _Artemia salina_ (or _gracilis_ or _fertilis_), notable +biologically for the rarity of males, for the high degree of +parthenogenesis and for apparent interchangeableness with the +_Branchipus_. + +The lake is of interest for its generally mountainous surroundings, save +to the N.W., where it skirts the Great Salt Lake Desert, for the +mountainous peninsula, the Promontory, lying between thumb and fingers +of the hand, shaped like and resembling in geological structure the two +islands S. of it, Fremont and Antelope,[1] and the Oquirrh range S. of +the lake. The physiography of the surrounding country shows clearly that +the basin occupied by Great Salt Lake is one of many left by the drying +up of a large Pleistocene lake, which has been called lake Bonneville. +Well-defined wave-cut cliffs and terraces show two distinct shore-lines +of this early lake, one the "Bonneville Shore-line," about 1000 ft. +above Great Salt Lake, and the other, the "Provo Shoreline," about 625 +ft. higher than the present lake. These shorelines and the presence of +two alluvial deposits, the lower and the larger of yellow clay 90 ft. +deep, and, separated from it by a plane of erosion, the other, a deposit +of white marl, 10-20 ft. deep, clearly prove the main facts as to lake +Bonneville: a dry basin was first occupied by the shallow waters of a +small lake; then, during a long period of excessive moisture (or cold), +the waters rose and spread over an area nearly as large as lake Huron +with a maximum depth of 1000 ft.; a period of great dryness followed, in +which the lake disappeared; then came a second, shorter, but more +intense period of moisture, and in this time the lake rose, covered a +larger area than before, including W. Utah and a little of S. Idaho and +of E. Nevada, about 19,750 sq. m., had a very much broken shore-line of +2550 m. and a maximum depth of 1050 ft. and a mean depth of 800 ft., +overflowed the basin at the N., and by a tributary stream through Red +Rock Pass at the N. end of the Cache valley poured its waters into the +Columbia river system. The great lake was then gradually reduced by +evaporation, leaving only shallow bodies of salt water, of which Great +Salt Lake is the largest. The cause of the climatic variations which +brought about this complex history of the Salt Lake region is not known; +but it is worthy of note that the periods of highest water levels were +coincident with a great expansion of local valley glaciers, some of +which terminated in the waters of lake Bonneville. + +Industrially Great Salt Lake is of a certain importance. In early days +it was the source of the salt supply of the surrounding country; and the +manufacture of salt is now an important industry. The brine is pumped +into conduits, carried to large ponds and there evaporated by the sun; +during late years the salt has been refined here, being purified of the +sulphates and magnesium compounds which formerly rendered it +efflorescent and of a low commercial grade. Mirabilite, or Glauber's +salt, is commercially valuable, occurring in such quantities in parts of +the lake that one may wade knee-deep in it; it separates from the brine +at a temperature between 30 deg. and 20 deg. F. The lake is crossed E. +and W. by the Southern Pacific railway's so-called "Lucin Cut-off," +which runs from Ogden to Lucin on a trestle with more than 20 m. of +"fill"; the former route around the N. end of the lake was 43 m. long. + +Great Salt Lake was first described in 1689 by Baron La Hontan, who had +merely heard of it from the Indians. "Jim" Bridger, a famous mountaineer +and scout, saw the lake in 1824, apparently before any other white man. +Captain Bonneville described the lake and named it after himself, but +the name was transferred to the great Pleistocene lake. John C. Fremont +gave the first description of any accuracy in his _Report_ of 1845. But +comparatively little was known of it before the Mormon settlement in +1847. In 1850 Captain Howard Stansbury completed a survey, whose results +were published in 1852. The most extensive and important studies of the +region, however, are those by Grove Karl Gilbert of the United States +Geological Survey, who in 1879-1890 studied especially the earlier and +greater lake. + + See J. E. Talmage, _The Great Salt Lake, Present and Past_ (Salt Lake + City, 1900); and Grove Karl Gilbert, _Lake Bonneville_, monograph 1 of + United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1890), containing (pp. + 12-19) references to the earlier literature. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Besides these islands there are a few small islands farther N., + and W. of Antelope, Stansbury Island, which, like Antelope and + Fremont Islands, is connected with the mainland by a bar sometimes + uncovered, and rarely in more than a foot of water. + + + + +GREAT SLAVE LAKE (ATHAPUSCOW), a lake of Mackenzie district, Canada. It +is situated between 60 deg. 50' and 62 deg. 55' N. and 108 deg. 40' and +117 deg. W., at an altitude of 391 ft. above the sea. It is 325 m. long, +from 15 to 50 m. wide, and includes an area of 9770 sq. m. The water is +very clear and deep. Its coast line is irregular and deeply indented by +large bays, and its north-eastern shores are rugged and mountainous. The +western shores are well wooded, chiefly with spruce, but the northern +and eastern are dreary and barren. It is navigable from about the 1st of +July to the end of October. The Yellow-knife, Hoarfrost, Lockhart +(discharging the waters of Aylmer, Clinton-Colden and Artillery Lakes), +Tchzudezeth, Du Rocher, Hay (400 m. in length), and Slave rivers empty +into Great Slave Lake. The bulk of its water empties by the Mackenzie +river into the Arctic Ocean, but a small portion finds its way by the +Ark-i-linik river into Hudson's Bay. It was discovered in 1771 by Samuel +Hearne. + + + + +GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN, the name given to the belt of water which extends +almost continuously round the globe between the parallel of 40 deg. S. +and the Antarctic Circle (66-1/2 deg. S.). The fact that the southern +extremity of South America is the only land extending into this belt +gives it special physical importance in relation to tides and currents, +and its position with reference to the Antarctic Ocean and continent +makes it convenient to regard it as a separate ocean from which the +Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans may be said to radiate. (See OCEAN.) + + + + +GREAVES, JOHN (1602-1652), English mathematician and antiquary, was the +eldest son of John Greaves, rector of Colemore, near Alresford in +Hampshire. He was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and in 1630 was +chosen professor of geometry in Gresham College, London. After +travelling in Europe, he visited the East in 1637, where he collected a +considerable number of Arabic, Persian and Greek manuscripts, and made a +more accurate survey of the pyramids of Egypt than any traveller who had +preceded him. On his return to Europe he visited a second time several +parts of Italy, and during his stay at Rome instituted inquiries into +the ancient weights and measures. In 1643 he was appointed to the +Savilian professorship of astronomy at Oxford, but he was deprived of +his Gresham professorship for having neglected its duties. In 1645 he +essayed a reformation of the calendar, but his plan was not adopted. In +1648 he lost both his fellowship and his Savilian chair on account of +his adherence to the royalist party. But his private fortune more than +sufficed for all his wants till his death on the 8th of October 1652. + + Besides his papers in the _Philosophical Transactions_, the principal + works of Greaves are _Pyramidographia, or a Description of the + Pyramids in Egypt_ (1646); _A Discourse on the Roman Foot and_ + _Denarius_ (1649); and _Elementa linguae Persicae_ (1649). His + miscellaneous works were published in 1737 by Dr Thomas Birch, with a + biographical notice of the author. See also Smith's _Vita quorundam + erudit. virorum_ and Ward's _Gresham Professors_. + + + + +GREBE (Fr. _grebe_), the generally accepted name for all the birds of +the family _Podicipedidae_,[1] belonging to the group _Pygopodes_ of +Illiger, members of which inhabit almost all parts of the world. Some +systematic writers have distributed them into several so-called genera, +but, with one exception, these seem to be insufficiently defined, and +here it will be enough to allow but two--Latham's _Podiceps_ and the +_Centropelma_ of Sclater and Salvin. Grebes are at once distinguishable +from all other water-birds by their rudimentary tail and the peculiar +structure of their feet, which are not only placed far behind, but have +the tarsi flattened and elongated toes furnished with broad lobes of +skin and flat blunt nails. + +[Illustration: Great Crested Grebe.] + +In Europe are five well-marked species of _Podiceps_, the commonest and +smallest of which is the very well-known dab-chick of English ponds, _P. +fluviatilis_ or _minor_, the little grebe of ornithologists, found +throughout the British Islands, and with a wide range in the old world. +Next in size are two species known as the eared and horned grebes, the +former of which, _P. nigricollis_, is a visitor from the south, only +occasionally showing itself in Britain and very rarely breeding, while +the latter, _P. auritus_, has a more northern range, breeding +plentifully in Iceland, and is a not uncommon winter-visitant. Then +there is the larger red-necked grebe, _P. griseigena_, also a northern +bird, and a native of the subarctic parts of both Europe and America, +while lastly the great crested grebe, _P. cristatus_ or gaunt--known as +the loon on the meres and broads of East Anglia and some other parts of +England, is also widely spread over the old world. North America is +credited with seven species of grebes, of which two (_P. griseigena_ and +_P. auritus_) are admitted to be specifically inseparable from those +already named, and two (_P. occidentalis_ and _P. californicus_) appear +to be but local forms; the remaining two (_P. dominicus_ and _P. +ludovicianus_) may, however, be accounted good species, and the last +differs so much from other grebes that many systematists make it the +type of a distinct genus, _Podilymbus_. South America seems to possess +four or five more species, one of which, the _P. micropterus_ of Gould +(_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1858, p. 220), has been deservedly separated +from the genus _Podiceps_ under the name _Centropelma_ by Sclater and +Salvin (_Exot. Ornithology_, p. 189, pl. xcv.), owing to the form of its +bill, and the small size of its wings, which renders it absolutely +flightless. Lake Titicaca in Bolivia is, so far as is known at present, +its only habitat. Grebes in general, though averse from taking wing, +have much greater power of flight than would seem possible on +examination of their alar organs, and are capable of prolonged aerial +journeys. Their plumage is short and close. Above it is commonly of some +shade of brown, but beneath it is usually white, and so glossy as to be +in much request for muffs and the trimming of ladies' dresses. Some +species are remarkable for the crests or tippets, generally of a +golden-chestnut colour, they assume in the breeding season. _P. auritus_ +is particularly remarkable in this respect, and when in its full nuptial +attire presents an extraordinary aspect, the head (being surrounded, as +it were, by a _nimbus_ or aureole, such as that with which painters +adorn saintly characters), reflecting the rays of light, glitters with a +glory that passes description. All the species seem to have similar +habits of nidification. Water-weeds are pulled from the bottom of the +pool, and piled on a convenient foundation, often a seminatant growth of +bogbean (_Menyanthes_), till they form a large mass, in the centre of +which a shallow cup is formed, and the eggs, with a chalky white shell +almost equally pointed at each end, are laid--the parent covering them, +whenever she has time to do so, before leaving the nest. Young grebes +are beautiful objects, clothed with black, white and brown down, +disposed in streaks and their bill often brilliantly tinted. When taken +from the nest and placed on dry ground, it is curious to observe the way +in which they progress--using the wings almost as fore-feet, and +suggesting the notion that they must be quadrupeds instead of birds. + (A. N.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Often, but erroneously, written _Podicipidae_. The word + _Podiceps_ being a contracted form of _Podicipes_ (cf. Gloger, + _Journal fur Ornithologie_, 1854, p. 430, note), a combination of + _podex_, _podicis_ and _pes_, _pedis_, its further compounds must be + in accordance with its derivation. + + + + +GRECO, EL, the name commonly given to Dominico Theotocopuli (d. 1614), +Cretan painter, architect and sculptor. He was born in Crete, between +1545 and 1550, and announces his Cretan origin by his signature in Greek +letters on his most important pictures, especially on the "St Maurice" +in the Escorial. He appears to have studied art first of all in Venice, +and on arriving in Rome in 1570 is described as having been a pupil of +Titian, in a letter written by the miniaturist, Giulio Clovio, addressed +to Cardinal Alessandro Farnesi, dated the 15th of November 1570. + +Although a student under Titian, he was at no time an exponent of his +master's spirit, and his early historical pictures were attributed to +many other artists, but never to Titian. Of his early works, two +pictures of "The Healing of the Blind Man" at Dresden and Palma, and the +four of "Christ driving the money-changers out of the Temple" in the +Yarborough collection, the Cork collection, the National Gallery, and +the Beruete collection at Madrid, are the chief. His first authentic +portrait is that of his fellow-countryman, Giulio Clovio. It was painted +between 1570 and 1578, is signed in Greek characters, and preserved at +Naples, and the last portrait he painted under the influence of the +Italian school appears to be that of a cardinal now in the National +Gallery, of which four replicas painted in Spain are known. He appears +to have come to Spain in 1577, but, on being questioned two years later +in connexion with a judicial suit, as to when he arrived in the country, +and for what purpose he came, declined to give any information. He was +probably attracted by the prospect of participating in the decoration of +the Escorial, and he appears to have settled down in Toledo, where his +first works were the paintings for the high altar of Santo Domingo, and +his famous picture of "The Disrobing of Christ" in the sacristy of the +cathedral. It was in connexion with this last-named work that he proved +refractory, and the records of a law-suit respecting the price to be +paid to him give us the earliest information of the artist's sojourn in +Spain. In 1590, he painted the "History of St Maurice" for Philip II., +and in 1578, his masterpiece, entitled "The Burial of the Count Orgaz." +This magnificent picture, one of the finest in Spain, is at last being +appreciated, and can only be put a little below the masterpieces of +Velazquez. It is a strangely individual work, representing Spanish +character even more truthfully than did any Spanish artist, and it +gathers up all the fugitive moods, the grace and charm, the devices and +defects of a single race, and gives them complete stability in their +wavering expressions. + +Between 1595 and 1600, El Greco executed two groups of paintings in the +church of San Jose at Toledo, and in the hospital of La Caridad, at +Illescas. Besides these, he is known to have painted thirty-two +portraits, several manuscripts, and many paintings for altar-pieces in +Toledo and the neighbourhood. As an architect he was responsible for +more than one of the churches of Toledo, and as a sculptor for carvings +both in wood and in marble, and he can only be properly understood in +all his varied excellences after a visit to the city where most of his +work was executed. + +He died on the 7th of April 1614, and the date of his death is one of +the very few certain facts which we have respecting him. The record +informs us that he made no will, that he received the sacraments, and +was buried in the church of Santo Domingo. The popular legend of his +having gone mad towards the latter part of his career has no foundation +in fact, but his painting became more and more eccentric as his life +went on, and his natural perversity and love of strange, cold colouring, +increased towards the end of his life. As has been well said, "Light +with him was only used for emotional appeal, and was focussed or +scattered at will." He was haughtily certain of the value of his own +art, and was determined to paint in cold, ashen colouring, with livid, +startling effect, the gaunt and extraordinary figures that he beheld +with his eccentric genius. His pictures have wonderful visionary +quality, admirable invention, and are full of passionate fervency. They +may be considered extravagant, but are never commonplace, and are +exceedingly attractive in their intense emotion, marvellous sincerity, +and strange, chilly colour. + +El Greco's work is typically modern, and from it the portrait-painter, +J. S. Sargent, claims to have learnt more than from that of any other +artist. It immortalizes the character of the people amongst whom he +dwelt, and he may be considered as the initiator of truth and realism in +art, a precursor and inspirer of Velazquez. + +In his own time he was exceedingly popular, and held in great repute. +Sonnets were written in his honour, and he is himself said to have +written several treatises, but these have not come down to our time. For +more than a generation his work was hardly known, but it is now gaining +rapidly in importance, and its true position is more and more +recognized. Some examples of the artist's own handwriting have been +discovered in Toledo, and Senor Don Manuel Cossia of Madrid has spent +many years collecting information for a work dealing with the artist. + (G. C. W.) + + + + +GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897. This war between Greece and Turkey (see GREECE: +_Modern History_) involved two practically distinct campaigns, in +Thessaly and in Epirus. Upon the Thessalian frontier the Turks, early in +March, had concentrated six divisions (about 58,000 men), 1500 sabres +and 156 guns, under Edhem Pasha. A seventh division was rendered +available a little later. The Greeks numbered about 45,000 infantry, 800 +cavalry and 96 guns, under the crown prince. On both sides there was a +considerable dispersion of forces along the frontier. The Turkish navy, +an important factor in the war of 1877-78, had become paralytic ten +years later, and the Greek squadron held complete command of the sea. +Expeditionary forces directed against the Turkish line of communications +might have influenced the course of the campaign; but for such work the +Greeks were quite unprepared, and beyond bombarding one or two +insignificant ports on the coast-line, and aiding the transport of +troops from Athens to Volo, the navy practically accomplished nothing. +On the 9th and 10th April Greek irregulars crossed the frontier, either +with a view to provoke hostilities or in the hope of fomenting a rising +in Macedonia. On the 16th and 17th some fighting occurred, in which +Greek regulars took part; and on the 18th Edhem Pasha, whose +headquarters had for some time been established at Elassona, ordered a +general advance. The Turkish plan was to turn the Greek left and to +bring on a decisive action, but this was not carried out. In the centre +the Turks occupied the Meluna Pass on the 19th, and the way was +practically open to Larissa. The Turkish right wing, however, moving on +Damani and the Reveni Pass, encountered resistance, and the left wing +was temporarily checked by the Greeks among the mountains near Nezeros. +At Mati, covering the road to Tyrnavo, the Greeks entrenched themselves. +Here sharp fighting occurred on the 21st and 22nd, during which the +Greeks sought to turn the right flank of the superior Turkish central +column. On the 23rd fighting was renewed, and the advance guard of the +Turkish left column, which had been reinforced, and had pressed back the +Greeks, reached Deliler. The Turkish forces had now drawn together, and +the Greeks were threatened on both flanks. In the evening a general +retreat was ordered, and the loose discipline of the Greek army was at +once manifested. Rumours of disaster spread among the ranks, and wild +panic supervened. There was nothing to prevent an orderly retirement +upon Larissa, which had been fortified and provisioned, and which +offered a good defensive position. The general _debacle_ could not, +however, be arrested, and in great disorder the mass of the Greek army +fled southwards to Pharsala. There was no pursuit, and the Turkish +commander-in-chief did not reach Larissa till the 27th. Thus ended the +first phase of the war, in which the Greeks showed tenacity in defence, +which proved fruitless by reason of initially bad strategic dispositions +entailing far too great dispersion, and also because there was no plan +of action beyond a general desire to avoid risking a defeat which might +prevent the expected risings in Macedonia and elsewhere. The handling of +the Turkish army showed little skill or enterprise; but on both sides +political considerations tended to prevent the application of sound +military principles. + +Larissa being abandoned by the Greeks, Velestino, the junction of the +Thessalian railways, where there was a strong position covering Volo, +seemed to be the natural rallying point for the Greek army. Here the +support of the fleet would have been secured, and a Turkish advance +across the Othrys range upon Athens could not have taken place until the +flanking position had been captured. Whether by direction or by natural +impulse, however, the mass of the Greek troops made for Pharsala, where +some order was re-established, and preparations were made to resist +attack. The importance of Velestino was recognized by sending a brigade +thither by railway from Pharsala, and the inferior Greek army was thus +split into two portions, separated by nearly 40 m. On 27th April a +Turkish reconnaissance on Velestino was repulsed, and further fighting +occurred on the 29th and 30th, in which the Greeks under Colonel +Smolenski held their own. Meanwhile the Turks made preparations to +attack Pharsala, and on 5th May the Greeks were driven from their +positions in front of the town by three divisions. Further fighting +followed on the 6th, and in the evening the Greek army retired in fair +order upon Domokos. It was intended to turn the Greek left with the +first division under Hairi Pasha, but the flanking force did not arrive +in time to bring about a decisive result. The abandonment of Pharsala +involved that of Velestino, where the Turks had obtained no advantage, +and on the evening of the 5th Colonel Smolenski began a retirement upon +Halmyros. Again delaying, Edhem Pasha did not attack Domokos till the +17th, giving the Greeks time to entrench their positions. The attack was +delivered in three columns, of which the right was checked and the +centre failed to take the Greek trenches and suffered much loss. The +left column, however, menaced the line of retreat, and the Greek army +abandoned the whole position during the night. No effective stand was +made at the Furka Pass, which was evacuated on the following night. +Colonel Smolenski, who arrived on the 18th from Halmyros, was directed +to hold the pass of Thermopylae. The Greek forces being much +demoralized, the intervention of the tsar was invoked by telegraph; and +the latter sent a personal appeal to the Sultan, who directed a +suspension of hostilities. On the 20th an armistice was arranged. + +In Epirus at the outbreak of war about 15,000 Greeks, including a +cavalry regiment and five batteries, the whole under Colonel Manos, +occupied a line of defence from Arta to Peta. The Turks, about 28,000 +strong, with forty-eight guns, under Achmet Hifsi Pasha, were +distributed mainly at Iannina, Pentepagadia, and in front of Arta. On +18th April the Turks commenced a three days' bombardment of Arta; but +successive attempts to take the bridge were repulsed, and during the +night of the 21st they retired on Philippiada, 26 m. distant, which was +attacked and occupied by Colonel Manos on the 23rd. The Greeks then +advanced to Pentepagadia, meeting with little resistance. Their +difficulties now began. After some skirmishing on the 27th, the position +held by their advanced force near Homopulos was attacked on the 28th. +The attack was renewed on the 29th, and no Greek reinforcements were +forthcoming when needed. The Euzones made a good defence, but were +driven back by superior force, and a retreat was ordered, which quickly +degenerated into panic-stricken flight to and across the Arta. +Reinforcements, including 2500 Epirote volunteers, were sent to Arta +from Athens, and on 12th May another incursion into Turkish territory +began, the apparent object being to occupy a portion of the country in +view of the breakdown in Thessaly and the probability that hostilities +would shortly end. The advance was made in three columns, while the +Epirote volunteers were landed near the mouth of the Luro river with the +idea of cutting off the Turkish garrison of Prevesa. The centre column, +consisting of a brigade, three squadrons and two batteries, which were +intended to take up and hold a defensive position, attacked the Turks +near Strevina on the 13th. The Greeks fought well, and being reinforced +by a battalion from the left column, resumed the offensive on the +following day, and fairly held their own. On the night of the 15th a +retreat was ordered and well carried out. The volunteers landed at the +mouth of the Luro, were attacked and routed with heavy loss. + +The campaign in Epirus thus failed as completely as that in Thessaly. +Under the terms of the treaty of peace, signed on 20th September, and +arranged by the European powers, Turkey obtained an indemnity of +LT4,000,000, and a rectification of the Thessalian frontier, carrying +with it some strategic advantage. History records few more unjustifiable +wars than that which Greece gratuitously provoked. The Greek troops on +several occasions showed tenacity and endurance, but discipline and +cohesion were manifestly wanting. Many of the officers were incapable; +the campaign was gravely mismanaged; and politics, which led to the war, +impeded its operations. On the other hand, the fruits of the German +tuition, which began in 1880, and received a powerful stimulus by the +appointment of General von der Goltz in 1883, were shown in the Turkish +army. The mobilization was on the whole smoothly carried out, and the +newly completed railways greatly facilitated the concentration on the +frontier. The young school of officers trained by General von der Goltz +displayed ability, and the artillery at Pharsala and Domokos was well +handled. The superior leading was, however, not conspicuously +successful; and while the rank and file again showed excellent military +qualities, political conditions and the Oriental predilection for +half-measures and for denying full responsibility and full powers to +commanders in the field enfeebled the conduct of the campaign. On +account of the total want of careful and systematic peace training on +both sides, a war which presented several interesting strategic problems +provided warnings in place of military lessons. (G. S. C.) + + + + +GREECE,[1] an ancient geographical area, and a modern kingdom more or +less corresponding thereto, situated at the south-eastern extremity of +Europe and forming the most southerly portion of the Balkan Peninsula. +The modern kingdom is bounded on the N. by European Turkey and on the +E., S. and W. by the Aegean, Mediterranean and Ionian seas. The name +_Graecia_, which was more or less vaguely given to the ancient country +by the Romans, seems not to have been employed by any native writer +before Aristotle; it was apparently derived by the Romans from the +Illyrians, who applied the name of an Epirote tribe ([Greek: Graikoi], +Graeci) to all their southern neighbours. The names Hellas, Hellenes +([Greek: Hellas, Hellenes]), by which the ancient Greeks called their +country and their race, and which are still employed by the modern +Greeks, originally designated a small district in Phthiotis in Thessaly +and its inhabitants, who gradually spread over the lands south of the +Cambunian mountains. The name Hellenes was not universally applied to +the Greek race until the post-Homeric epoch (Thucyd. i. 3). + +[Illustration: Map of Greece.] + + +1. GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS + + Extent of ancient Greece. + +The ancient Greeks had a somewhat vague conception of the northern +limits of Hellas. Thessaly was generally included and Epirus excluded; +some writers included some of the southern cantons of Epirus, while +others excluded not only all that country but Aetolia and Acarnania. +Generally speaking, the confines of Hellas in the age of its greatest +distinction were represented by a line drawn from the northern shore of +the Ambracian Gulf on the W. to the mouth of the Peneus on the E. +Macedonia and Thrace were regarded as outside the pale of Hellenic +civilization till 386 B.C., when after his conquest of Thessaly and +Phocis, Philip of Macedon obtained a seat in the Amphictyonic Council. +In another sense, however, the name Hellas expressed an ethnological +rather than a geographical unity; it denoted every country inhabited by +Hellenes. It thus embraced all the Greek settlements on the coasts and +islands of the Mediterranean, on the shores of the Hellespont, the +Bosporus and the Black Sea. Nevertheless, the Greek peninsula within the +limits described above, together with the adjacent islands, was always +regarded as Hellas _par excellence_. The continental area of Hellas +proper was no greater than that of the modern Greek kingdom, which +comprises but a small portion of the territories actually occupied by +the Greek race. The Greeks have always been a maritime people, and the +real centre of the national life is now, as in antiquity, the Aegean Sea +or Archipelago. Thickly studded with islands and bordered by deeply +indented coasts with sheltered creeks and harbours, the Aegean in the +earliest days of navigation invited the enterprise of the mariner; its +shores, both European and Asiatic, became covered with Greek settlements +and its islands, together with Crete and Cyprus, became Greek. True to +their maritime instincts, the Greeks rarely advanced inland to any +distance from the sea; the coasts of Macedonia, Thrace and Asia Minor +are still mainly Greek, but, except for some isolated colonies, the +_hinterland_ in each case lies outside the limits of the race. +Continental Greece is divided by its mountain ranges into a number of +natural cantons; the existence of physical barriers tended in the +earliest times to the growth of isolated political communities, and in +the epoch of its ancient independence the country was occupied by +seventeen separate states, none of them larger than an ordinary English +county. These states, which are noticed separately, were: Thessaly, in +northern Greece; Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris, Doris, Phocis, Megaris, +Boeotia and Attica in central Greece; and Corinthia, Sicyonia, Achaea, +Elis, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis and Arcadia in the Peloponnesus. + + + Extent of modern Greece. + +Modern Greece, which (including the adjacent islands) extends from 35 +deg. 50' to 39 deg. 54' N. and from 19 deg. 20' to 26 deg. 15' E., +comprises all the area formerly occupied by these states. Under the +arrangement concluded at Constantinople on the 21st of July 1832 between +Great Britain, France, Russia and Turkey, the northern boundary of +Greece was drawn from the Gulf of Arta (Sinus Ambracius) to the Gulf of +Volo (S. Pagasaeus), the line keeping to the crest of the Othrys range. +Thessaly and part of Acarnania were thus left to Turkey. The island of +Euboea, the Cyclades and the northern Sporades were added to the new +kingdom. In 1864 the Ionian Islands (q.v.) were ceded by Great Britain +to Greece. In 1880 the Conference of Berlin proposed a new frontier, +which transferred to Greece not only Thessaly but a considerable portion +of southern Epirus, extending to the river Kalamas. This, however, was +rejected by Turkey, and the existing boundary was traced in 1881. +Starting from the Aegean coast at a point near Platamona, between Mount +Olympus and the mouth of the Salambria (Peneus), the line passes over +the heights of Kritiri and Zygos (Pindus) and descends the course of the +river Arta to its mouth. After the war of 1897 Greece restored to Turkey +some strategical points on the frontier possessing no geographical +importance. The greatest length of Greece is about 250 m., the greatest +breadth 180 m. The country is generally divided into five parts, which +are indicated by its natural features:--(i.) Northern Greece, which +extends northwards from Mount Othrys and the gulfs of Zeitun (Lamia) and +Arta to the Cambunian Mountains, and comprises Thessaly and a small +portion of Epirus; (ii.) Central Greece, extending from the southern +limits of Northern Greece to the gulfs of Corinth and Aegina; (iii.) the +peninsula of the Peloponnesus or Morea, attached to the mainland by the +Isthmus of Corinth; (iv.) the Ionian Islands on the west coasts of +Epirus and Greece; (v.) The islands of the Aegean Sea, including Euboea, +the Cyclades and the northern Sporades. + + + Physical features. + + In the complexity of its contour and the variety of its natural + features Greece surpasses every country in Europe, as Europe surpasses + every continent in the world. The broken character of its coast-line + is unique; except a few districts in Thessaly no part of the country + is more than 50 m. from the sea. Although the area of Greece is + considerably smaller than that of Portugal, its coast-line is greater + than that of Spain and Portugal together. The mainland is penetrated + by numerous gulfs and inlets, and the adjoining seas are studded with + islands. Another characteristic is the number and complexity of the + mountain chains, which traverse every part of the country and which, + together with their ramifications, cover four-fifths of its surface. + The mountain-chains interlace, the interstices forming small enclosed + basins, such as the plain of Boeotia and the plateau of Arcadia; the + only plain of any extent is that of Thessaly. The mountains project + into the sea, forming peninsulas, and sometimes reappearing in rows or + groups of islands; they descend abruptly to the coast or are separated + from it by small alluvial plains. The portions of the country suitable + for human colonization were thus isolated one from the other, but as a + rule possessed easy access to the sea. The earliest settlements were + generally situated on or around some rocky elevation, which dominated + the surrounding plain and was suitable for fortification as a citadel + or acropolis; owing to the danger of piratical attacks they were + usually at some little distance from the sea, but in the vicinity of a + natural harbour. The physical features of the country played an + important part in moulding the character of its inhabitants. Protected + against foreign invasion by the mountain barriers and to a great + extent cut off from mutual intercourse except by sea, the ancient + Greek communities developed a marked individuality and a strong + sentiment of local patriotism; their inhabitants were both + mountaineers and mariners; they possessed the love of country, the + vigour and the courage which are always found in highlanders, together + with the spirit of adventure, the versatility and the passion for + freedom characteristic of a seafaring people. The great variety of + natural products as well as the facility of maritime communication + tended to the early growth of commercial enterprise, while the + peculiar beauty of the scenery, though little dwelt upon in ancient + literature, undoubtedly quickened the poetic and artistic instincts of + the race. The effects of physical environment are no less noticeable + among the modern Greeks. The rural populations of Attica and Boeotia, + though descended from Albanian colonists in the middle ages, display + the same contrast in character which marked the inhabitants of those + regions in ancient times. + + In its general aspect the country presents a series of striking and + interesting contrasts. Fertile tracts covered with vineyards, olive + groves, corn-fields or forests display themselves in close proximity + with rugged heights and rocky precipices; the landscape is never, + monotonous; its outlines are graceful, and its colouring, owing to the + clearness of the air, is at once brilliant and delicate, while the + sea, in most instances, adds a picturesque feature, enhancing the + charm and variety of the scenery. + + + Mountains. + + The ruling feature in the mountain system of northern Greece is the + great chain of Pindus, which, extending southwards from the lofty Shar + Dagh (Skardos) near Uskub, forms the backbone of the Balkan peninsula. + Reaching the frontier of Greece a little S. of lat. 40 deg., the Pindus + range is intersected by the Cambunian Mountains running E. and W.; the + eastern branch, which forms the northern boundary of Thessaly, extends + to the Gulf of Salonica and culminates in Mount Olympus (9754 ft.) a + little to the N. of the Greek frontier; then bending to the S.E. it + follows the coast-line, forming a rampart between the Thessalian plain + and the sea; the barrier is severed at one point only where the river + Salambria (anc. _Peneus_) finds an exit through the narrow defile of + Tempe. South of Tempe the mountain ridge, known as the Mavro Vouno, + connects the pyramidal Kissovo (anc. _Ossa_, 6400 ft.) with Plessidi + (anc. _Pelion_, 5310 ft.); it is prolonged in the Magnesian peninsula, + which separates the Gulf of Volo from the Aegean, and is continued by + the mountains of Euboea (highest summits, Dirphys, 5725 ft., and Ocha, + 4830 ft.) and by the islands of Andros and Tenos. West of Pindus, the + Cambunian Mountains are continued by several ridges which traverse + Epirus from north to south, enclosing the plain and lake of Iannina; + the most westerly of these, projecting into the Adriatic, forms the + Acroceraunian promontory terminating in Cape Glossa. The principal + pass through the Cambunian Mountains is that of Meluna, through which + runs the carriage-road connecting the town of Elassona in Macedonia + with Larissa, the capital of Thessaly; there are horse-paths at Reveni + and elsewhere. The central chain of Pindus at the point where it is + intersected by the Cambunian Mountains forms the mass of Zygos (anc. + _Lacmon_, 7113 ft.) through which a horse-path connects the town of + Metzovo with Kalabaka in Thessaly; on the declivity immediately N. of + Kalabaka are a series of rocky pinnacles on which a number of + monasteries are perched. Trending to the S., the Pindus chain + terminates in the conical Mount Velouchi (anc. _Tymphrestus_, 7609 + ft.) in the heart of the mountainous region of northern Greece. From + this centre-point a number of mountains radiate in all directions. To + the E. runs the chain of Helloro (anc. _Othrys_; highest summit, + Hagios Elias, 5558 ft.) separating the plain of Thessaly from the + valley of the Spercheios and traversed by the Phourka pass (2789 ft.); + to the S.E. is Mount Katavothra (anc. _Oeta_, 7080 ft.) extending to + the southern shore of the Gulf of Lamia at Thermopylae; to the S.E., + S. and S.W. are the mountains of Aetolia and Acarnania. The Aetolian + group, which may be regarded as the direct continuation of the Pindus + range, includes Kiona (8240 ft.), the highest mountain in Greece, and + Vardusi (anc. _Korax_, 8190 ft.). The mountains of Acarnania with + [Greek: Hupsele koruphe] (5215 ft.) rise to the W. of the valley of + the Aspropotamo (anc. _Achelous_). The Aetolian Mountains are + prolonged to the S.E. by the double-crested Liakoura (anc. + _Parnassus_; 8064 ft.) in Phocis; by Palaeo Vouno (anc. _Helicon_, + 5738 ft.) and Elateas (anc. _Cithaeron_, 4626 ft.) respectively W. and + S. of the Boeotian plain; and by the mountains of Attica,--Ozea (anc. + _Parnes_, 4626 ft.), Mendeli (anc. _Pentelicus_ or _Brilessos_, 3639 + ft.), Trellovouno (anc. _Hymettus_, 3369 ft.), and Keratia (2136 + ft.)--terminating in the promontory of Sunium, but reappearing in the + islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos and Siphnos. South of Cithaeron are + Patera in Megaris (3583 ft.) and Makri Plagi (anc. _Geraneia_, 4495 + ft.) overlooking the Isthmus of Corinth. + + The mountains of the Morea, grouped around the elevated central + plateau of Arcadia, form an independent system with ramifications + extending through the Argolid peninsula on the E. and the three + southern promontories of Malea, Taenaron and Acritas. At the eastern + end of the northern chain, separating Arcadia from the Gulf of + Corinth, is Ziria (anc. _Cyllene_, 7789 ft.); it forms a counterpart + to Parnassus on the opposite side of the gulf. A little to the W. is + Chelmos (anc. _Aroania_, 7725 ft.); farther W., Olonos (anc. + _Erymanthus_, 7297 ft.) and Voidia (anc. _Panachaicon_, 6322 ft.) + overlooking the Gulf of Patras. The highest summit in the Argolid + peninsula is Hagios Elias (anc. _Arachnaeon_, 3930 ft.). The series of + heights forming the eastern rampart of Arcadia, including Artemision + (5814 ft.) and Ktenia (5246 ft.) is continued to the S. by the Malevo + range (anc. _Parnon_, highest summit 6365 ft.) which extends into the + peninsula of Malea and reappears in the island of Cerigo. Separated + from Parnon by the Eurotas valley to the W., the chain of Taygetus + (mod. _Pentedaktylon_; highest summit Hagios Elias, 7874 ft., the + culminating point of the Morea) forms a barrier between the plains of + Laconia and Messenia; it is traversed by the Langada pass leading from + Sparta to Kalamata. The range is prolonged to the S. through the arid + district of Maina and terminates in Cape Matapan (anc. _Taenarum_). + The mountains of western Arcadia are less lofty and of a less marked + type; they include Hagios Petros (4777 ft.) and Palaeocastro (anc. + _Pholoe_, 2257 ft.) N. of the Alpheus valley, Diaphorti (anc. + _Lycaeus_, 4660 ft.), the haunt of Pan, and Nomia (4554 ft.) W. of the + plain of Megalopolis. Farther south, the mountains of western Messenia + form a detached group (Varvara, 4003 ft.; Mathia, 3140 ft.) extending + to Cape Gallo (anc. _Acritas_) and the Oenussae Islands. In central + Arcadia are Apanokrapa (anc. _Maenalus_, also sacred to Pan) and + Roudia (5072 ft.); the Taygetus chain forms the southern continuation + of these mountains. + + The more noteworthy fortified heights of ancient Greece were the + Acrocorinthus, the citadel of Corinth (1885 ft.); Ithome (2631 ft.) at + Messene; Larissa (950 ft.) at Argos; the Acropolis of Mycenae (910 + ft.); Tiryns (60 ft.) near Nauplia, which also possessed its own + citadel, the Palamidhi or Acro-nauplia (705 ft.); the Acropolis of + Athens (300 ft. above the mean level of the city and 512 ft. above the + sea), and the Cadmea of Thebes (715 ft.). + + + Rivers. + + Greece has few rivers; most of these are small, rapid and turbid, as + might be expected from the mountainous configuration of the country. + They are either perennial rivers or torrents, the white beds of the + latter being dry in summer, and only filled with water after the + autumn rains. The chief rivers (none of which is navigable) are the + Salambria (_Peneus_) in Thessaly, the Mavropotamo (_Cephisus_) in + Phocis, the Hellada (_Spercheios_) in Phthiotis, the Aspropotamo + (_Achelous_) in Aetolia, and the Ruphia (_Alpheus_) and Vasiliko + (_Eurotas_) in the Morea. Of the famous rivers of Athens, the one, the + Ilissus, is only a chain of pools all summer, and the other, the + Cephisus, though never absolutely dry, does not reach the sea, being + drawn off in numerous artificial channels to irrigate the neighbouring + olive groves. A frequent peculiarity of the Greek rivers is their + sudden disappearance in subterranean chasms and reappearance on the + surface again, such as gave rise to the fabled course of the Alpheus + under the sea, and its emergence in the fountain of Arethusa in + Syracuse. Some of these chasms--"Katavothras"--are merely sieves with + herbage and gravel in the bottom, but others are large caverns through + which the course of the river may sometimes be followed. Floods are + frequent, especially in autumn, and natural fountains abound and gush + out even from the tops of the hills. Aganippe rises high up among the + peaks of Helicon, and Peirene flows from the summit of Acrocorinthus. + The only noteworthy cascade, however, is that of the Styx in Arcadia, + which has a fall of 500 ft. During part of the year it is lost in + snow, and it is at all times almost inaccessible. Lakes are numerous, + but few are of considerable size, and many merely marshes in summer. + The largest are Karla (_Boebeis_) in Thessaly, Trichonis in Aetolia, + Copais in Boeotia, Pheneus and Stymphalus in Arcadia. + + + Plains. + + The valleys are generally narrow, and the plains small in extent, deep + basins walled in among the hills or more free at the mouths of the + rivers. The principal plains are those of Thessaly, Boeotia, Messenia, + Argos, Elis and Marathon. The bottom of these plains consists of an + alluvial soil, the most fertile in Greece. In some of the mountainous + regions, especially in the Morea, are extensive table-lands. The plain + of Mantinea is 2000 ft. high, and the upland district of Sciritis, + between Sparta and Tegea, is in some parts 3000 ft. + + + Coast. + + Strabo said that the guiding thing in the geography of Greece was the + sea, which presses in upon it at all parts with a thousand arms. From + the Gulf of Arta on the one side to the Gulf of Volo on the other the + coast is indented with a succession of natural bays and gulfs. The + most important are the Gulfs of Aegina (_Saronicus_) and Lepanto + (_Corinthiacus_), which separate the Morea from the northern mainland + of Greece,--the first an inlet of the Aegean, the second of the Ionian + Sea,--and are now connected by a canal cut through the high land of + the narrow Isthmus of Corinth (3-1/2 m. wide). The outer portion of the + Gulf of Lepanto is called the Gulf of Patras, and the inner part the + Bay of Corinth; a narrow inlet on the north side of the same gulf, + called the Bay of Salona or Itea, penetrates northwards into Phocis so + far that it is within 24 geographical miles of the Gulf of Zeitun on + the north-east coast. The width of the entrance to the gulf of Lepanto + is subject to singular changes, which are ascribed to the formation of + alluvial deposits by certain marine currents, and their removal again + by others. At the time of the Peloponnesian war this channel was 1200 + yds. broad; in the time of Strabo it was only 850; and in our own day + it has again increased to 2200. On the coast of the Morea there are + several large gulfs, that of Arcadia (_Cyparissius_) on the west, + Kalamata (_Messeniacus_) and Kolokythia (_Laconicus_) on the south and + Nauplia (_Argolicus_) on the east. Between Euboea and the mainland lie + the channels of Trikeri, Talanti (_Euboicum Mare_) and Egripo; the + latter two are connected by the strait of Egripo (_Euripus_). This + strait, which is spanned by a swing-bridge, is about 180 ft. wide, and + is remarkable for the unexplained eccentricity of its tide, which has + puzzled ancients and moderns alike. The current runs at the average + speed of 5 m. an hour, but continues only for a short time in one + direction, changing its course, it is said, ten or twelve times in a + day; it is sometimes very violent. + + + Volcanic action. + + There are no volcanoes on the mainland of Greece, but everywhere + traces of volcanic action and frequently visitations of earthquakes, + for it lies near a centre of volcanic: agency, the island of Santorin, + which has been within recent years in a state of eruption. There is an + extinct crater at Mount Laphystium (_Granitsa_) in Boeotia. The + mountain of Methane, on the coast of Argolis, was produced by a + volcanic eruption in 282 B.C. Earthquakes laid Thebes in ruins in + 1853, destroyed every house in Corinth in 1858, filled up the + Castalian spring in 1870, devastated Zante in 1893 and the district of + Atalanta in 1894. There are hot springs at Thermopylae and other + places, which are used for sanitary purposes. Various parts of the + coast exhibit indications of upheaval within historical times. On the + coast of Elis four rocky islets are now joined to the land, which were + separate from it in the days of ancient Greece. There are traces of + earlier sea-beaches at Corinth, and on the coast of the Morea, and at + the mouth of the Hellada. The land has gained so much that the pass of + Thermopylae which was extremely narrow in the time of Leonidas and his + three hundred, is now wide enough for the motions of a whole army. + (J. D. B.) + + + Geology. + + Structurally, Greece may be divided into two regions, an eastern and a + western. The former includes Thessaly, Boeotia, the island of Euboea, + the isthmus of Corinth, and the peninsula of Argolis, and, throughout, + the strike of the beds is nearly from west to east. The western region + includes the Pindus and all the parallel ranges, and the whole of the + Peloponnesus excepting Argolis. Here the folds which affect the + Mesozoic and early Tertiary strata run approximately from N.N.W. to + S.S.E. + + Up to the close of the 19th century the greater part of Greece was + believed to be formed of Cretaceous rocks, but later researches have + shown that the supposed Cretaceous beds include a variety of + geological horizons. The geological sequence begins with crystalline + schists and limestones, followed by Palaeozoic, Triassic and Liassic + rocks. The oldest beds which hitherto have yielded fossils belong to + the Carboniferous System (_Fusulina_ limestone of Euboea). Following + upon these older beds are the great limestone masses which cover most + of the eastern region, and which are now known to include Jurassic, + Tithonian, Lower and Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds. In the Pindus + and the Peloponnesus these beds are overlaid by a series of shales and + platy limestones (Olonos Limestone of the Peloponnesus), which were + formerly supposed to be of Tertiary age. It has now been shown, + however, that the upper series of limestones has been brought upon the + top of the lower by a great overthrust. Triassic fossils have been + found in the Olonos Limestone and it is almost certain that other + Mesozoic horizons are represented. + + The earth movements which produced the mountain chains of western + Greece have folded the Eocene beds and must therefore be of + post-Eocene date. The Neogene beds, on the other hand, are not + affected by the folds, although by faulting without folding they have + in some places been raised to a height of nearly 6000 ft. They lie, + however, chiefly along the coast and in the valleys, and consist of + marls, conglomerates and sands, sometimes with seams of lignite. The + Pikermi deposits, of late Miocene age, are famous for their rich + mammalian fauna. + + Although the folding which formed the mountain chains appears to have + ceased, Greece is still continually shaken by earthquakes, and these + earthquakes are closely connected with the great lines of fracture to + which the country owes its outline. Around the narrow gulf which + separates the Peloponnesus from the mainland, earthquakes are + particularly frequent, and another region which is often shaken is the + south-western corner of Greece, the peninsula of Messene.[2] (P. La.) + + + Flora. + + The vegetation of Greece in general resembles that of southern Italy + while presenting many types common to that of Asia Minor. Owing to the + geographical configuration of the peninsula and its mountainous + surface the characteristic flora of the Mediterranean regions is often + found in juxtaposition with that of central Europe. In respect to its + vegetation the country may be regarded as divided into four zones. In + the first, extending from the sea-level to the height of 1500 ft., + oranges, olives, dates, almonds, pomegranates, figs and vines + flourish, and cotton and tobacco are grown. In the neighbourhood of + streams are found the laurel, myrtle, oleander and lentisk, together + with the plane and white poplar; the cypress is often a picturesque + feature in the landscape, and there is a variety of aromatic plants. + The second zone, from 1500 to 3500 ft., is the region of the oak, + chestnut and other British trees. In the third, from 3500 to 5500 ft., + the beech is the characteristic forest tree; the _Abies cephalonica_ + and _Pinus pinea_ now take the place of the _Pinus halepensis_, which + grows everywhere in the lower regions. Above 5500 ft. is the Alpine + region, marked by small plants, lichens and mosses. During the short + period of spring anemones and other wild flowers enrich the hillsides + with magnificent colouring; in June all verdure disappears except in + the watered districts and elevated plateaus. The asphodel grows + abundantly in the dry rocky soil; aloes, planted in rows, form + impenetrable hedges. Medicinal plants are numerous, such as the _Inula + Helenium_, the _Mandragora Officinarum_, the _Colchicum napolitanum_ + and the _Helleborus orientalis_, which still grows abundantly near + Aspraspitia, the ancient Anticyra, at the foot of Parnassus. + + + Fauna. + + The fauna is similar to that of the other Mediterranean peninsulas, + and includes some species found in Asia Minor but not elsewhere in + Europe. The lion existed in northern Greece in the time of Aristotle + and at an earlier period in the Morea. The bear is still found in the + Pindus range. Wolves are common in all the mountainous regions and + jackals are numerous in the Morea. Foxes are abundant in all parts of + the country; the polecat is found in the woods of Attica and the + Morea; the lynx is now rare. The wild boar is common in the mountains + of northern Greece, but is almost extinct in the Peloponnesus. The + badger, the marten and the weasel are found on the mainland and in the + islands. The red deer, the fallow deer and the roe exist in northern + Greece, but are becoming scarce. The otter is rare. Hares and rabbits + are abundant in many parts of the country, especially in the Cyclades; + the two species never occupy the same district, and in the Cyclades + some islands (Naxos, Melos, Tenos, &c.) form the exclusive domain of + the hares, others (Seriphos, Kimolos, Mykonos, &c.) of the rabbits. In + Andros alone a demarcation has been arrived at, the hares retaining + the northern and the rabbits the southern portion of the island. The + chamois is found in the higher mountains, such as Pindus, Parnassus + and Tymphrestus. The Cretan _agrimi_, or wild goat (_Capra nubiana_, + _C. aegagrus_), found in Antimelos and said to exist in Taygetus, the + jackal, the stellion, and the chameleon are among the Asiatic species + not found westward of Greece. There is a great variety of birds; of + 358 species catalogued two-thirds are migratory. Among the birds of + prey, which are very numerous, are the golden and imperial eagle, the + yellow vulture, the _Gypaetus barbatus_, and several species of + falcons. The celebrated owl of Athena (_Athene noctua_) is becoming + rare at Athens, but still haunts the Acropolis and the royal garden; + it is a small species, found everywhere in Greece. The wild goose and + duck, the bustard, partridge, woodcock, snipe, wood-pigeon and + turtle-dove are numerous. Immense flocks of quails visit the southern + coast of the Morea, where they are captured in great numbers and + exported alive. The stork, which was common in the Turkish epoch, has + now become scarce. There is a great variety of reptiles, of which + sixty-one species have been catalogued. The saurians are all harmless; + among them the stellion (_Stellio vulgaris_), commonly called [Greek: + krokodeilos] in Mykonos and Crete, is believed by Heldreich to have + furnished a name to the crocodile of the Nile (Herod. ii. 69). There + are five species of tortoise and nine of Amphibia. Of the serpents, + which are numerous, there are only two dangerous species, the _Vipera + ammodytes_ and the _Vipera aspis_; the first-named is common. Among + the marine fauna are the dolphins, familiar in the legends and + sculpture of antiquity; in the clear water of the Aegean they often + afford a beautiful spectacle as they play round ships; porpoises and + whales are sometimes seen. Sea-fish, of which 246 species have been + ascertained, are very abundant. + + + Climate. + + The climate of Greece, like that of the other countries of the Balkan + peninsula, is liable to greater extremes of heat and cold than prevail + in Spain and Italy; the difference is due to the general contour of + the peninsula, which assimilates its climatic conditions to those of + the European mainland. Another distinctive feature is the great + variety of local contrasts; the rapid transitions are the natural + effect of diversity in the geographical configuration of the country. + Within a few hours it is possible to pass from winter to spring and + from spring to summer. The spring is short; the sun is already + powerful in March, but the increasing warmth is often checked by cold + northerly winds; in many places the corn harvest is cut in May, when + southerly winds prevail and the temperature rises rapidly. The great + heat of summer is tempered throughout the whole region of the + archipelago by the Etesian winds, which blow regularly from the N.E. + for forty to fifty days in July and August. This current of cool dry + air from the north is due to the vacuum resulting from intense heat in + the region of the Sahara. The healthy Etesian winds are generally + replaced towards the end of summer by the southerly Libas or sirocco, + which, when blowing strongly, resembles the blast from a furnace and + is most injurious to health. The sirocco affects, though in a less + degree, the other countries of the Balkan peninsula and even Rumania. + The mean summer temperature is about 79 deg. Fahr. The autumn is the + least healthy season of the year owing to the great increase of + humidity, especially in October and November. At the end of October + snow reappears on the higher mountains, remaining on the summits till + June. The winter is mild, and even in January there are, as a rule, + many warm clear days; but the recurrence of biting northerly winds and + cold blasts from the mountains, as well as the rapid transitions from + heat to cold and the difference in the temperature of sunshine and + shade, render the climate somewhat treacherous and unsuitable for + invalids. Snow seldom falls in the maritime and lowland districts and + frost is rare. The mean winter temperature is from 48 deg. to 55 deg. + Fahr. The rainfall varies greatly according to localities; it is + greatest in the Ionian Islands (53.34 ins. at Corfu), in Arcadia and + in the other mountainous districts, and least on the Aegean littoral + and in the Cyclades; in Attica, the driest region in Greece, it is + 16.1 ins. The wettest months are November, December and January; the + driest July and August, when, except for a few thunder-storms, there + is practically no rainfall. The rain generally accompanies southerly + or south-westerly winds. In all the maritime districts the sea breeze + greatly modifies the temperature; it begins about 9 A.M., attains its + maximum force soon after noon, and ceases about an hour after sunset. + Greece is renowned for the clearness of its climate; fogs and mists + are almost unknown. In most years, however, only four or five days are + recorded in which the sky is perfectly cloudless. The natural + healthiness of the climate is counteracted in the towns, especially in + Athens, by deficient sanitation and by stifling clouds of dust, which + propagate infection and are peculiarly hurtful in cases of ophthalmia + and pulmonary disease. Malarial fever is endemic in the marshy + districts, especially in the autumn. + + + Area and population. + +The area of the country was 18,341 sq. m. before the acquisition of the +Ionian Islands in 1864, 19,381 sq. m. prior to the annexation of +Thessaly and part of Epirus in 1881, and 24,552 sq. m. at the census in +1896. If we deduct 152 sq. m., the extent of territory ceded to Turkey +after the war of 1897, the area of Greece in 1908 would be 24,400 sq. m. +Other authorities give 25,164 and 25,136 sq. m. as the area prior to +the rectification of the frontier in 1898.[3] The population in 1896 was +2,433,806, or 99.1 to the sq. m., the population of the territories +annexed in 1881 being approximately 350,000; and 2,631,952 in 1907, or +107.8 to the sq. m. (according to the official estimate of the area), +showing an increase of 198,146 or 0.81% per annum, as compared with +1.61% during the period between 1896 and 1889; the diminished increase +is mainly due to emigration. The population by sex in 1907 is given as +1,324,942 males and 1,307,010 females (or 50.3% males to 49.6 females). +The preponderance of males, which was 52% to 48% females in 1896, has +also been reduced by emigration; it is most marked in the northern +departments, especially in Larissa. Only in the departments of Arcadia, +Eurytania, Corinth, Cephalonia, Lacedaemon, Laconia, Phocis, Argolis and +in the Cyclades, is the female population in excess of the male. + + Neither the census of 1896 nor that of 1889 gave any classification by + professions, religion or language. The following figures, which are + only approximate, were derived from unofficial sources in + 1901:--agricultural and pastoral employments 444,000; industries + 64,200; traders and their employes 118,000; labourers and servants + 31,300; various professions 15,700; officials 12,000; clergy about + 6000; lawyers 4000; physicians 2500. In 1879, 1,635,698 of the + population were returned as Orthodox Christians, 14,677 as Catholics + and Protestants, 2652 as Jews, and 740 as of other religions. The + annexation of Thessaly and part of Epirus is stated to have added + 24,165 Mahommedan subjects to the Hellenic kingdom. A considerable + portion of these, however, emigrated immediately after the annexation, + and, although a certain number subsequently returned, the total + Mahommedan population in Greece was estimated to be under 5000 in + 1908. A number of the Christian inhabitants of these regions, + estimated at about 50,000, retained Turkish nationality with the + object of escaping military service. The Albanian population, + estimated at 200,000 by Finlay in 1851, still probably exceeds + 120,000. It is gradually being absorbed in the Hellenic population. In + 1870, 37,598 persons (an obviously untrustworthy figure) were returned + as speaking Albanian only. In 1879 the number is given as 58,858. The + Vlach population, which has been increased by the annexation of + Thessaly, numbers about 60,000. The number of foreign residents is + unknown. The Italians are the most numerous, numbering about 11,000. + Some 1500 persons, mostly Maltese, possess British nationality. + + By a law of 27 November 1899, Greece, which had hitherto been divided + into sixteen departments ([Greek: nomoi]) was redivided into + twenty-six departments, as follows:-- + + _Departments._ _Pop._ _Departments._ _Pop._ + + 1 Attica 341,247 14 Corinth 71,229 + 2 Boeotia 65,816 15 Arcadia 162,324 + 3 Phthiotis 112,328 16 Achaea 150,918 + 4 Phocis 62,246 17 Elis 103,810 + 5 Aetolia and Acarnania 141,405 18 Triphylia 90,523 + 6 Eurytania 47,192 19 Messenia 127,991 + 7 Arta 41,280 20 Laconia 61,522 + 8 Trikkala 90,548 21 Lacedaemon 87,106 + 9 Karditsa 92,941 22 Corfu 99,571 + 10 Larissa 95,066 23 Cephalonia 71,235 + 11 Magnesia 102,742 24 Leucas (with Ithaca) 41,186 + 12 Euboea 116,903 25 Zante 42,502 + 13 Argolis 81,943 26 Cyclades 130,378 + + The population is densest in the Ionian Islands, exceeding 307 per sq. + m. The departments of Acarnania, Phocis and Euboea are the most thinly + inhabited (about 58, 61 and 66 per sq. m. respectively). + + Very little information is obtainable with regard to the movement of + the population; no register of births, deaths and marriages is kept in + Greece. The only official statistics are found in the periodical + returns of the mortality in the twelve principal towns, according to + which the yearly average of deaths in these towns for the five years + 1903-1907 was approximately 10,253, or 23.8 per 1000; of these more + than a quarter are ascribed to pulmonary consumption, due in the main + to defective sanitation. Both the birth-rate and death-rate are low, + being 27.6 and 20.7 per 1000 respectively. Infant mortality is slight, + and in point of longevity Greece compares favourably with most other + European countries. The number of illegitimate births is 12.25 per + 1000; these are almost exclusively in the towns. + + Of the total population 28.5% are stated to live in towns. The + population of the principal towns is:-- + + 1896. 1907. + + Athens 111,486 167,479 + Peiraeus 43,848 73,579 + Patras 37,985 37,724 + Trikkala 21,149 17,809 + Hermopolis (Syra) 18,760 18,132 + Corfu 18,581 28,254* + Volo 16,788 23,563 + Larissa 15,373 18,001 + Zante 14,906 13,580 + Kalamata 14,298 15,397 + Pyrgos 12,708 13,690 + Tripolis 10,465 10,789 + Chalcis 8,661 10,958 + Laurium 7,926 10,007 + + * Including suburbs. + + No trustworthy information is obtainable with regard to immigration + and emigration, of which no statistics have ever been kept. + Emigration, which was formerly in the main to Egypt and Rumania, is + now almost exclusively to the United States of America. The principal + exodus is from Arcadia, Laconia and Maina; the emigrants from these + districts, estimated at about 14,000 annually, are for the most part + young men approaching the age of military service. According to + American statistics 12,431 Greeks arrived in the United States from + Greece during the period 1869-1898 and 130,154 in 1899-1907; a + considerable number, however, have returned to Greece, and those + remaining in the United States at the end of 1907 were estimated at + between 136,000 and 138,000; this number was considerably reduced in + 1908 by remigration. Since 1896 the tendency to emigration has + received a notable and somewhat alarming impulse. There is an + increasing immigration into the towns from the rural districts, which + are gradually becoming depopulated. Both movements are due in part to + the preference of the Greeks for a town life and in part to distaste + for military service, but in the main to the poverty of the peasant + population, whose condition and interests have been neglected by the + government. + + + Ethnology. + +Greece is inhabited by three races--the Greeks, the Albanians and the +Vlachs. The Greeks who are by far the most numerous, have to a large +extent absorbed the other races; the process of assimilation has been +especially rapid since the foundation of the Greek kingdom. Like most +European nations, the modern Greeks are a mixed race. The question of +their origin has been the subject of much learned controversy; their +presumed descent from the Greeks of the classical epoch has proved a +national asset of great value; during the period of their struggle for +independence it won them the devoted zeal of the Philhellenes, it +inspired the enthusiasm of Byron, Victor Hugo, and a host of minor +poets, and it has furnished a pleasing illusion to generations of +scholarly tourists who delight to discover in the present inhabitants of +the country the mental and physical characteristics with which they have +been familiarized by the literature and art of antiquity. This amiable +tendency is encouraged by the modern Greeks, who possess an implicit +faith in their illustrious ancestry. The discussion of the question +entered a very acrimonious stage with the appearance in 1830 of +Fallmerayer's _History of the Morea during the Middle Ages_. Fallmerayer +maintained that after the great Slavonic immigration at the close of the +8th century the original population of northern Greece and the Morea, +which had already been much reduced during the Roman period, was +practically supplanted by the Slavonic element and that the Greeks of +modern times are in fact Byzantinized Slavs. This theory was subjected +to exhaustive criticism by Ross, Hopf, Finlay and other scholars, and +although many of Fallmerayer's conclusions remain unshaken, the view is +now generally held that the base of the population both in the mainland +and the Morea is Hellenic, not Slavonic. During the 5th and 6th +centuries Greece had been subjected to Slavonic incursions which +resulted in no permanent settlements. After the great plague of 746-747, +however, large tracts of depopulated country were colonized by Slavonic +immigrants; the towns remained in the hands of the Greeks, many of whom +emigrated to Constantinople. In the Morea the Slavs established +themselves principally in Arcadia and the region of Taygetus, extending +their settlements into Achaia, Elis, Laconia and the promontory of +Taenaron; on the mainland they occupied portions of Acarnania, Aetolia, +Doris and Phocis. Slavonic place-names occurring in all these districts +confirm the evidence of history with regard to this immigration. The +Slavs, who were not a maritime race, did not colonize the Aegean +Islands, but a few Slavonic place-names in Crete seem to indicate that +some of the invaders reached that island. The Slavonic settlements in +the Morea proved more permanent than those in northern Greece, which +were attacked by the armies of the Byzantine emperors. But even in the +Morea the Greeks, or "Romans" as they called themselves ([Greek: +Rhomaioi]), who had been left undisturbed on the eastern side of the +peninsula, eventually absorbed the alien element, which disappeared +after the 15th century. In addition to the place-names the only +remaining traces of the Slav immigration are the Slavonic type of +features, which occasionally recurs, especially among the Arcadian +peasants, and a few customs and traditions. Even when allowance is made +for the remarkable power of assimilation which the Greeks possessed in +virtue of their superior civilization, it is difficult to resist the +conclusion that the Hellenic element must always have been the most +numerous in order to effect so complete an absorption. This element has +apparently undergone no essential change since the epoch of Roman +domination. The destructive invasions of the Goths in A.D. 267 and 395 +introduced no new ethnic feature; the various races which during the +middle ages obtained partial or complete mastery in Greece--the Franks, +the Venetians, the Turks--contributed no appreciable ingredient to the +mass of the population. The modern Greeks may therefore be regarded as +in the main the descendants of the population which inhabited Greece in +the earlier centuries of Byzantine rule. Owing to the operation of +various causes, historical, social and economic, that population was +composed of many heterogeneous elements and represented in a very +limited degree the race which repulsed the Persians and built the +Parthenon. The internecine conflicts of the Greek communities, wars with +foreign powers and the deadly struggles of factions in the various +cities, had to a large extent obliterated the old race of free citizens +by the beginning of the Roman period. The extermination of the Plataeans +by the Spartans and of the Melians by the Athenians during the +Peloponnesian war, the proscription of Athenian citizens after the war, +the massacre of the Corcyraean oligarchs by the democratic party, the +slaughter of the Thebans by Alexander and of the Corinthians by Mummius, +are among the more familiar instances of the catastrophes which overtook +the civic element in the Greek cities; the void can only have been +filled from the ranks of the metics or resident aliens and of the +descendants of the far more numerous slave population. Of the latter a +portion was of Hellenic origin; when a city was taken the males of +military age were frequently put to the sword, but the women and +children were sold as slaves; in Laconia and Thessaly there was a serf +population of indigenous descent. In the classical period four-fifths of +the population of Attica were slaves and of the remainder half were +metics. In the Roman period the number of slaves enormously increased, +the supply being maintained from the regions on the borders of the +empire; the same influences which in Italy extinguished the small landed +proprietors and created the _latifundia_ prevailed also in Greece. The +purely Hellenic population, now greatly diminished, congregated in the +towns; the large estates which replaced the small freeholds were +cultivated by slaves and managed or farmed by slaves or freedmen, and +wide tracts of country were wholly depopulated. How greatly the free +citizen element had diminished by the close of the 1st century A.D. may +be judged from the estimate of Plutarch that all Greece could not +furnish more than 3000 hoplites. The composite population which replaced +the ancient Hellenic stock became completely Hellenized. According to +craniologists the modern Greeks are brachycephalous while the ancient +race is stated to have been dolichocephalous, but it seems doubtful +whether any such generalization with regard to the ancients can be +conclusively established. The Aegean islanders are more brachycephalous +than the inhabitants of the mainland, though apparently of purer Greek +descent. No general conception of the facial type of the ancient race +can be derived from the highly-idealized statues of deities, heroes and +athletes; so far as can be judged from portrait statues it was very +varied. Among the modern Greeks the same variety of features prevails; +the face is usually oval, the nose generally long and somewhat +aquiline, the teeth regular, and the eyes remarkably bright and full of +animation. The country-folk are, as a rule, tall and well-made, though +slightly built and rather meagre; their form is graceful and supple in +movement. The urban population, as elsewhere, is physically very +inferior. The women often display a refined and delicate beauty which +disappears at an early age. The best physical types of the race are +found in Arcadia, in the Aegean Islands and in Crete. + +The Albanian population extends over all Attica and Megaris (except the +towns of Athens, Peiraeus and Megara), the greater part of Boeotia, the +eastern districts of Locris, the southern half of Euboea and the +northern side of Andros, the whole of the islands of Salamis, Hydra, +Spetsae and Poros, and part of Aegina, the whole of Corinthia and +Argolis, the northern districts of Arcadia and the eastern portion of +Achaea. There are also small Albanian groups in Laconia and Messenia +(see ALBANIA). The Albanians, who call themselves _Shkyipetar_, and are +called by the Greeks _Arvanitae_ ([Greek: Arbanitai]), belong to the +Tosk or southern branch of the race; their immigration took place in the +latter half of the 14th century. Their first settlements in the Morea +were made in 1347-1355. The Albanian colonization was first checked by +the Turks; in 1454 an Albanian insurrection in the Morea against +Byzantine rule was crushed by the Turkish general Tura Khan, whose aid +had been invoked by the Palaeologi. With a few exceptions, the Albanians +in Greece retained their Christian faith after the Turkish conquest. The +failure of the insurrection of 1770 was followed by a settlement of +Moslem Albanians, who had been employed by the Turks to suppress the +revolt. The Christian Albanians have long lived on good terms with the +Greeks while retaining their own customs and language and rarely +intermarrying with their neighbours. They played a brilliant part during +the War of Independence, and furnished the Greeks with many of their +most distinguished leaders. The process of their Hellenization, which +scarcely began till after the establishment of the kingdom, has been +somewhat slow; most of the men can now speak Greek, but Albanian is +still the language of the household. The Albanians, who are mainly +occupied with agriculture, are less quick-witted, less versatile, and +less addicted to politics than the Greeks, who regard them as +intellectually their inferiors. A vigorous and manly race, they furnish +the best soldiers in the Greek army, and also make excellent sailors. + +The Vlachs, who call themselves _Aromani_, i.e. Romans, form another +important foreign element in the population of Greece. They are found +principally in Pindus (the Agrapha district), the mountainous parts of +Thessaly, Othrys, Oeta, the mountains of Boeotia, Aetolia and Acarnania; +they have a few settlements in Euboea. They are for the most part either +nomad shepherds and herdsmen or carriers (_kiradjis_). They apparently +descend from the Latinized provincials of the Roman epoch who took +refuge in the higher mountains from the incursions of the barbarians and +Slavs (see VLACHS and MACEDONIA). In the 13th century the Vlach +principality of "Great Walachia" ([Greek: Megale Blachia]) included +Thessaly and southern Macedonia as far as Castoria; its capital was at +Hypati near Lamia. Acarnania and Aetolia were known as "Lesser +Walachia." The urban element among the Vlachs has been almost completely +Hellenized; it has always displayed great aptitude for commerce, and +Athens owes many of its handsomest buildings to the benefactions of +wealthy Vlach merchants. The nomad population in the mountains has +retained its distinctive nationality and customs together with its Latin +language, though most of the men can speak Greek. Like the Albanians, +the pastoral Vlachs seldom intermarry with the Greeks; they occasionally +take Greek wives, but never give their daughters to Greeks; many of them +are illiterate, and their children rarely attend the schools. Owing to +their deficient intellectual culture they are regarded with disdain by +the Greeks, who employ the term [Greek: blachos] to denote not only a +shepherd but an ignorant rustic. + +A considerable Italian element was introduced into the Ionian Islands +during the middle ages owing to their prolonged subjection to Latin +princes and subsequently (till 1797) to the Venetian republic. The +Italians intermarried with the Greeks; Italian became the language of +the upper classes, and Roman Catholicism was declared the state +religion. The peasantry, however, retained the Greek language and +remained faithful to the Eastern Church; during the past century the +Italian element was completely absorbed by the Greek population. + +The Turkish population in Greece, which numbered about 70,000 before the +war of liberation, disappeared in the course of the struggle or +emigrated at its conclusion. The Turks in Thessaly are mainly descended +either from colonists established in the country by the Byzantine +emperors or from immigrants from Asia Minor, who arrived at the end of +the 14th century; they derive their name Konariots from Iconium (Konia). +Many of the beys or land-owning class are the lineal representatives of +the Seljuk nobles who obtained fiefs under the feudal system introduced +here and in Macedonia by the Sultan Bayezid I. + + + National character. + +Notwithstanding their composite origin, their wide geographical +distribution and their cosmopolitan instincts, the modern Greeks are a +remarkably homogeneous people, differing markedly in character from +neighbouring races, united by a common enthusiasm in the pursuit of +their national aims, and profoundly convinced of their superiority to +other nations. Their distinctive character, combined with their +traditional tendency to regard non-Hellenic peoples as barbarous, has, +indeed, to some extent counteracted the results of their great energy +and zeal in the assimilation of other races; the advantageous position +which they attained at an early period under Turkish rule owing to their +superior civilization, their versatility, their wealth, and their +monopoly of the ecclesiastical power would probably have enabled them to +Hellenize permanently the greater part of the Balkan peninsula had their +attitude towards other Christian races been more sympathetic. Always the +most civilized race in the East, they have successively influenced their +Macedonian, Roman and Turkish conquerors, and their remarkable +intellectual endowments bid fair to secure them a brilliant position in +the future. The intense patriotic zeal of the Greeks may be compared +with that of the Hungarians; it is liable to degenerate into arrogance +and intolerance; it sometimes blinds their judgment and involves them in +ill-considered enterprises, but it nevertheless offers the best +guarantee for the ultimate attainment of their national aims. All +Greeks, in whatever country they may reside, work together for the +realization of the Great Idea ([Greek: he Megale Idea])--the supremacy +of Hellenism in the East--and to this object they freely devote their +time, their wealth and their talents; the large fortunes which they +amass abroad are often bequeathed for the foundation of various +institutions in Greece or Turkey, for the increase of the national fleet +and army, or for the spread of Hellenic influence in the Levant. This +patriotic sentiment is unfortunately much exploited by self-seeking +demagogues and publicists, who rival each other in exaggerating the +national pretensions and in pandering to the national vanity. In no +other country is the passion for politics so intense; "keen political +discussions are constantly going on at the cafes; the newspapers, which +are extraordinarily numerous and generally of little value, are +literally devoured, and every measure of the government is violently +criticized and ascribed to interested motives." The influence of the +journals is enormous; even the waiters in the cafes and domestic +servants have their favourite newspaper, and discourse fluently on the +political problems of the day. Much of the national energy is wasted by +this continued political fever; it is diverted from practical aims, and +may be said to evaporate in words. The practice of independent criticism +tends to indiscipline in the organized public services; it has been +remarked that every Greek soldier is a general and every sailor an +admiral. During the war of 1897 a young naval lieutenant telegraphed to +the minister of war condemning the measures taken by his admiral, and +his action was applauded by several journals. There is also little +discipline in the ranks of political parties, which are held together, +not by any definite principle, but by the personal influence of the +leaders; defections are frequent, and as a rule each deputy in the +Chamber makes his terms with his chief. On the other hand, the +independent character of the Greeks is favourably illustrated by the +circumstance that Greece is the only country in the Balkan peninsula in +which the government cannot count on securing a majority by official +pressure at the elections. Few scruples are observed in political +warfare, but attacks on private life are rare. The love of free +discussion is inherent in the strongly-rooted democratic instinct of the +Greeks. They are in spirit the most democratic of European peoples; no +trace of Latin feudalism survives, and aristocratic pretensions are +ridiculed. In social life there is no artificial distinction of classes; +all titles of nobility are forbidden; a few families descended from the +chiefs in the War of Independence enjoy a certain pre-eminence, but +wealth and, still more, political or literary notoriety constitute the +principal claim to social consideration. The Greeks display great +intellectual vivacity; they are clever, inquisitive, quick-witted and +ingenious, but not profound; sustained mental industry and careful +accuracy are distasteful to them, and their aversion to manual labour is +still more marked. Even the agricultural class is but moderately +industrious; abundant opportunities for relaxation are provided by the +numerous church festivals. The desire for instruction is intense even in +the lowest ranks of the community; rhetorical and literary +accomplishments possess a greater attraction for the majority than the +fields of modern science. The number of persons who seek to qualify for +the learned professions is excessive; they form a superfluous element in +the community, an educated proletariat, attaching themselves to the +various political parties in the hope of obtaining state employment and +spending an idle existence in the cafes and the streets when their party +is out of power. In disposition the Greeks are lively, cheerful, +plausible, tactful, sympathetic; very affable with strangers, +hospitable, kind to their servants and dependants, remarkably temperate +and frugal in their habits, amiable and united in family life. +Drunkenness is almost unknown, thrift is universally practised; the +standard of sexual morality is high, especially in the rural districts, +where illegitimacy is extremely rare. The faults of the Greeks must in a +large degree be attributed to their prolonged subjection to alien races; +their cleverness often degenerates into cunning, their ready invention +into mendacity, their thrift into avarice, their fertility of resource +into trickery and fraud. Dishonesty is not a national vice, but many who +would scorn to steal will not hesitate to compass illicit gains by +duplicity and misrepresentation; deceit, indeed, is often practised +gratuitously for the mere intellectual satisfaction which it affords. In +the astuteness of their monetary dealings the Greeks proverbially +surpass the Jews, but fall short of the Armenians; their remarkable +aptitude for business is sometimes marred by a certain short-sightedness +which pursues immediate profits at the cost of ulterior advantages. +Their vanity and egoism, which are admitted by even the most favourable +observers, render them jealous, exacting, and peculiarly susceptible to +flattery. In common with other southern European peoples the Greeks