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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 4 + "Grasshopper" to "Greek Language" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: November 26, 2011 [EBook #38143] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SLICE 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE IV<br /><br /> +Grasshopper to Greek Language</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GRASSHOPPER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GRAY, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GRASS OF PARNASSUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GRAY, WALTER DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GRATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GRAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GRATIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GRAYLING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GRAYS THURROCK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GRAZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GRATTAN, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GRATTIUS [FALISCUS]</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GREAT AWAKENING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GRAUDENZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GREAT BARRIER REEF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GREAT BARRINGTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GRAVAMEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GREAT BASIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GRAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GREAT BEAR LAKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GRAVEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GREAT CIRCLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GRAVELINES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GREAT FALLS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GRAVELOTTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GREAT HARWOOD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GRAVESEND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GRAVINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GREAT REBELLION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GRAVITATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GREAT SALT LAKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GRAVY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GREAT SLAVE LAKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GRAY, ASA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GRAY, DAVID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GREAVES, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GRAY, ELISHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GREBE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GRAY, HENRY PETERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GRECO, EL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GRAY, HORACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GRAY, JOHN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GREECE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GRAY, JOHN EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GREEK ART</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GRAY, PATRICK GRAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GREEK FIRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GRAY, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GRAY, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GREEK LANGUAGE</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">GRASSHOPPER<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (Fr. <i>sauterelle</i>, Ital. <i>grillo</i>, Ger. <i>Grashüpfer</i>, +<i>Heuschrecke</i>, Swed. <i>Gräshoppa</i>), names applied to orthopterous +insects belonging to the families <i>Locustidae</i> and <i>Acridiidae</i>. +They are especially remarkable for their saltatory powers, due +to the great development of the hind legs, which are much longer +than the others and have stout and powerful thighs, and also for +their stridulation, which is not always an attribute of the male +only. The distinctions between the two families may be briefly +stated as follows:—The <i>Locustidae</i> have very long thread-like +antennae, four-jointed tarsi, a long ovipositor, the auditory +organs on the tibiae of the first leg and the stridulatory organ +in the wings; the <i>Acridiidae</i> have short stout antennae, three-jointed +tarsi, a short ovipositor, the auditory organs on the first +abdominal segment, and the stridulatory organ between the +posterior leg and the wing. The term “grasshopper” is almost +synonymous with <span class="sc">Locust</span> (<i>q.v.</i>). Under both “grasshopper” +and “locust” are included members of both families above +noticed, but the majority belong to the <i>Acridiidae</i> in both cases. +In Britain the term is chiefly applicable to the large green +grasshopper (<i>Locusta</i> or <i>Phasgonura viridissima</i>) common in +most parts of the south of England, and to smaller and much +better-known species of the genera <i>Stenobothrus</i>, <i>Gomphocerus</i> +and <i>Tettix</i>, the latter remarkable for the great extension of the +pronotum, which often reaches beyond the extremity of the body. +All are vegetable feeders, and, as in all orthopterous insects, +have an incomplete metamorphosis, so that their destructive +powers are continuous from the moment of emergence from +the egg till death. The migratory locust (<i>Pachytylus cinerascens</i>) +may be considered only an exaggerated grasshopper, and the +Rocky Mountain locust (<i>Caloptenus spretus</i>) is still more entitled +to the name. In Britain the species are not of sufficient size, +nor of sufficient numerical importance, to do any great damage. +The colours of many of them assimilate greatly to those of their +habitats; the green of the <i>Locusta viridissima</i> is wonderfully +similar to that of the herbage amongst which it lives, and those +species that frequent more arid spots are protected in the same +manner. Yet many species have brilliantly coloured under-wings +(though scarcely so in English forms), and during flight are almost +as conspicuous as butterflies. Those that belong to the <i>Acridiidae</i> +mostly lay their eggs in more or less cylindrical masses, surrounded +by a glutinous secretion, in the ground. Some of the +<i>Locustidae</i> also lay their eggs in the ground, but others deposit +them in fissures in trees and low plants, in which the female is +aided by a long flattened ovipositor, or process at the extremity +of the abdomen, whereas in the <i>Acridiidae</i> there is only an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span> +apparatus of valves. The stridulation or “song” in the latter +is produced by friction of the hind legs against portions of the +wings or wing-covers. To a practised ear it is perhaps possible +to distinguish the “song” of even closely allied species, and some +are said to produce a sound differing by day and night.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRASS OF PARNASSUS,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> in botany, a small herbaceous plant +known as <i>Parnassia palustris</i> (natural order <i>Saxifragaceae</i>), +found on wet moors and bogs in Britain but less common in the +south. The white regular flower is rendered very attractive +by a circlet of scales, opposite the petals, each of which bears a +fringe of delicate filaments ending in a yellow knob. These +glisten in the sunshine and look like a drop of honey. Honey is +secreted by the base of each of the scales.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:358px; height:777px" src="images/img378.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Grass of Parnassus (<i>Parnassia palustris</i>). 1, one of the gland-bearing +scales enlarged.</td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRATE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>crates</i>, a hurdle), the iron or steel receptacle +for a domestic fire. When coal replaced logs and irons were found +to be unsuitable for burning the comparatively small lumps, and +for this reason and on account of the more concentrated heat of +coal it became necessary to confine the area of the fire. Thus a +basket or cage came into use, which, as knowledge of the scientific +principles of heating increased, was succeeded by the small +grate of iron and fire-brick set close into the wall which has since +been in ordinary use in England. In the early part of the 19th +century polished steel grates were extensively used, but the +labour and difficulty of keeping them bright were considerable, +and they were gradually replaced by grates with a polished black +surface which could be quickly renewed by an application of +black-lead. The most frequent form of the 18th-century grate +was rather high from the hearth, with a small hob on each side. +The brothers Adam designed many exceedingly elegant grates +in the shape of movable baskets ornamented with the paterae +and acanthus leaves, the swags and festoons characteristic of +their manner. The modern dog-grate is a somewhat similar +basket supported upon dogs or andirons, fixed or movable. +In the closing years of the 19th century a “well-grate” was +invented, in which the fire burns upon the hearth, combustion +being aided by an air-chamber below.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRATIAN<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Flavius Gratianus Augustus</span>), Roman emperor +375-383, son of Valentinian I. by Severa, was born at Sirmium +in Pannonia, on the 18th of April (or 23rd of May) 359. On the +24th of August 367 he received from his father the title of +Augustus. On the death of Valentinian (17th of November 375) +the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant son (by a second +wife Justina) emperor under the title of Valentinian II. (<i>q.v.</i>). +Gratian acquiesced in their choice; reserving for himself the +administration of the Gallic provinces, he handed over Italy, +Illyria and Africa to Valentinian and his mother, who fixed their +residence at Milan. The division, however, was merely nominal, +and the real authority remained in the hands of Gratian. The +eastern portion of the empire was under the rule of his uncle +Valens. In May 378 Gratian completely defeated the Lentienses, +the southernmost branch of the Alamanni, at Argentaria, near +the site of the modern Colmar. When Valens met his death +fighting against the Goths near Adrianople on the 9th of August +in the same year, the government of the eastern empire devolved +upon Gratian, but feeling himself unable to resist unaided the +incursions of the barbarians, he ceded it to Theodosius (January +379). With Theodosius he cleared the Balkans of barbarians. +For some years Gratian governed the empire with energy and +success, but gradually he sank into indolence, occupied himself +chiefly with the pleasures of the chase, and became a tool in the +hands of the Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose. +By taking into his personal service a body of Alani, and appearing +in public in the dress of a Scythian warrior, he aroused the +contempt and resentment of his Roman troops. A Roman named +Maximus took advantage of this feeling to raise the standard of +revolt in Britain and invaded Gaul with a large army, upon which +Gratian, who was then in Paris, being deserted by his troops, fled +to Lyons, where, through the treachery of the governor, he was +delivered over to one of the rebel generals and assassinated on +the 25th of August 383.</p> + +<p>The reign of Gratian forms an important epoch in ecclesiastical +history, since during that period orthodox Christianity for the +first time became dominant throughout the empire. In dealing +with pagans and heretics Gratian, who during his later years was +greatly influenced by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, exhibited +severity and injustice at variance with his usual character. He +prohibited heathen worship at Rome; refused to wear the +insignia of the pontifex maximus as unbefitting a Christian; +removed the altar of Victory from the senate-house at Rome, +in spite of the remonstrance of the pagan members of the senate, +and confiscated its revenues; forbade legacies of real property +to the Vestals; and abolished other privileges belonging to them +and to the pontiffs. For his treatment of heretics see the church +histories of the period.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii.-xxxi.; Aurelius +Victor, <i>Epit.</i> 47; Zosimus iv. vi.; Ausonius (Gratian’s tutor), +especially the <i>Gratiarum actio pro consulatu</i>; Symmachus x. epp. +2 and 61; Ambrose, <i>De fide</i>, prolegomena to <i>Epistolae</i> 11, 17, 21, +<i>Consolatio de obitu Valentiniani</i>; H. Richter, <i>Das weströmische +Reich, besonders unter den Kaisern Gratian, Valentinian II. und +Maximus</i> (1865); A. de Broglie, <i>L’Église et l’empire romain au IV<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i> (4th ed., 1882); H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, +iii., iv. 31-33; Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, ch. 27; R. Gumpoltsberger, +<i>Kaiser Gratian</i> (Vienna, 1879); T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i> +(Oxford, 1892), vol. i.; Tillemont, <i>Hist. des empereurs</i>, v.; J. Wordsworth +in Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Christian Biography</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> compiler of the <i>Concordia discordantium +canonum</i> or <i>Decretum Gratiani</i>, and founder of the +science of canon law, was born about the end of the 11th century +at Chiusi in Tuscany or, according to another account, at Carraria +near Orvieto. In early life he appears to have been received into +the Camaldulian monastery of Classe near Ravenna, whence he +afterwards removed to that of San Felice in Bologna, where he +spent many years in the preparation of the <i>Concordia</i>. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span> +precise date of this work cannot be ascertained, but it contains +references to the decisions of the Lateran council of 1139, and +there is fair authority for believing that it was completed while +Pope Alexander III. was still simply professor of theology at +Bologna,—in other words, prior to 1150. The labours of Gratian +are said to have been rewarded with the bishopric of Chiusi, but +if so he appears never to have been consecrated; at least his +name is not in any authentic list of those who have occupied +that see. The year of his death is unknown.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For some account of the <i>Decretum Gratiani</i> and its history see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon Law</a></span>. The best edition is that of Friedberg (<i>Corpus juris +canonici</i>, Leipzig, 1879). Compare Schultze, <i>Zur Geschichte der +Litteratur über das Decret Gratians</i> (1870), <i>Die Glosse zum Decret +Gratians</i> (1872), and <i>Geschichte der Quellen und Litteratur des kanonischen +Rechts</i> (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1805-1872), +French author and theologian, was born at Lille on the 10th of +March 1805. He was educated at the École Polytechnique, +Paris, and, after a period of mental struggle which he has +described in <i>Souvenirs de ma jeunesse</i>, he was ordained priest +in 1832. After a stay at Strassburg as professor of the Petit +Séminaire, he was appointed director of the Collège Stanislas +in Paris in 1842 and, in 1847, chaplain of the École Normale +Supérieure. He became vicar-general of Orleans in 1861, +professor of ethics at the Sorbonne in 1862, and, on the death of +Barante, a member of the French Academy in 1867, where he +occupied the seat formerly held by Voltaire. Together with M. +Pététot, <i>curé</i> of Saint Roch, he reconstituted the Oratory of the +Immaculate Conception, a society of priests mainly devoted to +education. Gratry was one of the principal opponents of the +definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, but in this respect +he submitted to the authority of the Vatican Council. He died +at Montreux in Switzerland on the 6th of February 1872.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His chief works are: <i>De la connaissance de Dieu</i>, opposing +Positivism (1855); <i>La Logique</i> (1856); <i>Les Sources, conseils pour +la conduite de l’esprit</i> (1861-1862); <i>La Philosophie du credo</i> (1861); +<i>Commentaire sur l’évangile de Saint Matthieu</i> (1863); <i>Jésus-Christ, +lettres à M. Renan</i> (1864); <i>Les Sophistes et la critique</i> (in controversy +with E. Vacherot) (1864); <i>La Morale et la loi de l’histoire</i>, setting +forth his social views (1868); <i>Mgr. l’évêque d’Orléans et Mgr. +l’archevêque de Malines</i> (1869), containing a clear exposition of the +historical arguments against the doctrine of papal infallibility. +There is a selection of Gratry’s writings and appreciation of his style +by the Abbé Pichot, in <i>Pages choisies des Grands Écrivains</i> series, +published by Armand-Colin (1897). See also the critical study by +the oratorian A. Chauvin, <i>L’Abbé Gratry</i> (1901); <i>Le Père Gratry</i> +(1900), and <i>Les Derniers Jours du Père Gratry et son testament spirituel</i>, +(1872), by Cardinal Adolphe Perraud, Gratry’s friend and disciple.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRATTAN, HENRY<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1746-1820), Irish statesman, son of +James Grattan, for many years recorder of Dublin, was born +in Dublin on the 3rd of July 1746. He early gave evidence +of exceptional gifts both of intellect and character. At +Trinity College, Dublin, where he had a distinguished career, he +began a lifelong devotion to classical literature and especially +to the great orators of antiquity. He was called to the Irish +bar in 1772, but never seriously practised the law. Like Flood, +with whom he was on terms of friendship, he cultivated his +natural genius for eloquence by study of good models, including +Bolingbroke and Junius. A visit to the English House of Lords +excited boundless admiration for Lord Chatham, of whose style +of oratory Grattan contributed an interesting description to +<i>Baratariana</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flood, Henry</a></span>). The influence of Flood did +much to give direction to Grattan’s political aims; and it was +through no design on Grattan’s part that when Lord Charlemont +brought him into the Irish parliament in 1775, in the very session +in which Flood damaged his popularity by accepting office, +Grattan quickly superseded his friend in the leadership of the +national party. Grattan was well qualified for it. His oratorical +powers were unsurpassed among his contemporaries. He +conspicuously lacked, indeed, the grace of gesture which he so +much admired in Chatham; he had not the sustained dignity +of Pitt; his powers of close reasoning were inferior to those of +Fox and Flood. But his speeches were packed with epigram, +and expressed with rare felicity of phrase; his terse and telling +sentences were richer in profound aphorisms and maxims of +political philosophy than those of any other statesman save +Burke; he possessed the orator’s incomparable gift of conveying +his own enthusiasm to his audience and convincing them of the +loftiness of his aims.</p> + +<p>The principal object of the national party was to set the Irish +parliament free from constitutional bondage to the English +privy council. By virtue of Poyning’s Act, a celebrated statute +of Henry VII., all proposed Irish legislation had to be submitted +to the English privy council for its approval under the great +seal of England before being passed by the Irish parliament. +A bill so approved might be accepted or rejected, but not +amended. More recent English acts had further emphasized +the complete dependence of the Irish parliament, and the +appellate jurisdiction of the Irish House of Lords had also been +annulled. Moreover, the English Houses claimed and exercised +the power to legislate directly for Ireland without even the +nominal concurrence of the parliament in Dublin. This was +the constitution which Molyneux and Swift had denounced, +which Flood had attacked, and which Grattan was to destroy. +The menacing attitude of the Volunteer Convention at Dungannon +greatly influenced the decision of the government in 1782 to +resist the agitation no longer. It was through ranks of volunteers +drawn up outside the parliament house in Dublin that Grattan +passed on the 16th of April 1782, amidst unparalleled popular +enthusiasm, to move a declaration of the independence of the +Irish parliament. “I found Ireland on her knees,” Grattan +exclaimed, “I watched over her with a paternal solicitude; +I have traced her progress from injuries to arms, and from arms +to liberty. Spirit of Swift, spirit of Molyneux, your genius has +prevailed! Ireland is now a nation!” After a month of +negotiation the claims of Ireland were conceded. The gratitude +of his countrymen to Grattan found expression in a parliamentary +grant of £100,000, which had to be reduced by one half before +he would consent to accept it.</p> + +<p>One of the first acts of “Grattan’s parliament” was to prove +its loyalty to England by passing a vote for the support of +20,000 sailors for the navy. Grattan himself never failed in +loyalty to the crown and the English connexion. He was, +however, anxious for moderate parliamentary reform, and, +unlike Flood, he favoured Catholic emancipation. It was, +indeed, evident that without reform the Irish House of Commons +would not be able to make much use of its newly won independence. +Though now free from constitutional control it was no less subject +than before to the influence of corruption, which the English +government had wielded through the Irish borough owners, +known as the “undertakers,” or more directly through the great +executive officers. “Grattan’s parliament” had no control +over the Irish executive. The lord lieutenant and his chief +secretary continued to be appointed by the English ministers; +their tenure of office depended on the vicissitudes of English, +not Irish, party politics; the royal prerogative was exercised +in Ireland on the advice of English ministers. The House of +Commons was in no sense representative of the Irish people. +The great majority of the people were excluded as Roman +Catholics from the franchise; two-thirds of the members of +the House of Commons were returned by small boroughs at the +absolute disposal of single patrons, whose support was bought +by a lavish distribution of peerages and pensions. It was to +give stability and true independence to the new constitution +that Grattan pressed for reform. Having quarrelled with Flood +over “simple repeal” Grattan also differed from him on the +question of maintaining the Volunteer Convention. He opposed +the policy of protective duties, but supported Pitt’s famous +commercial propositions in 1785 for establishing free trade +between Great Britain and Ireland, which, however, had to be +abandoned owing to the hostility of the English mercantile +classes. In general Grattan supported the government for a +time after 1782, and in particular spoke and voted for the +stringent coercive legislation rendered necessary by the Whiteboy +outrages in 1785; but as the years passed without Pitt’s +personal favour towards parliamentary reform bearing fruit +in legislation, he gravitated towards the opposition, agitated +for commutation of tithes in Ireland, and supported the Whigs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span> +on the regency question in 1788. In 1792 he succeeded in +carrying an Act conferring the franchise on the Roman Catholics; +in 1794 in conjunction with William Ponsonby he introduced +a reform bill which was even less democratic than Flood’s bill +of 1783. He was as anxious as Flood had been to retain the +legislative power in the hands of men of property, for “he had +through the whole of his life a strong conviction that while +Ireland could best be governed by Irish hands, democracy in +Ireland would inevitably turn to plunder and anarchy.”<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> At +the same time he desired to admit the Roman Catholic gentry +of property to membership of the House of Commons, a proposal +that was the logical corollary of the Relief Act of 1792. The +defeat of Grattan’s mild proposals helped to promote more +extreme opinions, which, under French revolutionary influence, +were now becoming heard in Ireland.</p> + +<p>The Catholic question had rapidly become of the first importance, +and when a powerful section of the Whigs joined +Pitt’s ministry in 1794, and it became known that the lord-lieutenancy +was to go to Lord Fitzwilliam, who shared Grattan’s +views, expectations were raised that the question was about to +be settled in a manner satisfactory to the Irish Catholics. Such +seems to have been Pitt’s intention, though there has been much +controversy as to how far Lord Fitzwilliam (<i>q.v.</i>) had been +authorized to pledge the government. After taking Grattan +into his confidence, it was arranged that the latter should bring +in a Roman Catholic emancipation bill, and that it should then +receive government support. But finally it appeared that the +viceroy had either misunderstood or exceeded his instructions; +and on the 19th of February 1795 Fitzwilliam was recalled. +In the outburst of indignation, followed by increasing disaffection +in Ireland, which this event produced, Grattan acted with +conspicuous moderation and loyalty, which won for him warm +acknowledgments from a member of the English cabinet.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +That cabinet, however, doubtless influenced by the wishes of +the king, was now determined firmly to resist the Catholic +demands, with the result that the country rapidly drifted towards +rebellion. Grattan warned the government in a series +of masterly speeches of the lawless condition to which Ireland +had been driven. But he could now count on no more than +some forty followers in the House of Commons, and his words +were unheeded. He retired from parliament in May 1797, and +departed from his customary moderation by attacking the government +in an inflammatory “Letter to the citizens of Dublin.”</p> + +<p>At this time religious animosity had almost died out in Ireland, +and men of different faiths were ready to combine for common +political objects. Thus the Presbyterians of the north, who were +mainly republican in sentiment, combined with a section of the +Roman Catholics to form the organization of the United Irishmen, +to promote revolutionary ideas imported from France; and a +party prepared to welcome a French invasion soon came into +existence. Thus stimulated, the increasing disaffection culminated +in the rebellion of 1798, which was sternly and cruelly +repressed. No sooner was this effected than the project of a +legislative union between the British and Irish parliaments, +which had been from time to time discussed since the beginning +of the 18th century, was taken up in earnest by Pitt’s government. +Grattan from the first denounced the scheme with +implacable hostility. There was, however, much to be said in +its favour. The constitution of Grattan’s parliament offered no +security, as the differences over the regency question had made +evident that in matters of imperial interest the policy of the +Irish parliament and that of Great Britain would be in agreement; +and at a moment when England was engaged in a life and death +struggle with France it was impossible for the ministry to ignore +the danger, which had so recently been emphasized by the fact +that the independent constitution of 1782 had offered no safeguard +against armed revolt. The rebellion put an end to the +growing reconciliation between Roman Catholics and Protestants; +religious passions were now violently inflamed, and the Orangemen +and Catholics divided the island into two hostile factions. +It is a curious circumstance, in view of the subsequent history of +Irish politics, that it was from the Protestant Established +Church, and particularly from the Orangemen, that the bitterest +opposition to the union proceeded; and that the proposal +found support chiefly among the Roman Catholic clergy and +especially the bishops, while in no part of Ireland was it received +with more favour than in the city of Cork. This attitude of the +Catholics was caused by Pitt’s encouragement of the expectation +that Catholic emancipation, the commutation of tithes, and the +endowment of the Catholic priesthood, would accompany or +quickly follow the passing of the measure.</p> + +<p>When in 1799 the government brought forward their bill it +was defeated in the Irish House of Commons. Grattan was still +in retirement. His popularity had temporarily declined, and +the fact that his proposals for parliamentary reform and Catholic +emancipation had become the watchwords of the rebellious +United Irishmen had brought upon him the bitter hostility of +the governing classes. He was dismissed from the privy council; +his portrait was removed from the hall of Trinity College; the +Merchant Guild of Dublin struck his name off their rolls. But +the threatened destruction of the constitution of 1782 quickly +restored its author to his former place in the affections of the +Irish people. The parliamentary recess had been effectually +employed by the government in securing by lavish corruption a +majority in favour of their policy. On the 15th of January +1800 the Irish parliament met for its last session; on the same +day Grattan secured by purchase a seat for Wicklow; and at a +late hour, while the debate was proceeding, he appeared to take +his seat. “There was a moment’s pause, an electric thrill passed +through the House, and a long wild cheer burst from the +galleries.”<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Enfeebled by illness, Grattan’s strength gave way +when he rose to speak, and he obtained leave to address the House +sitting. Nevertheless his speech was a superb effort of oratory; +for more than two hours he kept his audience spellbound by a +flood of epigram, of sustained reasoning, of eloquent appeal. +After prolonged debates Grattan, on the 26th of May, spoke +finally against the committal of the bill, ending with an impassioned +peroration in which he declared, “I will remain +anchored here with fidelity to the fortunes of my country, +faithful to her freedom, faithful to her fall.”<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> These were the +last words spoken by Grattan in the Irish parliament.</p> + +<p>The bill establishing the union was carried through its final +stages by substantial majorities. The people remained listless, +giving no indications of any eager dislike of the government +policy. “There were absolutely none of the signs which are +invariably found when a nation struggles passionately against +what it deems an impending tyranny, or rallies around some +institution which it really loves.”<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> One of Grattan’s main +grounds of opposition to the union had been his dread of seeing +the political leadership in Ireland pass out of the hands of the +landed gentry; and he prophesied that the time would come +when Ireland would send to the united parliament “a hundred +of the greatest rascals in the kingdom.”<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Like Flood before him, +Grattan had no leaning towards democracy; and he anticipated +that by the removal of the centre of political interest from Ireland +the evil of absenteeism would be intensified.</p> + +<p>For the next five years Grattan took no active part in public +affairs; it was not till 1805 that he became a member of the +parliament of the United Kingdom. He modestly took his seat +on one of the back benches, till Fox brought him forward to a +seat near his own, exclaiming, “This is no place for the Irish +Demosthenes!” His first speech was on the Catholic question, +and though some doubt had been felt lest Grattan, like Flood, +should belie at Westminster the reputation made in Dublin, all +agreed with the description of his speech by the Annual Register +as “one of the most brilliant and eloquent ever pronounced +within the walls of parliament.” When Fox and Grenville +came into power in 1806 Grattan was offered, but refused to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span> +accept, an office in the government. In the following year he +showed the strength of his judgment and character by supporting, +in spite of consequent unpopularity in Ireland, a measure for +increasing the powers of the executive to deal with Irish disorder. +Roman Catholic emancipation, which he continued to advocate +with unflagging energy though now advanced in age, became +complicated after 1808 by the question whether a veto on the +appointment of Roman Catholic bishops should rest with the +crown. Grattan supported the veto, but a more extreme Catholic +party was now arising in Ireland under the leadership of Daniel +O’Connell, and Grattan’s influence gradually declined. He +seldom spoke in parliament after 1810, the most notable exception +being in 1815, when he separated himself from the Whigs +and supported the final struggle against Napoleon. His last +speech of all, in 1819, contained a passage referring to the union +he had so passionately resisted, which exhibits the statesmanship +and at the same time the equable quality of Grattan’s character. +His sentiments with regard to the policy of the union remained, +he said, unchanged; but “the marriage having taken place it is +now the duty, as it ought to be the inclination, of every individual +to render it as fruitful, as profitable and as advantageous as +possible.” In the following summer, after crossing from Ireland +to London when out of health to bring forward the Catholic +question once more, he became seriously ill. On his death-bed +he spoke generously of Castlereagh, and with warm eulogy of +his former rival, Flood. He died on the 6th of June 1820, and +was buried in Westminster Abbey close to the tombs of Pitt and +Fox. His statue is in the outer lobby of the Houses of Parliament +at Westminster. Grattan had married in 1782 Henrietta Fitzgerald, +a lady descended from the ancient family of Desmond, +by whom he had two sons and two daughters.</p> + +<p>The most searching scrutiny of his private life only increases the +respect due to the memory of Grattan as a statesman and the +greatest of Irish orators. His patriotism was untainted by self-seeking; +he was courageous in risking his popularity for what his +sound judgment showed him to be the right course. As Sydney +Smith said with truth of Grattan soon after his death: “No +government ever dismayed him. The world could not bribe +him. He thought only of Ireland; lived for no other object; +dedicated to her his beautiful fancy, his elegant wit, his manly +courage, and all the splendour of his astonishing eloquence.”<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Henry Grattan, <i>Memoirs of the Life and Times of +the Right Hon. H. Grattan</i> (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); <i>Grattan’s +Speeches</i> (ed. by H. Grattan, junr., 1822); <i>Irish Parl. Debates</i>; +W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of England in the Eighteenth Century</i> (8 vols., +London, 1878-1890) and <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i> +(enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903). For the controversy concerning the +recall of Lord Fitzwilliam see, in addition to the foregoing, Lord +Rosebery, <i>Pitt</i> (London, 1891); Lord Ashbourne, <i>Pitt: Some +Chapters of his Life</i> (London, 1898); <i>The Pelham Papers (Brit. Mus. +Add. MSS.</i>, 33118); <i>Carlisle Correspondence; Beresford Correspondence; +Stanhope Miscellanies</i>; for the Catholic question, W. J. +Amhurst, <i>History of Catholic Emancipation</i> (2 vols., London, 1886); +Sir Thomas Wyse, <i>Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association +of Ireland</i> (London, 1829); W. J. MacNeven, <i>Pieces of Irish History</i> +(New York, 1807) containing an account of the United Irishmen; +for the volunteer movement Thomas MacNevin, <i>History of the +Volunteers of 1782</i> (Dublin, 1845); <i>Proceedings of the Volunteer +Delegates of Ireland 1784</i> (Anon. Pamph. Brit. Mus.). See also F. +Hardy, <i>Memoirs of Lord Charlemont</i> (London, 1812); Warden +Flood, <i>Memoirs of Henry Flood</i> (London, 1838); Francis Plowden, +<i>Historical Review of the State of Ireland</i> (London, 1803); Alfred +Webb, <i>Compendium of Irish Biography</i> (Dublin, 1878); Sir Jonah +Barrington, <i>Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation</i> (London, 1833); W. J. +O’Neill Daunt, <i>Ireland and her Agitators</i>; Lord Mountmorres, +<i>History of the Irish Parliament</i> (2 vols., London, 1792); Horace +Walpole, <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George III.</i> (4 vols., London, 1845 +and 1894); Lord Stanhope, <i>Life of William Pitt</i> (4 vols., London, +1861); Thomas Davis, <i>Life of J. P. Curran</i> (Dublin, 1846)—this +contains a memoir of Grattan by D. O. Madden, and Grattan’s reply +to Lord Clare on the question of the Union; Charles Phillips, <i>Recollections +of Curran and some of his Contemporaries</i> (London, 1822); +J. A. Froude, <i>The English in Ireland</i> (London, 1881); J. G. McCarthy, +<i>Henry Grattan: an Historical Study</i> (London, 1886); Lord Mahon’s +<i>History of England</i>, vol. vii. (1858). With special reference to the +Union see <i>Castlereagh Correspondence; Cornwallis Correspondence; +Westmorland Papers</i> (Irish State Paper Office).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i>, i. 127 +(enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> i. 204.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> i. 241.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Grattan’s Speeches</i>, iv. 23.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of England in the Eighteenth Century</i>, +viii. 491. Cf. <i>Cornwallis Correspondence</i>, iii. 250.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i>, i. 270.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Sydney Smith’s <i>Works</i>, ii. 166-167.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRATTIUS [FALISCUS],<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> Roman poet, of the age of Augustus, +author of a poem on hunting (<i>Cynegetica</i>), of which 541 hexameters +remain. He was possibly a native of Falerii. The only +reference to him in any ancient writer is incidental (Ovid, <i>Ex +Ponto</i>, iv. 16. 33). He describes various kinds of game, methods +of hunting, the best breeds of horses and dogs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are editions by R. Stern (1832); E. Bährens in <i>Poëtae +Latini Minores</i> (i., 1879) and G. G. Curcio in <i>Poeti Latini Minori</i> (i., +1902), with bibliography; see also H. Schenkl, <i>Zur Kritik des G.</i> +(1898). There is a translation by Christopher Wase (1654).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAUDENZ<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (Polish <i>Grudziadz</i>), a town in the kingdom of +Prussia, province of West Prussia, on the right bank of the +Vistula, 18 m. S.S.W. of Marienwerder and 37 m. by rail N.N.E. +of Thorn. Pop. (1885) 17,336, (1905) 35,988. It has two Protestant +and three Roman Catholic churches, and a synagogue. +It is a place of considerable manufacturing activity. The town +possesses a museum and a monument to Guillaume René Courbière +(1733-1811), the defender of the town in 1807. It has +fine promenades along the bank of the Vistula. Graudenz is +an important place in the German system of fortifications, and +has a garrison of considerable size.</p> + +<p>Graudenz was founded about 1250, and received civic rights in +1291. At the peace of Thorn in 1466 it came under the lordship +of Poland. From 1665 to 1759 it was held by Sweden, and in +1772 it came into the possession of Prussia. The fortress of +Graudenz, which since 1873 has been used as a barracks and +a military depot and prison, is situated on a steep eminence about +1½ m. north of the town and outside its limits. It was completed +by Frederick the Great in 1776, and was rendered famous +through its defence by Courbière against the French in 1807.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1701-1759), German musical +composer, the youngest of three brothers, all more or less musical, +was born on the 7th of May 1701 at Wahrenbrück in Saxony. +His father held a small government post and he gave his children +a careful education. Graun’s beautiful soprano voice secured +him an appointment in the choir at Dresden. At an early age he +composed a number of sacred cantatas and other pieces for the +church service. He completed his studies under Johann Christoph +Schmidt (1664-1728), and profited much by the Italian operas +which were performed at Dresden under the composer Lotti. +After his voice had changed to a tenor, he made his début at +the opera of Brunswick, in a work by Schürmann, an inferior +composer of the day; but not being satisfied with the arias assigned +him he re-wrote them, so much to the satisfaction of the court +that he was commissioned to write an opera for the next season. +This work, <i>Polydorus</i> (1726), and five other operas written for +Brunswick, spread his fame all over Germany. Other works, +mostly of a sacred character, including two settings of the +<i>Passion</i>, also belong to the Brunswick period. Frederick the +Great, at that time crown prince of Prussia, heard the singer in +Brunswick in 1735, and immediately engaged him for his private +chapel at Rheinsberg. There Graun remained for five years, +and wrote a number of cantatas, mostly to words written by +Frederick himself in French, and translated into Italian by +Boltarelli. On his accession to the throne in 1740, Frederick +sent Graun to Italy to engage singers for a new opera to be +established at Berlin. Graun remained a year on his travels, +earning universal applause as a singer in the chief cities of Italy. +After his return to Berlin he was appointed conductor of the +royal orchestra (<i>Kapellmeister</i>) with a salary of 2000 thalers +(£300). In this capacity he wrote twenty-eight operas, all to +Italian words, of which the last, <i>Merope</i> (1756), is perhaps the +most perfect. It is probable that Graun was subjected to considerable +humiliation from the arbitrary caprices of his royal +master, who was never tired of praising the operas of Hasse and +abusing those of his <i>Kapellmeister</i>. In his oratorio <i>The Death +of Jesus</i> Graun shows his skill as a contrapuntist, and his originality +of melodious invention. In the Italian operas he imitates +the florid style of his time, but even in these the recitatives +occasionally show considerable dramatic power. Graun died +on the 8th of August 1759, at Berlin, in the same house in which, +thirty-two years later, Meyerbeer was born.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAVAMEN.<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>gravare</i>, to weigh down; <i>gravis</i>, +heavy), a complaint or grievance, the ground of a legal action, +and particularly the more serious part of a charge against an +accused person. In English the term is used chiefly in ecclesiastical +cases, being the technical designation of a memorial +presented from the Lower to the Upper House of Convocation, +setting forth grievances to be redressed, or calling attention to +breaches in church discipline.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAVE.<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1) (From a common Teutonic verb, meaning “to +dig”; in O. Eng. <i>grafan</i>; cf. Dutch <i>graven</i>, Ger. <i>graben</i>), a place +dug out of the earth in which a dead body is laid for burial, and +hence any place of burial, not necessarily an excavation (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Funeral Rites</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burial</a></span>). The verb “to grave,” meaning +properly to dig, is particularly used of the making of incisions +in a hard surface (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Engraving</a></span>). (2) A title, now obsolete, +of a local administrative official for a township in certain parts +of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire; it also sometimes appears in the +form “grieve,” which in Scotland and Northumberland is used +for sheriff (<i>q.v.</i>), and also for a bailiff or under-steward. The +origin of the word is obscure, but it is probably connected with +the German <i>graf</i>, count, and thus appears as the second part of +many Teutonic titles, such as landgrave, burgrave and margrave. +“Grieve,” on the other hand, seems to be the northern representative +of O.E. <i>gerefa</i>, reeve; cf. “sheriff” and “count.” +(3) (From the Lat. <i>gravis</i>, heavy), weighty, serious, particularly +with the idea of dangerous, as applied to diseases and the like, +of character or temperament as opposed to gay. It is also applied +to sound, low or deep, and is thus opposed to “acute.” In +music the term is adopted from the French and Italian, and +applied to a movement which is solemn or slow. (4) To clean a +ship’s bottom in a specially constructed dock, called a “graving +dock.” The origin of the word is obscure; according to the +<i>New English Dictionary</i> there is no foundation for the connexion +with “greaves” or “graves,” the refuse of tallow, in candle or +soap-making, supposed to be used in “graving” a ship. It may +be connected with an O. Fr. <i>grave</i>, mod. <i>grève</i>, shore.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAVEL,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Pebble Beds</span>, the name given to deposits of +rounded, subangular, water-worn stones, mingled with finer +material such as sand and clay. The word “gravel” is adapted +from the O. Fr. <i>gravele</i>, mod. <i>gravelle</i>, dim. of <i>grave</i>, coarse sand, +sea-shore, Mod. Fr. <i>grève</i>. The deposits are produced by the +attrition of rock fragments by moving water, the waves and +tides of the sea and the flow of rivers. Extensive beds of gravel +are forming at the present time on many parts of the British +coasts where suitable rocks are exposed to the attack of the +atmosphere and of the sea waves during storms. The flint +gravels of the coast of the Channel, Norfolk, &c., are excellent +examples. When the sea is rough the lesser stones are washed up +and down the beach by each wave, and in this way are rounded, +worn down and finally reduced to sand. These gravels are +constantly in movement, being urged forward by the shore +currents especially during storms. Large banks of gravel may +be swept away in a single night, and in this way the coast is laid +bare to the erosive action of the sea. Moreover, the movement +of the gravel itself wears down the subjacent rocks. Hence in +many places barriers have been erected to prevent the drift of +the pebbles and preserve the land, while often it has been found +necessary to protect the shores by masonry or cement work. +Where the pebbles are swept along to a projecting cape they may +be carried onwards and form a long spit or submarine bank, +which is constantly reduced in size by the currents and tides +which flow across it (<i>e.g.</i> Spurn Head at the mouth of the +Humber). The Chesil Bank is the best instance in Britain of +a great accumulation of pebbles constantly urged forward by +storms in a definite direction. In the shallower parts of the North +Sea considerable areas are covered with coarse sand and pebbles. +In deeper water, however, as in the Atlantic, beyond the 100 +fathom line pebbles are very rare, and those which are found +are mostly erratics carried southward by floating icebergs, or +volcanic rocks ejected by submarine volcanoes.</p> + +<p>In many parts of Britain, Scandinavia and North America +there are marine gravels, in every essential resembling those of +the sea-shore, at levels considerably above high tide. These +gravels often lie In flat-topped terraces which may be traced +for great distances along the coast. They are indications that +the sea at one time stood higher than it does at present, and +are known to geologists as “raised beaches.” In Scotland such +beaches are known 25, 50 and 100 ft. above the present shores. +In exposed situations they have old shore cliffs behind them; +although their deposits are mainly gravelly there is much fine +sand and silt in the raised beaches of sheltered estuaries and near +river mouths.</p> + +<p>River gravels occur most commonly in the middle and upper +parts of streams where the currents in times of flood are strong +enough to transport fairly large stones. In deltas and the lower +portions of large rivers gravel deposits are comparatively rare +and indicate periods when the volume of the stream was temporarily +greatly increased. In the higher torrents also, gravels +are rare because transport is so effective that no considerable +accumulations can form. In most countries where the drainage +is of a mature type, river gravels occur in the lower parts of the +courses of the rivers as banks or terraces which lie some distance +above the stream level. Individual terraces usually do not +persist for a long space but are represented by a series of benches +at about the same altitude. These were once continuous, and +have been separated by the stream cutting away the intervening +portions as it deepened and broadened its channel. Terraces +of this kind often occur in successive series at different heights, +and the highest are the oldest because they were laid down at +a time when the stream flowed at their level and mark the +various stages by which the valley has been eroded. While +marine terraces are nearly always horizontal, stream terraces +slope downwards along the course of the river.</p> + +<p>The extensive deposits of river gravels in many parts of +England, France, Switzerland, North America, &c., would +indicate that at some former time the rivers flowed in greater +volume than at the present day. This is believed to be connected +with the glacial epoch and the augmentation of the streams +during those periods when the ice was melting away. Many +changes in drainage have taken place since then; consequently +wide sheets of glacial and fluvio-glacial gravel lie spread out +where at present there is no stream. Often they are commingled +with sand, and where there were temporary post-glacial lakes +deposits of silt, brick clay and mud have been formed. These +may be compared to the similar deposits now forming in Greenland, +Spitzbergen and other countries which are at present in a +glacial condition.</p> + +<p>As a rule gravels consist mainly of the harder kinds of stone +because these alone can resist attrition. Thus the gravels formed +from chalk consist almost entirely of flint, which is so hard that +the chalk is ground to powder and washed away, while the flint +remains little affected. Other hard rocks such as chert, quartzite, +felsite, granite, sandstone and volcanic rocks very frequently +are largely represented in gravels, while coal, limestone and +shale are far less common. The size of the pebbles varies from a +fraction of an inch to several feet; it depends partly on the +fissility of the original rocks and partly on the strength of the +currents of water; coarse gravels indicate the action of powerful +eroding agents. In the Tertiary systems gravels occur on many +horizons, <i>e.g.</i> the Woolwich and Reading beds, Oldhaven beds +and Bagshot beds of the Eocene of the London basin. They do +not essentially differ from recent gravel deposits. But in course +of time the action of percolating water assisted by pressure tends +to convert gravels into firm masses of conglomerate by depositing +carbonate of lime, silica and other substances in their interstices. +Gravels are not usually so fossiliferous as finer deposits of the +same age, partly because their porous texture enables organic +remains to be dissolved away by water, and partly because +shells and other fossils are comparatively fragile and would be +broken up during the accumulation of the pebbles. The rock +fragments in conglomerates, however, sometimes contain fossils +which have not been found elsewhere.