are +extremely excitable; their passionate disposition is prone to take +offence at slight provocation, and trivial quarrels not infrequently +result in homicide. They are religious, but by no means fanatical, +except in regard to politico-religious questions affecting their +national aims. In general the Greeks may be described as a clever, +ambitious and versatile people, capable of great effort and sacrifice, +but deficient in some of the more solid qualities which make for +national greatness. + + + Customs. + +The customs and habits of the Greek peasantry, in which the observances +of the classical age may often be traced, together with their legends +and traditions, have furnished an interesting subject of investigation +to many writers (see _Bibliography_ below). In the towns the more +cosmopolitan population has largely adopted the "European" mode of life, +and the upper classes show a marked preference for French manners and +usages. In both town and country, however, the influence of oriental +ideas is still apparent, due in part to the long period of Turkish +domination, in part to the contact of the Greeks with Asiatic races at +all epochs of their history. In the rural districts, especially, the +women lead a somewhat secluded life and occupy a subject position; they +wait at table, and only partake of the meal when the men of the family +have been served. In most parts of continental Greece the women work in +the fields, but in the Aegean Islands and Crete they rarely leave the +house. Like the Turks, the Greeks have a great partiality for coffee, +which can always be procured even in the remotest hamlets; the Turkish +practice of carrying a string of beads or rosary (_comboloio_), which +provides an occupation for the hands, is very common. Many of the +observances in connexion with births, christenings, weddings and +funerals are very interesting and in some cases are evidently derived +from remote antiquity. Nuptial ceremonies are elaborate and protracted; +in some of the islands of the archipelago they continue for three weeks. +In the preliminary negotiations for a marriage the question of the +bride's dowry plays a very important part; a girl without a dowry often +remains unmarried, notwithstanding the considerable excess of the male +over the female population. Immediately after the christening of a +female child her parents begin to lay up her portion, and young men +often refrain from marrying until their sisters have been settled in +life. The dead are carried to the tomb in an open coffin; in the country +districts professional mourners are engaged to chant dirges; the body is +washed with wine and crowned with a wreath of flowers. A valedictory +oration is pronounced at the grave. Many superstitions still prevail +among the peasantry; the belief in the vampire and the evil eye is +almost universal. At Athens and in the larger towns many handsome +dwelling-houses may be seen, but the upper classes have no predilection +for rural life, and their country houses are usually mere farmsteads, +which they rarely visit. In the more fertile districts two-storeyed +houses of the modern type are common, but in the mountainous regions the +habitations of the country-folk are extremely primitive; the small +stone-built hut, almost destitute of furniture, shelters not only the +family but its cattle and domestic animals. In Attica the peasants' +houses are usually built of cob. In Maina the villagers live in +fortified towers of three or more storeys; the animals occupy the ground +floor, the family the topmost storey; the intermediate space serves as a +granary or hay-loft. The walls are loop-holed for purposes of defence in +view of the traditional vendetta and feuds, which in some instances have +been handed down from remote generations and are maintained by +occasional sharp-shooting from these primitive fortresses. In general +cleanliness and sanitation are much neglected; the traveller in the +country districts is doomed to sleepless nights unless he has provided +himself with bedding and a hammock. Even Athens, though enriched by many +munificent benefactions, is still without a drainage system or an +adequate water supply; the sewers of many houses open into the streets, +in which rubbish is allowed to accumulate. The effects of insanitary +conditions are, however, counteracted in some degree by the excellent +climate. The Aegean islanders contrast favourably with the continentals +in point of personal cleanliness and the neatness of their dwellings; +their houses are generally covered with the flat roof, familiar in Asia, +on which the family sleep in summer. The habits and customs of the +islanders afford an interesting study. Propitiatory rites are still +practised by the mariners and fishermen, and thank-offerings for +preservation at sea are hung up in the churches. Among the popular +amusements of the Greeks dancing holds a prominent place; the dance is +of various kinds; the most usual is the somewhat inanimate round dance +([Greek: syrto] or [Greek: trata]), in which a number of persons, +usually of the same sex, take part holding hands; it seems indentical +with the Slavonic _kolo_ ("circle"). The more lively Albanian fling is +generally danced by three or four persons, one of whom executes a series +of leaps and pirouettes. The national music is primitive and monotonous. +All classes are passionately addicted to card-playing, which is +forbidden by law in places of public resort. The picturesque national +costume, which is derived from the Albanian Tosks, has unfortunately +been abandoned by the upper classes and the urban population since the +abdication of King Otho, who always wore it; it is maintained as the +uniform of the _euzones_ (highland regiments). It consists of a red cap +with dark blue tassel, a white shirt with wide sleeves, a vest and +jacket, sometimes of velvet, handsomely adorned with gold or black +braid, a belt in which various weapons are carried, a white kilt or +_fustanella_ of many folds, white hose tied with garters, and red +leather shoes with pointed ends, from which a tassel depends. Over all +is worn the shaggy white _capote_. The islanders wear a dark blue +costume with a crimson waistband, loose trousers descending to the knee, +stockings and pumps or long boots. The women's costume is very varied; +the loose red fez is sometimes worn and a short velvet jacket with rich +gold embroidery. The more elderly women are generally attired in black. +In the Megara district and elsewhere peasant girls wear on festive +occasions a headdress composed of strings of coins which formerly +represented the dowry. + + Government. + +Greece is a constitutional monarchy; hereditary in the male line, or, in +case of its extinction, in the female. The sovereign, by decision of the +conference of London (August 1863), is styled "king of the Hellenes"; +the title "king of Greece" was borne by King Otho. The heir apparent is +styled [Greek: ho diadochos], "the successor"; the title "duke of +Sparta," which has been accorded to the crown prince, is not generally +employed in Greece. The king and the heir apparent must belong to the +Orthodox Greek Church; a special exception has been made for King +George, who is a Lutheran. The king attains his majority on completing +his eighteenth year; before ascending the throne he must take the oath +to the constitution in presence of the principal ecclesiastical and lay +dignitaries of the kingdom, and must convoke the Chamber within two +months after his accession. The civil list amounts to 1,125,000 dr., in +addition to which it was provided that King George should receive L4000 +annually as a personal allowance from each of the three protecting +powers, Great Britain, France and Russia. The heir apparent receives +from the state an annuity of 200,000 dr. The king has a palace at Athens +and other residences at Corfu, Tatoi (on the slopes of Mt Parnes) and +Larissa. The present constitution dates from the 29th of October 1864. +The legislative power is shared by the king with a single chamber +([Greek: boule]) elected by manhood suffrage for a period of four years. +The election is by ballot; candidates must have completed their +thirtieth year and electors their twenty-first. The deputies ([Greek: +bouleutai]), according to the constitution, receive only their +travelling expenses, but they vote themselves a payment of 1800 dr. each +for the session and a further allowance in case of an extraordinary +session. The Chamber sits for a term of not less than three or more than +six months. No law can be passed except by an absolute majority of the +house, and one-half of the members must be present to form a quorum; +these arrangements have greatly facilitated the practice of obstruction, +and often enable individual deputies to impose terms on the government +for their attendance. In 1898 the number of deputies was 234. Some years +previously a law diminishing the national representation and enlarging +the constituencies was passed by Trikoupis with the object of checking +the local influence of electors upon deputies, but the measure was +subsequently repealed. The number of deputies, however, who had hitherto +been elected in the proportion of one to twelve thousand of the +population, was reduced in 1905, when the proportion of one to sixteen +thousand was substituted; the Chamber of 1906, elected under the new +system, consisted of 177 deputies. In 1906 the electoral districts were +diminished in number and enlarged so as to coincide with the twenty-six +administrative departments ([Greek: nomoi]); the reduction of these +departments to their former number of sixteen, which is in +contemplation, will bring about some further diminution in parliamentary +representation. It is hoped that recent legislation will tend to check +the pernicious practice of bartering personal favours, known as [Greek: +synallage], which still prevails to the great detriment of public +morality, paralysing all branches of the administration and wasting the +resources of the state. Political parties are formed not for the +furtherance of any principle or cause, but with the object of obtaining +the spoils of office, and the various groups, possessing no party +watchword or programme, frankly designate themselves by the names of +their leaders. Even the strongest government is compelled to bargain +with its supporters in regard to the distribution of patronage and other +favours. The consequent instability of successive ministries has +retarded useful legislation and seriously checked the national progress. +In 1906 a law was passed disqualifying junior officers of the army and +navy for membership of the Chamber; great numbers of these had hitherto +been candidates at every election. This much-needed measure had +previously been passed by Trikoupis, but had been repealed by his rival +Delyannes. The executive is vested in the king, who is personally +irresponsible, and governs through ministers chosen by himself and +responsible to the Chamber, of which they are _ex-officio_ members. He +appoints all public officials, sanctions and proclaims laws, convokes, +prorogues and dissolves the Chamber, grants pardon or amnesty, coins +money and confers decorations. There are seven ministries which +respectively control the departments of foreign affairs, the interior, +justice, finance, education and worship, the army and the navy. + + + Local Administration. + +The 26 departments or [Greek: nomoi], into which the country is divided +for administrative purposes, are each under a prefect or nomarch +([Greek: nomarchos]); they are subdivided into 69 districts or +eparchies, and into 445 communes or demes ([Greek: demoi]) under mayors +or demarchs ([Greek: demarchoi]). The prefects and sub-prefects are +nominated by the government; the mayors are elected by the communes for +a period of four years. The prefects are assisted by a departmental +council, elected by the population, which manages local business and +assesses rates; there are also communal councils under the presidency of +the mayors. There are altogether some 12,000 state-paid officials in the +country, most of them inadequately remunerated and liable to removal or +transferral upon a change of government. A host of office-seekers has +thus been created, and large numbers of educated persons spend many +years in idleness or in political agitation. A law passed in 1905 +secures tenure of office to civil servants of fifteen years' standing, +and some restrictions have been placed on the dismissal and transferral +of schoolmasters. + + + Justice. + +Under the Turks the Greeks retained, together with their ecclesiastical +institutions, a certain measure of local self-government and judicial +independence. The Byzantine code, based on the Roman, as embodied in the +[Greek: Hexabiblos] of Armenopoulos (1345), was sanctioned by royal +decree in 1835 with some modifications as the civil law of Greece. +Further modifications and new enactments were subsequently introduced, +derived from the old French and Bavarian systems. The penal code is +Bavarian, the commercial French. Liberty of person and domicile is +inviolate; no arrest can be made, no house entered, and no letter opened +without a judicial warrant. Trial by jury is established for criminal, +political and press offences. A new civil code, based on Saxon and +Italian law, has been drawn up by a commission of jurists, but it has +not yet been considered by the Chamber. A separate civil code, partly +French, partly Italian, is in force in the Ionian Islands. The law is +administered by 1 court of cassation (styled the "Areopagus"), 5 courts +of appeal, 26 courts of first instance, 233 justices of the peace and 19 +correctional tribunals. + +The judges, who are appointed by the Crown, are liable to removal by the +minister of justice, whose exercise of this right is often invoked by +political partisans. The administration of justice suffers in +consequence, more especially in the country districts, where the judges +must reckon with the influential politicians and their adherents. The +pardon or release of a convicted criminal is not infrequently due to +pressure on the part of some powerful patron. The lamentable effects of +this system have long been recognized, and in 1906 a law was introduced +securing tenure of office for two or four years to judges of the courts +of first instance and of the inferior tribunals. In the circumstances +crime is less rife than might be expected; the temperate habits of the +Greeks have conduced to this result. A serious feature is the great +prevalence of homicide, due in part to the passionate character of the +people, but still more to the almost universal practice of carrying +weapons. The traditions of the vendetta are almost extinct in the Ionian +Islands, but still linger in Maina, where family feuds are transmitted +from generation to generation. The brigand of the old-fashioned type +([Greek: lestes, klephtes]) has almost disappeared, except in the +remoter country districts, and piracy, once so prevalent in the Aegean, +has been practically suppressed, but numbers of outlaws or absconding +criminals ([Greek: phygodikoi]) still haunt the mountains, and the +efforts of the police to bring them to justice are far from successful. +Their ranks were considerably increased after the war of 1897, when many +deserters from the army and adventurers who came to Greece as volunteers +betook themselves to a predatory life. On the other hand, there is no +habitually criminal class in Greece, such as exists in the large centres +of civilization, and professional mendicancy is still rare. + +Police duties, for which officers and, in some cases, soldiers of the +regular army were formerly employed, are since 1906 carried out by a +reorganized gendarmerie force of 194 officers and 6344 non-commissioned +officers and men, distributed in the twenty-six departments and +commanded by an inspector-general resident at Athens, who is aided by a +consultative commission. There are male and female prisons at all the +departmental centres; the number of prisoners in 1906 was 5705. Except +in the Ionian Islands, the general condition of the prisons is +deplorable; discipline and sanitation are very deficient, and conflicts +among the prisoners are sometimes reported in which knives and even +revolvers are employed. A good prison has been built near Athens by +Andreas Syngros, and a reformatory for juvenile offenders ([Greek: +ephebeion]) has been founded by George Averoff, another national +benefactor. Capital sentences are usually commuted to penal servitude +for life; executions, for which the guillotine is employed, are for the +most part carried out on the island of Bourzi near Nauplia; they are +often postponed for months or even for years. There is no enactment +resembling the Habeas Corpus Act, and accused persons may be detained +indefinitely before trial. The Greeks, like the other nations liberated +from Turkish rule, are somewhat litigious, and numbers of lawyers find +occupation even in the smaller country towns. + + + Education. + +The Greeks, an intelligent people, have always shown a remarkable zeal +for learning, and popular education has made great strides. So eager is +the desire for instruction that schools are often founded in the rural +districts on the initiative of the villagers, and the sons of peasants, +artisans and small shopkeepers come in numbers to Athens, where they +support themselves by domestic service or other humble occupations in +order to study at the university during their spare hours. Almost +immediately after the accession of King Otho steps were taken to +establish elementary schools in all the communes, and education was made +obligatory. The law is not very rigorously applied in the remoter +districts, but its enforcement is scarcely necessary. In 1898 there were +2914 "demotic" or primary schools, with 3465 teachers, attended by +129,210 boys (5.38% of the population) and 29,119 girls (1.19% of the +population). By a law passed in 1905 the primary schools, which had +reached the number of 3359 in that year, were reduced to 2604. The +expenditure on primary schools is nominally sustained by the communes, +but in reality by the government in the form of advances to the +communes, which are not repaid; it was reduced in 1905 from upwards of +7,000,000 dr. to under 6,000,000 dr. In 1905 there were 306 "Hellenic" +or secondary schools, with 819 teachers and 21,575 pupils (boys only) +maintained by the state at a cost of 1,720,096 dr.; and 39 higher +schools, or gymnasia, with 261 masters and 6485 pupils, partly +maintained by the state (expenditure 615,600 dr.) and partly by +benefactions and other means. Besides these public schools there are +several private educational institutions, of which there are eight at +Athens with 650 pupils. The Polytechnic Institute of Athens affords +technical instruction in the departments of art and science to 221 +students. Scientific agricultural instruction has been much neglected; +there is an agricultural school at Aidinion in Thessaly with 40 pupils; +there are eight agricultural stations ([Greek: stathmoi]) in various +parts of the country. There are two theological seminaries--the Rizari +School at Athens (120 pupils) and a preparatory school at Arta; three +other seminaries have been suppressed. The Commercial and Industrial +Academy at Athens (about 225 pupils), a private institution, has proved +highly useful to the country; there are four commercial schools, each in +one of the country towns. A large school for females at Athens, the +Arsakion, is attended by 1500 girls. There are several military and +naval schools, including the military college of the Euelpides at Athens +and the school of naval cadets ([Greek: ton dokimon]). The university of +Athens in 1905 numbered 57 professors and 2598 students, of whom 557 +were from abroad. Of the six faculties, theology numbered 79 students, +law 1467, medicine 567, arts 206, physics and mathematics 192, and +pharmacy 87. The university receives a subvention from the state, which +in 1905 amounted to 563,960 dr.; it possesses a library of over 150,000 +volumes and geological, zoological and botanical museums. A small tax on +university education was imposed in 1903; the total cost to the student +for the four years' course at the university is about L25. Higher +education is practically gratuitous in Greece, and there is a somewhat +ominous increase in the number of educated persons who disdain +agricultural pursuits and manual labour. The intellectual culture +acquired is too often of a superficial character owing to the tendency +to sacrifice scientific thoroughness and accuracy, to neglect the more +useful branches of knowledge, and to aim at a showy dialectic and +literary proficiency. (For the native and foreign archaeological +institutions see ATHENS.) + + + Religion. + +The Greek branch of the Orthodox Eastern Church is practically +independent, like those of Servia, Montenegro and Rumania, though +nominally subject to the patriarchate of Constantinople. The +jurisdiction of the patriarch was in fact repudiated in 1833, when the +king was declared the supreme head of the church, and the severance was +completed in 1850. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of the +Ministry of Education. Church government is vested in the Holy Synod, a +council of five ecclesiastics under the presidency of the metropolitan +of Athens; its sittings are attended by a royal commissioner. The church +can invoke the aid of the civil authorities for the punishment of heresy +and the suppression of unorthodox literature, pictures, &c. There were +formerly 21 archbishoprics and 29 bishoprics in Greece, but a law passed +in 1899 suppressed the archbishoprics (except the metropolitan see of +Athens) on the death of the existing prelates, and fixed the total +number of sees at 32. The prelates derive their incomes partly from the +state and partly from the church lands. There are about 5500 priests, +who belong for the most part to the poorest classes. The parochial +clergy have no fixed stipends, and often resort to agriculture or small +trading in order to supplement the scanty fees earned by their +ministrations. Owing to their lack of education their personal influence +over their parishioners is seldom considerable. In addition to the +parochial clergy there are 19 preachers ([Greek: hierokerukes]) salaried +by the state. There are 170 monasteries and 4 nunneries in Greece, with +about 1600 monks and 250 nuns. In regard to their constitution the +monasteries are either "idiorrhythmic" or "coenobian" (see ATHOS); the +monks ([Greek: kalogeroi]) are in some cases assisted by lay brothers +([Greek: kosmikoi]). More than 300 of the smaller monasteries were +suppressed in 1829 and their revenues secularized. Among the more +important and interesting monasteries are those of Megaspelaeon and +Lavra (where the standard of insurrection, unfurled in 1821, is +preserved) near Kalavryta, St Luke of Stiris near Arachova, Daphne and +Penteli near Athens, and the Meteora group in northern Thessaly. The +bishops, who must be unmarried, are as a rule selected from the monastic +order and are nominated by the king; the parish priests are allowed to +marry, but the remarriage of widowers is forbidden. The bulk of the +population, about 2,000,000, belongs to the Orthodox Church; other +Christian confessions number about 15,000, the great majority being +Roman Catholics. The Roman Catholics (principally in Naxos and the +Cyclades) have three archbisboprics (Athens, Naxos and Corfu), five +bishoprics and about 60 churches. The Jews, who are regarded with much +hostility, have almost disappeared from the Greek mainland; they now +number about 5000, and are found principally at Corfu. The Mahommedans +are confined to Thessaly except a few at Chalcis. National sentiment is +a more powerful factor than personal religious conviction in the +attachment of the Greeks to the Orthodox Church; a Greek without the +pale of the church is more or less an alien. The Catholic Greeks of +Syros sided with the Turks at the time of the revolution; the +Mahommedans of Crete, though of pure Greek descent, have always been +hostile to their Christian fellow-countrymen and are commonly called +Turks. On the other hand, that portion of the Macedonian population +which acknowledges the patriarch of Constantinople is regarded as Greek, +while that which adheres to the Bulgarian exarchate, though differing in +no point of doctrine, has been declared schismatic. The constitution of +1864 guarantees toleration to all creeds in Greece and imposes no civil +disabilities on account of religion. + + + Agriculture. + +Greece is essentially an agricultural country; its prosperity depends on +its agricultural products, and more than half the population is occupied +in the cultivation of the soil and kindred pursuits. The land in the +plains and valleys is exceedingly rich, and, wherever there is a +sufficiency of water, produces magnificent crops. Cereals nevertheless +furnish the principal figure in the list of imports, the annual value +being about 30,000,000 fr. The country, especially since the acquisition +of the fertile province of Thessaly, might under a well-developed +agricultural system provide a food-supply for all its inhabitants and an +abundant surplus for exportation. Thessaly alone, indeed, could furnish +cereals for the whole of Greece. Unfortunately, however, agriculture is +still in a primitive state, and the condition of the rural population +has received very inadequate attention from successive governments. The +wooden plough of the Hesiodic type is still in use, especially in +Thessaly; modern implements, however, are being gradually introduced. +The employment of manure and the rotation of crops are almost unknown; +the fields are generally allowed to lie fallow in alternate years. As a +rule, countries dependent on agriculture are liable to sudden +fluctuations in prosperity, but in Greece the diversity of products is +so great that a failure in one class of crops is usually compensated by +exceptional abundance in another. Among the causes which have hitherto +retarded agricultural progress are the ignorance and conservatism of the +peasantry, antiquated methods of cultivation, want of capital, absentee +proprietorship, sparsity of population, bad roads, the prevalence of +usury, the uncertainty of boundaries and the land tax, which, in the +absence of a survey, is levied on ploughing oxen; to these may be added +the insecurity hitherto prevailing in many of the country districts and +the growing distaste for rural life which has accompanied the spread of +education. Large estates are managed under the metayer system; the +cultivator paying the proprietor from one-third to half of the gross +produce; the landlords, who prefer to live in the larger towns, see +little of their tenants, and rarely interest themselves in their +welfare. A great proportion of the best arable land in Thessaly is owned +by persons who reside permanently out of the country. The great estates +in this province extend over some 1,500,000 acres, of which about +500,000 are cultivated. In the Peloponnesus peasant proprietorship is +almost universal; elsewhere it is gradually supplanting the metayer +system; the small properties vary from 2 or 3 to 50 acres. The extensive +state lands, about one-third of the area of Greece, were formerly the +property of Mahommedan religious communities (_vakoufs_); they are for +the most part farmed out annually by auction. They have been much +encroached upon by neighbouring owners; a considerable portion has also +been sold to the peasants. The rich plain of Thessaly suffers from +alternate droughts and inundations, and from the ravages of field mice; +with improved cultivation, drainage and irrigation it might be rendered +enormously productive. A commission has been occupied for some years in +preparing a scheme of hydraulic works. Usury is, perhaps, a greater +scourge to the rural population than any visitation of nature; the +institution of agricultural banks, lending money at a fair rate of +interest on the security of their land, would do much to rescue the +peasants from the clutches of local Shylocks. There is a difficulty, +however, in establishing any system of land credit owing to the lack of +a survey. Since 1897 a law passed in 1882 limiting the rate of interest +to 8% (to 9% in the case of commercial debts) has to some extent been +enforced by the tribunals. In the Ionian Islands the rate of 10% still +prevails. + + The following figures give approximately the acreage in 1906 and the + average annual yield of agricultural produce, no official statistics + being available:-- + + Acres. + Fields sown or lying fallow 3,000,000 + Vineyards 337,500 + Currant plantations 175,000 + Olives (10,000,000 trees) 250,000 + Fruit trees (fig, mulberry, &c.) 125,000 + Meadows and pastures 7,500,000 + Forests 2,000,000 + Waste lands 2,875,000 + ---------- + 16,262,500 + + The average annual yield is as follows:-- + + Wheat 350,000,000 kilograms + Maize 100,000,000 " + Rye 20,000,000 " + Barley 70,000,000 " + Oats 75,000,000 " + Beans, lentils, &c 25,000,000 " + Currants 350,000,000 Venetian lb. + Sultanina 4,000,000 " + Wine 3,000,000 hectolitres + Olive oil 300,000 " + Olives (preserved) 100,000,000 kilograms + Figs (exported only) 12,000,000 " + Seed cotton 6,500,000 " + Tobacco 8,000,000 " + Vegetables and fresh fruits 20,000,000 " + Cocoons 1,000,000 " + Hesperidiums (exported only) 4,000,000 " + Carobs (exported only) 10,000,000 " + Resin 5,000,000 " + Beet 12,000,000 " + + Rice is grown in the marshy plains of Elis, Boeotia, Marathon and + Missolonghi; beet in Thessaly. The cultivation of vegetables is + increasing; beans, peas and lentils are the most common. Potatoes are + grown in the upland districts, but are not a general article of diet. + Of late years market-gardening has been taken up as a new industry in + the neighbourhood of Athens. There is a great variety of fruits. Olive + plantations are found everywhere; in 1860 they occupied about 90,000 + acres; in 1887, 433,701 acres. The trees are sometimes of immense age + and form a picturesque feature in the landscape. In latter years the + groves in many parts of the western Morea and Zante have been cut down + to make room for currant plantations; the destruction has been + deplorable in its consequences, for, as the tree requires twenty years + to come into full bearing, replanting is seldom resorted to. Preserved + olives, eaten with bread, are a common article of food. Excellent + olive oil is produced in Attica and elsewhere. The value of the oil + and fruit exported varies from five to ten million francs. Figs are + also abundant, especially in Messenia and in the Cyclades. Mulberry + trees are planted for the purposes of sericulture; they have been cut + down in great numbers in the currant-growing districts. Other fruit + trees are the orange, citron, lemon, pomegranate and almond. Peaches, + apricots, pears, cherries, &c., abound, but are seldom scientifically + cultivated; the fruit is generally gathered while unripe. Cotton in + 1906 occupied about 12,500 acres, chiefly in the neighbourhood of + Livadia. Tobacco plantations in 1893 covered 16,320 acres, yielding + about 3,500,000 kilograms; the yield in 1906 was 9,000,000 kilograms. + About 40% of the produce is exported, principally to Egypt and Turkey. + More important are the vineyards, which occupied in 1887 an area of + 306,421 acres. The best wine is made at Patras, on the royal estate at + Decelea, and on other estates in Attica; a peculiar flavour is + imparted to the wine of the country by the addition of resin. The wine + of Santorin, the modern representative of the famous "malmsey," is + mainly exported to Russia. The foreign demand for Greek wines is + rapidly increasing; 3,770,257 gallons were exported in 1890, 4,974,196 + gallons in 1894, There is also a growing demand for Greek cognac. The + export of wine in 1905 was 20,850,941 okes, value 5,848,544 fr.; of + cognac, 363,720 okes, value 1,091,160 fr. + + + Currants. + + The currant, by far the most important of Greek exports, is cultivated + in a limited area extending along the southern shore of the Gulf of + Corinth and the seaboard of the Western Peloponnesus, in Zante, + Cephalonia and Leucas, and in certain districts of Acarnania and + Aetolia; attempts to cultivate it elsewhere have generally proved + unsuccessful. The history of the currant industry has been a record of + extraordinary vicissitudes. Previously to 1877 the currant was + exported solely for eating purposes, the amounts for the years 1872 to + 1877 being 70,766 tons, 71,222 tons, 76,210 tons, 72,916 tons, 86,947 + tons, and 82,181 tons respectively. In 1877, however, the French + vineyards began to suffer seriously from the phylloxera, and French + wine producers were obliged to have recourse to dried currants, which + make an excellent wine for blending purposes. The importation of + currants into France at once rose from 881 tons in 1877 to 20,999 tons + in 1880, and to 70,401 tons in 1889, or about 20,000 tons more than + were imported into England in that year. Meanwhile the total amount of + currants produced in Greece had nearly doubled in these thirteen + years. The country was seized with a mania for currant planting; every + other industry was neglected, and olive, orange and lemon groves were + cut down to make room for the more lucrative growth. The currant + growers, in order to increase their production as rapidly as possible, + had recourse to loans at a high rate of interest, and the great + profits which they made were devoted to further planting, while the + loans remained unpaid. A crisis followed rapidly. By 1891 the French + vineyards had to a great extent recovered from the disease, and wine + producers in France began to clamour against the competition of + foreign wines and wine-producing raisins and currants. The import duty + on these was thereupon raised from 6 francs to 15 francs per 100 + kilos, and was further increased in 1894 to 25 francs. The currant + trade with France was thus extinguished; of a crop averaging 160,000 + tons, only some 110,000 now found a market. Although a fresh opening + for exportation was found in Russia, the value of the fruit dropped + from L15 to L5 per ton, a price scarcely covering the cost of + cultivation. In July 1895 the government introduced a measure, since + known as the Retention ([Greek: parakratesis]) Law, by which it was + enacted that every shipper should deliver into depots provided by the + government a weight of currants equivalent to 15% of the amount which + he intended to export. A later law fixed the quantity to be retained + by the state at 10%, which might be increased to 20%, should a + representative committee, meeting every summer at Athens, so advise + the government. The currants thus taken over by the government cannot + be exported unless they are reduced to pulp, syrup or otherwise + rendered unsuitable for eating purposes; they may be sold locally for + wine-making or distilling, due precautions being taken that they are + not used in any other way. The price of exported currants is thus + maintained at an artificial figure. The Retention Law, which after + 1895 was voted annually, was passed for a period of ten years in 1899. + This pernicious measure, which is in defiance of all economic laws, + perpetuates a superfluous production, retards the development of other + branches of agriculture and burdens the government with vast + accumulations of an unmarketable commodity. It might excusably be + adopted as a temporary expedient to meet a pressing crisis, but as a + permanent system it can only prove detrimental to the country and the + currant growers themselves. + + In 1899 a "Bank of Viticulture" was established at Patras for the + purpose of assisting the growers, to whom it was bound to make + advances at a low rate of interest; it undertook the storage and the + sale of the retained fruit, from which its capital was derived. The + bank soon found itself burdened with an enormous unsaleable stock, + while its loans for the most part remained unpaid; meantime + over-production, the cause of the trouble, continued to increase, and + prices further diminished. In 1903 a syndicate of English and other + foreign capitalists made proposals for a monopoly of the export, + guaranteeing fixed prices to the growers. The scheme, which conflicted + with Anglo-Greek commercial conventions, was rejected by the Theotokis + ministry; serious disturbances followed in the currant-growing + districts, and M. Theotokis resigned. His successor, M. Rallis, in + order to appease the cultivators, arranged that the Currant Bank + should offer them fixed minimum prices for the various growths, and + guaranteed it a loan of 6,000,000 dr. The resources of the bank, + however, gave out before the end of the season, and prices pursued + their downward course. Another experiment was then tried; the export + duty (15%) was made payable in kind, the retention quota being thus + practically raised from 20 to 35%. The only result of this measure was + a diminution of the export; in the spring of 1905 prices fell very low + and the growers began to despair. A syndicate of banks and capitalists + then came forward, which introduced the system now in operation. A + privileged company was formed which obtained a charter from the + government for twenty years, during which period the retention and + export duties are maintained at the fixed rates of 20 and 15% + respectively. The company aims at keeping up the prices of the + marketable qualities by employing profitably for industrial purposes + the unexported surplus and retained inferior qualities; it pays to the + state 4,000,000 dr. annually under the head of export duty; offers all + growers at the beginning of each agricultural year a fixed price of + 115 dr. per 1000 Venetian lb. irrespective of quality, and pays a + price varying from 115 dr. to 145 dr. according to quality at the end + of the year for the unexported surplus. In return for these advantages + to the growers the company is entitled to receive 7 dr. on every 1000 + lb. of currants produced and to dispose of the whole retained amount. + A special company has been formed for the conversion of the + superfluous product into spirit, wine, &c. The system may perhaps + prove commercially remunerative, but it penalizes the producers of the + better growths in order to provide a livelihood for the growers of + inferior and unmarketable kinds and protracts an abnormal situation. + The following table gives the annual currant crop from 1877 to 1905:-- + + +------+----------+------------+-----------+ + | Year.|Total crop| Exported to|Exported to| + | | (tons). |Gt. Britain.| France. | + +------+----------+------------+-----------+ + | 1877 | 82,181 | .. | 881 | + | 1878 | 100,004 | .. | 9,086 | + | 1879 | 92,311 | .. | 19,087 | + | 1880 | 92,337 | .. | 20,999 | + | 1881 | 121,994 | .. | 30,315 | + | 1882 | 109,403 | 51,933 | 26,282 | + | 1883 | 114,980 | 52,099 | 24,815 | + | 1884 | 129,268 | 59,629 | 39,198 | + | 1885 | 113,287 | 55,765 | 37,730 | + | 1886 | 127,570 | 48,892 | 45,000 | + | 1887 | 127,160 | 55,549 | 37,438 | + | 1888 | 158,728 | 63,714 | 40,735 | + | 1889 | 142,308 | 52,251 | 69,555 | + | 1890 | 146,749 | 67,502 | 37,816 | + | 1891 | 161,545 | 70,762 | 39,712 | + | 1892 | 116,944 | 60,418 | 21,721 | + | 1893 | 119,886 | 73,000 | 6,800 | + | 1894 | 135,500 | 64,500 | 15,000 | + | 1895 | 167,695 | 60,500 | 26,500 | + | 1896 | 153,514 | 65,000 | 6,500 | + | 1897 | 115,730 | 63,000 | 2,000 | + | 1898 | 153,514 | 69,500 | 6,000 | + | 1899 | 144,071 | 65,600 | 3,800 | + | 1900 | 47,236 | 36,000 | 300 | + | 1901 | 139,820 | 58,000 | 1,216 | + | 1902 | 152,580 | 58,400 | 4,782 | + | 1903 | 179,499 | 54,800 | 4,470 | + | 1904 | 146,500 | 58,850 | 820 | + | 1905 | 162,957 | 61,700 | 1,042 | + +------+----------+------------+-----------+ + + The "peronospora," a species of white blight, first caused + considerable damage in the Greek vineyards in 1892, recurring in 1897 + and 1900. + + + Stock-farming. + + More than half the cultivable area of Greece is devoted to pasturage. + Cattle-rearing, as a rule, is a distinct occupation from agricultural + farming; the herds are sent to pasture on the mountains in the summer, + and return to the plains at the beginning of winter. The larger cattle + are comparatively rare, being kept almost exclusively for agricultural + labour; the smaller are very abundant. Beef is scarcely eaten in + Greece, the milk of cows is rarely drunk and butter is almost unknown. + Cheese, a staple article of diet, is made from the milk of sheep and + goats. The number of larger cattle has declined in recent years; that + of the smaller has increased. The native breed of oxen is small; + buffaloes are seldom seen except in north-western Thessaly; a few + camels are used in the neighbourhood of Parnassus. The Thessalian + breed of horses, small but sturdy and enduring, can hardly be taken to + represent the celebrated chargers of antiquity. Mules are much + employed in the mountainous districts; the best type of these animals + is found in the islands. The flocks of long-horned sheep and goats add + a picturesque feature to Greek rural scenery. The goats are more + numerous in proportion to the population than in any other European + country (137 per 100 inhabitants). The shepherds' dogs rival those of + Bulgaria in ferocity. According to an unofficial estimate published in + 1905 the numbers of the various domestic animals in 1899 were as + follows: Oxen and buffaloes, 408,744; horses, 157,068; mules, 88,869; + donkeys, 141,174; camels, 51; sheep, 4,568,151; goats, 3,339,439; + pigs, 79,716. During the four years 1899-1902 the annual average value + of imported cattle was 4,218,015 dr., of exported cattle 209,321 dr. + + + Forests. + + The forest area (about 2,500,000 acres or one-fifth of the surface of + the mainland) is for the most part state property. The value of the + forests has been estimated at 200,000,000 fr.; the most productive are + in the district extending from the Pindus range to the Gulf of + Corinth. The principal trees are the oak (about 30 varieties), the + various coniferae, the chestnut, maple, elm, beech, alder, cornel and + arbutus. In Greece, as in other lands formerly subject to Turkish + rule, the forests are not only neglected, but often deliberately + destroyed; this great source of national wealth is thus continually + diminishing. Every year immense forest fires may be seen raging in the + mountains, and many of the most picturesque districts in the country + are converted into desolate wildernesses. These conflagrations are + mainly the work of shepherds eager to provide increased pasturage for + their flocks; they are sometimes, however, due to the carelessness of + smokers, and occasionally, it is said, to spontaneous ignition in hot + weather. Great damage is also done by the goats, which browse on the + young saplings; the pine trees are much injured by the practice of + scoring their bark for resin. With the disappearance of the trees the + soil of the mountain slopes, deprived of its natural protection, is + soon washed away by the rain; the rapid descent of the water causes + inundations in the plains, while the uplands become sterile and lose + their vegetation. The climate has been affected by the change; rain + falls less frequently but with greater violence, and the process of + denudation is accelerated. The government has from time to time made + efforts for the protection of the forests, but with little success + till recently. A staff of inspectors and forest guards was first + organized in 1877. The administration of the forests has since 1893 + been entrusted to a department of the Ministry of Finance, which + controls a staff of 4 inspectors ([Greek: epitheoretai]), 31 + superintendents ([Greek: dasarchoi]), 52 head foresters ([Greek: + archiphylakes]) and 298 foresters ([Greek: dasyphylakes]). The + foresters are aided during the summer months, when fires are most + frequent, by about 500 soldiers and gendarmes. About a third of these + functionaries have received instruction in the school of forestry at + Vythine in the Morea, open since 1898. Owing to the measures now + taken, which include excommunication by the parish priests of + incendiaries and their accomplices, the conflagrations have + considerably diminished. The total annual value of the products of the + Greek forests averages 15,000,000 drachmae. The revenue accruing to + the government in 1905 was 1,418,158 dr., as compared with 583,991 dr. + in 1883. The increase is mainly due to improved administration. The + supply of timber for house-construction, ship-building, + furniture-making, railway sleepers, &c., is insufficient, and is + supplemented by importation (annual value about 12,000,000 francs); + transport is rendered difficult by the lack of roads and navigable + streams. The principal secondary products are valonea (annual + exportation about 1,250,000 fr.) and resin, which is locally employed + as a preservative ingredient in the fabrication of wine. The + administration of the forests is still defective, and measures for the + augmentation and better instruction of the staff of foresters have + been designed by the government. In 1900 a society for the + re-afforesting of the country districts and environs of the large + towns was founded at Athens under the patronage of the crown princess. + + +------------------------------+---------+-----------+ + | | Tons. | Francs. | + +------------------------------+---------+-----------+ + | Chrome | 8,900 | 337,952 | + | Emery | 6,972 | 742,486 | + | Gypsum | 185 | 7,995 | + | Iron ore | 465,622 | 3,387,467 | + | Ferromanganese | 89,687 | 1,182,652 | + | Lead (argentiferous pig) ore | 13,729 | 6,811,792 | + | Lignite | 11,757 | 143,814 | + | Magnesite | 43,498 | 864,982 | + | Manganese ore | 8,171 | 122,565 | + | Mill stones | 12,628 | 34,660 | + | Salt | 25,201 | 1,638,065 | + | Sulphur | 1,126 | 121,000 | + | Zinc ore | 22,562 | 2,852,355 | + +------------------------------+---------+-----------+ + + + Mines. + + The chief minerals are silver, lead, zinc, copper manganese, magnesia, + iron, sulphur and coal. Emery, salt, millstone and gypsum, which are + found in considerable quantities, are worked by the government. The + important mines at Laurium, a source of great wealth to ancient + Athens, were reopened in 1864 by a Franco-Italian company, but were + declared to be state property in 1871; they are now worked by a Greek + and a French company. The output of marketable ore in 1899 amounted to + 486,760 tons, besides 289,292 tons of dressed lead ore. In 1905 the + output was as follows: Raw and roasted manganese iron ore, 113,636 + tons; hematite iron ore, 94,734 tons; calamine or zinc ore, 22,612 + tons; arsenic and argentiferous lead, 1875 tons; zinc blende and + galena, 443 tons; total, 233,300 tons, together with 164,857 tons of + dressed lead, producing 13,822 tons of silver pig lead containing 1657 + to 1910 grams of silver per ton. It has been found profitable to + resmelt the scoriae of the ancient workings. The total value of the + exports from the Laurium mines, which in 1875 amounted to only + L150,513, had in 1899 increased to L827,209, but fell in 1905 to + L499,882. The revenue accruing to the government from all mines and + quarries, including those worked by the state, was estimated in the + budget for 1906 at 1,332,000 dr. The emery of Naxos, which is a state + monopoly, is excellent in quality and very abundant. Mines of iron ore + have latterly been opened at Larimna in Locris. Magnesite mines are + worked by an Anglo-Greek company in Euboea. There are sulphur and + manganese mines in the island of Melos, and the volcanic island of + Santorin produces pozzolana, a kind of cement, which is exported in + considerable quantities. The great abundance of marble in Greece has + latterly attracted the attention of foreign capitalists. New quarries + have been opened since 1897 by an English company on the north slope + of Mount Pentelicus, and are now connected by rail with Athens and the + Peiraeus. The marble on this side of the mountain is harder than that + on the south, which alone was worked by the ancients. The output in + 1905 was 1573 tons. Mount Pentelicus furnished material for most of + the celebrated buildings of ancient Athens; the marble, which is + white, blue-veined, and somewhat transparent, assumes a rich yellow + hue after long exposure to the air. The famous Parian quarries are + still worked; white marble is also found at Scyros, Tenos and Naxos; + grey at Stoura and Karystos; variegated at Valaxa and Karystos; green + on Taygetus and in Thessaly; black at Tenos; and red (porphyry) in + Maina. + + The official statistics of the output and value of minerals produced + in 1905 were as in the preceding table. + + The number of persons employed in mining operations in 1905 was 9934. + + + Commerce and industry. + +Owing to the natural aptitude of the Greeks for commerce and their +predilection for a seafaring life a great portion of the trade of the +Levant has fallen into their hands. Important Greek mercantile colonies +exist in all the larger ports of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, +and many of them possess great wealth. In some of the islands of the +archipelago almost every householder is the owner or joint owner of a +ship. The Greek mercantile marine, which in 1888 consisted of 1352 +vessels (70 steamers) with a total tonnage of 219,415 tons, numbered in +1906, according to official returns, 1364 vessels (275 steamers) with a +total tonnage of 427,291 tons. This figure is apparently too low, as the +ship-owners are prone to understate the tonnage in order to diminish the +payment of dues. Almost the whole corn trade of Turkey is in Greek +hands. A large number of the sailing ships, especially the smaller +vessels engaged in the coasting trade, belong to the islanders. A +considerable portion of the shipping on the Danube and Pruth is owned by +the inhabitants of Ithaca and Cephalonia; a certain number of their +_sleps_ ([Greek: slepia]) have latterly been acquired by Rumanian Jews, +but the Greek flag is still predominant. There are seven principal Greek +steamship companies owning 40 liners with a total tonnage of 21,972 +tons. In 1847 there was but one lighthouse in Greek waters; in 1906 +there were 70 lighthouses and 68 port lanterns. Hermoupolis (Syra) is +the chief seat of the carrying trade, but as a commercial port it yields +to Peiraeus, which is the principal centre of distribution for imports. +Other important ports are Patras, Volo, Corfu, Kalamata and Laurium. + + The following table gives the total value (in francs) of special Greek + commerce for the given years:-- + + +---------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + | | 1887. | 1892. | 1897. | 1902. | + +---------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + | Imports | 131,849,325 | 119,306,007 | 116,363,348 | 137,229,364 | + | Exports | 102,652,487 | 82,261,464 | 81,708,626 | 79,663,473 | + +---------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ + + The marked fluctuations in the returns are mainly attributable to + variations in the price and quantity of imported cereals and in the + sale of currants. The great excess of imports, caused by the large + importation of food-stuffs and manufactured articles, is due to the + neglect of agriculture and the undeveloped condition of local + industries. + + The imports and exports for 1905 were distributed as follows:-- + + +--------------------+--------------+-------------+ + | | Imports from.| Exports to. | + +--------------------+--------------+-------------+ + | | Frs. | Frs. | + | Russia | 27,725,218 | 810,925 | + | Great Britain | 27,516,928 | 24,436,707 | + | Austria-Hungary | 19,444,415 | 7,876,806 | + | Turkey | 15,538,370 | 4,516,403 | + | Germany | 13,896,687 | 7,514,474 | + | France | 10,101,070 | 7,078,321 | + | Italy | 6,190,253 | 4,266,210 | + | Bulgaria | 5,135,718 | 133,106 | + | Rumania | 3,814,641 | 1,152,207 | + | America | 2,656,501 | 6,440,648 | + | Belgium | 2,276,393 | 2,068,138 | + | Netherlands | 1,921,762 | 7,180,301 | + | Egypt | 634,035 | 5,928,555 | + | Switzerland | 348,281 | .. | + | Other countries | 4,555,781 | 4,288,365 | + | | ----------- | ---------- | + | Total | 141,756,053 | 83,691,166 | + +--------------------+--------------+-------------+ + + An enumeration of the chief articles of importation and exportation, + together with their value, will be found in tabular form overleaf. + + Greece does not possess any manufacturing industries on a large scale; + the absence of a native coal supply is an obstacle to their + development. In 1889 there were 145 establishments employing steam of + 5568 indicated horse-power; in 1892 the total horse-power employed was + estimated at 10,000. In addition to the smelting-works at Laurium, at + which some 5000 hands are employed by Greek and French companies and + local proprietors, there are flour mills, cloth, cotton and silk + spinning mills, ship-building and engineering works, oil-presses, + tanneries, powder and dynamite mills, soap mills (about 40), and + some manufactures of paper, glass, matches, turpentine, white lead, + hats, gloves, candles, &c. About 100 factories are established in the + neighbourhood of Athens and Peiraeus. The wine industry (10 factories) + is of considerable importance, and the manufacture of cognac has + latterly made great progress; there are 10 large and numerous small + cognac distilleries. Ship-building is carried on actively at all the + ports on the mainland and islands; about 200 ships, mostly of low + tonnage, are launched annually. + + _Principal Articles of Importation._ + + +-----------------------------+--------------------------+--------------------------+ + | | 1904. | 1905. | + | +------------+-------------+------------+-------------+ + | Articles. |Total value |Imported from|Total value |Imported from| + | | in francs. | the United | in francs. | the United | + | | | Kingdom. | | Kingdom. | + +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-------------+ + | Cereals | 27,735,808 | none | 32,511,784 | none | + | Textiles | 17,999,344 | 10,762,464 | 13,460,620 | 5,497,172 | + | Raw minerals | 13,341,191 | 7,630,633 | .. | .. | + | Forest products | 10,146,500 | 9,769 | 12,254,190 | 61,309 | + | Wrought metals | 7,757,444 | 2,162,250 | .. | .. | + | Coals and pit-coal | 6,522,086 | 6,087,068 | 5,073,841 | 4,308,357 | + | Yarn and tissues | 4,739,819 | 2,504,667 | 8,021,523 | 6,838,079 | + | Fish | 4,992,615 | 2,394,224 | 1,014,164 | 186,072 | + | Raw hides | 4,558,101 | 478,965 | 3,909,657 | 215,745 | + | Various animals | 4,271,151 | none | 3,373,523 | 1,268 | + | Horses | 3,011,450 | none | 2,070,250 | none | + | Paper, books, &c. | 3,327,144 | 157,017 | 3,319,700 | 76,454 | + | Coffee | 2,957,601 | 293,610 | 3,060,904 | 107,296 | + | Sugar | 2,606,696 | none | 2,887,854 | 70 | + | Rice | 1,977,894 | 63,882 | 1,901,486 | 236,027 | + | Colours | 1,750,858 | 341,839 | 2,146,509 | 281,433 | + +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+--------------------------+ + + _Chief Articles of Exportation._ + + +-----------------------------+--------------------------+--------------------------+ + | | 1904. | 1905. | + | +--------------------------+------------+-------------+ + | Articles. |Total value | Exported to |Total value | Exported to | + | | in francs. | the United | in francs. | the United | + | | | Kingdom. | | Kingdom. | + +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-------------+ + | Currants | 28,841,678 | 14,569,137 | 34,299,780 | 17,008,929 | + | Minerals and raw metals | 19,134,185 | 5,161,898 | 15,125,072 | 5,438,698 | + | Wines | 10,084,960 | 429,143 | 5,832,139 | 881,696 | + | Tobacco | 7,285,385 | 39,512 | 6,157,092 | 147,565 | + | Olive oil | 4,163,262 | 212,081 | 2,150,285 | 64,310 | + | Figs | 3,583,428 | 62,304 | 3,309,432 | 338,196 | + | Minerals and metals (worked)| 2,754,245 | 7,750 | 2,607,580 | 900 | + | Olives | 1,793,362 | 9,833 | 1,138,116 | 18,800 | + | Valonea | 1,558,678 | 200,849 | 1,917,014 | 146,927 | + | Cognac | 1,027,224 | 12,099 | 1,091,160 | 2,283 | + +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-------------+ + + _Public Works._--The important drainage-works at Lake Copais were + taken over by an English company in 1890. The lake covered an area of + 58,080 acres, the greater part of which is now rendered fit for + cultivation. The drainage works consist of a canal, 28 kilometres in + length, and a tunnel of 600 metres descending through the mountain to + a lower lake, which is connected by a second tunnel with the sea. The + reclaimed land is highly fertile. The area under crops amounted in + 1906 to 27,414 acres, of which 20,744 were let to tenants and the + remainder farmed by the company. The uncultivated portion affords + excellent grazing. The canal through the Isthmus of Corinth was opened + to navigation in November 1893. The total cost of the works, which + were begun by a company in 1882, was 70,000,000 francs. The narrowness + of the canal, which is only 24.60 metres broad at the surface, and the + strength of the current which passes through it, seriously detract + from its utility. The high charges imposed on foreign vessels have + proved almost prohibitive. There are reduced rates for ships sailing + in Greek waters. Up to the 31st of July 1906, 37,214 vessels, with a + tonnage of 4,971,922, had passed through the canal. The receipts up to + that date were 3,207,835 drachmae (mainly from Greek ships) and + 415,976 francs (mainly from foreign ships). In 1905, 2930 vessels + (2735 Greek) passed through, the receipts being 281,935 drachmae and + 34,142 francs. The total liabilities of the company in 1906 were about + 40,000,000 fr. The canal would be more frequented by foreign shipping + if the harbours at its entrances were improved, and its sides, which + are of masonry, lined with beams; efforts are being made to raise + funds for these purposes. The widening of the Euripus Channel at + Chalcis to the extent of 21.56 metres was accomplished in 1894. The + operations involved the destruction of the picturesque Venetian tower + which guarded the strait. A canal was completed in 1903 rendering + navigable the shallow channel between Leucas (Santa Maura) and the + mainland (breadth 15 metres, depth 5 metres). Large careening docks + were undertaken in 1909 at Peiraeus at an estimated cost of 4,750,000 + drachmae. + + _Communications._--Internal communication by roads is improving, + though much remains to be done, especially as regards the quality of + the roads. A considerable impetus was given to road-making under the + Trikoupis administration. In 1878 there were only 555 m. of roads; in + 1898 there were 2398 m.; in 1906, 3275 m. Electric trams have been + introduced at Patras. Railways were open to traffic in 1900 for a + length of 598 m.; in 1906 for a length of 867 m. The circuit of the + Morea railways (462 m.) was completed in 1902; from Diakophto, on the + north coast, a cogwheel railway, finished in 1894, ascends to + Kalavryta. A very important undertaking is the completion of a line + from Peiraeus to the frontier, the contract for which was signed in + 1900 between the Greek government and the Eastern Railway Extension + Syndicate (subsequently converted into the _Societe des Chemins de Fer + helleniques_). A line Connecting Peiraeus with Larissa was begun in + 1890, but in 1894 the English company which had undertaken the + contract went into liquidation. Under the contract of 1900 the line + was drawn through Demerli, in the south of Thessaly, to Larissa, a + distance of 217 m., and continued through the vale of Tempe to the + Turkish frontier (about 246 m. in all). Branch lines have been + constructed to Lamia and Chalcis. The establishment of a connexion + with the continental railway system, by a junction with the line from + Belgrade to Salonica, would be of immense advantage to Greece, and the + Peiraeus would become an important place of embarkation for Egypt, + India and the Far East. + + + Posts and telegraphs. + + In 1905 the number of post offices was 640. Of these 320 were also + telegraph and 89 telephone stations, with 664 clerks; the remaining + post offices possess no special staff, but are served by persons who + also pursue other occupations. The number of postmen and other + employees was 889. During the year there passed through the post + 6,897,899 ordinary letters for the interior, 2,980,958 for foreign + destinations, 2,788,477 from abroad; 540,411 registered letters or + parcels for the interior, 309,907 for foreign countries, and 300,150 + from abroad; 880,673 post-cards for the interior, 504,785 from abroad, + and 187,975 sent abroad; 100,680 samples; 7,068,125 printed papers for + the interior, 5,278,405 to or from foreign countries. Telegraph lines + in 1905 extended over 4222 m. with 6836 m. of wires; 841,913 inland + telegrams, 221,188 service telegrams and 129,036 telegrams to foreign + destinations were despatched, and 169,519 received from abroad. + Receipts amounted to 4,589,601 drachmae (postal service 2,744,212, + telegraph and telephone services 1,845,389 drachmae) and expenditure + to 3,954,742 drachmae. + + + Army. + +The Greek army has recently been in a state of transition. Its condition +has never been satisfactory, partly owing to the absence of systematic +effort in the work of organization, partly owing to the pernicious +influence of political parties, and in times of national emergency it +has never been in a condition of readiness. The experience of the war of +1897 proved the need of far-reaching administrative changes and +disciplinary reforms. A scheme of complete reorganization was +subsequently elaborated under the auspices of the crown prince +Constantine, the commander-in-chief, and received the assent of the +Chamber in June 1904. During the war of 1897 about 65,000 infantry, 1000 +cavalry, and 24 batteries were put into the field, and after great +efforts another 15,000 men were mobilized. Under the new scheme it is +proposed to maintain on a peace footing 1887 officers, 25,140 +non-commissioned officers and men, and 4059 horses and mules; in time of +war the active army will consist of at least 120,000 men and the +territorial army of at least 60,000 men. The heavy expenditure entailed +by the project has been an obstacle to its immediate realization. In +order to meet this expenditure a special fund has been instituted in +addition to the ordinary military budget, and certain revenues have been +assigned to it amounting to about 5,500,000 drachmae annually. In 1906, +however, it was decided to suspend partially for five years the +operation of the law of 1904 and to devote the resources thus +economized together with other funds to the immediate purchase of new +armaments and equipment. Under this temporary arrangement the peace +strength of the army in 1908 consisted of 1939 officers and civilians, +19,416 non-commissioned officers and men and 2661 horses and mules; it +is calculated that the reserves will furnish about 77,000 men and the +territorial army about 37,000 men in time of war. + +Military service is obligatory, and liability to serve begins from the +twenty-first year. The term of service comprises two years in the active +army, ten years in the active army reserve (for cavalry eight years), +eight years in the territorial army (for cavalry ten years) and ten +years for all branches in the territorial army reserve. As a rule, +however, the period of service in the active army has hitherto been +considerably shortened; with a view to economy, the men, under the law +of 1904, receive furlough after eighteen months with the colours. +Exemptions from military service, which were previously very numerous, +are also restricted considerably by the law of 1904, which will secure a +yearly contingent of about 13,000 men in time of peace. The conscripts +in excess of the yearly contingent are withdrawn by lot; they are +required to receive six months' training in the ranks as supernumeraries +before passing into the reserve, in which they form a special category +of "liability" men. Under the temporary system of 1906 the contingent is +reduced to about 10,000 men by postponing the abrogation of several +exemptions, and the period of service is fixed at fourteen months for +all the conscripts alike. The field army as constituted by the law of +1904 consists of 3 divisions, each division comprising 2 brigades of +infantry, each of 2 regiments of 3 battalions and other units. There are +thus 36 battalions of infantry (of which 12 are cadres); also 6 +battalions of _evzones_ (highlanders), 18 squadrons of cavalry (6 +cadres), 33 batteries of artillery (6 cadres), 3 battalions of engineers +and telegraphists, 3 companies of ambulance, 3 of train, &c. The +artillery is composed of 24 field batteries, 3 heavy and 6 mountain +batteries; it is mainly provided with Krupp 7.5 cm. guns dating from +1870 or earlier. After a series of trials in 1907 it was decided to +order 36 field batteries of 7.5 cm. quick-firing guns and 6 mountain +batteries, in all 168 guns, with 1500 projectiles for each battery from +the Creuzot factory. The infantry, which was hitherto armed with the +obsolete Gras rifle (.433 in.), was furnished in 1907 with the +Mannlicher-Schonauer (model 1903) of which 100,000 had been delivered in +May 1908. Hitherto the gendarmerie, which replaced the police, have +formed a corps drawn from the army, which in 1908 consisted of 194 +officers and 6344 non-commissioned officers and men, but a law passed in +1907 provided for these forces being thenceforth recruited separately by +voluntary enlistment in annual contingents of 700 men. The participation +of the officers in politics, which has proved very injurious to +discipline, has been checked by a law forbidding officers below the rank +of colonel to stand for the Chamber. In the elections of 1905 115 +officers were candidates. The three divisional headquarters are at +Larissa, Athens and Missolonghi; the six headquarters of brigades are at +Trikkala, Larissa, Athens, Chalcis, Missolonghi and Nauplia. In 1907 +annual manoeuvres were instituted. + + + Navy. + +The Greek fleet consisted in 1907 of 3 armoured barbette ships of 4885 +tons (built in France in 1890, reconstructed 1899), carrying each three +10.8-in. guns, five 6-in., thirteen quick-firing and smaller guns, and +three torpedo tubes; 1 cruiser of 1770 tons (built in 1879), with two +6.7-in. and six light quick-firing guns; 1 armoured central battery ship +of 1774 tons (built 1867, reconstructed 1897) with two 8.4 in. and nine +small quick-firing guns; 2 coast-defence gunboats with one 10.6-in. gun +each; 4 corvettes; 1 torpedo depot ship; 8 destroyers, each with six +guns (ordered in 1905); 3 transport steamers; 7 small gunboats; 3 mining +boats; 5 torpedo boats; 1 royal yacht; 2 school ships and various minor +vessels. The personnel of the navy was composed in 1907 of 437 officers, +26 cadets, 1118 petty officers, 2372 seamen and stokers, 60 boys and 99 +civilians, together with 386 artisans employed at the arsenal. The navy +is manned chiefly by conscription; the period of service is two years, +with four years in the reserve. The headquarters of the fleet and +arsenal are in the island of Salamis, where there is a dockyard with +naval stores, a floating dock and a torpedo school. Most of the vessels +of the Greek fleet were in 1907 obsolete; in 1904 a commission under the +presidency of Prince George proposed the rearmament of the existing +ironclads and the purchase of three new ironclads and other vessels. A +different scheme of reorganization, providing almost exclusively for +submarines and scout vessels, was suggested to the government by the +French admiral Fournier in 1908, but was opposed by the Greek naval +officers. With a view to the augmentation and better equipment of the +fleet a special fund was instituted in 1900 to which certain revenues +have been assigned; it has been increased by various donations and +bequests and by the proceeds of a state lottery. The fleet is not +exercised methodically either in navigation or gunnery practice; a long +voyage, however, was undertaken by the ironclad vessels in 1904. The +Greeks, especially the islanders of the Aegean, make better sailors than +soldiers; the personnel of the navy, if trained by foreign officers, +might be brought to a high state of efficiency. + + + Finance. + + The financial history of Greece has been unsatisfactory from the + outset. Excessive military and naval expenditure (mainly due to + repeated and hasty mobilizations), a lax and improvident system of + administration, the corruption of political parties and the + instability of the government, which has rendered impossible the + continuous application of any scheme of fiscal reform--all alike have + contributed to the economic ruin of the country. For a long series of + years preceding the declaration of national insolvency in 1893 + successive budgets presented a deficit, which in years of political + excitement and military activity assumed enormous proportions: the + shortcomings of the budget were supplied by the proceeds of foreign + loans, or by means of advances obtained in the country at a high rate + of interest. The two loans which had been contracted during the war of + independence were extinguished by means of a conversion in 1889. Of + the existing foreign loans the earliest is that of 60,000,000 frs., + guaranteed by the three protecting powers in 1832; owing to the + payment of interest and amortization by the powers, the capital + amounted in 1871 to 100,392,833 fr.; on this Greece pays an annual sum + of 900,000 fr., of which 300,000 have been granted by the powers as a + yearly subvention to King George. The only other existing foreign + obligation of early date is the debt to the heirs of King Otho + (4,500,000 dr.) contracted in 1868. A large amount of internal debt + was incurred between 1848 and 1880, but a considerable proportion of + this was redeemed with the proceeds of the foreign loans negotiated + after this period. At the end of 1880 the entire national debt, + external and internal, stood at 252,652,481 dr. In 1881 the era of + great foreign loans began. In that year a 5% loan of 120,000,000 fr. + was raised to defray the expenses of the mobilization of 1880. This + was followed in 1884 by a 5% loan of 170,000,000 fr., of which + 100,000,000 was actually issued. The service of these loans was + guaranteed by various State revenues. A "patriotic loan" of 30,000,000 + dr. without interest, issued during the war excitement of 1885, proved + a failure, only 2,723,860 dr. being subscribed. In 1888 a 4% loan of + 135,000,000 fr. was contracted, secured on the receipts of the five + State monopolies, the management of which was entrusted to a + privileged company. In the following year (1889) two 4% loans of + 30,000,000 fr. and 125,000,000 fr. respectively were issued without + guarantee or sinking fund; Greek credit had now apparently attained an + established position in the foreign money market, but a decline of + public confidence soon became evident. In 1890, of a 5% loan of + 80,000,000 fr. effective, authorized for the construction of the + Peiraeus-Larissa railway, only 40,050,000 fr. was taken up abroad and + 12,900,000 fr. at home; large portions of the proceeds were devoted to + other purposes. In 1892 the government was compelled to make large + additions to the internal floating debt, and to borrow 16,500,000 fr. + from the National Bank on onerous terms. In 1893 an effort to obtain a + foreign loan for the reduction of the forced currency proved + unsuccessful. (For the events leading up to the declaration of + national bankruptcy in that year see under _Recent History_.) A + funding convention was concluded in the summer, under which the + creditors accepted scrip instead of cash payments of interest. A few + months later this arrangement was reversed by the Chamber, and on the + 13th December a law was passed assigning provisionally to all the + foreign loans alike 30% of the stipulated interest; the reduced + coupons were made payable in paper instead of gold, the sinking funds + were suspended, and the sums encashed by the monopoly company were + confiscated. The causes of the financial catastrophe may be briefly + summarized as follows: (1) The military preparations of 1885-1886, + with the attendant disorganization of the country; the extraordinary + expenditure of these years amounted to 130,987,772 dr. (2) Excessive + borrowing abroad, involving a charge for the service of foreign loans + altogether disproportionate to the revenue. (3) Remissness in the + collection of taxation: the total loss through arrears in a period of + ten years (1882-1891) was 36,549,202 dr., being in the main + attributable to non-payment of direct taxes. (4) The adverse balance + of trade, largely due to the neglected condition of agriculture; in + the five years preceding the crisis (1888-1892) the exports were + stated to amount to L19,578,973, while the imports reached + L24,890,146; foreign live stock and cereals being imported to the + amount of L6,193,579. The proximate cause of the crisis was the rise + in the exchange owing to the excessive amount of paper money in + circulation. Forced currency was first introduced in 1868, when + 15,000,000 dr. in paper money was issued; it was abolished in the + following year, but reintroduced in 1877 with a paper issue of + 44,000,000 dr. It was abolished a second time in 1884, but again put + into circulation in 1885, when paper loans to the amount of 45,000,000 + dr. were authorized. In 1893 the total authorized forced currency was + 146,000,000 dr., of which 88,000,000 (including 14,000,000 dr. in + small notes) was on account of the government. The gold and silver + coinage had practically disappeared from circulation. The rate of + exchange, as a rule, varies directly with the amount of paper money in + circulation, but, owing to speculation, it is liable to violent + fluctuations whenever there is an exceptional demand for gold in the + market. In 1893 the gold franc stood at the ratio of 1.60 to the paper + drachma; the service of the foreign loans required upwards of + 31,000,000 dr. in gold, and any attempt to realize this sum in the + market would have involved an outlay equivalent to at least half the + budget. With the failure of the projected loan for the withdrawal of + the forced currency repudiation became inevitable. The law of the 13th + of December was not recognized by the national creditors: prolonged + negotiations followed, but no arrangement was arrived at till 1897, + when the intervention of the powers after the war with Turkey + furnished the opportunity for a definite settlement. It was stipulated + that Turkey should receive an indemnity of LT4,000,000 contingent on + the evacuation of Thessaly; in order to secure the payment of this sum + by Greece without prejudice to the interests of her creditors, and to + enable the country to recover from the economic consequences of the + war, Great Britain, France and Russia undertook to guarantee a 2-1/2% + loan of 170,000,000 fr., of which 150,000,000 fr. has been issued. By + the preliminary treaty of peace (18th of September 1897) an + International Financial Commission, composed of six representatives of + the powers, was charged with the payment of the indemnity to Turkey, + and with "absolute control" over the collection and employment of + revenues sufficient for the service of the foreign debt. A law + defining the powers of the Commission was passed by the Chamber, 26th + of February 1898 (o.s.). The revenues assigned to its supervision were + the five government monopolies, the tobacco and stamp duties, and the + import duties of Peiraeus (total annual value estimated at 39,600,000 + dr.): the collection was entrusted to a Greek society, which is under + the absolute control of the Commission. The returns of Peiraeus + customs (estimated at 10,700,000 dr.) are regarded as an extra + guarantee, and are handed over to the Greek government; when the + produce of the other revenues exceeds 28,900,000 dr. the "plus value" + or surplus is divided in the proportion of 50.8% to the Greek + government and 49.2% to the creditors. The plus values amounted to + 3,301,481 dr. in 1898, 3,533,755 dr. in 1899, and 3,442,713 dr. in + 1900. Simultaneously with the establishment of the control the + interest for the Monopoly Loan was fixed at 43%, for the Funding Loan + at 40%, and for the other loans at 32% of the original interest. With + the revenues at its disposal the International Commission has already + been enabled to make certain augmentations in the service of the + foreign debt; since 1900 it has begun to take measures for the + reduction of the forced currency, of which 2,000,000 dr. will be + annually bought up and destroyed till the amount in circulation is + reduced to 40,000,000 dr. On the 1st of January 1901 the authorized + paper issue was 164,000,000 dr., of which 92,000,000 (including + 18,000,000 in fractional currency) was on account of the government; + the amount in actual circulation was 148,619,618 dr. On the 31st of + July 1906 the paper issue had been reduced to 152,775,975 dr., and the + amount in circulation was 124,668,057 dr. The financial commission + retains its powers until the extinction of all the foreign loans + contracted since 1881. Though its activity is mainly limited to the + administration of the assigned revenues, it has exercised a beneficial + influence over the whole domain of Greek finance; the effect may be + observed in the greatly enhanced value of Greek securities since its + institution, averaging 25.76% in 1906. No change can be made in its + composition or working without the consent of the six powers, and none + of the officials employed in the collection of the revenues subject to + its control can be dismissed or transferred without its consent. It + thus constitutes an element of stability and order which cannot fail + to react on the general administration. It is unable, however, to + control the expenditure or to assert any direct influence over the + government, with which the responsibility still rests for an improved + system of collection, a more efficient staff of functionaries and the + repression of smuggling. The country has shown a remarkable vitality + in recovering from the disasters of 1897, and should it in future + obtain a respite from paroxysms of military and political excitement, + its financial regeneration will be assured. + + The following table gives the actual expenditure and receipts for the + period 1889-1906 inclusive: + + +---------+-------------+--------------+--------------+ + | Year. | Actual | Actual | Surplus or | + | | Receipts. | Expenditure. | Deficit. | + +---------+-------------+--------------+--------------+ + | | Drachmae. | Drachmae. | Drachmae. | + | 1889 | 83,731,591 | 110,772,327 | -27,040,736 | + | 1890 | 79,931,795 | 125,932,579 | -46,000,784 | + | 1891 | 90,321,872 | 122,836,385 | -32,514,513 | + | 1892 | 95,465,569 | 107,283,498 | -11,817,929 | + | 1893* | 96,723,418 | 92,133,565 | + 4,589,853 | + | 1894 | 102,885,643 | 85,135,752 | +17,749,891 | + | 1895 | 94,657,065 | 91,641,967 | + 3,015,098 | + | 1896 | 96,931,726 | 90,890,607 | + 6,041,119 | + | 1897** | 92,485,825 | 137,043,929 | -44,558,104 | + | 1898*** | 104,949,718 | 110,341,431 | - 5,391,713 | + | 1899 | 111,318,273 | 104,586,504 | + 6,731,769 | + | 1900 | 112,206,849 | 112,049,279 | + 157,570 | + | 1901 | 115,734,159 | 113,646,301 | + 2,087,858 | + | 1902 | 123,949,931 | 121,885,707 | + 2,064,224 | + | 1903 | 120,194,362 | 117,436,549 | + 2,757,813 | + | 1904 | 121,186,246 | 120,200,247 | + 985,999 | + | 1905 | 126,472,580 | 118,699,761 | + 7,772,819 | + | 1906 | 125,753,358 | 124,461,577 | + 1,291,781 | + +---------+-------------+--------------+--------------+ + + * Reduction of interest on foreign debt by 70%. + ** War with Turkey. + *** International Financial Commission instituted. + + The steady increase of receipts since 1898 attests the growing + prosperity of the country, but expenditure has been allowed to + outstrip revenue, and, notwithstanding the official figures which + represent a series of surpluses, the accumulated deficit in 1905 + amounted to about 14,000,000, dr. in addition to treasury bonds for + 8,000,000 dr. A remarkable feature has been the rapid fall in the + exchange since 1903; the gold franc, which stood at 1.63 dr. in 1902, + had fallen to 1.08 in October 1906. The decline, a favourable symptom + if resulting from normal economic factors, is apparently due to a + combination of exceptional circumstances, and consequently may not be + maintained; it has imposed a considerable strain on the financial and + commercial situation. The purchasing power of the drachma remains + almost stationary and the price of imported commodities continues + high; import dues, which since 1904 are payable in drachmae at the + fixed rate of 1.45 to the franc, have been practically increased by + more than 30%. In April 1900 a 4% loan of 43,750,000 francs for the + completion of the railway from Peiraeus to the Turkish frontier, and + another loan of 11,750,000 drachmae for the construction of a line + from Pyrgos to Meligala, linking up the Morea railway system, were + sanctioned by the Chamber; the first-named, the "Greek Railways Loan," + was taken up at 80 by the syndicate contracting for the works and was + placed on the market in 1902. The service of both loans is provided by + the International Commission from the surplus funds of the assigned + revenues. On the 1st of January 1906 the external debt amounted to + 725,939,500 francs and the internal (including the paper circulation) + to 171,629,436 drachmae. + + The budget estimates for 1906 were as follows: Civil list, 1,325,000 + dr.; pensions, payment of deputies, &c., 7,706,676 dr.; public debt, + 34,253,471 dr.; foreign affairs, 3,563,994 dr.; justice, 6,240,271 + dr.; interior, 13,890,927 dr.; religion and education, 7,143,924 dr.; + army, 20,618,563 dr.; navy, 7,583,369 dr.; finance, 2,362,143 dr.; + collection of revenue, 10,650,487 dr.; various expenditure, 9,122,752 + dr.; total, 124,461,577 dr. + + The two privileged banks in Greece are the National Bank, founded in + 1841; capital 20,000,000 drachmae in 20,000 shares of 1000 dr. each, + fully paid up; reserve fund 13,500,000 dr.; notes in circulation + (September 1906) 126,721,887 dr., of which 76,360,905 dr. on account + of the government; and the Ionian Bank, incorporated in 1839; capital + paid up L315,500 in 63,102 shares, of L5 each; notes in circulation, + 10,200,000 drachmae, of which 3,500,000 (in fractional notes of 1 and + 2 dr.) on account of the government. The notes issued by these two + banks constitute the forced paper currency circulating throughout the + kingdom. In the case of the Ionian Bank the privilege of issuing + notes, originally limited to the Ionian Islands, will expire in 1920. + The National Bank is a private institution under supervision of the + government, which is represented by a royal commissioner on the board + of administration; the central establishment is at Athens with + forty-two branches throughout the country. The headquarters of the + Ionian Bank, which is a British institution, are in London; the bank + has a central office at Athens and five branches in Greece. The + privileged Epiro-Thessalian Bank ceased to exist from the 4th of + January 1900, when it was amalgamated with the National Bank. There + are several other banking companies, as well as private banks, at + Athens. The most important is the Bank of Athens (capital 40,000,000 + dr.), founded in 1893; it possesses five branches in Greece and six + abroad. + + + Currency, weights and measures. + + Greece entered the Latin Monetary Union in 1868. The monetary unit is + the new drachma, equivalent to the franc, and divided into 100 lepta + or centimes. There are nickel coins of 20, 10 and 5 lepta, copper + coins of 10 and 5 lepta. Gold and silver coins were minted in Paris + between 1868 and 1884, but have since practically disappeared from the + country. The paper currency consists of notes for 1000 dr., 500 dr., + 100 dr., 25 dr., 10 dr. and 5 dr., and of fractional notes for 2 dr. + and 1 dr. The decimal system of weights and measures was adopted in + 1876, but some of the old Turkish standards are still in general use. + The dram = 1/10 oz. avoirdupois approximately; the oke = 400 drams or + 2.8 lb.; the kilo = 22 okes or 0.114 of an imperial quarter; the + cantar or quintal = 44 okes or 123.2 lb. Liquids are measured by + weight. The punta = 1-5/8 in.; the ruppa, 3-1/2 in.; the pik, 26 in.; + the stadion = 1 kilometre or 1093-1/2 yds. The stremma (square + measure) is nearly one-third of an acre. + + AUTHORITIES.