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAVELINES<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (Flem. <i>Gravelinghe</i>), a fortified seaport town of +northern France, in the department of Nord and arrondissement +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span> +of Dunkirk, 15 m. S.W. of Dunkirk on the railway to +Calais. Pop. (1906) town, 1858; commune, 6284. Gravelines +is situated on the Aa, 1¼ m. from its mouth in the North Sea. +It is surrounded by a double circuit of ramparts and by a tidal +moat. The river is canalized and opens out beneath the fortifications +into a floating basin. The situation of the port is one of +the best in France on the North Sea, though its trade has suffered +owing to the nearness of Calais and Dunkirk and the silting up +of the channel to the sea. It is a centre for the cod and herring +fisheries. Imports consist chiefly of timber from Northern +Europe and coal from England, to which eggs and fruit are +exported. Gravelines has paper-manufactories, sugar-works, +fish-curing works, salt-refineries, chicory-roasting factories, a +cannery for preserved peas and other vegetables and an important +timber-yard. The harbour is accessible to vessels drawing 18 ft. +at high tides. The greater part of the population of the commune +of Gravelines dwells in the maritime quarter of Petit-Fort-Philippe +at the mouth of the Aa, and in the village of Les Huttes +(to the east of the town), which is inhabited by the fisher-folk.</p> + +<p>The canalization of the Aa by a count of Flanders about the +middle of the 12th century led to the foundation of Gravelines +(<i>grave-linghe</i>, meaning “count’s canal.”). In 1558 it was the +scene of the signal victory of the Spaniards under the count of +Egmont over the French. It finally passed from the Spaniards +to the French by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAVELOTTE<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span>, a village of Lorraine between Metz and the +French frontier, famous as the scene of the battle of the 18th +of August 1870 between the Germans under King William of +Prussia and the French under Marshal Bazaine (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metz</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>). The battlefield extends from the +woods which border the Moselle above Metz to Roncourt, near +the river Orne. Other villages which played an important part +in the battle of Gravelotte were Saint Privat, Amanweiler or +Amanvillers and Sainte-Marie-aux-Chênes, all lying to the N. +of Gravelotte.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1846-  ), Irish writer, +was born in Dublin, the son of the bishop of Limerick. He was +educated at Windermere College, and took high honours at +Dublin University. In 1869 he entered the Civil Service as +clerk in the Home Office, where he remained until he became in +1874 an inspector of schools. He was a constant contributor of +prose and verse to the <i>Spectator</i>, <i>The Athenaeum</i>, <i>John Bull</i>, and +<i>Punch</i>, and took a leading part in the revival of Irish letters. +He was for several years president of the Irish Literary Society, +and is the author of the famous ballad of “Father O’Flynn” +and many other songs and ballads. In collaboration with Sir +C. V. Stanford he published <i>Songs of Old Ireland</i> (1882), <i>Irish +Songs and Ballads</i> (1893), the airs of which are taken from the +Petrie MSS.; the airs of his <i>Irish Folk-Songs</i> (1897) were arranged +by Charles Wood, with whom he also collaborated in <i>Songs of +Erin</i> (1901).</p> + +<p>His brother, Charles L. Graves (b. 1856), educated at Marlborough +and at Christ Church, Oxford, also became well known +as a journalist, author of two volumes of parodies, <i>The Hawarden +Horace</i> (1894) and <i>More Hawarden Horace</i> (1896), and of skits +in prose and verse. An admirable musical critic, his <i>Life and +Letters of Sir George Grove</i> (1903) is a model biography.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAVESEND<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span>, a municipal and parliamentary borough, +river-port and market town of Kent, England, on the right bank +of the Thames opposite Tilbury Fort, 22 m. E. by S. of London +by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 27,196. +It extends about 2 m. along the river bank, occupying a slight +acclivity which reaches its summit at Windmill Hill, whence +extensive views are obtained of the river, with its windings and +shipping. The older and lower part of the town is irregularly +built, with narrow and inconvenient streets, but the upper and +newer portion contains several handsome streets and terraces. +Among several piers are the town pier, erected in 1832, and the +terrace pier, built in 1845, at a time when local river-traffic by +steamboat was specially prosperous. Gravesend is a favourite +resort of the inhabitants of London, both for excursions and as +a summer residence; it is also a favourite yachting centre. +The principal buildings are the town-hall, the parish church of +Gravesend, erected on the site of an ancient building destroyed +by fire in 1727; Milton parish church, a Decorated and Perpendicular +building erected in the time of Edward II.; and the +county courts. Milton Mount College is a large institution for +the daughters of Congregational ministers. East of the town +are the earthworks designed to assist Tilbury Fort in obstructing +the passage up river of an enemy’s force. They were originally +constructed on Vauban’s system in the reign of Charles II. +Rosherville Gardens, a popular resort, are in the western suburb +of Rosherville, a residential quarter named after James Rosher, +an owner of lime works. They were founded in 1843 by George +Jones. Gravesend, which is within the Port of London, has some +import trade in coal and timber, and fishing, especially of +shrimps, is carried on extensively. The principal other industries +are boat-building, ironfounding, brewing and soap-boiling. +Fruit and vegetables are largely grown in the neighbourhood +for the London market. Since 1867 Gravesend has returned a +member to parliament, the borough including Northfleet to the +west. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 +councillors. Area, 1259 acres.</p> + +<p>In the Domesday Survey “Gravesham” is entered among the +bishop of Bayeux’s lands, and a “hythe” or landing-place is +mentioned. In 1401 Henry IV. granted the men of Gravesend +the sole right of conveying in their own vessels all persons +travelling between London and Gravesend, and this right was +confirmed by Edward IV. in 1462. In 1562 the town was +granted a charter of incorporation by Elizabeth, which vested +the government in 2 portreeves and 12 jurats, but by a later +charter of 1568 one portreeve was substituted for the two. +Charles I. incorporated the town anew under the title of the +mayor, jurats and inhabitants of Gravesend, and a further +charter of liberties was granted by James II. in 1687. A +Thursday market and fair on the 13th of October were granted +to the men of Gravesend by Edward III. in 1367; Elizabeth’s +charters gave them a Wednesday market and fairs on the 24th +of June and the 13th of October, with a court of pie-powder; +by the charter of Charles I. Thursday and Saturday were made +the market days, and these were changed again to Wednesday +and Saturday by a charter of 1694, which also granted a fair +on the 23rd of April; the fairs on these dates have died out, but +the Saturday market is still held.</p> + +<p>From the beginning of the 17th century Gravesend was the +chief station for East Indiamen; most of the ships outward +bound from London stopped here to victual. A customs house +was built in 1782. Queen Elizabeth established Gravesend as +the point where the corporation of London should welcome in +state eminent foreign visitors arriving by water. State processions +by water from Gravesend to London had previously taken +place, as in 1522, when Henry VIII. escorted the emperor +Charles V. A similar practice was maintained until modern +times; as when, on the 7th of March 1863, the princess Alexandra +was received here by the prince of Wales (King Edward VII.) +three days before their marriage. Gravesend parish church +contains memorials to “Princess” Pocahontas, who died when +preparing to return home from a visit to England in 1617, and +was buried in the old church. A memorial pulpit from the state +of Indiana, U.S.A., made of Virginian wood, was provided in +1904, and a fund was raised for a stained-glass window by ladies +of the state of Virginia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1664-1718), Italian +littérateur and jurisconsult, was born at Roggiano, a small town +near Cosenza, in Calabria, on the 20th of January 1664. He was +descended from a distinguished family, and under the direction +of his maternal uncle, Gregorio Caloprese, who possessed some +reputation as a poet and philosopher, received a learned education, +after which he studied at Naples civil and canon law. In +1689 he came to Rome, where in 1695 he united with several +others of literary tastes in forming the Academy of Arcadians. +A schism occurred in the academy in 1711, and Gravina and his +followers founded in opposition to it the Academy of Quirina. +From Innocent XII. Gravina received the offer of various +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span> +ecclesiastical honours, but declined them from a disinclination +to enter the clerical profession. In 1699 he was appointed to +the chair of civil law in the college of La Sapienza, and in 1703 +he was transferred to the chair of canon law. He died at Rome +on the 6th of January 1718. He was the adoptive father of +Metastasio.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gravina is the author of a number of works of great erudition, the +principal being his <i>Origines juris civilis</i>, completed in 3 vols. (1713) +and his <i>De Romano imperio</i> (1712). A French translation of the +former appeared in 1775, of which a second edition was published +in 1822. His collected works were published at Leipzig in 1737, +and at Naples, with notes by Mascovius, in 1756.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAVINA<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the +province of Bari, from which it is 63 m. S.W. by rail (29 m. direct), +1148 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 18,197. The town is +probably of medieval origin, though some conjecture that it +occupies the site of the ancient Blera, a post station on the Via +Appia. The cathedral is a basilica of the 15th century. The +town is surrounded with walls and towers, and a castle of the +emperor Frederick II. rises above the town, which later belonged +to the Orsini, dukes of Gravina; just outside it are dwellings +and a church (S. Michele) all hewn in the rock, and now +abandoned.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Prehistoric remains in the district (remains of ancient settlements, +<i>tumuli</i>, &c.) are described by V. di Cicco in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i> +(1901), p. 217.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAVITATION<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>gravis</i>, heavy), in physical science, +that mutual action between masses of matter by virtue of which +every such mass tends toward every other with a force varying +directly as the product of the masses and inversely as the square +of their distances apart. Although the law was first clearly and +rigorously formulated by Sir Isaac Newton, the fact of the +action indicated by it was more or less clearly seen by others. +Even Ptolemy had a vague conception of a force tending toward +the centre of the earth which not only kept bodies upon its +surface, but in some way upheld the order of the universe. John +Kepler inferred that the planets move in their orbits under some +influence or force exerted by the sun; but the laws of motion +were not then sufficiently developed, nor were Kepler’s ideas of +force sufficiently clear, to admit of a precise statement of the +nature of the force. C. Huygens and R. Hooke, contemporaries +of Newton, saw that Kepler’s third law implied a force tending +toward the sun which, acting on the several planets, varied +inversely as the square of the distance. But two requirements +necessary to generalize the theory were still wanting. One was +to show that the law of the inverse square not only represented +Kepler’s third law, but his first two laws also. The other was to +show that the gravitation of the earth, following one and the +same law with that of the sun, extended to the moon. Newton’s +researches showed that the attraction of the earth on the moon +was the same as that for bodies at the earth’s surface, only +reduced in the inverse square of the moon’s distance from the +earth’s centre. He also showed that the total gravitation of +the earth, assumed as spherical, on external bodies, would be +the same as if the earth’s mass were concentrated in the centre. +This led at once to the statement of the law in its most general +form.</p> + +<p>The law of gravitation is unique among the laws of nature, +not only in its wide generality, taking the whole universe in its +scope, but in the fact that, so far as yet known, it is absolutely +unmodified by any condition or cause whatever. All other forms +of action between masses of matter, vary with circumstances. +The mutual action of electrified bodies, for example, is affected +by their relative or absolute motion. But no conditions to +which matter has ever been subjected, or under which it has +ever been observed, have been found to influence its gravitation +in the slightest degree. We might conceive the rapid motions +of the heavenly bodies to result in some change either in the +direction or amount of their gravitation towards each other at +each moment; but such is not the case, even in the most rapidly +moving bodies of the solar system. The question has also been +raised whether the action of gravitation is absolutely instantaneous. +If not, the action would not be exactly in the line +adjoining the two bodies at the instant, but would be affected +by the motion of the line joining them during the time required +by the force to pass from one body to the other. The result of +this would be seen in the motions of the planets around the sun; +but the most refined observations show no such effect. It is +also conceivable that bodies might gravitate differently at +different temperatures. But the most careful researches have +failed to show any apparent modification produced in this way +except what might be attributed to the surrounding conditions. +The most recent and exhaustive experiment was that of J. H. +Poynting and P. Phillips (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 76A, p. 445). The +result was that the change, if any, was less than <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> of the force +for one degree change of temperature, a result too minute to be +established by any measures.</p> + +<p>Another cause which might be supposed to modify the action +of gravitation between two bodies would be the interposition of +masses of matter between them, a cause which materially +modifies the action of electrified bodies. The question whether +this cause modifies gravitation admits of an easy test from +observation. If it did, then a portion of the earth’s mass or of +that of any other planet turned away from the sun would not be +subjected to the same action of the sun as if directly exposed to +that action. Great masses, as those of the great planets, would +not be attracted with a force proportional to the mass because +of the hindrance or other effect of the interposed portions. +But not the slightest modification due to this cause is shown. +The general conclusion from everything we see is that a mass of +matter in Australia attracts a mass in London precisely as it +would if the earth were not interposed between the two masses.</p> + +<p>We must therefore regard the law in question as the broadest +and most fundamental one which nature makes known to us.</p> + +<p>It is not yet experimentally proved that variation as the +inverse square is absolutely true at all distances. Astronomical +observations extend over too brief a period of time to show any +attraction between different stars except those in each other’s +neighbourhood. But this proves nothing because, in the case +of distances so great, centuries or even thousands of years of +accurate observation will be required to show any action. On +the other hand the enigmatical motion of the perihelion of +Mercury has not yet found any plausible explanation except on +the hypothesis that the gravitation of the sun diminishes at +a rate slightly greater than that of the inverse square—the most +simple modification being to suppose that instead of the exponent +of the distance being exactly −2, it is −2.000 000 161 2.</p> + +<p>The argument is extremely simple in form. It is certain that, +in the general average, year after year, the force with which +Mercury is drawn toward the sun does vary from the exact +inverse square of its distance from the sun. The most plausible +explanation of this is that one or more masses of matter move +around the sun, whose action, whether they are inside or outside +the orbit of Mercury, would produce the required modification in +the force. From an investigation of all the observations upon +Mercury and the other three interior planets, Simon Newcomb +found it almost out of the question that any such mass of matter +could exist without changing either the figure of the sun itself +or the motion of the planes of the orbits of either Mercury or +Venus. The qualification “almost” is necessary because so +complex a system of actions comes into play, and accurate +observations have extended through so short a period, that the +proof cannot be regarded as absolute. But the fact that careful +and repeated search for a mass of matter sufficient to produce +the desired effect has been in vain, affords additional evidence of +its non-existence. The most obvious test of the reality of the +required modifications would be afforded by two other bodies, +the motions of whose pericentres should be similarly affected. +These are Mars and the moon. Newcomb found an excess of +motions in the perihelion of Mars amounting to about 5″ per +century. But the combination of observations and theory on +which this is based is not sufficient fully to establish so slight a +motion. In the case of the motion of the moon around the earth, +assuming the gravitation of the latter to be subject to the +modification in question, the annual motion of the moon’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span> +perigee should be greater by 1.5″ than the theoretical motion. +E. W. Brown is the first investigator to determine the theoretical +motions with this degree of precision; and he finds that there +is no such divergence between the actual and the computed +motion. There is therefore as yet no ground for regarding any +deviation from the law of inverse square as more than a possibility.</p> +<div class="author">(S. N.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Gravitation Constant and Mean Density of the Earth</p> + +<p>The law of gravitation states that two masses M<span class="su">1</span> and M<span class="su">2</span>, +distant d from each other, are pulled together each with a force +G. M<span class="su">1</span>M<span class="su">2</span>/d², where G is a constant for all kinds of matter—the +<i>gravitation constant</i>. The acceleration of M<span class="su">2</span> towards M<span class="su">1</span> or the +force exerted on it by M<span class="su">1</span> per unit of its mass is therefore GM<span class="su">1</span>/d². +Astronomical observations of the accelerations of different +planets towards the sun, or of different satellites towards the +same primary, give us the most accurate confirmation of the +distance part of the law. By comparing accelerations towards +different bodies we obtain the ratios of the masses of those +different bodies and, in so far as the ratios are consistent, we +obtain confirmation of the mass part. But we only obtain the +ratios of the masses to the mass of some one member of the +system, say the earth. We do not find the mass in terms of +grammes or pounds. In fact, astronomy gives us the product +GM, but neither G nor M. For example, the acceleration of the +earth towards the sun is about 0.6 cm/sec.² at a distance from +it about 15 × 10<span class="sp">12</span> cm. The acceleration of the moon towards +the earth is about 0.27 cm/sec.² at a distance from it about +4 × 10<span class="sp">10</span> cm. If S is the mass of the sun and E the mass of the +earth we have 0.6 = GS/(15 × 10<span class="sp">12</span>)² and 0.27 = GE/(4 × 10<span class="sp">10</span>)² +giving us GS and GE, and the ratio S/E = 300,000 roughly; +but we do not obtain either S or E in grammes, and we do not +find G.</p> + +<p>The aim of the experiments to be described here may be +regarded either as the determination of the mass of the earth +in grammes, most conveniently expressed by its mass ÷ its +volume, that is by its “mean density” Δ, or the determination +of the “gravitation constant” G. Corresponding to these two +aspects of the problem there are two modes of attack. Suppose +that a body of mass m is suspended at the earth’s surface where +it is pulled with a force w vertically downwards by the earth—its +weight. At the same time let it be pulled with a force p by a +measurable mass M which may be a mountain, or some measurable +part of the earth’s surface layers, or an artificially prepared +mass brought near m, and let the pull of M be the same as if +it were concentrated at a distance d. The earth pull may be +regarded as the same as if the earth were all concentrated at its +centre, distant R.</p> + +<p class="noind">Then</p> + +<p class="center">w = G · <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> πR³Δm/R² = G · <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> πRΔm,</p> +<div class="author">(1)</div> + +<p class="noind">and</p> + +<p class="center">p = GMm/d².</p> +<div class="author">(2)</div> + +<p class="noind">By division</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Δ =</td> <td>3M</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>w</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">4πRd²</td> <td class="denom">p</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">If then we can arrange to observe w/p we obtain Δ, the mean +density of the earth.</p> + +<p>But the same observations give us G also. For, putting +m = w/g in (2), we get</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">G =</td> <td>d²</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>p</td> +<td rowspan="2">· g.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">w</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the second mode of attack the pull p between two artificially +prepared measured masses M<span class="su">1</span>, M<span class="su">2</span> is determined when they are +a distance d apart, and since p = G·M<span class="su">1</span>M<span class="su">2</span>/d² we get at once +G = pd²/M<span class="su">1</span>M<span class="su">2</span>. But we can also deduce Δ. For putting w = mg +in (1) we get</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Δ = ¾</td> <td>g</td> +<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>1</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">G</td> <td class="denom">πR</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Experiments of the first class in which the pull of a known mass +is compared with the pull of the earth maybe termed experiments +on the mean density of the earth, while experiments of the +second class in which the pull between two known masses is +directly measured may be termed experiments on the gravitation +constant.</p> + +<p>We shall, however, adopt a slightly different classification +for the purpose of describing methods of experiment, viz:—</p> + +<div class="condensed list"> +<p> 1. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of a natural + mass as in the Schiehallion experiment.</p> + +<p> 2. Determination of the attraction between two artificial masses + as in Cavendish’s experiment.</p> + +<p> 3. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of an + artificial mass as in experiments with the common balance.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is interesting to note that the possibility of gravitation +experiments of this kind was first considered by Newton, and +in both of the forms (1) and (2). In the <i>System of the World</i> +(3rd ed., 1737, p. 40) he calculates that the deviation by a hemispherical +mountain, of the earth’s density and with radius 3 m., +on a plumb-line at its side will be less than 2 minutes. He also +calculates (though with an error in his arithmetic) the acceleration +towards each other of two spheres each a foot in diameter +and of the earth’s density, and comes to the conclusion that in +either case the effect is too small for measurement. In the +<i>Principia</i>, bk. iii., prop. x., he makes a celebrated estimate +that the earth’s mean density is five or six times that of water. +Adopting this estimate, the deviation by an actual mountain +or the attraction of two terrestrial spheres would be of the orders +calculated, and regarded by Newton as immeasurably small.</p> + +<p>Whatever method is adopted the force to be measured is very +minute. This may be realized if we here anticipate the results +of the experiments, which show that in round numbers Δ = 5.5 +and G = 1/15,000,000 when the masses are in grammes and the +distances in centimetres.</p> + +<p>Newton’s mountain, which would probably have density about +Δ/2 would deviate the plumb-line not much more than half a +minute. Two spheres 30 cm. in diameter (about 1 ft.) and of +density 11 (about that of lead) just not touching would pull +each other with a force rather less than 2 dynes, and their +acceleration would be such that they would move into contact +if starting 1 cm. apart in rather over 400 seconds.</p> + +<p>From these examples it will be realized that in gravitation +experiments extraordinary precautions must be adopted to +eliminate disturbing forces which may easily rise to be comparable +with the forces to be measured. We shall not attempt +to give an account of these precautions, but only seek to set +forth the general principles of the different experiments which +have been made.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">I. <i>Comparison of the Earth Pull with that of a Natural Mass.</i></p> + +<p><i>Bouguer’s Experiments.</i>—The earliest experiments were made +by Pierre Bouguer about 1740, and they are recorded in his +<i>Figure de la terre</i> (1749). They were of two kinds. In the first +he determined the length of the seconds pendulum, and thence +g at different levels. Thus at Quito, which may be regarded +as on a table-land 1466 toises (a toise is about 6.4 ft.) above +sea-level, the seconds pendulum was less by 1/1331 than on the +Isle of Inca at sea-level. But if there were no matter above the +sea-level, the inverse square law would make the pendulum less +by 1/1118 at the higher level. The value of g then at the higher +level was greater than could be accounted for by the attraction +of an earth ending at sea-level by the difference 1/1118 − 1/1331 = +1/6983, and this was put down to the attraction of the plateau +1466 toises high; or the attraction of the whole earth was +6983 times the attraction of the plateau. Using the rule, now +known as “Young’s rule,” for the attraction of the plateau, +Bouguer found that the density of the earth was 4.7 times that +of the plateau, a result certainly much too large.</p> + +<p>In the second kind of experiment he attempted to measure +the horizontal pull of Chimborazo, a mountain about 20,000 ft. +high, by the deflection of a plumb-line at a station on its south +side. Fig. 1 shows the principle of the method. Suppose that +two stations are fixed, one on the side of the mountain due south +of the summit, and the other on the same latitude but some +distance westward, away from the influence of the mountain. +Suppose that at the second station a star is observed to pass the +meridian, for simplicity we will say directly overhead, then a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span> +plumb-line will hang down exactly parallel to the observing +telescope. If the mountain were away it would also hang parallel +to the telescope at the first station when directed to the same +star. But the mountain pulls the plumb-line towards it and +the star appears to the north of the zenith and evidently +mountain pull/earth pull = tangent +of angle of displacement +of zenith.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:243px; height:338px" src="images/img386.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Bouguer’s Plumb-line +Experiment on the attraction +of Chimborazo.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Bouguer observed the meridian +altitude of several stars at the +two stations. There was still +some deflection at the second +station, a deflection which he +estimated as 1/14 that at the +first station, and he found on +allowing for this that his observations +gave a deflection of 8 seconds +at the first station. From the +form and size of the mountain he +found that if its density were that +of the earth the deflection should +be 103 seconds, or the earth was +nearly 13 times as dense as the +mountain, a result several times +too large. But the work was +carried on under enormous difficulties +owing to the severity of the weather, and no exactness +could be expected. The importance of the experiment lay in its +proof that the method was possible.</p> + +<p><i>Maskelyne’s Experiment.</i>—In 1774 Nevil Maskelyne (<i>Phil. +Trans.</i>, 1775, p. 495) made an experiment on the deflection of the +plumb-line by Schiehallion, a mountain in Perthshire, which has +a short ridge nearly east and west, and sides sloping steeply on +the north and south. He selected two stations on the same +meridian, one on the north, the other on the south slope, and by +means of a zenith sector, a telescope provided with a plumb-bob, +he determined at each station the meridian zenith distances of +a number of stars. From a survey of the district made in the +years 1774-1776 the geographical difference of latitude between +the two stations was found to be 42.94 seconds, and this would +have been the difference in the meridian zenith difference of the +same star at the two stations had the mountain been away. +But at the north station the plumb-bob was pulled south and the +zenith was deflected northwards, while at the south station the +effect was reversed. Hence the angle between the zeniths, or the +angle between the zenith distances of the same star at the two +stations was greater than the geographical 42.94 seconds. The +mean of the observations gave a difference of 54.2 seconds, or +the double deflection of the plumb-line was 54.2 − 42.94, say +11.26 seconds.</p> + +<p>The computation of the attraction of the mountain on the +supposition that its density was that of the earth was made by +Charles Hutton from the results of the survey (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, +1778, p. 689), a computation carried out by ingenious and +important methods. He found that the deflection should have +been greater in the ratio 17804 : 9933 say 9 : 5, whence the +density of the earth comes out at 9/5 that of the mountain. +Hutton took the density of the mountain at 2.5, giving the mean +density of the earth 4.5. A revision of the density of the mountain +from a careful survey of the rocks composing it was made +by John Playfair many years later (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1811, p. 347), +and the density of the earth was given as lying between 4.5588 +and 4.867.</p> + +<p>Other experiments have been made on the attraction of +mountains by Francesco Carlini (<i>Milano Effem. Ast.</i>, 1824, +p. 28) on Mt. Blanc in 1821, using the pendulum method after +the manner of Bouguer, by Colonel Sir Henry James and Captain +A. R. Clarke (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1856, p. 591), using the plumb-line +deflection at Arthur’s Seat, by T. C. Mendenhall (<i>Amer. Jour. of +Sci.</i> xxi. p. 99), using the pendulum method on Fujiyama in +Japan, and by E. D. Preston (<i>U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey Rep.</i>, +1893, p. 513) in Hawaii, using both methods.</p> + +<p><i>Airy’s Experiment.</i>—In 1854 Sir G. B. Airy (<i>Phil. Trans.</i> +1856, p. 297) carried out at Harton pit near South Shields an +experiment which he had attempted many years before in conjunction +with W. Whewell and R. Sheepshanks at Dolcoath. +This consisted in comparing gravity at the top and at the bottom +of a mine by the swings of the same pendulum, and thence finding +the ratio of the pull of the intervening strata to the pull of the +whole earth. The principle of the method may be understood +by assuming that the earth consists of concentric spherical shells +each homogeneous, the last of thickness h equal to the depth +of the mine. Let the radius of the earth to the bottom of the +mine be R, and the mean density up to that point be Δ. This +will not differ appreciably from the mean density of the whole. +Let the density of the strata of depth h be δ. Denoting the +values of gravity above and below by g<span class="su">a</span> and g<span class="su">b</span> we have</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">g<span class="su">b</span> = G · <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span></td> <td>πR³Δ</td> +<td rowspan="2">= G · <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πRΔ,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">R²</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">g<span class="su">a</span> = G · <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span></td> <td>πR³Δ</td> +<td rowspan="2">+ G · 4πhδ</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">(R + h)²</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">(since the attraction of a shell h thick on a point just outside it is +G · 4π(R + h)²hδ/(R + h)² = G · 4πhδ).</p> + +<p class="noind">Therefore</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">g<span class="su">a</span> = G · <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>πRΔ <span class="f150">(</span> 1 −</td> <td>2h</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>3h</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>δ</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> nearly,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">R</td> <td class="denom">R</td> <td class="denom">Δ</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">whence</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>g<span class="su">a</span></td> +<td rowspan="2">= 1 −</td> <td>2h</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>3h</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>δ</td> +<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">g<span class="su">b</span></td> <td class="denom">R</td> +<td class="denom">R</td> <td class="denom">Δ</td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">and</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>Δ</td> +<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>3h</td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">/ (</span> − 1 +</td> <td>2h</td> +<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>g<span class="su">a</span></td> +<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">δ</td> <td class="denom">R</td> +<td class="denom">R</td> <td class="denom">g<span class="su">b</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Stations were chosen in the same vertical, one near the pit +bank, another 1250 ft. below in a disused working, and a “comparison” +clock was fixed at each station. A third clock was +placed at the upper station connected by an electric circuit to +the lower station. It gave an electric signal every 15 seconds +by which the rates of the two comparison clocks could be accurately +compared. Two “invariable” seconds pendulums were +swung, one in front of the upper and the other in front of the +lower comparison clock after the manner of Kater, and these +invariables were interchanged at intervals. From continuous +observations extending over three weeks and after applying +various corrections Airy obtained g<span class="su">b</span>/g<span class="su">a</span>= 1.00005185. Making +corrections for the irregularity of the neighbouring strata he +found Δ/δ = 2.6266. W. H. Miller made a careful determination +of δ from specimens of the strata, finding it 2.5. The final +result taking into account the ellipticity and rotation of the earth +is Δ = 6.565.</p> + +<p><i>Von Sterneck’s Experiments.</i>—(<i>Mitth. des K.U.K. Mil. Geog. +Inst. zu Wien</i>, ii, 1882, p. 77; 1883, p. 59; vi., 1886, p. 97). +R. von Sterneck repeated the mine experiment in 1882-1883 +at the Adalbert shaft at Pribram in Bohemia and in 1885 at the +Abraham shaft near Freiberg. He used two invariable half-seconds +pendulums, one swung at the surface, the other below +at the same time. The two were at intervals interchanged. +Von Sterneck introduced a most important improvement by +comparing the swings of the two invariables with the same clock +which by an electric circuit gave a signal at each station each +second. This eliminated clock rates. His method, of which it +is not necessary to give the details here, began a new era in the +determinations of local variations of gravity. The values which +von Sterneck obtained for Δ were not consistent, but increased +with the depth of the second station. This was probably due +to local irregularities in the strata which could not be directly +detected.</p> + +<p>All the experiments to determine Δ by the attraction of +natural masses are open to the serious objection that we cannot +determine the distribution of density in the neighbourhood +with any approach to accuracy. The experiments with artificial +masses next to be described give much more consistent results, +and the experiments with natural masses are now only of use +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span> +in showing the existence of irregularities in the earth’s superficial +strata when they give results deviating largely from the accepted +value.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">II. <i>Determination of the Attraction between two Artificial Masses.</i></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:564px; height:382px" src="images/img387.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Cavendish’s Apparatus.<br /> +<i>h h</i>, torsion rod hung by wire <i>l g</i>,; <i>x, x</i>, attracted balls hung from +its ends; <i>WW</i>, attracting masses.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Cavendish’s Experiment</i> (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1798, p. 469).—This +celebrated experiment was planned by the Rev. John Michell. +He completed an apparatus for it but did not live to begin work +with it. After Michell’s death the apparatus came into the +possession of Henry Cavendish, who largely reconstructed it, +but still adhered to Michell’s plan, and in 1797-1798 he carried +out the experiment. The essential feature of it consisted in the +determination of the attraction of a lead sphere 12 in. in diameter +on another lead sphere 2 in. in diameter, the distance between +the centres being about 9 in., by means of a torsion balance. +Fig. 2 shows how the experiment was carried out. A torsion +rod <i>hh</i> 6 ft. long, tied from its ends to a vertical piece <i>mg</i>, was +hung by a wire <i>lg</i>. From its ends depended two lead balls xx each +2 in. in diameter. The position of the rod was determined by a +scale fixed near the end of the arm, the arm itself carrying a +vernier moving along the scale. This was lighted by a lamp and +viewed by a telescope T from the outside of the room containing +the apparatus. The torsion balance was enclosed in a case +and outside this two lead spheres WW each 12 in. in diameter +hung from an arm which could turn round an axis P<i>p</i> in the line +of <i>gl</i>. Suppose that first the spheres are placed so that one is +just in front of the right-hand ball <i>x</i> and the other is just behind +the left-hand ball <i>x</i>. The two will conspire to pull the balls so +that the right end of the rod moves forward. Now let the big +spheres be moved round so that one is in front of the left ball +and the other behind the right ball. The pulls are reversed +and the right end moves backward. The angle between its two +positions is (if we neglect cross attractions of right sphere on +left ball and left sphere on right ball) four times as great as the +deflection of the rod due to approach of one sphere to one ball.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The principle of the experiment may be set forth thus. Let 2a +be the length of the torsion rod, m the mass of a ball, M the mass of +a large sphere, d the distance between the centres, supposed the same +on each side. Let θ be the angle through which the rod moves round +when the spheres WW are moved from the first to the second of the +positions described above. Let μ be the couple required to twist +the rod through 1 radian. Then μθ = 4GMma/d². But μ can be +found from the time of vibration of the torsion system when we +know its moment of inertia I, and this can be determined. If T +is the period μ = 4π²I/T², whence G = π²d²Iθ/T²Mma, or putting the +result in terms of the mean density of the earth Δ it is easy to show +that, if L, the length of the seconds pendulum, is put for g/π², and C +for 2πR, the earth’s circumference, then</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Δ = <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">2</span></td> <td>L</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>Mma</td> +<td rowspan="2"> </td> <td>T²</td> +<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">C</td> <td class="denom">d²I</td> <td class="denom">θ</td></tr></table> + +</div> + +<p>The original account by Cavendish is still well worth studying +on account of the excellence of his methods. His work was +undoubtedly very accurate for a pioneer experiment and has +only really been improved upon within the last generation. +Making various corrections of which it is not necessary to give +a description, the result obtained (after correcting a mistake +first pointed out by F. Baily) is Δ = 5.448. In seeking the origin +of the disturbed motion of the torsion rod Cavendish made a very +important observation. He found that when the masses were +left in one position for a time the attracted balls crept now in +one direction, now in another, as if the attraction were varying. +Ultimately he found that this was due to convection currents +in the case containing the torsion rod, currents produced by +temperature inequalities. When a large sphere was heated the +ball near it tended to approach and when it was cooled the ball +tended to recede. Convection currents constitute the chief +disturbance and the chief source of error in all attempts to +measure small forces in air at ordinary pressure.</p> + +<p><i>Reich’s Experiments</i> (<i>Versuche über die mittlere Dichtigkeit +der Erde mittelst der Drehwage</i>, Freiberg, 1838; “Neue +Versuche mit der Drehwage,” <i>Leipzig Abh. Math. Phys.</i> i., +1852, p. 383).—In 1838 F. Reich published an account of a +repetition of the Cavendish experiment carried out on the +same general lines, though with somewhat smaller apparatus. +The chief differences consisted in the methods of measuring +the times of vibration and the deflection, and the changes +were hardly improvements. His result after revision was +Δ = 5.49. In 1852 he published an account of further work +giving as result Δ = 5.58. It is noteworthy that in his +second paper he gives an account of experiments suggested +by J. D. Forbes in which the deflection was not observed +directly, but was deduced from observations of the time +of vibration when the attracting masses were in different +positions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Let T<span class="su">1</span> be the time of vibration when the masses are in one +of the usual attracting positions. Let d be the distance between +the centres of attracting mass and attracted ball, and δ the +distance through which the ball is pulled. If a is the half length +of the torsion rod and θ the deflection, δ = aθ. Now let the +attracting masses be put one at each end of the torsion rod +with their centres in the line through the centres of the balls +and d from them, and let T<span class="su">2</span> be the time of vibration. Then +it is easy to show that</p> + +<p class="center">δ/d = aθ/d = (T<span class="su">1</span> − T<span class="su">2</span>) / (T<span class="su">1</span> + T<span class="su">2</span>).</p> + +<p class="noind">This gives a value of θ which may be used in the formula. The +experiments by this method were not consistent, and the mean +result was Δ = 6.25.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Baily’s Experiment</i> (<i>Memoirs of the Royal Astron. Soc.</i> xiv.).—In +1841-1842 Francis Baily made a long series of determinations +by Cavendish’s method and with apparatus nearly of the same +dimensions. The attracting masses were 12-in. lead spheres +and as attracted balls he used various masses, lead, zinc, glass, +ivory, platinum, hollow brass, and finally the torsion rod alone +without balls. The suspension was also varied, sometimes +consisting of a single wire, sometimes being bifilar. There were +systematic errors running through Baily’s work, which it is +impossible now wholly to explain. These made the resulting +value of Δ show a variation with the nature of the attracted +masses and a variation with the temperature. His final result +Δ = 5.6747 is not of value compared with later results.</p> + +<p><i>Cornu and Baille’s Experiment</i> (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, lxxvi., +1873, p. 954; lxxxvi., 1878, pp. 571, 699, 1001; xcvi., 1883, +p. 1493).—In 1870 MM. A. Cornu and J. Baille commenced +an experiment by the Cavendish method which was never +definitely completed, though valuable studies of the behaviour +of the torsion apparatus were made. They purposely departed +from the dimensions previously used. The torsion balls were of +copper about 100 gm. each, the rod was 50 cm. long, and the +suspending wire was 4 metres long. On each side of each ball +was a hollow iron sphere. Two of these were filled with mercury +weighing 12 kgm., the two spheres of mercury constituting the +attracting masses. When the position of a mass was to be +changed the mercury was pumped from the sphere on one side +to that on the other side of a ball. To avoid counting time a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span> +method of electric registration on a chronograph was adopted. +A provisional result was Δ = 5.56.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:371px; height:575px" src="images/img388.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>—Diagram of a Section of Professor +Boys’s Apparatus.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Boys’s Experiment</i> (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, A., 1895, pt. i., p. 1).—Professor +C. V. Boys having found that it is possible to draw +quartz fibres of practically any degree of fineness, of great +strength and true in their elasticity, determined to repeat the +Cavendish experiment, using his newly invented fibres for +the suspension of the torsion rod. He began by an inquiry +as to the best dimensions for the apparatus. He saw that if +the period of vibration is kept constant, that is, if the moment +of inertia I is kept proportional to the torsion couple per radian +μ, then the deflection remains the same however the linear +dimensions are altered so long as they are all altered in the same +proportion. Hence we are driven to conclude that the dimensions +should be reduced until further reduction would make the +linear quantities too small to be measured with exactness, for +reduction in the apparatus enables variations in temperature +and the consequent air disturbances to be reduced, and the +experiment in other ways becomes more manageable. Professor +Boys took as the exactness to be sought for 1 in 10,000. He +further saw that reduction in length of the torsion rod with +given balls is an advantage. For if the rod be halved the moment +of inertia is one-fourth, and if the suspending fibre is made +finer so that the torsion couple per radian is also one-fourth +the time remains the same. But the moment of the attracting +force is halved only, so that the deflection against one-fourth +torsion is doubled. In Cavendish’s arrangement there would +be an early limit +to the advantage +in reduction of +rod in that the +mass opposite +one ball would +begin seriously to +attract the other +ball. But Boys +avoided this +difficulty by suspending +the balls +from the ends of +the torsion rod at +different levels +and by placing +the attracting +masses at these +different levels. +Fig. 3 represents +diagrammatically +a vertical +section of the +arrangement +used on a scale +of about 1/10. +The torsion rod +was a small rectangular +mirror +about 2.4 cm. +wide hung by a +quartz fibre +about 43 cm. +long. From the sides of this mirror the balls were hung by quartz +fibres at levels differing by 15 cm. The balls were of gold either +about 5 mm. in diameter and weighing about 1.3 gm. or about +6.5 mm. in diameter and weighing 2.65 gm. The attracting +masses were lead spheres, about 10 cm. in diameter and weighing +about 7.4 kgm. each. These were suspended from the top of +the case which could be rotated round the central tube, and they +were arranged so that the radius to the centre from the axis of +the torsion system made 65° with the torsion rod, the position in +which the moment of the attraction was a maximum. The +torsion rod mirror reflected a distant scale by which the deflection +could be read. The time of vibration was recorded on a chronograph. +The result of the experiment, probably the best yet made, +was Δ = 5.527; G = 6.658 × 10<span class="sp">−8</span>.</p> + +<p><i>Braun’s Experiment</i> (<i>Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.- naturw. +Cl.</i> 64, p. 187, 1896).—In 1896 Dr K. Braun, S.J., gave +an account of a very careful and excellent repetition of the +Cavendish experiment with apparatus much smaller than was +used in the older experiments, yet much larger than that used +by Boys. A notable feature of the work consisted in the suspension +of the torsion apparatus in a receiver exhausted to about +4 mm. of mercury, a pressure at which convection currents +almost disappear while “radiometer” forces have hardly +begun. For other ingenious arrangements the original paper +or a short abstract in <i>Nature</i>, lvi., 1897, p. 127, may be consulted. +The attracted balls weighed 54 gm. each and were +25 cm. apart. The attracting masses were spheres of mercury +each weighing 9 kgm. and brought into position outside the +receiver. Braun used both the deflection method and the time +of vibration method suggested to Reich by Forbes. The methods +gave almost identical results and his final values are to three +decimal places the same as those obtained by Boys.</p> + +<p><i>G. K. Burgess’s Experiment</i> (<i>Thèses présentées à la faculté +des sciences de Paris pour obtenir le titre de docteur de l’université +de Paris</i>, 1901).—This was a Cavendish experiment in which +the torsion system was buoyed up by a float in a mercury bath. +The attracted masses could thus be made large, and yet the +suspending wire could be kept fine. The torsion beam was 12 cm. +long, and the attracted balls were lead spheres each 2 kgm. From +the centre of the beam depended a vertical steel rod with a +varnished copper hollow float at its end, entirely immersed in +mercury. The surface of the mercury was covered with dilute +sulphuric acid to remove irregularities due to varying surface +tension acting on the steel rod. The size of the float was adjusted +so that the torsion fibre of quartz 35 cm. long had only to carry +a weight of 5 to 10 gm. The time of vibration was over one +hour. The torsion couple per radian was determined by preliminary +experiments. The attracting masses were each 10 kgm. +turning in a circle 18 cm. in diameter. The results gave Δ = 5.55 +and G = 6.64 × 10<span class="sp">−8</span>.</p> + +<p><i>Eötvos’s Experiment</i> (<i>Ann. der Physik und Chemie</i>, 1896, 59, +P. 354).—In the course of investigations on local variations +of gravity by means of the torsion balance, R. Eötvos devised +a method for determining G somewhat like the vibration method +used by Reich and Braun. Two pillars were built up of lead +blocks 30 cm. square in cross section, 60 cm. high and 30 cm. +apart. A torsion rod somewhat less than 30 cm. long with +small weights at the ends was enclosed in a double-walled brass +case of as little depth as possible, a device which secured great +steadiness through freedom from convection currents. The +suspension was a platinum wire about 150 cm. long. The +torsion rod was first set in the line joining the centres of the +pillars and its time of vibration was taken. Then it was set +with its length perpendicular to the line joining the centres and +the time again taken. From these times Eötvos was able to +deduce G = 6.65 × 10<span class="sp">−8</span> whence Δ = 5.53. This is only a provisional +value. The experiment was only as it were a by-product +in the course of exceedingly ingenious work on the local variation +in gravity for which the original paper should be consulted.