--W. Leake, _Researches in Greece_ (1814), _Travels in the + Morea_ (3 vols., 1830), _Travels in Northern Greece_ (4 vols., 1834), + _Peloponnesiaca_ (1846); Bursian, _Geographie von Griechenland_ (2 + vols., Leipzig, 1862-1873); Lolling, "Hellenische Landeskunde und + Topographie" in Ivan Muller's _Handbuch der klassischen + Altertumswissenschaft_; C. Wordsworth, _Greece; Pictorial, Descriptive + and Historical_ (new ed., revised by H. F. Tozer, London, 1882); K. + Stephanos, _La Grece_ (Paris, 1884); C. Neumann and J. Partsch, + _Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland_ (Breslau, 1885); K. + Krumbacher, _Griechische Reise_ (Berlin, 1886); J. P. Mahaffy, + _Rambles and Studies in Greece_ (London, 1887); R. A. H. + Bickford-Smith, _Greece under King George_ (London, 1893); Ch. Diehl, + _Excursions archeologiques en Grece_ (Paris, 1893); Perrot and + Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art_, tome vi., "La Grece primitive" (Paris, + 1894); tome vii., "La Grece archaique" (Paris, 1898); A. Philippson, + _Griechenland und seine Stellung im Orient_ (Leipzig, 1897); L. + Sergeant, _Greece in the Nineteenth Century_ (London, 1897); J. G. + Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_ (6 vols., London, 1898); + _Pausanias and other Greek Sketches_ (London, 1900); _Greco-Turkish + War of 1897_, from official sources, by a German staff officer (Eng. + trans., London, 1898); J. A. Symonds, _Studies_, and _Sketches in + Italy and Greece_ (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1898); V. Berard, _La + Turquie et l'hellenisme contemporaine_ (Paris, 1900). + + For the climate: D. Aeginetes, [Greek: To klima tes Hellados] (Athens, + 1908). + + For the fauna: Th. de Heldreich, _La Fauna de la Grece_ (Athens, + 1878). + + For special topography: A. Meliarakes, [Greek: Kukladika etoi + geographia kai historia ton Kukladikon neson] (Athens, 1874); [Greek: + 'Tpomnemata perigraphika ton Kukladon neson Androu kai Keo] (Athens, + 1880); [Greek: Geographia politike nea kai archaia tou nomou Argolidos + kai Korinthias] (Athens, 1886); [Greek: Geographia politike nea kai + archaia tou nomou Kephallenias]. (Athens, 1890); Th. Bent, _The + Cyclades_ (London, 1885); A. Botticher, _Olympia_ (2nd ed., Berlin, + 1886); J. Partsch, _Die Insel Corfu: eine geographische Monographie_ + (Gotha, 1887); _Die Insel Leukas_ (Gotha, 1889); _Kephallenia und + Ithaka_ (Gotha, 1890); _Die Insel Zante_ (Gotha, 1891); A. Philippson, + _Der Peloponnes_. (_Versuch einer Landeskunde auf geologischer + Grundlage._) (Berlin, 1892); "Thessalien und Epirus" (_Reisen und + Forschungen im nordlichen Griechenland_) (Berlin, 1897); _Die + griechischen Inseln des agaischen Meeres_ (Berlin, 1897); W. J. + Woodhouse, _Aetolia_ (Oxford, 1897); Schultz and Barnsley, _The + Monastery of St Luke of Stiris_ (London, 1901); M. Lamprinides, + [Greek: He Nauplia] (Athens, 1898); _Monuments de l'art byzantin_, + publies par le Ministere de l'Instruction, tome i.; G. Millet, "Le + Monastere de Daphni" (Paris, 1900). For the life, customs and habits + of the modern Greeks: C. Wachsmuth, _Das alte Griechenland im neuen_ + (Bonn, 1864); C. K. Tuckerman, _The Greeks of to-day_ (London, 1873); + B. Schmidt, _Volksleben der Neugriechen und das hellenische Altertum_ + (Leipzig, 1871); Estournelle de Constant, _La Vie de province en + Grece_ (Paris, 1878); E. About, _La Grece contemporaine_ (Paris, 1855; + 8th ed., 1883); J. T. Bent, _Modern Life and Thought among the Greeks_ + (London, 1891); J. Rennell Rodd, The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece + (London, 1892). Guide-books, Baedeker's _Greece_ (3rd ed., Leipzig, + 1905); Murray's _Handbook for Greece_ (7th ed., London, 1905); + Macmillan's _Guide to the Eastern Mediterranean_ (London, 1901). + (J. D. B.) + + +2. HISTORY + +a. _Ancient; to 146_ B.C. + +1. _Introductory._--It is necessary to indicate at the outset the scope +and object of the present article. The reader must not expect to find in +it a compendious summary of the chief events in the history of ancient +Greece. It is not intended to supply an "Outlines of Greek History." It +may be questioned whether such a sketch of the history, within the +limits of space which are necessarily imposed in a work of reference, +would be of utility to any class of readers. At any rate, the plan of +the present work, in which the subject of Greek history is treated of in +a large number of separate articles, allows of the narrative of events +being given in a more satisfactory form under the more general of the +headings (e.g. ATHENS, SPARTA, PELOPONNESIAN WAR). The character of the +history itself suggests a further reason why a general article upon +Greek history should not be confined to, or even attempt, a narrative of +events. A sketch of Greek history is not possible in the sense in which +a sketch of Roman history, or even of English history, is possible. +Greek history is not the history of a single state. When Aristotle +composed his work upon the constitutions of the Greek states, he found +it necessary to extend his survey to no less that 158 states. Greek +history is thus concerned with more than 150 separate and independent +political communities. Nor is it even the history of a single country. +The area occupied by the Greek race extended from the Pyrenees to the +Caucasus, and from southern Russia to northern Africa. It is inevitable, +therefore, that the impression conveyed by a sketch of Greek history +should be a misleading one. A mere narrative can hardly fail to give a +false perspective. Experience shows that such a sketch is apt to resolve +itself into the history of a few great movements and of a few leading +states. What is still worse, it is apt to confine itself, at any rate +for the greater part of the period dealt with, to the history of Greece +in the narrower sense, i.e. of the Greek peninsula. For the +identification of Greece with Greece proper there may be some degree of +excuse when we come to the 5th and 4th centuries. In the period that +lies behind the year 500 B.C. Greece proper forms but a small part of +the Greek world. In the 7th and 6th centuries it is outside Greece +itself that we must look for the most active life of the Greek people +and the most brilliant manifestations of the Greek spirit. The present +article, therefore, will be concerned with the causes and conditions of +events, rather than with the events themselves; it will attempt analysis +rather than narrative. Its object will be to indicate problems and to +criticize views; to suggest lessons and parallels, and to estimate the +importance of the Hellenic factor in the development of civilization. + +2. _The Minoan and Mycenaean Ages._--When does Greek history begin? +Whatever may be the answer that is given to this question, it will be +widely different from any that could have been proposed a generation +ago. Then the question was, How late does Greek history begin? To-day +the question is, How early does it begin? The suggestion made by Grote +that the first Olympiad (776 B.C.) should be taken as the starting-point +of the history of Greece, in the proper sense of the term "history," +seemed likely, not so many years ago, to win general acceptance. At the +present moment the tendency would seem to be to go back as far as the +3rd or 4th millennium B.C. in order to reach a starting-point. It is to +the results of archaeological research during the last thirty years that +we must attribute so startling a change in the attitude of historical +science towards this problem. In the days when Grote published the first +volumes of his _History of Greece_ archaeology was in its infancy. Its +results, so far as they affected the earlier periods of Greek history, +were scanty; its methods were unscientific. The methods have been +gradually perfected by numerous workers in the field; but the results, +which have so profoundly modified our conceptions of the early history +of the Aegean area, are principally due to the discoveries of two men, +Heinrich Schliemann and A. J. Evans. A full account of these discoveries +will be found elsewhere (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION and CRETE). It will be +sufficient to mention here that Schliemann's labours began with the +excavations on the site of Troy in the years 1870-1873; that he passed +on to the excavations at Mycenae in 1876 and to those at Tiryns in 1884. +It was the discoveries of these years that revealed to us the Mycenaean +age, and carried back the history to the middle of the 2nd millennium. +The discoveries of Dr A. J. Evans in the island of Crete belong to a +later period. The work of excavation was begun in 1900, and was carried +on in subsequent years. It has revealed to us the Minoan age, and +enabled us to trace back the development and origins of the civilization +for a further period of 1000 or 1500 years. The dates assigned by +archaeologists to the different periods of Mycenaean and Minoan art must +be regarded as merely approximate. Even the relation of the two +civilizations is still, to some extent, a matter of conjecture. The +general chronological scheme, however, in the sense of the relative +order of the various periods and the approximate intervals between them, +is too firmly established, both by internal evidence, such as the +development of the styles of pottery, and of the art in general, and by +external evidence, such as the points of contact with Egyptian art and +history, to admit of its being any longer seriously called in question. + +[Illustration: Map of Greece (ancient).] + +If, then, by "Greek history" is to be understood the history of the +lands occupied in later times by the Greek race (i.e. the Greek +peninsula and the Aegean basin), the beginnings of the history must be +carried back some 2000 years before Grote's proposed starting-point. If, +however, "Greek history" is taken to mean the history of the Greek +people, the determination of the starting-point is far from easy. For +the question to which archaeology does not as yet supply any certain +answer is the question of race. Were the creators of the Minoan and +Mycenaean civilization Greeks or were they not? In some degree the +Minoan evidence has modified the answer suggested by the Mycenaean. +Although wide differences of opinion as to the origin of the Mycenaean +civilization existed among scholars when the results of Schliemann's +labours were first given to the world, a general agreement had gradually +been arrived at in favour of the view which would identify Mycenaean +with Achaean or Homeric. In presence of the Cretan evidence it is no +longer possible to maintain this view with the same confidence. The two +chief difficulties in the way of attributing either the Minoan or the +Mycenaean civilization to an Hellenic people are connected respectively +with the script and the religion. The excavations at Cnossus have +yielded thousands of tablets written in the linear script. There is +evidence that this script was in use among the Mycenaeans as well. If +Greek was the language spoken at Cnossus and Mycenae, how is it that all +attempts to decipher the script have hitherto failed? The Cretan +excavations, again, have taught us a great deal as to the religion of +the Minoan age; they have, at the same time, thrown a new light upon the +evidence supplied by Mycenaean sites. It is no longer possible to ignore +the contrast between the cults of the Minoan and Mycenaean ages, and the +religious conceptions which they imply, and the cults and religious +conceptions prevalent in the historical period. On the other hand, it +may safely be asserted that the argument derived from the Mycenaean art, +in which we seem to trace a freedom of treatment which is akin to the +spirit of the later Greek art, and is in complete contrast to the spirit +of Oriental art, has received striking confirmation from the remains of +Minoan art. The decipherment of the script would at once solve the +problem. We should at least know whether the dominant race in Crete in +the Minoan age spoke an Hellenic or a non-Hellenic dialect. And what +could be inferred with regard to Crete in the Minoan age could almost +certainly be inferred with regard to the mainland in the Mycenaean age. +In the meanwhile, possibly until the tablets are read, at any rate until +further evidence is forthcoming, any answer that can be given to the +question must necessarily be tentative and provisional. (See AEGEAN +CIVILIZATION.) + +It has already been implied that this period of the history of Greece +may be subdivided into a Minoan and a Mycenaean age. Whether these terms +are appropriate is a question of comparatively little importance. They +at least serve to remind us of the part played by the discoveries at +Mycenae and Cnossus in the reconstruction of the history. The term +"Mycenaean," it is true, has other associations than those of locality. +It may seem to imply that the civilization disclosed in the excavations +at Mycenae is Achaean in character, and that it is to be connected with +the Pelopid dynasty to which Agamemnon belonged. In its scientific use, +the term must be cleared of all such associations. Further, as opposed +to "Minoan" it must be understood in a more definite sense than that in +which it has often been employed. It has come to be generally recognized +that two different periods are to be distinguished in Schliemann's +discoveries at Mycenae itself. There is an earlier period, to which +belong the objects found in the shaft-graves, and there is a later +period, to which belong the beehive tombs and the remains of the +palaces. It is the latter period which is "Mycenaean" in the strict +sense; i.e. it is "Mycenaean" as opposed to "Minoan." To this period +belong also the palace at Tiryns, the beehive-tombs discovered elsewhere +on the mainland of Greece and one of the cities on the site of Troy +(Schliemann's sixth). The pottery of this period is as characteristic of +it, both in its forms (e.g. the "stirrup" or "false-necked" form of +vase) and in its peculiar glaze, as is the architecture of the palaces +and the beehive-tombs. Although the chief remains have been found on the +mainland of Greece itself, the art of this period is found to have +extended as far north as Troy and as far east as Cyprus. On the other +hand, hardly any traces of it have been discovered on the west coast of +Asia Minor, south of the Troad. The Mycenaean age, in this sense, may be +regarded as extending from 1600 to 1200 B.C. The Minoan age is of far +wider extent. Its latest period includes both the earlier and the later +periods of the remains found at Mycenae. This is the period called by Dr +Evans "Late Minoan." To this period belong the Great Palace at Cnossus +and the linear system of writing. The "Middle Minoan" period, to which +the earlier palace belongs, is characterized by the pictographic system +of writing and by polychrome pottery of a peculiarly beautiful kind. Dr +Evans proposes to carry back this period as far as 2500 B.C. Even behind +it there are traces of a still earlier civilization. Thus the Minoan +age, even if limited to the middle and later periods, will cover at +least a thousand years. Perhaps the most surprising result of the +excavations in Crete is the discovery that Minoan art is on a higher +level than Mycenaean art. To the scholars of a generation ago it seemed +a thing incredible that the art of the shaft-graves, and the +architecture of the beehive-tombs and the palaces, could belong to the +age before the Dorian invasion. The most recent discoveries seem to +indicate that the art of Mycenae is a decadent art; they certainly prove +that an art, hardly inferior in its way to the art of the classical +period, and a civilization which implies the command of great material +resources, were flourishing in the Aegean perhaps a thousand years +before the siege of Troy. + + + Oriental influence. + +To the question, "What is the origin of this civilization? Is it of +foreign derivation or of native growth?" it is not possible to give a +direct answer. It is clear, on the one hand that it was developed, by a +gradual process of differentiation, from a culture which was common to +the whole Aegean basin and extended as far to the west as Sicily. It is +equally clear, on the other hand, that foreign influences contributed +largely to the process of development. Egyptian influences, in +particular, can be traced throughout the "Minoan" and "Mycenaean" +periods. The developed art, however, both in Crete and on the mainland, +displays characteristics which are the very opposite of those which are +commonly associated with the term "oriental." Egyptian work, even of the +best period, is stiff and conventional; in the best Cretan work, and, in +a less degree, in Mycenaean work, we find an originality and a freedom +of treatment which remind one of the spirit of the Greek artists. The +civilization is, in many respects, of an advanced type. The Cretan +architects could design on a grand scale, and could carry out their +designs with no small degree of mechanical skill. At Cnossus we find a +system of drainage in use, which is far in advance of anything known in +the modern world before the 19th century. If the art of the Minoan age +falls short of the art of the Periclean age, it is hardly inferior to +that of the age of Peisistratus. It is a civilization, too, which has +long been familiar with the art of writing. But it is one that belongs +entirely to the Bronze Age. Iron is not found until the very end of the +Mycenaean period, and then only in small quantities. Nor is this the +only point of contrast between the culture of the earliest age and that +of the historical period in Greece. The chief seats of the early culture +are to be found either in the island of Crete, or, on the mainland, at +Tiryns and Mycenae. In the later history Crete plays no part, and Tiryns +and Mycenae are obscure. With the great names of a later age, Argos, +Sparta and Athens, no great discoveries are connected. In northern +Greece, Orchomenos rather than Thebes is the centre of influence. +Further points of contrast readily suggest themselves. The so-called +Phoenician alphabet, in use amongst the later Greeks, is unknown in the +earliest age. Its systems of writing, both the earlier and the later +one, are syllabic in character, and analogous to those in vogue in Asia +Minor and Cyprus. In the art of war, the chariot is of more importance +than the foot-soldier, and the latter, unlike the Greek hoplite, is +lightly clad, and trusts to a shield large enough to cover the whole +body, rather than to the metal helmet, breastplate and greaves of later +times (see Arms and Armour: Greek). The political system appears to have +been a despotic monarchy, and the realm of the monarch to have extended +to far wider limits than those of the "city-states" of historical +Greece. It is, perhaps, in the religious practices of the age, and in +the ideas implied in them, that the contrast is most apparent. Neither +in Crete nor on the mainland is there any trace of the worship of the +"Olympian" deities. The cults in vogue remind us rather of Asia than of +Greece. The worship of pillars and of trees carries us back to Canaan, +while the double-headed axe, so prominent in the ritual of Cnossus, +survives in later times as the symbol of the national deity of the +Carians. The beehive-tombs, found on many sites on the mainland besides +Mycenae, are evidence both of a method of sepulture and of ideas of the +future state, which are alien to the practice and the thought of the +Greeks of history. It is only in one region--in the island of +Cyprus--that the culture of the Mycenaean age is found surviving into +the historical period. As late as the beginning of the 5th century B.C. +Cyprus is still ruled by kings, the alphabet has not yet displaced a +syllabary, the characteristic forms of Mycenaean vases still linger on, +and the chief deity of the island is the goddess with attendant doves +whose images are among the common objects of Mycenaean finds. + +3. _The Homeric Age._--Alike in Crete and on the mainland the +civilization disclosed by excavation comes abruptly to an end. In Crete +we can trace it back from c. 1200 B.C. to the Neolithic period. From the +Stone Age to the end of the Minoan Age the development is continuous and +uninterrupted.[4] But between the culture of the Early Age and the +culture of the Dorians, who occupied the island in historical times, no +connexion whatever can be established. Between the two there is a great +gulf fixed. It would be difficult to imagine a greater contrast than +that presented by the rude life of the Dorian communities in Crete when +it is compared with the political power, the material resources and the +extensive commerce of the earlier period. The same gap between the +archaeological age and the historical exists on the mainland also. It is +true that the solution of continuity is here less complete. Mycenaean +art continues, here and there, in a debased form down to the 9th +century, a date to which we can trace back the beginnings of the later +Greek art. On one or two lines (e.g. architecture) it is even possible +to establish some sort of connexion between them. But Greek art as a +whole cannot be evolved from Mycenaean art. We cannot bridge over the +interval that separates the latter art, even in its decline, from the +former. It is sufficient to compare the "dipylon" ware (with which the +process of development begins, which culminates in the pottery of the +Great Age) with the Mycenaean vases, to satisfy oneself that the gulf +exists. What then is the relation of the Heroic or Homeric Age (i.e. the +age whose life is portrayed for us in the poems of Homer) to the +Earliest Age? It too presents many contrasts to the later periods. On +the other hand, it presents contrasts to the Minoan Age, which, in their +way, are not less striking. Is it then to be identified with the +Mycenaean Age? Schliemann, the discoverer of the Mycenaean culture, +unhesitatingly identified Mycenaean with Homeric. He even identified the +shaft-graves of Mycenae with the tombs of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. +Later inquirers, while refusing to discover so literal a correspondence +between things Homeric and things Mycenaean, have not hesitated to +accept a general correspondence between the Homeric Age and the +Mycenaean. Where it is a case of comparing literary evidence with +archaeological, an exact coincidence is not of course to be demanded. +The most that can be asked is that a general correspondence should be +established. It may be conceded that the case for such a correspondence +appears prima facie a strong one. There is much in Homer that seems to +find confirmation or explanation in Schliemann's finds. Mycenae is +Agamemnon's city; the plan of the Homeric house agrees fairly well with +the palaces at Tiryns and Mycenae; the forms and the technique of +Mycenaean art serve to illustrate passages in the poems; such are only a +few of the arguments that have been urged. It is the great merit of +Professor Ridgeway's work (_The Early Age of Greece_) that it has +demonstrated, once and for all, that Mycenaean is not Homeric pure and +simple. He insists upon differences as great as the resemblances. Iron +is in common use in Homer; it is practically unknown to the Mycenaeans. +In place of the round shield and the metal armour of the Homeric +soldier, we find at Mycenae that the warrior is lightly clad in linen, +and that he fights behind an oblong shield, which covers the whole body; +nor are the chariots the same in form. The Homeric dead are cremated; +the Mycenaean are buried. The gods of Homer are the deities of Olympus, +of whose cult no traces are to be found in the Mycenaean Age. The +novelty of Professor Ridgeway's theory is that for the accepted +equation, Homeric = Achaean = Mycenaean, he proposes to substitute the +equations, Homeric = Achaean = post-Mycenaean, and Mycenaean = +pre-Achaean = Pelasgian. The Mycenaean civilization he attributes to the +Pelasgians, whom he regards as the indigenous population of Greece, the +ancestors of the later Greeks, and themselves Greek both in speech and +blood. The Homeric heroes are Achaeans, a fair-haired Celtic race, whose +home was in the Danube valley, where they had learned the use of iron. +In Greece they are newcomers, a conquering class comparable to the +Norman invaders of England or Ireland, and like them they have acquired +the language of their subjects in the course of a few generations. The +Homeric civilization is thus Achaean, i.e. it is Pelasgian (Mycenaean) +civilization, appropriated by a ruder race; but the Homeric culture is +far inferior to the Mycenaean. Here, at any rate, the Norman analogy +breaks down. Norman art in England is far in advance of Saxon. Even in +Normandy (as in Sicily), where the Norman appropriated rather than +introduced, he not only assimilated but developed. In Greece the process +must have been reversed. + +The theory thus outlined is probably stronger on its destructive side +than on its constructive. To treat the Achaeans as an immigrant race is +to run counter to the tradition of the Greeks themselves, by whom the +Achaeans were regarded as indigenous (cf. Herod. viii. 73). Nor is the +Pelasgian part of the theory easy to reconcile with the Homeric +evidence. If the Achaeans were a conquering class ruling over a +Pelasgian population, we should expect to find this difference of race a +prominent feature in Homeric society. We should, at least, expect to +find a Pelasgian background to the Homeric picture. As a matter of fact, +we find nothing of the sort. There is no consciousness in the Homeric +poems of a distinction of race between the governing and the subject +classes. There are, indeed, Pelasgians in Homer, but the references +either to the people or the name are extraordinarily few. They appear as +a people, presumably in Asia Minor, in alliance with the Trojans; they +appear also, in a single passage, as one of the tribes inhabiting Crete. +The name survives in "Pelasgicon Argos," which is probably to be +identified with the valley of the Spercheius,[5] and as an epithet of +Zeus of Dodona. The population, however, of Pelasgicon Argos and of +Dodona is no longer Pelasgian. Thus, in the age of Homer, the Pelasgians +belong, so far as Greece proper is concerned, to a past that is already +remote. It is inadmissible to appeal to Herodotus against Homer. For the +conditions of the Homeric age Homer is the sole authoritative witness. +If, however, Professor Ridgeway has failed to prove that "Mycenaean" +equals "Pelasgian," he has certainly proved that much that is Homeric is +post-Mycenaean. It is possible that different strata are to be +distinguished in the Homeric poems. There are passages which seem to +assume the conditions of the Mycenaean age; there are others which +presuppose the conditions of a later age. It may be that the latter +passages reflect the circumstances of the poet's own times, while the +former ones reproduce those of an earlier period. If so, the +substitution of iron for bronze must have been effected in the interval +between the earlier and the later periods. + + + The Homeric state. + +It has already been pointed out that the question whether the makers of +the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were Greeks must still be +regarded as an open one. No such question can be raised as to the +Homeric Age. The Achaeans may or may not have been Greek in blood. What +is certain is that the Achaean Age forms an integral part of Greek +history. Alike on the linguistic, the religious and the political sides, +Homer is the starting-point of subsequent developments. In the Greek +dialects the great distinction is that between the Doric and the rest. +Of the non-Doric dialects the two main groups are the Aeolic and Ionic, +both of which have been developed, by a gradual process of +differentiation, from the language of the Homeric poems. With regard to +religion it is sufficient to refer to the judgment of Herodotus, that it +was Homer and Hesiod who were the authors of the Greek theogony (ii. 53 +[Greek: houtoi eisi hoi poiesantes theogonien Hellesi]). It is a +commonplace that Homer was the Bible of the Greeks. On the political +side, Greek constitutional development would be unintelligible without +Homer. When Greek history, in the proper sense, begins, oligarchy is +almost universal. Everywhere, however, an antecedent stage of monarchy +has to be presupposed. In the Homeric system monarchy is the sole form +of government; but it is monarchy already well on the way to being +transformed into oligarchy. In the person of the king are united the +functions of priest, of judge and of leader in war. He belongs to a +family which claims divine descent and his office is hereditary. He is, +however, no despotic monarch. He is compelled by custom to consult the +council (_boule_) of the elders, or chiefs. He must ask their opinion, +and, if he fails to obtain their consent, he has no power to enforce his +will. Even when he has obtained the consent of the council, the proposal +still awaits the approval of the assembly (_agora_), of the people. + + + Homeric society. + +Thus in the Homeric state we find the germs not only of the oligarchy +and democracy of later Greece, but also of all the various forms of +constitution known to the Western world. And a monarchy such as is +depicted in the Homeric poems is clearly ripe for transmutation into +oligarchy. The chiefs are addressed as kings ([Greek: basilees]), and +claim, equally with the monarch, descent from the gods. In Homer, again, +we can trace the later organization into tribe ([Greek: phyle]), clan +([Greek: genos]), and phratry, which is characteristic of Greek society +in the historical period, and meets us in analogous forms in other Aryan +societies. The [Greek: genos] corresponds to the Roman _gens_, the +[Greek: phyle] to the Roman tribe, and the phratry to the _curia_. The +importance of the _phratry_ in Homeric society is illustrated by the +well-known passage (_Iliad_ ix. 63) in which the outcast is described as +"one who belongs to no phratry" ([Greek: aphretor]). It is a society +that is, of course, based upon slavery, but it is slavery in its least +repulsive aspect. The treatment which Eumaeus and Eurycleia receive at +the hands of the poet of the _Odyssey_ is highly creditable to the +humanity of the age. A society which regarded the slave as a mere +chattel would have been impatient of the interest shown in a swineherd +and a nurse. It is a society, too, that exhibits many of the +distinguishing traits of later Greek life. Feasting and quarrels, it is +true, are of more moment to the heroes than to the contemporaries of +Pericles or Plato; but "music" and "gymnastic" (though the terms must be +understood in a more restricted sense) are as distinctive of the age of +Homer as of that of Pindar. In one respect there is retrogression in the +historical period. Woman in Homeric society enjoys a greater freedom, +and receives greater respect, than in the Athens of Sophocles and +Pericles. + +4. _The Growth of the Greek States._--The Greek world at the beginning +of the 6th century B.C. presents a picture in many respects different +from that of the Homeric Age. The Greek race is no longer confined to +the Greek peninsula. It occupies the islands of the Aegean, the western +seaboard of Asia Minor, the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, of southern +Italy and Sicily. Scattered settlements are found as far apart as the +mouth of the Rhone, the north of Africa, the Crimea and the eastern end +of the Black Sea. The Greeks are called by a national name, _Hellenes_, +the symbol of a fully-developed national self-consciousness. They are +divided into three great branches, the Dorian, the Ionian and the +Aeolian, names almost, or entirely, unknown to Homer. The heroic +monarchy has nearly everywhere disappeared. In Greece proper, south of +Thermopylae, it survives, but in a peculiar form, in the Spartan state +alone. What is the significance and the explanation of contrasts so +profound? + + + Dorian invasion. + +It is probable that the explanation is to be found, directly or +indirectly, in a single cause, the Dorian invasion. In Homer the Dorians +are mentioned in one passage only (_Odyssey_ xix. 177). They there +appear as one of the races which inhabit Crete. In the historical period +the whole Peloponnese, with the exception of Arcadia, Elis and Achaea, +is Dorian. In northern Greece the Dorians occupy the little state of +Doris, and in the Aegean they form the population of Crete, Rhodes and +some smaller islands. Thus the chief centres of Minoan and Mycenaean +culture have passed into Dorian hands, and the chief seats of Achaean +power are included in Dorian states. Greek tradition explained the +overthrow of the Achaean system by an invasion of the Peloponnese by the +Dorians, a northern tribe, which had found a temporary home in Doris. +The story ran that, after an unsuccessful attempt to force an entrance +by the Isthmus of Corinth, they had crossed from Naupactus, at the mouth +of the Corinthian Gulf, landed on the opposite shore, and made their way +into the heart of the Peloponnese, where a single victory gave them +possession of the Achaean states. Their conquests were divided among the +invaders into three shares, for which lots were cast, and thus the three +states of Argos, Sparta and Messenia were created. There is much in this +tradition that is impossible or improbable. It is impossible, e.g. for +the tiny state of Doris, with its three or four "small, sad villages" +([Greek: poleis mikrai kai lyprochoroi], Strabo, p. 427), to have +furnished a force of invaders sufficient to conquer and re-people the +greater part of the Peloponnese. It is improbable that the conquest +should have been either as sudden, or as complete, as the legend +represents. On the contrary, there are indications that the conquest was +gradual, and that the displacement of the older population was +incomplete. The improbability of the details affords, however, no ground +for questioning the reality of the invasion.[6] The tradition can be +traced back at Sparta to the 7th century B.C. (Tyrtaeus, quoted by +Strabo, p. 362), and there is abundant evidence, other than that of +legend, to corroborate it. There is the Dorian name, to begin with. If, +as Beloch supposes, it originated on the coast of Asia Minor, where it +served to distinguish the settlers in Rhodes and the neighbouring +islands from the Ionians and Aeolians to the north of them, how came the +great and famous states of the Peloponnese to adopt a name in use among +the petty colonies planted by their kinsmen across the sea? Or, if +Dorian is simply Old Peloponnesian, how are we to account for the Doric +dialect or the Dorian pride of race? + +It is true that there are great differences between the literary Doric, +the dialect of Corinth and Argos, and the dialects of Laconia and Crete, +and that there are affinities between the dialect of Laconia and the +non-Dorian dialects of Arcadia and Elis. It is equally true, however, +and of far more consequence, that all the Doric dialects are +distinguished from all other Greek dialects by certain common +characteristics. Perhaps the strongest sentiment in the Dorian nature is +the pride of race. Indeed, it looks as if the Dorians claimed to be the +sole genuine Hellenes. How can we account for an indigenous population, +first imagining itself to be immigrant, and then developing a contempt +for the rest of the race, equally indigenous with itself, on account of +a fictitious difference in origin? Finally, there is the archaeological +evidence. The older civilization comes to an abrupt end, and it does so, +on the mainland at least, at the very period to which tradition assigns +the Dorian migration. Its development is greatest, and its overthrow +most complete, precisely in the regions occupied by the Dorians and the +other tribes, whose migrations were traditionally connected with theirs. +It is hardly too much to say that the archaeologist would have been +compelled to postulate an inroad into central and southern Greece of +tribes from the north, at a lower level of culture, in the course of the +12th and 11th centuries B.C., if the historian had not been able to +direct him to the traditions of the great migrations ([Greek: +metanastaseis]), of which the Dorian invasion was the chief. With the +Dorian migration Greek tradition connected the expansion of the Greek +race eastwards across the Aegean. In the historical period the Greek +settlements on the western coast of Asia Minor fall into three clearly +defined groups. To the north is the Aeolic group, consisting of the +island of Lesbos and twelve towns, mostly insignificant, on the opposite +mainland. To the south is the Dorian _hexapolis_, consisting of Cnidus +and Halicarnassus on the mainland, and the islands of Rhodes and Cos. In +the centre comes the Ionian _dodecapolis_, a group consisting of ten +towns on the mainland, together with the islands of Samos and Chios. Of +these three groups, the Ionian is incomparably the most important. The +Ionians also occupy Euboea and the Cyclades. Although it would appear +that Cyprus (and possibly Pamphylia) had been occupied by settlers from +Greece in the Mycenaean age, Greek tradition is probably correct in +putting the colonization of Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean +after the Dorian migration. Both the Homeric and the archaeological +evidence seem to point to the same conclusion. Between Rhodes on the +south and the Troad on the north scarcely any Mycenaean remains have +been found. Homer is ignorant of any Greeks east of Euboea. If the poems +are earlier than the Dorian Invasion, his silence is conclusive. If the +poems are some centuries later than the Invasion, they at least prove +that, within a few generations of that event, it was the belief of the +Greeks of Asia Minor that their ancestors had crossed the seas after the +close of the Heroic Age. It is probable, too, that the names Ionian and +Aeolian, the former of which is found once in Homer, and the latter not +at all, originated among the colonists in Asia Minor, and served to +designate, in the first instance, the members of the Ionic and Aeolic +_dodecapoleis_. As Curtius[7] pointed out, the only Ionia known to +history is in Asia Minor. It does not follow that Ionia is the original +home of the Ionian race, as Curtius argued. It almost certainly follows, +however, that it is the original home of the Ionian name. + + + Government. + +It is less easy to account for the name _Hellenes_. The Greeks were +profoundly conscious of their common nationality, and of the gulf that +separated them from the rest of mankind. They themselves recognized a +common race and language, and a common type of religion and culture, as +the chief factors in this sentiment of nationality (see Herod. viii. 144 +[Greek: to Hellenikon eon homaimon te kai homoglosson kai theon +hidrymata te koina kai thusiai ethea te homotropa]). "Hellenes" was the +name of their common race, and "Hellas" of their common country. In +Homer there is no distinct consciousness of a common nationality, and +consequently no antithesis of Greek and Barbarian (see Thuc. i. 3). Nor +is there a true collective name. There are indeed Hellenes (though the +name occurs in one passage only, _Iliad_ ii. 684), and there is a +Hellas; but his Hellas, whatever its precise signification may be, is, +at any rate, not equivalent either to Greece proper or to the land of +the Greeks, and his Hellenes are the inhabitants of a small district to +the south of Thessaly. It is possible that the diffusion of the Hellenic +name was due to the Dorian invaders. Its use can be traced back to the +first half of the 7th century. Not less obscure are the causes of the +fall of monarchy. It cannot have been the immediate effect of the +Dorian conquest, for the states founded by the Dorians were at first +monarchically governed. It may, however, have been an indirect effect of +it. We have already seen that the power of the Homeric king is more +limited than that of the rulers of Cnossus, Tiryns or Mycenae. In other +words, monarchy is already in decay at the epoch of the Invasion. The +Invasion, in its effects on wealth, commerce and civilization, is almost +comparable to the irruption of the barbarians into the Roman empire. The +monarch of the Minoan and Mycenaean age has extensive revenues at his +command; the monarch of the early Dorian states is little better than a +petty chief. Thus the interval, once a wide one, that separates him from +the nobles tends to disappear. The decay of monarchy was gradual; much +more gradual than is generally recognized. There were parts of the Greek +world in which it still survived in the 6th century, e.g. Sparta, +Cyrene, Cyprus, and possibly Argos and Tarentum. Both Herodotus and +Thucydides apply the title "king" ([Greek: basileus]) to the rulers of +Thessaly in the 5th century. The date at which monarchy gave place to a +republican form of government must have differed, and differed widely, +in different cases. The traditions relating to the foundation of Cyrene +assume the existence of monarchy in Thera and in Crete in the middle of +the 7th century (Herodotus iv. 150 and 154), and the reign of +Amphicrates at Samos (Herod, iii. 59) can hardly be placed more than a +generation earlier. In view of our general ignorance of the history of +the 7th and 8th centuries, it is hazardous to pronounce these instances +exceptional. On the other hand, the change from monarchy to oligarchy +was completed at Athens before the end of the 8th century, and at a +still earlier date in some of the other states. The process, again, by +which the change was effected was, in all probability, less uniform than +is generally assumed. There are extremely few cases in which we have any +trustworthy evidence, and the instances about which we are informed +refuse to be reduced to any common type. In Greece proper our +information is fullest in the case of Athens and Argos. In the former +case, the king is gradually stripped of his powers by a process of +devolution. An hereditary king, ruling for life, is replaced by three +annual and elective magistrates, between whom are divided the executive, +military and religious functions of the monarch (see ARCHON). At Argos +the fall of the monarchy is preceded by an aggrandisement of the royal +prerogatives. There is nothing in common between these two cases, and +there is no reason to suppose that the process elsewhere was analogous +to that at Athens. Everywhere, however, oligarchy is the form of +government which succeeds to monarchy. Political power is monopolized by +a class of nobles, whose claim to govern is based upon birth and the +possession of land, the most valuable form of property in an early +society. Sometimes power is confined to a single clan (e.g. the +Bacchiadae at Corinth); more commonly, as at Athens, all houses that are +noble are equally privileged. In every case there is found, as the +adviser of the executive, a Boule, or council, representative of the +privileged class. Without such a council a Greek oligarchy is +inconceivable. The relations of the executive to the council doubtless +varied. At Athens it is clear that the real authority was exercised by +the archons;[8] in many states the magistrates were probably subordinate +to the council (cf. the relation of the consuls to the senate at Rome). +And it is clear that the way in which the oligarchies used their power +varied also. The cases in which the power was abused are naturally the +ones of which we hear; for an abuse of power gave rise to discontent and +was the ultimate cause of revolution. We hear little or nothing of the +cases in which power was exercised wisely. Happy is the constitution +which has no annals! We know, however, that oligarchy held its ground +for generations, or even for centuries, in a large proportion of the +Greek states; and a government which, like the oligarchies of Elis, +Thebes or Aegina, could maintain itself for three or four centuries +cannot have been merely oppressive. + + + Trade. + +The period of the transition from monarchy to oligarchy is the period in +which commerce begins to develop, and trade-routes to be organized. +Greece had been the centre of an active trade in the Minoan and +Mycenaean epochs. The products of Crete and of the Peloponnese had found +their way to Egypt and Asia Minor. The overthrow of the older +civilization put an end to commerce. The seas became insecure and +intercourse with the East was interrupted. Our earliest glimpses of the +Aegean after the period of the migrations disclose the raids of the +pirate and the activity of the Phoenician trader. It is not till the 8th +century has dawned that trade begins to revive, and the Phoenician has +to retire before his Greek competitor. For some time to come, however, +no clear distinction is drawn between the trader and the pirate. The +pioneers of Greek trade in the West are the pirates of Cumae (Thucyd. +vi. 4). The expansion of Greek commerce, unlike that of the commerce of +the modern world, was not connected with any great scientific +discoveries. There is nothing in the history of ancient navigation that +is analogous to the invention of the mariner's compass or of the +steam-engine. In spite of this, the development of Greek commerce in the +7th and 6th centuries was rapid. It must have been assisted by the great +discovery of the early part of the former century, the invention of +coined money. To the Lydians, rather than the Greeks, belongs the credit +of the discovery; but it was the genius of the latter race that divined +the importance of the invention and spread its use. The coinage of the +Ionian towns goes back to the reign of Gyges (c. 675 B.C.). And it is in +Ionia that commercial development is earliest and greatest. In the most +distant regions the Ionian is first in the field. Egypt and the Black +Sea are both opened up to Greek trade by Miletus, the Adriatic and the +Western Mediterranean by Phocaea and Samos. It is significant that of +the twelve states engaged in the Egyptian trade in the 6th century all, +with the exception of Aegina, are from the eastern side of the Aegean +(Herod. ii. 178). On the western side the chief centres of trade during +these centuries were the islands of Euboea and Aegina and the town of +Corinth. The Aeginetan are the earliest coins of Greece proper (c. 650 +B.C.); and the two rival scales of weights and measures, in use amongst +the Greeks of every age, are the Aeginetan and the Euboic. Commerce +naturally gave rise to commercial leagues, and commercial relations +tended to bring about political alliances. Foreign policy even at this +early epoch seems to have been largely determined by considerations of +commerce. Two leagues, the members of which were connected by political +as well as commercial ties, can be recognized. At the head of each stood +one of the two rival powers in the island of Euboea, Chalcis and +Eretria. Their primary object was doubtless protection from the pirate +and the foreigner. Competing routes were organized at an early date +under their influence, and their trading connexions can be traced from +the heart of Asia Minor to the north of Italy. Miletus, Sybaris and +Etruria were members of the Eretrian league; Samos, Corinth, Rhegium and +Zancle (commanding the Straits of Messina), and Cumae, on the Bay of +Naples, of the Chalcidian. The wool of the Phrygian uplands, woven in +the looms of Miletus, reached the Etruscan markets by way of Sybaris; +through Cumae, Rome and the rest of Latium obtained the elements of +Greek culture. Greek trade, however, was confined to the Mediterranean +area. The Phoenician and the Carthaginian navigators penetrated to +Britain; they discovered the passage round the Cape two thousand years +before Vasco da Gama's time. The Greek sailor dared not adventure +himself outside the Black Sea, the Adriatic and the Mediterranean. Greek +trade, too, was essentially maritime. Ports visited by Greek vessels +were often the starting points of trade-routes into the interior; the +traffic along those routes was left in the hands of the natives (see +e.g. Herod. iv. 24). One service, the importance of which can hardly be +overestimated, was rendered to civilization by the Greek traders--the +invention of geography. The science of geography is the invention of the +Greeks. The first maps were made by them (in the 6th century); and it +was the discoveries and surveys of their sailors that made map-making +possible. + + + Colonization. + +Closely connected with the history of Greek trade is the history of +Greek colonization. The period of colonization, in its narrower sense, +extends from the middle of the 8th to the middle of the 6th century. +Greek colonization is, however, merely a continuation of the process +which at an earlier epoch had led to the settlement, first of Cyprus, +and then of the islands and coasts of the Aegean. From the earlier +settlements the colonization of the historical period is distinguished +by three characteristics. The later colony acknowledges a definite +_metropolis_ ("mother-city"); it is planted by a definite _oecist_ +([Greek: oikistes]); it has a definite date assigned to its +foundation.[9] It would be a mistake to regard Greek colonization as +commercial in origin, in the sense that the colonies were in all cases +established as trading-posts. This was the case with the Phoenician and +Carthaginian settlements, most of which remained mere factories; and +some of the Greek colonies (e.g. many of those planted by Miletus on the +shores of the Black Sea) bore this character. The typical Greek colony, +however, was neither in origin nor in development a mere trading-post. +It was, or it became, a _polis_, a city-state, in which was reproduced +the life of the parent state. Nor was Greek colonization, like the +emigration from Europe to America and Australia in the 19th century, +simply the result of over-population. The causes were as various as +those which can be traced in the history of modern colonization. Those +which were established for the purposes of trade may be compared to the +factories of the Portuguese and Dutch in Africa and the Far East. Others +were the result of political discontent, in some form or shape; these +may be compared to the Puritan settlements in New England. Others again +were due to ambition or the mere love of adventure (see Herod. v. 42 +ff., the career of Dorieus). But however various the causes, two +conditions must always be presupposed--an expansion of commerce and a +growth of population. Within the narrow limits of the city-state there +was a constant tendency for population to become redundant, until, as in +the later centuries of Greek life, its growth was artificially +restricted. Alike from the Roman colonies, and from those founded by the +European nations in the course of the last few centuries, the Greek +colonies are distinguished by a fundamental contrast. It is significant +that the contrast is a political one. The Roman colony was in a position +of entire subordination to the Roman state, of which it formed a part. +The modern colony was, in varying degrees, in political subjection to +the home government. The Greek colony was completely independent; and it +was independent from the first. The ties that united a colony to its +metropolis were those of sentiment and interest; the political tie did +not exist. There were, it is true, exceptions. The colonies established +by imperial Athens closely resembled the colonies of imperial Rome. The +cleruchy (q.v.) formed part of the Athenian state; the cleruchs kept +their status as citizens of Athens and acted as a military garrison. And +if the political tie, in the proper sense, was wanting, it was +inevitable that political relations should spring out of commercial or +sentimental ones. Thus we find Corinth interfering twice to save her +colony Syracuse from destruction, and Megara bringing about the revolt +of Byzantium, her colony, from Athens. Sometimes it is not easy to +distinguish political relations from a political tie (e.g. the relations +of Corinth, both in the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars, to Ambracia and +the neighbouring group of colonies). When we compare the development of +the Greek and the modern colonies we shall find that the development of +the former was even more rapid than that of the latter. In at least +three respects the Greek settler was at an advantage as compared with +the colonist of modern times. The differences of race, of colour and of +climate, with which the chief problems of modern colonization are +connected, played no part in the history of the Greek settlements. The +races amongst whom the Greeks planted themselves were in some cases on +a similar level of culture. Where the natives were still backward or +barbarous, they came of a stock either closely related to the Greek, or +at least separated from it by no great physical differences. We need +only contrast the Carian, the Sicel, the Thracian or even the Scythian, +with the native Australian, the Hottentot, the Red Indian or the Maori, +to apprehend the advantage of the Greek. Amalgamation with the native +races was easy, and it involved neither physical nor intellectual +degeneracy as its consequence. Of the races with which the Greeks came +in contact the Thracian was far from the highest in the scale of +culture; yet three of the greatest names in the Great Age of Athens are +those of men who had Thracian blood in their veins, viz. Themistocles, +Cimon and the historian Thucydides. In the absence of any distinction of +colour, no insuperable barrier existed between the Greek and the +hellenized native. The _demos_ of the colonial cities was largely +recruited from the native population,[10] nor was there anything in the +Greek world analogous to the "mean whites" or the "black belt." Of +hardly less importance were the climatic conditions. In this respect the +Mediterranean area is unique. There is no other region of the world of +equal extent in which these conditions are at once so uniform and so +favourable. Nowhere had the Greek settler to encounter a climate which +was either unsuited to his labour or subversive of his vigour. That in +spite of these advantages so little, comparatively speaking, was +effected in the work of Hellenization before the epoch of Alexander and +the Diadochi, was the effect of a single counteracting cause. The Greek +colonist, like the Greek trader, clung to the shore. He penetrated no +farther inland than the sea-breeze. Hence it was only in islands, such +as Sicily or Cyprus, that the process of Hellenization was complete. +Elsewhere the Greek settlements formed a mere fringe along the coast. + + + The tyrants. + +To the 7th century there belongs another movement of high importance in +its bearing upon the economic, religious and literary development of +Greece, as well as upon its constitutional history. This movement is the +rise of the _tyrannis_. In the political writers of a later age the word +possesses a clear-cut connotation. From other forms of monarchy it is +distinguished by a twofold differentiation. The _tyrannus_ is an +unconstitutional ruler, and his authority is exercised over unwilling +subjects. In the 7th and 6th centuries the line was not drawn so +distinctly between the tyrant and the legitimate monarch. Even Herodotus +uses the words "tyrant" and "king" interchangeably (e.g. the princes of +Cyprus are called "kings" in v. 110 and "tyrants" in v. 109), so that it +is sometimes difficult to decide whether a legitimate monarch or a +tyrant is meant (e.g. Aristophilides of Tarentum, iii. 136, or Telys of +Sybaris, v. 44). But the distinction between the tyrant and the king of +the Heroic Age is a valid one. It is not true that his rule was always +exercised over unwilling subjects; it is true that his position was +always unconstitutional. The Homeric king is a legitimate monarch; his +authority is invested with the sanctions of religion and immemorial +custom. The tyrant is an illegitimate ruler; his authority is not +recognized, either by customary usage or by express enactment. But the +word "tyrant" was originally a neutral team; it did not necessarily +imply a misuse of power. The origin of the _tyrannis_ is obscure. The +word _tyrannus_ has been thought, with some reason, to be a Lydian one. +Probably both the name and the thing originated in the Greek colonies of +Asia Minor, though the earliest tyrants of whom we hear in Asia Minor +(at Ephesus and Miletus) are a generation later than the earliest in +Greece itself, where, both at Sicyon and at Corinth, tyranny appears to +date back to the second quarter of the 7th century. It is not unusual to +regard tyranny as a universal stage in the constitutional development of +the Greek states, and as a stage that occurs everywhere at one and the +same period. In reality, tyranny is confined to certain regions, and it +is a phenomenon that is peculiar to no one age or century. In Greece +proper, before the 4th century B.C., it is confined to a small group of +states round the Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs. The greater part of the +Peloponnese was exempt from it, and there is no good evidence for its +existence north of the Isthmus, except at Megara and Athens. It plays no +part in the history of the Greek cities in Chalcidice and Thrace. It +appears to have been rare in the Cyclades. The regions in which it finds +a congenial soil are two, Asia Minor and Sicily. Thus it is incorrect to +say that most Greek states passed through this stage. It is still wider +of the mark to assume that they passed through it at the same time. +There is no "Age of the Tyrants." Tyranny began in the Peloponnese a +hundred years before it appears in Sicily, and it has disappeared in the +Peloponnese almost before it begins in Sicily. In the latter the great +age of tyranny comes at the beginning of the 5th century; in the former +it is at the end of the 7th and the beginning of the 6th. At Athens the +history of tyranny begins after it has ended both at Sicyon and Corinth. +There is, indeed, a period in which tyranny is non-existent in the Greek +states; roughly speaking, the last sixty years of the 5th century. But +with this exception, there is no period in which the tyrant is not to be +found. The greatest of all the tyrannies, that of Dionysius at Syracuse, +belongs to the 4th century. Nor must it be assumed that tyranny always +comes at the same stage in the history of a constitution; that it is +always a stage between oligarchy and democracy. At Corinth it is +followed, not by democracy but by oligarchy, and it is an oligarchy that +lasts, with a brief interruption, for two hundred and fifty years. At +Athens it is not immediately preceded by oligarchy. Between the Eupatrid +oligarchy and the rule of Peisistratus there comes the timocracy of +Solon. These exceptions do not stand alone. The cause of tyranny is, in +one sense, uniform. In the earlier centuries, at any rate, tyranny is +always the expression of discontent; the tyrant is always the champion +of a cause. But it would be a mistake to suppose that the discontent is +necessarily political, or that the cause which he champions is always a +constitutional one. At Sicyon it is a racial one; Cleisthenes is the +champion of the older population against their Dorian oppressors (see +Herod. v. 67, 68). At Athens the discontent is economic rather than +political; Peisistratus is the champion of the Diacrii, the inhabitants +of the poorest region of Attica. The party-strifes of which we hear in +the early history of Miletus, which doubtless gave the tyrant his +opportunity, are concerned with the claims of rival industrial classes. +In Sicily the tyrant is the ally of the rich and the foe of the _demos_, +and the cause which he champions, both in the 5th century and the 4th, +is a national one, that of the Greek against the Carthaginian. We may +suspect that in Greece itself the tyrannies of the 7th century are the +expression of an anti-Dorian reaction. It can hardly be an accident that +the states in which the tyrannis is found at this epoch, Corinth, +Megara, Sicyon, Epidaurus, are all of them states in which a Dorian +upper class ruled over a subject population. In Asia Minor the +_tyrannis_ assumes a peculiar character after the Persian conquest. The +tyrant rules as the deputy of the Persian satrap. Thus in the East the +tyrant is the enemy of the national cause; in the West, in Sicily, he is +its champion. + +Tyranny is not a phenomenon peculiar to Greek history. It is possible to +find analogies to it in Roman history, in the power of Caesar, or of the +Caesars; in the despotisms of medieval Italy; or even in the Napoleonic +empire. Between the tyrant and the Italian despot there is indeed a real +analogy; but between the Roman principate and the Greek _tyrannis_ there +are two essential differences. In the first place, the principate was +expressed in constitutional forms, or veiled under constitutional +fictions; the tyrant stood altogether outside the constitution. And, +secondly, at Rome both Julius and Augustus owed their position to the +power of the sword. The power of the sword, it is true, plays a large +part in the history of the later tyrants (e.g. Dionysius of Syracuse); +the earlier ones, however, had no mercenary armies at their command. We +can hardly compare the bodyguard of Peisistratus to the legions of the +first or the second Caesar. + +The view taken of the _tyrannis_ in Greek literature is almost uniformly +unfavourable. In this respect there is no difference between Plato and +Aristotle, or between Herodotus and the later historians.[11] His policy +is represented as purely selfish, and his rule as oppressive. Herodotus +is influenced partly by the traditions current among the oligarchs, who +had been the chief sufferers, and partly by the odious associations +which had gathered round tyranny in Asia Minor. The philosophers write +under their impressions of the later _tyrannis_, and their account is +largely an a priori one. It is seldom that we find any attempt, either +in the philosophers or the historians, to do justice to the real +services rendered by the tyrants.[12] Their first service was a +constitutional one. They helped to break down the power of the old +aristocratic houses, and thus to create the social and political +conditions indispensable to democracy. The _tyrannis_ involved the +sacrifice of liberty in the cause of equality. When tyranny falls, it is +never succeeded by the aristocracies which it had overthrown. It is +frequently succeeded by an oligarchy, but it is an oligarchy in which +the claim to exclusive power is based, not upon mere birth, but upon +wealth, or the possession of land. It would be unfair to treat this +service as one that was rendered unconsciously and unwillingly. Where +the tyrant asserted the claims of an oppressed class, he consciously +aimed at the destruction of privilege and the effacement of class +distinctions. Hence it is unjust to treat his power as resting upon mere +force. A government which can last eighty or a hundred years, as was the +case with the tyrannies at Corinth and Sicyon, must have a moral force +behind it. It must rest upon the consent of its subjects. The second +service which the tyrants rendered to Greece was a political one. Their +policy tended to break down the barriers which isolated each petty state +from its neighbours. In their history we can trace a system of +widespread alliances, which are often cemented by matrimonial +connexions. The Cypselid tyrants of Corinth appear to have been allied +with the royal families of Egypt, Lydia and Phrygia, as well as with the +tyrants of Miletus and Epidaurus, and with some of the great Athenian +families. In Sicily we find a league of the northern tyrants opposed to +a league of the southern; and in each ease there is a corresponding +matrimonial alliance. Anaxilaus of Rhegium is the son-in-law and ally of +Terillus of Himera; Gelo of Syracuse stands in the same relation to +Theron of Agrigentum. Royal marriages have played a great part in the +politics of Europe. In the comparison of Greek and modern history it has +been too often forgotten how great a difference it makes, and how great +a disadvantage it involves, to a republic that it has neither sons nor +daughters to give in marriage. In commerce and colonization the tyrants +were only continuing the work of the oligarchies to which they +succeeded. Greek trade owed its expansion to the intelligent efforts of +the oligarchs who ruled at Miletus and Corinth, in Samos, Aegina and +Euboea; but in particular cases, such as Miletus, Corinth, Sicyon and +Athens, there was a further development, and a still more rapid growth, +under the tyrants. In the same way, the foundation of the colonies was +in most cases due to the policy of the oligarchical governments. They +can claim credit for the colonies of Chalcis and Eretria, of Megara, +Phocaea and Samos, as well as for the great Achaean settlements in +southern Italy. The Cypselids at Corinth, and Thrasybulus at Miletus, +are instances of tyrants who colonized on a great scale. + + + Religion under the "tyrants." + +In their religious policy the tyrants went far to democratize Greek +religion. The functions of monarchy had been largely religious; but, +while the king was necessarily a priest, he was not the only priest in +the community. There were special priesthoods, hereditary in particular +families, even in the monarchical period; and upon the fall of the +monarchy, while the priestly functions of the kings passed to republican +magistrates, the priesthoods which were in the exclusive possession of +the great families tended to become the important ones. Thus, before the +rise of tyranny, Greek religion is aristocratic. The cults recognized +by the state are the _sacra_ of noble clans. The religious prerogatives +of the nobles helped to confirm their political ones, and, as long as +religion retained its aristocratic character, it was impossible for +democracy to take root. The policy of the tyrants aimed at fostering +popular cults which had no associations with the old families, and at +establishing new festivals. The cult of the wine-god, Dionysus, was thus +fostered at Sicyon by Cleisthenes, and at Corinth by the Cypselids; +while at Athens a new festival of this deity, which so completely +overshadowed the older festival that it became known as the Great +Dionysia, probably owed its institution to Peisistratus. Another +festival, the Panathenaea, which had been instituted only a few years +before his rise to power, became under his rule, and thanks to his +policy, the chief national festival of the Athenian state. Everywhere, +again, we find the tyrants the patrons of literature. Pindar and +Bacchylides, Aeschylus and Simonides found a welcome at the court of +Hiero. Polycrates was the patron of Anacreon, Periander of Arion. To +Peisistratus has been attributed, possibly not without reason, the first +critical edition of the text of Homer, a work as important in the +literary history of Greece as was the issue of the Authorized Version of +the Bible in English history. If we would judge fairly of tyranny, and +of what it contributed to the development of Greece, we must remember +how many states there were in whose history the period of greatest power +coincides with the rule of a tyrant. This is unquestionably true of +Corinth and Sicyon, as well as of Syracuse in the 5th, and again in the +4th century; it is probably true of Samos and Miletus. In the case of +Athens it is only the splendour of the Great Age that blinds us to the +greatness of the results achieved by the policy of the Peisistratids. + + + The arts. + +With the overthrow of this dynasty tyranny disappears from Greece proper +for more than a century. During the century and a half which had elapsed +since its first appearance the whole aspect of Greek life, and of the +Greek world, had changed. The development was as yet incomplete, but the +lines on which it was to proceed had been clearly marked out. Political +power was no longer the monopoly of a class. The struggle between the +"few" and the "many" had begun; in one state at least (Athens) the +victory of the "many" was assured. The first chapter in the history of +democracy was already written. In the art of war the two innovations +which were ultimately to establish the military supremacy of Greece, +hoplite tactics and the trireme, had already been introduced. Greek +literature was no longer synonymous with epic poetry. Some of its most +distinctive forms had not yet been evolved; indeed, it is only quite at +the end of the period that prose-writing begins; but both lyric and +elegiac poetry had been brought to perfection. In art, statuary was +still comparatively stiff and crude; but in other branches, in +architecture, in vase-painting and in coin-types, the aesthetic genius +of the race had asserted its pre-eminence. Philosophy, the supreme gift +of Greece to the modern world, had become a living power. Some of her +most original thinkers belong to the 6th century. Criticism had been +applied to everything in turn: to the gods, to conduct, and to the +conception of the universe. Before the Great Age begins, the claims of +intellectual as well as of political freedom had been vindicated. It was +not, however, in Greece proper that progress had been greatest. In the +next century the centre of gravity of Greek civilization shifts to the +western side of the Aegean; in the 6th century it must be looked for at +Miletus, rather than at Athens. In order to estimate how far the +development of Greece had advanced, or to appreciate the distinctive +features of Greek life at this period, we must study Ionia, rather than +Attica or the Peloponnese. Almost all that is greatest and most +characteristic is to be found on the eastern side of the Aegean. The +great names in the history of science and philosophy before the +beginning of the 5th century--Thales, Pythagoras, Xenophanes, +Heraclitus, Parmenides, Anaximander, Hecataeus; names which are +representative of mathematics, astronomy, geography and metaphysics, are +all, without exception, Ionian. In poetry, too, the most famous names, +if not so exclusively Ionian, are connected either with the Asiatic +coast or with the Cyclades. Against Archilochus and Anacreon, Sappho +and Alcaeus, Greece has nothing better to set, after the age of Hesiod, +than Tyrtaeus and Theognis. Reference has already been made to the +greatness of the Ionians as navigators, as colonizers and as traders. In +wealth and in population, Miletus, at the epoch of the Persian conquest, +must have been far ahead of any city of European Greece. Sybaris, in +Magna Graecia, can have been its only rival outside Ionia. There were +two respects, however, in which the comparison was in favour of the +mother-country. In warfare, the superiority of the Spartan infantry was +unquestioned; in politics, the Greek states showed a greater power of +combination than the Ionian. + + + External relations. + + Persian wars. + +Finally, Ionia was the scene of the first conflicts with the Persian. +Here were decided the first stages of a struggle which was to determine +the place of Greece in the history of the world. The rise of Persia +under Cyrus was, as Herodotus saw, the turning-point of Greek history. +Hitherto the Greek had proved himself indispensable to the oriental +monarchies with which he had been brought into contact. In Egypt the +power of the Saite kings rested upon the support of their Greek +mercenaries. Amasis (569-525 B.C.), who is raised to the throne as the +leader of a reaction against the influence of the foreign garrison, ends +by showing greater favour to the Greek soldiery and the Greek traders +than all that were before him. With Lydia the relations were originally +hostile; the conquest of the Greek fringe is the constant aim of Lydian +policy. Greek influences, however, seem to have quickly permeated Lydia, +and to have penetrated to the court. Alyattes (610-560 B.C.) marries an +Ionian wife, and the succession is disputed between the son of this +marriage and Croesus, whose mother was a Carian. Croesus (560-546 B.C.) +secures the throne, only to become the lavish patron of Greek +sanctuaries and the ally of a Greek state. The history of Hellenism had +begun. It was the rise of Cyrus that closed the East to Greek enterprise +and Greek influences. In Persia we find the antithesis of all that is +characteristic of Greece--autocracy as opposed to liberty; a military +society organized on an aristocratic basis, to an industrial society, +animated by a democratic spirit; an army, whose strength lay in its +cavalry, to an army, in which the foot-soldier alone counted; a +morality, which assigned the chief place to veracity, to a morality +which subordinated it to other virtues; a religion, which ranks among +the great religions of the world, to a religion, which appeared to the +most spiritual minds among the Greeks themselves both immoral and +absurd. Between two such races there could be neither sympathy nor +mutual understanding. In the Great Age the Greek had learned to despise +the Persian, and the Persian to fear the Greek. In the 6th century it +was the Persian who despised, and the Greek who feared. The history of +the conflicts between the Ionian Greeks and the Persian empire affords a +striking example of the combination of intellectual strength and +political weakness in the character of a people. The causes of the +failure of the Ionians to offer a successful resistance to Persia, both +at the time of the conquest by Harpagus (546-545 B.C.) and in the Ionic +revolt (499-494 B.C.), are not far to seek. The centrifugal forces +always tended to prove the stronger in the Greek system, and nowhere +were they stronger than in Ionia. The tie of their tribal union proved +weaker, every time it was put to the test, than the political and +commercial interests of the individual states. A league of jealous +commercial rivals is certain not to stand the strain of a protracted +struggle against great odds. Against the advancing power of Lydia a +common resistance had not so much as been attempted. Miletus, the +greatest of the Ionian towns, had received aid from Chios alone. Against +Persia a common resistance was attempted. The Panionium, the centre of a +religious amphictyony, became for the moment the centre of a political +league. At the time of the Persian conquest Miletus held aloof. She +secured favourable terms for herself, and left the rest of Ionia to its +fate. In the later conflict, on the contrary, Miletus is the leader in +the revolt. The issue was determined, not as Herodotus represents it, by +the inherent indolence of the Ionian nature, but by the selfish policy +of the leading states. In the sea-fight at Lade (494 B.C.) the decisive +battle of the war, the Milesians and Chians fought with desperate +courage. The day was lost thanks to the treachery of the Samian and +Lesbian contingents. + +The causes of the successful resistance of the Greeks to the invasions +of their country, first by Datis and Artaphernes (490 B.C.), in the +reign of Darius, and then by Xerxes in person (480-479 B.C.), are more +complex. Their success was partly due to a moral cause. And this was +realized by the Greeks themselves. They felt (see Herod. vii. 104) that +the subjects of a despot are no match for the citizens of a free state, +who yield obedience to a law which is self-imposed. But the cause was +not solely a moral one. Nor was the result due to the numbers and +efficiency of the Athenian fleet, in the degree that the Athenians +claimed (see Herod. vii. 139). The truth is that the conditions, both +political and military, were far more favourable to the Greek defence in +Europe than they had been in Asia. At this crisis the centripetal forces +proved stronger than the centrifugal. The moral ascendancy of Sparta was +the determining factor. In Sparta the Greeks had a leader whom all were +ready to obey (Herod. viii. 2). But for her influence the forces of +disintegration would have made themselves felt as quickly as in Ionia. +Sparta was confronted with immense difficulties in conducting the +defence against Xerxes. The two chief naval powers, Athens and Aegina, +had to be reconciled after a long and exasperating warfare (see AEGINA). +After Thermopylae, the whole of northern Greece, with the exception of +Athens and a few minor states, was lost to the Greek cause. The supposed +interests of the Peloponnesians, who formed the greater part of the +national forces, conflicted with the supposed interests of the +Athenians. A more impartial view than was possible to the generation for +which Herodotus wrote suggests that Sparta performed her task with +intelligence and patriotism. The claims of Athens and Sparta were about +equally balanced. And in spite of her great superiority in numbers,[13] +the military conditions were far from favourable to Persia. A land so +mountainous as Greece is was unsuited to the operations of cavalry, the +most efficient arm of the service in the Persian Army, as in most +oriental ones. Ignorance of local conditions, combined with the +dangerous nature of the Greek coast, exposed their ships to the risk of +destruction; while the composite character of the fleet, and the +jealousies of its various contingents, tended to neutralize the +advantage of numbers. In courage and discipline, the flower of the +Persian infantry was probably little inferior to the Greek; in +equipment, they were no match for the Greek panoply. Lastly, Xerxes +laboured under a disadvantage, which may be illustrated by the +experience of the British army in the South African War--distance from +his base. + + + Systems of government. + +5. _The Great Age (480-338 B.C.)._--The effects of the repulse of Persia +were momentous in their influence upon Greece. The effects upon +Elizabethan England of the defeat of the Spanish armada would afford +quite an inadequate parallel. It gave the Greeks a heightened sense, +both of their own national unity and of their superiority to the +barbarian, while at the same time it helped to create the material +conditions requisite alike for the artistic and political development of +the 5th century. Other cities besides Athens were adorned with the +proceeds of the spoils won from Persia, and Greek trade benefited both +from the reunion of Ionia with Greece, and from the suppression of +piracy in the Aegean and the Hellespont. Do these developments justify +us in giving to the period, which begins with the repulse of Xerxes, and +ends with the victory of Philip, the title of "the Great Age"? If the +title is justified in the case of the 5th century, should the 4th +century be excluded from the period? At first sight, the difference +between the 4th century and the 5th may seem greater than that which +exists between the 5th and the 6th. On the political side, the 5th +century is an age of growth, the 4th an age of decay; on the literary +side, the former is an age of poetry, the latter an age of prose. In +spite of these contrasts, there is a real unity in the period which +begins with the repulse of Xerxes and ends with the death of Alexander, +as compared with any preceding one. It is an age of maturity in +politics, in literature, and in art; and this is true of no earlier age. +Nor can we say that the 5th century is, in all these aspects of Greek +life, immature as compared with the 4th, or, on the other hand, that the +4th is decadent as compared with the 5th. On the political side, +maturity is, in one sense, reached in the earlier century. There is +nothing in the later century so great as the Athenian empire. In another +sense, maturity is not reached till the 4th century. It is only in the +later century that the tendency of the Greek constitutions to conform to +a common type, democracy, is (at least approximately) realized, and it +is only in this century that the principles upon which democracy is +based are carried to their logical conclusion. In literature, if we +confine our attention to poetry, we must pronounce the 5th century the +age of completed development; but in prose the case is different. The +style even of Thucydides is immature, as compared with that of Isocrates +and Plato. In philosophy, however high may be the estimate that is +formed of the genius of the earlier thinkers, it cannot be disputed that +in Plato and Aristotle we find a more mature stage of thought. In art, +architecture may perhaps be said to reach its zenith in the 5th, +sculpture in the 4th century. In its political aspect, the history of +the Great Age resolves itself into the history of two movements, the +imperial and the democratic. Hitherto Greece had meant, politically, an +aggregate of independent states, very numerous, and, as a rule, very +small. The principle of autonomy was to the Greek the most sacred of all +political principles; the passion for autonomy the most potent of +political factors. In the latter half of the 6th century Sparta had +succeeded in combining the majority of the Peloponnesian states into a +loose federal union; so loose, however, that it appears to have been +dormant in the intervals of peace. In the crisis of the Persian invasion +the Peloponnesian League was extended so as to include all the states +which had espoused the national cause. It looked on the morrow of +Plataea and Mycale (the two victories, won simultaneously, in 479 B.C., +by Spartan commanders, by which the danger from Persia was finally +averted) as if a permanent basis for union might be found in the +hegemony of Sparta. The sense of a common peril and a common triumph +brought with it the need of a common union; it was Athens, however, +instead of Sparta, by whom the first conscious effort was made to +transcend the isolation of the Greek political system and to bring the +units into combination. The league thus founded (the Delian League, +established in 477 B.C.) was under the presidency of Athens, but it +included hardly any other state besides those that had conducted the +defence of Greece. It was formed, almost entirely, of the states which +had been liberated from Persian rule by the great victories of the war. +The Delian League, even in the form in which it was first established, +as a confederation of autonomous allies, marks an advance in political +conceptions upon the Peloponnesian League. Provision is made for an +annual revenue, for periodical meetings of the council, and for a +permanent executive. It is a real federation, though an imperfect one. +There were defects in its constitution which rendered it inevitable that +it should be transformed into an empire. Athens was from the first "the +predominant partner." The fleet was mainly Athenian, the commanders +entirely so; the assessment of the tribute was in Athenian hands; there +was no federal court appointed to determine questions at issue between +Athens and the other members; and, worst omission of all, the right of +secession was left undecided. By the middle of the century the Delian +League has become the Athenian empire. Henceforward the imperial idea, +in one form or another, dominates Greek politics. Athens failed to +extend her authority over the whole of Greece. Her empire was +overthrown; but the triumph of autonomy proved the triumph of +imperialism. The Spartan empire succeeds to the Athenian, and, when it +is finally shattered at Leuctra (371 B.C.), the hegemony of Thebes, +which is established on its ruins, is an empire in all but name. The +decay of Theban power paves the way for the rise of Macedon. + +Thus throughout this period we can trace two forces contending for +mastery in the Greek political system. Two causes divide the allegiance +of the Greek world, the cause of empire and the cause of autonomy. The +formation of the confederacy of Delos did not involve the dissolution of +the alliance between Athens and Sparta. For seventeen years more Athens +retained her place in the league, "which had been established against +the Mede" under the presidency of Sparta in 480 B.C. (Thuc. i. 102). The +ascendancy of Cimon and the Philolaconian party at Athens was favourable +to a good understanding between the two states, and at Sparta in normal +times the balance inclined in favour of the party whose policy is best +described by the motto "quieta non movere." + + + The Peloponnesian Wars. + +In the end, however, the opposition of the two contending forces proved +too strong for Spartan neutrality. The fall of Cimon (461 B.C.) was +followed by the so-called "First Peloponnesian War," a conflict between +Athens and her maritime rivals, Corinth and Aegina, into which Sparta +was ultimately drawn. Thucydides regards the hostilities of these years +(460-454 B.C.), which were resumed for a few months in 446 B.C., on the +expiration of the Five Years' Truce, as preliminary to those of the +great Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.). The real question at issue was +in both cases the same. The tie that united the opponents of Athens was +found in a common hostility to the imperial idea. It is a complete +misapprehension to regard the Peloponnesian War as a mere duel between +two rival claimants for empire. The ultimatum presented by Sparta on the +eve of the war demanded the restoration of autonomy to the subjects of +Athens. There is no reason for doubting her sincerity in presenting it +in this form. It would, however, be an equal misapprehension to regard +the war as merely a struggle between the cause of empire and the cause +of autonomy. Corresponding to this fundamental contrast there are other +contrasts, constitutional, racial and military. The military interest of +the war is largely due to the fact that Athens was a sea power and +Sparta a land one. As the war went on, the constitutional aspect tended +to become more marked. At first there were democracies on the side of +Sparta, and oligarchies on the side of Athens. In the last stage of the +war, when Lysander's influence was supreme, we see the forces of +oligarchy everywhere united and organized for the destruction of +democracy. In its origin the war was certainly not due to the rivalry of +Dorian and Ionian. This racial, or tribal, contrast counted for more in +the politics of Sicily than of Greece; and, though the two great +branches of the Greek race were represented respectively by the leaders +of the two sides, the allies on neither side belonged exclusively to the +one branch or the other. Still, it remains true that the Dorian states +were, as a rule, on the Spartan side, and the Ionian states, as a rule, +on the Athenian--a division of sentiment which must have helped to widen +the breach, and to intensify the animosities. + + + The Athenian empire. + +As a political experiment the Athenian empire possesses a unique +interest. It represents the first attempt to fuse the principles of +imperialism and democracy. It is at once the first empire in history +possessed and administered by a sovereign people, and the first which +sought to establish a common system of democratic institutions amongst +its subjects.[14] It was an experiment that failed, partly owing to the +inherent strength of the oligarchic cause, partly owing to the exclusive +character of ancient citizenship. The Athenians themselves recognized +that their empire depended for its existence upon the solidarity of +democratic interests (see Thuc. iii. 47; Pseudo-Xenophon, _de Rep. Ath._ +i. 14, iii. 10). An understanding existed between the democratic leaders +in the subject-states and the democratic party at Athens. Charges were +easily trumped up against obnoxious oligarchs, and conviction as easily +obtained in the Athenian courts of law. Such a system forced the +oligarchs into an attitude of opposition. How much this opposition +counted for was realized when the Sicilian disaster (413 B.C.) gave the +subjects their chance to revolt. The organization of the oligarchical +party throughout the empire, which was effected by Lysander in the last +stage of the war, contributed to the overthrow of Athenian ascendancy +hardly less than the subsidies of Persia. Had Athens aimed at +establishing a community of interest between herself and her subjects, +based upon a common citizenship, her empire might have endured. It would +have been a policy akin to that which secured the permanence of the +Roman empire. And it was a policy which found advocates when the day for +it was past (see Aristophanes, _Lysistrata_, 574 ff.; cf. the grant of +citizenship to the Samians after Aegospotami, _C.I.A._ iv. 2, 1b). But +the policy pursued by Athens in the plenitude of her power was the +reverse of the policy pursued by Rome in her treatment of the franchise. +It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the fate of the empire was +sealed by the law of Pericles (451 B.C.), by which the franchise was +restricted to those who could establish Athenian descent on both sides. +It was not merely that the process of amalgamation through intermarriage +was abruptly checked; what was more serious was that a hard and fast +line was drawn, once and for all, between the small body of privileged +rulers and the great mass of unprivileged subjects. Maine (_Early +Institutions_, lecture 13) has classed the Athenian empire with those of +the familiar Oriental type, which attempt nothing beyond the raising of +taxes and the levying of troops. The Athenian empire cannot, indeed, be +classed with the Roman, or with the British rule in India; it does not, +therefore, deserve to be classed with the empires of Cyrus or of Jenghiz +Khan. Though the basis of its organization, like that of the Persian +empire under Darius, was financial, it attempted, and secured, objects +beyond the mere payment of tribute and the supply of ships. If Athens +did not introduce a common religion, or a common system of education, or +a common citizenship, she did introduce a common type of political +institutions, and a common jurisdiction.[15] She went some way, too, in +the direction of establishing a common system of coins, and of weights +and measures. A common language was there already. In a word, the +Athenian empire marks a definite stage of political evolution. + + + The mature democracy. + +The other great political movement of the age was the progress of +democracy. Before the Persian invasion democracy was a rare phenomenon +in Greek politics. Where it was found it existed in an undeveloped form, +and its tenure of power was precarious. By the beginning of the +Peloponnesian War it had become the prevalent form of government. The +great majority of Greek states had adopted democratic constitutions. +Both in the Athenian sphere of influence and in the colonial world +outside that sphere, democracy was all but the only form of constitution +known. It was only in Greece proper that oligarchy held its own. In the +Peloponnese it could count a majority of the states; in northern Greece +at least a half of them. The spread of democratic institutions was +arrested by the victory of Sparta in the East, and the rise of Dionysius +in the West. There was a moment at the end of the 5th century when it +looked as if democracy was a lost cause. Even Athens was for a brief +period under the rule of the Thirty (404-403 B.C.). In the regions which +had formed the empire of Athens the decarchies set up by Lysander were +soon overthrown, and democracies restored in most cases, but oligarchy +continued to be the prevalent form in Greece proper until Leuctra (371 +B.C.), and in Sicily tyranny had a still longer tenure of power. By the +end of the Great Age oligarchy has almost disappeared from the Greek +world, except in the sphere of Persian influence. The Spartan monarchy +still survives; a few Peloponnesian states still maintain the rule of +the few; here and there in Greece itself we meet with a revival of the +_tyrannis_; but, with these exceptions, democracy is everywhere the only +type of constitution. And democracy has developed as well as spread. At +the end of the 5th century the constitution of Cleisthenes, which was a +democracy in the view of his contemporaries, had come to be regarded as +an aristocracy (Aristot. _Ath. Pol._ 29. 3). We can trace a similar +change of sentiment in Sicily. As compared with the extreme form of +constitution adopted at Syracuse after the defeat of the Athenian +expedition, the democracies established two generations earlier, on the +fall of the _tyrannis_, appeared oligarchical. The changes by which the +character of the Greek democracies was revolutionized were four in +number: the substitution of sortition for election, the abolition of a +property qualification, the payment of officials and the rise of a class +of professional politicians. In the democracy of Cleisthenes no payment +was given for service, whether as a magistrate, a juror or a member of +the Boule. The higher magistracies were filled by election, and they +were held almost exclusively by the members of the great Athenian +families. For the highest office of all, the archonship, none but +_Pentacosiomedimni_ (the first of the four Solonian classes) were +eligible. The introduction of pay and the removal of the property +qualification formed part of the reforms of Pericles. Sortition had been +instituted for election a generation earlier (487 B.C.).[16] What is +perhaps the most important of all these changes, the rise of the +demagogues, belongs to the era of the Peloponnesian War. From the time +of Cleisthenes to the outbreak of the war every statesman of note at +Athens, with the exception of Themistocles (and, perhaps, of Ephialtes), +is of aristocratic birth. Down to the fall of Cimon the course of +Athenian politics is to a great extent determined by the alliances and +antipathies of the great clans. With the Peloponnesian War a new epoch +begins. The chief office, the _strategia_, is still, as a rule, held by +men of rank. But leadership in the Ecclesia has passed to men of a +different class. The demagogues were not necessarily poor men. Cleon was +a wealthy man; Eucrates, Lysicles and Hyperbolus were, at any rate, +tradesmen rather than artisans. The first "labour member" proper is +Cleophon (411-404 B.C.), a lyre-maker. They belonged, however, not to +the land-owning, but to the industrial classes; they were distinguished +from the older race of party-leaders by a vulgar accent, and by a +violence of gesture in public speaking, and they found their supporters +among the population of the city and its port, the Peiraeus, rather than +among the farmers of the country districts. In the 4th century the +demagogues, though under another name, that of orators, have acquired +entire control of the Ecclesia. It is an age of professionalism, and the +professional soldier has his counterpart in the professional politician. +Down to the death of Pericles the party-leader had always held office as +Strategus. His rival, Thucydides, son of Melesias, forms a solitary +exception to this statement. In the 4th century the divorce between the +general and the statesman is complete. The generals are professional +soldiers, who aspire to no political influence in the state, and the +statesmen devote themselves exclusively to politics, a career for which +they have prepared themselves by a professional training in oratory or +administrative work. The ruin of agriculture during the war had reduced +the old families to insignificance. Birth counts for less than nothing +as a political asset in the age of Demosthenes. + + + The city-state. + +But great as are the contrasts which have been pointed out between the +earlier and the later democracy, those that distinguish the ancient +conception of democracy from the modern are of a still more essential +nature. The differences that distinguish the democracies of ancient +Greece from those of the modern world have their origin, to a great +extent, in the difference between a city-state and a nation-state. Many +of the most famous Greek states had an area of a few square miles; the +largest of them was no larger than an English county. Political theory +put the limit of the citizen-body at 10,000. Though this number was +exceeded in a few cases, it is doubtful if any state, except Athens, +ever counted more than 20,000 citizens. In the nation-states of modern +times, democratic government is possible only under the form of a +representative system; in the city-state representative government was +unnecessary, and therefore unknown. In the ancient type of democracy a +popular chamber has no existence. The Ecclesia is not a chamber in any +sense of the term; it is an assembly of the whole people, which every +citizen is entitled to attend, and in which every one is equally +entitled to vote and speak. The question raised in modern political +science, as to whether sovereignty resides in the electors or their +representatives, has thus neither place nor meaning in ancient theory. +In the same way, one of the most familiar results of modern analysis, +the distinction between the executive and the legislative, finds no +recognition in the Greek writers. In a direct system of government there +can be no executive in the proper sense. Executive functions are +discharged by the ecclesia, to whose decision the details of +administration may be referred. The position of the strategi, the chief +officials in the Athenian democracy of the 5th century, was in no sense +comparable to that of a modern cabinet. Hence the individual citizen in +an ancient democracy was concerned in, and responsible for, the actual +work of government to a degree that is inconceivable in a modern state. +Thus participation in the administrative and judicial business of the +state is made by Aristotle the differentia of the citizen ([Greek: +polites estin ho metechon kriseos kai arches], Aristot. _Politics_, p. +1275 a 20). A large proportion of the citizens of Athens, in addition to +frequent service in the courts of law, must in the course of their lives +have held a magistracy, great or small, or have acted for a year or two +as members of the Boule.[17] It must be remembered that there was +nothing corresponding to a permanent civil service in the ancient state. +Much of the work of a government office would have been transacted by +the Athenian Boule. It must be remembered, too, that political and +administrative questions of great importance came before the popular +courts of law. Hence it follows that the ordinary citizen of an ancient +democracy, in the course of his service in the Boule or the law-courts, +acquired an interest in political questions, and a grasp of +administrative work, which none but a select few can hope to acquire +under the conditions of the modern system. Where there existed neither a +popular chamber nor a distinct executive, there was no opportunity for +the growth of a party-system. There were, of course, political parties +at Athens and elsewhere--oligarchs and democrats, conservatives and +radicals, a peace-party and a war-party, according to the burning +question of the day. There was, however, nothing equivalent to a general +election, to a cabinet (or to that collective responsibility which is of +the essence of a cabinet), or to the government and the opposition. +Party organization, therefore, and a party system, in the proper sense, +were never developed. Whatever may have been the evils incident to the +ancient form of democracy, the "boss," the caucus and the spoils-system +were not among them. + + + Position of women. + +Besides these differences, which, directly or indirectly, result from +the difference of scale, there are others, hardly less profound, which +are not connected with the size of the city-state. Perhaps the most +striking contrast between the democracies of ancient and of modern times +is to be found in their attitude towards privilege. Ancient democracy +implies privilege; modern democracy implies its destruction. In the more +fully developed democracies of the modern world (e.g. in the United +States, or in Australia), the privilege of class is unknown; in some of +them (e.g. New Zealand, Australia, Norway) even the privilege of sex has +been abolished. Ancient democracy was bound up with privilege as much as +oligarchy was. The transition from the latter to the former was effected +by enlarging the area of privilege and by altering its basis. In an +oligarchical state citizenship might be confined to 10% of the free +population; under a democracy 50% might enjoy it. In the former case the +qualification might be wealth or land; in the latter case it might be, +as it was at Athens, birth, i.e. descent, on both sides, from a citizen +family. But, in both cases alike, the distinction between a privileged +and an unprivileged body of free-born residents is fundamental. To the +unprivileged class belonged, not only foreigners temporarily resident +([Greek: xenoi]) and aliens permanently domiciled ([Greek: metoikoi]), +but also those native-born inhabitants of the state who were of foreign +extraction, on one side or the other.[18] The privileges attaching to +citizenship included, in addition to eligibility for office and a vote +in the assembly, such private rights as that of owning land or a house, +or of contracting a marriage with one of citizen status. The citizen, +too, was alone the recipient of all the various forms of pay (e.g. for +attendance in the assembly, for service in the Boule or the law-courts, +or for the celebration of the great festivals) which are so conspicuous +a feature in the developed democracy of the 4th century. The _metoeci_ +could not even plead in a court of law in person, but only through a +patron ([Greek: prostates]). It is intelligible that privileges so great +should be jealously guarded. In the democracies of the modern world +naturalization is easy; in those of ancient Greece admission to the +franchise was rarely accorded. In modern times, again, we are accustomed +to connect democracy with the emancipation of women. It is true that +only a few democratic constitutions grant them the suffrage; but though, +as a rule, they are denied public rights, the growth of popular +government has been almost everywhere accompanied by an extension of +their private rights, and by the removal of the restrictions imposed by +law, custom or public opinion upon their freedom of action. In ancient +Greece the democracies were as illiberal in their policy as the +oligarchies. Women of the respectable class were condemned to +comparative seclusion. They enjoyed far less freedom in 4th-century +Athens than in the Homeric Age. It is not in any of the democracies, but +in conservative Sparta, that they possess privilege and exercise +influence. + + + Slavery. + +The most fundamental of all the contrasts between democracy in its +ancient and in its modern form remains to be stated. The ancient state +was inseparable from slavery. In this respect there was no difference +between democracy and the other forms of government. No inconsistency +was felt, therefore, between this institution and the democratic +principle. Modern political theory has been profoundly affected by the +conception of the dignity of labour; ancient political theory tended to +regard labour as a disqualification for the exercise of political +rights. Where slavery exists, the taint of it will inevitably cling to +all labour that can be performed by the slave. In ancient Athens (which +may be taken as typical of the Greek democracies) unskilled labour was +almost entirely slave-labour, and skilled labour was largely so. The +arts and crafts were, to some extent, exercised by citizens, but to a +less extent in the 4th than in the 6th century. They were, however, +chiefly left to aliens or slaves. The citizen-body of Athens in the age +of Demosthenes has been stigmatized as consisting in great measure of +salaried paupers. There is, doubtless, an exaggeration in this. It is, +however, true, both that the system of state-pay went a long way towards +supplying the simple wants of a southern population, and that a large +proportion of the citizens had time to spare for the service of the +state. Had the life of the lower class of citizens been absorbed in a +round of mechanical labours, as fully as is the life of our industrial +classes, the working of an ancient democracy would have been impossible. +In justice to the ancient democracies it must be conceded that, while +popular government carried with it neither the enfranchisement of the +alien nor the emancipation of the slave, the rights secured to both +classes were more considerable in the democratic states than elsewhere. +The lot of the slave, as well as that of the alien, was a peculiarly +favourable one at Athens. The pseudo-Xenophon in the 5th century (_De +rep. Ath._ 1. 10-12) and Plato in the 4th (_Republic_, p. 563 B), prove +that the spirit of liberty, with which Athenian life was permeated, was +not without its influence upon the position of these classes. When we +read that critics complained of the opulence of slaves, and of the +liberties they took, and when we are told that the slave could not be +distinguished from the poorer class of citizens either by his dress or +his look, we begin to realize the difference between the slavery of +ancient Athens and the system as it was worked on the Roman _latifundia_ +or the plantations of the New World. + + + The Spartan empire. + +It had been anticipated that the fall of Athens would mean the triumph +of the principle of autonomy. If Athens had surrendered within a year or +so of the Sicilian catastrophe, this anticipation would probably have +been fulfilled. It was the last phase of the struggle (412-404 B.C.) +that rendered a Spartan empire inevitable. The oligarchical governments +established by Lysander recognized that their tenure of power was +dependent upon Spartan support, while Lysander himself, to whose genius, +as a political organizer not less than as a commander, the triumph of +Sparta was due, was unwilling to see his work undone. The Athenian +empire had never included the greater part of Greece proper; since the +Thirty Years' Peace its possessions on the mainland, outside the +boundaries of Attica, were limited to Naupactus and Plataea. Sparta, on +the other hand, attempted the control of the entire Greek world east of +the Adriatic. Athens had been compelled to acknowledge a dual system; +Sparta sought to establish uniformity. The attempt failed from the +first. Within a year of the surrender of Athens, Thebes and Corinth had +drifted into an attitude of opposition, while Argos remained hostile. It +was not long before the policy of Lysander succeeded in uniting against +Sparta the very forces upon which she had relied when she entered on the +Peloponnesian War. The Corinthian War (394-387 B.C.) was brought about +by the alliance of all the second-class powers--Thebes, Athens, Corinth, +Argos--against the one first-class power, Sparta. Though Sparta emerged +successful from the war, it was with the loss of her maritime empire, +and at the cost of recognizing the principle of autonomy as the basis of +the Greek political system. It was already evident, thus early in the +century, that the centrifugal forces were to prove stronger than the +centripetal. Two further causes may be indicated which help to explain +the failure of the Spartan empire. In the first place Spartan sea-power +was an artificial creation. History seems to show that it is idle for a +state to aspire to naval supremacy unless it possesses a great +commercial marine. Athens had possessed such a marine; her naval +supremacy was due not to the mere size of her fleet, but to the numbers +and skill of her seafaring population. Sparta had no commerce. She could +build fleets more easily than she could man them. A single defeat (at +Cnidus, 391 B.C.) sufficed for the ruin of her sea-power. The second +cause is to be found in the financial weakness of the Spartan state. The +Spartan treasury had been temporarily enriched by the spoils of the +Peloponnesian War, but neither during that war, nor afterwards, did +Sparta succeed in developing any scientific financial system. Athens was +the only state which either possessed a large annual revenue or +accumulated a considerable reserve. Under the conditions of Greek +warfare, fleets were more expensive than armies. Not only was money +needed for the building and maintenance of the ships, but the sailor +must be paid, while the soldier served for nothing. Hence the power with +the longest purse could both build the largest fleet and attract the +most skilful seamen. + + + Theban hegemony. + +The battle of Leuctra transferred the hegemony from Sparta to Thebes, +but the attempt to unite Greece under the leadership of Thebes was from +the first doomed to failure. The conditions were less favourable to +Thebes than they had been to Athens or Sparta. Thebes was even more +exclusively a land-power than Sparta. She had no revenue comparable to +that of Athens in the preceding century. Unlike Athens and Sparta, she +had not the advantage of being identified with a political cause. As the +enemy of Athens in the 5th century, she was on the side of oligarchy; as +the rival of Sparta in the 4th, she was on the side of democracy; but in +her bid for primacy she could not appeal, as Athens and Sparta could, +to a great political tradition, nor had she behind her, as they had, the +moral force of a great political principle. Her position, too, in +Boeotia itself was insecure. The rise of Athens was in great measure the +result of the _synoecism_ ([Greek: sunoikismos)] of Attica. All +inhabitants of Attica were Athenians. But "Boeotian" and "Theban" were +not synonymous terms. The Boeotian league was an imperfect form of +union, as compared with the Athenian state, and the claim of Thebes to +the presidency of the league was, at best, sullenly acquiesced in by the +other towns. The destruction of some of the most famous of the Boeotian +cities, however necessary it may have been in order to unite the +country, was a measure which at once impaired the resources of Thebes +and outraged Greek sentiment. It has been often held that the failure of +Theban policy was due to the death of Epaminondas (at the battle of +Mantinea, 362 B.C.). For this view there is no justification. His policy +had proved a failure before his death. Where it harmonized with the +spirit of the age, the spirit of dissidence, it succeeded; where it +attempted to run counter to it, it failed. It succeeded in destroying +the supremacy of Sparta in the Peloponnese; it failed to unite the +Peloponnese on a new basis. It failed still more significantly to unite +Greece north of the Isthmus. It left Greece weaker and more divided than +it found it (see the concluding words of Xenophon's _Hellenics_). It +would be difficult to overestimate the importance of his policy as a +destructive force; as a constructive force it effected nothing.[19] The +Peloponnesian system which Epaminondas overthrew had lasted two hundred +years. Under Spartan leadership the Peloponnese had enjoyed almost +complete immunity from invasion and comparative immunity from _stasis_ +(faction). The claim that Isocrates makes for Sparta is probably +well-founded (_Archidamus_, 64-69; during the period of Spartan +ascendency the Peloponnesians were [Greek: eudaimonestatoi ton +Hellenon]). Peloponnesian sentiment had been one of the chief factors in +Greek politics; to it, indeed, in no small degree was due the victory +over Persia. The Theban victory at Leuctra destroyed the unity, and with +it the peace and the prosperity, of the Peloponnese. It inaugurated a +period of misery, the natural result of _stasis_ and invasion, to which +no parallel can be found in the earlier history (See Isocrates, +_Archidamus_, 65, 66; the Peloponnesians were [Greek: omalismenoi tais +sumphopais]). It destroyed, too, the Peloponnesian sentiment of +hostility to the invader. The bulk of the army that defeated Mardonius +at Plataea came from the Peloponnese; at Chaeronea no Peloponnesian +state was represented. + + + The rise of Macedon. + +The question remains, Why did the city-state fail to save Greece from +conquest by Macedon? Was this result due to the inherent weakness either +of the city-state itself, or of one particular form of it, democracy? It +is clear, in any case, that the triumph of Macedon was the effect of +causes which had long been at work. If neither Philip nor Alexander had +appeared on the scene, Greece might have maintained her independence for +another generation or two; but, when invasion came, it would have found +her weaker and more distracted, and the conquerors might easily have +been less imbued with the Greek spirit, and less sympathetic towards +Greek ideals, than the great Macedonian and his son. These causes are to +be found in the tendencies of the age, political, economic and moral. Of +the two movements which characterized the Great Age in its political +aspect, the imperial and the democratic, the one failed and the other +succeeded. The failure and the success were equally fatal to the chances +of Greece in the conflict with Macedon. By the middle of the 4th century +Greek politics had come to be dominated by the theory of the balance of +power. This theory, enunciated in its coarsest form by Demosthenes (_Pro +Megalopolit._ 4 [Greek: sumpherei te polei kai Lakedaimonious astheneis +einai kai Thebaious]; cf. _in Aristocrat._ 102, 103), had shaped the +foreign policy of Athens since the end of the Peloponnesian War. As long +as Sparta was the stronger, Athens inclined to a Theban alliance; after +Leuctra she tended in the direction of a Spartan one. At the epoch of +Philip's accession the forces were everywhere nicely balanced. The +Peloponnese was fairly equally divided between the Theban and the +Spartan interests, and central Greece was similarly divided between the +Theban and the Athenian. Farther north we get an Athenian party opposed +to an Olynthian in Chalcidice, and a republican party, dependent upon +the support of Thebes, opposed to that of the tyrants in Thessaly. It is +easy to see that the political conditions of Greece, both in the north +and in the south, invited interference from without. And the triumph of +democracy in its extreme form was ruinous to the military efficiency of +Greece. On the one side there was a monarchical state, in which all +powers, civil as well as military, were concentrated in the hands of a +single ruler; on the other, a constitutional system, in which a complete +separation had been effected between the responsibility of the statesman +and that of the commander.[20] + +It could not be doubtful with which side victory would rest. Meanwhile, +the economic conditions were steadily growing worse. The cause which +Aristotle assigns for the decay of the Spartan state--a declining +population (see _Politics_, p. 1270 a [Greek: apoleto e polis ton +Lakedaimonion dia ten oliganthropian])--might be extended to the Greek +world generally. The loss of population was partly the result of war and +_stasis_--Isocrates speaks of the number of political exiles from the +various states as enormous[21]--but it was also due to a declining +birth-rate, and to the exposure of infants. Aristotle, while condemning +exposure, sanctions the procuring of abortion (_Politics_, 1335 b). It +is probable that both ante-natal and post-natal infanticide were rife +everywhere, except among the more backward communities. A people which +has condemned itself to racial suicide can have little chance when +pitted against a nation in which healthier instincts prevail. The +materials for forming a trustworthy estimate of the population of Greece +at any given epoch are not available; there is enough evidence, however, +to prove that the military population of the leading Greek states at the +era of the battle of Chaeronea (338 B.C.) fell far short of what it had +been at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. The decline in +population had been accompanied by a decline in wealth, both public and +private; and while revenues had shrunk, expenditure had grown. It was a +century of warfare; and warfare had become enormously more expensive, +partly through the increased employment of mercenaries, partly through +the enhanced cost of material. The power of the purse had made itself +felt even in the 5th century; Persian gold had helped to decide the +issue of the great war. In the politics of the 4th century the power of +the purse becomes the determining factor. The public finance of the +ancient world was singularly simple in character, and the expedients for +raising a revenue were comparatively few. The distinction between direct +and indirect taxation was recognized in practice, but states as a rule +were reluctant to submit to the former system. The revenue of Athens in +the 5th century was mainly derived from the tribute paid by her +subjects; it was only in time of war that a direct tax was levied upon +the citizen-body.[22] In the age of Demosthenes the revenue derived from +the Athenian Confederacy was insignificant. The whole burden of the +expenses of a war fell upon the 1200 richest citizens, who were subject +to direct taxation in the dual form of the _Trierarchy_ and the +_Eisphora_ (property-tax). The revenue thus raised was wholly +insufficient for an effort on a great scale; yet the revenues of Athens +at this period must have exceeded those of any other state. + +It is to moral causes, however, rather than to political or economic +ones, that the failure of Greece in the conflict with Macedon is +attributed by the most famous Greek statesmen of that age. Demosthenes +is never weary of insisting upon the decay of patriotism among the +citizens and upon the decay of probity among their leaders. Venality had +always been the besetting sin of Greek statesmen. Pericles' boast as to +his own incorruptibility (Thuc. ii. 60) is significant as to the +reputation of his contemporaries. In the age of Demosthenes the level of +public life in this respect had sunk at least as low as that which +prevails in many states of the modern world (see Demosth. _On the +Crown_, 61 [Greek: para tois Hellesin, oi tisin all' apasin omoios phora +prooton kai dorodokon sunebe]; cf. SS 295, 296). Corruption was +certainly not confined to the Macedonian party. The best that can be +said in defence of the patriots, as well as of their opponents, is that +they honestly believed that the policy which they were bribed to +advocate was the best for their country's interests. The evidence for +the general decay of patriotism among the mass of the citizens is less +conclusive. The battle of Megalopolis (331 B.C.), in which the Spartan +soldiery "went down in a blaze of glory," proves that the spirit of the +Lacedemonian state remained unchanged. But at Athens it seemed to +contemporary observers--to Isocrates equally with Demosthenes--that the +spirit of the great days was extinct (see Isocr. _On the Peace_, 47, +48). It cannot, of course, be denied that public opinion was obstinately +opposed to the diversion of the Theoric Fund to the purposes of the war +with Philip. It was not till the year before Chaeronea that Demosthenes +succeeded in persuading the assembly to devote the entire surplus to the +expenses of the war.[23] Nor can it be denied that mercenaries were far +more largely employed in the 4th century than in the 5th. In justice, +however, to the Athenians of the Demosthenic era, it should be +remembered that the burden of direct taxation was rarely imposed, and +was reluctantly endured, in the previous century. It must also be +remembered that, even in the 4th century, the Athenian citizen was ready +to take the field, provided that it was not a question of a distant +expedition or of prolonged service.[24] For distant expeditions, or for +prolonged service, a citizen-militia is unsuited. The substitution of a +professional force for an unprofessional one is to be explained, partly +by the change in the character of Greek warfare, and partly by the +operation of the laws of supply and demand. There had been a time when +warfare meant a brief campaign in the summer months against a +neighbouring state. It had come to mean prolonged operations against a +distant enemy.[25] Athens was at war, e.g. with Philip, for eleven years +continuously (357-346 B.C.). If winter campaigns in Thrace were +unpopular at this epoch, they had been hardly less unpopular in the +epoch of the Peloponnesian War. In the days of her greatness, too, +Athens had freely employed mercenaries, but it was in the navy rather +than the army. In the age of Pericles the supply of mercenary rowers was +abundant, the supply of mercenary troops inconsiderable. In the age of +Demosthenes incessant warfare and ceaseless revolution had filled Greece +with crowds of homeless adventurers. The supply helped to create the +demand. The mercenary was as cheap as the citizen-soldier, and much more +effective. On the whole, then, it may be inferred that it is a mistake +to regard the prevalence of the mercenary system as the expression of a +declining patriotism. It would be nearer the mark to treat the +transition from the voluntary to the professional system as cause rather +than effect: as one among the causes which contributed to the decay of +public spirit in the Greek world. + + + Federal government. + +6. _From Alexander to the Roman Conquest (336-146 B.C.)._--In the +history of Greece proper during this period the interest is mainly +constitutional. It may be called the age of federation. Federation, +indeed, was no novelty in Greece. Federal unions had existed in +Thessaly, in Boeotia and elsewhere, and the Boeotian league can be +traced back at least to the 6th century. Two newly-founded federations, +the Chalcidian and the Arcadian, play no inconsiderable part in the +politics of the 4th century. But it is not till the 3rd century that +federation attains to its full development in Greece, and becomes the +normal type of polity. The two great leagues of this period are the +Aetolian and the Achaean. Both had existed in the 4th century, but the +latter, which had been dissolved shortly before the beginning of the 3rd +century, becomes important only after its restoration in 280 B.C., about +which date the former, too, first begins to attract notice. The interest +of federalism lies in the fact that it marks an advance beyond the +conception of the city-state. It is an attempt to solve the problem +which the Athenian empire failed to solve, the reconciliation of the +claims of local autonomy with those of national union. The federal +leagues of the 3rd century possess a further interest for the modern +world, in that there can be traced in their constitutions a nearer +approach to a representative system than is found elsewhere in Greek +experience. A genuine representative system, it is true, was never +developed in any Greek polity. What we find in the leagues is a sort of +compromise between the principle of a primary assembly and the principle +of a representative chamber. In both leagues the nominal sovereign was a +primary assembly, in which every individual citizen had the right to +vote. In both of them, however, the real power lay with a council +([Greek: Boule]) composed of members representative of each of the +component states.[26] + + + Alexander's empire. + +The real interest of this period, however, is to be looked for elsewhere +than in Greece itself. Alexander's career is one of the turning-points +in history. He is one of the few to whom it has been given to modify the +whole future of the human race. He originated two forces which have +profoundly affected the development of civilization. He created +Hellenism, and he created for the western world the monarchical ideal. +Greece had produced personal rulers of ability, or even of genius; but +to the greatest of these, to Peisistratus, to Dionysius, even to Jason +of Pherae, there clung the fatal taint of illegitimacy. As yet no ruler +had succeeded in making the person of the monarch respectable. Alexander +made it sacred. From him is derived, for the West, that "divinity that +doth hedge a king." And in creating Hellenism he created, for the first +time, a common type of civilization, with a common language, literature +and art, as well as a common form of political organization. In Asia +Minor he was content to reinforce the existing Hellenic elements (cf. +the case of Side, Arrian, _Anabasis_, i. 26. 4). In the rest of the East +his instrument of hellenization was the _polis_. He is said to have +founded no less than seventy cities, destined to become centres of Greek +influence; and the great majority of these were in lands in which +city-life was almost unknown. In this respect his example was emulated +by his successors. The eastern provinces were soon lost, though Greek +influences lingered on even in Bactria and across the Indus. It was only +the regions lying to the west of the Euphrates that were effectively +hellenized, and the permanence of this result was largely due to the +policy of Rome. But after all deductions have been made, the great fact +remains that for many centuries after Alexander's death Greek was the +language of literature and religion, of commerce and of administration +throughout the Nearer East. Alexander had created a universal empire as +well as a universal culture. His empire perished at his death, but its +central idea survived--that of the municipal freedom of the Greek +_polis_ within the framework of an imperial system. Hellenistic +civilization may appear degenerate when compared with Hellenic; when +compared with the civilizations which it superseded in non-Hellenic +lands, it marks an unquestionable advance. (For the history of Greek +civilization in the East, see HELLENISM.) Greece left her mark upon the +civilization of the West as well as upon that of the East, but the +process by which her influence was diffused was essentially different. +In the East Hellenism came in the train of the conqueror, and Rome was +content to build upon the foundations laid by Alexander. In the West +Greek influences were diffused by the Roman conquest of Greece. It was +through the ascendancy which Greek literature, philosophy and art +acquired over the Roman mind that Greek culture penetrated to the +nations of western Europe. The civilization of the East remained Greek. +The civilization of the West became and remained Latin, but it was a +Latin civilization that was saturated with Greek influences. The +ultimate division, both of the empire and the church, into two halves, +finds its explanation in this original difference of culture. + +ANCIENT AUTHORITIES.--(I.) For the earliest periods of Greek history, +the so-called Minoan and Mycenaean, the evidence is purely +archaeological. It is sufficient here to refer to the article AEGEAN +CIVILIZATION. For the next period, the Heroic or Homeric Age, the +evidence is derived from the poems of Homer. In any estimate of the +value of these poems as historical evidence, much will depend upon the +view taken of the authorship, age and unity of the poems. For a full +discussion of these questions see HOMER. It cannot be questioned that +the poems are evidence for the existence of a period in the history of +the Greek race, which differed from later periods in political and +social, military and economic conditions. But here agreement ends. If, +as is generally held by German critics, the poems are not earlier than +the 9th century, if they contain large interpolations of considerably +later date and if they are Ionian in origin, the authority of the poems +becomes comparatively slight. The existence of different strata in the +poems will imply the existence of inconsistencies and contradictions in +the evidence; nor will the evidence be that of a contemporary. It will +also follow that the picture of the heroic age contained in the poems is +an idealized one. The more extreme critics, e.g. Beloch, deny that the +poems are evidence even for the existence of a pre-Dorian epoch. If, on +the other hand, the poems are assigned to the 11th or 12th century, to a +Peloponnesian writer, and to a period anterior to the Dorian Invasion +and the colonization of Asia Minor (this is the view of the late Dr D. +B. Munro), the evidence becomes that of a contemporary, and the +authority of the poems for the distribution of races and tribes in the +Heroic Age, as well as for the social and political conditions of the +poet's time, would be conclusive. Homer recognizes no Dorians in Greece, +except in Crete (see _Odyssey_, xix. 177), and no Greek colonies in Asia +Minor. Only two explanations are possible. Either there is deliberate +archaism in the poems, or else they are earlier in date than the Dorian +Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor. + + + Herodotus. + +II. For the period that extends from the end of the Heroic Age to the +end of the Peloponnesian War[27] the two principal authorities are +Herodotus and Thucydides. Not only have the other historical works which +treated of this period perished (those at least whose date is earlier +than the Christian era), but their authority was secondary and their +material chiefly derived from these two writers. In one respect then +this period of Greek history stands alone. Indeed, it might be said, +with hardly an exaggeration, that there is nothing like it elsewhere in +history. Almost our sole authorities are two writers of unique genius, +and they are writers whose works have come down to us intact. For the +period which ends with the repulse of the Persian invasion our authority +is Herodotus. For the period which extends from 478 to 411 we are +dependent upon Thucydides'. In each case, however, a distinction must be +drawn. The Persian Wars form the proper subject of Herodotus's work; the +Peloponnesian War is the subject of Thucydides. The interval between the +two wars is merely sketched by Thucydides; while of the period anterior +to the conflicts of the Greek with the Persian, Herodotus does not +attempt either a complete or a continuous narrative. His references to +it are episodical and accidental. Hence our knowledge of the Persian +Wars and of the Peloponnesian War is widely different in character from +our knowledge of the rest of this period. In the history of these wars +the _lacunae_ are few; in the rest of the history they are alike +frequent and serious. In the history, therefore, of the Persian and +Peloponnesian Wars little is to be learnt from the secondary sources. +Elsewhere, especially in the interval between the two wars, they become +relatively important. + +In estimating the authority of Herodotus (q.v.) we must be careful to +distinguish between the invasion of Xerxes and all that is earlier. +Herodotus's work was published soon after 430 B.C., i.e. about half a +century after the invasion. Much of his information was gathered in the +course of the preceding twenty years. Although his evidence is not that +of an eye-witness, he had had opportunities of meeting those who had +themselves played a part in the war, on one side or the other (e.g. +Thersander of Orchomenos, ix. 16). In any case, we are dealing with a +tradition which is little more than a generation old, and the events to +which the tradition relates, the incidents of the struggle against +Xerxes, were of a nature to impress themselves indelibly upon the minds +of contemporaries. Where, on the other hand, he is treating of the +period anterior to the invasion of Xerxes, he is dependent upon a +tradition which is never less than two generations old, and is sometimes +centuries old. His informants were, at best, the sons or grandsons of +the actors in the wars (e.g. Archias the Spartan, iii. 55). Moreover, +the invasion of Xerxes, entailing, as it did, the destruction of cities +and sanctuaries, especially of Athens and its temples, marks a dividing +line in Greek history. It was not merely that evidence perished and +records were destroyed. What in reference to tradition is even more +important, a new consciousness of power was awakened, new interests were +aroused, and new questions and problems came to the front. The former +things had passed away; all things were become new. A generation that is +occupied with making history on a great scale is not likely to busy +itself with the history of the past. Consequently, the earlier +traditions became faint and obscured, and the history difficult to +reconstruct. As we trace back the conflict between Greece and Persia to +its beginnings and antecedents, we are conscious that the tradition +becomes less trustworthy as we pass back from one stage to another. The +tradition of the expedition of Datis and Artaphernes is less credible in +its details than that of the expedition of Xerxes, but it is at once +fuller and more credible than the tradition of the Ionian revolt. When +we get back to the Scythian expedition, we can discover but few grains +of historical truth. + +Much recent criticism of Herodotus has been directed against his +veracity as a traveller. With this we are not here concerned. The +criticism of him as an historian begins with Thucydides. Among the +references of the latter writer to his predecessor are the following +passages: i. 21; i. 22 _ad fin._; i. 20 _ad fin._ (cf. Herod. ix. 53, +and vi. 57 _ad fin._); iii. 62 S 4 (cf. Herod. ix. 87); ii. 2 SS 1 and 3 +(cf. Herod. vii. 233); ii. 8 S 3 (cf. Herod. vi. 98). Perhaps the two +clearest examples of this criticism are to be found in Thucydides' +correction of Herodotus's account of the Cylonian conspiracy (Thuc. i. +126, cf. Herod. v. 71) and in his appreciation of the character of +Themistocles--a veiled protest against the slanderous tales accepted by +Herodotus (i. 138). In Plutarch's tract "On the Malignity of Herodotus" +there is much that is suggestive, although his general standpoint, viz. +that Herodotus was in duty bound to suppress all that was discreditable +to the valour or patriotism of the Greeks, is not that of the modern +critic. It must be conceded to Plutarch that he makes good his charge of +bias in Herodotus's attitude towards certain of the Greek states. The +question, however, may fairly be asked, how far this bias is personal to +the author, or how far it is due to the character of the sources from +which his information was derived. He cannot, indeed, altogether be +acquitted of personal bias. His work is, to some extent, intended as an +_apologia_ for the Athenian empire. In answer to the charge that Athens +was guilty of robbing other Greek states of their freedom, Herodotus +seeks to show, firstly, that it was to Athens that the Greek world, as a +whole, owed its freedom from Persia, and secondly, that the subjects of +Athens, the Ionian Greeks, were unworthy to be free. This leads him to +be unjust both to the services of Sparta and to the qualities of the +Ionian race. For his estimate of the debt due to Athens see vii. 139. +For bias against the Ionians see especially iv. 142 (cf. Thuc. vi. 77); +cf. also i. 143 and 146, vi. 12-14 (Lade), vi. 112 _ad fin._ A striking +example of his prejudice in favour of Athens is furnished by vi. 91. At +a moment when Greece rang with the crime of Athens in expelling the +Aeginetans from their Island, he ventures to trace in their expulsion +the vengeance of heaven for an act of sacrilege nearly sixty years +earlier (see AEGINA). As a rule, however, the bias apparent in his +narrative is due to the sources from which it is derived. Writing at +Athens, in the first years of the Peloponnesian War, he can hardly help +seeing the past through an Athenian medium. It was inevitable that much +of what he heard should come to him from Athenian informants, and should +be coloured by Athenian prejudices. We may thus explain the leniency +which he shows towards Argos and Thessaly, the old allies of Athens, in +marked contrast to his treatment of Thebes, Corinth and Aegina, her +deadliest foes. For Argos cf. vii. 152; Thessaly, vii. 172-174; Thebes, +vii. 132, vii. 233, ix. 87; Corinth (especially the Corinthian general +Adeimantus, whose son Aristeus was the most active enemy of Athens at +the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War), vii. 5, vii. 21, viii. 29 and +61, vii. 94; Aegina, ix. 78-80 and 85. In his intimacy with members of +the great Alcmaeonid house we probably have the explanation of his +depreciation of the services of Themistocles, as well as of his defence +of the family from the charges brought against it in connexion with +Cylon and with the incident of the shield shown on Pentelicus at the +time of Marathon (v. 71, vi. 121-124). His failure to do justice to the +Cypselid tyrants of Corinth (v. 92), and to the Spartan king Cleomenes, +is to be accounted for by the nature of his sources--in the former case, +the tradition of the Corinthian oligarchy; in the latter, accounts, +partly derived from the family of the exiled king Demaratus and partly +representative of the view of the ephorate. Much of the earlier history +is cast in a religious mould, e.g. the story of the Mermnad kings of +Lydia in book i., or of the fortunes of the colony of Cyrene (iv. +145-167). In such cases we cannot fail to recognize the influence of the +Delphic priesthood. Grote has pointed out that the moralizing tendency +observable in Herodotus is partly to be explained by the fact that much +of his information was gathered from priests and at temples, and that it +was given in explanation of votive offerings, or of the fulfilment of +oracles. Hence the determination of the sources of his narrative has +become one of the principal tasks of Herodotean criticism. In addition +to the current tradition of Athens, the family tradition of the +Alcmaeonidae, and the stories to be heard at Delphi and other +sanctuaries, there may be indicated the Spartan tradition, in the form +in which it existed in the middle of the 5th century; that of his native +Halicarnassus, to which is due the prominence of its queen Artemisia; +the traditions of the Ionian cities, especially of Samos and Miletus +(important both for the history of the Mermnadae and for the Ionian +Revolt); and those current in Sicily and Magna Graecia, which were +learned during his residence at Thurii (Sybaris and Croton, v. 44, 45; +Syracuse and Gela, vii. 153-167). Among his more special sources we can +point to the descendants of Demaratus, who still held, at the beginning +of the 4th century, the principality in the Troad which had been granted +to their ancestor by Darius (Xen. _Hell._ iii. i. 6), and to the family +of the Persian general Artabazus, in which the satrapy of Dascylium +(Phrygia) was hereditary in the 5th century.[28] His use of written +material is more difficult to determine. It is generally agreed that the +list of Persian satrapies, with their respective assessments of tribute +(iii. 89-97), the description of the royal road from Sardis to Susa (v. +52-54), and of the march of Xerxes, together with the list of the +contingents that took part in the expedition (vii. 26-131), are all +derived from documentary and authoritative sources. From previous +writers (e.g. Dionysius of Miletus, Hecataeus, Charon of Lampsacus and +Xanthus the Lydian) it is probable that he has borrowed little, though +the fragments are too scanty to permit of adequate comparison. His +references to monuments, dedicatory offerings, inscriptions and oracles +are frequent. + +The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure to grasp the principles +of historical criticism, to understand the nature of military +operations, and to appreciate the importance of chronology. In place of +historical criticism we find a crude rationalism (e.g. ii. 45, vii. 129, +viii. 8). Having no conception of the distinction between occasion and +cause, he is content to find the explanation of great historical +movements in trivial incidents or personal motives. An example of this +is furnished by his account of the Ionian revolt, in which he fails to +discover the real causes either of the movement or of its result. +Indeed, it is clear that he regarded criticism as no part of his task as +an historian. In vii. 152 he states the principles which have guided +him--[Greek: ego de opheilo legein ta legomena, peithesthai ge men ou +pantapasi opheilo, kai moi touto to epos echeto es panta logon]. In +obedience to this principle he again and again gives two or more +versions of a story. We are thus frequently enabled to arrive at the +truth by a comparison of the discrepant traditions. It would have been +fortunate if all ancient writers who lacked the critical genius of +Thucydides had been content to adopt the practice of Herodotus. His +accounts of battles are always unsatisfactory. The great battles, +Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis and Plataea, present a series of +problems. This result is partly due to the character of the traditions +which he follows--traditions which were to some extent inconsistent or +contradictory, and were derived from different sources; it is, however, +in great measure due to his inability to think out a strategical +combination or a tactical movement. It is not too much to say that the +battle of Plataea, as described by Herodotus, is wholly unintelligible. +Most serious of all his deficiencies is his careless chronology. Even in +the case of the 5th century, the data which he affords are inadequate or +ambiguous. The interval between the Scythian expedition and the Ionian +revolt is described by so vague an expression as [Greek: meta de ou +pollon chronon anesis kakon en] (v. 28). In the history of the revolt +itself, though he gives us the interval between its outbreak and the +fall of Miletus ([Greek: ekto etei], vi. 18), he does not give us the +interval between this and the battle of Lade, nor does he indicate with +sufficient precision the years to which the successive phases of the +movement belong. Throughout the work professed synchronisms too often +prove to be mere literary devices for facilitating a transition from one +subject to another (cf. e.g. v. 81 with 89, 90; or vi. 51 with 87 and +94). In the 6th century, as Grote pointed out, a whole generation, or +more, disappears in his historical perspective (cf. i. 30, vi. 125, v. +94, iii. 47, 48, v. 113 contrasted with v. 104 and iv. 162). The +attempts to reconstruct the chronology of this century upon the basis of +the data afforded by Herodotus (e.g. by Beloch, _Rheinisches Museum_, +xlv., 1890, pp. 465-473) have completely failed. + +In spite of all such defects Herodotus is an author, not only of +unrivalled literary charm, but of the utmost value to the historian. If +much remains uncertain or obscure, even in the history of the Persian +Wars, it is chiefly to motives or policy, to topography or strategy, to +dates or numbers, that uncertainty attaches. It is to these that a sober +criticism will confine itself. + + + Thucydides. + +Thucydides is at once the father of contemporary history and the father +of historical criticism. From a comparison of i. 1, i. 22 and v. 26, we +may gather both the principles to which he adhered in the composition of +his work and the conditions under which it was composed. It is seldom +that the circumstances of an historical writer have been so favourable +for the accomplishment of his task. Thucydides was a contemporary of the +Twenty-Seven Years' War in the fullest sense of the term. He had reached +manhood at its outbreak, and he survived its close by at least +half-a-dozen years. And he was more than a mere contemporary. As a man +of high birth, a member of the Periclean circle, and the holder of the +chief political office in the Athenian state, the _strategia_, he was +not only familiar with the business of administration and the conduct of +military operations, but he possessed in addition a personal knowledge +of those who played the principal part in the political life of the age. +His exile in the year 424 afforded him opportunities of visiting the +scenes of distant operations (e.g. Sicily) and of coming in contact with +the actors on the other side. He himself tells us that he spared no +pains to obtain the best information available in each case. He also +tells us that he began collecting materials for his work from the very +beginning of the war. Indeed, it is probable that much of books i.-v. 24 +was written soon after the Peace of Nicias (421), just as it is possible +that the history of the Sicilian Expedition (books vi. and vii.) was +originally intended to form a separate work. To the view, however, which +has obtained wide support in recent years, that books i.-v. 22 and books +vi. and vii. were separately published, the rest of book v. and book +viii. being little more than a rough draught, composed after the author +had adopted the theory of a single war of twenty-seven years' duration, +of which the Sicilian Expedition and the operations of the years 431-421 +formed integral parts, there seem to the present writer to be +insuperable objections. The work, as a whole, appears to have been +composed in the first years of the 4th century, after his return from +exile in 404, when the material already in existence must have been +revised and largely recast. There are exceedingly few passages, such as +iv. 48. 5, which appear to have been overlooked in the process of +revision. It can hardly be questioned that the impression left upon the +reader's mind is that the point of view of the author, in all the books +alike, is that of one writing after the fall of Athens. + +The task of historical criticism in the case of the Peloponnesian War is +widely different from its task in the case of the Persian Wars. It has +to deal, not with facts as they appear in the traditions of an +imaginative race, but with facts as they appeared to a scientific +observer. Facts, indeed, are seldom in dispute. The question is rather +whether facts of importance are omitted, whether the explanation of +causes is correct, or whether the judgment of men and measures is just. +Such inaccuracies as have been brought home to Thucydides on the +strength, e.g. of epigraphic evidence, are, as a rule, trivial. His most +serious errors relate to topographical details, in cases where he was +dependent on the information of others. Sphacteria (see Pylos) (see G. +B. Grundy, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xvi., 1896, p. 1) is a case in +point. Nor have the difficulties connected with the siege of Plataea +been cleared up either by Grundy or by others (see Grundy, _Topography +of the Battle of Plataea_, &c., 1894). Where, on the contrary, he is +writing at first hand his descriptions of sites are surprisingly +correct. The most serious charge as yet brought against his authority as +to matters of fact relates to his account of the Revolution of the Four +Hundred, which appears, at first sight, to be inconsistent with the +documentary evidence supplied by Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ +(q.v.). It may be questioned, however, whether the documents have been +correctly interpreted by Aristotle. On the whole, it is probable that +the general course of events was such as Thucydides describes (see E. +Meyer, _Forschungen_, ii. 406-436), though he failed to appreciate the +position of Theramenes and the Moderate party, and was clearly +misinformed on some important points of detail. With regard to the +omission of facts, it is unquestionable that much is omitted that would +not be omitted by a modern writer. Such omissions are generally due to +the author's conception of his task. Thus the internal history of Athens +is passed over as forming no part of the history of the war. It is only +where the course of the war is directly affected by the course of +political events (e.g. by the Revolution of the Four Hundred) that the +internal history is referred to. However much it may be regretted that +the relations of political parties are not more fully described, +especially in book v., it cannot be denied that from his standpoint +there is logical justification even for the omission of the ostracism of +Hyperbolus. There are omissions, however, which are not so easily +explained. Perhaps the most notable instance is that of the raising of +the tribute in 425 B.C. (see DELIAN LEAGUE). + +Nowhere is the contrast between the historical methods of Herodotus and +Thucydides more apparent than in the treatment of the causes of events. +The distinction between the occasion and the cause is constantly present +to the mind of Thucydides, and it is his tendency to make too little +rather than too much of the personal factor. Sometimes, however, it may +be doubted whether his explanation of the causes of an event is adequate +or correct. In tracing the causes of the Peloponnesian War itself, +modern writers are disposed to allow more weight to the commercial +rivalry of Corinth; while in the case of the Sicilian expedition, they +would actually reverse his judgment (ii. 65 [Greek: ho es Sikelian plous +hos ou tosoutov gnomes hamartema en pros hous epeesan]). To us it seems +that the very idea of the expedition implied a gigantic miscalculation +of the resources of Athens and of the difficulty of the task. His +judgments of men and of measures have been criticized by writers of +different schools and from different points of view. Grote criticized +his verdict upon Cleon, while he accepted his estimate of the policy of +Pericles. More recent writers, on the other hand, have accepted his view +of Cleon, while they have selected for attack his appreciation alike of +the policy and the strategy of Pericles. He has been charged, too, with +failure to do justice to the statesmanship of Alcibiades.[29] There are +cases, undoubtedly, in which the balance of recent opinion will be +adverse to the view of Thucydides. There are many more in which the +result of criticism has been to establish his view. That he should +occasionally have been mistaken in his judgment and his views is +certainly no detraction from his claim to greatness. + +On the whole, it may be said that while the criticism of Herodotus, +since Grote wrote, has tended seriously to modify our view of the +Persian Wars, as well as of the earlier history, the criticism of +Thucydides, in spite of its imposing bulk, has affected but slightly our +view of the course of the Peloponnesian War. The labours of recent +workers in this field have borne most fruit where they have been +directed to subjects neglected by Thucydides, such as the history of +political parties, or the organization of the empire (G. Gilbert's +_Innere Geschichte Athens im Zeitalter des pel. Krieges_ is a good +example of such work). + +In regard to Thucydides' treatment of the period between the Persian and +Peloponnesian Wars (the so-called _Pentecontaeteris_) it should be +remembered that he does not profess to give, even in outline, the +history of this period as a whole. The period is regarded simply as a +prelude to the Peloponnesian War. There is no attempt to sketch the +history of the Greek world or of Greece proper during this period. There +is, indeed, no attempt to give a complete sketch of Athenian history. +His object is to trace the growth of the Athenian Empire, and the causes +that made the war inevitable. Much is therefore omitted not only in the +history of the other Greek states, especially the Peloponnesian, but +even in the history of Athens. Nor does Thucydides attempt an exact +chronology. He gives us a few dates (e.g. surrender of Ithome, in the +tenth year, i. 103; of Thasos, in the third year, i. 101; duration of +the Egyptian expedition six years, i. 110; interval between Tanagra and +Oenophyta 61 days, i. 108; revolt of Samos, in the sixth year after the +Thirty Years' Truce, i. 115), but from these data alone it would be +impossible to reconstruct the chronology of the period. In spite of all +that can be gleaned from our other authorities, our knowledge of this, +the true period of Athenian greatness, must remain slight and imperfect +as compared with our knowledge of the next thirty years. + + + Diodorus. + + Plutarch. + + The constitutions. + +Of the secondary authorities for this period the two principal ones are +Diodorus (xi. 38 to xii. 37) and Plutarch. Diodorus is of value chiefly +in relation to Sicilian affairs, to which he devotes about a third of +this section of his work and for which he is almost our sole authority. +His source for Sicilian history is the Sicilian writer Timaeus (q.v.), +an author of the 3rd century B.C. For the history of Greece Proper +during the Pentecontaetia Diodorus contributes comparatively little of +importance. Isolated notices of particular events (e.g. the _Synoecism_ +of Elis, 471 B.C., or the foundation of Amphipolis, 437 B.C.), which +appear to be derived from a chronological writer, may generally be +trusted. The greater part of his narrative is, however, derived from +Ephorus, who appears to have had before him little authentic information +for this period of Greek history other than that afforded by Thucydides' +work. Four of Plutarch's _Lives_ are concerned with this period, viz. +_Themistocles_, _Aristides_, _Cimon_ and _Pericles_. From the +_Aristides_ little can be gained. Plutarch, in this biography, appears +to be mainly dependent upon Idomeneus of Lampsacus, an excessively +untrustworthy writer of the 3rd century B.C., who is probably to be +credited with the invention of the oligarchical conspiracy at the time +of the battle of Plataea (ch. 13), and of the decree of Aristides, +rendering all four classes of citizens eligible for the archonship (ch. +22). The _Cimon_, on the other hand, contains much that is valuable; +such as, e.g. the account of the battle of the Eurymedon (chs. 12 and +13). To the _Pericles_ we owe several quotations from the Old Comedy. +Two other of the _Lives_, _Lycurgus_ and _Solon_, are amongst our most +important sources for the early history of Sparta and Athens +respectively. Of the two (besides _Pericles_) which relate to the +Peloponnesian War, _Alcibiades_ adds little to what can be gained from +Thucydides and Xenophon; the _Nicias_, on the other hand, supplements +Thucydides' narrative of the Sicilian expedition with many valuable +details, which, it may safely be assumed, are derived from the +contemporary historian, Philistus of Syracuse. Amongst the most valuable +material afforded by Plutarch are the quotations, which occur in almost +all the _Lives_, from the collection of Athenian decrees ([Greek: +psephismaton sunagoge]) formed by the Macedonian writer Craterus, in the +3rd century B.C. Two other works may be mentioned in connexion with the +history of Athens. For the history of the Athenian Constitution down to +the end of the 5th century B.C. Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ +(q.v.) is our chief authority. The other _Constitution of Athens_, +erroneously attributed to Xenophon, a tract of singular interest both on +literary and historical grounds, throws a good deal of light on the +internal condition of Athens, and on the system of government, both of +the state and of the empire, in the age of the Peloponnesian War, during +the earlier years of which it was composed. + + + Inscriptions. + +To the literary sources for the history of Greece, especially of Athens, +in the 5th century B.C. must be added the epigraphic. Few inscriptions +have been discovered which date back beyond the Persian Wars. For the +latter half of the 5th century they are both numerous and important. Of +especial value are the series of Quota-lists, from which can be +calculated the amount of tribute paid by the subject-allies of Athens +from the year 454 B.C. onwards. The great majority of the inscriptions +of this period are of Athenian origin. Their value is enhanced by the +fact that they relate, as a rule, to questions of organization, finance +and administration, as to which little information is to be gained from +the literary sources. + +For the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars Busolt, +_Griechische Geschichte_, iii. 1, is indispensable. Hill's _Sources of +Greek History, B.C. 478-431_ (Oxford, 1897) is excellent. It gives the +most important inscriptions in a convenient form. + + + Xenophon. + +III. _The 4th Century to the Death of Alexander._--Of the historians who +flourished in the 4th century the sole writer whose works have come down +to us is Xenophon. It is a singular accident of fortune that neither of +the two authors, who at once were most representative of their age and +did most to determine the views of Greek history current in subsequent +generations, Ephorus (q.v.) and Theopompus (q.v.), should be extant. It +was from them, rather than from Herodotus, Thucydides or Xenophon that +the Roman world obtained its knowledge of the history of Greece in the +past, and its conception of its significance. Both were pupils of +Isocrates, and both, therefore, bred up in an atmosphere of rhetoric. +Hence their popularity and their influence. The scientific spirit of +Thucydides was alien to the temper of the 4th century, and hardly more +congenial to the age of Cicero or Tacitus. To the rhetorical spirit, +which is common to both, each added defects peculiar to himself. +Theopompus is a strong partisan, a sworn foe to Athens and to Democracy. +Ephorus, though a military historian, is ignorant of the art of war. He +is also incredibly careless and uncritical. It is enough to point to his +description of the battle of the Eurymedon (Diodorus xi. 60-62), in +which, misled by an epigram, which he supposed to relate to this +engagement (it really refers to the Athenian victory off Salamis in +Cyprus, 449 B.C.), he makes the coast of Cyprus the scene of Cimon's +naval victory, and finds no difficulty in putting it on the same day as +the victory on shore on the banks of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia. Only a +few fragments remain of either writer, but Theopompus (q.v.) was largely +used by Plutarch in several of the _Lives_, while Ephorus continues to +be the main source of Diodorus' history, as far as the outbreak of the +Sacred War (Fragments of Ephorus in Muller's _Fragmenta historicorum +Graecorum_, vol.i.; of Theopompus in _Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, cum +Theopompi et Cratippi fragmentis_, ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, +1909). + +It may be at least claimed for Xenophon (q.v.) that he is free from all +taint of the rhetorical spirit. It may also be claimed for him that, as +a witness, he is both honest and well-informed. But, if there is no +justification for the charge of deliberate falsification, it cannot be +denied that he had strong political prejudices, and that his narrative +has suffered from them. His historical writings are the _Anabasis_, an +account of the expedition of the Ten Thousand, the _Hellenica_ and the +_Agesilaus_, a eulogy of the Spartan king. Of these the _Hellenica_ is +far the most important for the student of history. It consists of two +distinct parts (though there is no ground for the theory that the two +parts were separately written and published), books i. and ii., and +books iii. to vii. The first two books are intended as a continuation of +Thucydides' work. They begin, quite abruptly, in the middle of the Attic +year 411/10, and they carry the history down to the fall of the Thirty, +in 403. Books iii. to vii., the _Hellenica_ proper, cover the period +from 401 to 362, and give the histories of the Spartan and Theban +hegemonies down to the death of Epaminondas. There is thus a gap of two +years between the point at which the first part ends and that at which +the second part begins. The two parts differ widely, both in their aim +and in the arrangement of the material. In the first part Xenophon +attempts, though not with complete success, to follow the chronological +method of Thucydides, and to make each successive spring, when military +and naval operations were resumed after the winter's interruption, the +starting-point of a fresh section. The resemblance between the two +writers ends, however, with the outward form of the narrative. All that +is characteristic of Thucydides is absent in Xenophon. The latter writer +shows neither skill in portraiture, nor insight into motives. He is +deficient in the sense of proportion and of the distinction between +occasion and cause. Perhaps his worst fault is a lack of imagination. To +make a story intelligible it is necessary sometimes to put oneself in +the reader's place, and to appreciate his ignorance of circumstances and +events which would be perfectly familiar to the actors in the scene or +to contemporaries. It was not given to Xenophon, as it was to +Thucydides, to discriminate between the circumstances that are essential +and those that are not essential to the comprehension of the story. In +spite, therefore, of its wealth of detail, his narrative is frequently +obscure. It is quite clear that in the trial of the generals, e.g., +something is omitted. It may be supplied as Diodorus has supplied it +(xiii. 101), or it may be supplied otherwise. It is probable that, when +under cross-examination before the council, the generals, or some of +them, disclosed the commission given to Theramenes and Thrasybulus. The +important point is that Xenophon himself has omitted to supply it. As it +stands his narrative is unintelligible. In the first two books, though +there are omissions (e.g. the loss of Nisaea, 409 B.C.), they are not so +serious as in the last five, nor is the bias so evident. It is true that +if the account of the rule of the Thirty given in Aristotle's +_Constitution of Athens_ be accepted, Xenophon must have deliberately +misrepresented the course of events to the prejudice of Theramenes. But +it is at least doubtful whether Aristotle's version can be sustained +against Xenophon's, though it may be admitted, not only that there are +mistakes as to details in the latter writer's narrative, but that less +than justice is done to the policy and motives of the "Buskin." The +_Hellenica_ was written, it should be remembered, at Corinth, after 362. +More than forty years had thus elapsed since the events recorded in the +first two books, and after so long an interval accuracy of detail, even +where the detail is of importance, is not always to be expected.[30] In +the second part the chronological method is abandoned. A subject once +begun is followed out to its natural ending, so that sections of the +narrative which are consecutive in order are frequently parallel in +point of date. A good example of this will be found in book iv. In +chapters 2 to 7 the history of the Corinthian war is carried down to the +end of 390, so far as the operations on land are concerned, while +chapter 8 contains an account of the naval operations from 394 to 388. +In this second part of the _Hellenica_ the author's disqualifications +for his task are more apparent than in the first two books. The more he +is acquitted of bias in his selection of events and in his omissions, +the more clearly does he stand convicted of lacking all sense of the +proportion of things. Down to Leuctra (371 B.C.) Sparta is the centre of +interest, and it is of the Spartan state alone that a complete or +continuous history is given. After Leuctra, if the point of view is no +longer exclusively Spartan, the narrative of events is hardly less +incomplete. Throughout the second part of the _Hellenica_ omissions +abound which it is difficult either to explain or justify. The formation +of the Second Athenian Confederacy of 377 B.C., the foundation of +Megalopolis and the restoration of the Messenian state are all left +unrecorded. Yet the writer who passes them over without mention thinks +it worth while to devote more than one-sixth of an entire book to a +chronicle of the unimportant feats of the citizens of the petty state of +Phlius. Nor is any attempt made to appraise the policy of the great +Theban leaders, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The former, indeed, is +mentioned only in a single passage, relating to the embassy to Susa in +368; the latter does not appear on the scene till a year later, and +receives mention but twice before the battle of Mantinea. An author who +omits from his narrative some of the most important events of his +period, and elaborates the portraiture of an Agesilaus while not +attempting the bare outline of an Epaminondas, may be honest; he may +even write without a consciousness of bias; he certainly cannot rank +among the great writers of history.[31] + + + Diodorus. + +For the history of the 4th century Diodorus assumes a higher degree of +importance than belongs to him in the earlier periods. This is partly to +be explained by the deficiencies of Xenophon's _Hellenica_, partly by +the fact that for the interval between the death of Epaminondas and the +accession of Alexander we have in Diodorus alone a continuous narrative +of events. Books xiv. and xv. of his history include the period covered +by the _Hellenica_. More than half of book xiv. is devoted to the +history of Sicily and the reign of Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse. +For this period of Sicilian history he is, practically, our sole +authority. In the rest of the book, as well as in book xv., there is +much of value, especially in the notices of Macedonian history. Thanks +to Diodorus we are enabled to supply many of the omissions of the +_Hellenica_. Diodorus is, e.g., our sole literary authority for the +Athenian naval confederation of 377. Book xvi. must rank, with the +_Hellenica_ and Arrian's _Anabasis_, as one of the three principal +authorities for this century, so far, at least, as works of an +historical character are concerned. It is our authority for the Social +and the Sacred Wars, as well as for the reign of Philip. It is a curious +irony of fate that, for what is perhaps the most momentous epoch in the +history of Greece, we should have to turn to a writer of such inferior +capacity. For this period his material is better and his importance +greater: his intelligence is as limited as ever. Who but Diodorus would +be capable of narrating the siege and capture of Methone twice over, +once under the year 354, and again under the year 352 (xvi. 31 and 34; +cf. xii. 35 and 42; Archidamus (q.v.) dies in 434, commands +Peloponnesian army in 431); or of giving three different numbers of +years (eleven, ten and nine) in three different passages (chs. 14, 23 +and 59) for the length of the Sacred War; or of asserting the +conclusion of peace between Athens and Philip in 340, after the failure +of his attack on Perinthus and Byzantium? Amongst the subjects which are +omitted is the Peace of Philocrates. For the earlier chapters, which +bring the narrative down to the outbreak of the Sacred War, Ephorus, as +in the previous book, is Diodorus' main source. His source for the rest +of the book, i.e. for the greater part of Philip's reign, cannot be +determined. It is generally agreed that it is not the _Philippica_ of +Theopompus. + + + Historians of Alexander's reign. + +For the reign of Alexander our earliest extant authority is Diodorus, +who belongs to the age of Augustus. Of the others, Q. Curtius Rufus, who +wrote in Latin, lived in the reign of the emperor Claudius, Arrian and +Plutarch in the 2nd century A.D. Yet Alexander's reign is one of the +best known periods of ancient history. The Peloponnesian War and the +twenty years of Roman history which begin with 63 B.C. are the only two +periods which we can be said to know more fully or for which we have +more trustworthy evidence. For there is no period of ancient history +which was recorded by a larger number of contemporary writers, or for +which better or more abundant materials were available. Of the writers +actually contemporary with Alexander there were five of +importance--Ptolemy, Aristobulus, Callisthenes, Onesicritus and +Nearchus; and all of them occupied positions which afforded exceptional +opportunities of ascertaining the facts. Four of them were officers in +Alexander's service. Ptolemy, the future king of Egypt, was one of the +_somatophylaces_ (we may, perhaps, regard them as corresponding to +Napoleon's marshals); Aristobulus was also an officer of high rank (see +Arrian, _Anab._ vi. 29. 10); Nearchus was admiral of the fleet which +surveyed the Indus and the Persian Gulf, and Onesicritus was one of his +subordinates. The fifth, Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied +Alexander on his march down to his death in 327 and was admitted to the +circle of his intimate friends. A sixth historian, Cleitarchus, was +possibly also a contemporary; at any rate he is not more than a +generation later. These writers had at their command a mass of official +documents, such as the [Greek: basileioi ephemerides]--the _Gazette_ and +_Court Circular_ combined--edited and published after Alexander's death +by his secretary, Eumenes of Cardia; the [Greek: stathmoi], or records +of the marches of the armies, which were carefully measured at the time; +and the official reports on the conquered provinces. That these +documents were made use of by the historians is proved by the references +to them which are to be found in Arrian, Plutarch and Strabo; e.g. +Arrian, _Anab._ vii. 25 and 26, and Plutarch, _Alexander 76_ (quotation +from the [Greek: basileioi ephemerides]); Strabo xv. 723 (reference to +the [Greek: stathmoi]), ii. 69 (reports drawn up on the various +provinces). We have, in addition, in Plutarch numerous quotations from +Alexander's correspondence with his mother, Olympias, and with his +officers. The contemporary historians may be roughly divided into two +groups. On the one hand there are Ptolemy and Aristobulus, who, except +in a single instance, are free from all suspicion of deliberate +invention. On the other hand, there are Callisthenes, Onesicritus and +Cleitarchus, whose tendency is rhetorical. Nearchus appears to have +allowed full scope to his imagination in dealing with the wonders of +India, but to have been otherwise veracious. Of the extant writers +Arrian (q.v.) is incomparably the most valuable. His merits are twofold. +As the commander of Roman legions and the author of a work on tactics, +he combined a practical with a theoretical knowledge of the military +art, while the writers whom he follows in the _Anabasis_ are the two +most worthy of credit, Ptolemy and Aristobulus. We may well hesitate to +call in question the authority of writers who exhibit an agreement which +it would be difficult to parallel elsewhere in the case of two +independent historians. It may be inferred from Arrian's references to +them that there were only eleven cases in all in which he found +discrepancies between them. The most serious drawback which can be +alleged against them is an inevitable bias in Alexander's favour. It +would be only natural that they should pass over in silence the worst +blots on their great commander's fame. Next in value to the _Anabasis_ +comes Plutarch's _Life of Alexander_, the merits of which, however, are +not to be gauged by the influence which it has exercised upon +literature. The _Life_ is a valuable supplement to the _Anabasis_, +partly because Plutarch, as he is writing biography rather than history +(for his conception of the difference between the two see the famous +preface, _Life of Alexander_, ch. i.), is concerned to record all that +will throw light upon Alexander's character (e.g. his epigrammatic +sayings and quotations from his letters); partly because he tells us +much about his early life, before he became king, while Arrian tells us +nothing. It is unfortunate that Plutarch writes in an uncritical spirit; +it is hardly less unfortunate that he should have formed no clear +conception and drawn no consistent picture of Alexander's character. +Book xvii. of Diodorus and the _Historiae Alexandri_ of Curtius Rufus +are thoroughly rhetorical in spirit. It is probable that in both cases +the ultimate source is the work of Clitarchus. + + + The orators. + + Isocrates. + +It is towards the end of the 5th century that a fresh source of +information becomes available in the speeches of the orators, the +earliest of whom is Antiphon (d. 411 B.C.). Lysias is of great +importance for the history of the Thirty (see the speeches against +Eratosthenes and Agoratus), and a good deal may be gathered from +Andocides with regard to the last years of the 5th and the opening years +of the next century. At the other end of this period Lycurgus, Hyperides +and Dinarchus throw light upon the time of Philip and Alexander. The +three, however, who are of most importance to the historian are +Isocrates, Aeschines and Demosthenes. Isocrates (q.v.), whose long life +(436-338) more than spans the interval between the outbreak of the +Peloponnesian War and the triumph of Macedon at Chaeronea, is one of the +most characteristic figures in the Greek world of his day. To comprehend +that world the study of Isocrates is indispensable; for in an age +dominated by rhetoric he is the prince of rhetoricians. It is difficult +for a modern reader to do him justice, so alien is his spirit and the +spirit of his age from ours. It must be allowed that he is frequently +monotonous and prolix; at the same time it must not be forgotten that, +as the most famous representative of rhetoric, he was read from one end +of the Greek world to the other. He was the friend of Evagoras and +Archidamus, of Dionysius and Philip; he was the master of Aeschines and +Lycurgus amongst orators and of Ephorus and Theopompus amongst +historians. No other contemporary writer has left so indelible a stamp +upon the style and the sentiment of his generation. It is a commonplace +that Isocrates is the apostle of Panhellenism. It is not so generally +recognized that he is the prophet of Hellenism. A passage in the +Panegyricus (S 50 [Greek: hoste to ton Hellenon onoma meketi tou genous +alla tes dianoias dokein einai kai mallon Hellenas kaleisthai tous tes +paideuseos tes hemeteras e tous tes koines physeos metechontas]) is the +key to the history of the next three centuries. Doubtless he had no +conception of the extent to which the East was to be hellenized. He was, +however, the first to recognize that it would be hellenized by the +diffusion of Greek culture rather than of Greek blood. His Panhellenism +was the outcome of his recognition of the new forces and tendencies +which were at work in the midst of a new generation. When Greek culture +was becoming more and more international, the exaggeration of the +principle of autonomy in the Greek political system was becoming more +and more absurd. He had sufficient insight to be aware that the price +paid for this autonomy was the domination of Persia; a domination which +meant the servitude of the Greek states across the Aegean and the +demoralization of Greek political life at home. His Panhellenism led him +to a more liberal view of the distinction between what was Greek and +what was not than was possible to the intenser patriotism of a +Demosthenes. In his later orations he has the courage not only to +pronounce that the day of Athens as a first-rate power is past, but to +see in Philip the needful leader in the crusade against Persia. The +earliest and greatest of his political orations is the _Panegyricus_, +published in 380 B.C., midway between the peace of Antalcidas and +Leuctra. It is his _apologia_ for Panhellenism. To the period of the +Social War belong the _De pace_ (355 B.C.) and the _Areopagiticus_ (354 +B.C.), both of great value as evidence for the internal conditions of +Athens at the beginning of the struggle with Macedon. The _Plataicus_ +(373 B.C.) and the _Archidamus_ (366 B.C.) throw light upon the politics +of Boeotia and the Peloponnese respectively. The _Panathenaicus_ (339 +B.C.), the child of his old age, contains little that may not be found +in the earlier orations. The _Philippus_ (346 B.C.) is of peculiar +interest, as giving the views of the Macedonian party. + + + Demosthenes. + +Not the least remarkable feature in recent historical criticism is the +reaction against the view which was at one time almost universally +accepted of the character, statesmanship and authority of the orator +Demosthenes (q.v.). During the last quarter of a century his character +and statesmanship have been attacked, and his authority impugned, by a +series of writers of whom Holm and Beloch are the best known. With the +estimate of his character and statesmanship we are not here concerned. +With regard to his value as an authority for the history of the period, +it is to his speeches, and to those of his contemporaries, Aeschines, +Hypereides, Dinarchus and Lycurgus, that we owe our intimate knowledge, +both of the working of the constitutional and legal systems, and of the +life of the people, at this period of Athenian history. From this point +of view his value can hardly be overestimated. As a witness, however, to +matters of fact, his authority can no longer be rated as highly as it +once was, e.g. by Schaefer and by Grote. The orator's attitude towards +events, both in the past and in the present, is inevitably a different +one from the historian's. The object of a Thucydides is to ascertain a +fact, or to exhibit it in its true relations. The object of a +Demosthenes is to make a point, or to win his case. In their dealings +with the past the orators exhibit a levity which is almost inconceivable +to a modern reader. Andocides, in a passage of his speech _On the +Mysteries_ (S 107), speaks of Marathon as the crowning victory of +Xerxes' campaign; in his speech _On the Peace_ (S 3) he confuses +Miltiades with Cimon, and the Five Years' Peace with the Thirty Years' +Truce. Though the latter passage is a mass of absurdities and +confusions, it was so generally admired that it was incorporated by +Aeschines in his speech _On the Embassy_ (SS 172-176). If such was their +attitude towards the past; if, in order to make a point, they do not +hesitate to pervert history, is it likely that they would conform to a +higher standard of veracity in their statements as to the present--as to +their contemporaries, their rivals or their own actions? When we compare +different speeches of Demosthenes, separated by an interval of years, we +cannot fail to observe a marked difference in his statements. The +farther he is from the events, the bolder are his mis-statements. It is +only necessary to compare the speech _On the Crown_ with that _On the +Embassy_, and this latter speech with the _Philippics_ and _Olynthiacs_, +to find illustrations. It has come to be recognized that no statement as +to a matter of fact is to be accepted, unless it receives independent +corroboration, or unless it is admitted by both sides. The speeches of +Demosthenes may be conveniently divided into four classes according to +their dates. To the pre-Philippic period belong the speeches _On the +Symmories_ (354 B.C.), _On Megalopolis_ (352 B.C.), _Against +Aristocrates_ (351 B.C.), and, perhaps, the speech _On Rhodes_ (? 