</p> + +<p><i>Wilsing’s Experiment</i> (<i>Publ. des astrophysikalischen Observ. zu +Potsdam</i>, 1887, No. 22, vol. vi. pt. ii.; pt. iii. p. 133).—We may +perhaps class with the Cavendish type an experiment made by +J. Wilsing, in which a vertical “double pendulum” was used +in place of a horizontal torsion system. Two weights each 540 +gm. were fixed at the ends of a rod 1 metre long. A knife edge +was fixed on the rod just above its centre of gravity, and this +was supported so that the rod could vibrate about a vertical +position. Two attracting masses, cast-iron cylinders each 325 +kgm., were placed, say, one in front of the top weight on the +pendulum and the other behind the bottom weight, and the +position of the rod was observed in the usual mirror and scale +way. Then the front attracting mass was dropped to the level +of the lower weight and the back mass was raised to that of the +upper weight, and the consequent deflection of the rod was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span> +observed. By taking the time of vibration of the pendulum +first as used in the deflection experiment and then when a small +weight was removed from the upper end a known distance from +the knife edge, the restoring couple per radian deflection could +be found. The final result gave Δ = 5.579.</p> + +<p><i>J. Joly’s suggested Experiment</i> (<i>Nature</i> xli., 1890, p. 256).—Joly +has suggested that G might be determined by hanging a +simple pendulum in a vacuum, and vibrating outside the case +two massive pendulums each with the same time of swing as the +simple pendulum. The simple pendulum would be set swinging +by the varying attraction and from its amplitude after a known +number of swings of the outside pendulums G could be found.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">III. <i>Comparison of the Earth Pull on a body with the Pull of an +Artificial Mass by Means of the Common Balance.</i></p> + +<p>The principle of the method is as follows:—Suppose a sphere +of mass m and weight w to be hung by a wire from one arm of +a balance. Let the mass of the earth be E and its radius be R. +Then w = GEm/R². Now introduce beneath m a sphere of +mass M and let d be the distance of its centre from that of m. +Its pull increases the apparent weight of m say by δw. Then +δw = GMm/d². Dividing we obtain δw/w = MR²/Ed², whence +E = MR²w/d²δw; and since g = GE/R², G can be found when E is +known.</p> + +<p><i>Von Jolly’s Experiment</i> (<i>Abhand. der k. bayer. Akad. der Wiss.</i> +2 Cl. xiii. Bd. 1 Abt. p. 157, and xiv. Bd. 2 Abt. p. 3).—In the +first of these papers Ph. von Jolly described an experiment in +which he sought to determine the decrease in weight with increase +of height from the earth’s surface, an experiment suggested by +Bacon (<i>Nov. Org.</i> Bk. 2, §36), in the form of comparison of rates +of two clocks at different levels, one driven by a spring, the other +by weights. The experiment in the form carried out by von +Jolly was attempted by H. Power, R. Hooke, and others in the +early days of the Royal Society (Mackenzie, <i>The Laws of Gravitation</i>). +Von Jolly fixed a balance at the top of his laboratory and +from each pan depended a wire supporting another pan 5 metres +below. Two 1-kgm. weights were first balanced in the upper pans +and then one was moved from an upper to the lower pan on the +same side. A gain of 1.5 mgm. was observed after correction +for greater weight of air displaced at the lower level. The inverse +square law would give a slightly greater gain and the deficiency +was ascribed to the configuration of the land near the laboratory. +In the second paper a second experiment was described in which +a balance was fixed at the top of a tower and provided as before +with one pair of pans just below the arms and a second pair +hung from these by wires 21 metres below. Four glass globes +were prepared equal in weight and volume. Two of these were +filled each with 5 kgm. of mercury and then all were sealed up. +The two heavy globes were then placed in the upper pans and +the two light ones in the lower. The two on one side were now +interchanged and a gain in weight of about 31.7 mgm. was +observed. Air corrections were eliminated by the use of the +globes of equal volume. Then a lead sphere about 1 metre radius +was built up of blocks under one of the lower pans and the +experiment was repeated. Through the attraction of the lead +sphere on the mass of mercury when below the gain was greater +by 0.589 mgm. This result gave Δ = 5.692.</p> + +<p><i>Experiment of Richarz and Krigar-Menzel</i> (<i>Anhang zu den +Abhand. der k. preuss. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin</i>, 1898).—In +1884 A. König and F. Richarz proposed a similar experiment +which was ultimately carried out by Richarz and O. Krigar-Menzel. +In this experiment a balance was supported somewhat +more than 2 metres above the floor and with scale pans above +and below as in von Jolly’s experiment. Weights each 1 kgm. +were placed, say, in the top right pan and the bottom left pan. +Then they were shifted to the bottom right and the top left, the +result being, after corrections for change in density of air displaced +through pressure and temperature changes, a gain in +weight of 1.2453 mgm. on the right due to change in level of +2.2628 metres. Then a rectangular column of lead 210 cm. +square cross section and 200 cm. high was built up under the +balance between the pairs of pans. The column was perforated +with two vertical tunnels for the passage of the wires supporting +the lower pans. On repeating the weighings there was now a +decrease on the right when a kgm. was moved on that side from +top to bottom while another was moved on the left from bottom +to top. This decrease was 0.1211 mgm. showing a total change +due to the lead mass of 1.2453 + 0.1211 = 1.3664 mgm. and this +is obviously four times the attraction of the lead mass on one +kgm. The changes in the positions of the weights were made +automatically. The results gave Δ = 5.05 and G = 6.685 × 10<span class="sp">−8</span>.</p> + +<p><i>Poynting’s Experiment</i> (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, vol. 182, A, 1891, +P. 565).—In 1878 J. H. Poynting published an account of a +preliminary experiment which he had made to show that the +common balance was available for gravitational work. The +experiment was on the same lines as that of von Jolly but on a +much smaller scale. In 1891 he gave an account of the full +experiment carried out with a larger balance and with much +greater care. The balance had a 4-ft. beam. The scale pans +were removed, and from the two arms were hung lead spheres +each weighing about 20 kgm. at a level about 120 cm. below the +beam. The balance was supported in a case above a horizontal +turn-table with axis vertically below the central knife edge, and +on this turn-table was a lead sphere weighing 150 kgm.—the +attracting mass. The centre of this sphere was 30 cm. below the +level of the centres of the hanging weights. The turn-table +could be rotated between stops so that the attracting mass was +first immediately below the hanging weight on one side, and then +immediately under that on the other side. On the same turn-table +but at double the distance from the centre was a second +sphere of half the weight introduced merely to balance the +larger sphere and keep the centre of gravity at the centre of the +turn-table. Before the introduction of this sphere errors were +introduced through the tilting of the floor of the balance room +when the turn-table was rotated. Corrections of course had +to be made for the attraction of this second sphere. The removal +of the large mass from left to right made an increase in weight +on that side of about 1 mgm. determined by riders in a special +way described in the paper. To eliminate the attraction on the +beam and the rods supporting the hanging weights another +experiment was made in which these weights were moved up +the rods through 30 cm. and on now moving the attracting +sphere from left to right the gain on the right was only about +½ mgm. The difference, <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> mgm., was due entirely to change in +distance of the attracted masses. After all corrections the results +gave Δ = 5.493 and G = 6.698 × 10<span class="sp">−8</span>.</p> + +<p><i>Final Remarks.</i>—The earlier methods in which natural masses +were used have disadvantages, as already pointed out, which +render them now quite valueless. Of later methods the +Cavendish appears to possess advantages over the common +balance method in that it is more easy to ward off temperature +variations, and so avoid convection currents, and probably more +easy to determine the actual value of the attracting force. For +the present the values determined by Boys and Braun may be +accepted as having the greatest weight and we therefore take</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p><i>Mean density of the earth</i> Δ = 5.527</p> +<p><i>Constant of gravitation</i> G = 6.658 × 10<span class="sp">−8</span>.</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Probably Δ = 5.53 and G = 6.66 × 10<span class="sp">−8</span> are correct to 1 in 500.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—J. H. Poynting, <i>The Mean Density of the Earth</i> +(1894), gives an account of all work up to the date of publication +with a bibliography; A. Stanley Mackenzie, <i>The Laws of Gravitation</i> +(1899), gives annotated extracts from various papers, some +historical notes and a bibliography. <i>A Bibliography of Geodesy, +Appendix 8, Report for 1902 of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey</i> includes +a very complete bibliography of gravitational work.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAVY,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a word usually confined to the natural juices which +come from meat during cooking. In early uses (in the <i>New +English Dictionary</i> the quotations date from the end of the 14th +to the beginning of the 16th centuries) it meant a sauce of broth +flavoured with spices and almonds. The more modern usage +seems to date from the end of the 16th century. The word is +obscure in origin. It has been connected with “graves” or +“greaves,” the refuse of tallow in the manufacture of soap or +candles. The more probable derivation is from the French. +In Old French the word is almost certainly <i>grané</i>, and is derived +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span> +from <i>grain</i>, “something used in cooking.” The word was early +read and spelled with a <i>u</i> or <i>v</i> instead of <i>n</i>, and the corruption +was adopted in English.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY, ASA<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1810-1888), American botanist, was born at +Paris, Oneida county, N.Y., on the 18th of November 1810. +He was the son of a farmer, and received no formal education +except at the Fairfield (N.Y.) academy and the Fairfield medical +school. From Dr James Hadley, the professor of chemistry and +<i>materia medica</i> he obtained his first instruction in science (1825-1826). +In the spring of 1827 he first began to collect and identify +plants. His formal education, such as it was, ended in February +1831, when he took the degree of M.D. His first contribution to +descriptive botany appeared in 1835, and thereafter an uninterrupted +series of contributions to systematic botany flowed +from his pen for fifty-three years. In 1836 his first botanical +text-book appeared under the title <i>Elements of Botany</i>, followed +in 1839 by his <i>Botanical Text-Book for Colleges, Schools, and +Private Students</i> which developed into his <i>Structural Botany</i>. +He published later <i>First Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiology</i> +(1857); <i>How Plants Grow</i> (1858); <i>Field, Forest, and Garden</i> +Botany (1869); <i>How Plants Behave</i> (1872). These books served +the purpose of developing popular interest in botanical studies. +His most important work, however, was his <i>Manual of the Botany +of the Northern United States</i>, the first edition of which appeared +in 1847. This manual has passed through a large number of +editions, is clear, accurate and compact to an extraordinary +degree, and within its geographical limits is an indispensable +book for the student of American botany.</p> + +<p>Throughout his life Gray was a diligent writer of reviews of +books on natural history subjects. Often these reviews were +elaborate essays, for which the books served merely as texts; +often they were clear and just summaries of extensive works; +sometimes they were sharply critical, though never ill-natured +or unfair; always they were interesting, lively and of literary as +well as scientific excellence. The greater part of Gray’s strictly +scientific labour was devoted to a <i>Flora</i> of North America, the +plan of which originated with his early teacher and associate, +John Torrey of New York. The second volume of Torrey and +Gray’s <i>Flora</i> was completed in 1843; but for forty years thereafter +Gray gave up a large part of his time to the preparation of +his <i>Synoptical Flora</i> (1878). He lived at the period when the flora +of North America was being discovered, described and systematized; +and his enthusiastic labours in this fresh field placed +him at the head of American botanists and on a level with the +most famous botanists of the world. In 1856 he published a +paper on the distribution of plants under the title <i>Statistics of +the Flora of the Northern United States</i>; and this paper was +followed in 1859 by a memoir on the botany of Japan and its +relations to that of North America, a paper of which Sir J. D. +Hooker said that “in point of originality and far-reaching results +[it] was its author’s <i>opus magnum</i>.” It was Gray’s study of +plant distribution which led to his intimate correspondence with +Charles Darwin during the years in which Darwin was elaborating +the doctrines that later became known as Darwinism. From +1855 to 1875 Gray was both a keen critic and a sympathetic +exponent of the Darwinian principles. His religious views were +those of the Evangelical bodies in the Protestant Church; so +that, when Darwinism was attacked as equivalent to atheism, +he was in position to answer effectively the unfounded allegation +that it was fatal to the doctrine of design. He taught that “the +most puzzling things of all to the old-school teleologists are the +<i>principia</i> of the Darwinian.” He openly avowed his conviction +that the present species are not special creations, but rather +derived from previously existing species; and he made his +avowal with frank courage, when this truth was scarcely recognized +by any naturalists, and when to the clerical mind evolution +meant atheism.</p> + +<p>In 1842 Gray accepted the Fisher professorship of natural +history in Harvard University. On his accession to this chair +the university had no herbarium, no botanical library, few plants +of any value, and but a small garden, which for lack of money +had never been well stocked or well arranged. He soon brought +together, chiefly by widespread exchanges, a valuable herbarium +and library, and arranged the garden; and thereafter the +development of these botanical resources was part of his regular +labours. The herbarium soon became the largest and most +valuable in America, and on account of the numerous type +specimens it contains it is likely to remain a collection of national +importance. Nothing of what Gray did for the botanical +department of the university has been lost; on the contrary, +his labours were so well directed that everything he originated +and developed has been enlarged, improved and placed on stable +foundations. He himself made large contributions to the +establishment by giving it all his own specimens, many books +and no little money, and by his will he gave it the royalties on +his books. During his long connexion with the university he +brought up two generations of botanists and he always took a +strong personal interest in the researches and the personal +prospects of the young men who had studied under him. His +scientific life was mainly spent in the herbarium and garden in +Cambridge; but his labours there were relieved by numerous +journeys to different parts of the United States and to Europe, +all of which contributed to his work on the Synoptical Flora. +He lived to a good age—long enough, indeed, to receive from +learned societies at home and abroad abundant evidence of their +profound respect for his attainments and services. He died +at Cambridge, Mass., on the 30th of January 1888.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Letters</i> (1893) were edited by his wife; and his <i>Scientific +Papers</i> (1888) by C. S. Sargent.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. W. E.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY, DAVID<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1838-1861), Scottish poet, the son of a hand-loom +weaver, was born at Merkland, near Glasgow, on the 29th +of January 1838. His parents resolved to educate him for the +church, and through their self-denial and his own exertions as a +pupil teacher and private tutor he was able to complete a course +of four sessions at the university of Glasgow. He began to write +poetry for <i>The Glasgow Citizen</i> and began his idyll on the Luggie, +the little stream that ran through Merkland. His most intimate +companion at this time was Robert Buchanan, the poet; and in +May 1860 the two agreed to proceed to London, with the idea +of finding literary employment. Shortly after his arrival in +London Gray introduced himself to Monckton Milnes, afterwards +Lord Houghton, with whom he had previously corresponded. +Lord Houghton tried to persuade him to return to +Scotland, but Gray insisted on staying in London. He was +unsuccessful in his efforts to place Gray’s poem, “The Luggie,” +in <i>The Cornhill Magazine</i>, but gave him some light literary work. +He also showed him great kindness when a cold which had seized +him assumed the serious form of consumption, and sent him to +Torquay; but as the disease made rapid progress, an irresistible +longing seized Gray to return to Merkland, where he arrived in +January 1861, and died on the 3rd of December following, having +the day before had the gratification of seeing a printed specimen +copy of his poem “The Luggie,” published eventually by the +exertions of Sydney Dobell. He was buried in the Auld Aisle +Churchyard, Kirkintilloch, where in 1865 a monument was +erected by “friends far and near” to his memory.</p> + +<p>“The Luggie,” the principal poem of Gray, is a kind of reverie +in which the scenes and events of his childhood and his early +aspirations are mingled with the music of the stream which +he celebrates. The series of sonnets, “In the Shadows,” was +composed during the latter part of his illness. Most of his poems +necessarily bear traces of immaturity, and lines may frequently +be found in them which are mere echoes from Thomson, Wordsworth +or Tennyson, but they possess, nevertheless, distinct +individuality, and show a real appreciation of natural beauty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Luggie and other Poems</i>, with an introduction by R. Monckton +Milnes, and a brief memoir by James Hedderwick, was published +in 1862; and a new and enlarged edition of Gray’s <i>Poetical Works</i>, +edited by Henry Glassford Bell, appeared in 1874. See also <i>David +Gray and other Essays</i>, by Robert Buchanan (1868), and the same +writer’s poem on David Gray, in <i>Idyls and Legends of Inverburn</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY, ELISHA<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1835-1901), American electrician, was born +in Barnesville, Belmont county, Ohio, on the 2nd of August +1835. He worked as a carpenter and in a machine shop, reading +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span> +in physical science at the same time, and for five years studied +at Oberlin College, where he taught for a time. He then investigated +the subject of telegraphy, and in 1867 patented a +telegraphic switch and annunciator. Experimenting in the +transmittal of electro-tones and of musical tones by wire, he +utilized in 1874 animal tissues in his receivers, and filed, on +the 14th of February 1876, a caveat for the invention of a +telephone, only a few hours after the filing of an application for a +patent by Alexander Graham Bell. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telephone</a></span>.) The caveat +was disregarded; letters patent No. 174,465 were granted to Bell, +whose priority of invention was upheld in 1888 by the United +States Supreme Court (see <i>Molecular Telephone Co.</i> v. <i>American +Bell Telephone Co.</i>, 126 U.S. 1). Gray’s experiments won for him +high praise and the decoration of the Legion of Honour at the +Paris Exposition of 1878. He was for a time a manufacturer of +electrical apparatus, particularly of his own inventions; and +was chief electrical expert of the Western Electric Company of +Chicago. At the Columbian Exposition of 1893 Gray was chairman +of the International Congress of Electricians. He died at +Newtonville, Massachusetts, on the 21st of January 1901. +Among his later inventions were appliances for multiplex +telegraphy and the telautograph, a machine for the electric +transmission of handwriting. He experimented in the submarine +use of electric bells for signalling.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gray wrote, besides scientific addresses and many monographs, +<i>Telegraphy and Telephony</i> (1878) and <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i> +(1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY, HENRY PETERS<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1819-1877). American portrait +and genre painter, was born in New York on the 23rd of June +1819. He was a pupil of Daniel Huntington there, and subsequently +studied in Rome and Florence. Elected a member of +the National Academy of Design in 1842, he succeeded +Huntington as president in 1870, holding the position until 1871. +The later years of his life were devoted to portrait work. He +was strongly influenced by the old Italian masters, painting in +mellow colour with a classical tendency. One of his notable +canvases was an allegorical composition called “The Birth of +our Flag” (1875). He died in New York City on the 12th of +November 1877.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY, HORACE<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1828-1902), American jurist, was born in +Boston, Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1828. He graduated +at Harvard in 1845; was admitted to the bar in 1851, and in +1854-1861 was reporter to the Supreme Court of Massachusetts. +He practised law, first in partnership with Ebenezer Rockwood +Hoar, and later with Wilder Dwight (1823-1862) and Charles F. +Blake; was appointed associate justice of the state Supreme +Court on the 23rd of August 1864, becoming chief-justice on the +5th of September 1873; and was associate justice of the Supreme +Court of the United States from December 1881 to August 1902, +resigning only a few weeks before his death at Nahant, Mass., +on the 15th of September 1902. Gray had a fine sense of the +dignity of the bench, and a taste for historical study. His +judgments were unmistakably clear and contained the essence +of earlier opinions. A great case lawyer, he was a much greater +judge, the variety of his knowledge and his contributions to +admiralty and prize law and to testamentary law being particularly +striking; in constitutional law he was a “loose” rather +than a “strict” constructionist.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Francis C. Lowell, “Horace Gray,” in <i>Proceedings of the +American Academy</i>, vol. 39, pp. 627-637 (Boston, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY, JOHN DE<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (d. 1214), bishop of Norwich, entered +Prince John’s service, and at his accession (1199) was rapidly +promoted in the church till he became bishop of Norwich in +September 1200. King John’s attempt to force him into the +primacy in 1205 started the king’s long and fatal quarrel with +Pope Innocent III. De Gray was a hard-working royal official, +in finance, in justice, in action, using his position to enrich himself +and his family. In 1209 he went to Ireland to govern it as +justiciar. He adopted a forward policy, attempting to extend +the English frontier northward and westward, and fought a +number of campaigns on the Shannon and in Fermanagh. But +in 1212 he suffered a great defeat. He assimilated the coinage of +Ireland to that of England, and tried to effect a similar reform +in Irish law. De Gray was a good financier, and could always +raise money: this probably explains the favour he enjoyed from +King John. In 1213 he is found with 500 knights at the great +muster at Barham Downs, when Philip Augustus was threatening +to invade England. After John’s reconciliation with Innocent +he was one of those exempted from the general pardon, and was +forced to go in person to Rome to obtain it. At Rome he so +completely gained over Innocent that the pope sent him back +with papal letters recommending his election to the bishopric of +Durham (1213); but he died at St Jean d’Audely in Poitou +on his homeward journey (October 1214).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY, JOHN EDWARD<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1800-1875), English naturalist, +born at Walsall, Staffordshire, in 1800, was the eldest of the +three sons of S. F. Gray, of that town, druggist and writer on +botany, and author of the <i>Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia</i>, &c., +his grandfather being S. F. Gray, who translated the <i>Philosophia +Botanica</i> of Linnaeus for the <i>Introduction to Botany</i> of James +Lee (1715-1795). Gray studied at St Bartholomew’s and other +hospitals for the medical profession, but at an early age was +attracted to the pursuit of botany. He assisted his father by +collecting notes on botany and comparative anatomy and +zoology in Sir Joseph Banks’s library at the British Museum, +aided by Dr W. E. Leach, assistant keeper, and the systematic +synopsis of the <i>Natural Arrangement of British Plants</i>, 2 vols., +1821, was prepared by him, his father writing the preface and +introduction only. In consequence of his application for membership +of the Linnaean Society being rejected in 1822, he turned +to the study of zoology, writing on zoophytes, shells, <i>Mollusca</i> +and <i>Papilionidae</i>, still aided by Dr Leach at the British Museum. +In December 1824 he obtained the post of assistant in that +institution; and from that date to December 1839, when J. G. +Children retired from the keepership, he had so zealously applied +himself to the study, classification and improvement of the +national collection of zoology that he was selected as the fittest +person to be entrusted with its charge. Immediately on his +appointment as keeper, he took in hand the revision of the +systematic arrangement of the collections; scientific catalogues +followed in rapid succession; the department was raised in +importance; its poverty as well as its wealth became known, +and whilst increased grants, donations and exchanges made +good many deficiencies, great numbers of students, foreign as +well as English, availed themselves of its resources to enlarge the +knowledge of zoology in all its branches. In spite of numerous +obstacles, he worked up the department, within a few years of +his appointment as keeper, to such a state of excellence as to +make it the rival of the cabinets of Leiden, Paris and Berlin; +and later on it was raised under his management to the dignity +of the largest and most complete zoological collection in the +world. Although seized with paralysis in 1870, he continued to +discharge the functions of keeper of zoology, and to contribute +papers to the <i>Annals of Natural History</i>, his favourite journal, and +to the transactions of a few of the learned societies; but at +Christmas 1874, having completed half a century of official +work, he resigned office, and died in London on the 7th of March +1875.</p> + +<p>Gray was an exceedingly voluminous writer, and his +interests were not confined to natural history only, for he took +an active part in questions of public importance of his day, such +as slave emancipation, prison discipline, abolition of imprisonment +for debt, sanitary and municipal organizations, the decimal +system, public education, extension of the opening of museums, +&c. He began to publish in 1820, and continued till the year +of his death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The titles of the books, memoirs and miscellaneous papers written +by him, accompanied by a few notes, fill a privately printed list of 56 +octavo pages with 1162 entries.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY, PATRICK GRAY,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> <span class="sc">6th Baron</span> (d. 1612), was descended +from Sir Andrew Gray (<i>c.</i> 1390-1469) of Broxmouth and Foulis, +who was created a Scottish peer as Lord Gray, probably in 1445. +Andrew was a leading figure in Scottish politics during the reigns +of James I. and his two successors, and visited England as a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span> +hostage, a diplomatist and a pilgrim. The 2nd Lord Gray was +his grandson Andrew (d. 1514), and the 4th lord was the latter’s +grandson Patrick (d. 1582), a participant in Scottish politics +during the stormy time of Mary, queen of Scots. Patrick’s son, +Patrick, the 5th lord (d. 1609), married Barbara, daughter of +William, 2nd Lord Ruthven, and their son Patrick, known as +the “Master of Gray,” is the subject of this article. Educated +at Glasgow University and brought up as a Protestant, young +Patrick was married early in life to Elizabeth Lyon, daughter +of Lord Glamis, whom he repudiated almost directly; and +afterwards went to France, where he joined the friends of Mary, +queen of Scots, became a Roman Catholic, and assisted the +French policy of the Guises in Scotland. He returned and took +up his residence again in Scotland in 1583, and immediately +began a career of treachery and intrigue, gaining James’s favour +by disclosing to him his mother’s secrets, and acting in agreement +with James Stewart, earl of Arran, in order to keep Mary a +prisoner in England. In 1584 he was sent as ambassador to +England, to effect a treaty between James and Elizabeth +and to exclude Mary. His ambition incited him at the same +time to promote a plot to secure the downfall of Arran. +This was supported by Elizabeth, and was finally accomplished +by letting loose the lords banished from Scotland for their +participation in the rebellion called the Raid of Ruthven, who, +joining Gray, took possession of the king’s person at Stirling in +1585, the league with England being ratified by the parliament +in December. Gray now became the intermediary between the +English government and James on the great question of Mary’s +execution, and in 1587 he was despatched on an embassy to +Elizabeth, ostensibly to save Mary’s life. Gray had, however, +previously advised her secret assassination and had endeavoured +to overcome all James’s scruples; and though he does not appear +to have carried treachery so far as to advise her death on this +occasion, no representations made by him could have had any +force or weight. The execution of Mary caused his own downfall +and loss of political power in Scotland; and after his return he +was imprisoned on charges of plots against Protestantism, of +endeavouring to prevent the king’s marriage, and of having been +bribed to consent to Mary’s death. He pleaded guilty of sedition +and of having obstructed the king’s marriage, and was declared +a traitor; but his life was spared by James and he was banished +from the country, but permitted to return in 1589, when he was +restored to his office of master of the wardrobe to which he had +been appointed in 1585. His further career was marked by +lawlessness and misconduct. In 1592, together with the 5th +Lord Bothwell, he made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the +king at Falkland, and the same year earned considerable discredit +by bringing groundless accusations against the Presbyterian +minister, Robert Bruce; while after the king’s accession +to the English throne he was frequently summoned before +the authorities on account of his conduct. Notwithstanding, +he never lost James’s favour. In 1609 he succeeded his father as +6th Baron Gray, and died in 1612.</p> + +<p>Gray was an intimate friend of Sir Philip Sidney, but, if one +of the ablest, handsomest and most fascinating, he was beyond +doubt one of the most unscrupulous men of his day. He married +as his second wife in 1585 Mary Stewart, daughter of Robert, +earl of Orkney, and had by her, besides six daughters, a son, +Andrew (d. 1663), who succeeded him as 7th Baron Gray. +Andrew, who served for a long time in the French army, was a +supporter, although not a very prominent one, of Charles I. and +afterwards of Charles II. He was succeeded as 8th Lord Gray +by Patrick (d. 1711), a son of his daughter Anne, and Patrick’s +successor was his kinsman and son-in-law John (d. 1724). On +the extinction of John’s direct line in 1878 the title of Lord Gray, +passed to George Stuart, earl of Moray. In 1606 Gray had been +ranked sixth among the Scottish baronies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Article in <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i>, and authorities +there quoted; Gray’s relation concerning the surprise at Stirling +(<i>Bannatyne Club Publns.</i> i. 131, 1827); Andrew Lang, <i>History of +Scotland</i>, vol. ii. (1902); Peter Gray, <i>The Descent and Kinship of +Patrick, Master of Gray</i> (1903); <i>Gray Papers</i> (Bannatyne Club, +1835); <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., Marq. of Salisbury’s MSS.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY, ROBERT<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1809-1872), first bishop of Cape Town and +metropolitan of South Africa, was born at Bishop Wearmouth, +Durham, and was the son of Robert Gray, bishop of Bristol. +He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and took orders in 1833. +After holding the livings of Whitworth, Durham, 1834-1845, and +Stockton-on-Tees, 1845-1847, he was consecrated bishop of Cape +Town in 1847; the bishopric having been endowed through the +liberality of Miss (afterwards Baroness) Burdett-Coutts. Until +1853 he was a suffragan of Canterbury, but in that year he +formally resigned his see and was reappointed by letters patent +metropolitan of South Africa in view of the contemplated +establishment of the suffragan dioceses of Graham’s Town and +Natal. In that capacity his coercive jurisdiction was twice +called in question, and in each case the judicial committee of the +privy council decided against him. The best-known case is that +of Bishop Colenso, whom Gray deposed and excommunicated in +1863. The spiritual validity of the sentence was upheld by the +convocation of Canterbury and the Pan-Anglican synod of 1867, +but legally Colenso remained bishop of Natal. The privy council +decisions declared, in effect, that the Anglican body in South +Africa was on the footing of a voluntary religious society. Gray, +accepting this position, obtained its recognition by the mother +church as the Church of the Province of South Africa, in full +communion with the Church of England. The first provincial +synod was held in 1870. During his episcopate Bishop Gray +effected a much-needed organization of the South African church, +to which he added five new bishoprics, all carved out of the +original diocese of Cape Town. It was also chiefly owing to his +suggestions that the universities’ mission to Central Africa was +founded.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1369), English chronicler, was a +son of Sir Thomas Gray, who was taken prisoner by the Scots +at Bannockburn and who died about 1344. The younger Thomas +was present at the battle of Neville’s Cross in 1346; in 1355, +whilst acting as warden of Norham Castle, he was made a prisoner, +and during his captivity in Edinburgh Castle he devoted his +time to studying the English chroniclers, Gildas, Bede, Ranulf +Higdon and others. Released in 1357 he was appointed warden +of the east marches towards Scotland in 1367, and he died about +1369. Gray’s work, the <i>Scalacronica</i> (so called, perhaps, from +the scaling-ladder in the crest of the Grays), is a chronicle of +English history from the earliest times to about the year 1362. +It is, however, only valuable for the reigns of Edward I. and +Edward II. and part of that of Edward III., being especially +so for the account of the wars between England and Scotland, in +which the author’s father and the author himself took part. +Writing in Norman-French, Gray tells of Wallace and Bruce, +of the fights at Bannockburn, Byland and Dupplin, and makes +some mention of the troubles in England during the reign of +Edward II. He also narrates the course of the war in France +between 1355 and 1361; possibly he was present during some +of these campaigns.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Scalacronica</i> was summarized by John Leland in the 16th +century; the part dealing with the period from 1066 to the end, +together with the prologue, was edited for the Maitland Club by +J. Stevenson (1836); and the part from 1274 to 1362 was translated +into English by Sir Herbert Maxwell (Glasgow, 1907). In the +extant manuscript, which is in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, +there is a gap extending from about 1340 to 1355, and Gray’s +account of this period is only known from Leland’s summary.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY, THOMAS<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1716-1771), English poet, the fifth and sole +surviving child of Philip and Dorothy Gray, was born in London +on the 26th of December 1716. His mother’s maiden name was +Antrobus, and in partnership with her sister Mary she kept a +millinery shop in Cornhill. This and the house connected with +it were the property of Philip Gray, a money-scrivener, who +married Dorothy in 1706 and lived with her in the house, the +sisters renting the shop from him and supporting themselves +by its profits. Philip Gray had impaired the fortune which he +inherited from his father, a wealthy London merchant; yet he +was sufficiently well-to-do, and at the close of his life was building +a house upon some property of his own at Wanstead. But he +was selfish and brutal, and in 1735 his wife took some abortive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span> +steps to obtain a separation from him. At this date she had +given birth to twelve children, of whom Thomas was the only +survivor. He owed his life as well as his education to this +“careful, tender mother,” as he calls her. The child was +suffocating when she opened one of his veins with her own hand. +He went at her expense to Eton in 1727, and was confided +to the care of her brother, William Antrobus, one of the assistant-masters, +during some part at least of his school-life.</p> + +<p>At Eton Gray’s closest friends were Horace Walpole, Richard +West (son of the lord chancellor of Ireland and grandson of the +famous Bishop Burnet), and Thomas Ashton, afterwards fellow +of Eton. This little coterie was dubbed “the Quadruple +Alliance”; its members were studious and literary, and took +little part in the amusements of their fellows. In 1734 Gray +matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, of which his uncle, +Robert Antrobus, had been a fellow. At Cambridge he had once +more the companionship of Walpole and Ashton who were at +King’s, but West went to Christchurch, Oxford. Gray made at +this time the firmest and most constant friendship of his life +with Thomas Wharton (not the poet Warton) of Pembroke +College. He was maintained by his mother, and his straitened +means were eked out by certain small exhibitions from his +college. His conspicuous abilities and known devotion to study +perhaps atoned in the eyes of the authorities for his indifference +to the regular routine of study; for mathematics in particular +he had an aversion which was the one exception to his almost +limitless curiosity in other directions. During his first Cambridge +period he learnt Italian “like any dragon,” and made translations +from Guarini, Dante and Tasso, some of which have been preserved. +In September 1738 he is in the agony of leaving college, +nor can we trace his movements with any certainty for a while, +though it may be conjectured that he spent much time with +Horace Walpole, and made in his company some fashionable +acquaintances in London. On the 29th of March 1739, he +started with Walpole for a long continental tour, for the expenses +of which it is probable that his father, for once, came in some +measure to his assistance. In Paris, Gray visited the great with +his friend, studied the picture-galleries, went to tragedies, +comedies, operas and cultivated there that taste for the French +classical dramatists, especially Racine, whom he afterwards tried +to imitate in the fragmentary “Agrippina.” It is characteristic +of him that he travels through France with Caesar constantly +in his hands, ever noting and transcribing. In the same way, in +crossing the Alps and in Piedmont, he has “Livy in the chaise +with him and Silius Italicus too.” In Italy he made a long +sojourn, principally at Florence, where Walpole’s lifelong +correspondent, Horace Mann, was British envoy, and received +and treated the travellers most hospitably. But Rome and +Naples are also described in Gray’s letters, sometimes vividly, +always amusingly, and in his notes are almost catalogued. +Herculaneum, an object of intense interest to the young poet +and antiquary, had been discovered the year before. At +length in April 1741 Gray and Walpole set out northwards for +Reggio. Here they quarrelled. Gray, “never a boy,” was a +student, and at times retiring; Walpole, in his way a student +too, was at this time a very social being, somewhat too frivolous, +and, what was worse, too patronizing. He good-humouredly +said at a later date, “Gray loves to find fault,” and this fault-finding +was expressed, no doubt with exaggeration, in a letter +to Ashton, who violated Gray’s confidence. The rupture +followed, and with two friends, John Chute of the Vyne, Hampshire, +and the young Francis Whithed, Gray went to Venice to +see the doge wed the Adriatic on Ascension Day. Thence he +returned home attended only by a <i>laquais de voyage</i>, visiting +once more the Grande Chartreuse where he left in the album of +the brotherhood those beautiful alcaics, <i>O Tu severa Religio +loci</i>, which reveal his characteristic melancholy (enhanced by +solitude and estrangement) and that sense of the glory as distinct +from the horror of mountain scenery to which perhaps he was +the first of Englishmen to give adequate expression. On the +18th of September 1741 we find him in London, astonishing the +street boys with his deep ruffles, large bag-wig and long sword, +and “mortified” under the hands of the English barber. On +the 6th of November his father died; Philip Gray had, it is +evident, been less savage and niggardly at last to those who +were dependent upon him, and his death left his wife and son +some measure of assured peace and comfort.</p> + +<p>London was Gray’s headquarters for more than a year, with +occasional visits to Stoke Poges, to which his mother and Mary +Antrobus had retired from business to live with their sister, +Mrs Rogers. At Stoke he heard of the death of West, to whom +he had sent the “Ode on Spring,” which was returned to him +unopened. It was an unexpected blow, shocking in all its +circumstances, especially if we believe the story that his friend’s +frail life was brought to a close by the discovery that the mother +whom he tenderly loved had been an unfaithful wife, and, as +some say, poisoned her husband. About this tragedy Gray +preserved a mournful silence, broken only by the pathetic sonnet, +and some Latin lines, in which he laments his loss. The year +1742, was, for him, fruitful in poetic effort, of which, however, +much was incomplete. The “Agrippina,” the <i>De principiis +Cogitandi</i>, the splenetic “Hymn to Ignorance” in which he +contemplates his return to the university, remain fragments; +but besides the two poems already mentioned, the “Ode on a +Distant Prospect of Eton College” and the “Hymn to Adversity,” +perhaps the most faultless of his poems, were written +before the close of the summer. After hesitating between +Trinity Hall and Peterhouse, he returned to the latter, probably +as a fellow-commoner. He had hitherto neglected to read for a +degree; he proceeded to that of LL.B. in 1744. In 1745 a +reconciliation with Walpole, long desired probably on both sides, +was effected through the kind offices of Chute’s sister. In 1746 +he spent his time between Cambridge, Stoke and London; was +much with Walpole; graphically describes the trial of the +Scottish rebel lords, and studied Greek with avidity; but “the +muse,” which by this time perhaps had stimulated him to begin +the “Elegy,” “has gone, and left him in much worse company.” +In town he finds his friends Chute and Whithed returned to +England, and “flaunts about” in public places with them. +The year 1747 produced only the ode on Walpole’s cat, and we +gather that he is mainly engaged in reading with a very critical +eye, and interesting himself more in the troubles of Pembroke +College, in which he almost seems to live, than in the affairs of +Peterhouse. In this year also be made the acquaintance of +Mason, his future biographer. In 1748 he first came before the +public, but anonymously, in Dodsley’s <i>Miscellany</i>, in which +appeared the Eton ode, the ode on spring, and that on the cat. +In the same year he sent to Wharton the beginning of the didactic +poem, “The Alliance of Education and Government,” which +remains a fragment. His aunt, Mary Antrobus, died in 1749.</p> + +<p>There is little to break the monotony of his days till 1750, +when from Stoke he sent Walpole “a thing to which he had at +last put an end.” The “thing” was the “Elegy.” It was +shown about in manuscript by his admiring friend; it was +impudently pirated, and Gray had it printed by Dodsley in +self-defence. Even thus it had “a pinch or two in its cradle,” +of which it long bore the marks. The publication led to the one +incident in Gray’s life which has a touch of romance. At Stokehouse +had come to live the widowed Lady Cobham, who learnt +that the author of the “Elegy” was her neighbour. At her +instance, Lady Schaub, her visitor, and Miss Speed, her protégée, +paid him a call; the poet was out, and his quiet mother and +aunts were somewhat flustered at the apparition of these women +of fashion, whose acquaintance Gray had already made in town. +Hence the humorous “Long Story.” A platonic affection +sprang up between Gray and Miss Speed; rumour, upon the +death of Lady Cobham, said that they were to be married, but +the lady escaped this mild destiny to become the Baroness de la +Peyrière, afterwards Countess Viry, and a dangerous political +<i>intriguante</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1753 all Gray’s completed poems, except the sonnet on the +death of West, were published by Dodsley in a handsome volume +illustrated by Richard Bentley, the son of the celebrated master +of Trinity. To these designs we owe the verses to the artist +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span> +which were posthumously published from a MS. torn at the end. +In the same year Gray’s mother died and was buried in the +churchyard at Stoke Poges, the scene of the “Elegy,” in the +same grave with Mary Antrobus. A visit to his friend Dr +Wharton at Durham later in the year revives his earlier impressions +of that bolder scenery which is henceforth to be in the +main the framework of his muse. Already in 1752 he had +almost completed “The Progress of Poesy,” in which, and in +“The Bard,” the imagery is largely furnished forth by mountain +and torrent. The latter poem long held fire; Gray was stimulated +to finish it by hearing the blind Welsh harper Parry at +Cambridge. Both odes were the first-fruits of the press which +Walpole had set up at Strawberry Hill, and were printed together +there in 1757. They are genuinely Pindaric, that is, with corresponding +strophes, antistrophes and epodes. As the Greek +motto prefixed to them implies, they were vocal to the intelligent +only; and these at first were few. But the odes, if they did not +attain the popularity of the “Elegy,” marked an epoch in +the history of English poetry, and the influence of “The Bard” +may be traced even in that great but very fruitful imposture, +the pseudo-Ossian of Macpherson. Gray yields to the impulse +of the Romantic movement; he has long been an admirer of +ballad poetry; before he wrote “The Bard” he had begun to +study Scandinavian literature, and the two “Norse Odes,” +written in 1761, were in style and metrical form strangely +anticipative of Coleridge and Scott. Meanwhile his Cambridge +life had been vexed by the freaks of the fellow-commoners of +Peterhouse, a peculiarly riotous set. He had suffered great +inconvenience for a time by the burning of his property in +Cornhill, and so nervous was he on the subject of fire that he +had provided himself with a rope-ladder by which he might +descend from his college window. Under this window a hunting-party +of these rude lads raised in the early morning the cry +of fire; the poet’s night-capped head appeared and was at +once withdrawn. This, or little more than this, was the simple +fact out of which arose the legend still current at Cambridge. +The servile authorities of Peterhouse treated Gray’s complaints +with scant respect, and he migrated to Pembroke College. “I +left my lodgings,” he said, “because the rooms were noisy, and +the people of the house dirty.”</p> + +<p>In 1758 died Mrs Rogers, and Gray describes himself as +employed at Stoke in “dividing nothing” between himself and +the surviving aunt, Mrs Oliffe, whom he calls “the spawn of +Cerberus and the Dragon of Wantley.” In 1759 he availed +himself of the MS. treasures of the British Museum, then for the +first time open to the public, made a very long sojourn in town, +and in 1761 witnessed the coronation of George III., of which +to his friend Brown of Pembroke he wrote a very vivacious +account. In his last years he revealed a craving for a life less +sedentary than heretofore. He visited various picturesque +districts of Great Britain, exploring great houses and ruined +abbeys; he was the pioneer of the modern tourist, noting and +describing in the spirit now of the poet, now of the art-critic, +now of the antiquary. In 1762 he travelled in Yorkshire and +Derbyshire; in 1764 in the Lowlands of Scotland, and thence +went to Southampton and its neighbourhood. In 1765 he +revisits Scotland; he is the guest of Lord Strathmore at Glamis; +and revels in “those monstrous creatures of God,” the Highland +mountains. His most notable achievement in this direction +was his journey among the English lakes, of which he wrote an +interesting account to Wharton; and even in 1770, the year +before his death, he visited with his young friend Norton Nicholls +“five of the most beautiful counties of the kingdom,” and +descended the Wye for 40 m. In all these quests he displays a +physical energy which surprises and even perplexes us. His +true academic status was worthily secured in 1768, when the +duke of Grafton offered him the professorship of modern history +which in 1762 he had vainly endeavoured to obtain from Bute. +He wrote in 1769 the “Installation Ode” upon the appointment +of Grafton as chancellor of the university. It was almost the +only instance in which he successfully executed a task, not, in +the strictest sense, self-imposed; the great founders of the +university are tactfully memorized and pass before us in a kind +of heraldic splendour. He bore with indifference the taunts +to which, from Junius and others, he was exposed for this +tribute to his patron. He was contemplating a journey to +Switzerland to visit his youthful friend de Bonstetten when, in +the summer of 1771, he was conscious of a great decline in his +physical powers. He was seized with a sudden illness when +dining in his college hall, and died of gout in the stomach on the +30th of July 1771. His last moments were attended by his +cousin Mary Antrobus, postmistress through his influence at +Cambridge and daughter of his Eton tutor; and he was laid +beside his beloved mother in the churchyard of Stoke Poges.