351 +B.C.). These speeches betray no consciousness of the danger threatened +by Philip's ambition. The policy recommended is one based upon the +principle of the balance of power. To the succeeding period, which ends +with the peace of Philocrates (346 B.C.), belong the _First Philippic_ +and the three _Olynthiacs_. To the period between the peace of +Philocrates and Chaeronea belong the speech _On the Peace_ (346 B.C.), +the _Second Philippic_ (344 B.C.), the speeches _On the Embassy_ (344 +B.C.) and _On the Chersonese_ (341 B.C.), and the _Third Philippic_. The +masterpiece of his genius, the speech On the Crown, was delivered in 330 +B.C., in the reign of Alexander. Of the three extant speeches of +Aeschines (q.v.) that _On the Embassy_ is of great value, as enabling us +to correct the mis-statements of Demosthenes. For the period from the +death of Alexander to the fall of Corinth (323-146 B.C.) our literary +authorities are singularly defective. For the Diadochi Diodorus (books +xviii.-xx.) is our chief source. These books form the most valuable +part of Diodorus' work. They are mainly based upon the work of +Hieronymus of Cardia, a writer who combined exceptional opportunities +for ascertaining the truth (he was in the service first of Eumenes, and +then of Antigonus) with an exceptional sense of its importance. +Hieronymus ended his history at the death of Pyrrhus (272 B.C.), but, +unfortunately, book xx. of Diodorus' work carries us no farther than 303 +B.C., and of the later books we have but scanty fragments. The narrative +of Diodorus may be supplemented by the fragments of Arrian's _History of +the events after Alexander's death_ (which reach, however, only to 321 +B.C.), and by Plutarch's _Lives of Eumenes_ and of _Demetrius_. For the +rest of the 3rd century and the first half of the 2nd we have his _Lives +of Pyrrhus_, of _Aratus_, of _Philopoemen_, and of _Agis and Cleomenes_. +For the period from 220 B.C. onwards Polybius (q.v.) is our chief +authority (see ROME: _Ancient History_, section "Authorities"). In a +period in which the literary sources are so scanty great weight attaches +to the epigraphic and numismatic evidence. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature which deals with the history of Greece, + in its various periods, departments and aspects, is of so vast a bulk + that all that can be attempted here is to indicate the most important + and most accessible works. + + _General Histories of Greece._--Down to the middle of the 19th century + the only histories of Greece deserving of mention were the products of + English scholarship. The two earliest of these were published about + the same date, towards the end of the 18th century, nearly + three-quarters of a century before any history of Greece, other than a + mere compendium, appeared on the Continent. John Gillies' _History of + Greece_ was published in 1786, Mitford's in 1784. Both works were + composed with a political bias and a political object. Gillies was a + Whig. In the dedication (to George III.) he expresses the view that + "the History of Greece exposes the dangerous turbulence of Democracy, + and arraigns the despotism of Tyrants, while it evinces the + inestimable benefits, resulting to Liberty itself, from the steady + operation of well-regulated monarchy." Mitford was a Tory, who thought + to demonstrate the evils of democracy from the example of the Athenian + state. His _History_, in spite of its bias, was a work of real value. + More than fifty years elapsed between Mitford's work and Thirlwall's. + Connop Thirlwall, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, afterwards + bishop of St David's, brought a sound judgment to the aid of ripe + scholarship. His _History of Greece_, published in 1835-1838 (8 + vols.), is entirely free from the controversial tone of Mitford's + volumes. Ten years later (1846) George Grote published the first + volumes of his history, which was not completed (in 12 vols.) till + 1856. Grote, like Mitford, was a politician--an ardent Radical, with + republican sympathies. It was in order to refute the slanders of the + Tory partisan that he was impelled to write a history of Greece, which + should do justice to the greatest democracy of the ancient world, the + Athenian state. Thus, in the case of three of these four writers, the + interest in their subject was mainly political. Incomparably the + greatest of these works is Grote's. Grote had his faults and his + limitations. His prejudices are strong, and his scholarship is weak; + he had never visited Greece, and he knew little or nothing of Greek + art; and, at the time he wrote, the importance of coins and + inscriptions was imperfectly apprehended. In spite of every defect, + however, his work is the greatest history of Greece that has yet been + written. It is not too much to say that nobody knows Greek history + till he has mastered Grote. No history of Greece has since appeared in + England on a scale at all comparable to that of Grote's work. The most + important of the more recent ones is that by J. B. Bury (1 vol., + 1900), formerly fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, afterwards Regius + Professor of Modern History at Cambridge. Mitford and Bury end with + the death of Alexander; Gillies and Grote carry on the narrative a + generation farther; while Thirlwall's work extends to the absorption + of Greece in the Roman Empire (146 B.C.). + + While in France the _Histoire des Grecs_ (ending at 146 B.C.) of + Victor Duruy (new edition, 2 vols., 1883), Minister of Public + Instruction under Napoleon III., is the only one that need be + mentioned, in Germany there has been a succession of histories of + Greece since the middle of the 19th century. Kortum's _Geschichte + Griechenlands_ (3 vols., 1854), a work of little merit, was followed + by Max Duncker's _Geschichte der Griechen_ (vols. 1 and 2 published in + 1856; vols. 1 and 2, Neue Folge, which bring the narrative down to the + death of Pericles, in 1884; the two former volumes form vols. 5, 6 and + 7 of his _Geschichte des Altertums_), and by the _Griechische + Geschichte_ of Ernst Curtius (3 vols., 1857-1867). An English + translation of Duncker, by S. F. Alleyne, appeared in 1883 (2 vols., + Bentley), and of Curtius, by A. W. Ward (5 vols., Bentley, 1868-1873). + Among more recent works may be mentioned the _Griechische Geschichte_ + of Adolf Holm (4 vols., Berlin, 1886-1894; English translation by F. + Clarke, 4 vols., Macmillan, 1894-1898), and histories with the same + title by Julius Beloch (3 vols., Strassburg, 1893-1904) and Georg + Busolt (2nd ed., 3 vols., Gotha, 1893-1904). Holm carries on the + narrative to 30 B.C., Beloch to 217 B.C., Busolt to Chaeronea (338 + B.C.).[32] Busolt's work is entirely different in character from any + other history of Greece. The writer's object is to refer in the notes + (which constitute five-sixths of the book) to the views of every + writer in any language upon every controverted question. It is + absolutely indispensable, as a work of reference, for any serious + study of Greek history. The ablest work since Grote's is Eduard + Meyer's _Geschichte des Altertums_, of which 5 vols. (Stuttgart and + Berlin, 1884-1902) have appeared, carrying the narrative down to the + death of Epaminondas (362 B.C.). Vols. 2-5 are principally concerned + with Greek history. It must be remembered that, partly owing to the + literary finds and the archaeological discoveries of the last thirty + years, and partly owing to the advance made in the study of epigraphy + and numismatics, all the histories published before those of Busolt, + Beloch, Meyer and Bury are out of date. + + _Works bearing on the History of Greece._--Earlier works and editions + are omitted, except in the case of a work which has not been + superseded. + + _Introductions._--C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in das Studium der alten + Geschichte_ (1 vol., Leipzig, 1895); E. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten + Geschichte_ (2 parts, Halle, 1892-1899; quite indispensable); J. B. + Bury, _The Ancient Greek Historians_ (London, 1909). + + _Constitutional History and Institutions._--G. F. Schomann, + _Griechische Altertumer_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1855-1859; vol. i., tr. by + E. G. Hardy and J. S. Mann, Rivingtons, 1880); G. Gilbert, + _Griechische Staatsaltertumer_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Leipzig, 1893; vol. + i. tr. by E. J. Brooks and T. Nicklin, Swan Sonnenschein, 1895); K. F. + Hermann, _Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitaten_ (6th ed., 4 vols., + Freiburg, 1882-1895); Iwan Muller, _Handbuch der klassischen + Altertumswissenschaft_ (9 vols., Nordlingen, 1886, in progress; + several of the volumes are concerned with Greek history); J. H. + Lipsius, _Das attische Recht und Rechtsverfahren_ (Leipzig, 1905, in + progress); A. H. J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Constitutional + History_ (1 vol., Macmillan, 1896); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyklopadie + der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (Stuttgart, 1894 foll.). + + _Geography._--E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography amongst the + Greeks and Romans_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Murray, 1883), W. M. Leake, + _Travels in the Morea_ (3 vols., 1830), and _Travels in Northern + Greece_ (4 vols., 1834); H. F. Tozer, _Lectures on the Geography of + Greece_ (1 vol., Murray, 1873), and _History of Ancient Geography_ (1 + vol., Cambridge, 1897); J. P. Mahaffy, _Rambles and Studies in Greece_ + (3rd ed., 1 vol., Macmillan, 1887, an admirable book); C. Bursian, + _Geographie von Griechenland_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1872); H. Berger, + _Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen_ (4 parts, + Leipzig, 1887-1893); Ernst Curtius, _Peloponnesos_ (2 vols., Gotha, + 1850-1851). + + _Epigraphy and Numismatics._--_Corpus inscriptionum Atticarum_ + (Berlin, 1875, in progress), _Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum_ (Berlin, + 1892, in progress). The following selections of Greek inscriptions may + be mentioned: E. F. Hicks and G. F. Hill, _Manual of Greek Historical + Inscriptions_ (new ed., 1 vol., Oxford, 1901): W. Dittenberger, + _Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1898); C. + Michel, _Recueil d'inscriptions grecques_ (Paris, 1900). Among works + on numismatics the English reader may refer to B. V. Head, _Historia + numorum_ (1 vol., Oxford, 1887); G. F. Hill, _Handbook of Greek and + Roman Coins_ (1 vol., Macmillan, 1899), as well as to the _British + Museum Catalogue of Greek Coins_. In French the most important general + work is the _Monnaies grecques_ of F. Imhoof-Blumer (Paris, 1883). + + _Chronology, Trade, War, Social Life, &c._--H. F. Clinton, _Fasti + Hellenici_ (3rd ed., 3 vols., Oxford, 1841, a work of which English + scholarship may well be proud; it is still invaluable for the study of + Greek chronology); B. Buchsenschutz, _Besitz und Erwerb im + griechischen Altertume_ (1 vol., Halle, 1869; this is still the best + book on Greek commerce); J. Beloch, _Die Bevolkerung der + griechisch-romischen Welt_ (1 vol., Leipzig, 1886); W. Rustow and H. + Kochly, _Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens_ (1 vol., Aarau, + 1852); J. P. Mahaffy, _Social Life in Greece_ (2nd ed., 1 vol., 1875). + (E. M. W.) + + +b. _Post-Classical: 146 B.C.-A.D. 1800_ + +I. THE PERIOD OF ROMAN RULE.--(i.) _Greece under the Republic_ (146-27 +B.C.). After the collapse of the Achaean League (q.v.) the Senate +appointed a commission to reorganize Greece as a Roman dependency. +Corinth, the chief centre of resistance, was destroyed and its +inhabitants sold into slavery. In addition to this act of exemplary +punishment, which may perhaps have been inspired in part by the desire +to crush a commercial competitor, steps were taken to obviate future +insurrections. The national and cantonal federations were dissolved, +commercial intercourse between cities was restricted, and the government +transferred from the democracies to the propertied classes, whose +interests were bound up with Roman supremacy. In other respects few +changes were made in existing institutions. Some favoured states like +Athens and Sparta retained their full sovereign rights as _civitates +liberae_, the other cities continued to enjoy local self-government. +The ownership of the land was not greatly disturbed by confiscations, +and though a tribute upon it was levied, this impost may not have been +universal. General powers of supervision were entrusted to the governor +of Macedonia, who could reserve cases of high treason for his decision, +and in case of need send troops into the country. But although Greece +was in the _provincia_ of the Macedonian proconsul, in the sense of +belonging to his sphere of command, its status was in fact more +favourable than that of other provincial dependencies. + +This settlement was acquiesced in by the Greek people, who had come to +realize the hopelessness of further resistance. The internal disorder +which was arising from the numerous disputes about property rights +consequent upon the political revolutions was checked by the good +offices of the historian Polybius, whom the Senate deputed to mediate +between the litigants. The pacification of the country eventually became +so complete that the Romans withdrew the former restrictions upon +intercourse and allowed some of the leagues to revive. But its quiet was +seriously disturbed during the first Mithradatic War (88-84 B.C.), when +numerous Greek states sided with Mithradates (q.v.). The success which +the invader experienced in detaching the Greeks from Rome is partly to +be explained by the skilful way in which his agents incited the +imperialistic ambitions of prominent cities like Athens, partly perhaps +by his promises of support to the democratic parties. The result of the +war was disastrous to Greece. Apart from the confiscations and exactions +by which the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla punished the disloyal +communities, the extensive and protracted campaigns left Central Greece +in a ruinous condition. During the last decades of the Roman republic +European Greece was scarcely affected by contemporary wars nor yet +exploited by Roman magistrates in the same systematic manner as most +other provinces. Yet oppression by officials who traversed Greece from +time to time and demanded lavish entertainments and presentations in the +guise of _viaticum_ or _aurum coronarium_ was not unknown. Still greater +was the suffering produced by the rapacity of Roman traders and +capitalists: it is recorded that Sicyon was reduced to sell its most +cherished art treasures in order to satisfy its creditors. A more +indirect but none the less far-reaching drawback to Greek prosperity was +the diversion of trade which followed upon the establishment of direct +communication between Italy and the Levant. The most lucrative source of +wealth which remained to the European Greeks was pasturage in large +domains, an industry which almost exclusively profited the richer +citizens and so tended to widen the breach between capitalists and the +poorer classes, and still further to pauperize the latter. The coast +districts and islands also suffered considerably from swarms of pirates +who, in the absence of any strong fleet in Greek waters, were able to +obtain a firm footing in Crete and freely plundered the chief trading +places and sanctuaries; the most notable of such visitations was +experienced in 69 B.C. by the island of Delos. This evil came to an end +with the general suppression of piracy in the Mediterranean by Pompey +(67 B.C.), but the depopulation which it had caused in some regions is +attested by the fact that the victorious admiral settled some of his +captives on the desolated coast strip of Achaea. + +In the conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Greeks provided the +latter with a large part of his excellent fleet. In 48 B.C. the decisive +campaign of the war was fought on Greek soil, and the resources of the +land were severely taxed by the requisitions of both armies. As a result +of Caesar's victory at Pharsalus, the whole country fell into his power; +the treatment which it received was on the whole lenient, though +individual cities were punished severely. After the murder of Caesar the +Greeks supported the cause of Brutus (42 B.C.), but were too weak to +render any considerable service. In 39 B.C. the Peloponnese for a short +time was made over to Sextus Pompeius. During the subsequent period +Greece remained in the hands of M. Antonius (Mark Antony), who imposed +further exactions in order to defray the cost of his wars. The extensive +levies which he made in 31 B.C. for his campaign against Octavian, and +the contributions which his gigantic army required, exhausted the +country's resources so completely that a general famine was prevented +only by Octavian's prompt action after the battle of Actium in +distributing supplies of grain and evacuating the land with all haste. +The depopulation which resulted from the civil wars was partly remedied +by the settlement of Italian colonists at Corinth and Patrae by Julius +Caesar and Octavian; on the other hand, the foundation of Nicopolis +(q.v.) by the latter merely had the effect of transferring the people +from the country to the city. + +(ii.) _The Early Roman Empire_ (27 B.C.-A.D. 323).--Under the emperor +Augustus Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia; the rest of Greece +was converted into the province of Achaea, under the control of a +senatorial proconsul resident at Corinth. Many states, including Athens +and Sparta, retained their rights as free and nominally independent +cities. The provincials were encouraged to send delegates to a communal +synod ([Greek: koinon ton Achaion]) which met at Argos to consider the +general interests of the country and to uphold national Hellenic +sentiment; the Delphic amphictyony was revived and extended so as to +represent in a similar fashion northern and central Greece. + + + Social conditions. + +Economic conditions did not greatly improve under the empire. Although +new industries sprang up to meet the needs of Roman luxury, and Greek +marble, textiles and table delicacies were in great demand, the only +cities which regained a really flourishing trade were the Italian +communities of Corinth and Patrae. Commerce languished in general, and +the soil was mainly abandoned to pasturage. Though certain districts +retained a measure of prosperity, e.g. Thessaly, Phocis, Elis, Argos and +Laconia, huge tracts stood depopulated and many notable cities had sunk +into ruins; Aetolia, Acarnania and Epirus never recovered from the +effects of former wars and from the withdrawal of their surviving +inhabitants into Nicopolis. Such wealth as remained was amassed in the +hands of a few great landowners and capitalists; the middle class +continued to dwindle, and large numbers of the people were reduced to +earning a precarious subsistence, supplemented by frequent doles and +largesses. + +The social aspect of Greek life henceforward becomes its most attractive +feature. After a long period of storm and stress, the European Hellenes +had relapsed into a quiet and resigned frame of mind which stands in +sharp contrast on the one hand with the energy and ability, and on the +other with the vulgar intriguing of their Asiatic kinsmen. Seeing no +future before them, the inhabitants were content to dwell in +contemplation amid the glories of the past. National pride was fostered +by the undisguised respect with which the leading Romans of the age +treated Hellenic culture. And although this sentiment could degenerate +into antiquarian pedantry and vanity, such as finds its climax in the +diatribes of Apollonius of Tyana against the "barbarians," it prevented +the nation from sinking into some of the worst vices of the age. A +healthy social tone repressed extravagant luxury and the ostentatious +display of wealth, and good taste long checked the spread of +gladiatorial contests beyond the Italian community of Corinth. The most +widespread abuse of that period, the adulation and adoration of +emperors, was indeed introduced into European Greece and formed an +essential feature of the proceedings at the Delphic amphictyony, but it +never absorbed the energies of the people in the same way as it did in +Asia. In order to perpetuate their old culture, the Greeks continued to +set great store by classical education, and in Athens they possessed an +academic centre which gradually became the chief university of the Roman +empire. The highest representatives of this type of old-world refinement +are to be found in Dio Chrysostom and especially in Plutarch of +Chaeroneia (q.v.). + +The relations between European Greece and Rome were practically confined +to the sphere of scholarship. The Hellenes had so far lost their warlike +qualities that they supplied scarcely any recruits to the army. They +retained too much local patriotism to crowd into the official careers of +senators or imperial servants. Although in the 1st century A.D. the +astute Greek man of affairs and the _Graeculus esuriens_ of Juvenal +abounded in Rome, both these classes were mainly derived from the less +pure-blooded population beyond the Aegean. + +The influx of Greek rhetoricians and professors into Italy during the +2nd and 3rd centuries was balanced by the large number of travellers who +came to Greece to frequent its sanatoria, and especially to admire its +works of art; the abundance in which these latter were preserved is +strikingly attested in the extant record of Pausanias (about A.D. 170). + + + Roman administration. + +The experience of the Greeks under their earliest governors seems to +have been unfortunate, for in A.D. 15 they petitioned Tiberius to +transfer the administration to an imperial legate. This new arrangement +was sanctioned, but only lasted till A.D. 44, when Claudius restored the +province to the senate. The proconsuls of the later 1st and 2nd +centuries were sometimes ill qualified for their posts, but cases of +oppression are seldom recorded against them. The years 66 and 67 were +marked by a visit of the emperor Nero, who made a prolonged tour through +Greece in order to display his artistic accomplishments at the various +national festivals. In return for the flattering reception accorded to +him he bestowed freedom and exemption from tribute upon the country. But +this favour was almost neutralized by the wholesale depredations which +he committed among the chief collections of art. A scheme for cutting +through the Corinthian isthmus and so reviving the Greek carrying trade +was inaugurated in his presence, but soon abandoned. + +As Nero's grant of self-government brought about a recrudescence of +misplaced ambition and party strife, Vespasian revoked the gift and +turned Achaea again into a province, at the same time burdening it with +increased taxes. In the 2nd century a succession of genuinely +phil-Hellenic emperors made serious attempts to revive the nation's +prosperity. Important material benefits were conferred by Hadrian, who +made a lengthy visit to Greece. Besides erecting useful public works in +many cities, he relieved Achaea of its arrears of tribute and exempted +it from various imposts. In order to check extravagance on the part of +the free cities, he greatly extended the practice of placing them under +the supervision of imperial functionaries known as _correctores_. +Hadrian fostered national sentiment by establishing a new pan-Hellenic +congress at Athens, while he gave recognition to the increasing +ascendancy of Hellenic culture at Rome by his institution of the +Athenaeum. + +In the 3rd century the only political event of importance was the edict +of Caracalla which threw open the Roman citizenship to large numbers of +provincials. Its chief effect in Greece was to diminish the +preponderance of the wealthy classes, who formerly had used their riches +to purchase the franchise and so to secure exemption from taxation. The +chief feature of this period is the renewal of the danger from foreign +invasions. Already in 175 a tribe named Costoboci had penetrated into +central Greece, but was there broken up by the local militia. In 253 a +threatened attack was averted by the stubborn resistance of +Thessalonica. In 267-268 the province was overrun by Gothic bands, which +captured Athens and some other towns, but were finally repulsed by the +Attic levies and exterminated with the help of a Roman fleet. + +(iii.) _The Late Roman Empire._--After the reorganization of the empire +by Diocletian, Achaea occupied a prominent position in the "diocese" of +Macedonia. Under Constantine I. it was included in the "prefecture" of +Illyricum. It was subdivided into the "eparchies" of Hellas, +Peloponnesus, Nicopolis and the islands, with headquarters at Thebes, +Corinth, Nicopolis and Samos. Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia. +A complex hierarchy of imperial officials was now introduced and the +system of taxation elaborated so as to yield a steady revenue to the +central power. The levying of the land-tax was imposed upon the [Greek: +dekaprotoi] or "ten leading men," who, like the Latin _decuriones_, were +entrusted henceforth with the administration in most cities. The +tendency to reduce all constitutions to the Roman municipal pattern +became prevalent under the rulers of this period, and the greater number +of them was stereotyped by the general regulations of the Codex +Theodosianus (438). Although the elevation of Constantinople to the rank +of capital was prejudicial to Greece, which felt the competition of the +new centre of culture and learning and had to part with numerous works +of art destined to embellish its privileged neighbour, the general level +of prosperity in the 4th century was rising. Commercial stagnation was +checked by a renewed expansion of trade consequent upon the diversion of +the trade routes to the east from Egypt to the Euxine and Aegean Seas. +Agriculture remained in a depressed condition, and many small +proprietors were reduced to serfdom; but the fiscal interests of the +government called for the good treatment of this class, whose growth at +the expense of the slaves was an important step in the gradual +equalization of the entire population under the central despotism which +restored solidarity to the Greek nation. + +This prosperity received a sharp set-back by a series of unusually +severe earthquakes in 375 and by the irruption of a host of Visigoths +under Alaric (395-396), whom the imperial officers allowed to overrun +the whole land unmolested and the local levies were unable to check. +Though ultimately hunted down in Arcadia and induced to leave the +province, Alaric had time to execute systematic devastations which +crippled Greece for several decades. The arrears of taxation which +accumulated in consequence were remitted by Theodosius II. in 428. + +The emperors of the 4th century made several attempts to stamp out by +edict the old pagan religion, which, with its accompaniment of +festivals, oracles and mysteries, still maintained an outward appearance +of vigour, and, along with the philosophy in which the intellectual +classes found comfort, retained the affection of the Greeks. Except for +the decree of Theodosius I. by which the Olympian games were interdicted +(394), these measures had no great effect, and indeed were not +rigorously enforced. Paganism survived in Greece till about 600, but the +interchange of ideas and practices which the long-continued contact with +Christianity had effected considerably modified its character. Hence the +Christian religion, though slow in making its way, eventually gained a +sure footing among a nation which accepted it spontaneously. The hold of +the Church upon the Greeks was strengthened by the judicious manner in +which the clergy, unsupported by official patronage and often out of +sympathy with the Arian emperors, identified itself with the interests +of the people. Though in the days when the orthodox Church found favour +at court corruption spread among its higher branches, the clergy as a +whole rendered conspicuous service in opposing the arbitrary +interferences of the central government and in upholding the use of the +Hellenic tongue, together with some rudiments of Hellenic culture. + +The separation of the eastern and western provinces of the empire +ultimately had an important effect in restoring the language and customs +of Greece to their predominant position in the Levant. This result, +however, was long retarded by the romanizing policy of Constantine and +his successors. The emperors of the 5th and 6th centuries had no regard +for Greek culture, and Justinian I. actively counteracted Hellenism by +propagating Roman law in Greece, by impairing the powers of the +self-governing cities, and by closing the philosophical schools at +Athens (529). In course of time the inhabitants had so far forgotten +their ancient culture that they abandoned the name of Hellenes for that +of Romans (_Rhomaioi_). For a long time Greece continued to be an +obscure and neglected province, with no interests beyond its church and +its commercial operations, and its culture declined rapidly. Its history +for some centuries dwindles into a record of barbarian invasions which, +in addition to occasional plagues and earthquakes, seem to have been the +only events found worthy of record by the contemporary chroniclers. + +In the 5th century Greece was only subjected to brief raids by Vandal +pirates (466-474) and Ostrogoths (482). In Justinian's reign irruptions +by Huns and Avars took place, but led to no far-reaching results. The +emperor had endeavoured to strengthen the country's defences by +repairing the fortifications of cities and frontier posts (530), but his +policy of supplanting the local guards by imperial troops and so +rendering the natives incapable of self-defence was ill-advised; +fortunately it was never carried out with energy, and so the Greek +militias were occasionally able to render good service against invaders. + + + Slavonic immigrations. + +Towards the end of the century mention is made for the first time of an +incursion by Slavonic tribes (581). These invaders are to be regarded as +merely the forerunners of a steady movement of immigration by which a +considerable part of Greece passed for a time into foreign hands. It is +doubtful how far the newcomers won their territory by force of arms; in +view of the desolation of many rural tracts, which had long been in +progress as a result of economic changes, it seems probable that +numerous settlements were made on unoccupied land and did not challenge +serious opposition. At any rate the effect upon the Greek population was +merely to accelerate its emigration from the interior to the coastland +and the cities. The foreigners, consisting mainly of Slovenes and Wends, +occupied the mountainous inland, where they mostly led a pastoral life; +the natives retained some strips of plain and dwelt secure in their +walled towns, among which the newly-built fortresses of Monemvasia, +Corone and Calamata soon rose to prosperity. The Slavonic element, to +judge by the geographical names in that tongue which survive in Greece, +is specially marked in N.W. Greece and Peloponnesus; central Greece +appears to have been protected against them by the fortress-square of +Chalcis, Thebes, Corinth and Athens. For a long time the two nations +dwelt side by side without either displacing the other. The Slavs were +too rude and poor, and too much distracted with cantonal feuds, to make +any further headway; the Greeks, unused to arms and engrossed in +commerce, were content to adopt a passive attitude. The central +government took no steps to dislodge the invaders, until in 783 the +empress Irene sent an expedition which reduced most of the tribes to pay +tribute. In 810 a desperate attempt by the Slavs to capture Patrae was +foiled; henceforth their power steadily decreased and their submission +to the emperor was made complete by 850. A powerful factor in their +subjugation was the Greek clergy, who by the 10th century had +christianized and largely hellenized all the foreigners save a remnant +in the peninsula of Maina. + +II. THE BYZANTINE PERIOD.--In the 7th century the Greek language made +its way into the imperial army and civil service, but European Greece +continued to have little voice in the administration. The land was +divided into four "themes" under a yearly appointed civil and military +governor. Imperial troops were stationed at the chief strategic points, +while the natives contributed ships for naval defence. During the +dispute about images the Greeks were the backbone of the +image-worshipping party, and the iconoclastic edicts of Leo III. led to +a revolt in 727 which, however, was easily crushed by the imperial +fleet; a similar movement in 823, when the Greeks sent 350 ships to aid +a pretender, met with the same fate. The firm government of the Isaurian +dynasty seems to have benefited Greece, whose commerce and industry +again became flourishing. In spite of occasional set-backs due to the +depredations of pirates, notably the Arab corsairs who visited the +Aegean from the 7th century onwards, the Greeks remained the chief +carriers in the Levant until the rise of the Italian republics, +supplying all Europe with its silk fabrics. + +In the 10th century Greece experienced a renewal of raids from the +Balkan tribes. The Bulgarians made incursions after 929 and sometimes +penetrated to the Isthmus; but they mostly failed to capture the cities, +and in 995 their strength was broken by a crushing defeat on the +Spercheius at the hands of the Byzantine army. Yet their devastations +greatly thinned the population of northern Greece, and after 1084 +Thessaly was occupied without resistance by nomad tribes of Vlachs. In +1084 also Greece was subjected to the first attack from the new nations +of the west, when the Sicilian Normans gained a footing in the Ionian +islands. The same people made a notable raid upon the seaboard of Greece +in 1145-1146, and sacked the cities of Thebes and Corinth. The Venetians +also appear as rivals of the Greeks, and after 1122 their encroachments +in the Aegean Sea never ceased. + +In spite of these attacks, the country on the whole maintained its +prosperity. The travellers Idrisi of Palermo (1153) and Benjamin of +Tudela (1161) testify to the briskness of commerce, which induced many +foreign merchants to take up their residence in Greece. But this +prosperity revived an aristocracy of wealth which used its riches and +power for purely selfish ends, and under the increasing laxity of +imperial control the _archontes_ or municipal rulers often combined with +the clergy in oppressing the poorer classes. Least of all were these +nobles prepared to become the champions of Greece against foreign +invaders at a time when they alone could have organized an effectual +resistance. + +III. _The Latin Occupation and Turkish Conquest._--The capture of +Constantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine empire by the Latins +(1204) brought in its train an invasion of Greece by Frankish barons +eager for new territory. The natives, who had long forgotten the use of +arms and dreaded no worse oppression from their new masters, submitted +almost without resistance, and only the N.W. corner of Greece, where +Michael Angelus, a Byzantine prince, founded the "despotat" of Epirus, +was saved from foreign occupation. The rest of the country was divided +up between a number of Frankish barons, chief among whom were the dukes +of Achaea (or Peloponnese) and "grand signors" of Thebes and Athens, the +Venetians, who held naval stations at different points and the island of +Crete, and various Italian adventurers who mainly settled in the +Cyclades. The conquerors transplanted their own language, customs and +religion to their new possessions, and endeavoured to institute the +feudal system of land-tenure. Yet recognizing the superiority of Greek +civil institutions they allowed the natives to retain their law and +internal administration and confirmed proprietors in possession of their +land on payment of a rent; the Greek church was subordinated to the +Roman archbishops, but upheld its former control over the people. The +commerce and industry of the Greek cities was hardly affected by the +change of government. + +Greek history during the Latin occupation loses its unity and has to be +followed in several threads. In the north the "despots" of Epirus +extended their rule to Thessaly and Macedonia, but eventually were +repulsed by the Asiatic Greeks of Nicaea, and after a decisive defeat at +Pelagonia (1259) reduced to a small dominion round Iannina. Thessaly +continued to change masters rapidly. Till 1308 it was governed by a +branch line of the Epirote dynasty. When this family died out it fell to +the Grand Catalan Company; in 1350 it was conquered along with Epirus by +Stephen Dushan, king of Servia. About 1397 it was annexed by the Ottoman +Turks, who after 1431 also gradually wrested Epirus from its latest +possessors, the Beneventine family of Tocco (1390-1469). + +The leading power in central Greece was the Burgundian house de la +Roche, which established a mild and judicious government in Boeotia and +Attica and in 1261 was raised to ducal rank by the French king Louis IX. +A conflict with the Grand Catalan Company resulted in a disastrous +defeat of the Franks on the Boeotian Cephissus (1311) and the occupation +of central Greece by the Spanish mercenaries, who seized for themselves +the barons' fiefs and installed princes from the Sicilian house of +Aragon as "dukes of Athens and Neopatras" (Thessaly). After seventy-five +years of oppressive rule and constant wars with their neighbours the +Catalans were expelled by the Peloponnesian baron Nerio Acciaiuoli. The +new dynasty, whose peaceful government revived its subjects' industry, +became tributary to the Turks about 1415, but was deposed by Sultan +Mahommed II., who annexed central Greece in 1456. + +The conquest of the Peloponnese was effected by two French knights, +William Champlitte and Geoffrey Villehardouin, the latter of whom +founded a dynasty of "princes of all Achaea." The rulers of this line +were men of ability, who controlled their barons and spiritual vassals +with a firm hand and established good order throughout their province. +The Franks of the Morea maintained as high a standard of culture as +their compatriots at home, while the natives grew rich enough from +their industry to pay considerable taxes without discontent. The climax +of the Villehardouins' power was attained under Prince William, who +subdued the last independent cities of the coast and the mountaineers of +Maina (1246-1248). In 1259, however, the same ruler was involved in the +war between the rulers of Epirus and Nicaea, and being captured at the +battle of Pelagonia, could only ransom himself by the cession of Laconia +to the restored Byzantine empire. This new dependency after 1349 was +treated with great care by the Byzantine monarchs, who sought to repress +the violence of the local aristocracies by sending their kinsmen to +govern under the title of "despots." On the other hand, with the +extinction of the Villehardouin dynasty the Frankish province fell more +and more into anarchy; at the same time the numbers of the foreigners +were constantly dwindling through war, and as they disdained to recruit +them by intermarriage, the preponderance of the native element in the +Morea eventually became complete. Thus by 1400 the Byzantines were +enabled to recover control over almost the whole peninsula and apportion +it among several "despots." But the mutual quarrels of these princes +soon proved fatal to their rule. Already in the 14th century they had +employed Albanians and the Turkish pirates who harried their coasts as +auxiliaries in their wars. The Albanians largely remained as settlers, +and the connexion with the Turks could no longer be shaken off. In spite +of attempts to fortify the Isthmus (1415) an Ottoman army penetrated +into Morea and deported many inhabitants in 1423. An invasion of central +Greece by the despot Constantine was punished by renewed raids in 1446 +and 1450. In 1457 the despot Thomas withheld the tribute which he had +recently stipulated to pay, but was reduced to obedience by an +expedition under Mahommed II. (1458). A renewed revolt in 1459 was +punished by an invasion attended with executions and deportations on a +large scale, and by the annexation of the Morea to Turkey (1460). + +IV. _The Turkish Dominion till 1800._--Under the Ottoman government +Greece was split up into six _sanjaks_ or military divisions: (1) Morea, +(2) Epirus, (3) Thessaly, (4) Euboea, Boeotia and Attica, (5) Aetolia +and Acarnania, (6) the rest of central Greece, with capitals at Nauplia, +Jannina, Trikkala, Negropont (Chalkis), Karlili and Lepanto; further +divisions were subsequently composed of Crete and the islands. In each +_sanjak_ a number of fiefs was apportioned to Turkish settlers, who were +bound in return to furnish some mounted men for the sultan's army, the +total force thus held in readiness being over 7000. The local government +was left in the hands of the archontes or primates in each community, +who also undertook the farming of the taxes and the policing of their +districts. Law was usually administered by the Greek clergy. The natives +were not burdened with large imposts, but the levying of the land-tithes +was effected in an inconvenient fashion, and the capitation-tax, to +which all Christians were subjected was felt as a humiliation. A further +grievance lay in the requisitions of forced labour which the pashas were +entitled to call for; but the most galling exaction was the tribute of +children for the recruiting of the Janissaries (q.v.), which was often +levied with great ruthlessness. The habitual weakness of the central +government also left the Greeks exposed to frequent oppression by the +Turkish residents and by their own magistrates and clergy. But the new +rulers met with singularly little opposition. The dangerous elements of +the population had been cleared away by Mahommed's executions; the rest +were content to absorb their energies in agriculture and commerce, which +in spite of preferential duties and capitulations to foreign powers +largely fell again into the hands of Greeks. Another important +instrument by which the people were kept down was their own clergy, whom +the Turkish rulers treated with marked favour and so induced to +acquiesce in their dominion. + +In the following centuries Greece was often the theatre of war in which +the Greeks played but a passive part. Several wars with Venice (1463-79, +1498-1504) put the Turks in possession of the last Italian strongholds +on the mainland. But the issue was mainly fought out on sea; the +conflicts which had never ceased in the Aegean since the coming of the +Italians now grew fiercer than ever; Greek ships and sailors were +frequently requisitioned for the Turkish fleets, and the damage done to +the Greek seaboard by the belligerents and by fleets of adventurers and +corsairs brought about the depopulation of many islands and +coast-strips. The conquest of the Aegean by the Ottomans was completed +by 1570; but Venice retained Crete till 1669 and never lost Corfu until +its cession to France in 1797. + +In 1684 the Venetians took advantage of the preoccupation of Turkey on +the Danube to attack the Morea. A small mercenary army under Francesco +Morosini captured the strong places with remarkable ease, and by 1687 +had conquered almost the whole peninsula. In 1687 the invaders also +captured Athens and Lepanto; but the former town had soon to be +abandoned, and with their failure to capture Negropont (1688) the +Venetians were brought to a standstill. By the peace of Karlowitz (1699) +the Morea became a possession of Venice. The new rulers, in spite of the +commercial restrictions which they imposed in favour of their own +traders, checked the impoverishment and decrease of population (from +300,000 to 86,000) which the war had caused. By their attempts to +cooperate with the native magistrates and the mildness of their +administration they improved the spirit of their subjects. But they +failed to make their government popular, and when in 1715 the Ottomans +with a large and well-disciplined army set themselves to recover the +Morea, the Venetians were left without support from the Greeks. The +peninsula was rapidly recaptured and by the peace of Passarowitz (1718) +again became a Turkish dependency. The gaps left about this time in the +Greek population were largely made up by an immigration from Albania. + +The condition of the Greeks in the 18th century showed a great +improvement which gave rise to yet greater hopes. Already in the 17th +century the personal services of the subjects had been commuted into +money contributions, and since 1676 the tribute of children fell into +abeyance. The increasing use of Greek officials in the Turkish civil +service, coupled with the privileges accorded to the Greek clergy +throughout the Balkan countries, tended to recall the consciousness of +former days of predominance in the Levant. Lastly, the education of the +Greeks, which had always remained on a comparatively high level, was +rapidly improved by the foundation of new schools and academies. + +The long neglect which Greece had experienced at the hands of the +European Powers was broken in 1764, when Russian agents appeared in the +country with promises of a speedy deliverance from the Turks. A small +expedition under Feodor and Alexis Orloff actually landed in the Morea +in 1769, but failed to rouse national sentiment. Although the Russian +fleet gained a notable victory off Chesme near Chios, a heavy defeat +near Tripolitza ruined the prospects of the army. The Albanian troops in +the Turkish army subsequently ravaged the country far and wide, until in +1779 they were exterminated by a force of Turkish regulars. In 1774 a +concession, embodied in the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, by which Greek +traders were allowed to sail under the protection of the Russian flag, +marked an important step in the rehabilitation of the country as an +independent power. Greek commerce henceforth spread swiftly over the +Mediterranean, and increased intercourse developed a new sense of +Hellenic unity. Among the pioneers who fostered this movement should be +mentioned Constantine Rhigas, the "modern Tyrtaeus," and Adamantios +Coraes (q.v.), the reformer of the Greek tongue. The revived memories of +ancient Hellas and the impression created by the French revolution +combined to give the final impulse which made the Greeks strike for +freedom. By 1800 the population of Greece had increased to 1,000,000, +and although 200,000 of these were Albanians, the common aversion to the +Moslem united the two races. The military resources of the country alone +remained deficient, for the _armatoli_ or local militias, which had +never been quite disbanded since Byzantine times, were at last +suppressed by Ali Pasha of Iannina and found but a poor substitute in +the klephts who henceforth spring into prominence. But at the first sign +of weakness in the Turkish dominion the Greek nation was ready to rise, +and the actual outbreak of revolt had become merely a question of time. + + AUTHORITIES.--General: G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed. Tozer, + Oxford, 1877), especially vols. i., iv., v.; K. Paparrhigopoulos, + [Greek: Historia tou Hellenikou ethnous] (4th ed., Athens, 1903), + vols. ii.-v.; _Histoire de la civilisation hellenique_ (Paris, 1878); + R. v. Scala, _Das Griechentum seit Alexander dem Grossen_ (Leipzig and + Vienna, 1904); and specially W. Miller, _The Latins in the Levant_ + (1908). + + Special--(a) The Roman period: Strabo, bks. viii.-x.; Pausanias, + _Descriptio Graeciae_; G. F. Hertzberg, _Die Geschichte Griechenlands + unter der Herrschaft der Romer_ (Halle, 1866-1875); Sp. Lampros, + [Greek: Historia tes Hellados] (Athens, 1888 sqq.), vol. iii.; A. + Holm, _History of Greece_ (Eng. trans., London, 1894-1898). vol. iv., + chs. 19, 24, 26, 28 seq.; Th. Mommsen, _The Provinces of the Roman + Empire_ (Eng. trans., London, 1886, ch. 7); J. P. Mahaffy, _The Greek + World under Roman Sway, from Polybius to Plutarch_ (London, 1890); W. + Miller, "The Romans in Greece" (_Westminster Review_, August 1903, pp. + 186-210); L. Friedlander, "Griechenland unter den Romern" (_Deutsche + Rundschau_, 1899, pp. 251-274, 402-430). (b) The Byzantine and Latin + periods: G. F. Hertzberg, _Geschichte Griechenlands seit dem Absterben + des antiken Lebens_ (Gotha, 1876-1879), vols. i., ii.; C. Hopf, + _Geschichte Griechenlands im Mittelalter_ (Leipzig, 1868); J. A. + Buchon, _Histoire des conquetes et de l'etablissement des Francais + dans les Etats de l'ancienne Grece_ (Paris, 1846); G. Schmitt, _The + Chronicle of Morea_ (London, 1904); W. Miller, "The Princes of the + Peloponnese" (_Quarterly Review_, July 1905, pp. 109-135); D. Bikelas, + _Seven Essays on Christian Greece_ (Paisley and London, 1890); _La + Grece byzantine et moderne_ (Paris, 1893), pp. 1-193. (c) The Turkish + and Venetian periods: Hertzberg, _op. cit._, vol. iii.; K. M. + Bartholdy, _Geschichte Griechenlands von der Eroberung + Konstantinopels_ (Leipzig, 1870), bks. i. and ii., pp. 1-155; K. N. + Sathas, [Greek: Tourkokratoumene Hellas] (Athens, 1869); W. Miller, + "Greece under the Turks" (_Westminster Review_, August and September + 1904, pp. 195-210, 304-320; _English Historical Review_, 1904, pp. + 646-668); L. Ranke, "Die Venetianer in Morea" (_Historisch-politische + Zeitschrift_, ii. 405-502). (d) Special subjects: Religion. E. Hatch, + _The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church_ + (London, 1890). Ethnology. J. P. Fallmerayer, _Geschichte der + Halbinsel Morea wahrend des Mittelalters_ (Stuttgart and Tubingen, + 1830); S. Zampelios, [Greek: Peri pegon neoellenikes ethnotetos] + (Athens, 1857); A. Philippson, "Zur Ethnographie des Peloponnes" + [_Petermann's Mitteilungen_ 36 (1890), pp. 1-11, 33-41]; A. Vasiljev, + "Die Slaven in Griechenland" [_Vizantijsky Vremennik_, St Petersburg, + 5 (1898), pp. 404-438, 626-670]. + + See also ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER; ATHENS. (M. O. B. C.) + + +c. _Modern History: 1800-1908._ + + The decadence of Turkey. + +At the beginning of the 19th century Greece was still under Turkish +domination, but the dawn of freedom was already breaking, and a variety +of forces were at work which prepared the way for the acquisition of +national independence. The decadence of the Ottoman empire, which began +with the retreat of the Turks from Vienna in 1683, was indicated in the +18th century by the weakening of the central power, the spread of +anarchy in the provinces, the ravages of the janissaries, and the +establishment of practically independent sovereignties or fiefs, such as +those of Mehemet of Bushat at Skodra and of Ali Pasha of Tepelen at +Iannina; the 19th century witnessed the first uprisings of the Christian +populations and the detachment of the outlying portions of European +Turkey. Up to the end of the 18th century none of the subject races had +risen in spontaneous revolt against the Turks, though in some instances +they rendered aid to the sultan's enemies; the spirit of the conquered +nations had been broken by ages of oppression. In some of the remoter +and more mountainous districts, however, the authority of the Turks had +never been completely established; in Montenegro a small fragment of the +Serb race maintained its independence; among the Greeks, the Mainotes in +the extreme south of the Morea and the Sphakiote mountaineers in Crete +had never been completely subdued. Resistance to Ottoman rule was +maintained sporadically in the mountainous districts by the Greek +_klephts_ or brigands, the counterpart of the Slavonic _haiduks_, and by +the pirates of the Aegean; the _armatoles_ or bodies of Christian +warriors, recognized by the Turks as a local police, often differed +little in their proceedings from the brigands whom they were appointed +to pursue. + + + Russian influence. + +Of the series of insurrections which took place in the 19th century, the +first in order of time was the Servian, which broke out in 1804; the +second was the Greek, which began in 1821. In both these movements the +influence of Russia played a considerable part. In the case of the +Servians Russian aid was mainly diplomatic, in that of the Greeks it +eventually took a more material form. Since the days of Peter the Great, +the eyes of Russia had been fixed on Constantinople, the great +metropolis of the Orthodox faith. The policy of inciting the Greek +Christians to revolt against their oppressors, which was first adopted +in the reign of the empress Anna, was put into practical operation by +the empress Catharine II., whose favourite, Orlov, appeared in the +Aegean with a fleet in 1769 and landed in the Morea, where he organized +a revolt. The attempt proved a failure; Orlov re-embarked, leaving the +Greeks at the mercy of the Turks, and terrible massacres took place at +Tripolitza, Lemnos and elsewhere. By the treaty of Kutchuk-Kainarji +(July 21, 1774) Russia obtained a vaguely-defined protectorate over the +Orthodox Greek subjects of Turkey, and in 1781 she arrived at an +arrangement with Austria, known as the "Greek project," for a partition +of Turkish territory and the restoration of the Byzantine empire under +Constantine, the son of Catharine II. The outbreak of the French +Revolution distracted the attention of the two empires, but Russia never +ceased to intrigue among the Christian subjects of Turkey. A revolt of +the inhabitants of Suli in 1790 took place with her connivance, and in +the two first decades of the 19th century her agents were active and +ubiquitous. + + + Greek revolutionary activity. + +The influence of the French Revolution, which pervaded all Europe, +extended to the shores of the Aegean. The Greeks, who had hitherto been +drawn together mainly by a common religion, were now animated by the +sentiment of nationality and by an ardent desire for political freedom. +The national awakening, as in the case of the other subject Christian +nations, was preceded by a literary revival. Literary and patriotic +societies, the Philhellenes, the Philomousi, came into existence; Greek +schools were founded everywhere; the philological labours of Coraes, +which created the modern written language, furnished the nation with a +mode of literary expression; the songs of Rhigas of Velestino fired the +enthusiasm of the people. In 1815 was founded the celebrated _Philike +Hetaerea_, or friendly society, a revolutionary organization with +centres at Moscow, Bucharest, Triest, and in all the cities of the +Levant; it collected subscriptions, issued manifestos, distributed arms +and made preparations for the coming insurrection. The revolt of Ali +Pasha of Iannina against the authority of the sultan in 1820 formed the +prelude to the Greek uprising; this despot, who had massacred the Greeks +by hundreds, now declared himself their friend, and became a member of +the Hetaerea. In March 1821 Alexander Ypsilanti, a former aide-de-camp +of the tsar Alexander I., and president of the Hetaerea, entered +Moldavia from Russian territory at the head of a small force; in the +same month Archbishop Germanos of Patras unfurled the standard of revolt +at Kalavryta in the Morea. + + + Independence of Greece. + +For the history of the prolonged struggle which followed see GREEK WAR +OF INDEPENDENCE. The warfare was practically brought to a close by the +annihilation of the Egyptian fleet at Navarino by the fleets of Great +Britain, France and Russia on the 20th of October 1827. Nine months +previously, Count John Capo d'Istria (q.v.), formerly minister of +foreign affairs of the tsar Alexander, had been elected president of the +Greek republic for seven years beginning on January 18, 1828. By the +protocol of London (March 22, 1829) the Greek mainland south of a line +drawn from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Volo, the Morea and the +Cyclades were declared a principality tributary to the sultan under a +Christian prince. The limits drawn by the protocol of London were +confirmed by the treaty of Adrianople (September 14, 1829), by which +Greece was constituted an independent monarchy. The governments of +Russia, France and England were far from sharing the enthusiasm which +the gallant resistance of the Greeks had excited among the peoples of +Europe, and which inspired the devotion of Byron, Cochrane, Sir Richard +Church, Fabvier and other distinguished Philhellenes; jealousies +prevailed among the three protecting powers, and the newly-liberated +nation was treated in a niggardly spirit; its narrow limits were reduced +by a new protocol (February 3, 1830), which drew the boundary line at +the Aspropotamo, the Spercheios and the Gulf of Lamia. Capo d'Istria, +whose Russian proclivities and arbitrary government gave great offence +to the Greeks, was assassinated by two members of the Mavromichalis +family (October 9, 1831), and a state of anarchy followed. Before his +death the throne of Greece had been offered to Prince Leopold of +Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians, who declined it, +basing his refusal on the inadequacy of the limits assigned to the new +kingdom and especially the exclusion of Crete. + + + King Otto. + +By the convention of London (May 7, 1832) Greece was declared an +independent kingdom under the protection of Great Britain, France and +Russia with Prince Otto, son of King Louis I. of Bavaria, as king. The +frontier line, now traced from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Lamia, +was fixed by the arrangement of Constantinople (July 21, 1832). King +Otto, who had been brought up in a despotic court, ruled absolutely for +the first eleven years of his reign; he surrounded himself with Bavarian +advisers and Bavarian troops, and his rule was never popular. The Greek +chiefs and politicians, who found themselves excluded from all influence +and advancement, were divided into three factions which attached +themselves respectively to the three protecting powers. On the 15th of +September 1843 a military revolt broke out which compelled the king to +dismiss the Bavarians and to accept a constitution. A responsible +ministry, a senate nominated by the king, and a chamber elected by +universal suffrage were now instituted. Mavrocordatos, the leader of the +English party, became the first prime minister, but his government was +overthrown at the ensuing elections, and a coalition of the French and +Russian parties under Kolettes and Metaxas succeeded to power. The +warfare of factions was aggravated by the rivalry between the British +and French ministers, Sir Edmond Lyons and M. Piscatory; King Otto +supported the French party, and trouble arose with the British +government, which in 1847 despatched warships to enforce the payment of +interest on the loan contracted after the War of Independence. A British +fleet subsequently blockaded the Peiraeus in order to obtain +satisfaction for the claims of Pacifico, a Portuguese Jew under British +protection, whose house had been plundered during a riot. On the +outbreak of hostilities between Russia and Turkey in 1853 the Greeks +displayed sympathy with Russia; armed bands were sent into Thessaly, and +an insurrection was fomented in Epirus in the hope of securing an +accession of territory. In order to prevent further hostile action on +the part of Greece, British and French fleets made a demonstration +against the Peiraeus, which was occupied by a French force during the +Crimean War. The disappointment of the national hopes increased the +unpopularity of King Otto, who had never acquiesced in constitutional +rule. In 1862 a military revolt broke out, and a national assembly +pronounced his deposition. The vacant throne was offered by the assembly +to Duke Nicholas of Leuchtenberg, a cousin of the tsar, but the mass of +the people desired a constitutional monarchy of the British type; a +plebiscite was taken, and Prince Alfred of England was elected by an +almost unanimous vote. The three protecting powers, however, had bound +themselves to the exclusion of any member of their ruling houses. In the +following year Prince William George of +Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, whom the British government +had designated as a suitable candidate, was elected by the National +Assembly with the title "George I., king of the Hellenes." Under the +treaty of London (July 13, 1863) the change of dynasty was sanctioned by +the three protecting powers, Great Britain undertaking to cede to Greece +the seven Ionian Islands, which since 1815 had formed a commonwealth +under British protection. + + + Accession of George I. + +On the 29th of October 1863 the new sovereign arrived in Athens, and in +the following June the British authorities handed over the Ionian +Islands to a Greek commissioner. King George thus began his reign under +the most favourable auspices, the patriotic sentiments of the Greeks +being flattered by the acquisition of new territory. He was, however, +soon confronted with constitutional difficulties; party spirit ran riot +at Athens, the ministries which he appointed proved short-lived, his +counsellor, Count Sponneck, became the object of violent attacks, and at +the end of 1864 he was compelled to accept an ultra-democratic +constitution, drawn up by the National Assembly. This, the sixth +constitution voted since the establishment of the kingdom, is that which +is still in force. In the following year Count Sponneck left Greece, and +the attention of the nation was concentrated on the affairs of Crete. +The revolution which broke out in that island received moral and +material support from the Greek government, with the tacit approval of +Russia; military preparations were pressed forward at Athens, and +cruisers were purchased, but the king, aware of the inability of Greece +to attain her ends by warlike means, discouraged a provocative attitude +towards Turkey, and eventually dismissed the bellicose cabinet of +Koumoundouros. The removal of a powerful minister commanding a large +parliamentary majority constituted an important precedent in the +exercise of the royal prerogative; the king adopted a similar course +with regard to Delyannes in 1892 and 1897. The relations with the porte, +however, continued to grow worse, and Hobart Pasha, with a Turkish +fleet, made a demonstration off Syra. The Cretan insurrection was +finally crushed in the spring of 1869, and a conference of the powers, +which assembled that year at Paris, imposed a settlement of the Turkish +dispute on Greece, but took no steps on behalf of the Cretans. In 1870 +the murder of several Englishmen by brigands in the neighbourhood of +Athens produced an unfavourable impression in Europe; in the following +year the confiscation of the Laurion mines, which had been ceded to a +Franco-Italian company, provoked energetic action on the part of France +and Italy. In 1875, after an acute constitutional crisis, Charilaos +Trikoupes, who but ten months previously had been imprisoned for +denouncing the crown in a newspaper article, was summoned to form a +cabinet. This remarkable man, the only great statesman whom modern +Greece has produced, exercised an extraordinary influence over his +countrymen for the next twenty years; had he been able to maintain +himself uninterruptedly in power during that period, Greece might have +escaped a long succession of misfortunes. His principal opponent, +Theodore Delyannes, succeeded in rallying a strong body of adherents, +and political parties, hitherto divided into numerous factions, centred +around these two prominent figures. + + + New frontier, 1881. + +In 1877 the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War produced a fever of +excitement in Greece; it was felt that the quarrels of the party leaders +compromised the interests of the country, and the populace of Athens +insisted on the formation of a coalition cabinet. The "great" or +"oecumenical" ministry, as it was called, now came into existence under +the presidency of the veteran Kanares; in reality, however, it was +controlled by Trikoupes, who, recognizing the unpreparedness of the +country, resolved on a pacific policy. The capture of Plevna by the +Russians brought about the fall of the "oecumenical" ministry, and +Koumoundouros and Delyannes, who succeeded to power, ordered the +invasion of Thessaly. Their warlike energies, however, were soon checked +by the signing of the San Stefano Treaty, in which the claims of Greece +to an extension of frontier were altogether ignored. At the Berlin +congress two Greek delegates obtained a hearing on the proposal of Lord +Salisbury. The congress decided that the rectification of the frontier +should be left to Turkey and Greece, the mediation of the powers being +proposed in case of non-agreement; it was suggested, however, that the +rectified frontier should extend from the valley of the Peneus on the +east to the mouth of the Kalamas, opposite the southern extremity of +Corfu, on the west. In 1879 a Greco-Turkish commission for the +delimitation met first at Prevesa, and subsequently at Constantinople, +but its conferences were without result, the Turkish commissioners +declining the boundary suggested at Berlin. Greece then invoked the +arbitration of the powers, and the settlement of the question was +undertaken by a conference of ambassadors at Berlin (1880). The line +approved by the conference was practically that suggested by the +congress; Turkey, however, refused to accept it, and the Greek army was +once more mobilized. It was evident, however, that nothing could be +gained by an appeal to arms, the powers not being prepared to apply +coercion to Turkey. By a convention signed at Constantinople in July +1881, the demarcation was entrusted to a commission representing the six +powers and the two interested parties. The line drawn ran westwards from +a point between the mouth of the Peneus and Platamona to the summits of +Mounts Kritiri and Zygos, thence following the course of the river Arta +to its mouth. An area of 13,395 square kilometres, with a population of +300,000 souls, was thus added to the kingdom, while Turkey was left in +possession of Iannina, Metzovo and most of Epirus. The ceded territory +was occupied by Greek troops before the close of the year. + + + Trikoupes and Delyannes. + +In 1882 Trikoupes came into power at the head of a strong party, over +which he exercised an influence and authority hitherto unknown in Greek +political life. With the exception of three brief intervals (May 1885 to +May 1886, October 1890 to February 1892, and a few months in 1893), he +continued in office for the next twelve years. The reforms which he +introduced during this period were generally of an unpopular character, +and were loudly denounced by his democratic rivals; most of them were +cancelled during the intervals when his opponent Delyannes occupied the +premiership. The same want of continuity proved fatal to the somewhat +ambitious financial programme which he now inaugurated. While pursuing a +cautious foreign policy, and keeping in control the rash impetuosity of +his fellow-countrymen, he shared to the full the national desire for +expansion, but he looked to the development of the material resources of +the country as a necessary preliminary to the realization of the dreams +of Hellenism. With this view he endeavoured to attract foreign capital +to the country, and the confidence which he inspired in financial +circles abroad enabled him to contract a number of loans and to better +the financial situation by a series of conversions. Under a stable, +wise, and economical administration this far-reaching programme might +perhaps have been carried out with success, but the vicissitudes of +party politics and the periodical outbursts of national sentiment +rendered its realization impossible. In April 1885 Trikoupes fell from +power, and a few months later the indignation excited in Greece by the +revolution of Philippopolis placed Delyannes once more at the head of a +warlike movement. The army and fleet were again mobilized with a view to +exacting territorial compensation for the aggrandizement of Bulgaria, +and several conflicts with the Turkish troops took place on the +frontier. The powers, after repeatedly inviting the Delyannes cabinet to +disarm, established a blockade of Peiraeus and other Greek ports (8th +May 1886), France alone declining to cooperate in this measure. +Delyannes resigned (11th May) and Trikoupes, who succeeded to power, +issued a decree of disarmament (25th May). Hostilities, however, +continued on the frontier, and the blockade was not raised till 7th +June. Trikoupes had now to face the serious financial situation brought +about by the military activity of his predecessor. He imposed heavy +taxation, which the people, for the time at least, bore without +murmuring, and he continued to inspire such confidence abroad that Greek +securities maintained their price in the foreign market. It was ominous, +however, that a loan which he issued in 1890 was only partially covered. +Meanwhile the Cretan difficulty had become once more a source of trouble +to Greece. In 1889 Trikoupes was grossly deceived by the Turkish +government, which, after inducing him to dissuade the Cretans from +opposing the occupation of certain fortified posts, issued a firman +annulling many important provisions in the constitution of the island. +The indignation in Greece was intense, and popular discontent was +increased by the success of the Bulgarians in obtaining the _exequatur_ +of the sultan for a number of bishops in Macedonia. In the autumn of +1890 Trikoupes was beaten at the elections, and Delyannes, who had +promised the people a radical reform of the taxation, succeeded to +power. He proved unequal, however, to cope with the financial +difficulty, which now became urgent; and the king, perceiving that a +crisis was imminent, dismissed him and recalled Trikoupes. The hope of +averting national bankruptcy depended on the possibility of raising a +loan by which the rapid depreciation of the paper currency might be +arrested, but foreign financiers demanded guarantees which seemed likely +to prove hurtful to Greek susceptibilities; an agitation was raised at +Athens, and Trikoupes suddenly resigned (May 1893). His conduct at this +juncture appears to have been due to some misunderstandings which had +arisen between him and the king. The Sotiropoulos-Rhalles ministry which +followed effected a temporary settlement with the national creditors, +but Trikoupes, returning to power in the autumn, at once annulled the +arrangement. He now proceeded to a series of arbitrary measures which +provoked the severest criticism throughout Europe and exposed Greece to +the determined hostility of Germany. A law was hastily passed which +deprived the creditors of 70% of their interest, and the proceeds of the +revenues conceded to the monopoly bondholders were seized (December +1893). Long negotiations followed, resulting in an arrangement which was +subsequently reversed by the German bondholders. In January 1895 +Trikoupes resigned office, in consequence of a disagreement with the +crown prince on a question of military discipline. His popularity had +vanished, his health was shattered, and he determined to abandon his +political career. His death at Cannes (11th April 1896), on the eve of a +great national convulsion, deprived Greece of his masterly guidance and +sober judgment at a critical moment in her history. + + + Nationalist agitation, 1896. + +His funeral took place at Athens on 23rd April, while the city was still +decorated with flags and garlands after the celebration of the Olympic +games. The revival of the ancient festival, which drew together +multitudes of Greeks from abroad, led to a lively awakening of the +national sentiment, hitherto depressed by the economic misfortunes of +the kingdom, and a secret patriotic society, known as the _Ethnike +Hetaerea_, began to develop prodigious activity, enrolling members from +every rank of life and establishing branches in all parts of the +Hellenic world. The society had been founded in 1894, by a handful of +young officers who considered that the military organization of the +country was neglected by the government; its principal aim was the +preparation of an insurrectionary movement in Macedonia, which, owing to +the activity of the Bulgarians and the reconciliation of Prince +Ferdinand with Russia, seemed likely to be withdrawn for ever from the +domain of Greek irredentism. The outbreak of another insurrection in +Crete supplied the means of creating a diversion for Turkey while the +movement in Macedonia was being matured; arms and volunteers were +shipped to the island, but the society was as yet unable to force the +hand of the government, and Delyannes, who had succeeded Trikoupes in +1895, loyally aided the powers in the restoration of order by advising +the Cretans to accept the constitution of 1896. The appearance of strong +insurgent bands in Macedonia in the summer of that year testified to the +activity of the society and provoked the remonstrances of the powers, +while the spread of its propaganda in the army led to the issue of a +royal rescript announcing grand military manoeuvres, the formation of a +standing camp, and the rearmament of the troops with a new weapon (6th +December). The objects of the society were effectually furthered by the +evident determination of the porte to evade the application of the +stipulated reforms in Crete; the Cretan Christians lost patience, and +indignation was widespread in Greece. Emissaries of the society were +despatched to the island, and affairs were brought to a climax by an +outbreak at Canea on 4th February 1897. The Turkish troops fired on the +Christians, thousands of whom took refuge on the warships of the powers, +and a portion of the town was consumed by fire. + + + Cretan crisis, 1897. + +Delyannes now announced that the government had abandoned the policy of +abstention. On the 6th two warships were despatched to Canea, and on the +10th a torpedo flotilla, commanded by Prince George, left Peiraeus amid +tumultuous demonstrations. The ostensible object of these measures was +the protection of Greek subjects in Crete, and Delyannes was still +anxious to avoid a definite rupture with Turkey, but the Ethnike +Hetaerea had found means to influence several members of the ministry +and to alarm the king. Prince George, who had received orders to prevent +the landing of Turkish reinforcements on the island, soon withdrew from +Cretan waters owing to the decisive attitude adopted by the commanders +of the international squadron. A note was now addressed by the +government to the powers, declaring that Greece could no longer remain a +passive spectator of events in Crete, and on the 13th of February a +force of 1500 men, under Colonel Vassos, embarked at Peiraeus. On the +same day a Greek warship fired on a Turkish steam yacht which was +conveying troops from Candia to Sitia. Landing near Canea on the night +of the 14th, Colonel Vassos issued a proclamation announcing the +occupation of Crete in the name of King George. He had received orders +to expel the Turkish garrisons from the fortresses, but his advance on +Canea was arrested by the international occupation of that town, and +after a few engagements with the Turkish troops and irregulars he +withdrew into the interior of the island. Proposals for the coercion of +Greece were now put forward by Germany, but Great Britain declined to +take action until an understanding had been arrived at with regard to +the future government of Crete. Eventually (2nd March) collective notes +were addressed to the Greek and Turkish governments announcing the +decision of the powers that (1) Crete could in no case in present +circumstances be annexed to Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by +Turkey in the application of the reforms, Crete should be endowed with +an effective autonomous administration, calculated to ensure it a +separate government, under the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at +the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet within the space of +six days, and Turkey was warned that its troops must for the present be +concentrated in the fortified towns and ultimately withdrawn from the +island. The action of the powers produced the utmost exasperation at +Athens; the populace demanded war with Turkey and the annexation of +Crete, and the government drew up a reply to the powers in which, while +expressing the conviction that autonomy would prove a failure, it +indicated its readiness to withdraw some of the ships, but declined to +recall the army. A suggestion that the troops might receive a European +mandate for the preservation of order in the island proved unacceptable +to the powers, owing to the aggressive action of Colonel Vassos after +his arrival. Meanwhile troops, volunteers and munitions of war were +hurriedly despatched to the Turkish frontier in anticipation of an +international blockade of the Greek ports, but the powers contented +themselves with a pacific blockade of Crete, and military preparations +went on unimpeded. + + + War with Turkey. + +While the powers dallied, the danger of war increased; on 29th March the +crown prince assumed command of the Greek troops in Thessaly, and a few +days later hostilities were precipitated by the irregular forces of the +Ethnike Hetaerea, which attacked several Turkish outposts near Grevena. +According to a report of its proceedings, subsequently published by the +society, this invasion received the previous sanction of the prime +minister. On 17th April Turkey declared war. The disastrous campaign +which followed was of short duration, and it was evident from the outset +that the Greeks had greatly underrated the military strength of their +opponents (see GRECO-TURKISH WAR). After the evacuation of Larissa on +the 24th, great discontent prevailed at Athens; Delyannes was invited by +the king to resign, but refusing to do so was dismissed (29th April). +His successor, Rhalles, after recalling the army from Crete (9th May) +invoked the mediation of the powers, and an armistice was concluded on +the 19th of that month. Thus ended an unfortunate enterprise, which was +undertaken in the hope that discord among the powers would lead to a +European war and the dismemberment of Turkey. Greek interference in +Crete had at least the result of compelling Europe to withdraw the +island for ever from Turkish rule. The conditions of peace put forward +by Turkey included a war indemnity of L10,000,000 and the retention of +Thessaly; the latter demand, however, was resolutely opposed by Great +Britain, and the indemnity was subsequently reduced to L4,000,000. The +terms agreed to by the powers were rejected by Rhalles; the chamber, +however, refused him a vote of confidence and King George summoned +Zaimes to power (October 3). The definitive treaty of peace, which was +signed at Constantinople on the 6th of December, contained a provision +for a slight modification of the frontier, designed to afford Turkey +certain strategical advantages; the delimitation was carried out by a +commission composed of military delegates of the powers and +representatives of the interested parties. The evacuation of Thessaly by +the Turkish troops was completed in June 1898. An immediate result of +the war was the institution of an international financial commission at +Athens, charged with the control of certain revenues assigned to the +service of the national debt. The state of the country after the +conclusion of hostilities was deplorable; the towns of northern Greece +and the islands were crowded with destitute refugees from Thessaly; +violent recriminations prevailed at Athens, and the position of the +dynasty seemed endangered. A reaction, however, set in, in consequence +of an attempt to assassinate King George (28th February 1898), whose +great services to the nation in obtaining favourable terms from the +powers began to receive general recognition. In the following summer the +king made a tour through the country, and was everywhere received with +enthusiasm. In the autumn the powers, on the initiative of Russia, +decided to entrust Prince George of Greece with the government of Crete; +on 26th November an intimation that the prince had been appointed high +commissioner in the island was formally conveyed to the court of Athens, +and on 21st December he landed in Crete amid enthusiastic demonstrations +(see CRETE). + + + Macedonian troubles. + +In April 1899 Zaimes gave way to Theotokes, the chief of the Trikoupist +party, who introduced various improvements in the administration of +justice and other reforms including a measure transferring the +administration of the army from the minister of war to the crown prince. +In May 1901 a meeting took place at Abbazia, under the auspices of the +Austro-Hungarian government, between King George and King Charles of +Rumania with a view to the conclusion of a Graeco-Rumanian understanding +directed against the growth of Slavonic, and especially Bulgarian, +influence in Macedonia. The compact, however, was destined to be +short-lived owing to the prosecution of a Rumanian propaganda among the +semi-Hellenized Vlachs of Macedonia. In November riots took place at +Athens, the patriotic indignation of the university students and the +populace being excited by the issue of a translation of the Gospels into +modern Greek at the suggestion of the queen. The publication was +attributed to Panslavist intrigues against Greek supremacy over the +Orthodox populations of the East, and the archbishop of Athens was +compelled to resign. Theotokes, whose life was attempted, retired from +power, and Zaimes formed a cabinet. In 1902 the progress of the +Bulgarian movement in Macedonia once more caused great irritation in +Greece. Zaimes, having been defeated at the elections in December, +resigned, and was succeeded by Delyannes, whose popularity had not been +permanently impaired by the misfortunes of the war. Delyannes now +undertook to carry out extensive economic reforms, and introduced a +measure restoring the control of the army to the ministry of war. He +failed, however, to carry out his programme, and, being deserted by a +section of his followers, resigned in June 1903, when Theotokes again +became prime minister. The new cabinet resigned within a month owing to +the outbreak of disturbances in the currant-growing districts, and +Rhalles took office for the second time (July 8). The Bulgarian +insurrection in Macedonia during the autumn caused great excitement in +Athens, and Rhalles adopted a policy of friendship with Turkey (see +MACEDONIA). The co-operation of the Greek party in Macedonia with the +Turkish authorities exposed it to the vengeance of the insurgents, and +in the following year a number of Greek bands were sent into that +country. The campaign of retaliation was continued in subsequent years. + + + Murder of Delyannes. + +In December Rhalles, who had lost the support of the Delyannist party, +was replaced by Theotokes, who promulgated a scheme of army +reorganization, introduced various economies and imposed fresh taxation. +In December the government was defeated on a vote of confidence and +Delyannes once more became prime minister, obtaining a considerable +majority in the elections which followed (March 1905), but on the 13th +of June he was assassinated. He was succeeded by Rhalles, who effected a +settlement of the currant question and cultivated friendly relations +with Turkey in regard to Macedonia. + +In the autumn anti-Greek demonstrations in Rumania led to a rupture of +relations with that country. In December the ministry resigned owing to +an adverse vote of the chamber, and Theotokes formed a cabinet. The new +government, as a preliminary to military and naval reorganization, +introduced a law directed against the candidature of military officers +for parliament. Owing to obstruction practised by the military members +of the chamber a dissolution took place, and at the subsequent elections +(April 1906) Theotokes secured a large majority. In the autumn various +excesses committed against the Greeks in Bulgaria in reprisal for the +depredations of the Greek bands in Macedonia caused great indignation in +Greece, but diplomatic relations between the two countries were not +suspended. On the 26th of September Prince George, who had resigned the +high commissionership of Crete, returned to Athens; the designation of +his successors was accorded by the protecting powers to King George as a +satisfaction to Greek national sentiment (see CRETE). The great increase +in the activity of the Greek bands in Macedonia during the following +spring and summer led to the delivery of a Turkish note at Athens (July +1907), which was supported by representations of the powers. + +In October 1908 the proclamation by the Cretan assembly of union with +Greece threatened fresh complications, the cautious attitude of the +Greek government leading to an agitation in the army, which came to a +head in 1909. On the 18th of July a popular demonstration against his +Cretan policy led to the resignation of Theotokes, whose successor, +Rhalles, announced a programme of military and economical reform. The +army, however, took matters into its own hands, and on the 23rd of +August Rhalles was replaced by Mavromichales, the nominee of the +"Military League." For the next six months constitutional government was +practically superseded by that of the League, and for a while the crown +itself seemed to be in danger. The influence of the League, however, +rapidly declined; army and navy quarrelled; and a fresh _coup d'etat_ at +the beginning of 1910 failed of its effect, owing to the firmness of the +king. On the 7th of February Mavromichales resigned, and his successor, +Dragoumis, accepting the Cretan leader Venezelo's suggestion of a +national assembly, succeeded in persuading the League to dissolve (March +29) on receiving the king's assurance that such an assembly would be +convened. On the 31st, accordingly, King George formally proclaimed the +convocation of a national assembly to deal with the questions at issue. + + AUTHORITIES.--Finlay, _History of Greece_ (Oxford, 1877); K. N. + Sathas, [Greek: Mesaionike Bibliotheke] (7 vols., Venice, 1872-1894); + and [Greek: Mnemeia Hellenikes historias]. _Documents inedits relatifs + a l'histoire du moyen age_ (9 vols., Paris, 1880-1890); Sp. Trikoupes, + [Greek: Historia tes Hellenikes epanastaseos] (4 vols., 3rd ed., + Athens, 1888); K. Paparrhegopoulos, [Greek: Historia tou Hellenikou + ethnous] (5 vols., 4th ed., Athens, 1903); J. Philemon, [Greek: + Dokimion historikon peri tes Hellenikes epanastaseos] (Athens, + 1859-1861); P. Kontoyannes, [Greek: Oi Hellenes kata ton proton epi + Aikaterines 'Rhossotourkikon polemon] (Athens, 1903); D. G. + Kampouroglos, [Greek: Historia ton Athenaion, Tourkokratia,] 1458-1687 + (2 vols., Athens, 1889-1890); and [Greek: Mnemeia tes historias ton + Athenaion], (3 vols., Athens, 1889-1892); G. E. Mavrogiannes, [Greek: + Historia ton Ionion neson,] 1797-1815 (2 vols., Athens, 1889); P. + Karolides, [Greek: Historia tou ith aionos], 1814-1892 (Athens, + 1891-1893); E. Kyriakides, [Greek: Historia tou sugchronou + Hellenismou] 1832-1892 (2 vols., Athens, 1892); G. Konstantinides, + [Greek: Historia ton Hathenon apo Xristou genneseos mechri tou] 1821 + (2nd ed., Athens, 1894); D. Bikelas, _La Grece byzantine et moderne_ + (Paris, 1893). (J. D. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See also GREEK ART, GREEK LANGUAGE, GREEK LAW, GREEK LITERATURE, + GREEK RELIGION. + + [2] For the Geology of Greece see: M. Neumayr, &c., _Denks. k. Akad. + Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. Cl._ vol. xl. (1880); A. Philippson, _Der + Peloponnes_ (Berlin, 1892) and "Beitrage zur Kenntnis der + griechischen Inselwelt," _Peterm. Mitt._, Erganz.-heft No. 134 + (1901); R. Lepsius, _Geologie von Attika_ (Berlin, 1893); L. Cayeux, + "Phenomenes de charriage dans la Mediterranee orientale," _C. R. + Acad. Sci. Paris_, vol. cxxxvi. (1903) pp. 474-476; J. Deprat, "Note + preliminaire sur la geologie de l'ile d'Eubee," _Bull. Soc. Geol. + France_, ser. 4, vol. iii. (1903) pp. 229-243, p. vii. and "Note sur + la geologie du massif du Pelion et sur l'influence exercee par les + massifs archeens sur la tectonique de l'Egeide," _ib._ vol. iv. + (1904), pp. 299-338. + + [3] No state survey of Greece was available in 1908, though a survey + had been undertaken by the ministry of war. + + [4] It would be more accurate to say to the year 1500 B.C. At Cnossus + the palace is sacked soon after this date, and the art, both in Crete + and in the whole Aegean area, becomes lifeless and decadent. + + [5] See T. W. Allen in the _Classical Review_, vol. xx. (1906), No. 4 + (May). + + [6] It has been impugned by J. Beloch, _Griechische Geschichte_, i. + 149 ff. + + [7] _History of Greece_ (Eng. trans., i. 32 ff.); cf. the same + writer's _Ioner vor der ionischen Wanderung_. + + [8] If the account of early Athenian constitutional history given in + the _Athenaion Politeia_ were accepted, it would follow that the + archons were inferior in authority to the Eupatrid Boule, the + Areopagus. + + [9] The dates before the middle of the 7th century are in most cases + artificial, e.g. those given by Thucydides (book vi.) for the earlier + Sicilian settlements. See J. P. Mahaffy, _Journal of Hellenic + Studies_, ii. 164 ff. + + [10] At Syracuse the _demos_ makes common cause with the Sicel + serf-population against the nobles (Herod. vii. 155). + + [11] An exception should perhaps be made in the case of Thucydides. + + [12] The Peisistratidae come off better, however. + + [13] The numbers given by Herodotus (upwards of 5,000,000) are + enormously exaggerated. We must divide by ten or fifteen to arrive at + a probable estimate of the forces that actually crossed the + Hellespont. + + [14] It has been denied by some writers (e.g. by A. H. J. Greenidge) + that Athens interfered with the constitutions of the subject-states. + For the view put forward in the text, the following passages may be + quoted: Aristotle, _Politics_ 1307 b 20; Isocrates, _Panegyricus_, + 105, 106, _Panathenaicus_, 54 and 68; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iii. 4. + 7; Ps.-Xen. _Athen. Constit._ i. 14, iii. 10. + + [15] The evidence seems to indicate that all the more important + criminal cases throughout the empire were tried in the Athenian + courts. In civil cases Athens secured to the citizens of the + subject-states the right of suing Athenian citizens, as well as + citizens of other subject-states. + + [16] After this date, and partly in consequence of the change, the + archonship, to which sortition was applied, loses its importance. The + _strategi_ (generals) become the chief executive officials. As + election was never replaced by the lot in their case, the change had + less practical meaning than might appear at first sight. (See ARCHON; + STRATEGUS.) + + [17] For an estimate of the numbers annually engaged in the service + of Athens, see Aristot. _Ath. Pol._ 24. 3. + + [18] Foreign is not used here as equivalent to non-Hellenic. It means + "belonging to another state, whether Greek or barbarian." + + [19] It failed even to create a united Arcadia or a strong Messenia. + + [20] See Demosthenes, _On the Crown_, 235. Philip was [Greek: + autokrator, despotes, egemon, kurios panton.] + + [21] See _Archidamus_, 68; Philippus, 96, [Greek: oste raon einai + sustesai stratopedon meizon kai kreltton ek ton planomenon e ek ton + politeuomenon.] + + [22] The _Liturgies_ (e.g. the trierarchy) had much the same effect + as a direct tax levied upon the wealthiest citizens. + + [23] His extreme caution in approaching the question at an earlier + date is to be noticed. See, e.g., _Olynthiacs_, i. 19, 20. + + [24] e.g. the two expeditions sent to Euboea, the cavalry force that + took part in the battle of Mantinea, and the army that fought at + Chaeronea. The troops in all these cases were citizens. + + [25] For the altered character of warfare see Demosthenes, + _Philippics_, iii. 48, 49. + + [26] It is known that the councillors were appointed by the states in + the Aetolian league; it is only surmised in the case of the Achaean. + + [27] Strictly speaking, to 411 B.C. For the last seven years of the + war our principal authority is Xenophon, _Hellenica_, i., ii. + + [28] Possibly some of his information about Persian affairs may have + been derived, at first or second hand, from Zopyrus, son of + Megabyzus, whose flight to Athens is mentioned in iii. 160. + + [29] For a defence of Thucydides' judgment on all three statesmen, + see E. Meyer, _Forschungen_, ii. 296-379. + + [30] On the discrepancies between Xenophon's account of the Thirty, + and Aristotle's, see G. Busolt, _Hermes_ (1898), pp. 71-86. + + [31] The fragment of the New Historian (_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. + v.) affords exceedingly important material for the criticism of + Xenophon's narrative. (See THEOPOMPUS.) + + [32] Vol. iii. goes down to the end of the Peloponnesian War. + + + + +GREEK ART. It is proposed in the present article to give a brief account +of the history of Greek art and of the principles embodied in that +history. In any broad view of history, the products of the various arts +practised by a people constitute an objective and most important record +of the spirit of that people. But all nations have not excelled in the +same way: some have found their best expression in architecture, some in +music, some in poetry. The Greeks most fully embodied their ideas in two +ways, first in their splendid literature, both prose and verse, and +secondly, in their plastic and pictorial art, in which matter they have +remained to our days among the greatest instructors of mankind. The +three arts of architecture, sculpture and painting were brought by them +into a focus; and by their aid they produced a visible splendour of +public life such as has perhaps been nowhere else attained. + +The volume of the remains of Greek civilization is so vast, and the +learning with which these have been discussed is so ample, that it is +hopeless to attempt to give in a work like the present any complete +account of either. Rather we shall be frankly eclectic, choosing for +consideration such results of Greek art as are most noteworthy and most +characteristic. In some cases it will be possible to give a reference to +a more detailed treatment of particular monuments in these volumes under +the heading of the places to which they belong. Architectural detail is +relegated to ARCHITECTURE and allied architectural articles. Coins (see +NUMISMATICS) and gems (see GEMS) are treated apart, as are vases +(CERAMICS), and in the bibliography which closes this article an effort +is made to direct those who wish for further information in any +particular branch of our subject. + +1. _The Rediscovery of Greek Art._--The visible works of Greek +architect, sculptor and painter, accumulated in the cities of Greece and +Asia Minor until the Roman conquest. And in spite of the ravages of +conquering Roman generals, and the more systematic despoilings of the +emperors, we know that when Pausanias visited Greece, in the age of the +Antonines, it was from coast to coast a museum of works of art of all +ages. But the tide soon turned. Works of originality were no longer +produced, and a succession of disasters gradually obliterated those of +previous ages. In the course of the Teutonic and Slavonic invasions from +the north, or in consequence of earthquakes, very frequent in Greece, +the splendid cities and temples fell into ruins; and with the taking of +Constantinople by the Franks in 1204 the last great collection of works +of Greek sculpture disappeared. But while paintings decayed, and works +in metal were melted down, many marble buildings and statues survived, +at least in a mutilated condition, while terra-cotta is almost proof +against decay. + +With the Renaissance attention was directed to the extant remains of +Greek and Roman art; as early as the 15th century collections of ancient +sculpture, coins and gems began to be formed in Italy; and in the 16th +the enthusiasm spread to Germany and France. The earl of Arundel, in the +reign of James I., was the first Englishman to collect antiques from +Italy and Asia Minor: his marbles are now in the Ashmolean Museum at +Oxford. Systematic travel in Greece for the discovery of buildings and +works of art was begun by Spon and Wheler (1675-1676); and the discovery +of Pompeii in 1748 opened a new chapter in the history of ancient art. + +But though kings delighted to form galleries of ancient statues, and the +great Italian artists of the Renaissance drew from them inspiration for +their paintings and bronzes, the first really critical appreciation of +Greek art belongs to Winckelmann (_Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums_, +1764). The monuments accessible to Winckelmann were but a very small +proportion of those we now possess, and in fact mostly works of inferior +merit: but he was the first to introduce the historical method into the +treatment of ancient art, and to show how it embodied the ideas of the +great peoples of the ancient world. He was succeeded by Lessing, and the +waves of thought and feeling set in motion by these two affected the +cultivated class in all nations,--they inspired in particular Goethe in +Germany and Lord Byron in England. + +The second stage in the recovery of Greek art begins with the permission +accorded by the Porte to Lord Elgin in 1800 to remove to England the +sculptural decoration of the Parthenon and other buildings of Athens. +These splendid works, after various vicissitudes, became the property of +the English nation, and are now the chief treasures of the British +Museum. The sight of them was a revelation to critics and artists, +accustomed only to the base copies which fill the Italian galleries, and +a new epoch in the appreciation of Greek art began. English and German +savants, among whom Cockerell and Stackelberg were conspicuous, +recovered the glories of the temples of Aegina and Bassae. Leake and +Ross, and later Curtius, journeyed through the length and breadth of +Greece, identifying ancient sites and studying the monuments which were +above ground. Ross reconstructed the temple of Athena Nike on the +Acropolis of Athens from fragments rescued from a Turkish bastion. + +Meantime more methodical exploration brought to light the remains of +remarkable civilizations in Asia, not only in the valley of the +Euphrates, but in Lycia, whence Sir Charles Fellows brought to London +the remains of noteworthy tombs, among which the so-called Harpy +Monument and Nereid Monument take the first place. Still more important +were the accessions derived from the excavations of Sir Charles Newton, +who in the years 1852-1859 resided as consul in Asia Minor, and explored +the sites of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the shrine of Demeter at +Cnidus. Pullan at Priene, and Wood at Ephesus also made fruitful +excavations. + +The next landmark is set by the German excavations at Olympia (1876 and +foll.), which not only were conducted with a scientific completeness +before unknown, and at great cost, but also established the principle +that in future all the results of excavations in Greece must remain in +the country, the right of first publication only remaining with the +explorers. The discovery of the Hermes of Praxiteles, almost the only +certain original of a great Greek sculptor which we possess, has +furnished a new and invaluable fulcrum for the study of ancient art. In +emulation of the achievements of the Germans at Olympia, the Greek +archaeological society methodically excavated the Athenian acropolis, +and were rewarded by finding numerous statues and fragments of pediments +belonging to the age of Peisistratus, an age when the promise of art was +in full bud. More recently French explorers have made a very thorough +examination of the site of Delphi, and have succeeded in recovering +almost complete two small treasuries, those of the people of Athens and +of Cnidus or Siphnos, the latter of 6th-century Ionian work, and adorned +with extremely important sculpture. + +No other site of the same importance as Athens, Olympia and Delphi +remains for excavation in Greece proper. But in all parts of the +country, at Tegea, Corinth, Sparta and on a number of other ancient +sites, striking and important monuments have come to light. And at the +same time monuments already known in Italy and Sicily, such as the +temples of Paestum, Selinus and Agrigentum have been re-examined with +fuller knowledge and better system. Only Asia Minor, under the influence +of Turkish rule, has remained a country where systematic exploration is +difficult. Something, however, has been accomplished at Ephesus, Priene, +Assos and Miletus, and great works of sculpture such as the reliefs of +the great altar at Pergamum, now at Berlin, and the splendid sarcophagi +from Sidon, now at Constantinople, show what might be expected from +methodic investigation of the wealthy Greek cities of Asia. + +From further excavations at Herculaneum we may expect a rich harvest of +works of art of the highest class, such as have already been found in +the excavations on that site in the past; and the building operations at +Rome are constantly bringing to light fine statues brought from Greece +in the time of the Empire, which are now placed in the collections of +the Capitol and the Baths of Diocletian. + +The work of explorers on Greek sites requires as its complement and +corrective much labour in the great museums of Europe. As museum work +apart from exploration tends to dilettantism and pedantry, so +exploration by itself does not produce reasoned knowledge. When a new +building, a great original statue, a series of vases is discovered, +these have to be fitted in to the existing frame of our knowledge; and +it is by such fitting in that the edifice of knowledge is enlarged. In +all the museums and universities of Europe the fresh examination of new +monuments, the study of style and subject, and attempts to work out +points in the history of ancient art, are incessantly going on. Such +archaeological work is an important element in the gradual education of +the world, and is fruitful, quite apart from the particular results +attained, because it encourages a method of thought. Archaeology, +dealing with things which can be seen and handled, yet being a species +of historic study, lies on the borderland between the province of +natural science and that of historic science, and furnishes a bridge +whereby the methods of investigation proper to physical and biological +study may pass into the human field. + + These investigations and studies are recorded, partly in books, but + more particularly in papers in learned journals (see bibliography), + such as the _Mitteilungen_ of the German Institute, and the English + _Journal of Hellenic Studies_. + +An example or two may serve to give the reader a clearer notion of the +recent progress in the knowledge of Greek art. + +To begin with architecture. Each of the palmary sites of which we have +spoken has rendered up examples of early Greek temples. At Olympia there +is the Heraeum, earliest of known temples of Greece proper, which +clearly shows the process whereby stone gradually superseded wood as a +constructive material. At Delphi the explorers have been so fortunate as +to be able to put together the treasuries of the Cnidians (or Siphnians) +and of the Athenians. The former (see fig. 17) is a gem of early Ionic +art, with two Caryatid figures in front in the place of columns, and +adorned with the most delicate tracery and fine reliefs. On the Athenian +acropolis very considerable remains have been found of temples which +were destroyed by the Persians when they temporarily occupied the site +in 480 B.C. And recently the ever-renewed study of the Erechtheum has +resulted in a restoration of its original form more valuable and +trustworthy than any previously made. + +In the field of sculpture recent discoveries have been too many and too +important to be mentioned at any length. One instance may serve to mark +the rapidity of our advance. When the remains of the Mausoleum were +brought to London from the excavations begun by Sir Charles Newton in +1856 we knew from Pliny that four great sculptors, Scopas, Bryaxis, +Leochares and Timotheus, had worked on the sculpture; but we knew of +these artists little more than the names. At present we possess many +fragments of two pediments at Tegea executed under the direction of +Scopas, we have a basis with reliefs signed by Bryaxis, we have +identified a group in the Vatican museum as a copy of the Ganymede of +Leochares, and we have pedimental remains from Epidaurus which we know +from inscriptional evidence to be either the works of Timotheus or made +from his models. Any one can judge how enormously our power of +criticizing the Mausoleum sculptures, and of comparing them with +contemporary monuments, has increased. + +In regard to ancient painting we can of course expect no such fresh +illumination. Many important wail-paintings of the Roman age have been +found at Rome and Pompeii: but we have no certain or even probable work +of any great Greek painter. We have to content ourselves with studying +the colouring of reliefs, such as those of the sarcophagi at +Constantinople, and the drawings on vases, in order to get some notion +of the composition and drawing of painted scenes in the great age of +Greece. As to the portraits of the Roman age painted on wood which have +come in considerable quantities from Egypt, they stand at a far lower +level than even the paintings of Pompeii. The number of our +vase-paintings, however, increases steadily, and whole classes, such as +the early vases of Ionia, are being marked off from the crowd, and so +becoming available for use in illustrating the history of Hellenic +civilization. + +The study of Greek art is thus one which is eminently progressive. It +has over the study of Greek literature the immense advantage that its +materials increase far more rapidly. And it is becoming more and more +evident that a sound and methodic study of Greek art is quite as +indispensable as a foundation for an artistic and archaeological +education as the study of Greek poets and orators is as a basis of +literary education. The extreme simplicity and thorough rationality of +Greek art make it an unrivalled field for the training and exercise of +the faculties which go to the making of the art-critic and art +historian. + +2. _The General Principles of Greek Art._--Before proceeding to sketch +the history of the rise and decline of Greek art, it is desirable +briefly to set forth the principles which underlie it (see also P. +Gardner's _Grammar of Greek Art_). + +As the literature of Greece is composed in a particular language, the +grammar and the syntax of which have to be studied before the works in +poetry and prose can be read, so Greek works of art are composed in what +may be called an artistic language. To the accidence of a grammar may be +compared the mere technique of sculpture and painting: to the syntax of +a grammar correspond the principles of composition and grouping of +individual figures into a relief or picture. By means of the rules of +this grammar the Greek artist threw into form the ideas which belonged +to him as a personal or a racial possession. + +We may mention first some of the more external conditions of Greek art; +next, some of those which the Greek spirit posited for itself. + +No nation is in its works wholly free from the domination of climate and +geographical position; least of all a people so keenly alive to the +influence of the outer world as the Greeks. They lived in a land where +the soil was dry and rocky, far less hospitable to vegetation than that +of western Europe, while on all sides the horizon of the land was +bounded by hard and jagged lines of mountain. The sky was extremely +clear and bright, sunshine for a great part of the year almost +perpetual, and storms, which are more than passing gales, rare. It was +in accordance with these natural features that temples and other +buildings should be simple in form and bounded by clear lines. Such +forms as the cube, the oblong, the cylinder, the triangle, the pyramid +abound in their constructions. Just as in Switzerland the gables of the +chalets match the pine-clad slopes and lofty summits of the mountains, +so in Greece, amid barer hills of less elevation, the Greek temple looks +thoroughly in place. But its construction is related not only to the +surface of the land, but also to the character of the race. M. Emile +Boutmy, in his interesting _Philosophie de l'architecture en Grece_, has +shown how the temple is a triumph of the senses and the intellect, not +primarily emotional, but showing in every part definite purpose and +design. It also exhibits in a remarkable degree the love of balance, of +symmetry, of a mathematical proportion of parts and correctness of +curvature which belong to the Greek artist. + +The purposes of a Greek temple may be readily judged from its plan. +Primarily it was the abode of the deity, whose statue dwelt in it as men +dwell in their own houses. Hence the cella or _naos_ is the central +feature of the building. Here was placed the image to which worship was +brought, while the treasures belonging to the god were disposed partly +in the cella itself, partly in a kind of treasury which often existed, +as in the Parthenon, behind the cella. There was in large temples a +porch of approach, the _pronaos_, and another behind, the +_opisthodomos_. Temples were not meant for, nor accommodated to, regular +services or a throng of worshippers. Processions and festivals took +place in the open air, in the streets and fields, and men entered the +abodes of the gods at most in groups and families, commonly alone. Thus +when a place had been found for the statue, which stood for the presence +of the god, for the small altar of incense, for the implements of cult +and the gifts of votaries, little space remained free, and great spaces +or subsidiary chapels such as are usual in Christian cathedrals did not +exist (see TEMPLE). + +Here our concern is not with the purposes or arrangements of a temple, +but with its appearance and construction, regarded as a work of art, and +as an embodiment of Greek ideas. A few simple and striking principles +may be formulated, which are characteristic of all Greek buildings:-- + +(i.) Each member of the building has one function, and only one, and +this function controls even the decoration of that member. The pillar of +a temple is made to support the architrave and is for that purpose only. +The flutings of the pillar, being perpendicular, emphasize this fact. +The line of support which runs up through the pillar is continued in the +triglyph, which also shows perpendicular grooves. On the other hand, the +wall of a temple is primarily meant to divide or space off; thus it may +well at the top be decorated by a horizontal band of relief, which +belongs to it as a border belongs to a curtain. The base of a column, if +moulded, is moulded in such a way as to suggest support of a great +weight; the capital of a column is so carved as to form a transition +between the column and the cornice which it supports. + +(ii.) Greek architects took the utmost pains with the proportions, the +symmetry as they called it, of the parts of their buildings. This was a +thing in which the keen and methodical eyes of the Greeks delighted, to +a degree which a modern finds it hard to understand. Simple and natural +relations, 1:2, 1:3, 2:3 and the like, prevailed between various members +of a construction. All curves were planned with great care, to please +the eye with their flow; and the alternations and correspondences of +features is visible at a glance. For example, the temple must have two +pediments and two porches, and on its sides and fronts triglyph and +metope must alternate with unvarying regularity. + +(iii.) Rigidity in the simple lines of a temple is avoided by the device +that scarcely any outline is actually straight. All are carefully +planned and adapted to the eye of the spectator. In the Parthenon the +line of the floor is curved, the profiles of the columns are curved, the +corner columns slope inward from their bases, the columns are not even +equidistant. This elaborate adaptation, called entasis, was expounded by +F. C. Penrose in his work on Athenian architecture, and has since been +observed in several of the great temples of Greece. + +(iv.) Elaborate decoration is reserved for those parts of the temple +which have, or at least appear to have, no strain laid upon them. It is +true that in the archaic age experiments were made in carving reliefs on +the lower drums of columns (as at Ephesus) and on the line of the +architrave (as at Assus). But such examples were not followed. Nearly +always the spaces reserved for mythological reliefs or groups are the +tops of walls, the spaces between the triglyphs, and particularly the +pediments surmounting the two fronts, which might be left hollow without +danger to the stability of the edifice. Detached figures in the round +are in fact found only in the pediments, or standing upon the tops of +the pediments. And metopes are sculptured in higher relief than friezes. + + "When we examine in detail even the simplest architectural decoration, + we discover a combination of care, sense of proportion, and reason. + The flutings of an Ionic column are not in section mere arcs of a + circle, but made up of a combination of curves which produce a + beautiful optical effect; the lines of decoration, as may be best seen + in the case of the Erechtheum, are cut with a marvellous delicacy. + Instead of trying to invent new schemes, the mason contents himself + with improving the regular patterns until they approach perfection, + and he takes everything into consideration. Mouldings on the outside + of a temple, in the full light of the sun, are differently planned + from those in the diffused light of the interior. Mouldings executed + in soft stone are less fine than those in marble. The mason thinks + before he works, and while he works, and thinks in entire + correspondence with his surroundings."[1] + +Greek architecture, however, is treated elsewhere (see ARCHITECTURE); we +will therefore proceed to speak briefly of the principles exemplified in +sculpture. Existing works of Greek sculpture fall easily into two +classes. The first class comprises what may be called works of +substantive art, statues or groups made for their own sake and to be +judged by themselves. Such are cult-statues of gods and goddesses from +temple and shrine, honorary portraits of rulers or of athletes, +dedicated groups and the like. The second class comprises decorative +sculptures, such as were made, usually in relief, for the decoration of +temples and tombs and other buildings, and were intended to be +subordinate to architectural effect. + +Speaking broadly, it may be said that the works of substantive sculpture +in our museums are in the great majority of cases copies of doubtful +exactness and very various merit. The Hermes of Praxiteles is almost the +only marble statue which can be assigned positively to one of the great +sculptors; we have to work back towards the productions of the peers of +Praxiteles through works of poor execution, often so much restored in +modern times as to be scarcely recognizable. Decorative works, on the +other hand, are very commonly originals, and their date can often be +accurately fixed, as they belong to known buildings. They are thus +infinitely more trustworthy and more easy to deal with than the copies +of statues of which the museums of Europe, and more especially those of +Italy, are full. They are also more commonly unrestored. But yet there +are certain disadvantages attaching to them. Decorative works, even when +carried out under the supervision of a great sculptor, were but seldom +executed by him. Usually they were the productions of his pupils or +masons. Thus they are not on the same level of art as substantive +sculpture. And they vary in merit to an extraordinary extent, according +to the capacity of the man who happened to have them in hand, and who +was probably but little controlled. Every one knows how noble are the +pedimental sculptures of the Parthenon. But we know no reason why they +should be so vastly superior to the frieze from Phigalia; nor why the +heads from the temple at Tegea should be so fine, while those from the +contemporary temple at Epidaurus should be comparatively insignificant. +From the records of payments made to the sculptors who worked on the +Erechtheum at Athens it appears that they were ordinary masons, some of +them not even citizens, and paid at the rate of 60 drachms (about 60 +francs) for each figure, whether of man or horse, which they produced. +Such piece-work would not, in our days, produce a very satisfactory +result. + +Works of substantive sculpture may be divided into two classes, the +statues of human beings and those of the gods. The line between the two +is not, however, very easy to draw, or very definite. For in +representing men the Greek sculptor had an irresistible inclination to +idealize, to represent what was generic and typical rather than what was +individual, and the essential rather than the accidental. And in +representing deities he so fully anthropomorphized them that they became +men and women, only raised above the level of everyday life and endowed +with a superhuman stateliness. Moreover, there was a class of heroes +represented largely in art who covered the transition from men to gods. +For example, if one regards Heracles as a deity and Achilles as a man of +the heroic age and of heroic mould, the line between the two will be +found to be very narrow. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + _Photo, Brogi._ + FIG. 50. HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON. (NAT. MUS. NAPLES.) + + _Photo, Brogi._ + FIG. 51. FARNESE BULL. (NAPLES.) + + _Photo, Anderson._ + FIG. 52. LAOCOON GROUP. (VATICAN.) + + _Photo, Anderson._ + FIG. 53. GANYMEDE OF LEOCHARES. (VATICAN.)] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + _Photo, Anderson._ + FIG. 54.--FLYING OF MARSYAS. (VILLA ALBANI, ROME.) + + _Photo, Anderson._ + FIG. 55.--APOLLO OF THE BELVIDERE. (VATICAN.)] + + FIG. 56.--HEAD OF YOUNG ALEXANDER. (BRIT. MUS.) + + _Photo, Seebah._ + FIG. 57.--HERMES OF ALCAMENES. (CONSTANTINOPLE.) + + FIG. 58.--THESEUS AND AMAZON (ERETRIA). + + _Photo, Mansell._ + FIG. 59.--DRUM OF COLUMN FROM EPHESUS. (BRIT. MUS.) + + _Photo, Baldwin Coolidge._ + FIG. 60.--YOUNG HERMES. (MUS. OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON.)] + +Nevertheless one may for convenience speak first of human and afterwards +of divine figures. It was the custom from the 6th century onwards to +honour those who had done any great achievement by setting up their +statues in conspicuous positions. One of the earliest examples is that +of the tyrannicides, Harmodius and Aristogiton, a group, a copy of which +has come down to us (Plate I. fig. 50[2]). Again, people who had not won +any distinction were in the habit of dedicating to the deities portraits +of themselves or of a priest or priestess, thus bringing themselves, as +it were, constantly under the notice of a divine patron. The rows of +statues before the temples at Miletus, Athens and elsewhere came thus +into being. But from the point of view of art, by far the most important +class of portraits consisted of athletes who had won victories at some +of the great games of Greece, at Olympia, Delphi or elsewhere. Early in +the 6th century the custom arose of setting up portraits of athletic +victors in the great sacred places. We have records of numberless such +statues executed by all the greatest sculptors. When Pausanias visited +Greece he found them everywhere far too numerous for complete mention. + +It is the custom of studying and copying the forms of the finest of the +young athletes, combined with the Greek habit of complete nudity during +the sports, which lies at the basis of Greek excellence in sculpture. +Every sculptor had unlimited opportunities for observing young vigorous +bodies in every pose and in every variety of strain. The natural sense +of beauty which was an endowment of the Greek race impelled him to copy +and preserve what was excellent, and to omit what was ungainly or poor. +Thus there existed, and in fact there was constantly accumulating, a +vast series of types of male beauty, and the public taste was cultivated +to an extreme delicacy. And of course this taste, though it took its +start from athletic customs, and was mainly nurtured by them, spread to +all branches of portraiture, so that elderly men, women, and at last +even children, were represented in art with a mixture of ideality and +fidelity to nature such as has not been reached by the sculpture of any +other people. + +The statues of the gods began either with stiff and ungainly figures +roughly cut out of the trunk of a tree, or with the monstrous and +symbolical representations of Oriental art. In the Greece of late times +there were still standing rude pillars, with the tops sometimes cut into +a rough likeness to the human form. And in early decoration of vases and +vessels one may find Greek deities represented with wings, carrying in +their hands lions or griffins, bearing on their heads lofty crowns. But +as Greek art progressed it grew out of this crude symbolism. In the +language of Brunn, the Greek artists borrowed from Oriental or Mycenaean +sources the letters used in their works, but with these letters they +spelled out the ideas of their own nation. What the artists of Babylon +and Egypt express in the character of the gods by added attribute or +symbol, swiftness by wings, control of storms by the thunderbolt, traits +of character by animal heads, the artists of Greece work more and more +fully into the sculptural type; modifying the human subject by the +constant addition of something which is above the ordinary level of +humanity, until we reach the Zeus of Pheidias or the Demeter of Cnidus. +When the decay of the high ethical art of Greece sets in, the gods +become more and more warped to the merely human level. They lose their +dignity, but they never lose their charm. + +The decorative sculpture of Greece consists not of single figures, but +of groups; and in the arrangement of these groups the strict Greek laws +of symmetry, of rhythm, and of balance, come in. We will take the three +most usual forms, the pediment, the metope and the frieze, all of which +belong properly to the temple, but are characteristic of all decoration, +whether of tomb, trophy or other monument. + +The form of the pediment is triangular; the height of the triangle in +proportion to its length being about 1:8. The conditions of space are +here strict and dominant; to comply with them requires some ingenuity. +To a modern sculptor the problem thus presented is almost insoluble; but +it was allowable in ancient art to represent figures in a single +composition as of various sizes, in correspondence not to actual +physical measurement but to importance. As the more important figures +naturally occupy the midmost place in a pediment, their greater size +comes in conveniently. And by placing some of the persons of the group +in a standing, some in a seated, some in a reclining position, it can be +so contrived that their heads are equidistant from the upper line of the +pediment. + +The statues in a Greek pediment, which are after quite an early period +usually executed in the round, fall into three, five or seven groups, +according to the size of the whole. As examples to illustrate this +exposition we take the two pediments of the temple at Olympia, the most +complete which have come down to us, which are represented in figs. 33 +and 34. The east pediment represents the preparation for the chariot +race between Pelops and Oenomaus. The central group consists of five +figures, Zeus standing between the two pairs of competitors and their +wives. In the corners recline the two river-gods Alpheus and Cladeus, +who mark the locality; and the two sides are filled up with the closely +corresponding groups of the chariots of Oenomaus and Pelops with their +grooms and attendants. Every figure to the left of Zeus balances a +corresponding figure on his right, and all the lines of the composition +slope towards a point above the apex of the pediment. + +In the opposite or western pediment is represented the battle between +Lapiths and Centaurs which broke out at the marriage of Peirithous in +Thessaly. Here we have no less than nine groups. In the midst is Apollo. +On each side of him is a group of three, a centaur trying to carry off a +woman and a Lapith striking at him. Beyond these on each side is a +struggling pair, next once more a trio of two combatants and a woman, +and finally in each corner two reclining female figures, the outermost +apparently nymphs to mark locality. A careful examination of these +compositions will show the reader more clearly than detailed description +how clearly in this kind of group Greek artists adhered to the rules of +rhythm and of balance. + +The metopes were the long series of square spaces which ran along the +outer walls of temples between the upright triglyphs and the cornice. +Originally they may have been left open and served as windows; but the +custom came in as early as the 7th century, first of filling them in +with painted boards or slabs of stone, and next of adorning them with +sculpture. The metopes of the Treasury of Sicyon at Delphi (Plate IV. +fig. 66) are as early as the first half of the 6th century. This +recurrence of a long series of square fields for occupation well suited +the genius and the habits of the sculptor. As subjects he took the +successive exploits of some hero such as Heracles or Theseus, or the +contemporary groups of a battle. His number of figures was limited to +two or three, and these figures had to be worked into a group or scheme, +the main features of which were determined by artistic tradition, but +which could be varied in a hundred ways so as to produce a pleasing and +in some degree novel result. + +With metopes, as regards shape, we may compare the reliefs of Greek +tombs, which also usually occupy a space roughly square, and which also +comprise but a few figures arranged in a scheme generally traditional. A +figure standing giving his hand to one seated, two men standing hand in +hand, or a single figure in some vigorous pose is sufficient to satisfy +the simple but severe taste of the Greeks. + +In regard to friezes, which are long reliefs containing figures ranged +between parallel lines, there is more variety of custom. In temples the +height of the relief from the background varies according to the light +in which it was to stand, whether direct or diffused. Almost all Greek +friezes, however, are of great simplicity in arrangement and +perspective. Locality is at most hinted at by a few stones or trees, +never actually portrayed. There is seldom more than one line of figures, +in combat or procession, their heads all equidistant from the top line +of the frieze. They are often broken up into groups; and when this is +the case, figure will often balance figure on either side of a central +point almost as rigidly as in a pediment. An example of this will be +found in the section of the Mausoleum frieze shown in fig. 70, Plate IV. +Some of the friezes executed by Greek artists for semi-Greek peoples, +such as those adorning the tomb at Trysa in Lycia, have two planes, the +figures in the background being at a higher level. + +The rules of balance and symmetry in composition which are followed in +Greek decorative art are still more to be discerned in the paintings of +vases, which must serve, in the absence of more dignified compositions, +to enlighten us as to the methods of Greek painters. Great painters +would not, of course, be bound by architectonic rule in the same degree +as the mere workmen who painted vases. Nevertheless we must never forget +that Greek painting of the earlier ages was of extreme simplicity. It +did not represent localities, save by some slight hint; it had next to +no perspective; the colours used were but very few even down to the days +of Apelles. Most of the great pictures of which we hear consisted of but +one or two figures; and when several figures were introduced they were +kept apart and separately treated, though, of course, not without +relation to one another. Idealism and ethical purpose must have +predominated in painting as in sculpture and in the drama and in the +writing of history. + +We will take from vases a few simple groups to illustrate the laws of +Greek drawing; colouring we cannot illustrate. + +[Illustration: (_Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Vases_, iii, Pl. vi. 2). + +FIG. 1.--Kylix by Epictetus] + +The fields offered to the draughtsman on Greek vases naturally follow +the form of the vase; but they may be set down as approximately round, +square or oblong. To each of these spaces the artist carefully adapts +his designs. In fig. 1 we have a characteristic adaptation to circular +form by the vase painter Epictetus. + +In the early period of painting all the space not occupied by the +figures is filled with patterns or accessories, or even animals which +have no connexion with the subject (fig. 9). In later and more developed +art, as in this example, the outlines are so figured as to fill the +space. + +When the space is square we have much the same problem as is presented +by the metope spaces of a temple. In the case of both square and oblong +fields the laws of balance are carefully observed. Thus if there is an +even number of figures in the scheme, two of them will form a sort of +centre-piece, those on either side balancing one another. If the number +of figures is uneven, either there will be a group of three in the +midst, or the midmost figure will be so contrived that he belongs wholly +to neither side, but is the balance between them. These remarks will be +made clear by figs. 2 and 3, which repeat the two sides of an amphora, +one of which bears a design of three figures, the other of four. + +[Illustration: From _Wiener Vorlegeblatter_, 1890, Pl. viii., by +permission of the Director of the _K. K. Osterr. Archaol. Institut._ + +FIG. 2. + +FIG. 3. + +Vase Drawings.] + +The Greek artist not only adhered to the architectonic laws of balance +and symmetry, but he thought in schemes. Certain group arrangements had +a recognized signification. There are schemes for warriors fighting on +equal terms, and schemes which represent the defeat of one of these by +the other; the vanquished has commonly fallen on his knees, but still +defends himself. There is a scheme for the leading away of a captive +woman; the captor leads her by the hand looking back at her, while a +friend walks behind to ward off pursuit. Such schemes, are constantly +varied in detail, and often very skilfully varied; but the Greek artist +uses schemes as a sort of shorthand, to show as clearly as possible what +he meant. They serve the same purpose as the mask in the acting of a +play, the first glance at which will tell the spectators what they have +to look for. + +No doubt the great painters of Greece were not so much under the +dominion of these schemes as the very inferior painters of vases. They +used the schemes for their own purposes instead of being used by them. +But as great poets do not revolt against the restrictions of the sonnet +or of rhyme, so great artists in Greece probably found recognized +conventions more helpful than hurtful. + +Students of Greek sculpture and vases must be warned not to suppose that +Greek reliefs and drawings can be taken as direct illustrations of Homer +or the dramatists. Book illustration in the modern sense did not exist +in Greece. The poet and the painter pursued courses which were parallel, +but never in actual contact. Each moved by the traditions of his own +craft. The poet took the accepted tale and enshrined it in a setting of +feeling and imagination. The painter took the traditional schemes which +were current, and altered or enlarged them, adding new figures and new +motives, but not attempting to set aside the general scheme. But +varieties suitable to poetry were not likely to be suitable in painting. +Thus it is but seldom that a vase-painter seems to have had in his mind, +as he drew, passages of the Homeric poems, though these might well be +familiar to him. And almost never does a vase-painting of the 5th +century show any sign of the influence of the dramatists, who were +bringing before the Athenian public on the stage many of the tales and +incidents popular with the vase-painter. Only on vases of lower Italy of +the 4th century and later we can occasionally discern something of +Aeschylean and Euripidean influence in the treatment of a myth; and even +in a few cases we may discern that the vase-painter has taken +suggestions direct from the actors in the theatre. + +3. _Historic Sketch._--We propose next to trace in brief outline the +history of Greek art from its rise to its decay. We begin with the rise +of a national art, after the destruction of the Minoan and Mycenaean +civilizations of early Greece by the irruption of tribes from the north, +that is to say, about 800 B.C., and we stop with the Roman age of +Greece, after which Greek art works in the service of the conquerors +(see ROMAN ART). The period 800-50 B.C. we divide into four sections: +(1) the period down to the Persian Wars, 800-480 B.C.; (2) the period of +the early schools of art, 480-400 B.C.; (3) the period of the later +great schools, 400-300 B.C.; (4) the period of Hellenistic art, 300-50 +B.C. In dealing with these successive periods we confine our sketch to +the three greater branches of representative art, architecture, +sculpture and painting, which in Greece are closely connected. The +lesser arts, of pottery, gem-engraving, coin-stamping and the like, are +treated of under the heads of CERAMICS, GEM, NUMISMATICS, &c., while the +more technical treatment of architectural construction are dealt with +under ARCHITECTURE and allied architectural articles. Further, for brief +accounts of the chief artists the reader is referred to biographical +articles, under such heads as PHEIDIAS, PRAXITELES, APELLES. We treat +here only of the main course of art in its historic evolution. + + + Northern invasion. + +_Period I. 800-480_ B.C.--The fact is now generally allowed that the +Mycenaean, or as it is now termed Aegean, civilization was for the most +part destroyed by an invasion from the north. This invasion appears to +have been gradual; its racial character is much in dispute. +Archaeological evidence abundantly proves that it was the conquest of a +more by a less rich and civilized race. In the graves of the period +(900-600 B.C.) we find none of the wealthy spoil which has made +celebrated the tombs of Mycenae and Vaphio (q.v.). The character of the +pottery and the bronze-work which is found in these later graves reminds +us of the art of the necropolis of Hallstatt in Austria, and other sites +belonging to what is called the bronze age of North Europe. Its +predominant characteristic is the use of geometrical forms, the lozenge, +the triangle, the maeander, the circle with tangents, in place of the +elaborate spirals and plant-forms which mark Mycenaean ware. For this +reason the period from the 9th to the 7th century in Greece passes by +the name of "the Geometric Age." It is commonly held that in the remains +of the Geometric Age we may trace the influence of the Dorians, who, +coming in as a hardy but uncultivated race, probably of purer Aryan +blood than the previous inhabitants of Greece, not only brought to an +end the wealth and the luxury which marked the Mycenaean age, but also +replaced an art which was in character essentially southern by one which +belonged rather to the north and the west. The great difficulty inherent +in this view, a difficulty which has yet to be met, lies in the fact +that some of the most abundant and characteristic remains of the +geometric age which we possess come, not from Peloponnesus, but from +Athens and Boeotia, which were never conquered by the Dorians. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Geometric Vase from Rhodes. (Ashmolean Museum.)] + +[Illustration: _Mon. d. Inst._ ix. 39. + +FIG. 5.--Corpse with Mourners.] + + + Geometric ware. + +The geometric ware is for the most part adorned with painted patterns +only. Fig. 4 is a characteristic example, a small two-handled vase from +Rhodes in the Ashmolean Museum, the adornment of which consists in +zigzags, circles with tangents, and lines of water birds, perhaps swans. +Sometimes, however, especially in the case of large vases from the +cemetery at Athens, which adjoins the Dipylon gate, scenes from Greek +life are depicted, from daily life, not from legend or divine myth. +Especially scenes from the lying-in-state and the burial of the dead are +prevalent. An excerpt from a Dipylon vase (fig. 5) shows a dead man on +his couch surrounded by mourners, male and female. Both sexes are +apparently represented naked, and are distinguished very simply; some of +them hold branches to sprinkle the corpse or to keep away flies. It will +be seen how primitive and conventional is the drawing of this age, +presenting a wonderful contrast to the free drawing and modelling of the +Mycenaean age. In the same graves with the pottery are sometimes found +plaques of gold or bronze, and towards the end of the geometric age +these sometimes bear scenes from mythology, treated with the greatest +simplicity. For example, in the museum of Berlin are the contents of a +tomb found at Corinth, consisting mainly of gold work of geometric +decoration. But in the same tomb were also found gold plates or plaques +of repousse work bearing subjects from Greek legend. Two of these are +shown in fig. 6. On one Theseus is slaying the Minotaur, while Ariadne +stands by and encourages the hero. The tale could not have been told in +a simpler or more straightforward way. On the other we have an armed +warrior with his charioteer in a chariot drawn by two horses. The +treatment of the human body is here more advanced than on the vases of +the Dipylon. On the site of Olympia, where Mycenaean remains are not +found, but the earliest monuments show the geometric style, a quantity +of dedications in bronze have been found, the decoration of which +belongs to this style. Fig. 7 shows the handle of a tripod from Olympia, +which is adorned with geometric patterns and surmounted by the figure of +a horse. + +[Illustration: _Arch. Zeit._ 1884, 8. + +FIG. 6.--Gold Plaques: Corinth.] + +[Illustration: _Olympia_ iv. 33. + +FIG. 7.--Handle of Tripod.] + +It was about the 6th century that the genius of the Greeks, almost +suddenly, as it seems to us, emancipated itself from the thraldom of +tradition, and passed beyond the limits with which the nations of the +east and west had hitherto been content, in a free and bold effort +towards the ideal. Thus the 6th century marks the stage in art in which +it may be said to have become definitely Hellenic. The Greeks still +borrowed many of their decorative forms, either from the prehistoric +remains in their own country or, through Phoenician agency, from the +old-world empires of Egypt and Babylon, but they used those forms freely +to express their own meaning. And gradually, in the course of the +century, we see both in the painting of vases and in sculpture a +national spirit and a national style forming under the influence of +Greek religion and mythology, Greek athletic training, Greek worship of +beauty. We must here lay emphasis on the fact, which is sometimes +overlooked in an age which is greatly given to the Darwinian search +after origins, that it is one thing to trace back to its original +sources the nascent art of Greece, and quite another thing to follow and +to understand its gradual embodiment of Hellenic ideas and civilization. +The immense success with which the veil has in late years been lifted +from the prehistoric age of Greece, and the clearness with which we can +discern the various strands woven into the web of Greek art, have tended +to fix our attention rather on what Greece possessed in common with all +other peoples at the same early stage of civilization than on what +Greece added for herself to this common stock. In many respects the art +of Greece is incomparable--one of the great inspirations which have +redeemed the world from mediocrity and vulgarity. And it is the +searching out and appreciation of this unique and ideal beauty in all +its phases, in idea and composition and execution, which is the true +task of Greek archaeological science. + +[Illustration: _Mus. Napoleon_, 57. + +FIG. 8.--Jug from Rhodes.] + + + Ionian vases. + +In very recent years it has been possible, for the first time, to trace +the influence of Ionian painting, as represented by vases, on the rise +of art. The discoveries at Naucratis and Daphnae in Egypt, due to the +keenness and pertinacity of W. M. Flinders Petrie, threw new light on +this matter. It became evident that when those cities were first +inhabited by Ionian Greeks, in the 7th century, they used pottery of +several distinct but allied styles, the most notable feature of which +was the use of the lotus in decoration, the presence of continuous +friezes of animals and of monsters, and the filling up of the background +with rosettes, lozenges and other forms. Fig. 8 shows a vase found in +Rhodes which illustrates this Ionian decoration. The sphinx, the deer +and the swan are prominent on it, the last-named serving as a link +between the geometric ware and the more brilliant and varied ware of the +Ionian cities. The assignment of the many species of early Ionic ware to +various Greek localities, Miletus, Samos, Phocaea and other cities, is a +work of great difficulty, which now closely occupies the attention of +archaeologists. For the results of their studies the reader is referred +to two recent German works, Bohlau's _Aus ionischen und italischen +Nekropolen_, and Endt's _Beitrage zur ionischen Vasenmalerei_. The +feature which is most interesting in this pottery from our present point +of view is the way in which representations of Greek myth and legend +gradually make their way, and relegate the mere decoration of the vases +to borders and neck. One of the earliest examples of representation of a +really Greek subject is the contest of Menelaus and Euphorbus on a plate +found in Rhodes. On the vases of Melos, of the 7th century, which are, +however, not Ionian, but rather Dorian in character, we have a certain +number of mythological scenes, battles of Homeric heroes and the like. +One of these is shown in fig. 9. It represents Apollo in a chariot drawn +by winged horses, playing on the lyre, and accompanied by a pair of +Muses, meeting his sister Artemis. It is notable that Apollo is bearded, +and that Artemis holds her stag by the horns, much in the manner of the +deities on Babylonian cylinders; in the other hand she carries an arrow; +above is a line of water birds. + +[Illustration: Conze. _Mel. Tongefasse_, 4. + +FIG. 9.--Vase Painting: Melos.] + +Some sites in Asia Minor and the islands adjoining, such cities as +Samos, Camirus in Rhodes, and the Ionian colonies on the Black Sea, have +furnished us with a mass of ware of the Ionian class, but it seldom +bears interesting subjects; it is essentially decorative. For Ionian +ware which has closer relation to Greek mythology and history we must +turn elsewhere. The cemeteries of the great Etruscan cities, Caere in +particular, have preserved for us a large number of vases, which are now +generally recognized as Ionian in design and drawing, though they may in +some cases be only Italian imitations of Ionian imported ware. Thus has +been filled up what was a blank page in the history of early Greek art. +The Ionian painting is unrestrained in character, characterized by a +licence not foreign to the nature of the race, and wants the +self-control and moderation which belong to Doric art, and to Attic art +after the first. + +Some of the most interesting examples of early Ionic painting are found +on the sarcophagi of Clazomenae. In that city in archaic times an +exceptional custom prevailed of burying the dead in great coffins of +terra-cotta adorned with painted scenes from chariot-racing, war and the +chase. The British Museum possesses some remarkable specimens, which are +published in A. S. Murray's _Terra-Cotta Sarcophagi of the British +Museum_. On one of them he sees depicted a battle between Cimmerian +invaders and Greeks, the former accompanied to the field by their great +war-dogs. In some of the representations of hunting on these sarcophagi +the hunters ride in chariots, a way of hunting quite foreign to the +Greeks, but familiar to us from Assyrian wall-sculptures. We know that +the life of the Ionians before the Persian conquest was refined and not +untinged with luxury, and they borrowed many of the stately ways of the +satraps of the kings of Assyria and Persia. + +[Illustration: Furtwangler, _Goldfund v. Vettersfelde_. + +FIG. 10.--Fish of gold.] + +Fig. 10 shows a curious product of the Ionian workshops, a fish of solid +gold, adorned with reliefs which represent a flying eagle, lions pulling +down their prey, and a monstrous sea-god among his fishes. This relic is +the more valuable on account of the spot where it was found--Vettersfelde +in Brandenburg. It furnishes a proof that the influence and perhaps the +commerce of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea spread far to the north +through the countries of the Scythians and other barbarians. The fish +dates from the 6th century B.C. + +[Illustration: PLATE III. + + _Photo, Giraudon._ + FIG. 61.--WINGED VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE. (LOUVRE.) + + _Photo, Giraudon._ + FIG. 62.--WINGED VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE. (LOUVRE.) + + FIG. 63. HEAD OF WARRIOR, RESTORED, FROM TEGEA. + + _Photo, Anderson._ + FIG. 64.--MARSYAS OF MYRON. (LATERAN MUS.) + + _Photo, Mansell._ + FIG. 65.--EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON; LEFT AND RIGHT ENDS. (BRIT. + MUS.)] + +[Illustration: PLATE IV. + + FIG. 66.--METOPE OF THE TREASURY OF SICYON AT DELPHI. + (From _Fouilles de Delphes_, by permission of A. Fontemoing.) + + FIG. 67.--GREEK PAINTING OF WOMAN'S HEAD. + (From _Comptes Rendus_ of St. Petersburg, 1865. Pl. I.) + + _Photo, F. Bruckmann._ + FIG. 68.--DISCOBOLUS OF MYRON, RESTORED BY PROF. FURTWANGLER. + + _Photo, Giraudon._ + FIG. 69.--FIGHTER OF AGASIAS. (LOUVRE.) + + _Photo, Mansell._ + FIG. 70.--PORTION OF FRIEZE OF MAUSOLEUM. (BRIT. MUS.)] + +[Illustration: Brit. Mus. + +FIG. 11.--Gold Ornaments from Camirus.] + +We may compare some of the gold ornaments from Camirus in Rhodes, which +show an Ionian tendency, perhaps combined with Phoenician elements. On +one of them (fig. 11) we see a centaur with human forelegs holding up a +fawn, on the other the oriental goddess whom the Greeks identified with +their Artemis, winged, and flanked by lions. This form was given to +Artemis on the Corinthian chest of Cypselus, a work of art preserved at +Olympia, and carefully described for us by Pausanias. + +[Illustration: _Mon. d. Inst._ i. 51. + +FIG. 12.--Fight over the Body of Achilles.] + +From Ionia the style of vase-painting which has been called by various +names, but may best be termed the "orientalizing," spread to Greece +proper. Its main home here was in Corinth; and small Corinthian +unguent-vases bearing figures of swans, lions, monsters and human +beings, the intervals between which are filled by rosettes, are found +wherever Corinthian trade penetrated, notably in the cemeteries of +Sicily. For the larger Corinthian vases, which bore more elaborate +scenes from mythology, we must again turn to the graves of the cities of +Etruria. Here, besides the Ionian ware, of which mention has already +been made, we find pottery of three Greek cities clearly defined, that +of Corinth, that of Chalcis in Euboea, and that of Athens. Corinthian +and Chalcidian ware is most readily distinguished by means of the +alphabets used in the inscriptions which have distinctive forms easily +to be identified. Whether in the style of the paintings coming from the +various cities any distinct differences may be traced is a far more +difficult question, into which we cannot now enter. The subjects are +mostly from heroic legend, and are treated with great simplicity and +directness. There is a manly vigour about them which distinguishes them +at a glance from the laxer works of Ionian style. Fig. 12 shows a group +from a Chalcidian vase, which represents the conflict over the dead body +of Achilles. The corpse of the hero lies in the midst, the arrow in his +heel. The Trojan Glaucus tries to draw away the body by means of a rope +tied round the ankle, but in doing so is transfixed by the spear of +Ajax, who charges under the protection of the goddess Athena. Paris on +the Trojan side shoots an arrow at Ajax. + +In fig. 13, from a Corinthian vase, Ajax falls on his sword in the +presence of his colleagues, Odysseus and Diomedes. The short stature of +Odysseus is a well-known Homeric feature. These vases are black-figured; +the heroes are painted in silhouette on the red ground of the vases. +Their names are appended in archaic Greek letters. + +[Illustration: _Mus. Napoleon_, 66. + +FIG. 13.--Suicide of Ajax.] + +[Illustration: _Arch. Zeit._ 1882, 9. + +FIG. 14. Harpies: Attic Vase.] + + + Athens. + +The early history of vase-painting at Athens is complicated. It was only +by degrees that the geometric style gave way to, or developed into, what +is known as the black-figured style. It would seem that until the age of +Peisistratus Athens was not notable in the world of art, and nothing +could be ruder than some of the vases of Athens in the 7th century, for +example that here figured, on one side of which are represented the +winged Harpies (fig. 14) and on the other Perseus accompanied by Athena +flying from the pursuit of the Gorgons. This vase retains in its +decoration some features of geometric style; but the lotus and rosette, +the lion and sphinx which appear on it, belong to the wave of Ionian +influence. Although it involves a departure from strict chronological +order, it will be well here to follow the course of development in +pottery at Athens until the end of our period. Neighbouring cities, and +especially Corinth, seem to have exercised a strong influence at Athens +about the 7th century. We have even a class of vases called by +archaeologists Corintho-Attic. But in the course of the 6th century +there is formed at Athens a distinct and marked black-figured style. The +most-remarkable example of this ware is the so-called Francois vase at +Munich, by Clitias and Ergotimus, which contains, in most careful and +precise rendering, a number of scenes from Greek myth. One of these +vases is dated, since it bears the name and the figure of Callias in his +chariot (_Mon. dell' Inst._ iii. 45), and this Callias won a victory at +Olympia in 564 B.C. Fig. 15 shows the reverse of a somewhat later +black-figured vase of the Panathenaic class, given at Athens as a prize +to the winner of a foot-race at the Panathenaea, with the foot-race +(_stadion_) represented on it. A large number of Athenian vases of the +6th century have reached us, which bear the signatures of the potters +who made, or the artists who painted them; lists of these will be found +in the useful work of Klein, _Griechische Vasen mit Meistersignaturen_. +The recent excavations on the Acropolis have proved the erroneousness +of the view, strongly maintained by Brunn, that the mass of the +black-figured vases were of a late and imitative fabric. We now know +that, with a few exceptions, vases of this class are not later than the +early part of the 5th century. The same excavations have also proved +that red-figured vase-painting, that is, vase-painting in which the +background was blocked out with black, and the figures left in the +natural colour of the vase originated at Athens in the last quarter of +the 6th century. We cannot here give a detailed account of the beautiful +series of Athenian vases of this fabric. Many of the finest of them are +in the British Museum. As an example, fig. 16 presents a group by the +painter Pamphaeus, representing Heracles wrestling with the +river-monster Achelous, which belongs to the age of the Persian Wars. +The clear precision of the figures, the vigour of the grouping, the +correctness of the anatomy and the delicacy of the lines are all marks +of distinction. The student of art will perhaps find the nearest +parallel to these vase-pictures in Japanese drawings. The Japanese +artists are very inferior to the Greek in their love and understanding +of the human body, but equal them in freshness and vigour of design. At +the same time began the beautiful series of white vases made at Athens +for the purpose of burial with the dead, and found in great quantities +in the cemeteries of Athens, of Eretria, of Gela in Sicily, and of some +other cities. They are well represented in the British Museum and that +of Oxford. + +[Illustration: _Mon. d. Inst._ x. 48 m. + +FIG. 15.--Foot-race: Panathenaic Vase.] + +[Illustration: _Wiener Vorlegeblatter_, D. 6. + +FIG. 16.--Heracles and Achelous.] + + + Delphi. + +We now return to the early years of the 6th century, and proceed to +trace, by the aid of recent discoveries, the rise of architecture and +sculpture. The Greek temple in its character and form gives the clue to +the whole character of Greek art. It is the abode of the deity, who is +represented by his sacred image; and the flat surfaces of the temple +offer a great field to the sculptor for the depicting of sacred legend. +The process of discovery has emphasized the line which divides Ionian +from Dorian architecture and art. We will speak first of the temples and +the sculpture of Ionia. The Ionians were a people far more susceptible +than were the Dorians to oriental influences. The dress, the art, the +luxury of western Asia attracted them with irresistible force. We may +suspect, as Brunn has suggested, that Ionian artists worked in the great +Assyrian and Persian palaces, and that the reliefs which adorn the walls +of those palaces were in part their handiwork. Some of the great temples +of Ionia have been excavated in recent years, notably those of Apollo at +Miletus, of Hera at Samos, and of Artemis at Ephesus. Very little, +however, of the architecture of the 6th-century temples of those sites +has been recovered. Quite recently, however, the French excavators at +Delphi have successfully restored the treasury of the people of Cnidus, +which is quite a gem of Ionic style, the entablature being supported in +front not by pillars but by two maidens or Corae, and a frieze running +all round the building above. But though this building is of Ionic type, +it is scarcely in the technical sense of Ionic style, since the columns +have not Ionic capitals, but are carved with curious reliefs. The Ionic +capital proper is developed in Asia by degrees (see ARCHITECTURE and +CAPITAL; also Perrot and Chipiez, _Hist. de l'art_, vii. ch. 4). + +[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Restoration of the Treasury of Cnidus.] + +The Doric temple is not wholly of European origin. One of the earliest +examples is the old temple of Assus in Troas. Yet it was developed +mainly in Hellas and the west. The most ancient example is the Heraeum +at Olympia, next to which come the fragmentary temples of Corinth and of +Selinus in Sicily. With the early Doric temple we are familiar from +examples which have survived in fair preservation to our own days at +Agrigentum in Sicily, Paestum in Italy, and other sites. + +Of the decorative sculpture which adorned these early temples we have +more extensive remains than we have of actual construction. It will be +best to speak of them under their districts. On the coast of Asia Minor, +the most extensive series of archaic decorative sculptures which has +come down to us is that which adorned the temple of Assus (fig. 18). +These were placed in a unique position on the temple, a long frieze +running along the entablature, with representations of wild animals, of +centaurs, of Hercules seizing Achelous, and of men feasting, scene +succeeding scene without much order or method. The only figures from +Miletus which can be considered as belonging to the original temple +destroyed by Darius, are the dedicated seated statues, some of which, +brought away by Sir Charles Newton, are now preserved at the British +Museum. At Ephesus Mr Wood has been more successful, and has recovered +considerable fragments of the temple of Artemis, to which, as Herodotus +tells us, Croesus presented many columns. The lower part of one of these +columns, bearing figures in relief of early Ionian style, has been put +together at the British Museum; and remains of inscriptions recording +the presentation by Croesus are still to be traced. Reliefs from a +cornice of somewhat later date are also to be found at the British +Museum. Among the Aegean Islands, Delos has furnished us with the most +important remains of early art. French excavators have there found a +very early statue of a woman dedicated by one Nicandra to Artemis, a +figure which may be instructively compared with another from Samus, +dedicated to Hera by Cheramues. The Delian statue is in shape like a +flat beam; the Samian, which is headless, is like a round tree. The arms +of the Delian figure are rigid to the sides; the Samian lady has one arm +clasped to her breast. A great improvement on these helpless and +inexpressive figures is marked by another figure found at Delos, and +connected, though perhaps incorrectly, with a basis recording the +execution of a statue by Archermus and Micciades, two sculptors who +stood, in the middle of the 6th century, at the head of a sculptural +school at Chios. The representation (fig. 19) is of a running or flying +figure, having six wings, like the seraphim in the vision of Isaiah, and +clad in long drapery. It may be a statue of Nike or Victory, who is said +to have been represented in winged form by Archermus. The figure, with +its neatness and precision of work, its expressive face and strong +outlines, certainly marks great progress in the art of sculpture. When +we examine the early sculpture of Athens, we find reason to think that +the Chian school had great influence in that city in the days of +Peisistratus. + +[Illustration: From Perrot and Chipiez, vii. pl. 35, by permission of +Chapman and Hall, Ltd., and Hachette & Co. + +FIG. 18.--Restoration of the Temple at Assus.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Nike of Delos, restored.] + +[Illustration: _Athen. Mitteil._ x. 237. + +FIG. 20.--Athenian Pediment: Heracles and Hydra.] + +[Illustration: _Athen. Mitteil._ xxii. 3. + +FIG. 21.--Pediment: Athena and Giant.] + + + Athenian sculpture. + +At Athens, in the age 650-480, we may trace two quite distinct periods +of architecture and sculpture. In the earlier of the two periods, a +rough limestone was used alike for the walls and the sculptural +decoration of temples; in the later period it was superseded by marble, +whether native or imported. Every visitor to the museum of the Athenian +acropolis stands astonished at the recently recovered groups which +decorated the pediments of Athenian temples before the age of +Peisistratus--groups of large size, rudely cut in soft stone, of +primitive workmanship, and painted with bright red, blue and green, in a +fashion which makes no attempt to follow nature, but only to produce a +vivid result. The two largest in scale of these groups seem to have +belonged to the pediments of the early 6th-century temple of Athena. On +other smaller pediments, perhaps belonging to shrines of Heracles and +Dionysus, we have conflicts of Heracles with Triton or with other +monstrous foes. It is notable how fond the Athenian artists of this +early time are of exaggerated muscles and of monstrous forms, which +combine the limbs of men and of animals; the measure and moderation +which mark developed Greek art are as completely absent as are skill in +execution or power of grouping. Fig. 20 shows a small pediment in which +appears in relief the slaying of the Lernaean hydra by Heracles. The +hero strikes at the many-headed water-snake, somewhat inappropriately, +with his club. Iolaus, his usual companion, holds the reins of the +chariot which awaits Heracles after his victory. On the extreme left a +huge crab comes to the aid of the hydra. + +There can be little doubt that Athens owed its great start in art to the +influence of the court of Peisistratus, at which artists of all kinds +were welcome. We can trace a gradual transformation in sculpture, in +which the influence of the Chian and other progressive schools of +sculpture is visible, not only in the substitution of island marble for +native stone, but in increased grace and truth to nature, in the toning +down of glaring colour, and the appearance of taste in composition. A +transition between the older and the newer is furnished by the +well-known statue of the calf-bearer, an Athenian preparing to sacrifice +a calf to the deities, which is made of marble of Hymettus, and in +robust clumsiness of forms is not far removed from the limestone +pediments. The sacrificer has been commonly spoken of as Hermes or +Theseus, but he seems rather to be an ordinary human votary. + +[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Figure by Antenor, restored.] + +In the time of Peisistratus or his sons a peristyle of columns was added +to the old temple of Athena; and this necessitated the preparation of +fresh pediments. These were of marble. In one of them was represented +the battle between gods and giants; in the midst Athena herself striking +at a prostrate foe (fig. 21). In these figures no eye can fail to trace +remarkable progress. On about the same level of art are the charming +statues dedicated to Athena, which were set up in the latter half of the +6th century in the Acropolis, whose graceful though conventional forms +and delicate colouring make them one of the great attractions of the +Acropolis Museum. We show a figure (fig. 22) which, if it be rightly +connected with the basis on which it stands, is the work of the sculptor +Antenor, who was also author of a celebrated group representing the +tyrant-slayers, Harmodius and Aristogiton. To the same age belong many +other votive reliefs of the Acropolis, representing horsemen, scribes +and other votaries of Athena. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Bust from Crete.] + + + Dorian sculpture. + +From Athens we pass to the seats of Dorian art. And in doing so we find +a complete change of character. In place of Dorian draped goddesses and +female figures, we find nude male forms. In place of Ionian softness and +elegance, we find hard, rigid outlines, strong muscular development, a +greater love of and faithfulness to the actual human form--the influence +of the palaestra rather than of the harem. To the known series of +archaic male figures, recent years have added many examples. We may +especially mention a series of figures from the temple of Apollo Ptoos +in Boeotia, probably representing the god himself. Still more noteworthy +are two colossal nude figures of Apollo, remarkable both for force and +for rudeness, found at Delphi, the inscriptions of which prove them to +be the work of an Argive sculptor. (Plate V. fig. 76.) From Crete we +have acquired the upper part of a draped figure (fig. 23), whether male +or female is not certain, which should be an example of the early +Daedalid school, whence the art of Peloponnesus was derived; but we can +scarcely venture to treat it as a characteristic product of that school; +rather the likeness to the dedication of Nicandra is striking. + +Another remarkable piece of Athenian sculpture, of the time of the +Persian Wars, is the group of the tyrannicides Harmodius and +Aristogiton, set up by the people of Athens, and made by the sculptors +Critius and Nesiotes. These figures were hard and rigid in outline, but +showing some progress in the treatment of the nude. Copies are preserved +in the museum of Naples (Plate I. fig. 50). It should be observed that +one of the heads does not belong. + +[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Head of Hera: Olympia.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Spartan Tombstone: Berlin.] + + + Olympia, Sparta, Selinus. + +Next in importance to Athens, as a find-spot for works of early Greek +art, ranks Olympia. Olympia, however, did not suffer like Athens from +sudden violence, and the explorations there have brought to light a +continuous series of remains, beginning with the bronze tripods of the +geometric age already mentioned and ending at the barbarian invasions of +the 4th century A.D. Notable among the 6th-century stone-sculpture of +Olympia are the pediment of the treasury of the people of Megara, in +which is represented a battle of gods and giants, and a huge rude head +of Hera (fig. 24), which seems to be part of the image worshipped in the +Heraeum. Its flatness and want of style are noteworthy. Among the +temples of Greece proper the Heraeum of Olympia stands almost alone for +antiquity and interest, its chief rival, besides the temples of Athens, +being the other temple of Hera at Argos. It appears to have been +originally constructed of wood, for which stone was by slow degrees, +part by part, substituted. In the time of Pausanias one of the pillars +was still of oak, and at the present day the varying diameter of the +columns and other structural irregularities bear witness to the process +of constant renewal which must have taken place. The early small bronzes +of Olympia form an important series, figures of deities standing or +striding, warriors in their armour, athletes with exaggerated muscles, +and women draped in the Ionian fashion, which did not become unpopular +in Greece until after the Persian Wars. Excavations at Sparta have +revealed interesting monuments belonging to the worship of ancestors, +which seems in the conservative Dorian states of Greece to have been +more strongly developed than elsewhere. On some of these stones, which +doubtless belonged to the family cults of Sparta, we see the ancestor +seated holding a wine-cup, accompanied by his faithful horse or dog; on +some we see the ancestor and ancestress seated side by side (fig. 25), +ready to receive the gifts of their descendants, who appear in the +corner of the relief on a much smaller scale. The male figure holds a +wine-cup, in allusion to the libations of wine made at the tomb. The +female figure holds her veil and the pomegranate, the recognized food of +the dead. A huge serpent stands erect behind the pair. The style of +these sculptures is as striking as the subjects; we see lean, rigid +forms with severe outline carved in a very low relief, the surface of +which is not rounded but flat. The name of Selinus in Sicily, an early +Megarian colony, has long been associated with some of the most curious +of early sculptures, the metopes of ancient temples, representing the +exploits of Heracles and of Perseus. Even more archaic metopes have in +recent years been brought to light, one representing a seated sphinx, +one the journey of Europa over the sea on the back of the amorous bull +(fig. 26), a pair of dolphins swimming beside her. In simplicity and in +rudeness of work these reliefs remind us of the limestone pediments of +Athens (fig. 20), but yet they are of another and a severer style; the +Ionian laxity is wanting. + +[Illustration: PLATE V. + + _From a Cast._ + FIG. 71.--APHRODITE OF CNIDUS. (VATICAN.) + + _Photo, Anderson._ + FIG. 72.--BRONZE BOXER OF TERME. (ROME.) + + FIG. 73.--BRONZE OF CERIGOTTO. (ATHENS.) + Found in the sea near Cythera. + + FIG. 74.--AGIAS AT DELPHI. + (From _Fouilles de Delphes_, by permission of A. Fontemoing.) + + FIG. 75.--CORA (KORE) OF ERECHTHEUM. (ATHENS.) + + FIG. 76.--APOLLO AT DELPHI. + (From _Fouilles de Delphes_, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)] + +[Illustration: PLATE VI. + + _Photo, Giraudon._ + FIG. 77.--APHRODITE PF MELOS. (LOUVRE.) + + _Photo, Alinari._ + FIG. 78.--NIOBE AND HER YOUNGEST DAUGHTER. (FLORENCE.) + + _Photo, Anderson._ + FIG. 79.--APOXYOMENUS. (VATICAN.) + + _Photo, Brogi._ + FIG. 80.--DORYPHORUS OF POLYCLITUS. (NAT. MUS., NAPLES.) + + _Photo, Alinari._ + FIG. 81.