</p> + +<p>Owing to his shyness and reserve he had few intimate friends, +but to these his loss was irreparable; for to them he revealed +himself either in boyish levity and banter, or wise and sympathetic +counsel and tender and yet manly consolation; to them +he imparted his quiet but keen observation of passing events +or the stores of his extensive reading in literature ancient, +medieval or modern; and with Proteus-like variety he writes +at one time as a speculative philosopher, at another as a critic +in art or music, at another as a meteorologist and nature-lover. +His friendship with the young, after his migration to Pembroke +College, is a noteworthy trait in his character. With Lord +Strathmore and the Lyons and with William Palgrave he conversed +as an elder brother, and Norton Nicholls of Trinity Hall +lost in him a second father, who had taught him to think and feel. +The brilliant young foreigner, de Bonstetten, looked back after +a long and chequered career with remembrance still vivid to the +days in which the poet so soon to die taught him to read Shakespeare +and Milton in the monastic gloom of Cambridge. With +the elderly “Levites” of the place he was less in sympathy; +they dreaded his sarcastic vein; they were conscious that he +laughed at them, and in the polemics of the university he was +somewhat of a free lance, fighting for his own hand. Lampoons +of his were privately circulated with effect, and that he could be +the fiercest of satirists the “Cambridge Courtship” on the +candidature of Lord Sandwich for the office of high steward, and +the verses on Lord Holland’s mimic ruins at Westgate, sufficiently +prove. The faculty which he displayed in humour and satire +was denied to his more serious muse; there all was the fruit of +long delay; of that higher inspiration he had a thin but very +precious vein, and the sublimity which he undoubtedly attained +was reached by an effort of which captious and even sympathetic +criticism can discover the traces. In his own time he was +regarded as an innovator, for like Collins he revived the poetic +diction of the past, and the adverse judgments of Johnson and +others upon his work are in fact a defence of the current literary +traditions. Few men have published so little to so much effect; +few have attained to fame with so little ambition. His favourite +maxim was “to be employed is to be happy,” but he was always +employed in the first instance for the satisfaction of his own soul, +and to this end and no other he made himself one of the best +Greek scholars at Cambridge in the interval between Bentley +and Porson. His genius was receptive rather than creative, +and it is to be regretted that he lacked energy to achieve that +history of English poetry which he once projected, and for which +he possessed far more knowledge and insight than the poet +Thomas Warton, to whom he resigned the task. He had a fine +taste in music, painting and architecture; and his correspondence +includes a wide survey of such European literature as was +accessible to him, with criticisms, sometimes indeed a little +limited and insular, yet of a singularly fresh and modern cast. +In person he was below the middle height, but well-made, and +his face, in which the primness of his features was redeemed +by his flashing eyes, was the index of his character. There was +a touch of affectation in his demeanour, and he was sometimes +reticent and secretive even to his best friends. He was a refined +Epicurean in his habits, and a deist rather than a Christian in +his religious beliefs; but his friend, Mrs Bonfoy, had “taught +him to pray” and he was keenly alive to the dangers of a flippant +scepticism. In a beautiful alcaic stanza he pronounces the man +supremely happy who in the depths of the heart is conscious +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span> +of the “fount of tears,” and his characteristic melancholy, +except in the few hours when it was indeed black, was not a +pitiable state; rather, it was one secret of the charm both of +the man and of the poet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A very complete bibliography of Gray will be found in Dr. Bradshaw’s +edition of the poems in the Aldine series. Dodsley published +ten of the poems, exclusive of the “Long Story,” in 1768. Mason’s +<i>Life of Gray</i> (1778) included the poems and some hitherto unpublished +fragments, with a selection from his letters, much garbled. +Mathias in 1814 reprinted Mason’s edition and added much from +Gray’s MS. commentaries together with some more of his translations. +The most exhaustive edition of Gray’s writings was achieved +by the Rev. John Mitford, who first did justice to the correspondence +with Wharton and Norton Nicholls (5 vols., Pickering, 1836-1843; +correspondence of Gray and Mason, Bentley, 1853); see also the +edition of the works by Edmund Gosse (4 vols., 1884); the Life +by the same in Eng. Men of Letters (2nd ed., 1889); some further +relics are given in <i>Gray and His Friends</i> by D. C. Tovey (Cambridge, +1890); and a new edition of the letters copiously annotated by D. +C. Tovey is in the Standard Library (1900-1907). Nicholl’s +<i>Illustrations</i>, vol. vi. p. 805, quoted by Professor Kittredge in the +<i>Nation</i>, Sept. 12th, 1900, gives the true story of Gray’s migration +to Pembroke College. Matthew Arnold’s essay on Gray in Ward’s +<i>English Poets</i> is one of the minor classics of literary criticism.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. C. To.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Grey</span>), <b>WALTER DE</b> (d. 1255), English prelate and +statesman, was a nephew of John de Gray, bishop of Norwich, +and was educated at Oxford. He owed his early and rapid +preferment in church and state to the favour of King John, +becoming the king’s chancellor in 1205, and being chosen bishop +of Lichfield in 1210. He was, however, not allowed to keep this +bishopric, but he became bishop of Worcester in 1214, resigning +his office as chancellor in the same year. Gray was with John +when the king signed Magna Carta in June 1215; soon after +this event he left England on the king’s business, and it was +during his absence that he was forced into the archbishopric +of York, owing his election to the good offices of John and of +Pope Innocent III. He took a leading part in public affairs +during the minority of Henry III., and was regarded with much +favour by this king, who employed him on important errands +to foreign potentates, and left him as guardian of England when +he went to France in 1242. Afterwards the archbishop seems +to have been less favourably disposed towards Henry, and for a +time he absented himself from public business; however, in +1255, he visited London to attend a meeting of parliament, and +died at Fulham on the 1st of May 1255. Gray was always +anxious to assert his archiepiscopal authority over Scotland, +and to maintain it against the archbishop of Canterbury, but +in neither case was he very successful. He built the south +transept of the minster at York and bought for his see the +village, afterwards called Bishopthorpe, which is still the residence +of the archbishop of York. He was also generous to the church +at Ripon. Gray was regarded by his contemporaries as an +avaricious, but patriotic man.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAY,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Haute-Saône, situated on the declivity of +a hill on the left bank of the Saône, 36 m. S.W. of Vesoul by the +Eastern railway. Pop. (1906) 5742. The streets of the town are +narrow and steep, but it possesses broad and beautiful quays +and has a busy port. Three bridges, one dating from the 18th +century, unite it to suburbs on the right bank of the river, on +which is the railway-station from which lines branch off to +Auxonne, Dijon, Besançon and Culmont-Chalindrey. The +principal buildings are the Gothic church, restored in the style +of the Renaissance but with a modern portal, and the hôtel de +ville, built by the Spaniards in 1568. The latter building has a +handsome façade decorated with columns of red granite. Gray +is the seat of a subprefect and has tribunals of first instance +and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a communal college +and a small museum. It has large flour-mills; among the other +industries is the manufacture of machinery and iron goods. +There is also a considerable transit traffic in goods from the +south of France and the colonies, and trade in iron, corn, provisions, +vegetables, wine, wood, &c., much of which is carried +by river. Gray was founded in the 7th century. Its fortifications +were destroyed by Louis XIV. During the Franco-German War +General von Werder concentrated his army corps in the town +and held it for a month, making it the <i>point d’appui</i> of movements +towards Dijon and Langres, as well as towards Besançon.</p> + +<p>Gray gave its name to the distinguished English family of +de Gray, Gray or Grey, Anschitel de Gray being mentioned as +an Oxfordshire tenant in Domesday.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAYLING<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (<i>Thymallus</i>), fishes belonging to the family +<i>Salmonidae</i>. The best known are the “poisson bleu” of the +Canadian voyageurs, and the European species, <i>Thymallus +vulgaris</i> (the <i>Asch</i> or <i>Äsche</i> of Germany, <i>ombre</i> of France, and +<i>temola</i> of Upper Italy). This latter species is esteemed on +account of its agreeable colours (especially of the dorsal fin), its +well-flavoured flesh, and the sport it affords to anglers. The +grayling differ from the genus <i>Salmo</i> in the smaller mouth with +comparatively feeble dentition, in the larger scales, and especially +in the much greater development of the dorsal fin, which contains +20 to 24 rays. These beautiful fishes, of which five or six species +are known, inhabit the fresh waters of Europe, Siberia and the +northern parts of North America. The European species, +<i>T. vulgaris</i> or <i>vexillifer</i>, attains, though rarely, a length of 2 ft. +The colours during life are remarkably changeable and iridescent; +small dark spots are sometimes present on the body; the very +high dorsal fin is beautifully marked with purplish bands and +ocelli. In England and Scotland the grayling appears to have +had originally a rather irregular distribution, but it has now +been introduced into a great number of rivers; it is not found in +Ireland. It is more generally distributed in Scandinavia and +Russia, and the mountain streams of central Europe southwards +to the Alpine water of Upper Italy. Specimens attaining to a +weight of 4 ℔ are very scarce.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAYS THURROCK,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Grays</span>, an urban district in the south-eastern +parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the Thames, +20 m. E. by S. from London by the London, Tilbury & Southend +railway. Pop. (1901) 13,834. The church of St Peter and St +Paul, wholly rebuilt, retains some Norman work. The town +takes its name from a family of Gray who held the manor for +three centuries from 1149. There are an endowed and two +training ship schools. Roman remains have been found in the +vicinity; and the geological formations exhibiting the process +of silting up of a former river channel are exposed in the quarries, +and contain large mammalian remains. The town has trade in +bricks, lime and cement.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAZ<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Gratz</span>], the capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland +of Styria, 140 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) +138,370. It is picturesquely situated on both banks of the Mur, +just where this river enters a broad and fertile valley, and the +beauty of its position has given rise to the punning French +description, <i>La Ville des grâces sur la rivière de l’amour</i>. The main +town lies on the left bank of the river at the foot of the Schlossberg +(1545 ft.) which dominates the town. The beautiful valley +traversed by the Mur, known as the Grazer Feld and bounded +by the Wildonerberge, extends to the south; to the S.W. rise +the Bacher Gebirge and the Koralpen; to the N. the Schöckel +(4745 ft.), and to the N.W. the Alps of Upper Styria. On the +Schlossberg, which can be ascended by a cable tramway, beautiful +parks have been laid out, and on its top is the bell-tower, 60 ft. +high, and the quaint clock-tower, 52 ft. high, which bears a +gigantic clock-dial. At the foot of the Schlossberg is the Stadt-Park.</p> + +<p>Among the numerous churches of the city the most important +is the cathedral of St Aegidius, a Gothic building erected by the +emperor Frederick III. in 1450-1462 on the site of a previous +church mentioned as early as 1157. It has been several times +modified and redecorated, more particularly in 1718. The +present copper spire dates from 1663. The interior is richly +adorned with stained-glass windows of modern date, costly +shrines, paintings and tombs. In the immediate neighbourhood +of the cathedral is the mausoleum church erected by the emperor +Ferdinand II. Worthy of mention also are the parish church, a +Late Gothic building, finished in 1520, and restored in 1875, +which possesses an altar piece by Tintoretto; the Augustinian +church, appropriated to the service of the university since 1827; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span> +the small Leech Kirche, an interesting building in Early Gothic +style, dating from the 13th century, and the Herz Jesu-Kirche, +a building in Early Gothic style, finished in 1891, with a tower +360 ft. high. Of the secular buildings the most important is the +Landhaus, where the local diet holds its sittings, erected in the +16th century in the Renaissance style. It possesses an interesting +portal and a beautiful arcaded court, and amongst the curiosities +preserved here is the Styrian hat. In its neighbourhood is the +Zeughaus or arsenal, built in 1644, which contains a very rich +collection of weapons of the 15th-17th centuries, and which is +maintained exactly in the same condition as it was 250 years ago. +The town hall, built in 1807, and rebuilt in 1892 in the German +Renaissance style, and the imperial castle, dating from the 11th +century, now used as government offices, are also worth notice.</p> + +<p>At the head of the educational institutions is the university +founded in 1586 by the Austrian archduke Charles Francis, and +restored in 1817 after an interruption of 45 years. It is now +housed in a magnificent building, finished in 1895, and is endowed +with numerous scientific laboratories and a rich library. It +had in 1901 a teaching staff of 161 professors and lecturers, +and 1652 students, including many Italians from the Küstenland +and Dalmatia. The Joanneum Museum, founded in 1811 by the +archduke John Baptist, has become very rich in many departments, +and an additional huge building in the rococo style was +erected in 1895 for its accommodation. The technical college, +founded in 1814 by the archduke John Baptist, had in 1901 +about 400 pupils.</p> + +<p>An active trade, fostered by abundant railway communications, +is combined with manufactures of iron and steel wares, paper, +chemicals, vinegar, physical and optical instruments, besides +artistic printing and lithography. The extensive workshops +of the Southern railway are at Graz, and since the opening of the +railway to the rich coal-fields of Köflach the number of industrial +establishments has greatly increased.</p> + +<p>Amongst the numerous interesting places in the neighbourhood +are: the Hilmteich, with the Hilmwarte, about 100 ft. high; +and the Rosenberg (1570 ft.), whence the ascent of the Platte +(2136 ft.) with extensive view is made. At the foot of the +Rosenberg is Maria Grün, with a large sanatorium. All these +places are situated to the N. of Graz. On the left bank of the +Mur is the pilgrimage church of Maria Trost, built in 1714; +on the right bank is the castle of Eggenberg, built in the 17th +century. To the S.W. is the Buchkogel (2150 ft.), with a magnificent +view, and a little farther south is the watering-place of +Tobelbad.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Graz may possibly have been a Roman site, but +the first mention of it under its present name is in a document +of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 881, after which it became the residence of the rulers +of the surrounding district, known later as Styria. Its privileges +were confirmed by King Rudolph I. in 1281. Surrounded with +walls and fosses in 1435, it was able in 1481 to defend itself +against the Hungarians under Matthias Corvinus, and in 1529 +and 1532 the Turks attacked it with as little success. As early +as 1530 the Lutheran doctrine was preached in Graz by Seifried +and Jacob von Eggenberg, and in 1540 Eggenberg founded the +Paradies or Lutheran school, in which Kepler afterwards taught. +But the archduke Charles burned 20,000 Protestant books in +the square of the present lunatic asylum, and succeeded by his +oppressive measures in bringing the city again under the authority +of Rome. From the earlier part of the 15th century Graz was +the residence of one branch of the family of Habsburg, a branch +which succeeded to the imperial throne in 1619 in the person +of Ferdinand II. New fortifications were constructed in the end +of the 16th century by Franz von Poppendorf, and in 1644 the +town afforded an asylum to the family of Ferdinand III. The +French were in possession of the place in 1797 and again in 1805; +and in 1809 Marshal Macdonald having, in accordance with the +terms of the peace of Vienna, entered the citadel which he had +vainly besieged, blew it all up with the exception of the bell-tower +and the citizens’ or clock tower. It benefited greatly +during the 19th century from the care of the archduke John and +received extended civic privileges in 1860.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ilwof and Peters, <i>Graz, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt</i> +(Graz, 1875); G. Fels, <i>Graz und seine Umgebung</i> (Graz, 1898); L. +Mayer, <i>Die Stadt der Grazien</i> (Graz, 1897), and Hofrichter, <i>Rückblicke +in die Vergangenheit von Graz</i> (Graz, 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1503-1583), Italian +author, was born at Florence on the 22nd of March 1503, of good +family both by his father’s and mother’s side. Of his youth +and education all record appears to be lost, but he probably +began early to practise as an apothecary. In 1540 he was one +of the founders of the Academy of the Humid (degli Umidi) +afterwards called “della Fiorentina,” and later took a prominent +part in the establishment of the more famous Accademia della +Crusca. In both societies he was known as <i>Il Lasca</i> or <i>Leuciscus</i>, +and this pseudonym is still frequently substituted for his proper +name. His temper was what the French happily call a difficult +one, and his life was consequently enlivened or disturbed by +various literary quarrels. His Humid brethren went so far as +to expel him for a time from the society—the chief ground +of offence being apparently his ruthless criticism of the +“Arameans,” a party of the academicians who maintained +that the Florentine or Tuscan tongue was derived from the +Hebrew, the Chaldee, or some other branch of the Semitic. +He was readmitted in 1566, when his friend Salviati was “consul” +of the academy. His death took place on the 18th of February +1583. Il Lasca ranks as one of the great masters of Tuscan +prose. His style is copious and flexible; abundantly idiomatic, +but without any affectation of being so, it carries with it the +force and freshness of popular speech, while it lacks not at the +same time a flavour of academic culture. His principal works +are <i>Le Cene</i> (1756), a collection of stories in the manner of +Boccaccio, and a number of prose comedies, <i>La Gelosia</i> (1568), <i>La +Spiritata</i> (1561), <i>I Parentadi</i>, <i>La Arenga</i>, <i>La Sibilla</i>, <i>La Pinzochera</i>, +<i>L’ Arzigogolo</i>. The stories, though of no special merit as far +as the plots are concerned, are told with verve and interest. +A number of miscellaneous poems, a few letters and <i>Four +Orations to the Cross</i> complete the list of Grazzini’s extant works.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>He also edited the works of Berni, and collected <i>Tutti i trionfi, +larri, mascherate, e canti carnascialaschi, andati per Firenze dal +tempo del magnifico Lorenzo de’ Medici fino all’ anno 1559</i>. In 1868 +Adamo Rossi published in his <i>Ricerche per le biblioteche di Perugia</i> +three “novelle” by Grazzini, from a MS. of the 16th century in the +“Comunale” of Perugia: and in 1870 a small collection of those +poems which have been left unpublished by previous editors appeared +at Poggibonsi, <i>Alcune Poesie inedite</i>. See Pietro Fanfani’s “Vita +del Lasca,” prefixed to his edition of the <i>Opere di A. Grazzini</i> +(Florence, 1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT AWAKENING,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> the name given to a remarkable +religious revival centring in New England in 1740-1743, but +covering all the American colonies in 1740-1750. The word +“awakening” in this sense was frequently (and possibly first) +used by Jonathan Edwards at the time of the Northampton +revival of 1734-1735, which spread through the Connecticut +Valley and prepared the way for the work in Rhode Island, +Massachusetts and Connecticut (1740-1741) of George Whitefield, +who had previously been preaching in the South, especially +at Savannah, Georgia. He, his immediate follower, Gilbert +Tennent (1703-1764), other clergymen, such as James Davenport, +and many untrained laymen who took up the work, agreed +in the emotional and dramatic character of their preaching, +in rousing their hearers to a high pitch of excitement, often +amounting to frenzy, in the undue stress they put upon “bodily +effects” (the physical manifestations of an abnormal psychic +state) as proofs of conversion, and in their unrestrained attacks +upon the many clergymen who did not join them and whom +they called “dead men,” unconverted, unregenerate and +careless of the spiritual condition of their parishes. Jonathan +Edwards, Benjamin Colman (1675-1747), and Joseph Bellamy, +recognized the viciousness of so extreme a position. Edwards +personally reprimanded Whitefield for presuming to say of any +one that he was unconverted, and in his <i>Thoughts Concerning +the Present Revival of Religion</i> devoted much space to “showing +what things are to be corrected, or avoided, in promoting this +work.” Edwards’ famous sermon at Enfield in 1741 so affected +his audience that they cried and groaned aloud, and he found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span> +it necessary to bid them be still that he might go on; but +Davenport and many itinerants provoked and invited shouting +and even writhing, and other physical manifestations. At its +May session in 1742 the General Court of Massachusetts forbade +itinerant preaching save with full consent from the resident +pastor; in May 1743 the annual ministerial convention, by a +small plurality, declared against “several errors in doctrine +and disorders in practice which have of late obtained in various +parts of the land,” against lay preachers and disorderly revival +meetings; in the same year Charles Chauncy, who disapproved +of the revival, published <i>Seasonable Thoughts on the State of +Religion in New England</i>; and in 1744-1745 Whitefield, upon +his second tour in New England, found that the faculties of +Harvard and Yale had officially “testified” and “declared” +against him and that most pulpits were closed to him. Some +separatist churches were formed as a result of the Awakening; +these either died out or became Baptist congregations. To +the reaction against the gross methods of the revival has been +ascribed the religious apathy of New England during the last +years of the 18th century; but the martial and political excitement, +beginning with King George’s War (<i>i.e.</i> the American +part of the War of the Austrian Succession) and running through +the American War of Independence and the founding of the +American government, must be reckoned at the least as contributing +causes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Joseph Tracy, <i>The Great Awakening</i> (Boston, 1842); Samuel +P. Hayes, “An Historical Study of the Edwardean Revivals,” in +<i>The American Journal of Psychology</i>, vol. 13 (Worcester, Mass., +1902); and Frederick M. Davenport, <i>Primitive Traits in Religious +Revivals</i> (New York, 1905), especially chapter viii. pp. 94-131.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. We.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT BARRIER REEF,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a vast coral reef extending for +1200 m. along the north-east coast of Australia (<i>q.v.</i>). The +channel within it is protected from heavy seas by the reef, and +is a valuable route of communication for coasting steamers. +The reef itself is also traversed by a number of navigable passages.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT BARRINGTON,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a township of Berkshire county, +Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Housatonic river, in the Berkshire +hills, about 25 m. S.W. of Pittsfield. Pop. (1890) 4612; (1900) +5854, of whom 1187 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 5926. +Its area is about 45 sq. m. The township is traversed by +a branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, and +the Berkshire Street railway (controlled by the N.Y., N.H. & H.) +has its southern terminus here. Within the township are +three villages—Great Barrington (the most important), Housatonic +and Van Deusenville; the first two are about 5 m. apart. +The village of Great Barrington, among the hills, is well known +as a summer resort. The Congregational church with its magnificent +organ (3954 pipes) is worthy of mention. There is a public +library in the village of Great Barrington and another in the +village of Housatonic. Monument Mt. (1710 ft.), partly in +Stockbridge, commands a fine view of the Berkshires and the +Housatonic Valley. The Sedgwick School (for boys) was removed +from Hartford, Connecticut, to Great Barrington in 1869. +There are various manufactures, including cotton-goods (in the +village of Housatonic), and electric meters, paper, knit goods +and counterpanes (in the village of Great Barrington); and +marble and blue stone are quarried here; but the township is +primarily given over to farming. The fair of the Housatonic +Agricultural Society is held here annually during September; +and the district court of South Berkshire sits here. The township +was incorporated in 1761, having been, since 1743, the “North +Parish of Sheffield”; the township of Sheffield, earlier known +as the “Lower Housatonic Plantation” was incorporated in +1733. Great Barrington was named in honour of John Shute +(1678-1734), Viscount Barrington of Ardglass (the adjective +“Great” being added to distinguish it from another township +of the same name). In 1761-1787 it was the shire-town. Great +Barrington was a centre of the disaffection during Shays’s +rebellion, and on the 12th of September 1786 a riot here prevented +the sitting of court. Samuel Hopkins, one of the most +eminent of American theologians, was pastor here in 1743-1769; +General Joseph Dwight (1703-1765), a merchant, lawyer and +brigadier-general of Massachusetts militia, who took part in +the Louisburg expedition in 1745 and later in the French and +Indian War, lived here from 1758 until his death; and William +Cullen Bryant lived here as a lawyer and town clerk in 1816-1825.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. J. Taylor, <i>History of Great Barrington</i> (Great Barrington, +1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT BASIN,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> an area in the western Cordilleran region of +the United States of America, about 200,000 sq. m. in extent, +characterized by wholly interior drainage, a peculiar mountain +system and extreme aridity. Its form is approximately that +of an isosceles triangle, with the sharp angle extending into +Lower California, W. of the Colorado river; the northern edge +being formed by the divide of the drainage basin of the Columbia +river, the eastern by that of the Colorado, the western by the +central part of the Sierra Nevada crest, and by other high +mountains. The N. boundary and much of the E. is not conspicuously +uplifted, being plateau, rather than mountain. The +W. half of Utah, the S.W. corner of Wyoming, the S.E. corner +of Idaho, a large area in S.E. Oregon, much of S. California, +a strip along the E. border of the last-named state, and almost +the whole of Nevada are embraced within the limits of the +Great Basin.</p> + +<p>The Great Basin is not, as its name implies, a topographic cup. +Its surface is of varied character, with many independent closed +basins draining into lakes or “playas,” none of which, however, +has outlet to the sea. The mountain chains, which from their +peculiar geologic character are known as of the “Basin Range +type” (not exactly conterminous in distribution with the Basin), +are echeloned in short ranges running from N. to S. Many of +them are fault block mountains, the crust having been broken +and the blocks tilted so that there is a steep face on one side +and a gentle slope on the other. This is the Basin Range type of +mountain. These mountains are among the most recent in the +continent, and some of them, at least, are still growing. In +numerous instances clear evidence of recent movements along +the fault planes has been discovered; and frequent earthquakes +testify with equal force to the present uplift of the mountain +blocks. The valleys between the tilted mountain blocks are +smooth and often trough-like, and are often the sites of shallow +salt lakes or playas. By the rain wash and wind action detritus +from the mountains is carried to these valley floors, raising their +level, and often burying low mountain spurs, so as to cause +neighbouring valleys to coalesce. The plateau “lowlands” in +the centre of the Basin are approximately 5000 ft. in altitude. +Southward the altitude falls, Death valley and Coahuila valley +being in part below the level of the sea. The whole Basin is +marked by three features of elevation—the Utah basin, the +Nevada basin and, between them, the Nevada plateau.</p> + +<p>Over the lowlands of the Basin, taken generally, there is an +average precipitation of perhaps 6-7 in., while in the Oregon +region it is twice as great, and in the southern parts even less. +The mountains receive somewhat more. The annual evaporation +from water surfaces is from 60 to 150 in. (60 to 80 on the Great +Salt Lake). The reason for the arid climate differs in different +sections. In the north it is due to the fact that the winds from +the Pacific lose most of their moisture, especially in winter, on +the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada; in the south it is due +to the fact that the region lies in a zone of calms, and light, +variable winds. Precipitation is largely confined to local showers, +often of such violence as to warrant the name “cloud bursts,” +commonly applied to the heavy down-pours of this desert +region. It is these heavy rains, of brief duration, when great +volumes of water rapidly run off from the barren slopes, that +cause the deep channels, or arroyas, which cross the desert. +Permanent streams are rare. Many mountains are quite without +perennial streams, and some lack even springs. Few of the +mountain creeks succeed in reaching the arid plains, and those +that do quickly disappear by evaporation or by seepage into +the gravels. In the N.W. there are many permanent lakes +without outlet fed by the mountain streams; others, snow fed, +occur among the Sierra Nevada; and some in the larger mountain +masses of the middle region. Almost all are saline. The largest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span> +of all, Great Salt Lake, is maintained by the waters of the +Wasatch and associated plateaus. No lakes occur south of +Owens in the W. and Sevier in the E. (39°); evaporation below +these limits is supreme. Most of the small closed basins, however, +contain “playas,” or alkali mud flats, that are overflowed +when the tributary streams are supplied with storm water.</p> + +<p>Save where irrigation has reclaimed small areas, the whole +region is a vast desert, though locally only some of the interior +plains are known as “deserts.” Such are the Great Salt Lake +and Carson deserts in the north, the Mohave and Colorado and +Amargosa (Death Valley) deserts of the south-west. Straggling +forests, mainly of conifers, characterize the high plateaus of +central Utah. The lowlands and the lower mountains, especially +southward, are generally treeless. Cottonwoods line the streams, +salt-loving vegetation margins the bare playas, low bushes and +scattered bunch-grass grow over the lowlands, especially in the +north. Gray desert plants, notably cactuses and other thorny +plants, partly replace in the south the bushes of the north. +Except on the scattered oases, where irrigation from springs and +mountain streams has reclaimed small patches, the desert is +barren and forbidding in the extreme. There are broad plains +covered with salt and alkali, and others supporting only scattered +bunch grass, sage bush, cactus and other arid land plants. +There are stony wastes, or alluvial fans, where mountain streams +emerge upon the plains, in time of flood, bringing detritus in +their torrential courses from the mountain canyons and depositing +it along the mountain base. The barrenness extends into the +mountains themselves, where there are bare rock cliffs, stony +slopes and a general absence of vegetation. With increasing +altitude vegetation becomes more varied and abundant, until the +tree limit is reached; then follows a forest belt, which in the +highest mountains is limited above by cold as it is below by +aridity.</p> + +<p>The successive explorations of B. L. E. Bonneville, J. C. +Frémont and Howard Stansbury (1806-1863) furnished a +general knowledge of the hydrographic features and geological +lacustrine history of the Great Basin, and this knowledge was +rounded out by the field work of the U.S. Geological Survey from +1879 to 1883, under the direction of Grove Karl Gilbert. The +mountains are composed in great part of Paleozoic strata, +often modified by vulcanism and greatly denuded and sculptured +by wind and water erosion. The climate in late geologic time +was very different from that which prevails to-day. In the +Pleistocene period many large lakes were formed within the Great +Basin; especially, by the fusion of small catchment basins, +two great confluent bodies of water—Lake Lahontan (in the +Nevada basin) and Lake Bonneville (in the Utah basin). The +latter, the remnants of which are represented to-day by Great +Salt, Sevier and Utah Lakes, had a drainage basin of some +54,000 sq. m.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. K. Gilbert in Wheeler Survey, <i>U.S. Geographical Survey +West of the Hundredth Meridian</i>, vol. iii.; Clarence King and others +in the <i>Report of the Fortieth Parallel Survey</i> (U.S. Geol. Exploration +of the Fortieth Parallel); G. K. Gilbert’s <i>Lake Bonneville</i> (U.S. +Geological Survey, <i>Monographs</i>, No. 1, 1890), also I. C. Russell’s +<i>Lake Lahontan</i> (Same, No. 11, 1885), with references to other publications +of the Survey. For reference to later geological literature, and +discussion of the Basin Ranges, see J. E. Spurr, <i>Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.</i> +vol. 12, 1901, p. 217; and G. D. Louderback, same, vol. 15, 1904, +p. 280; also general bibliographies issued by the U.S. Geol. Survey +(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Bull.</i> 301, 372 and 409).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT BEAR LAKE,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> an extensive sheet of fresh water in +the north-west of Canada, between 65° and 67° N., and 117° and +123° W. It is of very irregular shape, has an estimated area +of 11,200 sq. m., a depth of 270 ft., and is upwards of 200 ft. +above the sea. It is 175 m. in length, and from 25 to 45 in +breadth, though the greatest distance between its northern and +southern arms is about 180 m. The Great Bear river discharges +its waters into the Mackenzie river. It is full of fish, and the +neighbouring country, though barren and uncultivated, contains +quantities of game.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT CIRCLE.<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> The circle in which a sphere is cut by a +plane is called a “great circle,” when the cutting plane passes +through the centre of sphere. Treating the earth as a sphere, +the meridians of longitude are all great circles. Of the parallels +of latitude, the equator only is a great circle. The shortest line +joining any two points is an arc of a great circle. For “great +circle sailing” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Navigation</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT FALLS,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Cascade county, +Montana, U.S.A., 99 m. (by rail) N.E. of Helena, on the S. bank +of the Missouri river, opposite the mouth of the Sun river, at an +altitude of about 3300 ft. It is 10 m. above the Great Falls +of the Missouri, from which it derives its name. Pop. (1890) +3979; (1900) 14,930, of whom 4692 were foreign-born; (1910 +census) 13,948. It has an area of about 8 sq. m. It is served +by the Great Northern and the Billings & Northern (Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy system) railways. The city has a splendid +park system of seven parks (about 530 acres) with 15 m. of +boulevards.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Among the principal buildings are a city hall, +court house, high school, commercial college, Carnegie library, +the Columbus Hospital and Training School for Nurses (under +the supervision of the Sisters of Charity), and the Montana +Deaconess hospital. There is a Federal land office in the city. +Great Falls lies in the midst of a region exceptionally rich in +minerals—copper, gold, silver, lead, iron, gypsum, limestone, +sapphires and bituminous coal being mined in the neighbourhood. +Much grain is grown in the vicinity, and the city is an important +shipping point for wool, live-stock and cereals. Near Great +Falls the Missouri river, within 7½ m., contracts from a width of +about 900 to 300 yds. and falls more than 500 ft., the principal +falls being the Black Eagle Falls (50 ft.), from which power is +derived for the city’s street railway and lighting plant, the +beautiful Rainbow Falls (48 ft.) and Great Falls (92 ft.). Giant +Spring Fall, about 20 ft. high, is a cascade formed by a spring +on the bank of the river near Rainbow Falls. The river furnishes +very valuable water-power, partly utilized by large manufacturing +establishments, including flour mills, plaster mills, breweries, +iron works, mining machinery shops, and smelting and reduction +works. The Boston & Montana copper smelter is one of the +largest in the world; it has a chimney stack 506 ft. high, and in +1908 employed 1200 men in the smelter and 2500 in its mining +department. Great Falls ranked second (to Anaconda) among +the cities of the state in the value of the factory product of 1905, +which was $13,291,979, showing an increase of 42.4% since 1900. +The city owns and operates its water-supply system. Great Falls +was settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in 1888.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Great Falls was a pioneer among the cities of the state in the +development of a park system. When the city was first settled its +site was a “barren tract of sand, thinly covered with buffalo-grass +and patches of sage brush.” The first settler, Paris Gibson, of +Minneapolis, began the planting of trees, which, though not indigenous, +grew well. The city’s sidewalks are bordered by strips of +lawn, in which there is a row of trees, and the city maintains a large +nursery where trees are grown for this purpose. A general state law +(1901) placing the parking of cities on a sound financial basis is due +very largely to the impulse furnished by Great Falls. See an article, +“Great Falls, the Pioneer Park City of Montana,” by C. H. Forbes-Lindsay, +in the <i>Craftsman</i> for November 1908.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT HARWOOD,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> an urban district in the Darwen parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England, 4½ m. N.E. of Blackburn, +on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) +12,015. It is of modern growth, a township of cotton operatives, +with large collieries in the vicinity. An agricultural society +is also maintained.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1844-1896), British engineer, +was born at Grahamstown, Cape Colony, on the 6th of August +1844. He migrated to England in 1859, and in 1864 was a pupil +of P. W. Barlow, from whom he became acquainted with the +shield system of tunnelling with which his name is especially +associated. Barlow, indeed, had a strong belief in the shield, +and was the author of a scheme for facilitating the traffic of +London by the construction of underground railways running +in cast-iron tubes constructed by its aid. To show what the +method could do, it was resolved to make a subway under +the Thames near the Tower, but the troubles encountered +by Sir M. I. Brunel in the Thames Tunnel, where also a shield was +employed, made engineers hesitate to undertake the subway, +even though it was of very much smaller dimensions (6 ft. 7 in. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span> +internal diameter) than the tunnel. At this juncture Greathead +came forward and offered to take up the contract; and he +successfully carried it through in 1869 without finding any +necessity to resort to the use of compressed air, which Barlow +in 1867 had suggested might be employed in water-bearing strata. +After this he began to practise on his own account, and mainly +divided his time between railway construction and taking out +patents for improvements in his shield, and for other inventions +such as the “Ejector” fire-hydrant. Early in the ’eighties he +began to work in conjunction with a company whose aim was +to introduce into London from America the Hallidie system of +cable traction, and in 1884 an act of Parliament was obtained +authorizing what is now the City & South London Railway—a +tube-railway to be worked by cables. This was begun in 1886, +and the tunnels were driven by means of the Greathead shield, +compressed air being used at those points where water-bearing +gravel was encountered. During the progress of the works +electrical traction became so far developed as to be superior +to cables; the idea of using the latter was therefore abandoned, +and when the railway was opened in 1890 it was as an electrical +one. Greathead was engaged in two other important underground +lines in London—the Waterloo & City and the Central +London. He lived to see the tunnels of the former completed +under the Thames, but the latter was scarcely begun at the time +of his death, which happened at Streatham, in the south of +London, on the 21st of October 1896.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE.<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> The connected +string of five fresh-water inland seas, Lakes Superior, Michigan, +Huron, Erie and Ontario, lying in the interior of North America, +between the Dominion of Canada on the north and the United +States of America on the south, and forming the head-waters of +the St Lawrence river system, are collectively and generally +known as “The Great Lakes.” From the head of lake Superior +these lakes are navigable to Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie, +a distance of 1023 m., for vessels having a draught of 20 ft.; +from Buffalo to Kingston, 191 m. farther, the draught is limited, +by the depth in the Welland canal, to 14 ft.; lake Superior, the +largest and most westerly of the lakes, empties, through the river +St Mary, 55 m. long, into lake Huron. From Point Iroquois, +which may be considered the foot of the lake, to Sault Ste +Marie, St Mary’s Falls, St Mary’s Rapids or the Soo, as it is +variously called, a distance of 14 m., there is a single channel, +which has been dredged by the United States government, at +points which required deepening, to give a minimum width +of 800 ft. and a depth of 23 ft. at mean stage water. Below the +Sault, the river, on its course to lake Huron, expands into several +lakes, and is divided by islands into numerous contracted +passages. There are two navigated channels; the older one, +following the international boundary-line by way of lake George, +has a width of 150 to 300 ft., and a depth of 17 ft.; it is buoyed +but not lighted, and is not capable of navigation by modern +large freighters; the other, some 12 m. shorter, an artificial +channel dredged by the United States government in their own +territory, has a minimum width of 300 ft. and depth of 20 ft. +It is elaborately lighted throughout its length. A third channel, +west of all the islands, was designed for steamers bound down, +the older channel being reserved for upbound boats.</p> + +<p>Between lake Superior and lake Huron there is a fall of 20 ft. +of which the Sault, in a distance of ½ m., absorbs from 18 to +19½ ft., the height varying as the lakes change in level. The +enormous growth of inter-lake freight traffic has justified the +construction of three separate locks, each overcoming the rapids +by a single lift—two side by side on the United States and one +on the Canadian side of the river. These locks, the largest in +the world, are all open to Canadian and United States vessels +alike, and are operated free from all taxes or tolls on shipping. +The Canadian ship canal, opened to traffic on the 9th of +September 1895, was constructed through St Mary Island, on +the north side of the rapids, by the Canadian government, at a +cost of $3,684,227, to facilitate traffic and to secure to Canadian +vessels an entrance to lake Superior without entering United +States territory. The canal is 5967 ft. long between the extremities +of the entrance piers, has one lock 900 ft. long and +60 ft. wide, with a depth on the sills at the lowest known water-level +of 20½ ft. The approaches to the canal are dredged to +18 ft. deep, and are well buoyed and lighted. On the United +States side of the river the length of the canal is 1<span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> m., the +channel outside the locks having a width varying from 108 to +600 ft. and depth of 25 ft. The locks of 1855 were closed in 1886, +to give place to the Poe lock. The Weitzel lock, opened to +navigation on the 1st of September 1881, was built south of the +old locks, the approach being through the old canal. Its chamber +is 515 ft. long between lock gates, and 80 ft. wide, narrowing +to 60 ft. at the gates. The length of the masonry walls is 717 ft., +height 39½ ft., with 17 ft. over mitre sills at mean stage of water. +The Poe lock, built because the Weitzel lock, large and fully +equipped as it is, was insufficient for the rapidly growing traffic, +was opened on the 3rd of August 1896. Its length between gates +is 800 ft.; width 100 ft.; length of masonry walls 1100 ft.; +height 43½ to 45 ft., with 22 ft. on the mitre sill at mean stage.</p> + +<p>The expenditure by the United States government on the +canal, with its several locks, and on improving the channel +through the river, aggregated fourteen million dollars up to the +end of 1906.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Plans were prepared in 1907 for a third United +States lock with a separate canal approach.</p> + +<p>The canals are closed every winter, the average date of opening +up to 1893 being the 1st of May, and of closing the 1st of +December. The pressure of business since that time, aided +possibly by some slight climatic modification, has extended +the season, so that the average date of opening is now ten days +earlier and of closing twelve days later. The earliest opening +was in 1902 on the 1st of April, and the latest closing in 1904 on +the 20th of December.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The table below gives the average yearly commerce for periods +of five years, and serves to show the rapid increase in freight growth.</p> + + +<p class="center pt2"><i>Statement of the commerce through the several Sault Ste Marie canals, averaged for every five years.</i><a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Years.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Passages.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Registered<br />Tonnage.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Passengers.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Coal.<br />Net Tons.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Flour.<br />Barrels.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Wheat.<br />Bushels.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Other.<br />Grains.<br />Bushels</td> <td class="tccm allb">General<br />Merchandise.<br />Net Tons.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Salt.<br />Barrels.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Iron Ore.<br />Net Tons.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lumber.<br />M. ft.<br />B.M.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Freight.<br />Net Tons.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1855-1859*</td> <td class="tcr rb">387</td> <td class="tcr rb">192,207</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,206</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,672</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,555</td> <td class="tcc rb">None.</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,612</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,249</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,248</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,206</td> <td class="tcr rb">320</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,797</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1880-1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,457</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,267,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,607</td> <td class="tcr rb">463,431</td> <td class="tcr rb">681,726</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,435,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">936,346</td> <td class="tcr rb">81,966</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,225</td> <td class="tcr rb">867,999</td> <td class="tcr rb">79,144</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,184,731</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1885-1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,908</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,901,105</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,434</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,398,441</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,838,325</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,438,085</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,213,815</td> <td class="tcr rb">74,447</td> <td class="tcr rb">175,725</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,497,403</td> <td class="tcr rb">197,605</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,441,297</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1890-1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,965</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,912,589</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,609</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,678,805</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,764,766</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,875,971</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,738,706</td> <td class="tcr rb">87,540</td> <td class="tcr rb">231,178</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,939,909</td> <td class="tcr rb">510,482</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,627,349</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1895-1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,352</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,451,447</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,289</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,270,842</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,319,699</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,227,269</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,349,134</td> <td class="tcr rb">164,426</td> <td class="tcr rb">282,156</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,728,075</td> <td class="tcr rb">832,968</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,354,974</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1900-1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,374</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,199,795</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,093</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,457,019</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,021,839</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,269,265</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,760,533</td> <td class="tcr rb">646,277</td> <td class="tcr rb">407,263</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,020,487</td> <td class="tcr rb">999,944</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,245,565</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1906 alone</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">22,155</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">41,098,324</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">63,033</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,739,630</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,495,350</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">84,271,358</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">54,343,155</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,134,851</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">468,162</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">35,357,042</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">900,631</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">51,751,080</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="13">* The first five years of operation.</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Around the canals have grown up two thriving towns, one +on the Michigan, the other on the Ontario side of the river, with +manufactories driven by water-power derived from the Sault. +The outlet of lake Michigan, the only lake of the series lying +wholly in United States territory, is at the Strait of Mackinac, +near the point where the river St Mary reaches lake Huron. +With lake Michigan are connected the Chicago Sanitary and +Ship canal, the Illinois and Michigan, and the Illinois and Mississippi +canals, for which see Illinois. With lake Huron is always +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span> +included Georgian Bay as well as the channel north of Manitoulin +Island. As it is principally navigated as a connecting waterway +between lakes Superior and Michigan and lake Erie it has no +notable harbours on it. It empties into lake Erie through the +river St Clair, lake St Clair and the river Detroit. On these connecting +waters are several important manufacturing and shipping +towns, and through this chain passes nearly all the traffic of the +lakes, both that to and from lake Michigan ports, and also that of +lake Superior. The tonnage of a single short season of navigation +exceeds in the aggregate 60,000,000 tons. Extensive dredging +and embankment works have been carried on by the United +States government in lake St Clair and the river Detroit, and a +20-ft. channel now exists, which is being constantly improved. +Lake St Clair is nearly circular, 25 m. in diameter, with the north-east +quadrant filled by the delta of the river St Clair. It has a +very flat bottom with a general depth of only 21 ft., shoaling very +gradually, usually to reed beds that line the low swampy shores. +To enter the lake from river St Clair two channels have been +provided, with retaining walls of cribwork, one for upward, the +other for downward bound vessels. Much dredging has also been +necessary at the outlet of the lake into river Detroit. A critical +point in that river is at Limekiln crossing, a cut dredged through +limestone rock above the Canadian town of Amherstburg. The +normal depth here before improvement was 12½-15 ft.; by a +project of 1902 a channel 600 ft. wide and 21 ft. deep was planned; +there are separate channels for up- and down-bound vessels. To +prevent vessels from crowding together in the cut, the Canadian +government maintains a patrol service here, while the United +States government maintains a similar patrol in the St Mary +channel.</p> + +<p>The Grand Trunk railway opened in 1891 a single track +tunnel under the river St Clair, from Sarnia to Port Huron. +It is 6026 ft. long, a cylinder 20 ft. in diameter, lined with +cast iron in flanged sections. A second tunnel was undertaken +between Detroit and Windsor, under the river Detroit.</p> + +<p>From Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie, the river Niagara runs +northwards 36 m. into lake Ontario. To overcome the difference +of 327 ft. in level between lakes Erie and Ontario, the Welland +canal, accommodating vessels of 255 ft. in length, with a draught +of 14 ft., was built, and is maintained by Canada. The Murray +canal extends from Presqu’ile Bay, on the north shore of lake +Ontario, a distance of 6½ m., to the headquarters of the Bay of +Quinte. Trent canal is a term applied to a series of water +stretches in the interior of Ontario which are ultimately designed +to connect lake Huron and lake Ontario. At Peterboro a +hydraulic balance-lock with a lift of 65 ft., 140 ft. in length and +33 ft. clear in width, allowing a draught of 8 ft., has been constructed. +The ordinary locks are 134 by 33 ft. with a draught +of 6 ft. When the whole route of 200 m. is completed, there will +not be more than 15 m. of actual canal, the remaining portion +of the waterway being through lakes and rivers. For the Erie +canal, between that lake and the Hudson river, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Erie</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">New York</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The population of the states and provinces bordering on the +Great Lakes is estimated to be over 35,000,000. In Pennsylvania +and Ohio, south of lake Erie, there are large coal-fields. Surrounding +lake Michigan and west of lake Superior are vast +grain-growing plains, and the prairies of the Canadian north-west +are rapidly increasing the area and quantity of wheat +grown; while both north and south of lake Superior are the +most extensive iron mines in the world, from which 35 million +tons of ore were shipped in 1906. The natural highway for the +shipment of all these products is the Great Lakes, and over +them coal is distributed westwards and grain and iron ore are +concentrated eastwards. The great quantity of coarse freights, +that could only be profitably carried long distances by water, +has revolutionized the type of vessel used for its transportation, +making large steamers imperative, consolidating interests and +cheapening methods. It is usual for the vessels in the grain +trade and in the iron-ore trade to make their up trips empty; +but in consequence of the admirable facilities provided at +terminal points, they make very fast time, and carry freight very +cheaply. The cost of freight per ton-mile fell from 23/100 cent +in 1887 to 8/100 cent in 1898; since then the rate has slightly +risen, but keeps well below 1/10 cent per ton-mile.</p> + +<p>The traffic on the lakes may be divided into three classes, +passenger, package freight and bulk freight. Of passenger +boats the largest are 380 ft. long by 44 ft. beam, having a +speed of over 20 m. an hour, making the round trip between +Buffalo and Chicago 1800 m., or Buffalo and Duluth 2000 m., +every week. They carry no freight. The Canadian Pacific +railway runs a line of fine Tyne-built passenger and freight +steamers between Owen Sound and Fort William, and these +two lines equal in accommodation transatlantic passenger +steamers. On lake Michigan many fine passenger boats run out +of Chicago, and on lake Ontario there are several large and fast +Canadian steamers on routes radiating from Toronto. The +package freight business, that is, the transportation of goods +in enclosed parcels, is principally local; all the through business +of this description is controlled by lines run by the great trunk +railways, and is done in boats limited in beam to 50 ft. to admit +them through bridges over the rivers at Chicago and Buffalo. +By far the greatest number of vessels on the lakes are bulk +freighters, and the conditions of the service have developed a +special type of vessel. Originally sailing vessels were largely +used, but these have practically disappeared, giving place to +steamers, which have grown steadily in size with every increase +in available draught. In 1894 there was no vessel on the lakes +with a capacity of over 5000 tons; in 1906 there were 254 vessels +of a greater capacity, 12 of them carrying over 12,000 tons each. +For a few years following 1890 many large barges were built, +carrying up to 8000 tons each, intended to be towed by a +steamer. It was found, however, that the time lost by one boat +of the pair having to wait for the other made the plan unprofitable +and no more were built. Following 1888 some 40 whale-back +steamers and barges, having oval cross-sections without +frames or decks, were built, but experience failed to demonstrate +any advantage in the type, and their construction has ceased. +The modern bulk freighter is a vessel 600 ft. long, 58 ft. beam, +capable of carrying 14,000 tons on 20 ft. draught, built with a +midship section practically rectangular, the coefficient frequently +as high as .98, with about two-thirds of the entire length +absolutely straight, giving a block coefficient up to .87. The +triple-expansion machinery and boilers, designed to drive the +boat at a speed of 12 m. an hour, are in the extreme stern, and +the pilot house and quarters in the extreme bow, leaving all +the cargo space together. Hatches are spaced at multiples +of 12 ft. throughout the length and are made as wide as possible +athwartships to facilitate loading and unloading. The vessels +are built on girder frames and fitted with double bottoms for +strength and water ballast. This type of vessel can be loaded +in a few minutes, and unloaded by self-filling grab buckets up to +ten tons capacity, worked hydraulically, in six or eight hours. +The bulk freight generally follows certain well-defined routes; +iron ore is shipped east from ports on both sides of lake Superior +and on the west side of lake Michigan to rail shipping points +on the south shore of lake Erie. Wheat and other grains from +Duluth find their way to Buffalo, as do wheat, corn (maize) +and other grains from Chicago. Wheat from the Canadian +north-west is distributed from Fort William and Port Arthur +to railway terminals on Georgian Bay, to Buffalo, and to Port +Colborne for trans-shipment to canal barges for Montreal, +and coal is distributed from lake Erie to all western points. The +large shipping trade is assisted by both governments by a system +of aids to navigation that mark every channel and danger. +There are also life-saving stations at all dangerous points.</p> + +<p>The Great Lakes never freeze over completely, but the harbours +and often the connecting rivers are closed by ice. The navigable +season at the Sault is about 7½ months; in lake Erie it is +somewhat longer. The season of navigation has been slightly +lengthened since 1905, by using powerful tugs as ice-breakers +in the spring and autumn, the Canadian government undertaking +the service at Canadian terminal ports, chiefly at Fort William +and Port Arthur, the most northerly ports, where the season +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span> +is naturally shortest, and the Lake Carriers’ Association, a +federation of the freighting steamship owners, acting in the river +St Mary. Car ferries run through the winter across lake Michigan +and the Strait of Mackinac, across the rivers St Clair and Detroit, +and across the middle of lakes Erie and Ontario. The largest +of these steamers is 350 ft. long by 56 ft. wide, draught 14 ft., +horse power 3500, speed 13 knots. She carries on four tracks 30 +freight cars, with 1350 tons of freight. Certain passenger steamers +run on lake Michigan, from Chicago north, all the winter.</p> + +<p>The level of the lakes varies gradually, and is affected by the +general character of the season, and not by individual rainfalls. +The variations of level of the several lakes do not necessarily +synchronize. There is an annual fluctuation of about 1 ft. in +the upper lakes, and in some seasons over 2 ft. in the lower +lakes; the lowest point being at the end of winter and the highest +in midsummer. In lake Michigan the level has ranged from a +maximum in the years 1859, 1876 and 1886, to a minimum +nearly 5 ft. lower in 1896. In lake Ontario there is a range of +5½ ft. between the maximum of May 1870 and the minimum of +November 1895. In consequence of the shallowness of lake Erie, +its level is seriously disturbed by a persistent storm; a westerly +gale lowers the water at its upper end exceptionally as much +as 7 ft., seriously interfering with the navigation of the river +Detroit, while an easterly gale produces a similar effect at Buffalo. +(For physiographical details see articles on the several lakes, +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United States</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>There is geological evidence to show that the whole basin of +the lakes has in recent geological times gradually changed in +level, rising to the north and subsiding southwards; and it is +claimed that the movement is still in gradual progress, the rate +assigned being .42 ft. per 100 m. per century. The maintenance +of the level of the Great Lakes is a matter of great importance +to the large freight boats, which always load to the limit of depth +at critical points in the dredged channels or in the harbours. +Fears have been entertained that the water power canals at +Sault Ste Marie, the drainage canal at Chicago and the dredged +channel in the river Detroit will permanently lower the levels +respectively of lake Superior and of the Michigan-Huron-Erie +group. An international deep-waterway commission exists +for the consideration of this question, and army engineers +appointed by the United States government have worked on the +problem.<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Wing dams in the rivers St Mary and Niagara, to +retard the discharges, have been proposed as remedial measures. +The Great Lakes are practically tideless, though some observers +claim to find true tidal pulsations, said to amount to 3½ in. at +spring tide at Chicago. Secondary undulations of a few minutes +in period, ranging from 1 to 4 in., are well marked.</p> + +<p>The Great Lakes are well stocked with fish of commercial +value. These are largely gathered from the fishermen by +steam tenders, and taken fresh or in frozen condition to railway +distributing points. In lakes Superior and Huron salmon-trout +(<i>Salvelinus namaycush</i>, Walb) are commercially most important. +They ordinarily range from 10 to 50 ℔ in weight, and are often +larger. In Georgian Bay the catches of whitefish (<i>Coregonus +clupeiformis</i>, Mitchill) are enormous. In lake Erie whitefish, +lesser whitefish, erroneously called lake-herring (<i>C. artedi</i>, Le +Sueur), and sturgeon (<i>Acipenser rubicundus</i>, Le Sueur) are the +most common. There is good angling at numerous points on the +lakes and their feeders. The river Nipigon, on the north shore +of lake Superior, is famous as a stream abounding in speckled +trout (<i>Salvelinus fontinalis</i>, Mitchill) of unusual size. Black +bass (<i>Micropterus</i>) are found from Georgian Bay to Montreal, and +the maskinonge (<i>Esox nobilior</i>, Le Sueur), plentiful in the same +waters, is a very game fish that often attains a weight of 70 ℔.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—E. Channing and M. F. Lansing, <i>Story of the +Great Lakes</i> (New York, 1909), for an account of the lakes in history; +and for shipping, &c., J. O. Curwood, <i>The Great Lakes</i> (New York, +1909); <i>U.S. Hydrographic office publication</i>, No 108, “Sailing +directions for the Great Lakes,” Navy Department (Washington, +1901, seqq.); <i>Bulletin No. 17</i>, “Survey of Northern and North-western +Lakes,” Corps of Engineers, U.S. War Department, U.S. +Lake Survey Office (Detroit, Mich., 1907); <i>Annual reports of +Canadian Department of Marine and Fisheries</i> (Ottawa, 1868 seqq.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. P. A.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals. Col. +Chas. E. L. B. Davis, U.S.A., engineer in charge, 1907.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals, +published annually by the U.S. engineer officer in charge.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, in <i>Report of War +Department, U.S.</i> 1898, p. 3776.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> the ancient Oriental-Greek-Roman +deity commonly known as Cybele (<i>q.v.</i>) in Greek and +Latin literature from the time of Pindar. She was also known +under many other names, some of which were derived from +famous places of worship: as Dindymene from Mt. Dindymon, +Mater Idaea from Mt. Ida, Sipylene from Mt. Sipylus, Agdistis +from Mt. Agdistis or Agdus, Mater Phrygia from the greatest +stronghold of her cult; while others were reflections of her +character as a great nature goddess: <i>e.g.</i> Mountain Mother, +Great Mother of the Gods, Mother of all Gods and all Men. +As the great Mother deity whose worship extended throughout +Asia Minor she was known as Mā or Ammas. Cybele is her +favourite name in ancient and modern literature, while Great +Mother of the Gods, or Great Idaean Mother of the Gods (<i>Mater +Deum Magna</i>, <i>Mater Deum Magna Idaea</i>), the most frequently +recurring epigraphical title, was her ordinary official designation.</p> + +<p>The legends agree in locating the rise of the worship of the +Great Mother in Asia Minor, in the region of loosely defined +geographical limits which comprised the Phrygian empire of +prehistoric times, and was more extensive than the Roman +province of Phrygia (Diod. Sic. iii. 58; Paus. vii. 17; Arnob. +v. 5; Firm. Mat. <i>De error.</i>, 3; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 223 ff.; Sallust. +Phil. <i>De diis et mundo</i>, 4; Jul. <i>Or.</i> v. 165 ff.). Her best-known +early seats of worship were Mt. Ida, Mt. Sipylus, Cyzicus, Sardis +and Pessinus, the last-named city, in Galatia near the borders +of Roman Phrygia, finally becoming the strongest centre of +the cult. She was known to the Romans and Greeks as essentially +Phrygian, and all Phrygia was spoken of as sacred to her +(Schol. Apollon. Rhod. <i>Argonautica</i>, i. 1126). It is probable, +however, that the Phrygian race, which invaded Asia Minor +from the north in the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, found a great nature +goddess already universally worshipped there, and blended her +with a deity of their own. The Asiatic-Phrygian worship thus +evolved was further modified by contact with the Syrians and +Phoenicians, so that it acquired strong Semitic characteristics. +The Great Mother known to the Greeks and Romans was thus +merely the Phrygian form of the nature deity of all Asia Minor.</p> + +<p>From Asia Minor the cult of the Great Mother spread first +to Greek territory. It found its way into Thrace at an early +date, was known in Boeotia by Pindar in the 6th century, and +entered Attica near the beginning of the 4th century (Grant +Showerman, <i>The Great Mother of the Gods</i>, <i>Bulletin of the University +of Wisconsin</i>, No. 43, Madison, 1901). At Peiraeus, where +it probably arrived by way of the Aegean islands, it existed +privately in a fully developed state, that is, accompanied by the +worship of Attis, at the beginning of the 4th century, and publicly +two centuries later (D. Comparetti, <i>Annales</i>, 1862, pp. 23 ff.). +The Greeks from the first saw in the Great Mother a resemblance +to their own Rhea, and finally identified the two completely, +though the Asiatic peculiarities of the cult were never universally +popular with them (Showerman, p. 294). In her less Asiatic +aspect, <i>i.e.</i> without Attis, she was sometimes identified with +Gaia and Demeter. It was in this phase that she was worshipped +in the Metroön at Athens. In reality, the Mother Goddess +appears under three aspects: Rhea, the Homeric and Hesiodic +goddess of Cretan origin; the Phrygian Mother, with Attis; +and the Greek Great Mother, a modified form of the Phrygian +Mother, to be explained as the original goddess of the Phrygians +of Europe, communicated to the Greek stock before the Phrygian +invasion of Asia Minor and consequent mingling with Asiatic +stocks (cf. Showerman, p. 252).</p> + +<p>In 204 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in obedience to the Sibylline prophecy which said +that whenever an enemy from abroad should make war on Italy +he could be expelled and conquered if the Idaean Mother were +brought to Rome from Pessinus, the cult of the Great Mother, +together with her sacred symbol, a small meteoric stone reputed +to have fallen from the heavens, was transferred to Rome and +established in a temple on the Palatine (Livy xxix. 10-14). +Her identification by the Romans with Maia, Ops, Rhea, Tellus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span> +and Ceres contributed to the establishment of her worship on a +firm footing. By the end of the Republic it had attained prominence, +and under the Empire it became one of the three most +important cults in the Roman world, the other two being those +of Mithras and Isis. Epigraphic and numismatic evidence +prove it to have penetrated from Rome as a centre to the +remotest provinces (Showerman, pp. 291-293). During the brief +revival of paganism under Eugenius in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 394, occurred the +last appearance of the cult in history. Besides the temple on +the Palatine, there existed minor shrines of the Great Mother near +the present church of St Peter, on the Sacra Via on the north +slope of the Palatine, near the junction of the Almo and the +Tiber, south of the city (<i>ibid.</i> 311-314).</p> + +<p>In all her aspects, Roman, Greek and Oriental, the Great +Mother was characterized by essentially the same qualities. +Most prominent among them was her universal motherhood. +She was the great parent of gods and men, as well as of the lower +orders of creation. “The winds, the sea, the earth and the +snowy seat of Olympus are hers, and when from her mountains +she ascends into the great heavens, the son of Cronus himself +gives way before her” (Apollon. Rhod. <i>Argonautica</i>, i. 1098). +She was known as the All-begetter, the All-nourisher, the Mother +of all the Blest. She was the great, fruitful, kindly earth itself. +Especial emphasis was placed upon her maternity over wild +nature. She was called the Mountain Mother; her sanctuaries +were almost invariably upon mountains, and frequently in caves, +the name Cybele itself being by some derived from the latter; +lions were her faithful companions. Her universal power over +the natural world finds beautiful expression in Apollonius +Rhodius, <i>Argonautica</i>, i. 1140 ff. She was also a chaste and +beautiful deity. Her especial affinity with wild nature was +manifested by the orgiastic character of her worship. Her +attendants, the Corybantes, were wild, half demonic beings. +Her priests, the Galli, were eunuchs attired in female garb, with +long hair fragrant with ointment. Together with priestesses, +they celebrated her rites with flutes, horns, castanets, cymbals +and tambourines, madly yelling and dancing until their frenzied +excitement found its culmination in self-scourging, self-laceration +or exhaustion. Self-emasculation sometimes accompanied this +delirium of worship on the part of candidates for the priesthood +(Showerman, pp. 234-239). The <i>Attis</i> of Catullus (lxiii.) is a +brilliant treatment of such an episode.</p> + +<p>Though her cult sometimes existed by itself, in its fully +developed state the worship of the Great Mother was accompanied +by that of Attis (<i>q.v.</i>). The cult of Attis never existed +independently. Like Adonis and Aphrodite, Baal and Astarte, +&c., the two formed a duality representing the relations of Mother +Nature to the fruits of the earth. There is no positive evidence +to prove the existence of the cult publicly in this phase in Greece +before the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, nor in Rome before the Empire, +though it may have existed in private (Showerman, “Was Attis +at Rome under the Republic?” in <i>Transactions of the American +Philological Association</i>, vol. 31, 1900, pp. 46-59; Cumont, +s.v. “Attis,” De Ruggiero’s <i>Dizionario epigrafico</i> and Pauly-Wissowa’s +<i>Realencyclopädie</i>, Supplement; Hepding, <i>Attis, seine +Mythen und seine Kult</i>, Giessen, 1903, p. 142).</p> + +<p>The philosophers of the late Roman Empire interpreted the +Attis legend as symbolizing the relations of Mother Earth to her +children the fruits. Porphyrius says that Attis signified the +flowers of spring time, and was cut off in youth because the flower +falls before the fruit (Augustine, <i>De civ. Dei</i>, vii. 25). Maternus +(<i>De error.</i> 3) interprets the love of the Great Mother for Attis +as the love of the earth for her fruits; his emasculation as the +cutting of the fruits; his death as their preservation; and his +resurrection as the sowing of the seed again.</p> + +<p>At Rome the immediate direction of the cult of the Great +Mother devolved upon the high priest, <i>Archigallus</i>, called Attis, +a high priestess, <i>Sacerdos Maxima</i>, and its support was derived, +at least in part, from a popular contribution, the <i>stips</i>. Besides +other priests, priestesses and minor officials, such as musicians, +curator, &c., there were certain colleges connected with the +administration of the cult, called <i>cannophori</i> (reed-bearers) and +<i>dendrophori</i> (branch-bearers). The Quindecimvirs exercised a +general supervision over this cult, as over all other authorized +cults, and it was, at least originally, under the special patronage +of a club or sodality (Showerman, pp. 269-276). Roman citizens +were at first forbidden to take part in its ceremonies, and the ban +was not removed until the time of the Empire.</p> + +<p>The main public event in the worship of the Great Mother was +the annual festival, which took place originally on the 4th of +April, and was followed on the 5th by the Megalesia, games +instituted in her honour on the introduction of the cult. Under +the Empire, from Claudius on, the Megalesia lasted six days, +April 4-10, and the original one day of the religious festival +became an annual cycle of festivals extending from the 15th +to the 27th of March, in the following order. (1) The 15th of +March, <i>Canna intrat</i>—the sacrifice of a six-year-old bull in +behalf of the mountain fields, the high priest, a priestess and +the <i>cannophori</i> officiating, the last named carrying reeds in +procession in commemoration of the exposure of the infant +Attis on the reedy banks of the stream Gallus in Phrygia. (This +may have been originally a phallic procession. Cf. Showerman, +<i>American Journal of Philol.</i> xxvii. 1; <i>Classical Journal</i> i. 4.) +(2) The 22nd of March, <i>Arbor intrat</i>—the bearing in procession +of the sacred pine, emblem of Attis’ self-mutilation, death and +immortality, to the temple on the Palatine, the symbol of the +Mother’s cave, by the <i>dendrophori</i>, a gild of workmen who made +the Mother, among other deities, a patron. (3) The 24th of +March, <i>Dies sanguinis</i>—a day of mourning, fasting and abstinence, +especially sexual, commemorating the sorrow of the +Mother for Attis, her abstinence from food and her chastity. +The frenzied dance and self-laceration of the priests in commemoration +of Attis’ deed, and the submission to the act of +consecration by candidates for the priesthood, was a special +feature of the day. The <i>taurobolium</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) was often performed +on this day, on which probably took place the initiation of +mystics. (4) The 25th of March, <i>Hilaria</i>—one of the great +festal days of Rome, celebrated by all the people. All mourning +was put off, and good cheer reigned in token of the return of the +sun and spring, which was symbolized by the renewal of Attis’ +life. (5) The 26th of March, <i>Requietio</i>—a day of rest and quiet. +(6) The 27th of March, <i>Lavatio</i>—the crowning ceremony of the +cycle. The silver statue of the goddess, with the sacred meteoric +stone, the <i>Acus</i>, set in its head, was borne in gorgeous procession +and bathed in the Almo, the remainder of the day being given +up to rejoicing and entertainment, especially dramatic representation +of the legend of the deities of the day. Other ceremonies, +not necessarily connected with the annual festival, +were the <i>taurobolium</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), the sacrifice of a bull, and the <i>criobolium</i> +(<i>q.v.</i>), the sacrifice of a ram, the latter being the analogue +of the former, instituted for the purpose of giving Attis special +recognition. The baptism of blood, which was the feature of +these ceremonies, was regarded as purifying and regenerating +(Showerman, <i>Great Mother</i>, pp. 277-284).</p> + +<p>The Great Mother figures in the art of all periods both in +Asia and Europe, but is especially prominent in the art of the +Empire. No work of the first class, however, was inspired by +her. She appears on coins, in painting and in all forms of +sculpture, usually with mural crown and veil, well draped, seated +on a throne, and accompanied by two lions. Other attributes +which often appear are the patera, tympanum, cymbals, sceptre, +garlands and fruits. Attis and his attributes, the pine, Phrygian +cap, pedum, syrinx and torch, also appear. The Cybele of +Formia, now at Copenhagen, is one of the most famous representations +of the goddess. The Niobe of Mt. Sipylus is really the +Mother. In literature she is the subject of frequent mention, +but no work of importance, with the exception of Catullus lxiii., +is due to her inspiration. Her importance in the history of +religion is very great. Together with Isis and Mithras, she was a +great enemy, and yet a great aid to Christianity. The gorgeous +rites of her worship, its mystic doctrine of communion with +the divine through enthusiasm, its promise of regeneration +through baptism of blood in the taurobolium, were features +which attracted the masses of the people and made it a strong +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span> +rival of Christianity; and its resemblance to the new religion, +however superficial, made it, in spite of the scandalous practices +which grew up around it, a stepping-stone to Christianity when +the tide set in against paganism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Grant Showerman, “The Great Mother of the +Gods,” <i>Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin</i>, No. 43; <i>Philology +and Literature Series</i>, vol. i. No. 3 (Madison, 1901); Hugo Hepding, +<i>Attis, seine Mythen und seine Kult</i> (Giessen, 1903); Rapp, <i>Roscher’s +Ausführliches Lexicon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie +s.v.</i> “Kybele”; Drexler, <i>ibid.</i> <i>s.v.</i> “Meter.” See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Religion</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Religion</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Attis</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corybantes</a></span>; for the great “Hittite” +portrayal of the Nature Goddess at Pteria, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. Sn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT REBELLION<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1642-52), a generic name for the civil +wars in England and Scotland, which began with the raising of +King Charles I.’s standard at Nottingham on the 22nd of August +1642, and ended with the surrender of Dunottar Castle to the +Parliament’s troops in May 1652. It is usual to classify these +wars into the First Civil War of 1642-46, and the Second Civil +War of 1648-52. During most of this time another civil war +was raging in Ireland. Its incidents had little or no connexion +with those of the Great Rebellion, but its results influenced the +struggle in England to a considerable extent.</p> + +<p>1. <i>First Civil War</i> (<i>1642-46</i>).—It is impossible rightly to understand +the events of this most national of all English wars without +some knowledge of the motive forces on both sides. On the side +of the king were enlisted the deep-seated loyalty which was the +result of two centuries of effective royal protection, the pure +cavalier spirit foreshadowing the courtier era of Charles II., but +still strongly tinged with the old feudal indiscipline, the militarism +of an expert soldier nobility, well represented by Prince Rupert, +and lastly a widespread distrust of extreme Puritanism, which +appeared unreasonable to Lord Falkland and other philosophic +statesmen and intolerable to every other class of Royalists. +The foot of the Royal armies was animated in the main by the +first and last of these motives; in the eyes of the sturdy rustics +who followed their squires to the war the enemy were rebels and +fanatics. To the cavalry, which was composed largely of the +higher social orders, the rebels were, in addition, bourgeois, while +the soldiers of fortune from the German wars felt all the regular’s +contempt for citizen militia. Thus in the first episodes of the +First Civil War moral superiority tended to be on the side of the +king. On the other side, the causes of the quarrel were primarily +and apparently political, ultimately and really religious, and thus +the elements of resistance in the Parliament and the nation were +at first confused, and, later, strong and direct. Democracy, +moderate republicanism and the simple desire for constitutional +guarantees could hardly make head of themselves against the +various forces of royalism, for the most moderate men of either +party were sufficiently in sympathy to admit compromise. But +the backbone of resistance was the Puritan element, and this +waging war at first with the rest on the political issue soon (as +the Royalists anticipated) brought the religious issue to the front. +The Presbyterian system, even more rigid than that of Laud and +the bishops—whom no man on either side supported save Charles +himself—was destined to be supplanted by the Independents +and their ideal of free conscience, but for a generation before the +war broke out it had disciplined and trained the middle classes of +the nation (who furnished the bulk of the rebel infantry, and later +of the cavalry also) to centre their whole will-power on the attainment +of their ideals. The ideals changed during the struggle, but +not the capacity for striving for them, and the men capable of the +effort finally came to the front and imposed their ideals on the +rest by the force of their trained wills.</p> + +<p>Material force was throughout on the side of the Parliamentary +party. They controlled the navy, the nucleus of an army which +was in process of being organized for the Irish war, and nearly all +the financial resources of the country. They had the sympathies +of most of the large towns, where the trained bands, drilled once a +month, provided cadres for new regiments. Further, by recognizing +the inevitable, they gained a start in war preparations which +they never lost. The earls of Warwick, Essex and Manchester +and other nobles and gentry of their party possessed great wealth +and territorial influence. Charles, on the other hand, although he +could, by means of the “press” and the lords-lieutenant, raise +men without authority from Parliament, could not raise taxes to +support them, and was dependent on the financial support of his +chief adherents, such as the earls of Newcastle and Derby. Both +parties raised men when and where they could, each claiming that +the law was on its side—for England was already a law-abiding +nation—and acting in virtue of legal instruments. These +were, on the side of the Parliament, its own recent “Militia +Ordinance”; on that of the king, the old-fashioned “Commissions +of Array.” In Cornwall the Royalist leader, Sir Ralph Hopton, +indicted the enemy before the grand jury of the county as +disturbers of the peace, and had the <i>posse comitatus</i> called out to +expel them. The local forces in fact were everywhere employed +by whichever side could, by producing valid written authority, +induce them to assemble.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Royalist and Parliamentarian Armies.</i>—This thread +of local feeling and respect for the laws runs through the +earlier operations of both sides almost irrespective of the main +principles at stake. Many a promising scheme failed because +of the reluctance of the militiamen to serve beyond the limits +of their own county, and, as the offensive lay with the +king, his cause naturally suffered far more therefrom than +that of the enemy. But the real spirit of the struggle was +very different. Anything which tended to prolong the struggle, +or seemed like want of energy and avoidance of a decision, was +bitterly resented by the men of both sides, who had their hearts +in the quarrel and had not as yet learned by the severe lesson +of Edgehill that raw armies cannot bring wars to a speedy +issue. In France and Germany the prolongation of a war meant +continued employment for the soldiers, but in England “we +never encamped or entrenched ... or lay fenced with rivers +or defiles. Here were no leaguers in the field, as at the story of +Nuremberg,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> neither had our soldiers any tents or what they call +heavy baggage. ’Twas the general maxim of the war—Where is +the enemy? Let us go and fight them. Or ... if the enemy +was coming ... Why, what should be done! Draw out into +the fields and fight them.” This passage from the <i>Memoirs of a +Cavalier</i>, ascribed to Defoe, though not contemporary evidence, +is an admirable summary of the character of the Civil War. Even +when in the end a regular professional army is evolved—exactly +as in the case of Napoleon’s army—the original decision-compelling +spirit permeated the whole organization. From the first the +professional soldiers of fortune, be their advice good or bad, are +looked upon with suspicion, and nearly all those Englishmen who +loved war for its own sake were too closely concerned for the welfare +of their country to attempt the methods of the Thirty Years’ +War in England. The formal organization of both armies was +based on the Swedish model, which had become the pattern of +Europe after the victories of Gustavus Adolphus, and gave better +scope for the <i>moral</i> of the individual than the old-fashioned +Spanish and Dutch formations in which the man in the ranks was +a highly finished automaton.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Campaign of 1642.</i>—When the king raised his standard at +Nottingham on the 22nd of August 1642, war was already in progress +on a small scale in many districts, each side endeavouring to +secure, or to deny to the enemy, fortified country-houses, territory, +and above all arms and money. Peace negotiations went on in the +midst of these minor events until there came from the Parliament +an ultimatum so aggressive as to fix the warlike purpose of the +still vacillating court at Nottingham, and, in the country at large, +to convert many thousands of waverers to active Royalism. +Ere long Charles—who had hitherto had less than 1500 men—was +at the head of an army which, though very deficient in arms and +equipment, was not greatly inferior in numbers or enthusiasm to +that of the Parliament. The latter (20,000 strong exclusive of +detachments) was organized during July, August and September +about London, and moved thence to Northampton under the +command of Robert, earl of Essex.</p> + +<p>At this moment the military situation was as follows. Lord +Hertford in south Wales, Sir Ralph Hopton in Cornwall, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span> +young earl of Derby in Lancashire, and small parties in almost +every county of the west and the midlands, were in arms for the +king. North of the Tees, the earl of Newcastle, a great territorial +magnate, was raising troops and supplies for the king, while +Queen Henrietta Maria was busy in Holland arranging for the +importation of war material and money. In Yorkshire opinion +was divided, the royal cause being strongest in York and the North +Riding, that of the Parliamentary party in the clothing towns +of the West Riding and also in the important seaport of Hull. +The Yorkshire gentry made an attempt to neutralize the county, +but a local struggle soon began, and Newcastle thereupon +prepared to invade Yorkshire. The whole of the south and east +as well as parts of the midlands and the west and the important +towns of Bristol and Gloucester were on the side of the Parliament. +A small Royalist force was compelled to evacuate Oxford on the +10th of September.</p> + +<p>On the 13th of September the main campaign opened. The +king—in order to find recruits amongst his sympathizers and +arms in the armouries of the Derbyshire and Staffordshire +trained bands, and also to be in touch with his disciplined +regiments in Ireland by way of Chester—moved westward to +Shrewsbury, Essex following suit by marching from Northampton +to Worcester. Near the last-named town a sharp cavalry +engagement (Powick Bridge) took place on the 23rd between the +advanced cavalry of Essex’s army and a force under Prince +Rupert which was engaged in protecting the retirement of the +Oxford detachment. The result of the fight was the instantaneous +overthrow of the rebel cavalry, and this gave the +Royalist troopers a confidence in themselves and in their brilliant +leader which was not destined to be shaken until they met +Cromwell’s Ironsides. Rupert soon withdrew to Shrewsbury, +where he found many Royalist officers eager to attack Essex’s +new position at Worcester. But the road to London now lay +open and it was decided to take it. The intention was not to +avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals desired to fight Essex +before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it +impossible to postpone the decision; in Clarendon’s words, +“it was considered more counsellable to march towards London, +it being morally sure that the earl of Essex would put himself in +their way,” and accordingly the army left Shrewsbury on the +12th of October, gaining two days’ start of the enemy, and +moved south-east via Bridgnorth, Birmingham and Kenilworth. +This had the desired effect. Parliament, alarmed for its own +safety, sent repeated orders to Essex to find the king and bring +him to battle. Alarm gave place to determination when it was +discovered that Charles was enlisting papists and seeking foreign +aid. The militia of the home counties was called out, a second +army under the earl of Warwick was formed round the nucleus +of the London trained bands, and Essex, straining every nerve +to regain touch with the enemy, reached Kineton, where he was +only 7 m. from the king’s headquarters at Edgecote, on the 22nd.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Battle of Edgehill.</i>—Rupert promptly reported the enemy’s +presence, and his confidence dominated the irresolution of the +king and the caution of Lord Lindsey, the nominal commander-in-chief. +Both sides had marched widely dispersed in order to +live, and the rapidity with which, having the clearer purpose, +the Royalists drew together helped considerably to neutralize +Essex’s superior numbers. During the morning of the 23rd the +Royalists formed in battle order on the brow of Edgehill facing +towards Kineton. Essex, experienced soldier as he was, had +distrusted his own raw army too much to force a decision +earlier in the month, when the king was weak; he now found +Charles in a strong position with an equal force to his own +14,000, and some of his regiments were still some miles distant. +But he advanced beyond Kineton, and the enemy promptly +left their strong position and came down to the foot of the +hill, for, situated as they were, they had either to fight wherever +they could induce the enemy to engage, or to starve in the +midst of hostile garrisons. Rupert was on the right of the +king’s army with the greater part of the horse, Lord Lindsey +and Sir Jacob Astley in the centre with the foot, Lord Wilmot +(with whom rode the earl of Forth, the principal military adviser +of the king) with a smaller body of cavalry on the left. In rear +of the centre were the king and a small reserve. Essex’s order +was similar. Rupert charged as soon as his wing was deployed, +and before the infantry of either side was ready. Taking ground +to his right front and then wheeling inwards at full speed he +instantly rode down the Parliamentary horse opposed to him. +Some infantry regiments of Essex’s left centre shared the same +fate as their cavalry. On the other wing Forth and Wilmot +likewise swept away all that they could see of the enemy’s +cavalry, and the undisciplined Royalists of both wings pursued +the fugitives in wild disorder up to Kineton, where they were +severely handled by John Hampden’s infantry brigade (which was +escorting the artillery and baggage of Essex’s army). Rupert +brought back only a few rallied squadrons to the battlefield, +and in the meantime affairs there had gone badly for the king. +The right and centre of the Parliamentary foot (the left having +been brought to a halt by Rupert’s charge) advanced with great +resolution, and being at least as ardent as, and much better armed +than, Lindsey’s men, engaged them fiercely and slowly gained +ground. Only the best regiments on either side, however, +maintained their order, and the decision of the infantry battle +was achieved mainly by a few Parliamentary squadrons. One +regiment of Essex’s right wing only had been the target of Wilmot’s +charge, the other two had been at the moment invisible, and, as +every Royalist troop on the ground, even the king’s guards, +had joined in the mad ride to Kineton, these, Essex’s life-guard, +and some troops that had rallied from the effect of Rupert’s +charge—amongst them Captain Oliver Cromwell’s—were the +only cavalry still present. All these joined with decisive effect +in the attack on the left of the royal infantry. The king’s line +was steadily rolled up from left to right, the Parliamentary +troopers captured his guns and regiment after <span class="correction" title="added the">the</span> regiment broke up. +Charles himself stood calmly in the thick of the fight, but he had +not the skill to direct it. The royal standard was taken and +retaken, Lindsey and Sir Edmund Verney, the standard-bearer, +being killed. By the time that Rupert returned both sides were +incapable of further effort and disillusioned as to the prospect +of ending the war at a blow.</p> + +<p>On the 24th Essex retired, leaving Charles to claim the victory +and to reap its results. Banbury and Oxford were reoccupied +by the Royalists, and by the 28th Charles was marching down +the Thames valley on London. Negotiations were reopened, +and a peace party rapidly formed itself in London and Westminster. +Yet field fortifications sprang up around London, +and when Rupert stormed and sacked Brentford on the 12th +of November the trained bands moved out at once and took up +a position at Turnham Green, barring the king’s advance. +Hampden, with something of the fire and energy of his cousin +Cromwell, urged Essex to turn both flanks of the Royal army +via Acton and Kingston, but experienced professional soldiers +urged him not to trust the London men to hold their ground +while the rest manœuvred. Hampden’s advice was undoubtedly +premature. A Sedan or Worcester was not within the power +of the Parliamentarians of 1642, for, in Napoleon’s words, “one +only manœuvres around a fixed point,” and the city levies at +that time were certainly not, <i>vis-à-vis</i> Rupert’s cavalry, a fixed +point. As a matter of fact, after a slight cannonade at Turnham +Green on the 13th, Essex’s two-to-one numerical superiority of +itself compelled the king to retire to Reading. Turnham Green +has justly been called the Valmy of the English Civil War. Like +Valmy, without being a battle, it was a victory, and the tide of +invasion came thus far, ebbed, and never returned.</p> + +<p>5. <i>The Winter of 1642-43.</i>—In the winter, while Essex lay +inactive at Windsor, Charles by degrees consolidated his position +in the region of Oxford. The city was fortified as a reduit for +the whole area, and Reading, Wallingford, Abingdon, Brill, +Banbury and Marlborough constituted a complete defensive +ring which was developed by the creation of smaller posts from +time to time. In the north and west, winter campaigns were +actively carried on. “It is summer in Yorkshire, summer in +Devon, and cold winter at Windsor,” said one of Essex’s critics. +At the beginning of December Newcastle crossed the Tees, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span> +defeated Hotham, the Parliamentary commander in the North +Riding, then joining hands with the hard-pressed Royalists at +York, established himself between that city and Pontefract. +Lord Fairfax and his son Sir Thomas, who commanded for the +Parliament in Yorkshire, had to retire to the district between +Hull and Selby, and Newcastle was free to turn his attention +to the Puritan “clothing towns” of the West Riding—Leeds, +Halifax and Bradford. The townsmen, however, showed a +determined front, the younger Fairfax with a picked body of +cavalry rode through Newcastle’s lines into the West Riding +to help them, and about the end of January 1643 the earl gave +up the attempt to reduce the towns. He continued his march +southward, however, and gained ground for the king as far as +Newark, so as to be in touch with the Royalists of Nottinghamshire, +Derbyshire and Leicestershire (who, especially about +Newark and Ashby-de-la-Zouch, were strong enough to neutralize +the local forces of the Parliament), and to prepare the way for +the further advance of the army of the north when the queen’s +convoy should arrive from over-seas.</p> + +<p>In the west Sir Ralph Hopton and his friends, having obtained +a true bill from the grand jury against the Parliamentary disturbers +of the peace, placed themselves at the head of the county +militia and drove the rebels from Cornwall, after which they +raised a small force for general service and invaded Devonshire +(November 1642). Subsequently a Parliamentary army under +the earl of Stamford was withdrawn from south Wales to engage +Hopton, who had to retire into Cornwall. There, however, +the Royalist general was free to employ the militia again, and +thus reinforced he won a victory over a part of Stamford’s forces +at Bradock Down near Liskeard (January 19, 1643) and resumed +the offensive. About the same time Hertford, no longer opposed +by Stamford, brought over the South Wales Royalists to Oxford, +and the fortified area around that place was widened by the +capture of Cirencester on the 2nd of February. Gloucester and +Bristol were now the only important garrisons of the Roundheads +in the west. In the midlands, in spite of a Parliamentary +victory won by Sir William Brereton at Nantwich on the 28th of +January, the Royalists of Shropshire, Staffordshire and Leicestershire +soon extended their influence through Ashby-de-la-Zouch +into Nottinghamshire and joined hands with their friends at +Newark. Further, around Chester a new Royalist army was +being formed under Lord Byron, and all the efforts of Brereton +and of Sir John Gell, the leading supporter of the Parliament in +Derbyshire, were required to hold their own, even before Newcastle’s +army was added to the list of their enemies. Lord +Brooke, who commanded for the Parliament in Warwickshire +and Staffordshire and was looked on by many as Essex’s eventual +successor, was killed in besieging Lichfield cathedral on the +2nd of March, and, though the cathedral soon capitulated, Gell +and Brereton were severely handled in the indecisive battle of +Hopton Heath near Stafford on the 19th of March, and Prince +Rupert, after an abortive raid on Bristol (March 7), marched +rapidly northward, storming Birmingham en route, and recaptured +Lichfield cathedral. He was, however, soon recalled +to Oxford to take part in the main campaign. The position of +affairs for the Parliament was perhaps at its worst in January. +The Royalist successes of November and December, the ever-present +dread of foreign intervention, and the burden of new +taxation which the Parliament now found itself compelled to +impose, disheartened its supporters. Disorders broke out in +London, and, while the more determined of the rebels began +thus early to think of calling in the military assistance of the +Scots, the majority were for peace on any conditions. But soon +the position improved somewhat; Stamford in the west and +Brereton and Gell in the midlands, though hard pressed, were +at any rate in arms and undefeated, Newcastle had failed to +conquer the West Riding, and Sir William Waller, who had +cleared Hampshire and Wiltshire of “malignants,” entered +Gloucestershire early in March, destroyed a small Royalist +force at Highnam (March 24), and secured Bristol and Gloucester +for the Parliament. Finally, some of Charles’s own intrigues +opportunely coming to light, the waverers, seeing the impossibility +of plain dealing with the court, rallied again to the party +of resistance, and the series of negotiations called by the name +of the Treaty of Oxford closed in April with no more result than +those which had preceded Edgehill and Turnham Green. About +this time too, following and improving upon the example of +Newcastle in the north, Parliament ordered the formation of +the celebrated “associations” or groups of counties banded +together by mutual consent for defence. The most powerful +and best organized of these was that of the eastern counties +(headquarters Cambridge), where the danger of attack from the +north was near enough to induce great energy in the preparations +for meeting it, and at the same time too distant effectively to +interfere with these preparations. Above all, the Eastern +Association was from the first guided and inspired by Colonel +Cromwell.