--ANTIOCH SEATED ON A ROCK. (VATICAN.) + + _Photo, English Photographic Co._ + FIG. 82.--HERMES OF TELES. (OLYMPIA.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Metope: Europa on Bull: Palermo.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Restoration of West Pediment, Aegina.] + + + Delphi. + +The recent French excavations at Delphi add a new and important chapter +to the history of 6th-century art. Of three treasure-houses, those of +Sicyon, Cnidus and Athens, the sculptural adornments have been in great +part recovered. These sculptures form a series almost covering the +century 570-470 B.C., and include representations of some myths of which +we have hitherto had no example. We may say here a few words as to the +sculpture which has been discovered, leaving to the article DELPHI an +account of the topography and the buildings of the sacred site. Of the +archaic temple of Apollo, built as Herodotus tells us by the +Alcmaeonidae of Athens, the only sculptural remains which have come down +to us are some fragments of the pedimental figures. Of the treasuries +which contained the offerings of the pious at Delphi, the most archaic +of which there are remains is that belonging to the people of Sicyon. To +it appertain a set of exceedingly primitive metopes. One represents Idas +and Dioscuri driving off cattle (Plate IV. fig. 66); another, the ship +Argo; another, Europa on the bull, others merely animals, a ram or a +boar. The treasury of the people of Cnidus (or perhaps Siphnos) is in +style some half a century later (see fig. 17). To it belongs a long +frieze representing a variety of curious subjects: a battle, perhaps +between Greeks and Trojans, with gods and goddesses looking on; a +gigantomachy in which the figures of Poseidon, Athena, Hera, Apollo, +Artemis and Cybele can be made out, with their opponents, who are armed +like Greek hoplites; Athena and Heracles in a chariot; the carrying off +of the daughters of Leucippus by Castor and Pollux; Aeolus holding the +winds in sacks. The Treasury of the Athenians, erected at the time of +the Persian Wars, was adorned with metopes of singularly clear-cut and +beautiful style, but very fragmentary, representing the deeds of +Heracles and Theseus. + + + Aegina. + +We have yet to speak of the most interesting and important of all Greek +archaic sculptures, the pediments of the temple at Aegina (q.v.). These +groups of nude athletes fighting over the corpses of their comrades are +preserved at Munich, and are familiar to artists and students. But the +very fruitful excavations of Professor Furtwangler have put them in +quite a new light. Furtwangler (_Aegina: Heiligtum der Aphaia_) has +entirely rearranged these pediments, in a way which removes the extreme +simplicity and rigour of the composition, and introduces far greater +variety of attitudes and motive. We repeat here these new arrangements +(figs. 27 and 28), the reasons for which must be sought in Furtwangler's +great publication. The individual figures are not much altered, as the +restorations of Thorwaldsen, even when incorrect, have now a +prescriptive right of which it is not easy to deprive them. Besides the +pediments of Aegina must be set the remains of the pediments of the +temple of Apollo at Eretria in Euboea, the chief group of which (Plate +II. fig. 58), Theseus carrying off an Amazon, is one of the most finely +executed works of early Greek art. + +_Period II. 480-400 B.C._--The most marvellous phenomenon in the whole +history of art is the rapid progress made by Greece in painting and +sculpture during the 5th century B.C. As in literature the 5th century +takes us from the rude peasant plays of Thespis to the drama of +Sophocles and Euripides; as in philosophy it takes us from Pythagoras to +Socrates; so in sculpture it covers the space from the primitive works +made for the Peisistratidae to some of the most perfect productions of +the chisel. + + + Architecture. + +In architecture the 5th century is ennobled by the Theseum, the +Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the temples of Zeus at Olympia, of Apollo +at Phigalia, and many other central shrines, as well as by the Hall of +the Mystae at Eleusis and the Propylaea of the Acropolis. Some of the +most important of the Greek temples of Italy and Sicily, such as those +of Segesta and Selinus, date from the same age. It is, however, only of +their sculptural decorations, carried out by the greatest masters in +Greece, that we need here treat in any detail. + +[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Restoration of East Pediment, Aegina.] + + + Painting. + +It is the rule in the history of art that innovations and technical +progress are shown earlier in the case of painting than in that of +sculpture, a fact easily explained by the greater ease and rapidity of +the brush compared with the chisel. That this was the order of +development in Greek art cannot be doubted. But our means for judging of +the painting of the 5th century are very slight. The noble paintings of +such masters as Polygnotus, Micon and Panaenus, which once adorned the +walls of the great porticoes of Athens and Delphi, have disappeared. +There remain only the designs drawn rather than painted on the beautiful +vases of the age, which in some degree help us to realize, not the +colouring or the charm of contemporary paintings, but the principle of +their composition and the accuracy of their drawing. + +Polygnotus of Thasos was regarded by his compatriots as a great ethical +painter. His colouring and composition were alike very simple, his +figures quiet and statuesque, his drawing careful and precise. He won +his fame largely by incorporating in his works the best current ideas as +to mythology, religion and morals. In particular his painting of Hades +with its rewards and punishments, which was on the walls of the building +of the people of Cnidus at Delphi, might be considered as a great +religious work, parallel to the paintings of the Campo Santo at Pisa or +to the painted windows of such churches as that at Fairford. But he also +introduced improvements in perspective and greater freedom in grouping. + +[Illustration: _From monumenti dell' Instituto di Correspondenza +archeologica_, xi. 40. + +FIG. 29.--Vase of Orvieto. (The Children of Niobe.)] + +It is fortunate for us that the Greek traveller Pausanias has left us +very careful and detailed descriptions of some of the most important of +the frescoes of Polygnotus, notably of the Taking of Troy and the Visit +to Hades, which were at Delphi. A comparison of these descriptions with +vase paintings of the middle of the 5th century has enabled us to +discern with great probability the principles of Polygnotan drawing and +perspective. Professor Robert has even ventured to restore the paintings +on the evidence of vases. We here represent one of the scenes depicted +on a vase found at Orvieto (fig. 29), which is certainly Polygnotan in +character. It represents the slaying of the children of Niobe by Apollo +and Artemis. Here we may observe a remarkable perspective. The different +heights of the rocky background are represented by lines traversing the +picture on which the figures stand; but the more distant figures are no +smaller than the nearer. The forests of Mount Sipylus are represented by +a single conventional tree. The figures are beautifully drawn, and full +of charm; but there is a want of energy in the action. + +[Illustration: _Arch. Zeit._ 1878, pl. 22. + +FIG. 30.--Vase Drawing.] + +There can be little doubt that the school of Polygnotus exercised great +influence on contemporary sculpture. Panaenus, brother of Pheidias, +worked with Polygnotus, and many of the groupings found in the +sculptures of the Parthenon remind us of those usual with the Thasian +master. At this simple and early stage of art there was no essential +difference between fresco-painting and coloured relief, light and shade +and aerial perspective being unknown. We reproduce two vase-paintings, +one (fig. 30) a group of man and horse which closely resembles figures +in the Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon (fig. 31); the other (fig. +32) representing Victory pouring water for a sacrificial ox to drink, +which reminds us of the balustrade of the shrine of Wingless Victory at +Athens. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Part of Frieze of the Parthenon.] + +Most writers on Greek painting have supposed that after the middle of +the 5th century the technique of painting rapidly improved. This may +well have been the case; but we have little means of testing the +question. Such improvements would soon raise such a barrier between +fresco-painting and vase-painting,--which by its very nature must be +simple and architectonic,--that vases can no longer be used with +confidence as evidence for contemporary painting. The stories told us by +Pliny of the lives of Greek painters are mostly of a trivial and +untrustworthy character. Some of them are mentioned in this +_Encyclopaedia_ under the names of individual artists. We can only +discern a few general facts. Of Agatharchus of Athens we learn that he +painted, under compulsion, the interior of the house of Alcibiades. And +we are told that he painted a scene for the tragedies of Aeschylus or +Sophocles. This has led some writers to suppose that he attempted +illusive landscape; but this is contrary to the possibilities of the +time; and it is fairly certain that what he really did was to paint the +wooden front of the stage building in imitation of architecture; in fact +he painted a permanent architectural background, and not one suited to +any particular play. Of other painters who flourished at the end of the +century, such as Zeuxis and Aristides, it will be best to speak under +the next period. + +[Illustration: From Gerhard's _Auserlesene Vasenbilder_, ii. pl. 1. + +FIG. 32.--Nike and Bull.] + +It is now generally held, in consequence of evidence furnished by tombs, +that the 5th century saw the end of the making of vases on a great scale +at Athens for export to Italy and Sicily. And in fact few things in the +history of art are more remarkable than the rapidity with which +vase-painting at Athens reached its highest point and passed it on the +downward road. At the beginning of the century black-figured ware was +scarcely out of fashion, and the masters of the severe red-figured +style, Pamphaeus, Epictetus and their contemporaries, were in vogue. +The schools of Euphronius, Hiero and Duris belong to the age of the +Persian wars. With the middle of the century the works of these makers +are succeeded by unsigned vases of most beautiful design, some of them +showing the influence of Polygnotus. In the later years of the century, +when the empire of Athens was approaching its fall, drawing becomes +laxer and more careless, and in the treatment of drapery we frequently +note the over-elaboration of folds, the want of simplicity, which begin +to mark contemporary sculpture. These changes of style can only be +satisfactorily followed in the vase rooms of the British Museum, or +other treasuries of Greek art (see also A. B. Walters, _History of +Ancient Pottery_; and the article CERAMICS). + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--East Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 34.--West Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.] + + + Olympia: Temple of Zeus. + +Among the sculptural works of this period the first place may be given +to the great temple of Zeus at Olympia. The statue by Pheidias which +once occupied the place of honour in that temple, and was regarded as +the noblest monument of Greek religion, has of course disappeared, nor +are we able with confidence to restore it. But the plan of the temple, +its pavement, some of its architectural ornaments, remain. The marbles +which occupied the pediments and the metopes of the temple have been in +large part recovered, having been probably thrown down by earthquakes +and gradually buried in the alluvial soil. The utmost ingenuity and +science of the archaeologists of Germany have been employed in the +recovery of the composition of these groups; and although doubt remains +as to the places of some figures, and their precise attitudes, yet we +may fairly say that we know more about the sculpture of the Olympian +temple of Zeus than about the sculpture of any other great Greek temple. +The exact date of these sculptures is not certain, but we may with some +confidence give them to 470-460 B.C. (In speaking of them we shall +mostly follow the opinion of Dr Treu, whose masterly work in vol. iii. +of the great German publication on Olympia is a model of patience and of +science.) In the eastern pediment (fig. 33), as Pausanias tells us, were +represented the preparations for the chariot-race between Oenomaus and +Pelops, the result of which was to determine whether Pelops should find +death or a bride and a kingdom. In the midst, invisible to the +contending heroes, stood Zeus the supreme arbiter. On one side of him +stood Oenomaus with his wife Sterope, on the other Pelops and +Hippodameia, the daughter of Oenomaus, whose position at once indicates +that she is on the side of the newcomer, whatever her parents may feel. +Next on either side are the four-horse chariots of the two competitors, +that of Oenomaus in the charge of his perfidious groom Myrtilus, who +contrived that it should break down in the running, that of Pelops +tended by his grooms. At either end, where the pediment narrows to a +point, reclines a river god, at one end Alpheus, the chief stream of +Olympia, at the other end his tributary Cladeus. Only one figure +remains, not noticed in the careful description of Pausanias, the figure +of a handmaid kneeling, perhaps one of the attendants of Sterope. Our +engraving gives two conjectural restorations of the pediment, that of +Treu and that of Kekule, which differ principally in the arrangement of +the corners of the composition; the position of the central figures and +of the chariots can scarcely be called in question. The moment chosen is +one, not of action, but of expectancy, perhaps of preparation for +sacrifice. The arrangement is undeniably stiff and formal, and in the +figures we note none of the trained perfection of style which belongs to +the sculptures of the Parthenon, an almost contemporary temple. Faults +abound, alike in the rendering of drapery and in the representation of +the human forms, and the sculptor has evidently trusted to the painter +who was afterwards to colour his work, to remedy some of his clumsiness, +or to make clear the ambiguous. Nevertheless there is in the whole a +dignity, a sobriety, and a simplicity, which reconcile us to the +knowledge that this pediment was certainly regarded in antiquity as a +noble work, fit to adorn even the palace of Zeus. In the other, the +western pediment (fig. 34), the subject is the riot of the Centaurs when +they attended the wedding of Peirithous in Thessaly, and, attempting to +carry off the bride and her comrades, were slain by Peirithous and +Theseus. In the midst of the pediment, invisible like Zeus in the +eastern pediment, stands Apollo, while on either side of him Theseus and +Peirithous attack the Centaurs with weapons hastily snatched. Our +illustration gives two possible arrangements. The monsters are in +various attitudes of attempted violence, of combat and defeat; with +each grapples one of the Lapith heroes in the endeavour to rob them of +their prey. In the corners of the pediment recline female figures, +perhaps attendant slaves, though the farthest pair may best be +identified as local Thessalian nymphs, looking on with the calmness of +divine superiority, yet not wholly unconcerned in what is going forward. +Though the composition of the two pediments differs notably, the one +bearing the impress of a parade-like repose, the other of an +overstrained activity, yet the style and execution are the same in both, +and the shortcomings must be attributed to the inferior skill of a local +school of sculptors compared with those of Athens or of Aegina. It even +appears likely that the designs also belong to a local school. +Pausanias, it is true, tells us that the pediments were the work of +Alcamenes, the pupil of Pheidias, and of Paeonius, a sculptor of Thrace, +respectively; but it is almost certain that he was misled by the local +guides, who would naturally be anxious to connect the sculptures of +their great temple with well-known names. + +[Illustration: _Olympia_, iii. 45. + +FIG. 35--Metope: Olympia; restored.] + +[Illustration: _Olympia_, iii. 48. + +FIG. 36--Nike of Paeonius; restored.] + +The metopes of the temple are in the same style of art as the pediments, +but the defects of awkwardness and want of mastery are less conspicuous, +because the narrow limits of the metope exclude any elaborate grouping. +The subjects are provided by the twelve labours of Heracles; the figures +introduced in each metope are but two or at most three; and the action +is simplified as much as possible. The example shown (fig. 35) +represents Heracles holding up the sky on a cushion, with the friendly +aid of a Hesperid nymph, while Atlas, whom he has relieved of his usual +burden, approaches bringing the apples which it was the task of Heracles +to procure. + +Another of the fruits of the excavations of Olympia is the floating +Victory by Paeonius, unfortunately faceless (fig. 36), which was set up +in all probability in memory of the victory of the Athenians and their +Messenian allies at Sphacteria in 425 B.C. The inscription states that +it was dedicated by the Messenians and people of Naupactus from the +spoils of their enemies, but the name of the enemy is not mentioned in +the inscription. The statue of Paeonius, which comes floating down +through the air with drapery borne backward, is of a bold and innovating +type, and we may trace its influence in many works of the next age. + + + Delphic charioteer. + +Among the discoveries at Delphi none is so striking and valuable to us +as the life-size statue in bronze of a charioteer holding in his hand +the reins. This is maintained by M. Homolle to be part of a +chariot-group set up by Polyzalus, brother of Gelo and Hiero of +Syracuse, in honour of a victory won in the chariot-race at the Pythian +games at Delphi (fig. 37). The charioteer is evidently a high-born +youth, and is clad in the long chiton which was necessary to protect a +driver of a chariot from the rush of air. The date would be about +480-470 B.C. Bronze groups representing victorious chariots with their +drivers were among the noblest and most costly dedications of antiquity; +the present figure is our only satisfactory representative of them. In +style the figure is very notable, tall and slight beyond all +contemporary examples. The contrast between the conventional +decorousness of face and drapery and the lifelike accuracy of hands and +feet is very striking, and indicates the clashing of various tendencies +in art at the time when the great style was formed in Greece. + +[Illustration: _Memoires, Piot_, 1807, 16. + +FIG. 37.--Bronze Charioteer: Delphi.] + +The three great masters of the 5th century, Myron, Pheidias and +Polyclitus are all in some degree known to us from their works. Of Myron +we have copies of two works, the Marsyas (Plate III. fig. 64) and the +Discobolus. The Marsyas (a copy in the Lateran Museum) represents the +Satyr so named in the grasp of conflicting emotions, eager to pick up +the flutes which Athena has thrown down, but at the same time dreading +her displeasure if he does so. The Discobolus has usually been judged +from the examples in the Vatican and the British Museum, in which the +anatomy is modernized and the head wrongly put on. We have now +photographs of the very superior replica in the Lancelotti gallery at +Rome, the pose of which is much nearer to the original. Our illustration +represents a restoration made at Munich, by combining the Lancelotti +head with the Vatican body (Plate IV. fig. 68). + +Of the works of Pheidias we have unfortunately no certain copy, if we +except the small replicas at Athens of his Athena Parthenos. The larger +of these (fig. 38) was found in 1880: it is very clumsy, and the +wretched device by which a pillar is introduced to support the Victory +in the hand of Athena can scarcely be supposed to have belonged to the +great original. Tempting theories have been published by Furtwangler +(_Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_) and other archaeologists, which +identify copies of the Athena Lemnia of Pheidias, his Pantarces, his +Aphrodite Urania and other statues; but doubt hangs over all these +attributions. + +A more pertinent and more promising question is, how far we may take the +decorative sculpture of the Parthenon, since Lord Elgin's time the pride +of the British Museum, as the actual work of Pheidias, or as done from +his designs. Here again we have no conclusive evidence; but it appears +from the testimony of inscriptions that the pediments at all events were +not executed until after Pheidias's death. + +[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Statuette of Athena Parthenos.] + +Of course the pediments and frieze of the Parthenon (q.v.), whose work +soever they may be, stand at the head of all Greek decorative sculpture. +Whether we regard the grace of the composition, the exquisite finish of +the statues in the round, or the delightful atmosphere of poetry and +religion which surrounds these sculptures, they rank among the +masterpieces of the world. The Greeks esteemed them far below the statue +which the temple was made to shelter; but to us, who have lost the great +figure in ivory and gold, the carvings of the casket which once +contained it are a perpetual source of instruction and delight. The +whole is reproduced by photography in A. S. Murray's _Sculptures of the +Parthenon_. + +An abundant literature has sprung up in regard to these sculptures in +recent years. It will suffice here to mention the discussions in +Furtwangler's _Masterpieces_, and the very ingenious attempts of Sauer +to determine by a careful examination of the bases and backgrounds of +the pediments as they now stand how the figures must have been arranged +in them. The two ends of the eastern pediment (Plate III. fig. 65) are +the only fairly well-preserved part of the pediments. + +Among the pupils of Pheidias who may naturally be supposed to have +worked on the sculptures of the Parthenon, the most notable were +Alcamenes and Agoracritus. Some fragments remain of the great statue of +Nemesis at Rhamnus by Agoracritus. And an interesting light has been +thrown on Alcamenes by the discovery at Pergamum of a professed copy of +his Hermes set up at the entrance to the Acropolis at Athens (Plate II. +fig. 57). The style of this work, however, is conventional and +archaistic, and we can scarcely regard it as typical of the master. + +Another noted contemporary who was celebrated mainly for his portraits +was Cresilas, a Cretan. Several copies of his portrait of Pericles +exist, and testify to the lofty and idealizing style of portraiture in +this great age. + +We possess also admirable sculpture belonging to the other important +temples of the Acropolis, the Erechtheum and the temple of Nike. The +temple of Nike is the earlier, being possibly a memorial of the Spartan +defeat at Sphacteria. The Erechtheum belongs to the end of our period, +and embodies the delicacy and finish of the conservative school of +sculpture at Athens just as the Parthenon illustrates the ideas of the +more progressive school. The reconstruction of the Erechtheum has been a +task which has long occupied the attention of archaeologists (see the +paper by Mr Stevens in the _American Journal of Archaeology_, 1906). Our +illustration (Plate V. fig. 75) shows one of the Corae or maidens who +support the entablature of the south porch of the Erechtheum in her +proper setting. This use of the female figure in place of a pillar is +based on old Ionian precedent (see fig. 17) and is not altogether +happy; but the idea is carried out with remarkable skill, the perfect +repose and solid strength of the maiden being emphasized. + +Beside Pheidias of Athens must be placed the greatest of early Argive +sculptors, Polyclitus. His two typical athletes, the Doryphorus or +spear-bearer (Plate VI. fig. 80) and the Diadumenus, have long been +identified, and though the copies are not first-rate, they enable us to +recover the principles of the master's art. + + + Polyclitus. + +Among the bases discovered at Olympia, whence the statues had been +removed, are three or four which bear the name of Polyclitus, and the +definite evidence furnished by these bases as to the position of the +feet of the statues which they once bore has enabled archaeologists, +especially Professor Furtwangler, to identify copies of those statues +among known works. Also newly discovered copies of Polyclitan works have +made their appearance. At Delos there has been found a copy of the +Diadumenus, which is of much finer work than the statue in the British +Museum from Vaison. The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston, U.S.A., has +secured a very beautiful statue of a young Hermes, who but for the wings +on the temples might pass as a boy athlete of Polyclitan style (Plate +II. fig. 60). In fact, instead of relying as regards the manner of +Polyclitus on Roman copies of the Doryphorus and Diadumenus, we have +quite a gallery of athletes, boys and men, who all claim relationship, +nearer or more remote, to the school of the great Argive master. It +might have been hoped that the excavations, made under the leadership of +Professor Waldstein at the Argive Heraeum, would have enlightened us as +to the style of Polyclitus. Just as the sculptures of the Parthenon are +the best monument of Pheidias, so it might seem likely that the +sculptural decoration of the great temple which contained the Hera of +Polyclitus would show us at large how his school worked in marble. +Unfortunately the fragments of sculpture from the Heraeum are few. The +most remarkable is a female head, which may perhaps come from a pediment +(fig. 39). But archaeologists are not in agreement whether it is in +style Polyclitan or whether it rather resembles in style Attic works. +Other heads and some highly-finished fragments of bodies come apparently +from the metopes of the same temple. (See also article Argos.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Female Head: Heraeum.] + +Another work of Polyclitus was his Amazon, made it is said in +competition with his great contemporaries, Pheidias, Cresilas and +Phradmon, all of whose Amazons were preserved in the great temple of +Artemis at Ephesus. In our museums are many statues of Amazons +representing 5th century originals. These have usually been largely +restored, and it is no easy matter to discover their original type. +Professor Michaelis has recovered successfully three types (fig. 40). +The attribution of these is a matter of controversy. The first has been +given to the chisel of Polyclitus; the second seems to represent the +Wounded Amazon of Cresilas; the third has by some archaeologists been +given to Pheidias. It does not represent a wounded amazon, but one +alert, about to leap upon her horse with the help of a spear as a +leaping pole. + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Types of Amazons (Michaelis.)] + + + Lycia. + +We can devote little more than a passing mention to the sculpture of +other temples and shrines of the later 5th century, which nevertheless +deserve careful study. The frieze from the temple of Apollo at Phigalia, +representing Centaur and Amazon battles, is familiar to visitors of the +British Museum, where, however, its proximity to the remains of the +Parthenon lays stress upon the faults of grouping and execution which +this frieze presents. It seems to have been executed by local Arcadian +artists. More pleasing is the sculpture of the Ionic tomb called the +Nereid monument, brought by Sir Charles Fellows from Lycia. Here we have +not only a series of bands of relief which ran round the tomb, but also +detached female figures, whence the name which it bears is derived. A +recent view sees in these women with their fluttering drapery not nymphs +of the sea, but personifications of sea-breezes. + +The series of known Lycian tombs has been in recent years enriched +through the acquisition by the museum of Vienna of the sculptured +friezes which adorned a heroon near Geul Bashi. In the midst of the +enclosure was a tomb, and the walls of the enclosure itself were adorned +within and without with a great series of reliefs, mostly of mythologic +purport. Many subjects which but rarely occur in early Greek art, the +siege of Troy, the adventure of the Seven against Thebes, the carrying +off of the daughters of Leucippus, Ulysses shooting down the Suitors, +are here represented in detail. Professor Benndorf, who has published +these sculptures in an admirable volume, is disposed to see in them the +influence of the Thasian painter Polygnotus. Any one can see their +kinship to painting, and their subjects recur in some of the great +frescoes painted by Polygnotus, Micon and others for the Athenians. Like +other Lycian sculptures, they contain non-Hellenic elements; in fact +Lycia forms a link of the chain which extends from the wall-paintings of +Assyria to works like the columns of Trajan and of Antoninus, but is not +embodied in the more purely idealistic works of the highest Greek art. +The date of the Vienna tomb is not much later than the middle of the 5th +century. A small part of the frieze of this monument is shown in fig. +41. It will be seen that in this fragment there are two scenes, one +directly above the other. In the upper line Ulysses, accompanied by his +son Telemachus, is in the act of shooting the suitors, who are reclining +at table in the midst of a feast; a cup-bearer, possibly Melanthius, is +escaping by a door behind Ulysses. In the lower line is the central +group of a frieze which represents the hunting of the Calydonian boar, +which is represented, as is usual in the best time of Greek art, as an +ordinary animal and no monster. + + + Portraits. + +Archaeologists have recently begun to pay more attention to an +interesting branch of Greek art which had until recently been neglected, +that of sculptured portraits. The known portraits of the 5th century now +include Pericles, Herodotus, Thucydides, Anacreon, Sophocles, Euripides, +Socrates and others. As might be expected in a time when style in +sculpture was so strongly pronounced, these portraits, when not later +unfaithful copies, are notably ideal. They represent the great men whom +they portray not in the spirit of realism. Details are neglected, +expression is not elaborated; the sculptor tries to represent what is +permanent in his subject rather than what is temporary. Hence these +portraits do not seem to belong to a particular time of life; they only +represent a man in the perfection of physical force and mental energy. +And the race or type is clearly shown through individual traits. In some +cases it is still disputed whether statues of this age represent deities +or mortals, so notable are the repose and dignity which even human +figures acquire under the hands of 5th-century masters. The Pericles +after Cresilas in the British Museum, and the athlete-portraits of +Polyclitus, are good examples. + +_Period III. 400-300 B.C._--The high ideal level attained by Greek art +at the end of the 5th century is maintained in the 4th. There cannot be +any question of decay in it save at Athens, where undoubtedly the loss +of religion and the decrease of national prosperity acted prejudicially. +But in Peloponnesus the time was one of expansion; several new and +important cities, such as Messene, Megalopolis and Mantinea, arose under +the protection of Epaminondas. And in Asia the Greek cities were still +prosperous and artistic, as were the cities of Italy and Sicily which +kept their independence. On the whole we find during this age some +diminution of the freshness and simplicity of art; it works less in the +service of the gods and more in that of private patrons; it becomes less +ethical and more sentimental and emotional. On the other hand, there can +be no doubt that technique both in painting and sculpture advanced with +rapid strides; artists had a greater mastery of their materials, and +ventured on a wider range of subject. + +[Illustration: _Heroon of Gyeul Bashi Trysa_, Pl. 7. + +FIG. 41.--Odysseus and Suitors; Hunting of Boar.] + +In the 4th century no new temples of importance rose at Athens; the +Acropolis had taken its final form; but at Messene, Tegea, Epidaurus and +elsewhere, very admirable buildings arose. The remains of the temple at +Tegea are of wonderful beauty and finish; as are those of the theatre +and the so-called _Tholus_ of Epidaurus. In Asia Minor vast temples of +the Ionic order arose, especially at Miletus and Ephesus. The colossal +pillars of Miletus astonish the visitors to the Louvre; while the +sculptured columns of Ephesus in the British Museum (Plate II. fig. 59) +show a high level of artistic skill. The Mausoleum erected about 350 +B.C. at Halicarnassus in memory of Mausolus, king of Caria, and adorned +with sculpture by the most noted artists of the day, was reckoned one +of the wonders of the world. It has been in part restored in the British +Museum. Mr Oldfield's conjectural restoration, published in +_Archaeologia_ for 1895, though it has many rivals, surpasses them all +in the lightness of the effect, and in close correspondence to the +description by Pliny. We show a small part of the sculptural decoration, +representing a battle between Greeks and Amazons (Plate IV. fig. 70), +wherein the energy of the action and the careful balance of figure +against figure are remarkable. We possess also the fine portraits of +Mausolus himself and his wife Artemisia, which stood in or on the +building, as well as part of a gigantic chariot with four horses which +surmounted it. + +Another architectural work of the 4th century, in its way a gem, is the +structure set up at Athens by Lysicrates, in memory of a choragic +victory. This still survives, though the reliefs with which it is +adorned have suffered severely from the weather. + +[Illustration: Nat. Mus., Naples. + +FIG. 42.--Greek Drawing of Women Playing at Knucklebones.] + +The 4th century is the brilliant period of ancient painting. It opens +with the painters of the Asiatic School, Zeuxis and Parrhasius and +Protogenes, with their contemporaries Nicias and Apollodorus of Athens, +Timanthes of Sicyon or Cythnus, and Euphranor of Corinth. It witnesses +the rise of a great school at Sicyon, under Eupompus and Pamphilus, +which was noted for its scientific character and the fineness of its +drawing, and which culminated in Apelles, the painter of Alexander the +Great, and probably the greatest master of the art in antiquity. To each +of these painters a separate article is given, fixing their place in the +history of the art. Of their paintings unfortunately we can form but a +very inadequate notion. Vase-paintings, which in the 5th century give us +some notion at least of contemporary drawing, are less careful in the +4th century. Now and then we find on them figures admirably designed, or +successfully foreshortened; but these are rare occurrences. The art of +the vase decorator has ceased to follow the methods and improvements of +contemporary fresco painters, and is pursued as a mere branch of +commerce. + +But very few actual paintings of the age survive, and even these +fragmentary remains have with time lost the freshness of their +colouring; nor are they in any case the work of a noteworthy hand. We +reproduce two examples. The first is from a stone of the vault of a +Crimean grave (Plate IV. fig. 67). The date of the grave is fixed to the +4th century by ornaments found in it, among which was a gold coin of +Alexander the Great. The representation is probably of Demeter or her +priestess, her hair bound with poppies and other flowers. The original +is of large size. The other illustration (fig. 42) represents the +remains of a drawing on marble, representing a group of women playing +knucklebones. It was found at Herculaneum. Though signed by one +Alexander of Athens, who was probably a worker of the Roman age, +Professor Robert is right in maintaining that Alexander only copied a +design of the age of Zeuxis and Parrhasius. In fact the drawing and +grouping is so closely like that of reliefs of about 400 B.C. that the +drawing is of great historic value, though there be no colouring. +Several other drawings of the same class have been found at Herculaneum, +and on the walls of the Transtiberine Villa at Rome (now in the Terme +Museum). + +[Illustration: _Olympia_, iii. 53. + +FIG. 43.--Hermes of Praxiteles; restored.] + + + Praxiteles. + +Until about the year 1880, our knowledge of the great Greek sculptors of +the 4th century was derived mostly from the statements of ancient +writers and from Roman copies, or what were supposed to be copies, of +their works. We are now in a far more satisfactory position. We now +possess an original work of Praxiteles, and sculptures executed under +the immediate direction of, if not from the hand of, other great +sculptors of that age--Scopas, Timotheus and others. Among all the +discoveries made at Olympia, none has become so familiar to the artistic +world as that of the Hermes of Praxiteles. It is the first time that we +have become possessed of a first-rate Greek original by one of the +greatest of sculptors. Hitherto almost all the statues in our museums +have been either late copies of Greek works of art, or else the mere +decorative sculpture of temples and tombs, which was by the ancients +themselves but little regarded. But we can venture without misgiving to +submit the new Hermes to the strictest examination, sure that in every +line and touch we have the work of a great artist. This is more than we +can say of any of the literary remains of antiquity--poem, play or +oration. Hermes is represented by the sculptor (fig. 43 and Plate VI. +fig. 82) in the act of carrying the young child Dionysus to the nymphs +who were charged with his rearing. On the journey he pauses and amuses +himself by holding out to the child-god a bunch of grapes, and watching +his eagerness to grasp them. To the modern eye the child is not a +success; only the latest art of Greece is at home in dealing with +children. But the Hermes, strong without excessive muscular development, +and graceful without leanness, is a model of physical formation, and his +face expresses the perfection of health, natural endowment and sweet +nature. The statue can scarcely be called a work of religious art in the +modern or Christian sense of the word religious, but from the Greek +point of view it is religious, as embodying the result of the harmonious +development of all human faculties and life in accordance with nature. + +The Hermes not only adds to our knowledge of Praxiteles, but also +confirms the received views in regard to him. Already many works in +galleries of sculpture had been identified as copies of statues of his +school. Noteworthy among these are, the group at Munich representing +Peace nursing the infant Wealth, from an original by Cephisodotus, +father of Praxiteles; copies of the Cnidian Aphrodite of Praxiteles, +especially one in the Vatican which is here illustrated (Plate V. fig. +71); copies of the Apollo slaying a lizard (Sauroctonus), of a Satyr (in +the Capitol Museum), and others. These works, which are noted for their +softness and charm, make us understand the saying of ancient critics +that Praxiteles and Scopas were noted for the pathos of their works, as +Pheidias and Polyclitus for the ethical quality of those they produced. +But the pathos of Praxiteles is of a soft and dreamy character; there is +no action, or next to none; and the emotions which he rouses are +sentimental rather than passionate. Scopas, as we shall see, was of +another mood. The discovery of the Hermes has naturally set +archaeologists searching in the museums of Europe for other works which +may from their likeness to it in various respects be set down as +Praxitelean in character. In the case of many of the great sculptors of +Greece--Strongylion, Silanion, Calamis and others--it is of little use +to search for copies of their works, since we have little really +trustworthy evidence on which to base our inquiries. But in the case of +Praxiteles we really stand on a safe level. Naturally it is impossible +in these pages to give any sketch of the results, some almost certain, +some very doubtful, of the researches of archaeologists in quest of +Praxitelean works. But we may mention a few works which have been +claimed by good judges as coming from the master himself. Professor +Brunn claimed as work of Praxiteles a torso of a satyr in the Louvre, in +scheme identical with the well-known satyr of the Capitol. Professor +Furtwangler puts in the same category a delicately beautiful head of +Aphrodite at Petworth. And his translator, Mrs Strong, regards the +Aberdeen head of a young man in the British Museum as the actual work of +Praxiteles. Certainly this last head does not suffer when placed beside +the Olympian head of Hermes. At Mantinea has been found a basis whereon +stood a group of Latona and her two children, Apollo and Artemis, made +by Praxiteles. This base bears reliefs representing the musical contest +of Apollo and Marsyas, with the Muses as spectators, reliefs very +pleasing in style, and quite in the manner of Attic artists of the 4th +century. But of course we must not ascribe them to the hand of +Praxiteles himself; great sculptors did not themselves execute the +reliefs which adorned temples and other monuments, but reserved them for +their pupils. Yet the graceful figures of the Muses of Mantinea suggest +how much was due to Praxiteles in determining the tone and character of +Athenian art in relief in the 4th century. Exactly the same style which +marks them belongs also to a mass of sepulchral monuments at Athens, and +such works as the Sidonian sarcophagus of the Mourning Women, to be +presently mentioned. + + + Scopas. + +Excavation on the site of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea has +resulted in the recovery of works of the school of Scopas. Pausanias +tells us that Scopas was the architect of the temple, and so important +in the case of a Greek temple is the sculptural decoration, that we can +scarcely doubt that the sculpture also of the temple at Tegea was under +the supervision of Scopas, especially as he was more noted as a sculptor +than as an architect. In the pediments of the temple were represented +two scenes from mythology, the hunting of the Calydonian boar and the +combat between Achilles and Telephus. To one or other of these scenes +belong several heads of local marble discovered on the spot, which are +very striking from their extraordinary life and animation. Unfortunately +they are so much injured that they can scarcely be made intelligible +except by the help of restoration; we therefore engrave one of them, the +helmeted head, as restored by a German sculptor (Plate III. fig. 63). +The strong bony frame of this head, and its depth from front to back, +are not less noteworthy than the parted lips and deeply set and strongly +shaded eye; the latter features impart to the head a vividness of +expression such as we have found in no previous work of Greek art, but +which sets the key to the developments of art which take place in the +Hellenistic age. A draped torso of Atalanta from the same pediment has +been fitted to one of these heads. Hitherto Scopas was known to us, +setting aside literary records, only as one of the sculptors who had +worked at the Mausoleum. Ancient critics and travellers, however, bear +ample testimony to his fame, and the wide range of his activity, which +extended to northern Greece, Peloponnese and Asia Minor. His Maenads +and his Tritons and other beings of the sea were much copied in +antiquity. But perhaps he reached his highest level in statues such as +that of Apollo as leader of the Muses, clad in long drapery. + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Amazon from Epidaurus.] + + + Timotheus, Bryaxis, Leochares. + +The interesting precinct of Aesculapius at Epidaurus has furnished us +with specimens of the style of an Athenian contemporary of Scopas, who +worked with him on the Mausoleum. An inscription which records the sums +spent on the temple of the Physician-god, informs us that the models for +the sculptures of the pediments, and one set of acroteria or roof +adornments, were the work of Timotheus. Of the pedimental figures and +the acroteria considerable fragments have been recovered, and we may +with confidence assume that at all events the models for these were by +Timotheus. It is strange that the unsatisfactory arrangement whereby a +noted sculptor makes models and some local workman the figures enlarged +from those models, should have been tolerated by so artistic a people as +the Greeks. The subjects of the pediments appear to have been the common +ones of battles between Greek and Amazon and between Lapith and Centaur. +We possess fragments of some of the Amazon figures, one of which, +striking downwards at the enemy, is here shown (fig. 44). Their +attitudes are vigorous and alert; but the work shows no delicacy of +detail. Figures of Nereids riding on horses, which were found on the +same site, may very probably be roof ornaments (acroteria) of the +temple. We have also several figures of Victory, which probably were +acroteria on some smaller temple, perhaps that of Artemis. A base found +at Athens, sculptured with figures of horsemen in relief, bears the name +of Bryaxis, and was probably made by a pupil of his. Probable conjecture +assigns to Leochares the originals copied in the Ganymede of the +Vatican, borne aloft by an eagle (Plate I. fig. 53) and the noble statue +of Alexander the Great at Munich (see LEOCHARES). Thus we may fairly say +that we are now acquainted with the work of all the great sculptors who +worked on the Mausoleum--Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and Timotheus; and +are in a far more advantageous position than were the archaeologists of +1880 for determining the artistic problems connected with that noblest +of ancient tombs. + +Contemporary with the Athenian school of Praxiteles and Scopas was the +great school of Argos and Sicyon, of which Lysippus was the most +distinguished member. Lysippus continued the academic traditions of +Polyclitus, but he was far bolder in his choice of subjects and more +innovating in style. Gods, heroes and mortals alike found in him a +sculptor who knew how to combine fine ideality with a vigorous +actuality. He was at the height of his fame during Alexander's life, and +the grandiose ambition of the great Macedonian found him ample +employment, especially in the frequent representation of himself and his +marshals. + +We have none of the actual works of Lysippus; but our best evidence for +his style will be found in the statue of Agias an athlete (Plate V. fig. +74) found at Delphi, and shown by an inscription to be a marble copy of +a bronze original by Lysippus. The Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (man +scraping himself with a strigil) (Plate VI. fig. 79) has hitherto been +regarded as a copy from Lysippus; but of this there is no evidence, and +the style of that statue belongs rather to the 3rd century than the 4th. +The Agias, on the other hand, is in style contemporary with the works +of 4th-century sculptors. + +Of the elaborate groups of combatants with which Lysippus enriched such +centres as Olympia and Delphi, or of the huge bronze statues which he +erected in temples and shrines, we can form no adequate notion. Perhaps +among the extant heads of Alexander the one which is most likely to +preserve the style of Lysippus is the head from Alexandria in the +British Museum (Plate II. fig. 56), though this was executed at a later +time. + +Many noted extant statues may be attributed with probability to the +latter part of the 4th or the earlier part of the 3rd century. We will +mention a few only. The celebrated group at Florence representing Niobe +and her children falling before the arrows of Apollo and Artemis is +certainly a work of the pathetic school, and may be by a pupil of +Praxiteles. Niobe, in an agony of grief, which is in the marble tempered +and idealized, tries to protect her youngest daughter from destruction +(Plate VI. fig. 78). Whether the group can have originally been fitted +into the gable of a temple is a matter of dispute. + +Two great works preserved in the Louvre are so noted that it is but +necessary to mention them, the Aphrodite of Melos (Plate VI. fig. 77), +in which archaeologists are now disposed to see the influence of Scopas, +and the Victory of Samothrace (Plate III. figs. 61 and 62), an original +set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes after a naval victory won at Salamis in +Cyprus in 306 B.C. over the fleet of Ptolemy, king of Egypt. + +Nor can we pass over without notice two works so celebrated as the +Apollo of the Belvidere in the Vatican (Plate II. fig. 55), and the +Artemis of Versailles. The Apollo is now by most archaeologists regarded +as probably a copy of a work of Leochares, to whose Ganymede it bears a +superficial resemblance. The Artemis is regarded as possibly due to some +artist of the same age. But it is by no means clear that we have the +right to remove either of these figures from among the statues of the +Hellenistic age. The old theory of Preller, which saw in them copies +from a trophy set up to commemorate the repulse of the Gauls at Delphi +in 278 B.C., has not lost its plausibility. + +[Illustration: Hamdy et Reinach, _Necropole a Sidon_, Pl. 7. + +FIG. 45.--Tomb of Mourning Women: Sidon.] + + + Sarcophagi of Sidon. + +This may be the most appropriate place for mentioning the remarkable +find made at Sidon in 1886 of a number of sarcophagi, which once +doubtless contained the remains of kings of Sidon. They are now in the +museum of Constantinople, and are admirably published by Hamdy Bey and +T. Reinach (_Une Necropole royale a Sidon_, 1892-1896). The sarcophagi +in date cover a considerable period. The earlier are made on Egyptian +models, the covers shaped roughly in the form of a human body or mummy. +The later, however, are Greek in form, and are clearly the work of +skilled Greek sculptors, who seem to have been employed by the grandees +of Phoenicia in the adornment of their last resting-places. Four of +these sarcophagi in particular claim attention, and in fact present us +with examples of Greek art of the 5th and 4th centuries in several of +its aspects. To the 5th century belong the tomb of the Satrap, the +reliefs of which bring before us the activities and glories of some +unknown king, and the Lycian sarcophagus, so called from its form, which +resembles that of tombs found in Lycia, and which is also adorned with +reliefs which have reference to the past deeds of the hero buried in the +tomb, though these deeds are represented, not in the Oriental manner +directly, but in the Greek manner, clad in mythological forms. To the +4th century belong two other sarcophagi. One of these is called the +Tomb of Mourning Women. On all sides of it alike are ranged a series of +beautiful female figures, separated by Ionic pillars, each in a somewhat +different attitude, though all attitudes denoting grief (fig. 45). The +pediments at the ends of the cover are also closely connected with the +mourning for the loss of a friend and protector, which is the theme of +the whole decoration of the sarcophagus. We see depicted in them the +telling of the news of the death, with the results in the mournful +attitude of the two seated figures. The mourning women must be taken, +not as the representation of any persons in particular, but generally as +the expression of the feeling of a city. Such figures are familiar to us +in the art of the second Attic school; we could easily find parallels to +the sarcophagus among the 4th-century sepulchral reliefs of Athens. We +can scarcely be mistaken in attributing the workmanship of this +beautiful sarcophagus to some sculptor trained in the school of +Praxiteles. And it is a conjecture full of probability that it once +contained the body of Strato, king of Sidon, who ruled about 380 B.C., +and who was _proxenos_ or public friend of the Athenians. + +More celebrated is the astonishing tomb called that of Alexander, though +there can be no doubt that, although it commemorates the victories and +exploits of Alexander, it was made not to hold his remains, but those of +some ruler of Sidon who was high in his favour. Among all the monuments +of antiquity which have come down to us, none is more admirable than +this, and none more characteristic of the Greek genius. We give, in two +lines, the composition which adorned one of the sides of this +sarcophagus. It represents a victory of Alexander, probably that of the +Granicus (fig. 46). On the left we see the Macedonian king charging the +Persian horse, on the right his general Parmenio, and in the midst a +younger officer, perhaps Cleitus. Mingled with the chiefs are +foot-soldiers, Greek and Macedonian, with whom the Persians are mingled +in unequal fray. What most strikes the modern eye is the remarkable +freshness and force of the action and the attitudes. Those, however, who +have seen the originals have been specially impressed with the +colouring, whereof, of course, our engraving gives no hint, but which is +applied to the whole surface of the relief with equal skill and +delicacy. There are other features in the relief on which a Greek eye +would have dwelt with special pleasure--the exceedingly careful symmetry +of the whole, the balancing of figure against figure, the skill with +which the result of the battle is hinted rather than depicted. The +composition is one in which the most careful planning and the most +precise calculation are mingled with freedom of hand and expressiveness +in detail. The faces in particular show more expression than would be +tolerated in art of the previous century. We are unable as yet to assign +an author or even a school to the sculptor of this sarcophagus; he comes +to us as a new and striking phenomenon in the history of ancient art. +The reliefs which adorn the other sides of the sarcophagus are almost +equally interesting. On one side we see Alexander again, in the company +of a Persian noble, hunting a lion. The short sides also show us scenes +of fighting and hunting. In fact it can scarcely be doubted that if we +had but a clue to the interpretation of the reliefs, they would be found +to embody historic events of the end of the 4th century. There are but a +few other works of art, such as the Bayeux tapestry and the Column of +Trajan, which bring contemporary history so vividly before our eyes. The +battles with the Persians represented in some of the sculpture of the +Parthenon and the temple of Nike at Athens are treated conventionally +and with no attempt at realism; but here the ideal and the actual are +blended into a work of consummate art, which is at the same time, to +those who can read the language of Greek art, a historic record. The +portraits of Alexander the Great which appear on this sarcophagus are +almost contemporary, and the most authentic likenesses of him which we +possess. The great Macedonian exercised so strong an influence on +contemporary art that a multitude of heads of the age, both of gods and +men, and even the portraits of his successors, show traces of his type. + +We have yet to mention what are among the most charming and the most +characteristic products of the Greek chisel, the beautiful tombs, +adorned with seated or standing portraits or with reliefs, which were +erected in great numbers on all the main roads of Greece. A great number +of these from the Dipylon cemetery are preserved in the Central Museum +at Athens, and impress all visitors by the gentle sentiment and the +charm of grouping which they display (Gardner, _Sculptured Tombs of +Hellas_). + +[Illustration: Hamdy et Reinach. _Necropole a Sidon_, Pl. 30. + +FIG. 46.--Battle of The Granicus: Sarcophagus from Sidon.] + +_Period IV., 300-50 B.C._--There can be no question but that the period +which followed the death of Alexander, commonly called the age of +Hellenism, was one of great activity and expansion in architecture. The +number of cities founded by himself and his immediate successors in Asia +and Egypt was enormous. The remains of these cities have in a few cases +(Ephesus, Pergamum, Assus, Priene, Alexandria) been partially excavated. +But the adaptation of Greek architecture to the needs of the semi-Greek +peoples included in the dominions of the kings of Egypt, Syria and +Pergamum is too vast a subject for us to enter upon here (see +ARCHITECTURE). + +Painting during this age ceased to be religious. It was no longer for +temples and public stoae that artists worked, but for private persons; +especially they made frescoes for the decoration of the walls of houses, +and panel pictures for galleries set up by rich patrons. The names of +very few painters of the Hellenistic age have come down to us. There can +be no doubt that the character of the art declined, and there were no +longer produced great works to be the pride of cities, or to form an +embodiment for all future time of the qualities of a deity or the +circumstances of scenes mythical or historic. But at the same time the +mural paintings of Pompeii and other works of the Roman age, which are +usually more or less nearly derived from Hellenistic models, prove that +in technical matters painting continued to progress. Colouring became +more varied, groups more elaborate, perspective was worked out with +greater accuracy, and imagination shook itself free from many of the +conventions of early art. Pompeian painting, however, must be treated of +under Roman, not under Greek art. We figure a single example, to show +the elaboration of painting at Alexandria and elsewhere, the wonderful +Pompeian mosaic (fig. 47), which represents the victory of Alexander at +Issus. This work being in stone has preserved its colouring; and it +stands at a far higher level of art than ordinary Pompeian paintings, +which are the work of mere house-decorators. This on the contrary is +certainly copied from the work of a great master. It is instructive to +compare it with the sarcophagus illustrated in Fig. 46, which it excels +in perspective and in the freedom of individual figures, though the +composition is much less careful and precise. Alexander charges from the +left (his portrait being the least successful part of the picture), and +bears down a young Persian; Darius in his chariot flees towards the +right; in the foreground a young knight is trying to manage a restive +horse. It will be observed how very simple is the indication of +locality: a few stones and a broken tree stand for rocks and woods. + +Among the original sculptural creations of the early Hellenistic age, a +prominent place is claimed by the statue of Fortune, typifying the city +of Antioch (Plate VI. fig. 81), a work of Eutychides, a pupil of +Lysippus. Of this we possess a small copy, which is sufficient to show +how worthy of admiration was the original. We have a beautiful +embodiment of the personality of the city, seated on a rock, holding +ears of corn, while the river Orontes, embodied in a young male figure, +springs forth at her feet. + +[Illustration: From a photograph by G. Borgi. + +FIG. 47.--Mosaic of the Battle of Issus (Naples).] + +This is, so far as we know, almost the only work of the early part of +the 3rd century which shows imagination. Sculptors often worked on a +colossal scale, producing such monsters as the colossal Apollo at +Rhodes, the work of Chares of Lindus, which was more than 100 ft. in +height. But they did not show freshness or invention; and for the most +part content themselves with varying the types produced in the great +schools of the 4th century. The wealthy kings of Syria, Egypt and Asia +Minor formed art galleries, and were lavish in their payments; but it +has often been proved in the history of art that originality cannot be +produced by mere expenditure. + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Head of Anytus: Lycosura.] + +A great artist, whose date has been disputed, but who is now assigned to +the Hellenistic age, Damophon of Messene, is known to us from his actual +works. He set up in the shrine of the _Mistress_ (Despoena) at Lycosura +in Arcadia a great group of figures consisting of Despoena, Demeter, +Artemis and the Titan Anytus. Three colossal heads found on the spot +probably belong to the three last-mentioned deities. We illustrate the +head of Anytus, with wild disordered hair and turbulent expression (fig. +48). Dr Dorpfeld has argued, on architectural grounds, that shrine and +images alike must be given to a later time than the 4th century; and +this judgment is now confirmed by inscriptional and other evidence. + +In one important direction sculpture certainly made progress. Hitherto +Greek sculptors had contented themselves with studying the human body +whether in rest or motion, from outside. The dissection of the human +body, with a consequent increase in knowledge of anatomy, became usual +at Alexandria in the medical school which flourished under the +Ptolemies. This improved anatomical knowledge soon reacted upon the art +of sculpture. Works such as the Fighter of Agasias in the Louvre (Plate +IV. fig. 69), and in a less degree the Apoxyomenus (Plate VI. fig. 79), +display a remarkable internal knowledge of the human frame, such as +could only come from the habit of dissection. Whether this was really +productive of improvement in sculpture may be doubted. But it is +impossible to withhold one's admiration from works which show an +astonishing knowledge of the body of man down to its bony framework, and +a power and mastery of execution which have never since been surpassed. + +With accuracy in the portrayal of men's bodies goes of necessity a more +naturalistic tendency in portraiture. As we have seen, the art of +portraiture was at a high ideal level in the Pheidian age; and even in +the age of Alexander the Great, notable men were rendered rather +according to the idea than the fact. To a base and mechanical naturalism +Greek art never at any time descended. But from 300 B.C. onwards we have +a marvellous series of portraits which may be termed rather +characteristic than ideal, which are very minute in their execution, and +delight in laying emphasis on the havoc wrought by time and life on the +faces of noteworthy men. Such are the portraits of Demosthenes, of +Antisthenes, of Zeno and others, which exist in our galleries. And it +was no long step from these actual portraits to the invention of +characteristic types to represent the great men of a past generation, +such as Homer and Lycurgus, or to form generic images to represent +weatherbeaten fishermen or toothless old women. + + + Altar of Pergamum. + +Our knowledge of the art of the later Hellenistic age has received a +great accession since 1875 through the systematic labours directed by +the German Archaeological Institute, which have resulted in recovering +the remains of Pergamum, the fortress-city which was the capital of the +dynasty of the Philetaeri. Among the ancient buildings of Pergamum none +was more ambitious in scale and striking in execution than the great +altar used for sacrifices to Zeus, a monument supposed to be referred to +in the phrase of the Apocalypse "where Satan's throne is." This altar, +like many great sacrificial altars of later Greece, was a vast erection +to which one mounted by many steps, and its outside was adorned with a +frieze which represented on a gigantic scale, in the style of the 2nd +century B.C., the battle between the gods and the giants. This enormous +frieze (see PERGAMUM) is now one of the treasures of the Royal Museums +of Berlin, and it cannot fail to impress visitors by the size of the +figures, the energy of the action, and the strong vein of sentiment +which pervades the whole, giving it a certain air of modernity, though +the subject is strange to the Christian world. In early Greek art the +giants where they oppose the gods are represented as men armed in full +panoply, "in shining armour, holding long spears in their hands," to use +the phrase in which Hesiod describes them. But in the Pergamene frieze +the giants are strange compounds, having the heads and bodies of wild +and fierce barbarians, sometimes also human legs, but sometimes in the +place of legs two long serpents, the heads of which take with the giants +themselves a share in the battle. Sometimes also they are winged. The +gods appear in the forms which had been gradually made for them in the +course of Greek history, but they are usually accompanied by the animals +sacred to them in cultus, between which and the serpent-feet of the +giants a weird combat goes on. We can conjecture the source whence the +Pergamene artist derived the shaggy hair, the fierce expression, the +huge muscles of his giants (fig. 49); probably these features came +originally from the Galatians, who at the time had settled in Asia +Minor, and were spreading the terror of their name and the report of +their savage devastations through all Asia Minor. The victory over the +giants clearly stands for the victory of Greek civilization over Gallic +barbarism; and this meaning is made more emphatic because the gods are +obviously inferior in physical force to their opponents, indeed, a large +proportion of the divine combatants are goddesses. Yet everywhere the +giants are overthrown, writhing in pain on the ground, or transfixed by +the weapons of their opponents; everywhere the gods are victorious, yet +in the victory retain much of their divine calm. The piecing together of +the frieze at Berlin has been a labour of many years; it is now +complete, and there is a special museum devoted to it. Some of the +groups have become familiar to students from photographs, especially the +group which represents Zeus slaying his enemies with thunderbolts, and +the group wherein Athena seizes by the hair an overthrown opponent, who +is winged, while Victory runs to crown her, and beneath is seen Gaia, +the earth-goddess who is the mother of the giants, rising out of the +ground, and mourning over her vanquished and tortured children. Another +and smaller frieze which also decorated the altar-place gives us scenes +from the history of Telephus, who opposed the landing of the army of +Agamemnon in Asia Minor and was overthrown by Achilles. This frieze, +which is quite fragmentary, is put together by Dr Schneider in the +_Jahrbuch_ of the German Archaeological Institute for 1900. + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Giant from Great Altar: Pergamum.] + +Since the Renaissance Rome has continually produced a crop of works of +Greek art of all periods, partly originals brought from Greece by +conquering generals, partly copies, such as the group at Rome formerly +known as Paetus and Arria, and the overthrown giants and barbarians +which came from the elaborate trophy set up by Attalus at Athens, of +which copies exist in many museums. A noted work of kindred school is +the group of Laocoon and his sons (Plate I. fig. 52), signed by Rhodian +sculptors of the 1st century B.C., which has been perhaps more discussed +than any work of the Greek chisel, and served as a peg for the +aesthetic theories of Lessing and Goethe. In our days the histrionic and +strained character of the group is regarded as greatly diminishing its +interest, in spite of the astounding skill and knowledge of the human +body shown by the artists. To the same school belong the late +representations of Marsyas being flayed by the victorious Apollo (Plate +II. fig. 54), a somewhat repulsive subject, chosen by the artists of +this age as a means for displaying their accurate knowledge of anatomy. + +On what a scale some of the artists of Asia Minor would work is shown us +by the enormous group, by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, which is +called the Farnese Bull (Plate I. fig. 51), and which represents how +Dirce was tied to a wild bull by her stepsons Zethus and Amphion. + + + Rome. + +The extensive excavations and alterations which have taken place at Rome +in recent years have been very fruitful; the results may be found partly +in the palace of the Conservatori on the Capitol, partly in the new +museum of the Terme. Among recently found statues none excel in interest +some bronzes of large size dating from the Hellenistic age. In the +figure of a seated boxer (Plate V. fig. 72), in scale somewhat exceeding +life, attitude and gesture are expressive. Evidently the boxer has +fought already, and is awaiting a further conflict. His face is cut and +swollen; on his hands are the terrible caestus, here made of leather, +and not loaded with iron, like the caestus described by Virgil. The +figure is of astounding force; but though the face is brutal and the +expression savage, in the sweep of the limbs there is nobility, even +ideal beauty. To the last the Greek artist could not set aside his +admiration for physical perfection. Another bronze figure of more than +life-size is that of a king of the Hellenistic age standing leaning on a +spear. He is absolutely nude, like the athletes of Polyclitus. Another +large bronze presents us with a Hellenistic type of Dionysus. + +Besides the bronzes found in Rome we may set those recently found in the +sea on the coast of Cythera, the contents of a ship sailing from Greece +to Rome, and lost on the way. The date of these bronze statues has been +disputed. In any case, even if executed in the Roman age, they go back +to originals of the 5th and 4th centuries. The most noteworthy among +them is a beautiful athlete (Plate V. fig. 73) standing with hand +upraised, which reflects the style of the Attic school of the 4th +century. + +After 146 B.C. when Corinth was destroyed and Greece became a Roman +province, Greek art, though by no means extinct, worked mainly in the +employ of the Roman conquerors (see ROMAN ART). + + IV. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY.[3]--I. General works on Greek Art.--The only + recent general histories of Greek art are: H. Brunn, _Griechische + Kunstgeschichte_, bks. i. and ii., dealing with archaic art; W. Klein, + _Geschichte der griechischen Kunst_, no illustrations; Perrot et + Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite_, vols. vii. and viii. + (archaic art only). + + Introductory are: P. Gardner, _Grammar of Greek Art_; J. E. Harrison, + _Introductory Studies in Greek Art_; H. B. Walters, _Art of the + Greeks_. + + Useful are also: H. Brunn, _Geschichte der griechischen Kunstler_, + (new edition, 1889); J. Overbeck, _Die antiken Schriftquellen zur + Geschichte der bildenden Kunste bei den Griechen_; untranslated + passages in Latin and Greek; the Elder Pliny's _Chapters on the + History of Art_, edited by K. Jex-Blake and E. Sellers; H. S. Jones, + _Ancient Writers on Greek Sculpture_. + + II. Periodicals dealing with Greek Archaeology.--England: _Journal of + Hellenic Studies_; _Annual of the British School at Athens_; + _Classical Review_. France: _Revue archeologique_; _Gazette + archeologique_; _Bulletin de correspondance hellenique_. Germany: + _Jahrbuch des K. deutschen arch. Instituts_; _Mitteilungen des arch. + Inst._, Athenische Abteilung, Romische Abteilung; _Antike Denkmaler_. + Austria: _Jahreshefte des K. Osterreich. arch. Instituts_. Italy: + Publications of the _Accademia dei Lincei_; _Monumenti antichi_; _Not. + dei scavi_; _Bulletino comunale di Roma_. Greece: _Ephemeris + archaiologike_; _Deltion archaiologikon_; _Praktika_ of the Athenian + Archaeological Society. + + III. Greek Architecture.--General: Perrot et Chipiez, _Histoire de + l'art dans l'antiquite_, vol. vii.; A. Choisy, _Histoire de + l'architecture_, vol. i.; Anderson and Spiers, _Architecture of Greece + and Rome_; E. Boutmy, _Philosophie de l'architecture en Grece_; R. + Sturgis, _History of Architecture_, vol. i.; A. Marquand, _Greek + Architecture_. + + IV. Greek Sculpture.--General: M. Collignon, _Histoire de la sculpture + grecque_ (2 vols.); E. A. Gardner, _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_; A. + Furtwangler, _Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_, translated and edited + by E. Sellers; Friederichs and Wolters, _Bausteine zur Geschichte der + griechisch-romischen Plastik_ (1887); von Mach, _Handbook of Greek and + Roman Sculpture_, 500 plates; H. Bulle, _Der schone Mensch in der + Kunst: Altertum_, 216 plates; S. Reinach, _Repertoire de la statuaire + grecque et romaine_, 3 vols. + + V. Greek Painting and Vases.--Woltmann and Woermann, _History of + Painting_, vol. i., translated and edited by S. Colvin (1880); H. B. + Walters, _History of Ancient Pottery_ (2 vols.); Harrison and MacColl, + _Greek Vase-paintings_ (1894); O. Rayet et M. Collignon, _Histoire de + la ceramique grecque_ (1888); P. Girard, _La Peinture antique_ (1892); + S. Reinach, _Repertoire des vases peints grecs et etrusques_ (2 + vols.); Furtwangler und Reichhold, "Griechische Vasenmalerei," _Wiener + Vorlegeblatter fur archaologische Ubungen_ (1887-1890). + + VI. Special Schools and Sites.--A. Joubin, _La Sculpture grecque entre + les guerres mediques et l'epoque de Pericles_; C. Waldstein, _Essays + on the Art of Pheidias_ (1885); W. Klein, _Praxiteles_; G. Perrot, + _Praxitele_; A. S. Murray, _Sculptures of the Parthenon_; W. Klein, + _Euphronios_; E. Pottier, _Douris_; P. Gardner, _Sculptured Tombs of + Hellas_; E. A. Gardner, _Ancient Athens_; A. Botticher, _Olympia_; + Bernoulli, _Griechische Ikonographie_; P. Gardner, _The Types of Greek + Coins_ (1883); E. A. Gardner, _Six Greek Sculptors._ + + VII. Books related to the subject.--J. G. Frazer, _Pausanias's + Description of Greece_ (6 vols.); J. Lange, _Darstellung des Menschen + in der alteren griechischen Kunst_; E. Brucke, _The Human Figure; its + Beauties and Defects_; A. Michaelis, _Ancient Marbles in Great + Britain_ (1882); _Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum_ + (3 vols.); _Catalogue of Greek Vases in the British Museum_ (4 vols.); + J. B. Bury, _History of Greece_ (illustrated edition); Baumeister, + _Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums_ (3 vols.). (P. G.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Grammar of Greek Art._ + + [2] It may here be pointed out that it was found impossible, with any + regard for the appearance of the pages, to arrange the Plates for + this article so as to preserve a chronological order in the + individual figures; they are not arranged consecutively as regards + the history or the period, and are only grouped for convenience in + paging.--Ed. + + [3] The date is given when the work cannot be considered new. + + + + +GREEK FIRE, the name applied to inflammable and destructive compositions +used in warfare during the middle ages and particularly by the Byzantine +Greeks at the sieges of Constantinople. The employment of liquid fire is +represented on Assyrian bas-reliefs. At the siege of Plataea (429 B.C.) +the Spartans attempted to burn the town by piling up against the walls +wood saturated with pitch and sulphur and setting it on fire (Thuc. ii. +77), and at the siege of Delium (424 B.C.) a cauldron containing pitch, +sulphur and burning charcoal, was placed against the walls and urged +into flame by the aid of a bellows, the blast from which was conveyed +through a hollow tree-trunk (Thuc. iv. 100). Aeneas Tacticus in the +following century mentions a mixture of sulphur, pitch, charcoal, +incense and tow, which was packed in wooden vessels and thrown lighted +upon the decks of the enemy's ships. Later, as in receipts given by +Vegetius (_c._ A.D. 350), naphtha or petroleum is added, and some nine +centuries afterwards the same substances are found forming part of +mixtures described in the later receipts (which probably date from the +beginning of the 13th century) of the collection known as the _Liber +ignium_ of Marcus Graecus. In subsequent receipts saltpetre and +turpentine make their appearance, and the modern "carcass composition," +containing sulphur, tallow, rosin, turpentine, saltpetre and crude +antimony, is a representative of the same class of mixtures, which +became known to the Crusaders as Greek fire but were more usually called +wildfire. Greek fire, properly so-called, was, however, of a somewhat +different character. It is said that in the reign of Constantine +Pogonatus (648-685) an architect named Callinicus, who had fled from +Heliopolis in Syria to Constantinople, prepared a wet fire which was +thrown out from siphons ([Greek: to dia ton siphonon ekpheromenon pyr +hugron]), and that by its aid the ships of the Saracens were set on fire +at Cyzicus and their defeat assured. The art of compounding this +mixture, which is also referred to as [Greek: pyr thalassion], or sea +fire, was jealously guarded at Constantinople, and the possession of the +secret on several occasions proved of great advantage to the city. The +nature of the compound is somewhat obscure. It has been supposed that +the novelty introduced by Callinicus was saltpetre, but this view +involves the difficulty that that substance was apparently not known +till the 13th century, even if it were capable of accounting for the +properties attributed to the wet fire. Lieut.-Colonel H. W. L. Hime, +after a close examination of the available evidence, concludes that what +distinguished Greek fire from the other incendiaries of the period was +the presence of quicklime, which was well known to give rise to a large +development of heat when brought into contact with water. The mixture, +then, was composed of such materials as sulphur and naphtha with +quicklime, and took fire spontaneously when wetted--whence the name of +wet fire or sea fire; and portions of it were "projected and at the same +time ignited by applying the hose of a water engine to the breech" of +the siphon, which was a wooden tube, cased with bronze. + + See Lieut.