</p> + +<p>6. <i>The Plan of Campaign, 1643.</i>—The king’s plan of operations +for the next campaign, which was perhaps inspired from abroad, +was more elaborate than the simple “point” of 1642. The +king’s army, based on the fortified area around Oxford, was +counted sufficient to use up Essex’s forces. On either hand, +therefore, in Yorkshire and in the west, the Royalist armies +were to fight their way inwards towards London, after which +all three armies, converging on that place in due season, were +to cut off its supplies and its sea-borne revenue and to starve +the rebellion into surrender. The condition of this threefold +advance was of course that the enemy should not be able to +defeat the armies in detail, <i>i.e.</i> that he should be fixed and held +in the Thames valley; this secured, there was no purely military +objection against operating in separate armies from the circumference +towards the centre. It was on the rock of local +feeling that the king’s plan came to grief. Even after the arrival +of the queen and her convoy, Newcastle had to allow her to +proceed with a small force, and to remain behind with the main +body, because of Lancashire and the West Riding, and above +all because the port of Hull, in the hands of the Fairfaxes, +constituted a menace that the Royalists of the East Riding +refused to ignore. Hopton’s advance too, undertaken without +the Cornish levies, was checked in the action of Sourton Down +(Dartmoor) on the 25th of April, and on the same day Waller +captured Hereford. Essex had already left Windsor to undertake +the siege of Reading, the most important point in the circle +of fortresses round Oxford, which after a vain attempt at relief +surrendered to him on the 26th of April. Thus the opening +operations were unfavourable, not indeed so far as to require +the scheme to be abandoned, but at least delaying the development +until the campaigning season was far advanced.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Victories of Hopton.</i>—But affairs improved in May. The +queen’s long-expected convoy arrived at Woodstock on the 13th. +The earl of Stamford’s army, which had again entered Cornwall, +was attacked in its selected position at Stratton and practically +annihilated by Hopton (May 16). This brilliant victory was +due above all to Sir Bevil Grenville and the lithe Cornishmen, +who, though but 2400 against 5400 and destitute of artillery, +stormed “Stamford Hill,” killed 300 of the enemy, and captured +1700 more with all their guns, colours and baggage. Devon +was at once overrun by the victors. Essex’s army, for want of +material resources, had had to be content with the capture of +Reading, and a Royalist force under Hertford and Prince +Maurice (Rupert’s brother) moved out as far as Salisbury to +hold out a hand to their friends in Devonshire, while Waller, +the only Parliamentary commander left in the field in the west, +had to abandon his conquests in the Severn valley to oppose +the further progress of his intimate friend and present enemy, +Hopton. Early in June Hertford and Hopton united at Chard +and rapidly moved, with some cavalry skirmishing, towards Bath, +where Waller’s army lay. Avoiding the barrier of the Mendips, +they moved round via Frome to the Avon. But Waller, thus +cut off from London and threatened with investment, acted +with great skill, and some days of manœuvres and skirmishing +followed, after which Hertford and Hopton found themselves +on the north side of Bath facing Waller’s entrenched position +on the top of Lansdown Hill. This position the Royalists +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span> +stormed on the 5th of July. The battle of Lansdown was a +second Stratton for the Cornishmen, but this time the enemy +was of different quality and far differently led, and they had to +mourn the loss of Sir Bevil Grenville and the greater part of +their whole force. At dusk both sides stood on the flat summit +of the hill, still firing into one another with such energy as was +not yet expended, and in the night Waller drew off his men into +Bath. “We were glad they were gone,” wrote a Royalist +officer, “for if they had not, I know who had within the hour.” +Next day Hopton was severely injured by the explosion of a wagon +containing the reserve ammunition, and the Royalists, finding +their victory profitless, moved eastward to Devizes, closely +followed by the enemy. On the 10th of July Sir William Waller +took post on Roundway Down, overlooking Devizes, and captured +a Royalist ammunition column from Oxford. On the 11th +he came down and invested Hopton’s foot in Devizes itself, +while the Royalist cavalry, Hertford and Maurice with them, +rode away towards Salisbury. But although the siege was pressed +with such vigour that an assault was fixed for the evening of the +13th, the Cornishmen, Hopton directing the defence from his +bed, held out stubbornly, and on the afternoon of July 13th +Prince Maurice’s horsemen appeared on Roundway Down, +having ridden to Oxford, picked up reinforcements there, and +returned at full speed to save their comrades. Waller’s army +tried its best, but some of its elements were of doubtful quality +and the ground was all in Maurice’s favour. The battle did not +last long. The combined attack of the Oxford force from +Roundway and of Hopton’s men from the town practically +annihilated Waller’s army. Very soon afterwards Rupert came +up with fresh Royalist forces, and the combined armies moved +westward. Bristol, the second port of the kingdom, was their +objective, and in four days from the opening of the siege it was +in their hands (July 26), Waller with the beaten remnant of his +army at Bath being powerless to intervene. The effect of this +blow was felt even in Dorsetshire. Within three weeks of the +surrender Prince Maurice with a body of fast-moving cavalry +overran that county almost unopposed.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Adwalton Moor.</i>—Newcastle meanwhile had resumed operations +against the clothing towns, this time with success. The +Fairfaxes had been fighting in the West Riding since January +with such troops from the Hull region as they had been able to +bring across Newcastle’s lines. They and the townsmen together +were too weak for Newcastle’s increasing forces, and an attempt +was made to relieve them by bringing up the Parliament’s +forces in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and the +Eastern Association. But local interests prevailed again, in +spite of Cromwell’s presence, and after assembling at Nottingham, +the midland rebels quietly dispersed to their several +counties (June 2). The Fairfaxes were left to their fate, and +about the same time Hull itself narrowly escaped capture by the +queen’s forces through the treachery of Sir John Hotham, the +governor, and his son, the commander of the Lincolnshire Parliamentarians. +The latter had been placed under arrest at the +instance of Cromwell and of Colonel Hutchinson, the governor +of Nottingham Castle; he escaped to Hull, but both father and +son were seized by the citizens and afterwards executed. More +serious than an isolated act of treachery was the far-reaching +Royalist plot that had been detected in Parliament itself, for +complicity in which Lord Conway, Edmund Waller the poet, +and several members of both Houses were arrested. The safety +of Hull was of no avail for the West Riding towns, and the +Fairfaxes underwent a decisive defeat at Adwalton (Atherton) +Moor near Bradford on the 30th of June. After this, by way +of Lincolnshire, they escaped to Hull and reorganized the +defence of that place. The West Riding perforce submitted.</p> + +<p>The queen herself with a second convoy and a small army +under Henry (Lord) Jermyn soon moved via Newark, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, +Lichfield and other Royalist garrisons to Oxford, +where she joined her husband on the 14th of July. But Newcastle +(now a marquis) was not yet ready for his part in the +programme. The Yorkshire troops would not march on London +while the enemy was master of Hull, and by this time there was +a solid barrier between the royal army of the north and the +capital. Roundway Down and Adwalton Moor were not after +all destined to be fatal, though peace riots in London, dissensions +in the Houses, and quarrels amongst the generals were their +immediate consequences. A new factor had arisen in the war—the +Eastern Association.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Cromwell and the Eastern Association.</i>—This had already +intervened to help in the siege of Reading and had sent troops +to the abortive gathering at Nottingham, besides clearing its +own ground of “malignants.” From the first Cromwell was the +dominant influence. Fresh from Edgehill, he had told Hampden, +“You must get men of a spirit that is likely to go as far as +gentlemen will go,” not “old decayed serving-men, tapsters +and such kind of fellows to encounter gentlemen that have +honour and courage and resolution in them,” and in January +1643 he had gone to his own county to “raise such men as had +the fear of God before them and made some conscience of what +they did.” These men, once found, were willing, for the cause, +to submit to a rigorous training and an iron discipline such as +other troops, fighting for honour only or for profit only, could +not be brought to endure.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The result was soon apparent. +As early as the 13th of May, Cromwell’s regiment of horse—recruited +from the horse-loving yeomen of the eastern counties—demonstrated +its superiority in the field in a skirmish near +Grantham, and in the irregular fighting in Lincolnshire during +June and July (which was on the whole unfavourable to the +Parliament), as previously in pacifying the Eastern Association +itself, these Puritan troopers distinguished themselves by long +and rapid marches that may bear comparison with almost any +in the history of the mounted arm. When Cromwell’s second +opportunity came at Gainsborough on the 28th of July, the +“Lincolneer” horse who were under his orders were fired by +the example of Cromwell’s own regiment, and Cromwell, directing +the whole with skill, and above all with energy, utterly routed +the Royalist horse and killed their general, Charles Cavendish.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the army of Essex had been inactive. After +the fall of Reading a serious epidemic of sickness had reduced +it to impotence. On the 18th of June the Parliamentary +cavalry was routed and John Hampden mortally wounded at +Chalgrove Field near Chiselhampton, and when at last Essex, +having obtained the desired reinforcements, moved against +Oxford from the Aylesbury side, he found his men demoralized +by inaction, and before the menace of Rupert’s cavalry, to which +he had nothing to oppose, he withdrew to Bedfordshire (July). +He made no attempt to intercept the march of the queen’s +convoys, he had permitted the Oxford army, which he should +have held fast, to intervene effectually in the midlands, the west, +and the south-west, and Waller might well complain that Essex, +who still held Reading and the Chilterns, had given him neither +active nor passive support in the critical days preceding Roundway +Down. Still only a few voices were raised to demand his +removal, and he was shortly to have an opportunity of proving +his skill and devotion in a great campaign and a great battle. +The centre and the right of the three Royalist armies had for a +moment (Roundway to Bristol) united to crush Waller, but +their concentration was short-lived. Plymouth was to Hopton’s +men what Hull was to Newcastle’s—they would not march on +London until the menace to their homes was removed. Further, +there were dissensions among the generals which Charles was too +weak to crush, and consequently the original plan reappears—the +main Royalist army to operate in the centre, Hopton’s (now +Maurice’s) on the right, Newcastle on the left towards London. +While waiting for the fall of Hull and Plymouth, Charles naturally +decided to make the best use of his time by reducing Gloucester, +the one great fortress of the Parliament in the west.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Siege and Relief of Gloucester.</i>—This decision quickly +brought on a crisis. While the earl of Manchester (with Cromwell +as his lieutenant-general) was appointed to head the forces of +the Eastern Association against Newcastle, and Waller was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span> +given a new army wherewith again to engage Hopton and +Maurice, the task of saving Gloucester from the king’s army fell +to Essex, who was heavily reinforced and drew his army together +for action in the last days of August. Resort was had to the +press-gang to fill the ranks, recruiting for Waller’s new army +was stopped, and London sent six regiments of trained bands +to the front, closing the shops so that every man should be free +to take his part in what was thought to be the supreme trial +of strength.</p> + +<p>On the 26th, all being ready, Essex started. Through Aylesbury +and round the north side of Oxford to Stow-on-the-Wold +the army moved resolutely, not deterred by want of food and +rest, or by the attacks of Rupert’s and Wilmot’s horse on its +flank. On the 5th of September, just as Gloucester was at +the end of its resources, the siege was suddenly raised and the +Royalists drew off to Painswick, for Essex had reached Cheltenham +and the danger was over. Then, the field armies being +again face to face and free to move, there followed a series of +skilful manœuvres in the Severn and Avon valleys, at the end +of which the Parliamentary army gained a long start on its +homeward road via Cricklade, Hungerford and Reading. But +the Royalist cavalry under Rupert, followed rapidly by Charles +and the main body from Evesham, strained every nerve to +head off Essex at Newbury, and after a sharp skirmish on +Aldbourne Chase on the 18th of September succeeded in doing +so. On the 19th the whole Royal army was drawn up, facing +west, with its right on Newbury and its left on Enborne Heath. +Essex’s men knew that evening that they would have to break +through by force—there was no suggestion of surrender.</p> + +<p>11. <i>First Battle of Newbury, September 20, 1643.</i>—The ground +was densely intersected by hedges except in front of the Royalists’ +left centre (Newbury Wash) and left (Enborne Heath), and, +practically, Essex’s army was never formed in line of battle, +for each unit was thrown into the fight as it came up its own +road or lane. On the left wing, in spite of the Royalist counter-strokes, +the attack had the best of it, capturing field after field, +and thus gradually gaining ground to the front. Here Lord +Falkland was killed. On the Reading road itself Essex did not +succeed in deploying on to the open ground on Newbury Wash, +but victoriously repelled the royal horse when it charged up to +the lanes and hedges held by his foot. On the extreme right +of the Parliamentary army, which stood in the open ground of +Enborne Heath, took place a famous incident. Here two of the +London regiments, fresh to war as they were, were exposed to a +trial as severe as that which broke down the veteran Spanish +infantry at Rocroi in this same year. Rupert and the Royalist +horse again and again charged up to the squares of pikes, and +between each charge his guns tried to disorder the Londoners, but +it was not until the advance of the royal infantry that the trained +bands retired, slowly and in magnificent order, to the edge of the +heath. The result of it all was that Essex’s army had fought +its hardest and failed to break the opposing line. But the +Royalists had suffered so heavily, and above all the valour +displayed by the rebels had so profoundly impressed them, that +they were glad to give up the disputed road and withdraw into +Newbury. Essex thereupon pursued his march, Reading was +reached on the 22nd after a small rearguard skirmish at Aldermaston, +and so ended one of the most dramatic episodes of +English history.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Hull and Winceby.</i>—Meanwhile the siege of Hull had +commenced. The Eastern Association forces under Manchester +promptly moved up into Lincolnshire, the foot besieging Lynn +(which surrendered on the 16th of September) while the horse +rode into the northern part of the county to give a hand to the +Fairfaxes. Fortunately the sea communications of Hull were +open. On the 18th of September part of the cavalry in Hull +was ferried over to Barton, and the rest under Sir Thomas +Fairfax went by sea to Saltfleet a few days later, the whole +joining Cromwell near Spilsby. In return the old Lord Fairfax, +who remained in Hull, received infantry reinforcements and +a quantity of ammunition and stores from the Eastern Association. +On the 11th of October Cromwell and Fairfax together +won a brilliant cavalry action at Winceby, driving the Royalist +horse in confusion before them to Newark, and on the same day +Newcastle’s army around Hull, which had suffered terribly +from the hardships of continuous siege work, was attacked +by the garrison and so severely handled that next day the +siege was given up. Later, Manchester retook Lincoln and +Gainsborough, and thus Lincolnshire, which had been almost +entirely in Newcastle’s hands before he was compelled to undertake +the siege of Hull, was added in fact as well as in name to the +Eastern Association.</p> + +<p>Elsewhere, in the reaction after the crisis of Newbury, the +war languished. The city regiments went home, leaving Essex +too weak to hold Reading, which the Royalists reoccupied on the +3rd of October. At this the Londoners offered to serve again, +and actually took part in a minor campaign around Newport +Pagnell, which town Rupert attempted to fortify as a menace +to the Eastern Association and its communications with London. +Essex was successful in preventing this, but his London regiments +again went home, and Sir William Waller’s new army in +Hampshire failed lamentably in an attempt on Basing House +(November 7), the London trained bands deserting <i>en bloc</i>. +Shortly afterwards Arundel surrendered to a force under Sir +Ralph, now Lord Hopton (December 9).</p> + +<p>13. <i>The “Irish Cessation” and the Solemn League and +Covenant.</i>—Politically, these months were the turning-point of +the war. In Ireland, the king’s lieutenant, by order of his +master, made a truce with the Irish rebels (Sept. 15). Charles’s +chief object was to set free his army to fight in England, but it +was believed universally that Irish regiments—in plain words, +papists in arms—would shortly follow. Under these circumstances +his act united against him nearly every class in +Protestant England, above all brought into the English quarrel +the armed strength of Presbyterian Scotland. Yet Charles, +still trusting to intrigue and diplomacy to keep Scotland in +check, deliberately rejected the advice of Montrose, his greatest +and most faithful lieutenant, who wished to give the Scots +employment for their army at home. Only ten days after the +“Irish cessation,” the Parliament at Westminster swore to the +Solemn League and Covenant, and the die was cast. It is true +that even a semblance of Presbyterian theocracy put the +“Independents” on their guard and definitely raised the question +of freedom of conscience, and that secret negotiations were +opened between the Independents and Charles on that basis, +but they soon discovered that the king was merely using them +as instruments to bring about the betrayal of Aylesbury and +other small rebel posts. All parties found it convenient to interpret +the Covenant liberally for the present, and at the beginning +of 1644 the Parliamentary party showed so united a front that +even Pym’s death (December 8, 1643) hardly affected its resolution +to continue the struggle.</p> + +<p>The troops from Ireland, thus obtained at the cost of an +enormous political blunder, proved to be untrustworthy after all. +Those serving in Hopton’s army were “mutinous and shrewdly +infected with the rebellious humour of England.” When Waller’s +Londoners surprised<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and routed a Royalist detachment at +Alton (December 13, 1643), half the prisoners took the Covenant. +Hopton had to retire, and on the 6th of January 1644 Waller +recaptured Arundel. Byron’s Cheshire army was in no better +case. Newcastle’s retreat from Hull and the loss of Gainsborough +had completely changed the situation in the midlands, Brereton +was joined by the younger Fairfax from Lincolnshire, and the +Royalists were severely defeated for a second time at Nantwich +(January 25). As at Alton, the majority of the prisoners +(amongst them Colonel George Monk) took the Covenant and +entered the Parliamentary army. In Lancashire, as in Cheshire, +Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire, the cause of +the Parliament was in the ascendant. Resistance revived in the +West Riding towns, Lord Fairfax was again in the field in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span> +East Riding, and even Newark was closely besieged by Sir +John Meldrum. More important news came in from the north. +The advanced guard of the Scottish army had passed the Tweed +on the 19th of January, and the marquis of Newcastle with the +remnant of his army would soon be attacked in front and rear +at once.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Newark and Cheriton</i> (<i>March 1644</i>).—As in 1643, Rupert +was soon on his way to the north to retrieve the fortunes of his +side. Moving by the Welsh border, and gathering up garrisons +and recruits snowball-wise as he marched, he went first to +Cheshire to give a hand to Byron, and then, with the utmost +speed, he made for Newark. On the 20th of March 1644 he +bivouacked at Bingham, and on the 21st he not only relieved +Newark but routed the besiegers’ cavalry. On the 22nd +Meldrum’s position was so hopeless that he capitulated on terms. +But, brilliant soldier as he was, the prince was unable to do more +than raid a few Parliamentary posts around Lincoln, after +which he had to return his borrowed forces to their various +garrisons and go back to Wales—laden indeed with captured +pikes and muskets—to raise a permanent field army. But +Rupert could not be in all places at once. Newcastle was +clamorous for aid. In Lancashire, only the countess of Derby, +in Lathom House, held out for the king, and her husband +pressed Rupert to go to her relief. Once, too, the prince was +ordered back to Oxford to furnish a travelling escort for the +queen, who shortly after this gave birth to her youngest child +and returned to France. The order was countermanded within +a few hours, it is true, but Charles had good reason for avoiding +detachments from his own army. On the 29th of March, Hopton +had undergone a severe defeat at Cheriton near New Alresford. +In the preliminary manœuvres and in the opening stages of the +battle the advantage lay with the Royalists, and the earl of +Forth, who was present, was satisfied with what had been achieved +and tried to break off the action. But Royalist indiscipline +ruined everything. A young cavalry colonel charged in defiance +of orders, a fresh engagement opened, and at the last moment +Waller snatched a victory out of defeat. Worse than this was +the news from Yorkshire and Scotland. Charles had at last +assented to Montrose’s plan and promised him the title of +marquis, but the first attempt to raise the Royalist standard in +Scotland gave no omen of its later triumphs. In Yorkshire +Sir Thomas Fairfax, advancing from Lancashire through the +West Riding, joined his father. Selby was stormed on the 11th +of April, and thereupon Newcastle, who had been manœuvring +against the Scots in Durham, hastily drew back, sent his cavalry +away, and shut himself up with his foot in York. Two days +later the Scottish general, Alexander Leslie, Lord Leven, joined +the Fairfaxes and prepared to invest that city.</p> + +<p>15. <i>Plans of Campaign for 1644.</i>—The original plan of the +Parliamentary “Committee of Both Kingdoms,” which directed +the military and civil policy of the allies after the fashion of a +modern cabinet, was to combine Essex’s and Manchester’s +armies in an attack upon the king’s army, Aylesbury being +appointed as the place of concentration. Waller’s troops were +to continue to drive back Hopton and to reconquer the west, +Fairfax and the Scots to invest Newcastle’s army, while in the +midlands Brereton and the Lincolnshire rebels could be counted +upon to neutralize, the one Byron, the others the Newark +Royalists. But Waller, once more deserted by his trained bands, +was unable to profit by his victory of Cheriton, and retired to +Farnham. Manchester, too, was delayed because the Eastern +Association was still suffering from the effects of Rupert’s +Newark exploit—Lincoln, abandoned by the rebels on that +occasion, was not reoccupied till the 6th of May. Moreover, +Essex found himself compelled to defend his conduct and +motives to the Committee of Both Kingdoms, and as usual was +straitened for men and money. But though there were grave +elements of weakness on the other side, the Royalists considered +their own position to be hopeless. Prince Maurice was engaged +in the fruitless siege of Lyme Regis, Gloucester was again a +centre of activity and counterbalanced Newark, and the situation +in the north was practically desperate. Rupert himself came +to Oxford (April 25) to urge that his new army should be kept +free to march to aid Newcastle, who was now threatened—owing +to the abandonment of the enemy’s original plan—by Manchester +as well as Fairfax and Leven. There was no further talk of the +concentric advance of three armies on London. The fiery +prince and the methodical earl of Brentford (Forth) were at +one at least in recommending that the Oxford area with its +own garrison and a mobile force in addition should be the pivot +of the field armies’ operations. Rupert, needing above all adequate +time for the development of the northern offensive, was not +in favour of abandoning any of the barriers to Essex’s advance. +Brentford, on the other hand, thought it advisable to contract +the lines of defence, and Charles, as usual undecided, agreed +to Rupert’s scheme and executed Brentford’s. Reading, therefore, +was dismantled early in May, and Abingdon given up shortly +afterwards.</p> + +<p>16. <i>Cropredy Bridge.</i>—It was now possible for the enemy to +approach Oxford, and Abingdon was no sooner evacuated than +(May 26) Waller’s and Essex’s armies united there—still, unfortunately +for their cause, under separate commanders. From +Abingdon Essex moved direct on Oxford, Waller towards +Wantage, where he could give a hand to Massey, the energetic +governor of Gloucester. Affairs seemed so bad in the west +(Maurice with a whole army was still vainly besieging the single +line of low breastworks that constituted the fortress of Lyme) +that the king despatched Hopton to take charge of Bristol. +Nor were things much better at Oxford; the barriers of time +and space and the supply area had been deliberately given up +to the enemy, and Charles was practically forced to undertake +extensive field operations with no hope of success save in consequence +of the enemy’s mistakes. The enemy, as it happened, +did not disappoint him. The king, probably advised by Brentford, +conducted a skilful war of manœuvre in the area defined +by Stourbridge, Gloucester, Abingdon and Northampton, at the +end of which Essex, leaving Waller to the secondary work, as he +conceived it, of keeping the king away from Oxford and reducing +that fortress, marched off into the west with most of the general +service troops to repeat at Lyme Regis his Gloucester exploit +of 1643. At one moment, indeed, Charles (then in Bewdley) +rose to the idea of marching north to join Rupert and Newcastle, +but he soon made up his mind to return to Oxford. From +Bewdley, therefore, he moved to Buckingham—the distant +threat on London producing another evanescent citizen army +drawn from six counties under Major-General Browne—and +Waller followed him closely. When the king turned upon +Browne’s motley host, Waller appeared in time to avert disaster, +and the two armies worked away to the upper Cherwell. Brentford +and Waller were excellent strategists of the 17th century +type, and neither would fight a pitched battle without every +chance in his favour. Eventually on the 29th of June the +Royalists were successful in a series of minor fights about +Cropredy Bridge, and the result was, in accordance with continental +custom, admitted to be an important victory, though +Waller’s main army drew off unharmed. In the meantime, +Essex had relieved Lyme (June 15) and occupied Weymouth, +and was preparing to go farther. The two rebel armies were +now indeed separate. Waller had been left to do as best he could, +and a worse fate was soon to overtake the cautious earl.</p> + +<p>17. <i>Campaign of Marston Moor.</i>—During these manœuvres +the northern campaign had been fought to an issue. Rupert’s +courage and energy were more likely to command success in the +English Civil War than all the conscientious caution of an Essex +or a Brentford. On the 16th of May he left Shrewsbury to fight +his way through hostile country to Lancashire, where he hoped +to re-establish the Derby influence and raise new forces. Stockport +was plundered on the 25th, the besiegers of Lathom House +utterly defeated at Bolton on the 28th. Soon afterwards he +received a large reinforcement under General Goring, which +included 5000 of Newcastle’s cavalry. The capture of the +almost defenceless town of Liverpool—undertaken as usual to +allay local fears—did not delay Rupert more than three or four +days, and he then turned towards the Yorkshire border with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span> +greatly augmented forces. On the 14th of June he received a +despatch from the king, the gist of which was that there was a +time-limit imposed on the northern enterprise. If York were lost +or did not need his help, Rupert was to make all haste southward +via Worcester. “If York be relieved and you beat the rebels’ +armies of both kingdoms, then, but otherways not, I may possibly +make a shift upon the defensive to spin out time until you come +to assist me.”</p> + +<p>Charles did manage to “spin out time.” But it was of capital +importance that Rupert had to do his work upon York and +the allied army in the shortest possible time, and that, according +to the despatch, there were only two ways of saving the royal +cause, “having relieved York by beating the Scots,” or marching +with all speed to Worcester. Rupert’s duty, interpreted through +the medium of his temperament, was clear enough. Newcastle +still held out, his men having been encouraged by a small success +on the 17th of June, and Rupert reached Knaresborough on +the 30th. At once Leven, Fairfax and Manchester broke up +the siege of York and moved out to meet him. But the prince, +moving still at high speed, rode round their right flank via +Boroughbridge and Thornton Bridge and entered York on the +north side. Newcastle tried to dissuade Rupert from fighting, +but his record as a general was scarcely convincing as to the +value of his advice. Rupert curtly replied that he had orders to +fight, and the Royalists moved out towards Marston Moor +(<i>q.v.</i>) on the morning of July 2, 1644. The Parliamentary +commanders, fearing a fresh manœuvre, had already begun to +retire towards Tadcaster, but as soon as it became evident that +a battle was impending they turned back. The battle of Marston +Moor began about four in the afternoon. It was the first real +trial of strength between the best elements on either side, and it +ended before night with the complete victory of the Parliamentary +armies. The Royalist cause in the north collapsed once for all, +Newcastle fled to the continent, and only Rupert, resolute as +ever, extricated 6000 cavalry from the <i>débâcle</i> and rode away +whence he had come, still the dominant figure of the war.</p> + +<p>18. <i>Independency.</i>—The victory gave the Parliament entire +control of the north, but it did not lead to the definitive solution +of the political problem, and in fact, on the question of Charles’s +place in a new Constitution, the victorious generals quarrelled even +before York had surrendered. Within three weeks of the battle +the great army was broken up. The Yorkshire troops proceeded +to conquer the isolated Royalist posts in their county, the Scots +marched off to besiege Newcastle-on-Tyne and to hold in check +a nascent Royalist army in Westmorland. Rupert in Lancashire +they neglected entirely. Manchester and Cromwell, already +estranged, marched away into the Eastern Association. There, +for want of an enemy to fight, their army was forced to be idle, +and Cromwell and the ever-growing Independent element +quickly came to suspect their commander of lukewarmness in the +cause. Waller’s army, too, was spiritless and immobile. On +the 2nd of July, despairing of the existing military system, he +made to the Committee of Both Kingdoms the first suggestion +of the New Model,—“My lords,” he wrote, “till you have an +army merely your own, that you may command, it is ... impossible +to do anything of importance.” Browne’s trained +band army was perhaps the most ill-behaved of all—once the +soldiers attempted to murder their own general. Parliament in +alarm set about the formation of a new general service force +(July 12), but meantime both Waller’s and Browne’s armies +(at Abingdon and Reading respectively) ignominiously collapsed +by mutiny and desertion. It was evident that the people at +large, with their respect for the law and their anxiety for their +own homes, were tired of the war. Only those men—such as +Cromwell—who has set their hearts on fighting out the quarrel +of conscience, kept steadfastly to their purpose. Cromwell +himself had already decided that the king himself must be +deprived of his authority, and his supporters were equally convinced. +But they were relatively few. Even the Eastern +Association trained bands had joined in the disaffection in +Waller’s army, and that unfortunate general’s suggestion of a +professional army, with all its dangers, indicated the only means +of enforcing a peace such as Cromwell and his friends desired. +There was this important difference, however, between Waller’s +idea and Cromwell’s achievement—that the professional soldiers +of the New Model were disciplined, led, and in all things inspired +by “godly” officers. Godliness, devotion to the cause, and +efficiency were indeed the only criteria Cromwell applied in +choosing officers. Long before this he had warned the Scottish +major-general Lawrence Crawford that the precise colour of a +man’s religious opinions mattered nothing compared with his +devotion to them, and had told the committee of Suffolk, “I +had rather have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what +he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call +a ‘gentleman’ and is nothing else. I honour a gentleman that +is so indeed ... but seeing it was necessary the work must +go on, better plain men than none.” If “men of honour and +birth” possessed the essentials of godliness, devotion, and +capacity, Cromwell preferred them, and as a fact only seven +out of thirty-seven of the superior officers of the original New +Model were not of gentle birth.</p> + +<p>19. <i>Lostwithiel.</i>—But all this was as yet in the future. Essex’s +military promenade in the west of England was the subject of +immediate interest. At first successful, this general penetrated +to Plymouth, whence, securely based as he thought, he could +overrun Devon. Unfortunately for him he was persuaded to +overrun Cornwall as well. At once the Cornishmen rose, as they +had risen under Hopton, and the king was soon on the march +from the Oxford region, disregarding the armed mobs under +Waller and Browne. Their state reflected the general languishing +of the war spirit on both sides, not on one only, as Charles discovered +when he learned that Lord Wilmot, the lieutenant-general +of his horse, was in correspondence with Essex. Wilmot +was of course placed under arrest, and was replaced by the +dissolute General Goring. But it was unpleasantly evident +that even gay cavaliers of the type of Wilmot had lost the ideals +for which they fought, and had come to believe that the realm +would never be at peace while Charles was king. Henceforward +it will be found that the Royalist foot, now a thoroughly professional +force, is superior in quality to the once superb cavalry, +and that not merely because its opportunities for plunder, &c., +are more limited. Materially, however, the immediate victory +was undeniably with the Royalists. After a brief period of +manœuvre, the Parliamentary army, now far from Plymouth +found itself surrounded and starving at Lostwithiel, on the +Fowey river, without hope of assistance. The horse cut its way +out through the investing circle of posts, Essex himself escaped +by sea, but Major-General Skippon, his second in command, had +to surrender with the whole of the foot on the 2nd of September. +The officers and men were allowed to go free to Portsmouth, +but their arms, guns and munitions were the spoil of the victors. +There was now no trustworthy field force in arms for the Parliament +south of the Humber, for even the Eastern Association +army was distracted by its religious differences, which had now +at last come definitely to the front and absorbed the political +dispute in a wider issue. Cromwell already proposed to abolish +the peerage, the members of which were inclined to make a +hollow peace, and had ceased to pay the least respect to his +general, Manchester, whose scheme for the solution of the quarrel +was an impossible combination of Charles and Presbyterianism. +Manchester for his part sank into a state of mere obstinacy, +refusing to move against Rupert, even to besiege Newark, and +actually threatened to hang Colonel Lilburne for capturing a +Royalist castle without orders.</p> + +<p>20. <i>Operations of Essex’s, Waller’s and Manchester’s Armies.</i>—After +the success of Lostwithiel there was little to detain Charles’s +main army in the extreme west, and meanwhile Banbury, a +most important point in the Oxford circle, and Basing House +(near Basingstoke) were in danger of capture. Waller, who had +organized a small force of reliable troops, had already sent +cavalry into Dorsetshire with the idea of assisting Essex, and +he now came himself with reinforcements to prevent, so far as +lay in his power, the king’s return to the Thames valley. Charles +was accompanied of course only by his permanent forces and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span> +by parts of Prince Maurice’s and Hopton’s armies—the Cornish +levies had as usual scattered as soon as the war receded from +their borders. Manchester slowly advanced to Reading, Essex +gradually reorganized his broken army at Portsmouth, while +Waller, far out to the west at Shaftesbury, endeavored to gain +the necessary time and space for a general concentration in +Wiltshire, where Charles would be far from Oxford and Basing +and, in addition, outnumbered by two to one. But the work of +rearming Essex’s troops proceeded slowly for want of money, +and Manchester peevishly refused to be hurried either by his +more vigorous subordinates or by the Committee of Both +Kingdoms, saying that the army of the Eastern Association +was for the guard of its own employers and not for general +service. He pleaded the renewed activity of the Newark +Royalists as his excuse, forgetting that Newark would have been +in his hands ere this had he chosen to move thither instead of +lying idle for two months. As to the higher command, things +had come to such a pass that, when the three armies at last +united, a council of war, consisting of three army commanders, +several senior officers, and two civilian delegates from the +Committee, was constituted. When the vote of the majority +had determined what was to be done, Essex, as lord general +of the Parliament’s first army, was to issue the necessary orders +for the whole. Under such conditions it was not likely that +Waller’s hopes of a great battle at Shaftesbury would be realized. +On the 8th of October he fell back, the royal army following +him step by step and finally reaching Whitchurch on the 20th +of October. Manchester arrived at Basingstoke on the 17th, +Waller on the 19th, and Essex on the 21st. Charles had found +that he could not relieve Basing (a mile or two from Basingstoke) +without risking a battle with the enemy between himself and +Oxford;<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> he therefore took the Newbury road and relieved +Donnington Castle near Newbury on the 22nd. Three days +later Banbury too was relieved by a force which could now be +spared from the Oxford garrison. But for once the council of +war on the other side was for fighting a battle, and the Parliamentary +armies, their spirits revived by the prospect of action +and by the news of the fall of Newcastle and the defeat of a +sally from Newark, marched briskly. On the 26th they appeared +north of Newbury on the Oxford road. Like Essex in 1643, +Charles found himself headed off from the shelter of friendly +fortresses, but beyond this fact there is little similarity between +the two battles of Newbury, for the Royalists in the first case +merely drew a barrier across Essex’s path. On the present +occasion the eager Parliamentarians made no attempt to force +the king to attack them; they were well content to attack +him in his chosen position themselves, especially as he was better +off for supplies and quarters than they.</p> + +<p>21. <i>Second Newbury.</i>—The second battle of Newbury is +remarkable as being the first great manœuvre-battle (as distinct +from “pitched” battle) of the Civil War. A preliminary +reconnaissance by the Parliamentary leaders (Essex was not +present, owing to illness) established the fact that the king’s +infantry held a strong line of defence behind the Lambourn +brook from Shaw (inclusive) to Donnington (exclusive), Shaw +House and adjacent buildings being held as an advanced +post. In rear of the centre, in open ground just north of +Newbury, lay the bulk of the royal cavalry. In the left rear +of the main line, and separated from it by more than a +thousand yards, lay Prince Maurice’s corps at Speen, advanced +troops on the high ground west of that village, but Donnington +Castle, under its energetic governor Sir John Boys, formed a +strong post covering this gap with artillery fire. The Parliamentary +leaders had no intention of flinging their men away +in a frontal attack on the line of the Lambourn, and a flank +attack from the east side could hardly succeed owing to the +obstacle presented by the confluence of the Lambourn and the +Kennet, hence they decided on a wide turning movement via +Chieveley, Winterbourne and Wickham Heath, against Prince +Maurice’s position—a decision which, daring and energetic +as it was, led only to a modified success, for reasons which will +appear. The flank march, out of range of the castle, was conducted +with punctuality and precision. The troops composing +it were drawn from all three armies and led by the best fighting +generals, Waller, Cromwell, and Essex’s subordinates Balfour +and Skippon. Manchester at Clay Hill was to stand fast until +the turning movement had developed, and to make a vigorous +holding attack on Shaw House as soon as Waller’s guns were +heard at Speen. But there was no commander-in-chief to co-ordinate +the movements of the two widely separated corps, and +consequently no co-operation. Waller’s attack was not unexpected, +and Prince Maurice had made ready to meet him. Yet +the first rush of the rebels carried the entrenchments of Speen +Hill, and Speen itself, though stoutly defended, fell into their +hands within an hour, Essex’s infantry recapturing here some +of the guns they had had to surrender at Lostwithiel. But meantime +Manchester, in spite of the entreaties of his staff, had not +stirred from Clay Hill. He had made one false attack already +early in the morning, and been severely handled, and he was +aware of his own deficiencies as a general. A year before this +he would have asked for and acted upon the advice of a capable +soldier, such as Cromwell or Crawford, but now his mind was +warped by a desire for peace on any terms, and he sought only +to avoid defeat pending a happy solution of the quarrel. Those +who sought to gain peace through victory were meanwhile +driving Maurice back from hedge to hedge towards the open +ground at Newbury, but every attempt to emerge from the lanes +and fields was repulsed by the royal cavalry, and indeed by +every available man and horse, for Charles’s officers had gauged +Manchester’s intentions, and almost stripped the front of its +defenders to stop Waller’s advance. Nightfall put an end to +the struggle around Newbury, and then—too late—Manchester +ordered the attack on Shaw House. It failed completely in spite +of the gallantry of his men, and darkness being then complete +it was not renewed. In its general course the battle closely +resembled that of Freiburg (<i>q.v.</i>), fought the same year on the +Rhine. But, if Waller’s part in the battle corresponded in a +measure to Turenne’s, Manchester was unequal to playing the +part of Condé, and consequently the results, in the case of the +French won by three days’ hard fighting, and even then comparatively +small, were in the case of the English practically nil. +During the night the royal army quietly marched away through +the gap between Waller’s and Manchester’s troops. The heavy +artillery and stores were left in Donnington Castle, Charles himself +with a small escort rode off to the north-west to meet Rupert, +and the main body gained Wallingford unmolested. An attempt +at pursuit was made by Waller and Cromwell with all the cavalry +they could lay hands on, but it was unsupported, for the council +of war had decided to content itself with besieging Donnington +Castle. A little later, after a brief and half-hearted attempt to +move towards Oxford, it referred to the Committee for further +instructions. Within the month Charles, having joined Rupert +at Oxford and made him general of the Royalist forces vice +Brentford, reappeared in the neighbourhood of Newbury. +Donnington Castle was again relieved (November 9) under the +eyes of the Parliamentary army, which was in such a miserable +condition that even Cromwell was against fighting, and some +manœuvres followed, in the course of which Charles relieved +Basing House and the Parliamentary armies fell back, not in +the best order, to Reading. The season for field warfare was +now far spent, and the royal army retired to enjoy good quarters +and plentiful supplies around Oxford.</p> + +<p>22. <i>The Self-denying Ordinance.</i>—On the other side, the +dissensions between the generals had become flagrant and public, +and it was no longer possible for the Houses of Parliament to +ignore the fact that the army must be radically reformed. +Cromwell and Waller from their places in parliament attacked +Manchester’s conduct, and their attack ultimately became, so +far as Cromwell was concerned, an attack on the Lords, most +of whom held the same views as Manchester, and on the Scots, +who attempted to bring Cromwell to trial as an “incendiary.” +At the crisis of their bitter controversy Cromwell suddenly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span> +proposed to stifle all animosities by the resignation of all officers +who were members of either House, a proposal which affected +himself not less than Essex and Manchester. The first “self-denying +ordinance” was moved on the 9th of December, and +provided that “no member of either house shall have or execute +any office or command ...,” &c. This was not accepted by +the Lords, and in the end a second “self-denying ordinance” +was agreed to (April 3, 1645), whereby all the persons concerned +were to resign, but without prejudice to their reappointment. +Simultaneously with this, the formation of the New Model was +at last definitely taken into consideration. The last exploit of +Sir William Waller, who was not re-employed after the passing of +the ordinance, was the relief of Taunton, then besieged by General +Goring’s army. Cromwell served as his lieutenant-general on +this occasion, and we have Waller’s own testimony that he was +in all things a wise, capable and respectful subordinate. Under +a leader of the stamp of Waller, Cromwell was well satisfied to +obey, knowing the cause to be in good hands.</p> + +<p>23. <i>Decline of the Royalist Cause.</i>—A raid of Goring’s horse +from the west into Surrey and an unsuccessful attack on General +Browne at Abingdon were the chief enterprises undertaken on +the side of the Royalists during the early winter. It was no +longer “summer in Devon, summer in Yorkshire” as in January +1643. An ever-growing section of Royalists, amongst whom +Rupert himself was soon to be numbered, were for peace; many +scores of loyalist gentlemen, impoverished by the loss of three +years’ rents of their estates and hopeless of ultimate victory, +were making their way to Westminster to give in their submission +to the Parliament and to pay their fines. In such +circumstances the old decision-seeking strategy was impossible. +The new plan, suggested probably by Rupert, had already been +tried with strategical success in the summer campaign of 1644. +As we have seen, it consisted essentially in using Oxford as the +centre of a circle and striking out radially at any favourable +target—“manœuvring about a fixed point,” as Napoleon called +it. It was significant of the decline of the Royalist cause that +the “fixed point” had been in 1643 the king’s field army, based +indeed on its great entrenched camp, Banbury-Cirencester-Reading-Oxford, +but free to move and to hold the enemy wherever +met, while now it was the entrenched camp itself, weakened +by the loss or abandonment of its outer posts, and without the +power of binding the enemy if they chose to ignore its existence, +that conditioned the scope and duration of the single remaining +field army’s enterprises.</p> + +<p>24. <i>The New Model Ordinance.</i>—For the present, however, +Charles’s cause was crumbling more from internal weakness +than from the blows of the enemy. Fresh negotiations for peace +which opened on the 29th of January at Uxbridge (by the name +of which place they are known to history) occupied the attention +of the Scots and their Presbyterian friends, the rise of Independency +and of Cromwell was a further distraction, and over +the new army and the Self-denying Ordinance the Lords and +Commons were seriously at variance. But in February a fresh +mutiny in Waller’s command struck alarm into the hearts of +the disputants. The “treaty” of Uxbridge came to the same +end as the treaty of Oxford in 1643, and a settlement as to army +reform was achieved on the 15th of February. Though it was +only on the 25th of March that the second and modified form of +the ordinance was agreed to by both Houses, Sir Thomas Fairfax +and Philip Skippon (who were not members of parliament) +had been approved as lord general and major-general (of the +infantry) respectively of the new army as early as the 21st of +January. The post of lieutenant-general and cavalry commander +was for the moment left vacant, but there was little doubt as to +who would eventually occupy it.</p> + +<p>25. <i>Victories of Montrose.</i>—In Scotland, meanwhile, Montrose +was winning victories which amazed the people of the two +kingdoms. Montrose’s royalism differed from that of Englishmen +of the 17th century less than from that of their forefathers +under Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. To him the king was the +protector of his people against Presbyterian theocracy, scarcely +less offensive to him than the Inquisition itself, and the feudal +oppression of the great nobles. Little as this ideal corresponded +to the Charles of reality, it inspired in Montrose not merely +romantic heroism but a force of leadership which was sufficient +to carry to victory the nobles and gentry, the wild Highlanders +and the experienced professional soldiers who at various times +and places constituted his little armies. His first unsuccessful +enterprise has been mentioned above. It seemed, in the early +stages of his second attempt (August 1644), as if failure were again +inevitable, for the gentry of the northern Lowlands were overawed +by the prevailing party and resented the leadership of a +lesser noble, even though he were the king’s lieutenant over all +Scotland. Disappointed of support where he most expected it, +Montrose then turned to the Highlands. At Blair Athol he +gathered his first army of Royalist clansmen, and good fortune +gave him also a nucleus of trained troops. A force of disciplined +experienced soldiers (chiefly Irish Macdonalds and commanded +by Alastair of that name) had been sent over from Ireland +earlier in the year, and, after ravaging the glens of their hereditary +enemies the Campbells, had attempted without success, now +here, now there, to gather the other clans in the king’s name. +Their hand was against every man’s, and when he finally arrived +in Badenoch, Alastair Macdonald was glad to protect himself +by submitting to the authority of the king’s lieutenant.</p> + +<p>There were three hostile armies to be dealt with, besides—ultimately—the +main covenanting army far away in England. +The duke of Argyll, the head of the Campbells, had an army +of his own clan and of Lowland Covenanter levies, Lord Elcho +with another Lowland army lay near Perth, and Lord Balfour +of Burleigh was collecting a third (also composed of Lowlanders) +at Aberdeen. Montrose turned upon Elcho first, and found him +at Tippermuir near Perth on the 1st of September 1644. The +Royalists were about 3000 strong and entirely foot, only Montrose +himself and two others being mounted, while Elcho had about +7000 of all arms. But Elcho’s townsmen found that pike and +musket were clumsy weapons in inexperienced hands, and, +like Mackay’s regulars at Killiecrankie fifty years later, they +wholly failed to stop the rush of the Highland swordsmen. +Many hundreds were killed in the pursuit, and Montrose slept in +Perth that night, having thus accounted for one of his enemies. +Balfour of Burleigh was to be his next victim, and he started for +Aberdeen on the 4th. As he marched, his Highlanders slipped +away to place their booty in security. But the Macdonald +regulars remained with him, and as he passed along the coast +some of the gentry came in, though the great western clan of +the Gordons was at present too far divided in sentiment to take +his part. Lord Lewis Gordon and some Gordon horse were even +in Balfour’s army. On the other hand, the earl of Airlie brought +in forty-four horsemen, and Montrose was thus able to constitute +two wings of cavalry on the day of battle. The Covenanters +were about 2500 strong and drawn up on a slope above the How +Burn<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> just outside Aberdeen (September 13, 1644). Montrose, +after clearing away the enemy’s skirmishers, drew up his army +in front of the opposing line, the foot in the centre, the forty-four +mounted men, with musketeers to support them, on either flank. +The hostile left-wing cavalry charged piecemeal, and some bodies +of troops did not engage at all. On the other wing, however, +Montrose was for a moment hard pressed by a force of the enemy +that attempted to work round to his rear. But he brought over +the small band of mounted men that constituted his right wing +cavalry, and also some musketeers from the centre, and +destroyed the assailants, and when the ill-led left wing of the +Covenanters charged again, during the absence of the cavalry, +they were mown down by the close-range volleys of Macdonald’s +musketeers. Shortly afterwards the centre of Balfour’s army +yielded to pressure and fled in disorder. Aberdeen was sacked +by order of Montrose, whose drummer had been murdered while +delivering a message under a flag of truce to the magistrates.</p> + +<p>26. <i>Inverlochy.</i>—Only Argyll now remained to be dealt with. +The Campbells were fighting men from birth, like Montrose’s +own men, and had few townsmen serving with them. Still there +were enough of the latter and of the impedimenta of regular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span> +warfare with him to prevent Argyll from overtaking his agile +enemy, and ultimately after a “hide-and-seek” in the districts +of Rothiemurchus, Blair Athol, Banchory and Strathbogie, +Montrose stood to fight at Fyvie Castle, repulsed Argyll’s attack +on that place and slipped away again to Rothiemurchus. There +he was joined by Camerons and Macdonalds from all quarters +for a grand raid on the Campbell country; he himself wished to +march into the Lowlands, well knowing that he could not achieve +the decision in the Grampians, but he had to bow, not for the +first time nor the last, to local importunity. The raid was duly +executed, and the Campbells’ boast, “It’s a far cry to Loch Awe,” +availed them little. In December and January the Campbell +lands were thoroughly and mercilessly devastated, and Montrose +then retired slowly to Loch Ness, where the bulk of his army as +usual dispersed to store away its plunder. Argyll, with such +Highland and Lowland forces as he could collect after the disaster, +followed Montrose towards Lochaber, while the Seaforths and +other northern clans marched to Loch Ness. Caught between +them, Montrose attacked the nearest. The Royalists crossed +the hills into Glen Roy, worked thence along the northern face +of Ben Nevis, and descended like an avalanche upon Argyll’s +forces at Inverlochy (February 2, 1645). As usual, the Lowland +regiments gave way at once—Montrose had managed in all this +to keep with him a few cavalry—and it was then the turn of the +Campbells. Argyll escaped in a boat, but his clan, as a fighting +force, was practically annihilated, and Montrose, having won four +victories in these six winter months, rested his men and exultingly +promised Charles that he would come to his assistance with a +brave army before the end of the summer.</p> + +<p>27. <i>Organization of the New Model Army.</i>—To return to the +New Model. Its first necessity was regular pay; its first duty to +serve wherever it might be sent. Of the three armies that had +fought at Newbury only one, Essex’s, was in a true sense a general +service force, and only one, Manchester’s, was paid with any +regularity. Waller’s army was no better paid than Essex’s and +no more free from local ties than Manchester’s. It was therefore +broken up early in April, and only 600 of its infantry passed +into the New Model. Essex’s men, on the other hand, wanted but +regular pay and strict officers to make them excellent soldiers, +and their own major-general, Skippon, managed by tact and his +personal popularity to persuade the bulk of the men to rejoin. +Manchester’s army, in which Cromwell had been the guiding +influence from first to last, was naturally the backbone of the +New Model. Early in April Essex, Manchester, and Waller resigned +their commissions, and such of their forces as were not +embodied in the new army were sent to do local duties, for +minor armies were still maintained, General Poyntz’s in the north +midlands, General Massey’s in the Severn valley, a large force in +the Eastern Association, General Browne’s in Buckinghamshire, +&c., besides the Scots in the north.</p> + +<p>The New Model originally consisted of 14,400 foot and 7700 +horse and dragoons. Of the infantry only 6000 came from the +combined armies, the rest being new recruits furnished by the +press.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Thus there was considerable trouble during the first +months of Fairfax’s command, and discipline had to be enforced +with unusual sternness. As for the enemy, Oxford was openly +contemptuous of “the rebels’ new brutish general” and his +men, who seemed hardly likely to succeed where Essex and Waller +had failed. But the effect of the Parliament’s having “an army +all its own” was soon to be apparent.</p> + +<p>28. <i>First Operations of 1645.</i>—On the Royalist side the campaign +of 1645 opened in the west, whither the young prince of +Wales (Charles II.) was sent with Hyde (later earl of Clarendon), +Hopton and others as his advisers. General (Lord) Goring, +however, now in command of the Royalist field forces in this +quarter, was truculent, insubordinate and dissolute, though on +the rare occasions when he did his duty he displayed a certain +degree of skill and leadership, and the influence of the prince’s +counsellors was but small. As usual, operations began with +the sieges necessary to conciliate local feeling. Plymouth and +Lyme were blocked up, and Taunton again invested. The +reinforcement thrown into the last place by Waller and Cromwell +was dismissed by Blake (then a colonel in command of the +fortress and afterwards the great admiral of the Commonwealth), +and after many adventures rejoined Waller and Cromwell. +The latter generals, who had not yet laid down their commissions, +then engaged Goring for some weeks, but neither side having +infantry or artillery, and both finding subsistence difficult in +February and March and in country that had been fought over +for two years past, no results were to be expected. Taunton +still remained unrelieved, and Goring’s horse still rode all over +Dorsetshire when the New Model at last took the field.</p> + +<p>29. <i>Rupert’s Northern March.</i>—In the midlands and Lancashire +the Royalist horse, as ill-behaved even as Goring’s men, +were directly responsible for the ignominious failure with which +the king’s main army began its year’s work. Prince Maurice +was joined at Ludlow by Rupert and part of his Oxford army +early in March, and the brothers drove off Brereton from the +siege of Beeston Castle and relieved the pressure on Lord Byron +in Cheshire. So great was the danger of Rupert’s again invading +Lancashire and Yorkshire that all available forces in the north, +English and Scots, were ordered to march against him. But +at this moment the prince was called back to clear his line +of retreat on Oxford. The Herefordshire and Worcestershire +peasantry, weary of military exactions, were in arms, and though +they would not join the Parliament, and for the most part +dispersed after stating their grievances, the main enterprise was +wrecked. This was but one of many ill-armed crowds—“Clubmen” +as they were called—that assembled to enforce peace +on both parties. A few regular soldiers were sufficient to disperse +them in all cases, but their attempt to establish a third party +in England was morally as significant as it was materially futile. +The Royalists were now fighting with the courage of despair, +those who still fought against Charles did so with the full determination +to ensure the triumph of their cause, and with the +conviction that the only possible way was the annihilation of the +enemy’s armed forces, but the majority were so weary of the war +that the earl of Manchester’s Presbyterian royalism—which had +contributed so materially to the prolongation of the struggle—would +probably have been accepted by four-fifths of all England +as the basis of a peace. It was, in fact, in the face of almost +universal opposition that Fairfax and Cromwell and their friends +at Westminster guided the cause of their weaker comrades to +complete victory.</p> + +<p>30. <i>Cromwell’s Raid.</i>—Having without difficulty rid himself +of the Clubmen, Rupert was eager to resume his march into the +north. It is unlikely that he wished to join Montrose, though +Charles himself favoured that plan, but he certainly intended +to fight the Scottish army, more especially as after Inverlochy +it had been called upon to detach a large force to deal with +Montrose. But this time there was no Royalist army in the +north to provide infantry and guns for a pitched battle, and +Rupert had perforce to wait near Hereford till the main body, +and in particular the artillery train, could come from Oxford and +join him. It was on the march of the artillery train to Hereford +that the first operations of the New Model centred. The infantry +was not yet ready to move, in spite of all Fairfax’s and Skippon’s +efforts, and it became necessary to send the cavalry by itself +to prevent Rupert from gaining a start. Cromwell, then under +Waller’s command, had come to Windsor to resign his commission +as required by the Self-denying Ordinance. Instead, he was +placed at the head of a brigade of his own old soldiers, with orders +to stop the march of the artillery train. On the 23rd of April +he started from Watlington north-westward. At dawn on the +24th he routed a detachment of Royalist horse at Islip. On +the same day, though he had no guns and only a few firearms +in the whole force, he terrified the governor of Bletchingdon +House into surrender. Riding thence to Witney, Cromwell +won another cavalry fight at Bampton-in-the-Bush on the 27th, +and attacked Faringdon House, though without success, on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span> +29th. Thence he marched at leisure to Newbury. He had done +his work thoroughly. He had demoralized the Royalist cavalry, +and, above all, had carried off every horse on the countryside. +To all Rupert’s entreaties Charles could only reply that the guns +could not be moved till the 7th of May, and he even summoned +Goring’s cavalry from the west to make good his losses.</p> + +<p>31. <i>Civilian Strategy.</i>—Cromwell’s success thus forced the +king to concentrate his various armies in the neighbourhood +of Oxford, and the New Model had, so Fairfax and Cromwell +hoped, found its target. But the Committee of Both Kingdoms +on the one side, and Charles, Rupert and Goring on the other, +held different views. On the 1st of May Fairfax, having been +ordered to relieve Taunton, set out from Windsor for the long +march to that place; meeting Cromwell at Newbury on the 2nd, +he directed the lieutenant-general to watch the movements of +the king’s army, and himself marched on to Blandford, which +he reached on the 7th of May. Thus Fairfax and the main army +of the Parliament were marching away in the west while Cromwell’s +detachment was left, as Waller had been left the previous +year, to hold the king as best he could. On the very evening +that Cromwell’s raid ended, the leading troops of Goring’s +command destroyed part of Cromwell’s own regiment near +Faringdon, and on the 3rd Rupert and Maurice appeared with +a force of all arms at Burford. Yet the Committee of Both +Kingdoms, though aware on the 29th of Goring’s move, only +made up its mind to stop Fairfax on the 3rd, and did not send +off orders till the 5th. These orders were to the effect that a +detachment was to be sent to the relief of Taunton, and that +the main army was to return. Fairfax gladly obeyed, even +though a siege of Oxford and not the enemy’s field army was +the objective assigned him. But long before he came up to the +Thames valley the situation was again changed. Rupert, now +in possession of the guns and their teams, urged upon his uncle +the resumption of the northern enterprise, calculating that with +Fairfax in Somersetshire, Oxford was safe. Charles accordingly +marched out of Oxford on the 7th towards Stow-on-the-Wold, +on the very day, as it chanced, that Fairfax began his return +march from Blandford. But Goring and most of the other +generals were for a march into the west, in the hope of dealing +with Fairfax as they had dealt with Essex in 1644. The armies +therefore parted as Essex and Waller had parted at the same +place in 1644, Rupert and the king to march northward, Goring +to return to his independent command in the west. Rupert, +not unnaturally wishing to keep his influence with the king and +his authority as general of the king’s army unimpaired by +Goring’s notorious indiscipline, made no attempt to prevent the +separation, which in the event proved wholly unprofitable. The +flying column from Blandford relieved Taunton long before +Goring’s return to the west, and Colonel Weldon and Colonel +Graves, its commanders, set him at defiance even in the open +country. As for Fairfax, he was out of Goring’s reach preparing +for the siege of Oxford.</p> + +<p>32. <i>Charles in the Midlands.</i>—On the other side also the +generals were working by data that had ceased to have any value. +Fairfax’s siege of Oxford, ordered by the Committee on the 10th +of May, and persisted in after it was known that the king was on +the move, was the second great blunder of the year and was +hardly redeemed, as a military measure, by the visionary scheme +of assembling the Scots, the Yorkshiremen, and the midland +forces to oppose the king. It is hard to understand how, having +created a new model army “all its own” for general service, the +Parliament at once tied it down to a local enterprise, and trusted +an improvised army of local troops to fight the enemy’s main +army. In reality the Committee seems to have been misled by +false information to the effect that Goring and the governor of +Oxford were about to declare for the Parliament, but had they not +despatched Fairfax to the relief of Taunton in the first instance +the necessity for such intrigues would not have arisen. However, +Fairfax obeyed orders, invested Oxford, and, so far as he was able +without a proper siege train, besieged it for two weeks, while +Charles and Rupert ranged the midlands unopposed. At the end +of that time came news so alarming that the Committee hastily +abdicated their control over military operations and gave +Fairfax a free hand. “Black Tom” gladly and instantly +abandoned the siege and marched northward to give battle to the +king.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Charles and Rupert were moving northward. On +the 11th of May they reached Droitwich, whence after two days’ +rest they marched against Brereton. The latter hurriedly raised +the sieges he had on hand, and called upon Yorkshire and the +Scottish army there for aid. But only the old Lord Fairfax +and the Yorkshiremen responded. Leven had just heard of new +victories won by Montrose, and could do no more than draw his +army and his guns over the Pennine chain into Westmorland in +the hope of being in time to bar the king’s march on Scotland +via Carlisle.</p> + +<p>33. <i>Dundee.</i>—After the destruction of the Campbells at +Inverlochy, Montrose had cleared away the rest of his enemies +without difficulty. He now gained a respectable force of cavalry +by the adhesion of Lord Gordon and many of his clan, and this +reinforcement was the more necessary as detachments from +Leven’s army under Baillie and Hurry—disciplined infantry and +cavalry—were on the march to meet him. The Royalists marched +by Elgin and through the Gordon country to Aberdeen, and +thence across the Esk to Coupar-Angus, where Baillie and Hurry +were encountered. A war of manœuvre followed, in which they +thwarted every effort of the Royalists to break through into the +Lowlands, but in the end retired into Fife. Montrose thereupon +marched into the hills with the intention of reaching the upper +Forth and thence the Lowlands, for he did not disguise from +himself the fact that there, and not in the Highlands, would the +quarrel be decided, and was sanguine—over-sanguine, as the +event proved—as to the support he would obtain from those who +hated the kirk and its system. But he had called to his aid the +semi-barbarous Highlanders, and however much the Lowlands +resented a Presbyterian inquisition, they hated and feared the +Highland clans beyond all else. He was equally disappointed in +his own army. For a war of positions the Highlanders had neither +aptitude nor inclination, and at Dunkeld the greater part of them +went home. If the small remnant was to be kept to its duty, +plunder must be found, and the best objective was the town of +Dundee. With a small force of 750 foot and horse Montrose +brilliantly surprised that place on the 4th of April, but Baillie and +Hurry were not far distant, and before Montrose’s men had time +to plunder the prize they were collected to face the enemy. +His retreat from Dundee was considered a model operation by +foreign students of the art of war (then almost as numerous as +now), and what surprised them most was that Montrose could +rally his men after a sack had begun. The retreat itself was +remarkable enough. Baillie moved parallel to Montrose on his +left flank towards Arbroath, constantly heading him off from the +hills and attempting to pin him against the sea. Montrose, +however, halted in the dark so as to let Baillie get ahead of him +and then turned sharply back, crossed Baillie’s track, and made +for the hills. Baillie soon realized what had happened and +turned back also, but an hour too late. By the 6th the Royalists +were again safe in the broken country of the Esk valley. But +Montrose cherished no illusions as to joining the king at once; +all he could do, he now wrote, was to neutralize as many of the +enemy’s forces as possible.</p> + +<p>34. <i>Auldearn.</i>—For a time he wandered in the Highlands +seeking recruits. But soon he learned that Baillie and Hurry had +divided their forces, the former remaining about Perth and +Stirling to observe him, the latter going north to suppress the +Gordons. Strategy and policy combined to make Hurry the +objective of the next expedition. But the soldier of fortune who +commanded the Covenanters at Aberdeen was no mean +antagonist. Marching at once with a large army (formed on the +nucleus of his own trained troops and for the rest composed of +clansmen and volunteers) Hurry advanced to Elgin, took contact +with Montrose there, and, gradually and skilfully retiring, drew +him into the hostile country round Inverness. Montrose fell into +the trap, and Hurry took his measures to surprise him at Auldearn +so successfully that (May 9) Montrose, even though the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span> +indiscipline of some of Hurry’s young soldiers during the night +march gave him the alarm, had barely time to form up before the +enemy was upon him. But the best strategy is of no avail when +the battle it produces goes against the strategist, and Montrose’s +tactical skill was never more conspicuous than at Auldearn. +Alastair Macdonald with most of the Royalist infantry and the +Royal standard was posted to the right (north) of the village to +draw upon himself the weight of Hurry’s attack; only enough +men were posted in the village itself to show that it was occupied, +and on the south side, out of sight, was Montrose himself with a +body of foot and all the Gordon horse. It was the prototype, on a +small scale, of Austerlitz. Macdonald resisted sturdily while +Montrose edged away from the scene of action, and at the right +moment and not before, though Macdonald had been driven +back on the village and was fighting for life amongst the gardens +and enclosures, Montrose let loose Lord Gordon’s cavalry. These, +abandoning for once the pistol tactics of their time, charged +home with the sword. The enemy’s right wing cavalry was +scattered in an instant, the nearest infantry was promptly ridden +down, and soon Hurry’s army had ceased to exist.</p> + +<p>35. <i>Campaign of Naseby.</i>—If the news of Auldearn brought +Leven to the region of Carlisle, it had little effect on his English +allies. Fairfax was not yet released from the siege of Oxford, in +spite of the protests of the Scottish representatives in London. +Massey, the active and successful governor of Gloucester, was +placed in command of a field force on the 25th of May, but he was +to lead it against, not the king, but Goring. At that moment the +military situation once more changed abruptly. Charles, instead +of continuing his march on to Lancashire, turned due eastward +towards Derbyshire. The alarm at Westminster when this new +development was reported was such that Cromwell, in spite of the +Self-Denying Ordinance, was sent to raise an army for the +defence of the Eastern Association. Yet the Royalists had no +intentions in that direction. Conflicting reports as to the +condition of Oxford reached the royal headquarters in the last +week of May, and the eastward march was made chiefly to +“spin out time” until it could be known whether it would be +necessary to return to Oxford, or whether it was still possible to +fight Leven in Yorkshire—his move into Westmorland was not +yet known—and invade Scotland by the easy east coast route.</p> + +<p>Goring’s return to the west had already been countermanded +and he had been directed to march to Harborough, while the +South Wales Royalists were also called in towards Leicester. +Later orders (May 26) directed him to Newbury, whence he was +to feel the strength of the enemy’s positions around Oxford. +It is hardly necessary to say that Goring found good military +reasons for continuing his independent operations, and marched +off towards Taunton regardless of the order. He redressed the +balance there for the moment by overawing Massey’s weak force, +and his purse profited considerably by fresh opportunities for +extortion, but he and his men were not at Naseby. Meanwhile +the king, at the geographical centre of England, found an important +and wealthy town at his mercy. Rupert, always for +action, took the opportunity, and Leicester was stormed and +thoroughly pillaged on the night of the 30th-31st of May. There +was the usual panic at Westminster, but, unfortunately for +Charles, it resulted in Fairfax being directed to abandon the +siege of Oxford and given <i>carte blanche</i> to bring the Royal army +to battle wherever it was met. On his side the king had, after +the capture of Leicester, accepted the advice of those who feared +for the safety of Oxford—Rupert, though commander-in-chief, +was unable to insist on the northern enterprise—and had marched +to Daventry, where he halted to throw supplies into Oxford. +Thus Fairfax in his turn was free to move, thanks to the insubordination +of Goring, who would neither relieve Oxford nor +join the king for an attack on the New Model. The Parliamentary +general moved from Oxford towards Northampton so as to +cover the Eastern Association. On the 12th of June the two +armies were only a few miles apart, Fairfax at Kislingbury, +Charles at Daventry, and, though the Royalists turned northward +again on the 13th to resume the Yorkshire project under the very +eyes of the enemy, Fairfax followed close. On the night of +the 13th Charles slept at Lubenham, Fairfax at Guilsborough. +Cromwell, just appointed lieutenant-general of the New Model, +had ridden into camp on the morning of the 13th with fresh +cavalry from the eastern counties, Colonel Rossiter came up +with more from Lincolnshire on the morning of the battle, +and it was with an incontestable superiority of numbers and an +overwhelming moral advantage that Fairfax fought at Naseby +(<i>q.v.</i>) on the 14th of June. The result of the battle, this time a +decisive battle, was the annihilation of the Royal army. Part +of the cavalry escaped, a small fraction of it in tolerable order, +but the guns and the baggage train were taken, and, above all, +the splendid Royal infantry were killed or taken prisoners to a +man.</p> + +<p>36. <i>Effects of Naseby.</i>—After Naseby, though the war dragged +on for another year, the king never succeeded in raising an army +as good as, or even more numerous than, that which Fairfax’s +army had so heavily outnumbered on the 14th of June. That +the fruits of the victory could not be gathered in a few weeks +was due to a variety of hindrances rather than to direct opposition—to +the absence of rapid means of communication, the +paucity of the forces engaged on both sides relatively to the total +numbers under arms, and from time to time to the political +exigencies of the growing quarrel between Presbyterians and +Independents. As to the latter, within a few days of Naseby, +the Scots rejoiced that the “back of the malignants was broken,” +and demanded reinforcements as a precaution against “the +insolence of others,” <i>i.e.</i> Cromwell and the Independents—“to +whom alone the Lord has given the victory of that day.” Leven +had by now returned to Yorkshire, and a fortnight after Naseby, +after a long and honourable defence by Sir Thomas Glemham, +Carlisle fell to David Leslie’s besieging corps. Leicester was +reoccupied by Fairfax on the 18th, and on the 20th Leven’s +army, moving slowly southward, reached Mansfield. This move +was undertaken largely for political reasons, <i>i.e.</i> to restore the +Presbyterian balance as against the victorious New Model. +Fairfax’s army was intended by its founders to be a specifically +English army, and Cromwell for one would have employed it +against the Scots almost as readily as against malignants. +But for the moment the advance of the northern army was of +the highest military importance, for Fairfax was thereby set +free from the necessity of undertaking sieges. Moreover, the +publication of the king’s papers taken at Naseby gave Fairfax’s +troops a measure of official and popular support which a month +before they could not have been said to possess, for it was now +obvious that they represented the armed force of England against +the Irish, Danes, French, Lorrainers, &c., whom Charles had for +three years been endeavouring to let loose on English soil. +Even the Presbyterians abandoned for the time any attempt +to negotiate with the king, and advocated a vigorous prosecution +of the war.</p> + +<p>37. <i>Fairfax’s Western Campaign.</i>—This, in the hands of Fairfax +and Cromwell, was likely to be effective. While the king and +Rupert, with the remnant of their cavalry, hurried into South +Wales to join Sir Charles Gerard’s troops and to raise fresh infantry, +Fairfax decided that Goring’s was the most important +Royalist army in the field, and turned to the west, reaching +Lechlade on the 26th, less than a fortnight after the battle of +Naseby. One last attempt was made to dictate the plan of +campaign from Westminster, but the Committee refused to pass +on the directions of the Houses, and he remained free to deal +with Goring as he desired. Time pressed; Charles in Monmouthshire +and Rupert at Bristol were well placed for a junction with +Goring, which would have given them a united army 15,000 +strong. Taunton, in spite of Massey’s efforts to keep the field, +was again besieged, and in Wilts and Dorset numerous bands +of Clubmen were on foot which the king’s officers were doing +their best to turn into troops for their master. But the process +of collecting a fresh royal army was slow, and Goring and his +subordinate, Sir Richard Grenville, were alienating the king’s +most devoted adherents by their rapacity, cruelty and debauchery. +Moreover, Goring had no desire to lose the independent +command he had extorted at Stow-on-the-Wold in May. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span> +Still, it was clear that he must be disposed of as quickly as +possible, and Fairfax requested the Houses to take other +measures against the king (June 26). This they did by paying up +the arrears due to Leven’s army and bringing it to the Severn +valley. On the 8th of July Leven reached Alcester, bringing +with him a Parliamentarian force from Derbyshire under Sir +John Gell. The design was to besiege Hereford.</p> + +<p>38. <i>Langport.</i>—By that time Fairfax and Goring were at +close quarters. The Royalist general’s line of defence faced west +along the Yeo and the Parrett between Yeovil and Bridgwater, +and thus barred the direct route to Taunton. Fairfax, however, +marched from Lechlade via Marlborough and Blandford—hindered +only by Clubmen—to the friendly posts of Dorchester +and Lyme, and with these as his centre of operations he was +able to turn the headwaters of Goring’s river-line via Beaminster +and Crewkerne. The Royalists at once abandoned the south and +west side of the rivers—the siege of Taunton had already been +given up—and passed over to the north and east bank. Bridgwater +was the right of this second line as it had been the left of +the first; the new left was at Ilchester. Goring could thus +remain in touch with Charles in south Wales through Bristol, +and the siege of Taunton having been given up there was no +longer any incentive for remaining on the wrong side of the +water-line. But his army was thoroughly demoralized by its +own licence and indiscipline, and the swift, handy and resolute +regiments of the New Model made short work of its strong +positions. On the 7th of July, demonstrating against the points +of passage between Ilchester and Langport, Fairfax secretly +occupied Yeovil. The post at that place, which had been the +right of Goring’s first position, had, perhaps rightly, been withdrawn +to Ilchester when the second position was taken up, and +Fairfax repaired the bridge without interruption. Goring +showed himself unequal to the new situation. He might, if +sober, make a good plan when the enemy was not present to +disturb him, and he certainly led cavalry charges with boldness +and skill. But of strategy in front of the enemy he was incapable. +On the news from Yeovil he abandoned the line of the +Yeo as far as Langport without striking a blow, and Fairfax, +having nothing to gain by continuing his détour through Yeovil, +came back and quietly crossed at Long Sutton, west of Ilchester +(July 9). Goring had by now formed a new plan. A strong rearguard +was posted at Langport and on high ground east and north-east +of it to hold Fairfax, and he himself with the cavalry rode +off early on the 8th to try and surprise Taunton. This place +was no longer protected by Massey’s little army, which Fairfax +had called up to assist his own. But Fairfax, who was not yet +across Long Sutton bridge, heard of Goring’s raid in good time, +and sent Massey after him with a body of horse. Massey surprised +a large party of the Royalists at Ilminster on the 9th, +wounded Goring himself, and pursued the fugitives up to the +south-eastern edge of Langport. On the 10th Fairfax’s advanced +guard, led by Major Bethel of Cromwell’s own regiment, +brilliantly stormed the position of Goring’s rearguard east of +Langport, and the cavalry of the New Model, led by Cromwell +himself, swept in pursuit right up to the gates of Bridgwater, +where Goring’s army, dismayed and on the point of collapse, +was more or less rallied. Thence Goring himself retired to +Barnstaple. His army, under the regimental officers, defended +itself in Bridgwater resolutely till the 23rd of July, when it +capitulated. The fall of Bridgwater gave Fairfax complete control +of Somerset and Dorset from Lyme to the Bristol channel. +Even in the unlikely event of Goring’s raising a fresh army, +he would now have to break through towards Bristol by open +force, and a battle between Goring and Fairfax could only have +one result. Thus Charles had perforce to give up his intention +of joining Goring—his recruiting operations in south Wales had +not been so successful as he hoped, owing to the apathy of the +people and the vigour of the local Parliamentary leaders—and +to resume the northern enterprise begun in the spring.</p> + +<p>39. <i>Schemes of Lord Digby.</i>—This time Rupert would not be +with him. The prince, now despairing of success and hoping +only for a peace on the best terms procurable, listlessly returned +to his governorship of Bristol and prepared to meet Fairfax’s +impending attack. The influence of Rupert was supplanted by +that of Lord Digby. As sanguine as Charles and far more +energetic, he was for the rest of the campaign the guiding spirit +of the Royalists, but being a civilian he proved incapable of +judging the military factors in the situation from a military +standpoint, and not only did he offend the officers by constituting +himself a sort of confidential military secretary to the king, but +he was distrusted by all sections of Royalists for his reckless +optimism. The resumption of the northern enterprise, opposed +by Rupert and directly inspired by Digby, led to nothing. +Charles marched by Bridgnorth, Lichfield and Ashbourne to +Doncaster, where on the 18th of August he was met by great +numbers of Yorkshire gentlemen with promises of fresh recruits. +For a moment the outlook was bright, for the Derbyshire men +with Gell were far away at Worcester with Leven, the Yorkshire +Parliamentarians engaged in besieging Scarborough Castle, +Pontefract and other posts. But two days later he heard that +David Leslie with the cavalry of Leven’s army was coming +up behind him, and that, the Yorkshire sieges being now ended, +Major-General Poyntz’s force lay in his front. It was now impossible +to wait for the new levies, and reluctantly the king turned +back to Oxford, raiding Huntingdonshire and other parts of the +hated Eastern Association <i>en route</i>.</p> + +<p>40. <i>Montrose’s Last Victories.</i>—David Leslie did not pursue him. +Montrose, though the king did not yet know it, had won two +more battles, and was practically master of all Scotland. After +Auldearn he had turned to meet Baillie’s army in Strathspey, and +by superior mobility and skill forced that commander to keep at +a respectful distance. He then turned upon a new army which +Lindsay, titular earl of Crawford, was forming in Forfarshire, +but that commander betook himself to a safe distance, and +Montrose withdrew into the Highlands to find recruits (June). +The victors of Auldearn had mostly dispersed on the usual errand, +and he was now deserted by most of the Gordons, who were recalled +by the chief of their clan, the marquess of Huntly, in spite +of the indignant remonstrances of Huntly’s heir, Lord Gordon, +who was Montrose’s warmest admirer. Baillie now approached +again, but he was weakened by having to find trained troops +to stiffen Lindsay’s levies, and a strong force of the Gordons had +now been persuaded to rejoin Montrose. The two armies met in +battle near Alford on the Don; little can be said of the engagement +save that Montrose had to fight cautiously and tentatively +as at Aberdeen, not in the decision-forcing spirit of Auldearn, +and that in the end Baillie’s cavalry gave way and his infantry +was cut down as it stood. Lord Gordon was amongst the Royalist +dead (July 2). The plunder was put away in the glens before any +attempt was made to go forward, and thus the Covenanters had +leisure to form a numerous, if not very coherent, army on the +nucleus of Lindsay’s troops. Baillie, much against his will, was +continued in the command, with a council of war (chiefly of nobles +whom Montrose had already defeated, such as Argyll, Elcho and +Balfour) to direct his every movement. Montrose, when rejoined +by the Highlanders, moved to meet him, and in the last week of +July and the early part of August there were manœuvres and +minor engagements round Perth. About the 7th of August +Montrose suddenly slipped away into the Lowlands, heading +for Glasgow. Thereupon another Covenanting army began to +assemble in Clydesdale. But it was clear that Montrose could +beat mere levies, and Baillie, though without authority and +despairing of success, hurried after him. Montrose then, having +drawn Baillie’s Fifeshire militia far enough from home to ensure +their being discontented, turned upon them on the 14th of August +near Kilsyth. Baillie protested against fighting, but his aristocratic +masters of the council of war decided to cut off Montrose +from the hills by turning his left wing. The Royalist general +seized the opportunity, and his advance caught them in the very +act of making a flank march (August 15). The head of the +Covenanters’ column was met and stopped by the furious attack +of the Gordon infantry, and Alastair Macdonald led the men of +his own name and the Macleans against its flank. A breach was +made in the centre of Baillie’s army at the first rush, and then +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span> +Montrose sent in the Gordon and Ogilvy horse. The leading half of +the column was surrounded, broken up and annihilated. The rear +half, seeing the fate of its comrades, took to flight, but in vain, +for the Highlanders pursued <i>à outrance</i>. Only about one hundred +Covenanting infantry out of six thousand escaped. Montrose +was now indeed the king’s lieutenant in all Scotland.</p> + +<p>41. <i>Fall of Bristol.</i>—But Charles was in no case to resume his +northern march. Fairfax and the New Model, after reducing +Bridgwater, had turned back to clear away the Dorsetshire +Clubmen and to besiege Sherborne Castle. On the completion +of this task, it had been decided to besiege Bristol, and on the +23rd of August—while the king’s army was still in Huntingdon, +and Goring was trying to raise a new army to replace the one he +had lost at Langport and Bridgwater—the city was invested. +In these urgent circumstances Charles left Oxford for the west +only a day or two after he had come in from the Eastern Association +raid. Calculating that Rupert could hold out longest, he +first moved to the relief of Worcester, around which place Leven’s +Scots, no longer having Leslie’s cavalry with them to find supplies, +were more occupied with plundering their immediate neighbourhood +for food than with the siege works. Worcester was relieved +on the 1st of September by the king. David Leslie with all his +cavalry was already on the march to meet Montrose, and Leven +had no alternative but to draw off his infantry without fighting. +Charles entered Worcester on the 8th, but he found that he +could no longer expect recruits from South Wales. Worse +was to come. A few hours later, on the night of the 9th-10th, +Fairfax’s army stormed Bristol. Rupert had long realized the +hopelessness of further fighting—the very summons to surrender +sent in by Fairfax placed the fate of Bristol on the political issue,—the +lines of defence around the place were too extensive for +his small force, and on the 11th he surrendered on terms. He +was escorted to Oxford with his men, conversing as he rode with +the officers of the escort about peace and the future of his adopted +country. Charles, almost stunned by the suddenness of the +catastrophe, dismissed his nephew from all his offices and ordered +him to leave England, and for almost the last time called upon +Goring to rejoin the main army—if a tiny force of raw infantry +and disheartened cavalry can be so called—in the neighbourhood +of Raglan. But before Goring could be brought to withdraw +his objections Charles had again turned northward towards +Montrose. A weary march through the Welsh hills brought the +Royal army on the 22nd of September to the neighbourhood of +Chester. Charles himself with one body entered the city, which +was partially invested by the Parliamentarian colonel Michael +Jones, and the rest under Sir Marmaduke Langdale was sent to +take Jones’s lines in reverse. But at the opportune moment +Poyntz’s forces, which had followed the king’s movements since +he left Doncaster in the middle of August, appeared in rear of +Langdale, and defeated him in the battle of Rowton Heath +(September 24), while at the same time a sortie of the king’s +troops from Chester was repulsed by Jones. Thereupon the Royal +army withdrew to Denbigh, and Chester, the only important +seaport remaining to connect Charles with Ireland, was again +besieged.</p> + +<p>42. <i>Philiphaugh.</i>—Nor was Montrose’s position, even after +Kilsyth, encouraging, in spite of the persistent rumours of +fighting in Westmorland that reached Charles and Digby. +Glasgow and Edinburgh were indeed occupied, and a parliament +summoned in the king’s name. But Montrose had now to choose +between Highlanders and Lowlanders. The former, strictly +kept away from all that was worth plundering, rapidly vanished, +even Alastair Macdonald going with the rest. Without the +Macdonalds and the Gordons, Montrose’s military and political +resettlement of Scotland could only be shadowy, and when he +demanded support from the sturdy middle classes of the Lowlands, +it was not forgotten that he had led Highlanders to the +sack of Lowland towns. Thus his new supporters could only +come from amongst the discontented and undisciplined Border +lords and gentry, and long before these moved to join him the +romantic conquest of Scotland was over. On the 6th of September +David Leslie had recrossed the frontier with his cavalry and some +infantry he had picked up on the way through northern England. +Early on the morning of the 13th he surprised Montrose at +Philiphaugh near Selkirk. The king’s lieutenant had only 650 +men against 4000, and the battle did not last long. Montrose +escaped with a few of his principal adherents, but his little army +was annihilated. Of the veteran Macdonald infantry, 500 strong +that morning, 250 were killed in the battle and the remainder +put to death after accepting quarter. The Irish, even when they +bore a Scottish name, were, by Scotsmen even more than Englishmen, +regarded as beasts to be knocked on the head. After Naseby +the Irishwomen found in the king’s camp were branded by order +of Fairfax; after Philiphaugh more than 300 women, wives or +followers of Macdonald’s men, were butchered. Montrose’s +Highlanders at their worst were no more cruel than the sober +soldiers of the kirk.</p> + +<p>43. <i>Digby’s Northern Expedition.</i>—Charles received the news +of Philiphaugh on the 28th of September, and gave orders that +the west should be abandoned, the prince of Wales should be +sent to France, and Goring should bring up what forces he could +to the Oxford region. On the 4th of October Charles himself +reached Newark (whither he had marched from Denbigh after +revictualling Chester and suffering the defeat of Rowton Heath). +The intention to go to Montrose was of course given up, at any +rate for the present, and he was merely waiting for Goring and +the Royalist militia of the west—each in its own way a broken +reed to lean upon. A hollow reconciliation was patched up +between Charles and Rupert, and the court remained at Newark +for over a month. Before it set out to return to Oxford another +Royalist force had been destroyed. On the 14th of October, +receiving information that Montrose had raised a new army, +the king permitted Langdale’s northern troops to make a fresh +attempt to reach Scotland. At Langdale’s request Digby was +appointed to command in this enterprise, and, civilian though he +was, and disastrous though his influence had been to the discipline +of the army, he led it boldly and skilfully. His immediate +opponent was Poyntz, who had followed the king step by step +from Doncaster to Chester and back to Welbeck, and he succeeded +on the 15th in surprising Poyntz’s entire force of foot at Sherburn. +Poyntz’s cavalry were soon after this reported approaching +from the south, and Digby hoped to trap them also. At first +all went well and body after body of the rebels was routed. +But by a singular mischance the Royalist main body mistook the +Parliamentary squadrons in flight through Sherburn for friends, +and believing all was lost took to flight also. Thus Digby’s +cavalry fled as fast as Poyntz’s and in the same direction, and +the latter, coming to their senses first, drove the Royalist horse in +wild confusion as far as Skipton. Lord Digby was still sanguine, +and from Skipton he actually penetrated as far as Dumfries. +But whether Montrose’s new army was or was not in the Lowlands, +it was certain that Leven and Leslie were on the Border, +and the mad adventure soon came to an end. Digby, with the +mere handful of men remaining to him, was driven back into +Cumberland, and on the 24th of October, his army having +entirely disappeared, he took ship with his officers for the Isle of +Man. Poyntz had not followed him beyond Skipton, and was +now watching the king from Nottingham, while Rossiter with the +Lincoln troops was posted at Grantham. The king’s chances of +escaping from Newark were becoming smaller day by day, +and they were not improved by a violent dispute between him +and Rupert, Maurice, Lord Gerard and Sir Richard Willis, at +the end of which these officers and many others rode away to +ask the Parliament for leave to go over-seas. The pretext of the +quarrel mattered little, the distinction between the views of +Charles and Digby on the one hand and Rupert and his friends +on the other was fundamental—to the latter peace had become +a political as well as a military necessity. Meanwhile south +Wales, with the single exception of Raglan Castle, had been +overrun by the Parliamentarians. Everywhere the Royalist +posts were falling. The New Model, no longer fearing Goring, +had divided, Fairfax reducing the garrisons of Dorset and +Devon, Cromwell those of Hampshire. Amongst the latter was +the famous Basing House, which was stormed at dawn on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span> +14th of October and burnt to the ground. Cromwell, his work +finished, returned to headquarters, and the army wintered in the +neighbourhood of Crediton.</p> + +<p>44. <i>End of the First War.</i>—The military events of 1646 call +for no comment. The only field army remaining to the king +was Goring’s, and though Hopton, who sorrowfully accepted the +command after Goring’s departure, tried at the last moment +to revive the memories and the local patriotism of 1643, it was +of no use to fight against the New Model with the armed rabble +that Goring turned over to him. Dartmouth surrendered on +January 18, Hopton was defeated at Torrington on February +16, and surrendered the remnant of his worthless army on +March 14. Exeter fell on April 13. Elsewhere, Hereford was +taken on December 17, 1645, and the last battle of the war +was fought and lost at Stow-on-the-Wold by Lord Astley on +March 21, 1646. Newark and Oxford fell respectively on May 6 +and June 24. On August 31 Montrose escaped from the Highlands. +On the 19th of the same month Raglan Castle surrendered, +and the last Royalist post of all, Harlech Castle, maintained +the useless struggle until March 13, 1647. Charles himself, after +leaving Newark in November 1645, had spent the winter in and +around Oxford, whence, after an adventurous journey, he came +to the camp of the Scottish army at Southwell on May 5, 1646.</p> + +<p>45. <i>Second Civil War</i> (<i>1648-52</i>).—The close of the First +Civil War left England and Scotland in the hands potentially of +any one of the four parties or any combination of two or more +that should prove strong enough to dominate the rest. Armed +political Royalism was indeed at an end, but Charles, though +practically a prisoner, considered himself and was, almost to +the last, considered by the rest as necessary to ensure the success +of whichever amongst the other three parties could come to terms +with him. Thus he passed successively into the hands of the +Scots, the Parliament and the New Model, trying to reverse the +verdict of arms by coquetting with each in turn. The Presbyterians +and the Scots, after Cornet Joyce of Fairfax’s horse +seized upon the person of the king for the army (June 3, 1647), +began at once to prepare for a fresh civil war, this time against +Independency, as embodied in the New Model—henceforward +called the Army—and after making use of its sword, its opponents +attempted to disband it, to send it on foreign service, to cut +off its arrears of pay, with the result that it was exasperated +beyond control, and, remembering not merely its grievances +but also the principle for which it had fought, soon became the +most powerful political party in the realm. From 1646 to 1648 +the breach between army and parliament widened day by day +until finally the Presbyterian party, combined with the Scots and +the remaining Royalists, felt itself strong enough to begin a +second civil war.