-Col. H. W. L. Hime, _Gunpowder and Ammunition, their Origin + and Progress_ (London, 1904). + + + + +GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF, the name given to the great rising of the +Greek subjects of the sultan against the Ottoman domination, which began +in 1821 and ended in 1833 with the establishment of the independent +kingdom of Greece. The circumstances that led to the insurrection and +the general diplomatic situation by which its fortunes were from time to +time affected are described elsewhere (see GREECE: _History_; TURKEY: +_History_). The present article is confined to a description of the +general character and main events of the war itself. If we exclude the +abortive invasion of the Danubian principalities by Prince Alexander +Ypsilanti (March 1821), which collapsed ignominiously as soon as it was +disavowed by the tsar, the theatre of the war was confined to +continental Greece, the Morea, and the adjacent narrow seas. Its history +may, broadly speaking, be divided into three periods: the first +(1821-1824), during which the Greeks, aided by numerous volunteers from +Europe, were successfully pitted against the sultan's forces alone; the +second, from 1824, when the disciplined troops of Mehemet Ali, pasha of +Egypt, turned the tide against the insurgents; the third, from the +intervention of the European powers in the autumn of 1827 to the end. + +When, on the 2nd of April 1821, Archbishop Germanos, head of the +_Hetaeria_ in the Morea, raised the standard of the cross at Kalavryta +as the signal for a general rising of the Christian population, the +circumstances were highly favourable. In the Morea itself, in spite of +plentiful warning, the Turks were wholly unprepared; while the bulk of +the Ottoman army, under the _seraskier_ Khurshid Pasha, was engaged in +the long task of reducing the intrepid Ali, pasha of Iannina (see ALI, +pasha of Iannina). + +Another factor, and that the determining one, soon came to the aid of +the Greeks. In warfare carried on in such a country as Greece, sea-girt +and with a coast deeply indented, inland without roads and intersected +with rugged mountains, victory--as Wellington was quick to observe--must +rest with the side that has command of the sea. This was assured to the +insurgents at the outset by the revolt of the maritime communities of +the Greek archipelago. The Greeks of the islands had been accustomed +from time immemorial to seafaring; their ships--some as large as +frigates--were well armed, to guard against the Barbary pirates and +rovers of their own kin; lastly, they had furnished the bulk of the +sailors to the Ottoman navy which, now that this recruiting ground was +closed, had to be manned hastily with impressed crews of dock-labourers +and peasants, many of whom had never seen the sea. The Turkish fleet, +"adrift in the Archipelago"--as the British seamen put it--though +greatly superior in tonnage and weight of metal, could never be a match +for the Greek brigs, manned as these were by trained, if not +disciplined, crews. + + + Outbreak of the insurrection. + +The war was begun by the Greeks without definite plan and without any +generally recognized leadership. The force with which Germanos marched +from Kalavryta against Patras was composed of peasants armed with +scythes, clubs and slings, among whom the "primates" exercised a +somewhat honorary authority. The town itself was destroyed and those of +its Mussulman inhabitants who could not escape into the citadel were +massacred; but the citadel remained in the hands of the Turks till 1828. +Meanwhile, in the south, leaders of another stamp had appeared: Petros, +bey of the Maina (q.v.) chief of the Mavromichales, who at the head of +his clan attacked Kalamata and put the Mussulman inhabitants to the +sword; and Kolokotrones, a notable brigand once in the service of the +Ionian government, who--fortified by a vision of the Virgin--captured +Karytaena and slaughtered its infidel population. Encouraged by these +successes the revolt spread rapidly; within three weeks there was not a +Mussulman left in the open country, and the remnants of the once +dominant class were closely besieged in the fortified towns by hosts of +wild peasants and brigands. The flames of revolt now spread across the +Isthmus of Corinth: early in April the Christians of Dervenokhoria rose, +and the whole of Boeotia and Attica quickly followed suit; at the +beginning of May the Mussulman inhabitants of Athens were blockaded in +the Acropolis. In the Morea, meanwhile, a few Mussulman fortresses still +held out: Coron, Modon, Navarino, Patras, Nauplia, Monemvasia, +Tripolitsa. One by one they fell, and everywhere were repeated the same +scenes of butchery. The horrors culminated in the capture of Tripolitsa, +the capital of the vilayet. In September this was taken by storm; +Kolokotrones rode in triumph to the citadel over streets carpeted with +the dead; and the crowning triumph of the Cross was celebrated by a +cold-blooded massacre of 2000 prisoners of all ages and both sexes. This +completed the success of the insurrection in the Morea, where only +Patras, Nauplia, and one or two lesser fortresses remained to the Turks. + +Meanwhile, north of the Isthmus, the fortunes of war had been less +one-sided. In the west Khurshid's lieutenant, Omar Vrioni (a Mussulman +Greek of the race of the Palaeologi), had inflicted a series of defeats +on the insurgents, recaptured Levadia, and on the 30th of June relieved +the Acropolis; but the rout of the troops which Mahommed Pasha was +bringing to his aid by the Greeks in the defile of Mount Oeta, and the +news of the fall of Tripolitsa, forced him to retreat, and the campaign +of 1821 ended with the retirement of the Turks into Thessaly. + +The month of April had witnessed the revolt of the principal Greek +islands, Spetsae on the 7th, Psara on the 23rd, Hydra on the 28th and +Samos on the 30th. Their fleets were divided into squadrons, of which +one, under Tombazes, was deputed to watch for the entrance of the +Ottomans into the archipelago, while the other under Andreas Miaoulis +(_q.v._) sailed to blockade Patras and watch the coasts of Epirus. At +sea, as on land, the Greeks opened the campaign with hideous atrocities, +almost their first exploit being the capture of a vessel carrying to +Mecca the sheik-ul-Islam and his family, whom they murdered with every +aggravation of outrage. + + + General character of the war. + +These inauspicious beginnings, indeed, set the whole tone of the war, +which was frankly one of mutual extermination. On both sides the +combatants were barbarians, without discipline or competent +organization. At sea the Greeks rapidly developed into mere pirates, and +even Miaoulis, for all his high character and courage, was often unable +to prevent his captains from sailing home at critical moments, when pay +or booty failed. On land the presence of a few educated Phanariots, such +as Demetrios Ypsilanti or Alexander Mavrocordato, was powerless to +inspire the rude hordes with any sense of order or of humanity in +warfare; while every lull in the fighting, due to a temporary check to +the Turks, was the signal for internecine conflicts due to the rivalry +of leaders who, with rare exceptions, thought more of their personal +power and profit than of the cause of Greece. + + + Turkish reprisals. + + Europe and the rising Philhellenism. + +This cause, indeed, was helped more by the impolitic reprisals of the +Turks than by the heroism of the insurgents. All Europe stood aghast at +the news of the execution of the Patriarch Gregorios of Constantinople +(April 22, 1821) and the wholesale massacres that followed, culminating +as these did in the extermination of the prosperous community of Scio +(Chios) in March 1822. The cause of Greece was now that of Christendom, +of the Catholic and Protestant West, as of the Orthodox East. European +Liberalism, too, gagged and fettered under Metternich's "system," +recognized in the Greeks the champions of its own cause; while even +conservative statesmen, schooled in the memories of ancient Hellas, saw +in the struggle a fight of civilization against barbarism. This latter +belief, which was, moreover, flattering to their vanity, the Greek +leaders were astute enough to foster; the propaganda of Adamantios +Coraes (_q.v._) had done its work; and wily brigands, like Odysseus of +Ithaka, assuming the style and trappings of antiquity, posed as the +champions of classic culture against the barbarian. All Europe, then, +hailed with joy the exploit of Constantine Kanaris, who on the night of +June 18-19 succeeded in steering a fire-ship among the Turkish squadron +off Scio, and burned the flag-ship of the capudan-pasha with 3000 souls +on board. + + + Expedition of Dramali, 1822. + +Meanwhile Sultan Mahmud, now wide awake to the danger, had been +preparing for a systematic effort to suppress the rising. The threatened +breach with Russia had been avoided by Metternich's influence on the +tsar Alexander; the death of Ali of Iannina had set free the army of +Khurshid Pasha, who now, as _seraskier_ of Rumelia, was charged with the +task of reducing the Morea. In the spring of 1822 two Turkish armies +advanced southwards: one, under Omar Vrioni, along the coast of Western +Hellas, the other, under Ali, pasha of Drama (Dramali), through Boeotia +and Attica. Omar was held in check by the mud ramparts of Missolonghi; +but Dramali, after exacting fearful vengeance for the massacre of the +Turkish garrison of the Acropolis at Athens, crossed the Isthmus and +with the over-confidence of a conquering barbarian advanced to the +relief of the hard-pressed garrison of Nauplia. He crossed the perilous +defile of Dervenaki unopposed; and at the news of his approach most of +the members of the Greek government assembled at Argos fled in panic +terror. Demetrios Ypsilanti, however, with a few hundred men joined the +Mainote Karayanni in the castle of Larissa, which crowns the acropolis +of ancient Argos. This held Dramali in check, and gave Kolokotrones time +to collect an army. The Turks, in the absence of the fleet which was to +have brought them supplies, were forced to retreat (August 6); the +Greeks, inspired with new courage, awaited them in the pass of +Dervenaki, where the undisciplined Ottoman host, thrown into confusion +by an avalanche of boulders hurled upon them, was annihilated. In +Western Greece the campaign had an outcome scarcely less disastrous for +the Turks. The death of Ali of Iannina had been followed by the +suppression of the insurgent Suliotes and the advance of Omar Vrioni +southwards to Missolonghi; but the town held out gallantly, a Turkish +surprise attack, on the 6th of January 1823, was beaten off, and Omar +Vrioni had to abandon the siege and retire northwards over the pass of +Makrynoros. + + + Civil war among the Greeks. + + Campaign of 1823. + +The victorious outcome of the year's fighting had a disastrous effect +upon the Greeks. Their victories had been due mainly to the guerilla +tactics of the leaders of the type of Kolokotrones; Mavrocordato, whose +character and antecedents had marked him out as the natural head of the +new Greek state, in spite of his successful defence of Missolonghi, had +been discredited by failures elsewhere; and the Greeks thus learned to +despise their civilized advisers and to underrate the importance of +discipline. The temporary removal of the common peril, moreover, let +loose all the sectional and personal jealousies, which even in face of +the enemy had been with difficulty restrained, and the year 1823 +witnessed the first civil war between the Greek parties. These +internecine feuds might easily have proved fatal to the cause of Greece. +In the Archipelago Hydriotes and Spetsiotes were at daggers drawn; the +men of Psara were at open war with those of Samos; all semblance of +discipline and cohesion had vanished from the Greek fleet. Had Khosrev, +the new Ottoman admiral, been a man of enterprise, he might have +regained the command of the sea and, with it, that of the whole +situation. But the fate of his predecessor had filled him with a lively +terror of Kanaris and his fire-ships; he contented himself with a cruise +round the coasts of Greece, and was happy to return to safety under the +guns of the Dardanelles without having accomplished anything beyond +throwing supplies and troops into Coron, Modon and Patras. On land, +meanwhile, the events of the year before practically repeated +themselves. In the west an army of Mussulman and Catholic Albanians, +under Mustai Pasha, advanced southwards. On the night of the 21st of +August occurred the celebrated exploit of Marko Botzaris and his +Suliotes: a successful surprise attack on the camp of the Ottoman +vanguard, in which the Suliote leader fell. The jealousy of the Aetolian +militia for the Suliotes, however, prevented the victory being decisive; +and Mustai advanced to the siege of Anatoliko, a little town in the +lagoons near Missolonghi. Here he was detained until, on the 11th of +December, he was forced to raise the siege and retire northwards. His +colleague, Yussuf Pasha, in East Hellas fared no better; here, too, the +Turks gained some initial successes, but in the end the harassing +tactics of Kolokotrones and his guerilla bands forced them back into the +plain of the Kephissos. At the end of the year the Greeks were once more +free to renew their internecine feuds. + +Just when these feuds were at their height, in the autumn of 1823, the +most famous of the Philhellenes who sacrificed themselves for the cause +of Greece, Lord Byron, arrived in Greece. + + + Second civil war, 1824. + + Intervention of Mehemet Ali. + +The year 1824 was destined to be a fateful one for the Greek cause. The +large loans raised in Europe, the first instalment of which Byron had +himself brought over, while providing the Greeks with the sinews of war, +provided them also with fresh material for strife. To the struggle for +power was added a struggle for a share of this booty, and a second civil +war broke out, Kolokotrones leading the attack on the forces of the +government. Early in 1825 the government was victorious; Kolokotrones +was in prison; and Odysseus, the hero of so many exploits and so many +crimes, who had ended by turning traitor and selling his services to the +Turks, had been captured, imprisoned in the Acropolis, and finally +assassinated by his former lieutenant Gouras (July 16, 1824). But a new +and more terrible danger now threatened Greece. Sultan Mahmud, +despairing of suppressing the insurrection by his own power, had +reluctantly summoned to his aid Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, whose +well-equipped fleet and disciplined army were now thrown into the scale +against the Greeks. Already, in June 1823, the pasha's son-in-law +Hussein Bey had landed in Crete, and by April of the following year had +reduced the insurgent islanders to submission. Crete now became the base +of operations against the Greeks. On the 19th of June Hussein appeared +before Kasos, a nest of pirates of evil reputation, which he captured +and destroyed. The same day the Egyptian fleet, under Ibrahim Pasha, +sailed from Alexandria. Khosrev, too, emboldened by this new sense of +support, ventured to sea, surprised and destroyed Psara (July 2), and +planned an attack on Samos, which was defeated by Miaoulis and his +fire-ships (August 16, 17). On the 1st of September, however, Khosrev +succeeded in effecting a junction with Ibrahim off Budrun, and two +indecisive engagements followed with the united Greek fleet on the 5th +and 10th. The object of Ibrahim was to reach Suda Bay with his +transports, which the Greeks should at all costs have prevented. A first +attempt was defeated by Miaoulis on the 16th of November, and Ibrahim +was compelled to retire and anchor off Rhodes; but the Greek admiral was +unable to keep his fleet together, the season was far advanced, his +captains were clamouring for arrears of pay, and the Greek fleet sailed +for Nauplia, leaving the sea unguarded. On the 5th of December Ibrahim +again set sail, and reached Suda without striking a blow. Here he +completed his preparations, and, on the 24th of February 1825, landed at +Modon in the Morea with a force of 4000 regular infantry and 500 +cavalry. The rest followed, without the Greeks making any effort to +intercept them. + + + Ibrahim in the Morea. + +The conditions of the war were now completely changed. The Greeks, who +had been squandering the money provided by the loans in every sort of +senseless extravagance, affected to despise the Egyptian invaders, but +they were soon undeceived. On the 21st of March Ibrahim had laid siege +to Navarino, and after some delay a Greek force under Skourti, a +Hydriote sea-captain, was sent to its relief. The Greeks had in all some +7000 men, Suliotes, Albanians, _armatoli_ from Rumelia, and some +irregular Bulgarian and Vlach cavalry. On the 19th of April they were +met by Ibrahim at Krommydi with 2000 regular infantry, 400 cavalry and +four guns. The Greek entrenchments were stormed at the point of the +bayonet by Ibrahim's fellahin at the first onset; the defenders broke +and fled, leaving 600 dead on the field. The news of this disaster, and +of the fall of Pylos and Navarino that followed, struck terror into the +Greek government; and in answer to popular clamour Kolokotrones was +taken from prison and placed at the head of the army. But the guerilla +tactics of the wily klepht were powerless against Ibrahim, who marched +northward, and, avoiding Nauplia for the present, seized Tripolitsa, and +made this the base from which his columns marched to devastate the +country far and wide. + + + Reshid "Kutahia" besieges Missolonghi. + +Meanwhile from the north the Ottomans were making another supreme +effort. The command of the army that was to operate in west Hellas had +been given to Reshid "Kutahia," pasha of Iannina, an able general and a +man of determined character. On the 6th of April, after bribing the +Albanian clansmen to neutrality, he passed the defile of Makrynoros, +which the Greeks had left undefended, and on the 7th of May opened the +second siege of Missolonghi. For twelve months the population held out, +repulsing the attacks of the enemy, refusing every offer of honourable +capitulation. This resistance was rendered possible by the Greek command +of the sea, Miaoulis from time to time entering the lagoons with +supplies; it came to an end when this command was lost. In September +1825 Ibrahim, at the order of the sultan, had joined Reshid before the +town; piecemeal the outlying forts and defences now fell, until the +garrison, reduced by starvation and disease, determined to hazard all on +a final sortie. This took place on the night of the 22nd of April 1826; +but a mistaken order threw the ranks of the Greeks into disorder, and +the Turks entered the town pell-mell with the retreating crowd. Only a +remnant of the defenders succeeded in gaining the forests of Mount +Zygos, where most of them perished. + + + Karaiskakis. + +The fall of Missolonghi, followed as this was by the submission of many +of the more notable chiefs, left Reshid free to turn his attention to +East Hellas, where Gouras had been ruling as a practically independent +chief and in the spirit of a brigand. The peasants of the open country +welcomed the Turks as deliverers, and Reshid's conciliatory policy +facilitated his march to Athens, which fell at the first assault on the +25th of August, siege being at once laid to the Acropolis, where Gouras +and his troops had taken refuge. Round this the war now centred; for all +recognized that its fall would involve that of the cause of Greece. In +these straits the Greek government entrusted the supreme command of the +troops to Karaiskakis, an old retainer of Ali of Iannina, a master of +the art of guerilla war, and, above all, a man of dauntless courage and +devoted patriotism. A first attempt to relieve the Acropolis, with the +assistance of some disciplined troops under the French Colonel Fabvier, +was defeated at Chaidari by the Turks. The garrison of the Acropolis was +hard pressed, and the death of Gouras (October 13th) would have ended +all, had not his heroic wife taken over the command and inspired the +defenders with new courage. For months the siege dragged on, while +Karaiskakis fought with varying success in the mountains, a final +victory at Distomo (February 1827) over Omar Vrioni securing the +restoration to the Greek cause of all continental Greece, except the +towns actually held by the Turks. + + + Cochrane and Church. + + Greek defeat at Athens. + +It was at this juncture that the Greek government, reinforced by a fresh +loan from Europe, handed over the chief command at sea to Lord Cochrane +(earl of Dundonald, _q.v._), and that of the land forces to General +(afterwards Sir Richard) Church, both Miaoulis and Karaiskakis +consenting without demur to serve under them. Cochrane and Church at +once concentrated their energies on the task of relieving the Acropolis. +Already, on the 5th of February, General Gordon had landed and +entrenched himself on the hill of Munychia, near the ancient Piraeus, +and the efforts of the Turks to dislodge him had failed, mainly owing to +the fire of the steamer "Karteria" commanded by Captain Hastings. When +Church and Cochrane arrived, a general assault on the Ottoman camp was +decided on. This was preceded, on the 25th of April, by an attack, +headed by Cochrane, on the Turkish troops established near the monastery +of St Spiridion, the result of which was to establish communications +between the Greeks at Munychia and Phalerum and isolate Reshid's +vanguard on the promontory of the Piraeus. The monastery held out for +two days longer, when the Albanian garrison surrendered on terms, but +were massacred by the Greeks as they were marching away under escort. +For this miserable crime Church has, by some historians, been held +responsible by default; it is clear, however, from his own account that +no blame rests upon him (see his MS. _Narrative_, vol. i. chap. ii. p. +34). The assault on the Turkish main camp was fixed for the 6th of May; +but, unfortunately, a chance skirmish brought on an engagement the day +before, in the course of which Karaiskakis was killed, an irreparable +loss in view of his prestige with the wild _armatoli_. The assault on +the following day was a disastrous failure. The Greeks, advancing +prematurely over broken ground and in no sort of order, were fallen upon +in flank by Reshid's horsemen, and fled in panic terror. The English +officers, who in vain tried to rally them, themselves only just escaped +by scrambling into their boats and putting off to the war-vessels, whose +guns checked the pursuit and enabled a remnant of the fugitives to +escape. Church held Munychia till the 27th, when he sent instructions +for the garrison of the Acropolis to surrender. On the 5th of June the +remnant of the defenders marched out with the honours of war, and +continental Greece was once more in the power of the Turks. Had Reshid +at once advanced over the Isthmus, the Morea also must have been +subdued; but he was jealous of Ibrahim, and preferred to return to +Iannina to consolidate his conquests. + + + Renewed anarchy. + +The fate of Greece was now in the hands of the Powers, who after years +of diplomatic wrangling had at last realized that intervention was +necessary if Greece was to be saved for European civilization. The worst +enemy of the Greeks was their own incurable spirit of faction; in the +very crisis of their fate, during the siege of Missolonghi, rival +presidents and rival assemblies struggled for supremacy, and a third +civil war had only been prevented by the arrival of Cochrane and Church. +Under their influence a new National Assembly met at Troezene in March +1827 and elected as president Count Capo d'Istria (_q.v._), formerly +Russian minister for foreign affairs; at the same time a new +constitution was promulgated which, when the very life of the +insurrection seemed on the point of flickering out, set forth the full +ideal of Pan-Hellenic dreams. Anarchy followed; war of Rumeliotes +against Moreotes, of chief against chief; rival factions bombarded each +other from the two forts at Nauplia over the stricken town, and in +derision of the impotent government. Finally, after months of inaction, +Ibrahim began once more his systematic devastation of the country. To +put a stop to this the Powers decided to intervene by means of a joint +demonstration of their fleets, in order to enforce an armistice and +compel Ibrahim to evacuate the Morea (Treaty of London, July 6, 1827). +The refusal of Ibrahim to obey, without special instruction from the +sultan, led to the entrance of the allied British, French and Russian +fleet into the harbour of Navarino and the battle of the 20th of October +1827 (see NAVARINO). This, and the two campaigns of the Russo-Turkish +war of 1828-29, decided the issue. + + AUTHORITIES.--There is no trustworthy history of the war, based on all + the material now available, and all the existing works must be read + with caution, especially those by eye-witnesses, who were too often + prejudiced or the dupes of the Greek factions. The best-known works + are: G. Finlay, _Hist. of the Greek Revolution_ (2 vols., London, + 1861); T. Gordon, _Hist. of the Greek Revolution_ (London, 1833); C. + W. P. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, _Geschichte Griechenlands_, &c. + (_Staatengeschichte der neuesten Zeit_) (2 vols., Leipzig, 1870-1874); + F. C. H. L. Pouqueville, _Histoire de la regeneration de la Grece, + &c._ (4 vols., Paris, 1824),--the author was French resident at the + court of Ali of Iannina and afterwards consul at Patras; Count A. + Prokesch-Osten, _Geschichte des Abfalls der Griechen vom turkischen + Reich, &c._ (6 vols., Vienna, 1867), the last four volumes consisting + of _pieces justificatives_ of much value. See also W. Alison Phillips, + _The War of Greek Independence_ (London and New York, 1897), a sketch + compiled mainly from the above-mentioned works: Spiridionos Tricoupi, + [Greek: Historia tes Hellenikes epanastaseos] (Athens, 1853); J. + Philemon, [Greek: Dokimion historikon peri tes Hellenikes + epanastaseos] (Athens, 1859), in four parts: (1) History of the + Hetaeria Philike, (2) The heralding of the war and the rising under + Ypsilanti, (3 and 4). The insurrection in Greece to 1822, with many + documents. Of great value also are the 29 volumes of Correspondence + and Papers of Sir Richard Church, now in the British Museum (Add MSS. + 36,543-36,571). Among these is a Narrative by Church of the war in + Greece during his tenure of the command (vols. xxi.-xxiii., Nos. + 36,563-36,565), which contains the material for correcting many errors + repeated in most works on the war, notably the strictures of Finlay + and others on Church's conduct before Athens. For further references + see the bibliography appended to W. Alison Phillips's chapter on + "Greece and the Balkan Peninsula" in the _Cambridge Modern History_, + x. 803. (W. A. P.) + + + + +GREEK LANGUAGE. Greek is one of the eight main branches into which the +Indo-European languages (q.v.) are divided. The area in which it is +spoken has been curiously constant throughout its recorded history. +These limits are, roughly speaking, the shores of the Aegean, on both +the European and the Asiatic side, and the intermediate islands (one of +the most archaic of Greek dialects being found on the eastern side in +the island of Cyprus), and the Greek peninsula generally from its +southern promontories as far as the mountains which shut in Thessaly on +the north. Beyond Mt. Olympus and the Cambunian mountains lay Macedonia, +in which a closely kindred dialect was spoken, so closely related, +indeed, that O. Hoffmann has argued (_Die Makedonen_, Gottingen, 1906) +that Macedonian is not only Greek, but a part of the great Aeolic +dialect which included Thessalian to the south and Lesbian to the east. +In the north-west, Greek included many rude dialects little known even +to the ancient Greeks themselves, and it extended northwards beyond +Aetolia and Ambracia to southern Epirus and Thesprotia. In the Homeric +age the great shrine of Pelasgian Zeus was at Dodona, but, by the time +of Thucydides, Aetolia and all north of it had come to be looked upon as +the most backward of Greek lands, where men lived a savage life, +speaking an almost unintelligible language, and eating raw flesh +([Greek: agnostotatoi de glossan kai omophagoi], Thuc. iii. 94, of the +Aetolian Eurytanes). The Greeks themselves had no memory of how they +came to occupy this land. Their earliest legends connected the origin of +their race with Thessaly and Mt. Pindus, but Athenians and Arcadians +also boasted themselves of autochthonous race, inhabiting a country +wherein no man had preceded their ancestors. The Greek language, at any +rate as it has come down to us, is remarkably perfect, in vowel sounds +being the most primitive of any of the Indo-European languages, while +its verb system has no rival in completeness except in the earliest +Sanskrit of the Vedic literature. Its noun system, on the other hand, is +much less complete, its cases being more broken down than those of the +Aryan, Armenian, Slavonic and Italic families. + + The most remarkable characteristic of Greek is one conditioned by the + geographical aspect of the land. Few countries are so broken up with + mountains as Greece. Not only do mountain ranges as elsewhere on the + European continent run east and west, but other ranges cross them from + north to south, thus dividing the portions of Greece at some distance + from the sea into hollows without outlet, every valley being separated + for a considerable part of the year from contact with every other, and + inter-communication at all seasons being rendered difficult. Thus till + external coercion from Macedon came into play it was never possible to + establish a great central government controlling the Greek mainland. + The geographical situation of the islands in the Aegean equally led to + the isolation of one little territory from another. To these + geographical considerations may be added the inveterate desire of the + Greeks to make the [Greek: polis], the city state, everywhere and at + all times an independent unit, a desire which, originating in the + geographical conditions, even accentuated the isolating effect of the + natural features of the country. Thus at one time in the little island + of Amorgos there were no less than three separate and independent + political units. The inevitable result of geographical and political + division was the maintenance of a great number of local + characteristics in language, differentiating in this respect also each + political community from its nearest neighbours. It was only natural + that the inhabitants of a country so little adapted to maintain a + numerous population should have early sent off swarms to other lands. + The earliest stage of colonization lies in the borderland between myth + and history. The Greeks themselves knew that a population had preceded + them in the islands of the Cyclades which they identified with the + Carians of Asia Minor (Herodotus i. 171; Thucydides i. 4. 8). The same + population indeed appears to have preceded them on the mainland of + Greece, for there are similar place-names in Caria and in Greece which + have no etymology in Greek. Thus the endings of words like Parnassus + and Halicarnassus seem identical, and the common ending of place-names + in -[Greek: inthos, Korinthos, Probalinthos], &c., seems to be the + same in origin with the common ending of Asiatic names in -_nda_, + Alinda, Karyanda, &c. Probably the earliest portion of Asia Minor to + be colonized by the Greeks was the north-west, to which came settlers + from Thessaly, when the early inhabitants were driven out by the + Thesprotians, who later controlled Thessaly. The name Aeolis, which + after times gave to the N.W. of Asia Minor, was the old name for + Thessaly (Hdt. vii. 176). These Thesprotians were of the same stock as + the Dorians, to whose invasion of the Peloponnese the later migration, + which carried the Ionians to Asia and the Cypriot Greeks to Cyprus, in + all probability was due. From the north Aegean probably the Dorians + reached Crete, where alone their existence is recorded by Homer + (_Odyssey_, xix. 175 ff.; Diodorus Siculus v. 80. 2); cp. Fick, + _Vorgriechische Ortsnamen_ (1906). + + Among the Greeks of the pre-Dorian period Herodotus distinguishes + various stocks. Though the name is not Homeric, both Herodotus and + Thucydides recognize an Aeolian stock which must have spread over + Thessaly and far to the west till it was suppressed and absorbed by + the Dorian stock which came in from the north-west. The name of Aeolis + still attached in Thucydides' time to the western area of Calydon + between the mountains and the N. side of the entrance to the + Corinthian gulf (iii. 102). In Boeotia the same stock survived (Thuc. + vii. 57. 5), overlaid by an influx of Dorians, and it came down to the + isthmus; for the Corinthians, though speaking in historical times a + Doric dialect, were originally Aeolians (Thuc. iv. 42). In the + Peloponnese Herodotus recognizes (viii. 73) three original stocks, the + Arcadians, the Ionians of Cynuria, and the Achaeans. In Arcadia there + is little doubt that the pre-Dorian population maintained itself and + its language, just as in the mountains of Wales, the Scottish + Highlands and Connemara the Celtic language has maintained itself + against the Saxon invaders. By Herodotus' time the Cynurians had been + doricized, while the Ionians, along the south side of the Corinthian + gulf, were expelled by the Achaeans (vii. 94, viii. 73), apparently + themselves driven from their own homes by the Dorian invasion (Strabo + viii. p. 333 _fin_.). However this may be, the Achaeans of historical + times spoke a dialect akin to that of northern Elis and of the Greeks + on the north side of the Corinthian gulf. How close the relation may + have been between the language of the Achaeans of the Peloponnese in + the Homeric age and their contemporaries in Thessaly we have no means + of ascertaining definitely, the documentary evidence for the history + of the dialects being all very much later than Homeric times. Even in + the Homeric catalogue Agamemnon has to lend the Arcadians ships to + take them to Troy (_Iliad_, ii. 612). But a population speaking the + same or a very similar dialect was probably seated on the eastern + coast, and migrated at the beginning of the Doric invasion to Cyprus. + As this population wrote not in the Greek alphabet but in a peculiar + syllabary and held little communication with the rest of the Greek + world, it succeeded in preserving in Cyprus a very archaic dialect + very closely akin to that of Arcadia, and also containing a + considerable number of words found in the Homeric vocabulary but lost + or modified in later Greek elsewhere. + + On this historical foundation alone is it possible to understand + clearly the relation of the dialects in historical times. The + prehistoric movements of the Greek tribes can to some extent be + realized in their dialects, as recorded in their inscriptions, though + all existing inscriptions belong to a much later period. Thus from the + ancient Aeolis of northern Greece sprang the historical dialects of + Thessaly and Lesbos with the neighbouring coast of Asia Minor. At an + early period the Dorians had invaded and to some extent affected the + character of the southern Thessalian and to a much greater extent that + of the Boeotian dialect. The dialects of Locris, Phocis and Aetolia + were a somewhat uncouth and unliterary form of Doric. According to + accepted tradition, Elis had been colonized by Oxylus the Aetolian, + and the dialect of the more northerly part of Elis, as already pointed + out, is, along with the Achaean of the south side of the Corinthian + gulf, closely akin to those dialects north of the Isthmus. The most + southerly part of Elis--Triphylia--has a dialect akin to Arcadian. + Apart from Arcadian the other dialects of the Peloponnese in + historical times are all Doric, though in small details they differ + among themselves. Though we are unable to check the statements of the + historians as to the area occupied by Ionic in prehistoric times, it + is clear from the legends of the close connexion between Athens and + Troezen that the same dialect, had been spoken on both sides of the + Saronic gulf, and may well have extended, as Herodotus says, along the + eastern coast of the Peloponnese and the south side of the Corinthian + gulf. According to legend, the Ionians expelled from the Peloponnese + collected at Athens before they started on their migrations to the + coast of Asia Minor. Be that as it may, legend and language alike + connected the Athenians with the Ionians, though by the 5th century + B.C. the Athenians no longer cared to be known by the name (Hdt. i. + 143). Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros, which had long belonged to Athens, + were Athenian also in language. The great island of Euboea and all the + islands of the central Aegean between Greece and Asia were Ionic. + Chios, the most northerly Ionic island on the Asiatic coast, seems to + have been originally Aeolic, and its Ionic retained some Aeolic + characteristics. The most southerly of the mainland towns which were + originally Aeolic was Smyrna, but this at an early date became Ionic + (Hdt. i. 149). The last important Ionic town to the south was Miletus, + but at an early period Ionic widened its area towards the south also + and took in Halicarnassus from the Dorians. According to Herodotus, + there were four kinds of Ionic ([Greek: charakteres glosses tesseres], + i. 142). Herodotus tells us the areas in which these dialects were + spoken, but nothing of the differences between them. They were (1) + Samos, (2) Chios and Erythrae, (3) the towns in Lydia, (4) the towns + in Caria. The language of the inscriptions unfortunately is a [Greek: + koine], a conventional literary language which reveals no differences + of importance. Only recently has the characteristic so well known in + Herodotus of [kappa] appearing in certain words where other dialects + have [pi] ([Greek: hokos] for [Greek: hopos, kou] for [Greek: pou], + &c.) been found in any inscription. It is, however, clear that this + was a popular characteristic not considered to be sufficiently + dignified for official documents. We may conjecture that the native + languages spoken on the Lydian and Carian coasts had affected the + character of the language spoken by the Greek immigrants, more + especially as the settlers from Athens married Carian women, while the + settlers in the other towns were a mixture of Greek tribes, many of + them not Ionic at all (Hdt. i. 146). + + The more southerly islands of the Aegean and the most southerly + peninsula of Asia Minor were Doric. In the Homeric age Dorians were + only one of many peoples in Crete, but in historical times, though the + dialects of the eastern and the western ends of the island differ from + one another and from the middle whence our most valuable documents + come, all are Doric. By Melos and Thera Dorians carried their language + to Cos, Calymnus, Cnidus and Rhodes. + + These settlements, Aeolic, Ionic and Doric, grew and prospered, and + like flourishing hives themselves sent out fresh swarms to other + lands. Most prosperous and energetic of all was Miletus, which + established its trading posts in the Black Sea to the north and in the + delta of the Nile (Naucratis) to the south. The islands also sent off + their colonies, carrying their dialects with them, Paros to Thasos, + Euboea to the peninsulas of Chalcidice; the Dorians of Megara guarded + the entrance to the Black Sea at Chalcedon and Byzantium. While + Achaean influence spread out to the more southerly Ionian islands, + Corinth carried her dialect with her colonies to the coast of + Acarnania, Leucas and Corcyra. But the greatest of all Corinthian + colonies was much farther to the west--at Syracuse in Sicily. + Unfortunately the continuous occupation of the same or adjacent sites + has led to the loss of almost all that is early from Corinth and from + Syracuse. Corcyra has bequeathed to us some interesting grave + inscriptions from the 6th century B.C. Southern Italy and Sicily were + early colonized by Greeks. According to tradition Cumae was founded + not long after the Trojan War; even if we bring the date nearer the + founding of Syracuse in 735 B.C., we have apparently no record earlier + than the first half of the 5th century B.C., though it is still the + earliest of Chalcidian inscriptions. Tarentum was a Laconian + foundation, but the longest and most important document from a + Laconian colony in Italy comes from Heraclea about the end of the 4th + century B.C.--the report of a commission upon and the lease of temple + lands with description and conditions almost of modern precision. To + Achaea belonged the south Italian towns of Croton, Metapontum and + Sybaris. The ancestry of the Greek towns of Sicily has been explained + by Thucydides (vi. 2-5). Selinus, a colony of Megara, betrays its + origin in its dialect. Gela and Agrigentum no less clearly show their + descent from Rhodes. According to tradition the great city of Cyrene + in Africa was founded from Thera, itself an offshoot from Sparta. + + + CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREEK DIALECTS + + 1. _Arcadian and Cyprian._--As Cyprian was written in a syllabary + which could not represent a consonant by itself, did not distinguish + between voiced, unvoiced and aspirated consonants, did not represent + at all a nasal before another consonant, and did not distinguish + between long and short vowels, the interpretation of the symbols is of + the nature of a conundrum and the answer is not always certain. Thus + the same combination of two symbols would have to stand for [Greek: + tote, tode, dote, dothe, tonde, tode, to, de]. No inscription of more + than a few words in length is found in either dialect earlier than the + 5th century B.C. In both dialects the number of important inscriptions + is steadily increasing. Both dialects change final [omicron] to + [upsilon], [Greek: apo] passing into [Greek: apy]. Arcadian changes + the verb ending -[Greek: ai] into -[Greek: oi]. Arcadian uses [delta] + or [zeta] for an original _gw_-sound, which appears in Attic Greek as + [beta]: [Greek: zello], Attic [Greek: ballo], "throw." In inflexion + both agree in changing -[Greek: ao] of masculine -[alpha] stems into + [Greek: au] (Arcadian carries this form also into the feminine + -[alpha] stems), and in using locatives in -[Greek: ai] and -[Greek: + oi] for the dative, such locatives being governed by the prepositions + [Greek: apy] and [Greek: ex] (before a consonant [Greek: es] in + Arcadian). Verbs in -[Greek: ao], -[Greek: eo] and -[Greek: oo] are + declined not as -[omega], but as -[Greek: mi] verbs. The final [iota] + of the ending of the 3rd plural present changes the preceding [tau] to + [sigma]: [Greek: pheronsi], cp. Laconian (Doric) [Greek: pheronti], + Attic [Greek: pherousi], Lesbian [Greek: pheroisi]. Instead of the + Attic [Greek: tis], the interrogative pronoun appears as [Greek: sis], + the initial [sigma] in Arcadian being written with a special symbol + [koppa]. The pronunciation is not certain. The original sound was + _qw_, as in Latin _quis_, whence Attic [Greek: tis] and Thessalian + [Greek: kis]. In Arcadian [Greek: kan] the Aeolic particle [Greek: ke] + and the Ionic [Greek: an] seem to be combined. + + 2. _Aeolic._--Though Boeotian is overlaid with a Doric element, it + nevertheless agrees with Thessalian and Lesbian in some + characteristics. Unlike Greek generally, they represent the original + _qw_ of the word for _four_ by [pi] before [epsilon], where Attic and + other dialects have [tau]: [Greek: pettares], Attic [Greek: tettares]. + The corresponding voiced and aspirated sounds are similarly treated: + [Greek: Belphaios] the adjective in Thessalian to [Greek: Delphoi], + and [Greek: pher] for [Greek: ther]. They all tend to change [omicron] + to [upsilon]: [Greek: onyma], "name"; [Greek: ou] for [omega] in + Thessalian: [Greek: Aploun], "Apollo"; and [upsilon] in Boeotian for + [Greek: oi]: [Greek: wukia] ([Greek: oikia]), "house." They also make + the dative plural of the third declension in -[Greek: essi], and the + perfect participle active is declined like a present participle in + -[Greek: on]. Instead of the Athenian method of giving the father's + name in the genitive when a citizen is described, these dialects + (especially Thessalian) tend to make an adjective: thus instead of the + Attic [Greek: Demosthenes Demosthenous], Aeolic would rather have + [Greek: D. Demostheneios]. Thessalian stands midway between Lesbian + and Boeotian, agreeing with Lesbian in the use of double consonants, + where Attic has a single consonant, with or without lengthening of the + previous syllable: [Greek: emmi], Attic [Greek: eimi] for an original + *_esmi_; [Greek: stalla], Attic [Greek: stele]; [Greek: xennos] for an + earlier [Greek: xenwos], Attic [Greek: xenos], Ionic [Greek: xeinos], + Doric [Greek: xenos]. Where Attic has -[Greek: as] from an earlier + -[Greek: ans] or -[Greek: ants], Lesbian has -[Greek: ais]: [Greek: + tais archais] accusative in Lesbian for older [Greek: tans archans]. + Lesbian has no oxyton words according to the grammarians, the accent + being carried back to the penult or ante-*penultimate syllable. It has + also no "rough breathing," but this characteristic it shared with the + Ionic of Asia Minor, and in the course of time with other dialects. + The characteristic particle of the dialects is [Greek: ke], which is + used like the Doric [Greek: ka], the Arcadian [Greek: kan], and the + Attic and Ionic [Greek: an]. Thessalian and Lesbian agree in making + their long vowels close, [eta] belonging [Greek: ei] (a close _e_, not + a diphthong), [Greek: pateir], "father." The [upsilon] sound did not + become _u_ as in Attic and Ionic, and hence when the Ionic alphabet + was introduced it was spelt [Greek: ou], or when in contact with + dentals [Greek: iou], as in [Greek: oniouma = onyma], "name," [Greek: + tioucha = tyche], "chance"; the pronunciation, therefore, must have + been like the English sound in _news_, _tune_. Boeotian developed + earlier than other dialects the changes in the vowels which + characterize modern Greek: [Greek: ai] became _e_, [Greek: kai] + passing into [Greek: ke]: compare [Greek: pateir] and [Greek: wukia] + above: [Greek: ei] became [iota] in [Greek: echi], "has." Thessalian + shows some examples of the Homeric genitive in -[Greek: oio: + polemoio], &c.; its ordinary genitive of [omicron]- stems is in + -[Greek: oi]. + + There are some points of connexion between this group and + Arcadian-Cyprian: in both Thessalian and Cyprian the characteristic + [Greek: ptolis] (Attic, &c., [Greek: polis]) and [Greek: dauchna]- for + [Greek: daphne] are found, and both groups form the "contracting + verbs" not in -[omega] but in -[Greek: mi]. In the second group as in + the first there is little that precedes the 5th century B.C. Future + additions to our materials may be expected to lessen the gap between + the two groups and Homer. + + 3. _Ionic-Attic._--One of the earliest of Greek inscriptions--of the + 7th century, at least--is the Attic inscription written in two lines + from right to left upon a wine goblet ([Greek: oinochoe]) given as a + prize: [Greek: hos nun orcheston panton | atalotata paizei toto dekan + min]. The last words are uncertain. Till lately early inscriptions in + Ionic were few, but recently an early inscription has been found at + Ephesus and a later copy of a long early inscription at Miletus. + + The most noticeable characteristic of Attic and Ionic is the change of + [alpha] into [eta] which is universal in Ionic but does not appear in + Attic after another vowel or [rho]. Thus both dialects used [Greek: + meter, time] from an earlier [Greek: mater, tima], but Attic had + [Greek: sophia, pragma] and [Greek: chora], not [Greek: sophie, + pregma] and [Greek: chore] as in Ionic. The apparent exception [Greek: + kore] is explained by the fact that in this word a digamma [digamma] + has been lost after [rho], in Doric [Greek: korwa]. That the change + took place after the Ionians came into Asia is shown by the word + [Greek: Medoi], which in Cyprian is [Greek: Madoi]; the Medes were + certainly not known to the Greeks till long after the conquest of + Ionia. While Aeolic and the greater part of Doric kept [digamma], this + symbol and the sound _w_ represented by it had disappeared from both + Ionic and Attic before existing records begin--in other words, were + certainly not in use after 800 B.C. The symbol was known and occurs in + a few isolated instances. Both dialects agreed in changing _u_ into + _u_, so that a _u_ sound has to be represented by [Greek: ou]. The + short _o_ tended towards _u_, so that the contraction of [omicron] + + [omicron] gave [Greek: ou]. In the same way short _e_ tended towards + _i_, so that the contraction of [epsilon] + [epsilon] gave [Greek: + ei], which was not a diphthong but a close _e_-sound. In Attic Greek + these contractions were represented by O and E respectively till the + official adoption of the Ionic alphabet at Athens in 403 B.C. So also + were the lengthened syllables which represent in their length the loss + of an earlier consonant, as [Greek: emeina] and [Greek: eneima], + Aeolic [Greek: emenna, enemma], which stand for a prehistoric *[Greek: + emensa] and *[Greek: enemsa], containing the -[sigma]- of the first + aorist, and [Greek: tous, oikous, echousi] representing an earlier + [Greek: tons, oikons, echonti] (3 pl. present) or *[Greek: echontsi] + (dative pl. of present participle). Both dialects also agreed in + changing [tau] before [iota] into [sigma] (like Aeolic), as in [Greek: + echousi] above, and in the 3rd person singular of -[Greek: mi] verbs, + [Greek: tithesi, didosi], &c., and in noun stems, as in [Greek: dosis] + for an earlier *[Greek: dotis]. Neither dialect used the particle + [Greek: ke] or [Greek: ka], but both have [Greek: an] instead. One of + the effects of the change of [alpha] into [eta] was that the + combination [Greek: ao] changed in both dialects to [Greek: eo], which + in all Attic records and in the later Ionic has become [Greek: eo] by + a metathesis in the quantity of the vowels: [Greek: naos], earlier + [Greek: nawos], "temple," is in Homeric Greek [Greek: neos], in later + Ionic and Attic [Greek: neos]. In the dative (locative) plural of the + -[alpha] stems, Ionic has generally -[Greek: eisi] on the analogy of + the singular; Attic had first the old locative form in -[Greek: esi], + -[Greek: asi], which survived in forms which became adverbs like + [Greek: Athenesi] and [Greek: thurasi]; but after 420 B.C. these were + replaced by -[Greek: ais, thurais], &c. The Ionic of Asia Minor showed + many changes earlier than that of the Cyclades and Euboea. It lost the + aspirate very early: hence in the Ionic alphabet H is _e_, not _h_; it + changed [Greek: au] and [Greek: eu] into [Greek: ao] and [Greek: eo], + and very early replaced to a large extent the -[Greek: mi] by the + -[omega] verbs. This confusion can be seen in progress in the Attic + literature of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C., [Greek: deiknymi] + gradually giving way to [Greek: deiknyo], while the literature + generally uses forms like [Greek: ephiei] for [Greek: ephie] (impft.). + In Attica also the aspiration which survived in the Ionic of Euboea + and the Cyclades ceased by the end of the 5th century. The Ionic of + Asia Minor has -[Greek: ios] as the genitive of _o_-stems; the other + forms of Ionic have -[Greek: idos]. + + 4. _Doric._--As already mentioned, the dialects of the North-West + differ in several respects from Doric elsewhere. As general + characteristics of Doric may be noted the contractions of [alpha] + + [epsilon] into [eta], and of [alpha] + [omicron] or [omega] into + [alpha], while the results in Attic and Ionic of these contractions + are [alpha] and [omega] respectively: [Greek: enike] from [Greek: + nikao], Attic [Greek: enika; timames] 1 pl. pres. from [Greek: timao], + Attic [Greek: timomen; timan] gen. pl. of [Greek: tima] "honour," + Attic [Greek: timon]. In inflection the most noticeable points are the + pronominal adverbs in locative form: [Greek: toutei, tenei] (this from + a stem limited to a few Doric dialects and the Bucolic Poets), [Greek: + teide, hopei], &c.; the nom. pl. of the article [Greek: toi, tai], not + [Greek: hoi, hai] and so [Greek: toutoi] in Selinus and Rhodes; the + 1st pl. of the verb in -[Greek: mes], not in -[Greek: men], cp. the + Latin -_mus_; the aorist and future in -[xi]-, where other dialects + have -[sigma]-, or contraction from presents in-[Greek: zo]; dikazo, + dikaso], Doric [Greek: dikaxo], &c.; the future passive with active + endings, [Greek: epimeletheseunti] (Rhodes), found as yet only in the + Doric islands and in the Doric prose of Archimedes; the particles + [Greek: ai] "if" and [Greek: ka] with a similar value to the Aeolic + [Greek: ke] and the Attic-Ionic [Greek: an]. Doric had an accentuation + system different both from Aeolic and from Ionic-Attic, but the + details of the system are very imperfectly known. + + In older works Doric is often divided into a _dialectus severior_ and + a _dialectus mitis_. But the difference is one of time rather than of + place, the peculiarities of Doric being gradually softened down till + it was ultimately merged in the _lingua franca_, the [Greek: koine], + which in time engulfed all the local dialects except the descendant of + Spartan, Tzakonian. Here it is possible to mention its varieties only + in the briefest form. (a) The southern dialects are well illustrated + in the inscriptions of Laconia recently much increased in number by + the excavations of the British School at Athens. Apart from some brief + dedications, the earliest inscription of importance is the list of + names placed on a bronze column soon after 479 B.C. to commemorate the + tribes which had repulsed the Persians. The column, originally at + Delphi, is now at Constantinople. The most striking features of the + dialect are the retention of [digamma] at the beginning of words, as + in the dedication from the 6th century [Greek: wanaxibios] (_Annual of + British School_, xiv. 144). The dialect changed -[sigma]- between + vowels into -h-, [Greek: moha] for [Greek: mosa] "muse." Later it + changed [theta] into a sound like the English _th_, which was + represented by [sigma]. Before o-sounds [epsilon] here and in some + other Doric dialects changed to [iota]: [Greek: thios, sios] for + [Greek: theos] "god." The result of contraction and "compensatory + lengthening" was not [Greek: ei] and [Greek: ou] as in Attic and + Ionic, but [eta] and [omega]: [Greek: emen] infinitive = [Greek: + einai] from *esmen; gen. sing. of _o_-stems in [omega]: [Greek: theo], + acc. pl. in -[Greek: os: theos]; dy was represented by [Greek: dd], + not [zeta], as in Attic-Ionic; [Greek: musidde = muthize]. The dialect + has many strange words, especially in connexion with the state + education and organization of the boys and young men. The Heraclean + tables from a Laconian colony in S. Italy have curious forms in + -[Greek: assi] for the dat. pl. of the participle [Greek: + prassontassi] = Attic [Greek: prattousi]. Of the dialect of Messenia + we know little, the long inscription about mysteries from Andania + being only about 100 B.C. From Argolis there are a considerable number + of early inscriptions, and in a later form of the dialect the cures + recorded at the temple of Asklepios at Epidaurus present many points + of interest. There is also an inscription of the 6th century B.C. from + the temple of Aphaia in Aegina. [Digamma] survives in the old + inscriptions: [Greek: wewremena (= eiremena); ns], whether original or + arising by sound change from -_nty_, persists till the 2nd century + B.C.: [Greek: hantitychonsa = he antitychousa, tons huions = tous + huious]. The dialect of the Inachus valley seems to resemble Laconian + more closely than does that of the rest of the Argolic area. Corinth + and her colonies in the earliest inscriptions preserve [Digamma] and + [qoppa] (= Latin Q) before [omicron] and [upsilon] sounds, and write + [xi] and [psi] by [Greek: chs] and [Greek: phs], the symbols which are + used also for this purpose in old Attic. In the Corcyrean and Sicilian + forms of the dialect, [lambda] before a dental appears as [nu]: + [Greek: Phintias = Philtias]; and in Sicilian the perfect-active was + treated as a present: [Greek: dedoiko] for [Greek: dedoika], &c. From + Megara has come lately an obscure inscription from the beginning of + the 5th century; its colony Selinus has inscriptions from the middle + of the same century; the inscriptions from Byzantium and its other + Pontic colonies date only from Hellenistic times. In Crete, which + shows a considerable variety of subdialects, the most important + document is the great inscription from Gortyn containing twelve tables + of family law, which was discovered in 1884. The local alphabet has no + separate symbols for [chi] and [phi], and these sounds are therefore + written with [kappa] and [pi]. As in Argive the combination -[Greek: + ns] was kept both medially and finally except before words beginning + with a consonant; -_ty_- was represented by [zeta], later by -[Greek: + tt]-, as in Thessalian and Boeotian: [Greek: hopottoi], Attic [Greek: + hoposoi]; and finally by -[Greek: tt]-; [lambda] combined with a + preceding vowel into an au-diphthong: [Greek: auka], Attic [Greek: + alke], cp. the English pronunciation of _talk_, &c. In Gortyn and + some other towns -[Greek: st]--was assimilated to--[Greek: tt], where + [theta] must have been a spirant like the English _th_ in _thin_; + [zeta] of Attic Greek is represented initially by [delta], medially by + [Greek: dd], but in some towns by [tau] and [Greek: tt: doos (= zoos), + dikadden (= dikazein)]. Final consonants are generally assimilated to + the beginning of the next word. In inflection there are many local + peculiarities. In Melos and Thera some very old inscriptions have been + found written in an alphabet without symbols for [phi], [chi], [phi], + [xi], which are therefore written as [pi]h, [kappa]h or [koppa]h, + [Greek: ps, ks]. The contractions of [epsilon] + [epsilon] and of + [omicron] + [omicron] are represented by E and O respectively. The old + rock inscriptions of Thera are among the most archaic yet discovered. + The most characteristic feature of Rhodian Doric is the infinitive in + -[Greek: mein: domein], &c. (= Attic [Greek: dounai]), which passed + also to Gela and Agrigentum. The inscriptions from Cos are numerous, + but too late to represent the earliest form of the dialect. + + (b) The dialects of N.W. Doric, Locrian, Phocian, Aetolian, with which + go Elean and Achaean, present a more uncouth appearance than the other + Doric dialects except perhaps Cretan. Only from Locris and Phocis come + fairly old inscriptions; later a [Greek: koine] was developed, in + which the documents of the Aetolian league are written, and of which + the most distinctive mark is the dative plural of consonant stems in + -[Greek: ois: archontois] (= Attic [Greek: archousi]), [Greek: + agonois] (= Attic [Greek: agosi]), &c. Phocian and the Locrian of Opus + have also forms like Aeolic in -[Greek: essi]. In place of the dative + in -[omega], locatives in -[Greek: oi] are used in Locrian and + Phocian. Generally north of the Corinthian gulf the middle present + participle from -[Greek: eo]-verbs ends in-[Greek: eimenos]; similar + forms are found also in Elean. Locrian changed [epsilon] before [rho] + into [alpha]: [Greek: patara] for [Greek: patera]; cf. English _Kerr_ + and _Carr_, _sergeant_ and _Sargeaunt_. [Greek: st] appears for + [Greek: st], and [koppa] and [Digamma] are still much in use in the + 5th century B.C. Many thousands of inscriptions were found in the + French excavations at Delphi, but nothing earlier than the 5th century + B.C. In the older inscriptions the Aeolic influence--datives in + -[Greek: essi, onyma] for [Greek: onoma]--is better marked than later. + In the Laws of the Labyad phratry (about 400 B.C.) the genitive is in + [Greek: ou], but a form in -[omega] is also found, [Greek: woiko], + which seems to be an old ablative fossilized as an adverb. The nom. + pl. [Greek: dekatetores] is used for the acc.; similar forms are found + in Elean and Achaean. + + The more important of the older materials for Achaean come from the + Achaean colonies of S. Italy, and being scanty give us only an + imperfect view of the dialect, but it is clearly in its main features + Doric. Much more remarkable is the Elean dialect known chiefly from + inscriptions found at Olympia, some of which are as early as the + beginning of the 6th century. The native dialect was replaced first by + a Doric and then by the Attic [Greek: koine], but under the Caesars + the archaic dialect was restored. Many of its characteristics it + shares with the dialects north of the Corinthian gulf, but it changes + original [epsilon] to [alpha]: [Greek: ma = me], &c.; [delta] was + apparently a spirant, as in modern Greek (= _th_ in English _the_, + _thine_), and is represented by [zeta] in some of the earliest + inscriptions. Final -[sigma] became -[rho]; this is found also in + Laconian; -_ty_- became -[Greek: ss]-, but was not simplified as in + Attic to -[sigma]-: [Greek: ossa] = Attic [Greek: hosa]. + + As we have seen, Ionians, Aetolians and Dorians tended to level local + peculiarities and make a generally intelligible dialect in which + treaties and other important records were framed. The language of + literature is always of necessity to some extent a [Greek: koine]: + with some Greek writers the use of a [Greek: koine] was especially + necessary. The local dialect of Boeotia was not easily intelligible in + other districts, and a writer like Pindar, whose patrons were mostly + not Boeotians, had perforce to write in a dialect that they could + understand. Hence he writes in a conventional Doric with Aeolic + elements, which forms a strong contrast to that of Corinna, who kept + more or less closely to the Boeotian dialect. For different literary + purposes Greek had different [Greek: koinai]. A poet who would write + an epic must adopt a form of language modelled on that of Homer and + Hesiod; Alcaeus and Sappho were the models for the love lyric, which + was therefore Aeolic; Stesichorus was the founder of the triumphal + ode, which, as he was a Dorian of Sicily, must henceforth be in Doric, + though Pindar was an Aeolian, and its other chief representatives, + Simonides and Bacchylides, were Ionians from Ceos. The choral ode of + tragedy was always conventional Doric, and in the iambics also are + Doric words like [Greek: drao, lao], &c. Elegy and epigram were + founded on epic; the satirical iambics of Hipponax and his late + disciple Herondas are Ionic. The first Greek prose was developed in + Ionia, of which an excellent example has been preserved to us in + Herodotus. Thucydides was not an Ionian, but he could not shake + himself free of the tradition: he therefore writes [Greek: prasso, + tasso], &c., with -[Greek: ss]-, which was Ionic, but is never found + in Attic inscriptions nor in the writers who imitate the language of + common life--Aristophanes (when not parodying tragedy, or other forms + of literature or dialect), Plato and the Orators (with the partial + exception of Antiphon, who ordinarily has -[Greek: ss]-, but in the + one speech actually intended for the law-courts -[Greek: tt]-). + Similarly Hippocrates and his medical school in Cos wrote in Ionic, + not, however, in the Ionic of Herodotus, but in a language more akin + to the Ionic [Greek: koine] of the inscriptions; and this dialect + continued to be used in medicine later, much as doctors now use Latin + for their prescriptions. The first literary document written in Attic + prose is the treatise on the _Constitution of Athens_, which is + generally printed amongst the minor works of Xenophon, but really + belongs to about 425 B.C. From the fragment of Aristophanes' + _Banqueters_ and from the first speech of Lysias "Against + Theomnestos" it is clear that the Attic dialect had changed rapidly in + the 6th and 5th centuries B.C., and that much of the phraseology of + Solon's laws was no longer intelligible by 400 B.C. Among the most + difficult of the literary dialects to trace is the earliest--the + Homeric dialect. The Homeric question cannot be discussed here, and on + that question it may be said _quot homines tot sententiae_. To the + present writer, however, it seems probable that the poems were + composed in Chios as tradition asserted; the language contains many + Aeolisms, and the heroes sung are, except for the Athenians (very + briefly referred to), and possibly Telamonian Ajax, not of the Ionic + stock. Chios was itself an Ionicized Aeolic colony (Diodorus v. 81. + 7). The hypothesis of a great poet writing on the basis of earlier + Aeolic lays ([Greek: klea andron]) in Chios seems to explain the main + peculiarities of the Homeric language, which, however, was modified to + some extent in later times first under Ionic and afterwards under + Athenian influence. + + Of Dorian literature we know little. The works of Archimedes written + in the Syracusan dialect were much altered in language by the late + copyists. The most striking development of the late classical age in + Doric lands is that of pastoral poetry, which, like Spenser, is "writ + in no language," but, on a basis of Syracusan and possibly Coan Doric, + has in its structure many elements borrowed from the Aeolic love lyric + and from epic. + + From the latter part of the 5th century B.C. Athens became ever more + important as a literary centre, and Attic prose became the model for + the later [Greek: koine], which grew up as a consequence of the decay + of the local dialects. For this decay there were several reasons. If + the Athenian empire had survived the Peloponnesian War, Attic + influence would no doubt soon have permeated the whole of that empire. + This consummation was postponed. Attic became the court language of + Macedon, and, when Alexander's conquests led to the foundation of + great new towns, like Alexandria, filled with inhabitants from all + parts of the Greek world, this dialect furnished a basis for common + intercourse. Naturally the resultant dialect was not pure Attic. There + were in it considerable traces of Ionic. In Attica itself the dialect + was less uniform than elsewhere even in the 5th century B.C., because + Athens was a centre of empire, literature and commerce. Like every + other language which is not under the dominion of the schoolmaster, it + borrowed the names of foreign objects which it imported from foreign + lands, not only from those of Greek-speaking peoples, but also from + Egypt, Persia, Lydia, Phoenicia, Thrace and elsewhere. The Ionians + were great seafarers, and from them Athens borrowed words for seacraft + and even for the tides: [Greek: amtotis] "ebb," [Greek: rhachia] "high + tide," an Ionic word [Greek: rhechie] spelt in Attic fashion. From the + Dorians it borrowed words connected with war and sport: [Greek: + lochagos, kunagos], &c. A soldier of fortune like Xenophon, who spent + most of his life away from Athens, introduced not only strange words + but strange grammatical constructions also into his literary + compositions. With Aristotle, not a born Athenian but long resident in + Athens, the [Greek: koine] may be said to have begun. Some + characteristics of Attic foreigners found it hard to acquire--its + subtle use of particles and its accent. Hence in Hellenistic Greek + particles are comparatively rare. According to Cicero, Theophrastus, + who came from as near Attica as Eretria in Euboea, was easily detected + by a market-woman as no Athenian after he had lived thirty years in + Athens. Thoucritus, an Athenian, who was taken prisoner in the + Peloponnesian War and lived for many years in Epirus as a slave, was + unable to recover the Athenian accent on his return, and his family + lay under the suspicion that they were an alien's children, as his son + tells us in Demosthenes' speech "Against Eubulides." In the [Greek: + koine] there were several divisions, though the line between them is + faint and irregular. There was a [Greek: koine] of literary men like + Polybius and of carefully prepared state documents, as at Magnesia or + Pergamum; and a different [Greek: koine] of the vulgar which is + represented to us in its Egyptian form in the Pentateuch, in a later + and at least partially Palestinian form in the Gospels. Still more + corrupt is the language which we find in the ill-written and ill-spelt + private letters found amongst the Egyptian papyri. Not out of the old + dialects but out of this [Greek: koine] arose modern Greek, with a + variety of dialects no less bewildering than that of ancient Greek. In + one place more rapidly, in another more slowly, the characteristics of + modern Greek begin to appear. As we have seen, in Boeotia the vowels + and diphthongs began to pass into the characteristic sounds of modern + Greek four centuries before Christ. Dorian dialects illustrate early + the passing of the old aspirate [Greek: th], the sound of which was + like the final t in English _bit_, into a sound like the English _th_ + in _thin_, _pith_, which it still retains in modern Greek. The change + of [gamma] between vowels into a y sound was charged by the comic + poets against Hyperbolus the demagogue about 415 B.C. Only when the + Attic sound changes stood isolated amongst the Greek dialects did they + give way in the [Greek: koine] to Ionic. Thus the forms with -[Greek: + ss]- instead of -[Greek: tt]- won the day, while modern Greek shows + that sometimes the -[Greek: rr]- which Attic shared with some Doric + dialects and Arcadian was retained, and that sometimes the Ionic + -[Greek: rs]-, which was also Lesbian and partly Doric, took its + place. In other cases, where Ionic and Attic did not agree, forms came + in which were different from either: the genitives of masculine a + stems were now formed as in Doric with [alpha], but the analogy of the + other cases may have been the effective force. The form [Greek: naos] + "temple," instead of Ionic [Greek: neos], Attic [Greek: neos], can + only be Doric.[1] In the first five centuries of the Christian era + came in the modern Greek characteristics of Itacism and vowel + contraction, of the pronunciation of [Greek: mp] and [Greek: nt] as + _mb_ and _nd_ and many other sound changes, the loss of the dative and + the confusion of the 1st with the 3rd declension, the dropping of the + -[Greek: mi] conjugation, the loss of the optative and the + assimilation of the imperfect and second aorist endings to those of + the first aorist.[2] There were meantime spasmodic attempts at the + revival of the old language. Lucian wrote Attic dialogue with a + facility almost equal to Plato; the old dialect was revived in the + inscriptions of Sparta; Balbilla, a lady-in-waiting on Hadrian's + empress, wrote epigrams in Aeolic, and there were other attempts of + the same kind. But they were only _tours de force_, [Greek: kepoi + Adonidos], whose flowers had no root in the spoken language and + therefore could not survive. Even in the hands of a cultivated man + like Plutarch the [Greek: koine] of the 1st century A.D. looks + entirely different from Attic Greek. Apart from non-Attic + constructions, which are not very numerous, the difference consists + largely in the new vocabulary of the philosophical schools since + Aristotle, whose jargon had become part of the language of educated + men in Plutarch's time, and made a difference in the language not + unlike that which has been brought about in English by the development + of the natural sciences. It is hardly necessary to say that these + changes, whether of the [Greek: koine] or of modern Greek, did not of + necessity impair the powers of the language as an organ of expression; + if elaborate inflection were a necessity for the highest literary + merit, then we must prefer Caedmon to Milton and Cynewulf to + Shakespeare. + + + _The Chief Characteristics of Greek._ + + As is obvious from the foregoing account of the Greek dialects, it is + not possible to speak of the early history of Greek as handed down to + us as that of a single uniform tongue. From the earliest times it + shows much variety of dialect accentuated by the geographical + characteristics of the country, but arising, at least in part, from + the fact that the Greeks came into the country in separate waves + divided from one another by centuries. For the history of the language + it is necessary to take as a beginning the form of the Indo-European + language from which Greek descended, so far as it can be reconstructed + from a comparison of the individual I.E. languages (see ANDO-EUROPEAN + LANGUAGES). The sounds of this language, so far as at present + ascertained, were the following:-- + + (a) 11 vowels: _a_, _a_, _e_, _e_, _i_, _i_, _o_, _o_, _u_, _u_, + _[schwa]_ (a short indistinct vowel). + + (b) 14 diphthongs: _ai_, _au_, _ei_, _eu_, _oi_, _ou_, _ai_, _au_, + _ei_, _eu_, _oi_, _ou_, _[schwa]i_, _[schwa]u_. + + (c) 20 stop consonants. + + Labials: _p_, _b_, _ph_, _bh_ (_ph_ and _bh_ being _p_ and _b_ + followed by an audible breath, not _f_ and _v_). + + Dentals: _t_, _d_, _th_, _dh_ (_th_ and _dh not_ spirants like the two + English sounds in _thin_ and _then_, but aspirated _t_ and _d_). + + Palatals: _k_, _g_, _kh_, _gh_ (_kh_ and _gh_ aspirates as explained + above). + + Velars: _q_, _g_, _qh_, _gh_ (velars differ from palatals by being + produced against the soft palate instead of the roof of the mouth). + + Labio-velars: _qu_, _qu_, _quh_, _guh_ (these differ from the velars + by being combined with a slight labial w-sound). + + (d) Spirants-- + + Labial: _w_. + + Dental: _s_, _z_, post-dental _s_, _z_, interdental possibly [thorn], + [eth]. + + Palatal: [chi] (Scotch ch), y. + + Velar: _x_ (a deeply guttural [chi], heard now in Swiss dialects), + [gh]. + + Closely akin to _w_ and _y_ and often confused with them were the + semi-vowels _u_ and _i_. + + (e) Liquids: _l_, _r_. + + (f) Nasals: _m_ (labial), _n_ (dental), _n_ (palatal), [symbol] + (velar), the last three in combination with similar consonants. + + (a) As far as the vowels are concerned, Greek retains the original + state of things more accurately than any other language. The sounds of + short _e_ and short _o_ in Attic and Ionic were close, so that _e_ + + _e_ contracted to a long close e represented by [Greek: ei], _o_ + _o_ + to a long close _o_ represented by [Greek: oe]. In these dialects _u_, + both long and short, was modified to _u_, and they changed the long + _a_ to _e_, though Attic has [alpha] after [epsilon], [iota] and + [rho]. In Greek [schwa] appeared regularly as [alpha], but under the + influence of analogy often as [epsilon] and [omicron]. + + (b) The short diphthongs as a whole remained unchanged before a + following consonant. Before a following vowel the diphthong was + divided between the two syllables, the [iota] or [upsilon] forming a + consonant at the beginning of the second syllable, which ultimately + disappeared. Thus from a root dheu- "run" comes a verb [Greek: theo] + for [Greek: the-wo], from an earlier *[Greek: theu-o]. The + corresponding adjective is [Greek: thoos] "swift," for [Greek: + tho-wo-s], from an earlier *[Greek: thou-o-s]. The only dialect which + kept the whole diphthong in one syllable was Aeolic. The long + diphthongs, except at the ends of words, were shortened in Attic. Some + of these appear merely as long vowels, having lost their second + element in the proethnic period. Apparent long diphthongs like those + in [Greek: letourgia, sozo] arise by contraction of two syllables. + + (c) The consonants suffered more extensive change. The voiced + aspirates became unvoiced, so that _bh_, _dh_, _gh_, _gh_, _guh_ are + confused with original _ph_, _th_, _kh_, _qh_, _quh_: I.E. *_bhero_ + (Skt. _bharami_) is Gr. [Greek: phero]; I.E. *_dhumos_ (Skt. + _dhumas_), Gr. [Greek: thymos]; I.E. *_ghimo_- (Skt. _hima_-), Gr. + [Greek: (dys)-chimo-s]; I.E. *_stigh_- (Skt. _stigh_-), Gr. [Greek: + stiches]; I.E. _guhen_- (Skt. _han_-), Gr. [Greek: theino] (probably), + [Greek: phonos]. The palatal and velar series cannot be distinguished + in Greek; for the differences between them resort must be had to + languages of the _satem_-group, such as Sanskrit, Zend or Slavonic, + where the palatals appear as sibilants (see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES). + The labio-velar series present a great variety of forms in the + different Greek dialects, and in the same dialect before different + sounds. Thus in Attic before _o_ vowels, nasals and liquids, the + series appears as [pi], [beta], [phi]; before _e_ and _i_ vowels as + [tau], [beta] ([delta]), [theta]; in combination with _u_, which led + to loss of the u by dissimilation, [kappa], [gamma] [chi]. Thus + [Greek: hepomai] corresponds to the Latin _sequo-r_, apart from the + ending; [Greek: bous] to Latin _bos_ (borrowed from Sabine), English + _cow_; [Greek: phonos] "slaughter," [Greek: epephnon], old Irish + _gonim_, "I wound." Parallel to these forms with _p_ are forms in the + Italic languages except Latin and Faliscan, and in the Cymric group of + the Celtic languages. The dental forms [tau], [delta], [theta] stand + by themselves. Thus [Greek: tis] (from the same root as [Greek: pou, + poi, pothen], etc.) is parallel to the Latin _quis_, the Oscan _pis_, + old Irish cia, Welsh _pwy_, "who?" "what?"; Attic [Greek: tettares], + Ionic [Greek: tesseres] "four" is parallel to Latin _quattuor_, Oscan + [Greek: petora], old Irish _cethir_, old Welsh _petguar_; [Greek: + tisis] is from the same root as [Greek: poine]. For the voiced sound, + [beta] is much more common than [delta] before _e_ and _i_ sounds; + thus [Greek: bios] "life," from the same root as Skt. _jivas_, Latin + _vivus_; [Greek: bios] "bowstring," Skt. _jya_, &c. In Arcado-Cyprian + and Aeolic, [pi] and [beta] often precede _e_ and _i_ sounds. Thus + parallel to Attic [Greek: tettares] Lesbian has [Greek: pessyres], + Homer [Greek: pisyres], Boeotian [Greek: pettares]; Thessalian [Greek: + bellomai], Boeotian [Greek: beilomai] alongside of Attic [Greek: + boulomai], Lesbian [Greek: bollomai], Doric [Greek: bolomai] and also + [Greek: delomai]. In Arcadian and Cyprian the form corresponding to + [Greek: tis] was [Greek: sis], in Thessalian [Greek: kis], where the + labialization was lost (see the article on Q). + + A great variety of changes in the stopped consonants arose in + combination with other sounds, especially _i_ (a semivowel of the + nature of English _y_), _u_ (_w_) and _s_; -[Greek: ti-, -thi]- became + first -[Greek: ss]- and later -[sigma]- in Attic Greek, -[Greek: tt]- + in Boeotian (the precise pronunciation of -[Greek: ss]- and -[Greek: + tt]- is uncertain): Attic [Greek: ho-posos], earlier [Greek: + ho-possos], Boeotian [Greek: ho-pottos], from the same stem as the + Latin _quot_, _quotiens_; Homeric [Greek: messos], Attic [Greek: + mesos] from *[Greek: methios], Latin _medius_; -[Greek: ki-, -chi]- + became -[Greek: ss]-, Attic -[Greek: tt-: pissa] "pitch," Attic + [Greek: pitta] from *[Greek: pikia], cp. Latin _pix_, _picis_, [Greek: + elasson], Attic [Greek: elatton] comparative to [Greek: elachus]. + [Greek: di] and [Greek: gi] became [zeta]: [Greek: Zeus] (Skt. + _Dyaus_) [Greek: elpizo] from [Greek: elpis], stem [Greek: + elpid]-"hope," [Greek: mastizo] from [Greek: mastix], stem [Greek: + mastig]- "lash." + + (d) The sound _u_ was represented in the Greek alphabet by [digamma], + the "digamma," but in Attic and Ionic the sound was lost very early. + In Aeolic, particularly Boeotian and Lesbian, it was persistent, and + so also in many Doric dialects, especially at the beginning of words. + When the Ionic alphabet was adopted by districts which had retained + [digamma], it was represented by [beta]: [Greek: brodon] Aeolic for + [Greek: rodon], i.e. [Greek: Drodon]. In Attic it disappeared, leaving + no trace; in Ionic it lengthened the preceding syllable; thus in Homer + [Greek: hupodeisas] is scanned with o long because the root of the + verb contained [digamma]: [Greek: ddei]-. Attic has [Greek: xenos], + but Ionic [Greek: xeinos] for [Greek: xenwos]. Its combination with + [tau] became -[Greek: ss]-, Attic and Boeotian -[Greek: tt]-, in + [Greek: tesseres, tettares, pettares] for I.E. [Greek: guetu]-. + + But the most effective of all elements in changing the appearance of + Greek words was the sound _s_. Before vowels at the beginning, or + between vowels in the middle of words, it passed into an _h_ sound, + the "rough breathing." Thus [Greek: hepta] is the same word as the + Latin _septem_, English _seven_; [Greek: hal-s] has the same stem as + the Latin _sal_, English _sal-t_; [Greek: euo] for [Greek: euho] is + the same as the Latin _uro_ (*_euso_). Combined with _i_ or _u_ also + it passes into _h_; [Greek: hymen], Skt. _syuman_, "band"; [Greek: + hedus], Doric [Greek: adus], Latin _sua(d)vis_, English sweet; cp. + [Greek: oikoio] for *[Greek: woikosio, neos], Lesbian [Greek: nauos] + "temple," through [Greek: nawos] from *[Greek: naswo-s] connected with + [Greek: naio] "dwell." Before nasals and liquids _s_ was assimilated: + [Greek: mei-dao], Latin _mi-ru-s_, English _smile_; [Greek: nipha], + Latin _nivem_, English _snow_; [Greek: lego], Latin _laxus_, English + _slack_; [Greek: rheo] from *_sreu-o_ of the same origin as English + _stream_ (where _t_ is a later insertion), imperfect [Greek: erreon] + for *_esreuom_; cp. also [Greek: philommeides, aganniphos, allektos]. + + After nasals _s_ is assimilated except finally; when assimilated, in + all dialects except Aeolic the previous syllable is lengthened if not + already long: Attic [Greek: eneima, emeina] for the first aorist + *_enemsa_, *_emensa_; but [Greek: tons, tans], &c., of the accusative + pl. either remained or became in Aeolic [Greek: tois, tais], in Ionic + and Attic [Greek: tous, tas], in Doric [Greek: tos, tas]; cp. [Greek: + titheis] for *[Greek: tithents, bas] for *[Greek: bants, heis] "one" + for *sem-s, then by analogy of the neuter *sens. Assimilation of + [sigma] to preceding [rho] and [lambda] is a matter of dialect: Ionic + [Greek: tharseo], but Attic [Greek: tharro], and so also the Doric of + Thera: [Greek: ekelsa], but [Greek: esteila] for *[Greek: ettelsa]. + With nasals [iota] affected the previous syllable: [Greek: tektaino] + (*[Greek: tekteio]), where _n_ is the nasal of the stem [Greek: + tekton], itself forming a syllable (see the article N for these + so-called sonant nasals). Before [iota] original _m_ becomes _n_; + hence [Greek: baino] with _n_, though from the same root as English + _come_. Original [iota] does not survive in Greek, but is represented + by the aspirate at the beginning of words, [Greek: hagnos] = Skt. + _yajnas_; medially after consonants it disappears, affecting the + preceding consonant or syllable where a consonant precedes; between + vowels it disappears. A sound of the same kind is indicated in Cyprian + and some other dialects as a glide or transition sound between two + vowels. + + (e) The most remarkable feature in the treatment of the nasals is that + when _n_ or _m_ forms a syllable by itself its consonant character + disappears altogether and it is represented by the vowel [alpha] only: + [Greek: tatos], Latin _tentus_, [alpha]- negative particle, Latin + _in_, English _un_; [Greek: ha-ploos] has the same prefix as the Latin + _sim-plex_ (_sm_). The liquids in similar cases show [Greek: la] or + [Greek: al] and [Greek: ra] or [Greek: ar: te-tla-men, pe-paltai; + edrakon, thrasys, tharsos]. + + The ends of words were modified in appearance by the loss of all + stop-consonants and the change of final _m_ to _n_, [Greek: edeixe], + Latin _dixit_; [Greek: zygon], Latin _iugum_. + + _Accent._--The vowel system of Greek has been so well preserved + because it shows till late times very little in the way of stress + accent. As in early Sanskrit the accent was predominantly a pitch + accent (see ACCENT). + + _Noun System._--The I.E. noun had three numbers, but the dual was + limited to pairs, the two hands, the two horses in the chariot, and + was so little in use that the original form of the oblique cases + cannot be restored with certainty. Ionic has no dual. The I.E. noun + had the following cases: Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, Ablative, + Instrumental, Locative and Dative. The vocative was not properly a + case, because it usually stands outside the syntactical construction + of the sentence; when a distinctive form appears, it is the bare stem, + and there is no form (separate from the nominative) for the plural. + Greek has confused genitive and ablative (the distinction between them + seems to have been derived from the pronouns), except for the solitary + [Greek: woiko = oikothen] in an inscription of Delphi. The + instrumental, locative and dative are mixed in one case, partly for + phonetic, partly for syntactical reasons. In Arcadian, Elean, + Boeotian, and later widely in N. Greece, the locative -[Greek: oi] is + used for the dative. The masculine _a_-stems make the nom. in most + dialects in -[Greek: as]. The genitive is in -[Greek: ao] (with + [omicron] borrowed from the _o_-stems), which remains in Homer and + Boeotian, appears in Arcado-Cyprian as -[Greek: au], and with + metathesis of quantity -[Greek: eo] in Ionic. The Attic form in + -[Greek: ou] is borrowed directly from the _o_-stems. In the plural + the -[alpha] and -_o_ stems follow the article in making their + nominatives in -[Greek: ai] and -[Greek: oi] instead of the original + -_as_ and -_os_. The neuter plural was in origin a collective + singular, and for this reason takes a singular verb; the plural of + [Greek: zygon] "yoke" was originally *_iuga_, and declined like any + other -a stem. But through the influence of the masculine and feminine + forms the neuter took the same oblique cases, and like its own + singular made the accusative the same as the nominative. In the plural + of -_a_ and -_o_ stems, the locative in -[Greek: aisi, -oisi] was long + kept apart from the instrumental-dative form in -[Greek: ais, -ois]. + + _The Verb System._--The verb system of Greek is more complete than + that of any of the other I.E. languages. Its only rival, the early + Vedic verb system, is already in decay when history begins, and when + the classical period of Sanskrit arrives the moods have broken down, + and the aorist, perfect, and imperfect tenses are syntactically + confused. Throughout the Greek classical period the moods are + maintained, but in the period of the [Greek: koine] the optative + occurs less and less and finally disappears. The original I.E. had two + voices, an active and a middle, and to these Greek has added a third, + the passive, distinguished from the middle in many verbs by separate + forms for the future and aorist, made with a syllable -[Greek: the-, + timethesomai, etimethen], though in this instance, [Greek: timesomai], + the future middle, is often used with a passive sense. Other forms + which Greek has added to the original system are the pluperfect--in + form a past of the perfect stem with aorist endings. It merely + expressed the perfect action in past time, and, except as derived from + the context, did not possess the notion of relative time (past at a + time already past), which attaches to the Latin forms with the same + name. The future optative was also a new formation, betraying its + origin in the fact that it is almost entirely limited to _Oratio + Obliqua_. The aorist imperatives were also new; the history of some of + them, as the second sing. act. [Greek: pauson], is not very clear. The + whole verb system is affected by the distinction between -_o_ and + -_mi_ verbs; the former or thematic verbs have a so-called "thematic + vowel" between the root and the personal suffix, while the -_mi_ verbs + attach the suffixes directly to the root. The distinction is really + one between monosyllabic and disyllabic roots. The history of the + personal endings is not altogether clear; the -_o_ verbs have in the + present forms for the 2nd and 3rd person in -[Greek: eis] and -[Greek: + ei], which are not yet elucidated. In the middle, Greek does not + entirely agree with Sanskrit in its personal endings, and the original + forms cannot all be restored with certainty. The endings of the + primary tenses differed from those of the secondary, but there has + been a certain amount of confusion between them. + + The syntax of the verb is founded on the original I.E. distinction of + the verb forms, not by time (tense), but by forms of action, + progressive action (present and imperfect), consummated action + (aorist), state arising from action, emphatic or repeated action + (perfect). For the details of this see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(i.) A grammar of Greek, which will deal fully with the + whole material of the language, is at present a _desideratum_, and is + hardly possible so long as new dialect material is being constantly + added and while comparatively so little has been done on the syntax of + the dialects. The greatest collection of material is to be found in + the new edition of Kuhner's _Griechische Grammatik, Laut- und + Formenlehre_, by Blass (2 vols., 1890-1892); _Syntax_, by Gerth (2 + vols., 1896, 1900). Blass's part is useful only for material, the + explanations being entirely antiquated. The only full historical + account of the language (sounds, forms and syntax) at present in + existence is K. Brugmann's _Griechische Grammatik_ (3rd ed., 1900). + Gustav Meyer's _Griechische Grammatik_ (nothing on accent or syntax), + which did excellent pioneer work when it first appeared in 1880, was + hardly brought up to date in its 3rd edition (1896), but is still + useful for the dialect and bibliographical material collected. See + also H. Hirt, _Handbuch der griech. Laut- und Formenlehre_ (1902). Of + smaller grammars in English perhaps the most complete is that of J. + Thompson (London, 1902). The grammar of Homer was handled by D. B. + Monro (2nd ed., Oxford, 1891). The syntax has been treated in many + special works, amongst which may be mentioned W. W. Goodwin, _Syntax + of the Greek Moods and Tenses_ (new ed., 1889); B. L. Gildersleeve and + C. W. E. Miller, _Syntax of Classical Greek from Homer to + Demosthenes_, pt. i. (New York, 1901--and following); J. M. Stahl, + _Kritisch-historische Syntax des griechischen Verbums_ (1907); F. E. + Thompson, _Attic Greek Syntax_ (1907). (ii.) The relations between + Greek and the other I.E. languages are very well brought out in P. + Kretschmer's _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_ + (Gottingen, 1896). For comparative grammar see K. Brugmann and B. + Delbruck, _Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen + Sprachen_ (the 2nd ed., begun 1897, is still incomplete) and + Brugmann's _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik_ (1902-1903); A. Meillet, + _Introduction a l'etude comparative des langues indo-europeennes_ (2nd + ed., 1908). Greek compared with Latin and English: P. Giles, _A Short + Manual of Comparative Philology for Classical Students_ (2nd ed., + 1901, with an appendix containing a brief account and specimens of the + dialects); Riemann and Goelzer, _Grammaire comparative du Grec et du + Latin_ (1901), a parallel grammar in 2 vols., specially valuable for + syntax. (iii.) For the dialects two works have recently appeared, both + covering in brief space the whole field: A. Thumb, _Handbuch der + griechischen Dialekte_ (with bibliographies for each dialect, 1909); + C. D. Buck, _Introduction to the Study of the Greek Dialects, Grammar, + Selected Inscriptions, Glossary_ (Boston, 1910). Works on a larger + scale have been undertaken by R. Meister, by O. Hoffmann and by H. W. + Smyth. For the [Greek: koine] may be specially mentioned A. Thumb, + _Die griech. Sprache in Zeitalter des Hellenismus_ (1901); E. Mayser, + _Grammatik der griechischen Papyri aus der Ptolemaerzeit: Laut- und + Wortlehre_ (1906); H. St J. Thackeray, _A Grammar of the Old Testament + in Greek_, vol. i. (1909); Blass, _Grammar of New Testament Greek_, + trans. by Thackeray (1898); J. H. Moulton, _A Grammar of New Testament + Greek. I. Prolegomena_ (3rd ed., 1906). (iv.) For the development from + the [Greek: koine] to modern Greek: A. N. Jannaris, _An Historical + Greek Grammar, chiefly of the Attic Dialect, as written and spoken + from Classical Antiquity down to the Present Time_ (1901); G. N. + Hatzidakis, _Einleitung in die neugriechische Grammatik_ (1892); A. + Thumb, _Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache_ (2nd ed. 1910). + (v.) The inscriptions are collected in _Inscriptiones Graecae_ in the + course of publication by the Berlin Academy, those important for + dialect in the _Sammlung der griech. Dialektinschriften_, edited by + Collitz and Bechtel. The earlier parts of this collection are to some + extent superseded by later volumes of the _Inscr. Graecae_, containing + better readings and new inscriptions. A good selection (too brief) is + Solmsen's _Inscriptiones Graecae ad inlustrandas dialectos selectae_ + (3rd ed., 1910). A serviceable lexicon for dialect words is van + Herwerden's _Lexicon Graecum suppletorium et dialecticum_ (2nd ed., + much enlarged, 2 vols. 1910). (vi.) The historical basis for the + distribution of the Greek dialects is discussed at length in the + histories of E. Meyer (_Geschichte des Altertums_, ii.) and G. Busolt + (_Griechische Geschichte_, i.); by Professor Ridgeway, _Early Age of + Greece_, i. (1901), and P. Kretschmer in _Glotta_, i. 9 ff. See also + A. Fick, _Die vorgriechischen Ortsnamen_ (1905). (vii.) Bibliographies + containing the new publications on Greek, with some account of their + contents, appear from time to time in _Indogermanische Forschungen: + Anzeiger_ (Strassburg, Trubner), annually in _Glotta_ (Gottingen, + Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht), and _The Year's Work in Classical Studies_ + (London, Murray). (P. Gi.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Thumb, _Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus_ + (1901), pp. 242-243. + + [2] Thumb, _op. cit._ p. 249. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SLICE 4 *** + +***** This file should be named 38143.txt or 38143.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/1/4/38143/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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