</p> + +<p>46. <i>The English War.</i>—In February 1648 Colonel Poyer, the +Parliamentary governor of Pembroke Castle, refused to hand +over his command to one of Fairfax’s officers, and he was soon +joined by some hundreds of officers and men, who mutinied, +ostensibly for arrears of pay, but really with political objects. +At the end of March, encouraged by minor successes, Poyer +openly declared for the king. Disbanded soldiers continued +to join him in April, all South Wales revolted, and eventually +he was joined by Major-General Laugharne, his district commander, +and Colonel Powel. In April also news came that the +Scots were arming and that Berwick and Carlisle had been +seized by the English Royalists. Cromwell was at once sent off +at the head of a strong detachment to deal with Laugharne and +Poyer. But before he arrived Laugharne had been severely +defeated by Colonel Horton at St Fagans (May 8). The English +Presbyterians found it difficult to reconcile their principles +with their allies when it appeared that the prisoners taken +at St Fagans bore “We long to see our King” on their hats; +very soon in fact the English war became almost purely a Royalist +revolt, and the war in the north an attempt to enforce a mixture +of Royalism and Presbyterianism on Englishmen by means of a +Scottish army. The former were disturbers of the peace and no +more. Nearly all the Royalists who had fought in the First +Civil War had given their parole not to bear arms against the +Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, foremost amongst +them the old Lord Astley, who had fought the last battle for the +king in 1646, refused to break their word by taking any part in +the second war. Those who did so, and by implication those +who abetted them in doing so, were likely to be treated with +the utmost rigour if captured, for the army was in a less placable +mood in 1648 than in 1645, and had already determined to +“call Charles Stuart, that man of blood, to an account for the +blood he had shed.” On the 21st of May Kent rose in revolt in +the king’s name. A few days later a most serious blow to the +Independents was struck by the defection of the navy, from command +of which they had removed Vice-Admiral Batten, as being +a Presbyterian. Though a former lord high admiral, the earl of +Warwick, also a Presbyterian, was brought back to the service, +it was not long before the navy made a purely Royalist declaration +and placed itself under the command of the prince of Wales. +But Fairfax had a clearer view and a clearer purpose than the +distracted Parliament. He moved quickly into Kent, and on the +evening of June 1 stormed Maidstone by open force, after which +the local levies dispersed to their homes, and the more determined +Royalists, after a futile attempt to induce the City of London to +declare for them, fled into Essex. In Cornwall, Northamptonshire, +North Wales and Lincolnshire the revolt collapsed as +easily. Only in South Wales, Essex and the north of England +was there serious fighting. In the first of these districts Cromwell +rapidly reduced all the fortresses except Pembroke, where +Laugharne, Poyer and Powel held out with the desperate courage +of deserters. In the north, Pontefract was surprised by the +Royalists, and shortly afterwards Scarborough Castle declared +for the king. Fairfax, after his success at Maidstone and the +pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce Essex, where, +under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir Charles +Lucas, the Royalists were in arms in great numbers. He soon +drove the enemy into Colchester, but the first attack on the town +was repulsed and he had to settle down to a long and wearisome +siege <i>en règle</i>. A Surrey rising, remembered only for the death +of the young and gallant Lord Francis Villiers in a skirmish at +Kingston (July 7), collapsed almost as soon as it had gathered +force, and its leaders, the duke of Buckingham and the earl of +Holland, escaped, after another attempt to induce London to +declare for them, to St Albans and St Neots, where Holland was +taken prisoner. Buckingham escaped over-seas.</p> + +<p>47. <i>Lambert in the North.</i>—By the 10th of July therefore the +military situation was well defined. Cromwell held Pembroke, +Fairfax Colchester, Lambert Pontefract under siege; elsewhere +all serious local risings had collapsed, and the Scottish army had +crossed the Border. It is on the adventures of the latter that +the interest of the war centres. It was by no means the veteran +army of Leven, which had long been disbanded. For the most +part it consisted of raw levies, and as the kirk had refused to +sanction the enterprise of the Scottish parliament, David Leslie +and thousands of experienced officers and men declined to serve. +The duke of Hamilton proved to be a poor substitute for Leslie; +his army, too, was so ill provided that as soon as England was +invaded it began to plunder the countryside for the bare +means of sustenance. Major-General Lambert, a brilliant young +general of twenty-nine, was more than equal to the situation. +He had already left the sieges of Pontefract and Scarborough +to Colonel Rossiter, and hurried into Cumberland to deal with the +English Royalists under Sir Marmaduke Langdale. With his +cavalry he got into touch with the enemy about Carlisle and +slowly fell back, fighting small rearguard actions to annoy the +enemy and gain time, to Bowes and Barnard Castle. Langdale +did not follow him into the mountains, but occupied himself +in gathering recruits and supplies of material and food for the +Scots. Lambert, reinforced from the midlands, reappeared +early in June and drove him back to Carlisle with his work half +finished. About the same time the local horse of Durham and +Northumberland were put into the field by Sir A. Hesilrige, +governor of Newcastle, and under the command of Colonel +Robert Lilburne won a considerable success (June 30) at the river +Coquet. This reverse, coupled with the existence of Langdale’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span> +force on the Cumberland side, practically compelled Hamilton +to choose the west coast route for his advance, and his army +began slowly to move down the long <i>couloir</i> between the +mountains and the sea. The campaign which followed is one +of the most brilliant in English history.</p> + +<p>48. <i>Campaign of Preston.</i>—On the 8th of July the Scots, with +Langdale as advanced guard, were about Carlisle, and reinforcements +from Ulster were expected daily. Lambert’s horse were +at Penrith, Hexham and Newcastle, too weak to fight and having +only skilful leading and rapidity of movement to enable them +to gain time. Far away to the south Cromwell was still tied +down before Pembroke, Fairfax before Colchester. Elsewhere +the rebellion, which had been put down by rapidity of action +rather than sheer weight of numbers, smouldered, and Prince +Charles and the fleet cruised along the Essex coast. Cromwell +and Lambert, however, understood each other perfectly, while +the Scottish commanders quarrelled with Langdale and each +other. Appleby Castle surrendered to the Scots on the 31st +of July, whereat Lambert, who was still hanging on to the flank +of the Scottish advance, fell back from Barnard Castle to Richmond +so as to close Wensleydale against any attempt of the +invaders to march on Pontefract. All the restless energy of +Langdale’s horse was unable to dislodge him from the passes +or to find out what was behind that impenetrable cavalry +screen. The crisis was now at hand. Cromwell had received +the surrender of Pembroke on the 11th, and had marched off, +with his men unpaid, ragged and shoeless, at full speed through +the midlands. Rains and storms delayed his march, but he +knew that Hamilton in the broken ground of Westmorland was +still worse off. Shoes from Northampton and stockings from +Coventry met him at Nottingham, and, gathering up the local +levies as he went, he made for Doncaster, where he arrived on +the 8th of August, having gained six days in advance of the time +he had allowed himself for the march. He then called up +artillery from Hull, exchanged his local levies for the regulars +who were besieging Pontefract, and set off to meet Lambert. +On the 12th he was at Wetherby, Lambert with horse and foot +at Otley, Langdale at Skipton and Gargrave, Hamilton at +Lancaster, and Sir George Monro with the Scots from Ulster and +the Carlisle Royalists (organized as a separate command owing +to friction between Monro and the generals of the main army) +at Hornby. On the 13th, while Cromwell was marching to join +Lambert at Otley, the Scottish leaders were still disputing as to +whether they should make for Pontefract or continue through +Lancashire so as to join Lord Byron and the Cheshire Royalists.</p> + +<p>49. <i>Preston Fight.</i>—On the 14th Cromwell and Lambert +were at Skipton, on the 15th at Gisburn, and on the 16th +they marched down the valley of the Ribble towards Preston +with full knowledge of the enemy’s dispositions and full determination +to attack him. They had with them horse and foot +not only of the army, but also of the militia of Yorkshire, +Durham, Northumberland and Lancashire, and withal were +heavily outnumbered, having only 8600 men against perhaps +20,000 of Hamilton’s command. But the latter were scattered +for convenience of supply along the road from Lancaster, +through Preston, towards Wigan, Langdale’s corps having thus +become the left flank guard instead of the advanced guard. +Langdale called in his advanced parties, perhaps with a view +to resuming the duties of advanced guard, on the night of +the 13th, and collected them near Longridge. It is not clear +whether he reported Cromwell’s advance, but, if he did, Hamilton +ignored the report, for on the 17th Monro was half a day’s march +to the north, Langdale east of Preston, and the main army +strung out on the Wigan road, Major-General Baillie with a body +of foot, the rear of the column, being still in Preston. Hamilton, +yielding to the importunity of his lieutenant-general, the earl of +Callendar, sent Baillie across the Ribble to follow the main body +just as Langdale, with 3000 foot and 500 horse only, met the +first shock of Cromwell’s attack on Preston Moor. Hamilton, +like Charles at Edgehill, passively shared in, without directing, +the battle, and, though Langdale’s men fought magnificently, +they were after four hours’ struggle driven to the Ribble. Baillie +attempted to cover the Ribble and Darwen bridges on the Wigan +road, but Cromwell had forced his way across both before nightfall. +Pursuit was at once undertaken, and not relaxed until +Hamilton had been driven through Wigan and Winwick to +Uttoxeter and Ashbourne. There, pressed furiously in rear by +Cromwell’s horse and held up in front by the militia of the midlands, +the remnant of the Scottish army laid down its arms on +the 25th of August. Various attempts were made to raise the +Royalist standard in Wales and elsewhere, but Preston was the +death-blow. On the 28th of August, starving and hopeless of +relief, the Colchester Royalists surrendered to Lord Fairfax. +The victors in the Second Civil War were not merciful to those +who had brought war into the land again. On the evening of +the surrender of Colchester, Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George +Lisle were shot. Laugharne, Poyer and Powel were sentenced to +death, but Poyer alone was executed on the 25th of April 1649, +being the victim selected by lot. Of five prominent Royalist +peers who had fallen into the hands of the Parliament, three, +the duke of Hamilton, the earl of Holland, and Lord Capel, +one of the Colchester prisoners and a man of high character, +were beheaded at Westminster on the 9th of March. Above +all, after long hesitations, even after renewal of negotiations, +the army and the Independents “purged” the House of their +ill-wishers, and created a court for the trial and sentence of the +king. The more resolute of the judges nerved the rest to sign +the death-warrant, and Charles was beheaded at Whitehall on +the 30th of January.</p> + +<p>50. <i>Cromwell in Ireland.</i>—The campaign of Preston was +undertaken under the direction of the Scottish parliament, not +the kirk, and it needed the execution of the king to bring about +a union of all Scottish parties against the English Independents. +Even so, Charles II. in exile had to submit to long negotiations +and hard conditions before he was allowed to put himself at +the head of the Scottish armies. The marquis of Huntly was +executed for taking up arms for the king on the 22nd of March +1649. Montrose, under Charles’s directions, made a last attempt +to rally the Scottish Royalists early in 1650. But Charles merely +used Montrose as a threat to obtain better conditions for himself +from the Covenanters, and when the noblest of all the Royalists +was defeated (Carbisdale, April 27), delivered up to his pursuers +(May 4), and executed (May 21, 1650), he was not ashamed to +give way to the demands of the Covenanters, and to place himself +at the head of Montrose’s executioners. His father, whatever +his faults, had at least chosen to die for an ideal, the Church of +England. Charles II. now proposed to regain the throne by +allowing Scotland to impose Presbyterianism on England, and +dismissed all the faithful Cavaliers who had followed him to +exile. Meanwhile, Ireland, in which a fresh war, with openly +anti-English and anti-Protestant objects, had broken out in +1648, was thoroughly reduced to order by Cromwell, who beat +down all resistance by his skill, and even more by his ruthless +severity, in a brief campaign of nine months (battle of Rathmines +near Dublin, won by Colonel Michael Jones, August 2, 1649; +storming of Drogheda, September 11, and of Wexford, October +11, by Cromwell; capture of Kilkenny, March 28, 1650, and of +Clonmel, May 10). Cromwell returned to England at the end +of May 1650, and on June 26 Fairfax, who had been anxious +and uneasy since the execution of the king, resigned the command-in-chief +of the army to his lieutenant-general. The +pretext, rather than the reason, of Fairfax’s resignation was his +unwillingness to lead an English army to reduce Scotland.</p> + +<p>51. <i>The Invasion of Scotland.</i>—This important step had been +resolved upon as soon as it was clear that Charles II. would +come to terms with the Covenanters. From this point the +Second Civil War becomes a war of England against Scotland. +Here at least the Independents carried the whole of England +with them. No Englishman cared to accept a settlement at the +hands of a victorious foreign army, and on the 28th of June, +five days after Charles II. had sworn to the Covenant, the new +lord-general was on his way to the Border to take command of +the English army. About the same time a new militia act was +passed that was destined to give full and decisive effect to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span> +national spirit of England in the great final campaign of the war. +Meanwhile the motto <i>frappez fort, frappez vite</i> was carried out +at once by the regular forces. On the 19th of July 1650 Cromwell +made the final arrangements at Berwick-on-Tweed. Major-General +Harrison, a gallant soldier and an extreme Independent, +was to command the regular and auxiliary forces left in England, +and to secure the Commonwealth against Royalists and Presbyterians. +Cromwell took with him Fleetwood as lieutenant-general +and Lambert as major-general, and his forces numbered about +10,000 foot and 5000 horse. His opponent David Leslie (his +comrade of Marston Moor) had a much larger force, but its degree +of training was inferior, it was more than tainted by the political +dissensions of the people at large, and it was, in great part at +any rate, raised by forced enlistment. On the 22nd of July +Cromwell crossed the Tweed. He marched on Edinburgh by +the sea coast, through Dunbar, Haddington and Musselburgh, +living almost entirely on supplies landed by the fleet which +accompanied him—for the country itself was incapable of +supporting even a small army—and on the 29th he found +Leslie’s army drawn up and entrenched in a position extending +from Leith to Edinburgh.</p> + +<p>52. <i>Operations around Edinburgh.</i>—The same day a sharp but +indecisive fight took place on the lower slopes of Arthur’s Seat, +after which Cromwell, having felt the strength of Leslie’s line, +drew back to Musselburgh. Leslie’s horse followed him up +sharply, and another action was fought, after which the Scots +assaulted Musselburgh without success. Militarily Leslie had +the best of it in these affairs, but it was precisely this moment +that the kirk party chose to institute a searching three days’ +examination of the political and religious sentiments of his army. +The result was that the army was “purged” of 80 officers and +3000 soldiers as it lay within musket shot of the enemy. Cromwell +was more concerned, however, with the supply question +than with the distracted army of the Scots. On the 6th of +August he had to fall back as far as Dunbar to enable the fleet +to land supplies in safety, the port of Musselburgh being unsafe +in the violent and stormy weather which prevailed. He soon +returned to Musselburgh and prepared to force Leslie to battle. +In preparation for an extended manœuvre three days’ rations +were served out. Tents were also issued, perhaps for the first +time in the civil wars, for it was a regular professional army, +which had to be cared for, made comfortable and economized, +that was now carrying on the work of the volunteers of the first +war. Even after Cromwell started on his manœuvre, the Scottish +army was still in the midst of its political troubles, and, certain +though he was that nothing but victory in the field would give +an assured peace, he was obliged to intervene in the confused +negotiations of the various Scottish parties. At last, however, +Charles II. made a show of agreeing to the demands of his +strange supporters, and Leslie was free to move. Cromwell +had now entered the hill country, with a view to occupying +Queensferry and thus blocking up Edinburgh. Leslie had the +shorter road and barred the way at Corstorphine Hill (August +21). Cromwell, though now far from his base, manœuvred +again to his right, Leslie meeting him once more at Gogar +(August 27). The Scottish lines at that point were strong enough +to dismay even Cromwell, and the manœuvre on Queensferry +was at last given up. It had cost the English army severe losses +in sick, and much suffering in the autumn nights on the bleak +hillsides.</p> + +<p>53. <i>Dunbar.</i>—On the 28th Cromwell fell back on Musselburgh, +and on the 31st, after embarking his non-effective men, to Dunbar. +Leslie followed him up, and wished to fight a battle at +Dunbar on Sunday, the 1st of September. But again the kirk +intervened, this time to forbid Leslie to break the Sabbath, and +the unfortunate Scottish commander could only establish himself +on Doon Hill (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dunbar</a></span>) and send a force to Cockburnspath +to bar the Berwick road. He had now 23,000 men to Cromwell’s +11,000, and proposed, <i>faute de mieux</i>, to starve Cromwell into +surrender. But the English army was composed of “ragged +soldiers with bright muskets,” and had a great captain of undisputed +authority at their head. Leslie’s, on the other hand, +had lost such discipline as it had ever possessed, and was now, +under outside influences, thoroughly disintegrated. Cromwell +wrote home, indeed, that he was “upon an engagement very +difficult,” but, desperate as his position seemed, he felt the +pulse of his opponent and steadily refused to take his army away +by sea. He had not to wait long. It was now the turn of Leslie’s +men on the hillside to endure patiently privation and exposure, +and after one night’s bivouac, Leslie, too readily inferring that +the enemy was about to escape by sea, came down to fight. The +battle of Dunbar (<i>q.v.</i>) opened in the early morning of the 3rd of +September. It was the most brilliant of all Oliver’s victories. +Before the sun was high in the heavens the Scottish army had +ceased to exist.</p> + +<p>54. <i>Royalism in Scotland.</i>—After Dunbar it was easy for the +victorious army to overrun southern Scotland, more especially +as the dissensions of the enemy were embittered by the defeat +of which they had been the prime cause. The kirk indeed put +Dunbar to the account of its own remissness in not purging their +army more thoroughly, but, as Cromwell wrote on the 4th of +September, the kirk had “done its do.” “I believe their king +will set up on his own score,” he continued, and indeed, now that +the army of the kirk was destroyed and they themselves were +secure behind the Forth and based on the friendly Highlands, +Charles and the Cavaliers were in a position not only to defy +Cromwell, but also to force the Scottish national spirit of resistance +to the invader into a purely Royalist channel. Cromwell +had only received a few drafts and reinforcements from England, +and for the present he could but block up Edinburgh Castle +(which surrendered on Christmas eve), and try to bring up +adequate forces and material for the siege of Stirling—an attempt +which was frustrated by the badness of the roads and the violence +of the weather. The rest of the early winter of 1650 was thus +occupied in semi-military, semi-political operations between +detachments of the English army and certain armed forces of the +kirk party which still maintained a precarious existence in the +western Lowlands, and in police work against the moss-troopers +of the Border counties. Early in February 1651, still in the +midst of terrible weather, Cromwell made another resolute but +futile attempt to reach Stirling. This time he himself fell sick, +and his losses had to be made good by drafts of recruits from +England, many of whom came most unwillingly to serve in the +cold wet bivouacs that the newspapers had graphically reported.<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p>55. <i>The English Militia.</i>—About this time there occurred +in England two events which had a most important bearing on +the campaign. The first was the detection of a widespread +Royalist-Presbyterian conspiracy—how widespread no one knew, +for those of its promoters who were captured and executed certainly +formed but a small fraction of the whole number. Harrison +was ordered to Lancashire in April to watch the north Welsh, +Isle of Man and Border Royalists, and military precautions were +taken in various parts of England. The second was the revival +of the militia. Since 1644 there had been no general employment +of local forces, the quarrel having fallen into the hands of the +regular armies by force of circumstances. The New Model, +though a national army, resembled Wellington’s Peninsular +army more than the soldiers of the French Revolution and the +American Civil War. It was now engaged in prosecuting a +war of aggression against the hereditary foe over the Border—strictly +the task of a professional army with a national basis. +The militia was indeed raw and untrained. Some of the Essex +men “fell flat on their faces on the sound of a cannon.” In the +north of England Harrison complained to Cromwell of the +“badness” of his men, and the lord general sympathized, +having “had much such stuff” sent him to make good the +losses in trained men. Even he for a moment lost touch with the +spirit of the people. His recruits were unwilling drafts for foreign +service, but in England the new levies were trusted to defend +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span> +their homes, and the militia was soon triumphantly to justify its +existence on the day of Worcester.</p> + +<p>56. <i>Inverkeithing.</i>—While David Leslie organized and drilled +the king’s new army beyond the Forth, Cromwell was, slowly +and with frequent relapses, recovering from his illness. The +English army marched to Glasgow in April, then returned to +Edinburgh. The motives of the march and that of the return +are alike obscure, but it may be conjectured that, the forces in +England under Harrison having now assembled in Lancashire, +the Edinburgh-Newcastle-York road had to be covered by the +main army. Be this as it may, Cromwell’s health again broke +down and his life was despaired of. Only late in June were +operations actively resumed between Stirling and Linlithgow. +At first Cromwell sought without success to bring Leslie to +battle, but he stormed Callendar House near Falkirk on July 13, +and on the 16th of July he began the execution of a brilliant +and successful manœuvre. A force from Queensferry, covered by +the English fleet, was thrown across the Firth of Forth to Northferry. +Lambert followed with reinforcements, and defeated a +detachment of Leslie’s army at Inverkeithing on the 20th. +Leslie drew back at once, but managed to find a fresh strong +position in front of Stirling, whence he defied Cromwell again. +At this juncture Cromwell prepared to pass his whole army across +the firth. His contemplated manœuvre of course gave up to the +enemy all the roads into England, and before undertaking it the +lord general held a consultation with Harrison, as the result of +which that officer took over the direct defence of the whole +Border. But his mind was made up even before this, for on the +day he met Harrison at Linlithgow three-quarters of his whole +army had already crossed into Fife. Burntisland, surrendered +to Lambert on the 29th, gave Cromwell a good harbour upon +which to base his subsequent movements. On the 30th of July +the English marched upon Perth, and the investment of this +place, the key to Leslie’s supply area, forced the crisis at once. +Whether Leslie would have preferred to manœuvre Cromwell +from his vantage-ground or not is immaterial; the young king +and the now predominant Royalist element at headquarters +seized the long-awaited opportunity at once, and on the 31st, +leaving Cromwell to his own devices, the Royal army marched +southward to raise the Royal standard in England.</p> + +<p>57. <i>The Third Scottish Invasion of England.</i>—Then began the +last and most thrilling campaign of the Great Rebellion. Charles +II. expected complete success. In Scotland, <i>vis-à-vis</i> the extreme +Covenanters, he was a king on conditions, and he was glad enough +to find himself in England with some thirty solidly organized regiments +under Royalist officers and with no regular army in front +of him. He hoped, too, to rally not merely the old faithful +Royalists, but also the overwhelming numerical strength of the +English Presbyterians to his standard. His army was kept well +in hand, no excesses were allowed, and in a week the Royalists +covered 150 m.—in marked contrast to the duke of Hamilton’s +ill-fated expedition of 1648. On the 8th of August the troops +were given a well-earned rest between Penrith and Kendal.</p> + +<p>But the Royalists were mistaken in supposing that the enemy +was taken aback by their new move. Everything had been +foreseen both by Cromwell and by the Council of State in Westminster. +The latter had called out the greater part of the +militia on the 7th. Lieutenant-General Fleetwood began to +draw together the midland contingents at Banbury, the London +trained bands turned out for field service no fewer than 14,000 +strong. Every suspected Royalist was closely watched, and the +magazines of arms in the country-houses of the gentry were for +the most part removed into the strong places. On his part +Cromwell had quietly made his preparations. Perth passed into +his hands on the 2nd of August, and he brought back his army to +Leith by the 5th. Thence he despatched Lambert with a cavalry +corps to harass the invaders. Harrison was already at Newcastle +picking the best of the county mounted troops to add to his own +regulars. On the 9th Charles was at Kendal, Lambert hovering in +his rear, and Harrison marching swiftly to bar his way at the +Mersey. Fairfax emerged for a moment from his retirement to +organize the Yorkshire levies, and the best of these as well as of +the Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire militias were directed +upon Warrington, which point Harrison reached on the 15th, a +few hours in front of Charles’s advanced guard. Lambert too, +slipping round the left flank of the enemy, joined Harrison, and +the English fell back (16th), slowly and without letting themselves +be drawn into a fight, along the London road.</p> + +<p>58. <i>Campaign of Worcester.</i>—Cromwell meanwhile, leaving +Monk with the least efficient regiments to carry on the war in +Scotland, had reached the Tyne in seven days, and thence, +marching 20 m. a day in extreme heat—with the country people +carrying their arms and equipment—the regulars entered +Ferrybridge on the 19th, at which date Lambert, Harrison and +the north-western militia were about Congleton.<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> It seemed +probable that a great battle would take place between Lichfield +and Coventry about the 25th or 26th of August, and that Cromwell, +Harrison, Lambert and Fleetwood would all take part in it. +But the scene and the date of the <i>denouement</i> were changed by +the enemy’s movements. Shortly after leaving Warrington the +young king had resolved to abandon the direct march on London +and to make for the Severn valley, where his father had found the +most constant and the most numerous adherents in the first war, +and which had been the centre of gravity of the English Royalist +movement of 1648. Sir Edward Massey, formerly the Parliamentary +governor of Gloucester, was now with Charles, and it was +hoped that he would induce his fellow-Presbyterians to take arms. +The military quality of the Welsh border Royalists was well +proved, that of the Gloucestershire Presbyterians not less so, and, +based on Gloucester and Worcester as his father had been based +on Oxford, Charles II. hoped, not unnaturally, to deal with an +Independent minority more effectually than Charles I. had done +with a Parliamentary majority of the people of England. But +even the pure Royalism which now ruled in the invading army +could not alter the fact that it was a Scottish army, and it was +not an Independent faction but all England that took arms +against it. Charles arrived at Worcester on the 22nd of August, +and spent five days in resting the troops, preparing for further +operations, and gathering and arming the few recruits who came +in. It is unnecessary to argue that the delay was fatal; it was a +necessity of the case foreseen and accepted when the march to +Worcester had been decided upon, and had the other course, +that of marching on London via Lichfield, been taken the battle +would have been fought three days earlier with the same result. +As affairs turned out Cromwell merely shifted the area of his +concentration two marches to the south-west, to Evesham. +Early on the 28th Lambert surprised the passage of the Severn +at Upton, 6 m. below Worcester, and in the action which followed +Massey was severely wounded. Fleetwood followed Lambert. +The enemy was now only 16,000 strong and disheartened by the +apathy with which they had been received in districts formerly all +their own. Cromwell, for the first and last time in his military +career, had a two-to-one numerical superiority.</p> + +<p>59. <i>The “Crowning Mercy.”</i>—He took his measures deliberately. +Lilburne from Lancashire and Major Mercer with the +Worcestershire horse were to secure Bewdley Bridge on the +enemy’s line of retreat. Lambert and Fleetwood were to force +their way across the Teme (a little river on which Rupert had won +his first victory in 1642) and attack St John’s, the western suburb +of Worcester. Cromwell himself and the main army were to +attack the town itself. On the 3rd of September, the anniversary +of Dunbar, the programme was carried out exactly. Fleetwood +forced the passage of the Teme, and the bridging train (which had +been carefully organized for the purpose) bridged both the Teme +and the Severn. Then Cromwell on the left bank and Fleetwood +on the right swept in a semicircle 4 m. long up to Worcester. +Every hedgerow was contested by the stubborn Royalists, but +Fleetwood’s men would not be denied, and Cromwell’s extreme +right on the eastern side of the town repelled, after three hours’ +hard fighting, the last desperate attempt of the Royalists to break +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span> +out. It was indeed, as a German critic<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> has pointed out, the +prototype of Sedan. Everywhere the defences were stormed as +darkness came on, regulars and militia fighting with equal +gallantry, and the few thousands of the Royalists who escaped +during the night were easily captured by Lilburne and Mercer, or +by the militia which watched every road in Yorkshire and Lancashire. +Even the country people brought in scores of prisoners, +for officers and men alike, stunned by the suddenness of the +disaster, offered no resistance. Charles escaped after many +adventures, but he was one of the few men in his army who +regained a place of safety. The Parliamentary militia were sent +home within a week. Cromwell, who had ridiculed “such stuff” +six months ago, knew them better now. “Your new raised +forces,” he wrote to the House, “did perform singular good +service, for which they deserve a very high estimation and +acknowledgment.” Worcester resembled Sedan in much more +than outward form. Both were fought by “nations in arms,” by +citizen soldiers who had their hearts in the struggle, and could be +trusted not only to fight their hardest but to march their best. +Only with such troops would a general dare to place a deep river +between the two halves of his army or to send away detachments +beforehand to reap the fruits of victory, in certain anticipation +of winning the victory with the remainder. The sense of duty, +which the raw militia possessed in so high a degree, ensured the +arrival and the action of every column at the appointed time and +place. The result was, in brief, one of those rare victories in +which a pursuit is superfluous—a “crowning mercy,” as Cromwell +called it. There is little of note in the closing operations. Monk +had completed his task by May 1652; and Scotland, which had +twice attempted to impose its will on England, found itself +reduced to the position of an English province under martial +law. The details of its subjection are uninteresting after the +tremendous climax of Worcester.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—Earl of Clarendon, <i>The History of the Rebellion</i> +(Oxford, 1702-1704, ed. W. D. Macray, Oxford, 1888); R. Baillie, +<i>Letters and Journals</i> (Bannatyne Society, 1841); T. Carlyle, <i>Cromwell’s +Letters and Speeches</i> (new edition, S. C. Lomas, London, 1904); +<i>Fairfax Correspondence</i> (ed. R. Bell, London, 1849); E. Borlace, +<i>History of the Irish Rebellion</i> (London, 1675); R. Bellings, <i>Fragmentum +historicum, or the ... War in Ireland</i> (London, 1772); J. +Heath, <i>Chronicle of the late Intestine War</i> (London, 1676); <i>Military +Memoir of Colonel Birch</i> (Camden Society, new series, vol. vii., 1873); +<i>Autobiography of Captain John Hodgson</i> (edition of 1882); Papers +on the earl of Manchester, Camden Society, vol. viii., and <i>English +Historical Review</i>, vol. iii.; J. Ricraft, <i>Survey of England’s Champions</i> +(1647, reprinted, London, 1818); ed. E. Warburton, <i>Memoirs of +Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers</i> (London, 1849); J. Vicars, <i>Jehovah-Jireh</i> +(1644), and <i>England’s Worthies</i> (1647), the latter reprinted in +1845: Anthony à Wood, <i>History and Antiquities of the University +of Oxford</i> (ed. J. Gutch, Oxford, 1792-1795); Margaret, duchess of +Newcastle, Life of <i>William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle</i> (ed. C. H. +Firth, London, 1886); Lucy Hutchinson, <i>Memoir of the Life of +Colonel Hutchinson</i> (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1896); <i>Memoirs of +Edward Ludlow</i> (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1892); S. Ashe and W. +Goode, <i>The Services of the Earl of Manchester’s Army</i> (London, 1644); +H. Cary, <i>Memorials of the Great Civil War</i> (London, 1842); Patrick +Gordon, <i>Passages from the Diary of Patrick Gordon</i> (Spalding Club, +Aberdeen, 1859); J. Gwynne, <i>Military Memoirs of the Civil War</i> +(ed. Sir W. Scott, Edinburgh, 1822); <i>Narratives of Hamilton’s +Expedition</i>, 1648 (C. H. Firth, Scottish Historical Society, Edinburgh, +1904); Lord Hopton, <i>Bellum Civile</i> (Somerset Record Society, +London, 1902); <i>Irish War of 1641</i> (Camden Society, old series, vol. +xiv., 1841); <i>Iter Carolinum, Marches of Charles I. 1641-1649</i> (London, +1660); Hugh Peters, <i>Reports from the Armies of Fairfax and Cromwell</i> +(London, 1645-1646); “Journal of the Marches of Prince Rupert” +(ed. C. H. Firth, <i>Engl. Historical Review</i>, 1898); J. Sprigge, <i>Anglia +Rediviva</i> (London, 1847, reprinted Oxford, 1854); R. Symonds, +<i>Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army, 1644-1645</i> (ed. C. E. Long, +Camden Society, old series, 1859); J. Corbet, <i>The Military Government +of Gloucester</i> (London, 1645); M. Carter, <i>Expeditions of Kent, +Essex and Colchester</i> (London, 1650); <i>Tracts relating to the Civil +War in Lancashire</i> (ed. G. Ormerod, Chetham Society, London, +1844); <i>Discourse of the War in Lancashire</i> (ed. W. Beament, Chetham +Society, London, 1864); Sir M. Langdale, <i>The late Fight at Preston</i> +(London, 1648); <i>Journal of the Siege of Lathom House</i> (London, 1823); +J. Rushworth, <i>The Storming of Bristol</i> (London, 1645); S. R. Gardiner +<i>History of the Great Civil War</i> (London, 1886); and <i>History of the +Commonwealth and Protectorate</i> (London, 1903); C. H. Firth, <i>Oliver +Cromwell</i> (New York and London, 1900); <i>Cromwell’s Army</i> (London, +1902); “The Raising of the Ironsides,” <i>Transactions R. Hist. +Society</i>, 1899 and 1901; papers in <i>English Historical Review</i>, and +memoirs of the leading personages of the period in <i>Dictionary of +National Biography</i>; T. S. Baldock, <i>Cromwell as a Soldier</i> (London, +1899); F. Hoenig, <i>Oliver Cromwell</i> (Berlin, 1887-1889); Sir J. +Maclean, <i>Memoirs of the Family of Poyntz</i> (Exeter, 1886); Sir C. +Markham, <i>Life of Fairfax</i> (London, 1870); M. Napier, <i>Life and +Times of Montrose</i> (Edinburgh, 1840); W. B. Devereux, <i>Lives of +the Earls of Essex</i> (London, 1853); W. G. Ross, <i>Mil. Engineering +in the Civil War</i> (R. E. Professional Papers, 1887); “The Battle of +Naseby,” <i>English Historical Review</i>, 1888; <i>Oliver Cromwell and +his Ironsides</i> (Chatham, 1869); F. N. Maude, <i>Cavalry, its Past and +Future</i> (London, 1903); E. Scott, <i>Rupert, Prince Palatine</i> (London, +1899); M. Stace, <i>Cromwelliana</i> (London, 1870); C. S. Terry, <i>Life +and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven</i> (London, 1899); +Madame H. de Witt, <i>The Lady of Lathom</i> (London, 1869); F. +Maseres, <i>Tracts relating to the Civil War</i> (London, 1815); P. A. +Charrier, <i>Cromwell</i> (London, 1905), also paper in <i>Royal United Service +Institution Journal</i>, 1906; T. Arnold and W. G. Ross, “Edgehill,” +<i>English Historical Review</i>, 1887; <i>The History of Basing House</i> +(Basingstoke, 1869); E. Broxap, “The Sieges of Hull,” <i>English +Historical Review</i>, 1905; J. Willis Bund, <i>The Civil War in Worcestershire</i> +(Birmingham, 1905); C. Coates, <i>History of Reading</i> (London, +1802); F. Drake, <i>Eboracum: History of the City of York</i> (London, +1736); N. Drake, <i>Siege of Pontefract Castle</i> (Surtees Society Miscellanea, +London, 1861); G. N. Godwin, <i>The Civil War in Hampshire</i> +(2nd ed., London, 1904); J. F. Hollings, <i>Leicester during the Civil +War</i> (Leicester, 1840); R. Holmes, <i>Sieges of Pontefract Castle</i> +(Pontefract, 1887); A. Kingston, <i>East Anglia and the Civil War</i> +(London, 1897); H. E. Maiden, “Maidstone, 1648,” <i>English Hist. +Review</i>, 1892; W. Money, <i>Battles of Newbury</i> (Newbury, 1884); +J. R. Phillips, <i>The Civil War in Wales and the Marches</i> (London, +1874); G. Rigaud, <i>Lines round Oxford</i> (1880); G. Roberts, <i>History +of Lyme</i> (London, 1834); [R. Robinson] <i>Sieges of Bristol</i> (Bristol, +1868); [J. H. Round] <i>History of Colchester Castle</i> (Colchester, 1882) +and “The Case of Lucas and Lisle,” <i>Transactions of R. Historical +Society</i>, 1894; R. R. Sharpe, <i>London and the Kingdom</i> (London, +1894); I. Tullie, <i>Siege of Carlisle</i> (1840); E. A. Walford, “Edgehill,” +<i>English Hist. Review</i>, 1905; J. Washbourne, <i>Bibliotheca +Gloucestrensis</i> (Gloucester, 1825); J. Webb, <i>Civil War in Herefordshire</i>(London, 1879).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Gustavus Adolphus before the battle of the Alte Veste (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thirty Years’ War</a></span>).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> “Making not money but that which they took to be the public +felicity to be their end they were the more engaged to be valiant” +(Baxter).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For the third time within the year the London trained bands +turned out in force. It was characteristic of the early years of the +war that imminent danger alone called forth the devotion of the +citizen soldier. If he was employed in ordinary times (<i>e.g.</i> at Basing +House) he would neither fight nor march with spirit.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Charles’s policy was still, as before Marston Moor, to “spin out +time” until Rupert came back from the north.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The ground has been entirely built over for many years.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The Puritans had by now disappeared almost entirely from the +ranks of the infantry. <i>Per contra</i> the officers and sergeants and the +troopers of the horse were the sternest Puritans of all, the survivors +of three years of a disheartening war.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The tents were evidently issued for regular marches, not for +cross-country manœuvres against the enemy. These manœuvres, +as we have seen, often took several days. The <i>bon général ordinaire</i> +of the 17th and 18th centuries framed his manœuvres on a smaller +scale so as not to expose his expensive and highly trained soldiers +to discomfort and the consequent temptation to desert.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The lord general had during his march thrown out successively +two flying columns under Colonel Lilburne to deal with the Lancashire +Royalists under the earl of Derby. Lilburne entirely routed +the enemy at Wigan on the 25th of August.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Fritz Hoenig, <i>Cromwell</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT SALT LAKE<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span>, a shallow body of highly concentrated +brine in the N.W. part of Utah, U.S.A., lying between 118.8° +and 113.2° W. long, and between 40.7° and 41.8° lat. Great +Salt Lake is 4218 ft. above sea-level. It has no outlet, and is +fed chiefly by the Jordan, the Weber and the Bear rivers, all +draining the mountainous country to the E. and S.E. The +irregular outline of the lake has been compared to the roughly +drawn hand, palm at the S., thumb (exaggerated in breadth) +pointing N.E., and the fingers (crowded together and drawn +too small) reaching N.</p> + +<p>No bathymetric survey of the lake has been made, but the +maximum depth is 60 ft. and the mean depth less than 20 ft., +possibly as little as 13 ft. The lake in 1906 was approximately +75 m. long., from N.W. to S.E., and had a maximum width of +50 m. and an area of 1750 sq. m. This area is not constant, as the +water is very shallow at the margins, and the relation between +supply from precipitation, &c., and loss by evaporation is +variable, there being an annual difference in the height of the +water of 15-18 in. between June (highest) and November (lowest), +and besides a difference running through longer cycles: in 1850 +the water was lower and the lake smaller than by any previous +observations (the area and general outline were nearly the same +again in 1906); then the water rose until 1873; and between +1886 and 1902 the fall in level was 11.6 ft. The range of rise and +fall from 1845 to 1886 was 13 ft., this being the rise in 1865-1886. +With the fall of water there is an increase in the specific gravity, +which in 1850 was 1.17, and in September 1901 was 1.179; +in 1850 the proportion of solids by weight was 22.282%, in +September 1901 it was 25.221; at the earlier of these dates +the solids in a litre of water weighed 260.69 grams, at the latter +date 302.122 grams. The exact cause of this cyclic variation +is unknown: the low level of 1906 is usually regarded as the +result of extensive irrigation and ploughing in the surrounding +country, which have robbed the lake, in part, of its normal +supply of water. It is also to be noted that the rise and fall +of the lake level have been coincident, respectively, with continued +wet and dry cycles. That the lake will soon dry up +entirely seems unlikely, as there is a central trough, 25 to 30 m. +wide, about 40 ft. deep, running N.W. and S.E. The area and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span> +shore-line of the lake are evidently affected by a slight surface +tilt, for during the same generation that has seen the recent +fall of the lake level the shore-line is in many cases 2 m. from the +old, and fences may be seen a mile or more out in the lake. The +lake bed is for the most part clear sand along the margin, and in +deeper water is largely coated with crusts of salt, soda and +gypsum.</p> + +<p>The lake is a novel and popular bathing resort, the specific +gravity of the water being so great that one cannot sink or +entirely submerge oneself. There are well-equipped bathing +pavilions at Garfield and Saltair on the S. shore of the lake about +20 m. from Salt Lake City. The bathing is invigorating; it +must be followed by a freshwater bath because of the incrustation +of the body from the briny water. The large amount of +salt in the water makes both fauna and flora of the lake scanty; +there are a few algae, the larvae of an <i>Ephydra</i> and of a <i>Tipula</i> +fly, specimens of what seems to be <i>Corixa decolor</i>, and in great +quantities, so as to tint the surface of the water, the brine +shrimp, <i>Artemia salina</i> (or <i>gracilis</i> or <i>fertilis</i>), notable biologically +for the rarity of males, for the high degree of parthenogenesis and +for apparent interchangeableness with the <i>Branchipus</i>.</p> + +<p>The lake is of interest for its generally mountainous surroundings, +save to the N.W., where it skirts the Great Salt Lake Desert, +for the mountainous peninsula, the Promontory, lying between +thumb and fingers of the hand, shaped like and resembling in +geological structure the two islands S. of it, Fremont and Antelope,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +and the Oquirrh range S. of the lake. The physiography of the +surrounding country shows clearly that the basin occupied by +Great Salt Lake is one of many left by the drying up of a large +Pleistocene lake, which has been called lake Bonneville. Well-defined +wave-cut cliffs and terraces show two distinct shore-lines +of this early lake, one the “Bonneville Shore-line,” about 1000 +ft. above Great Salt Lake, and the other, the “Provo Shoreline,” +about 625 ft. higher than the present lake. These shorelines +and the presence of two alluvial deposits, the lower and the +larger of yellow clay 90 ft. deep, and, separated from it by a plane +of erosion, the other, a deposit of white marl, 10-20 ft. deep, +clearly prove the main facts as to lake Bonneville: a dry basin +was first occupied by the shallow waters of a small lake; then, +during a long period of excessive moisture (or cold), the waters +rose and spread over an area nearly as large as lake Huron with +a maximum depth of 1000 ft.; a period of great dryness followed, +in which the lake disappeared; then came a second, shorter, +but more intense period of moisture, and in this time the lake +rose, covered a larger area than before, including W. Utah and +a little of S. Idaho and of E. Nevada, about 19,750 sq. m., had +a very much broken shore-line of 2550 m. and a maximum +depth of 1050 ft. and a mean depth of 800 ft., overflowed the +basin at the N., and by a tributary stream through Red Rock +Pass at the N. end of the Cache valley poured its waters into +the Columbia river system. The great lake was then gradually +reduced by evaporation, leaving only shallow bodies of salt water, +of which Great Salt Lake is the largest. The cause of the +climatic variations which brought about this complex history +of the Salt Lake region is not known; but it is worthy of +note that the periods of highest water levels were coincident +with a great expansion of local valley glaciers, some of which +terminated in the waters of lake Bonneville.</p> + +<p>Industrially Great Salt Lake is of a certain importance. In +early days it was the source of the salt supply of the surrounding +country; and the manufacture of salt is now an important +industry. The brine is pumped into conduits, carried to large +ponds and there evaporated by the sun; during late years the +salt has been refined here, being purified of the sulphates and +magnesium compounds which formerly rendered it efflorescent +and of a low commercial grade. Mirabilite, or Glauber’s salt, +is commercially valuable, occurring in such quantities in parts +of the lake that one may wade knee-deep in it; it separates +from the brine at a temperature between 30° and 20° F. The +lake is crossed E. and W. by the Southern Pacific railway’s +so-called “Lucin Cut-off,” which runs from Ogden to Lucin +on a trestle with more than 20 m. of “fill”; the former route +around the N. end of the lake was 43 m. long.</p> + +<p>Great Salt Lake was first described in 1689 by Baron La +Hontan, who had merely heard of it from the Indians. “Jim” +Bridger, a famous mountaineer and scout, saw the lake in 1824, +apparently before any other white man. Captain Bonneville +described the lake and named it after himself, but the name +was transferred to the great Pleistocene lake. John C. Frémont +gave the first description of any accuracy in his <i>Report</i> of 1845. +But comparatively little was known of it before the Mormon +settlement in 1847. In 1850 Captain Howard Stansbury completed +a survey, whose results were published in 1852. The +most extensive and important studies of the region, however, +are those by Grove Karl Gilbert of the United States Geological +Survey, who in 1879-1890 studied especially the earlier and +greater lake.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. E. Talmage, <i>The Great Salt Lake, Present and Past</i> (Salt +Lake City, 1900); and Grove Karl Gilbert, <i>Lake Bonneville</i>, monograph +1 of United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1890), +containing (pp. 12-19) references to the earlier literature.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Besides these islands there are a few small islands farther N., +and W. of Antelope, Stansbury Island, which, like Antelope and +Fremont Islands, is connected with the mainland by a bar sometimes +uncovered, and rarely in more than a foot of water.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT SLAVE LAKE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Athapuscow</span>), a lake of Mackenzie +district, Canada. It is situated between 60° 50′ and 62° 55′ +N. and 108° 40′ and 117° W., at an altitude of 391 ft. above +the sea. It is 325 m. long, from 15 to 50 m. wide, and includes +an area of 9770 sq. m. The water is very clear and deep. Its +coast line is irregular and deeply indented by large bays, and its +north-eastern shores are rugged and mountainous. The western +shores are well wooded, chiefly with spruce, but the northern +and eastern are dreary and barren. It is navigable from about +the 1st of July to the end of October. The Yellow-knife, Hoarfrost, +Lockhart (discharging the waters of Aylmer, Clinton-Colden +and Artillery Lakes), Tchzudezeth, Du Rocher, Hay +(400 m. in length), and Slave rivers empty into Great Slave +Lake. The bulk of its water empties by the Mackenzie river +into the Arctic Ocean, but a small portion finds its way by the +Ark-i-linik river into Hudson’s Bay. It was discovered in 1771 +by Samuel Hearne.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> the name given to the belt of +water which extends almost continuously round the globe +between the parallel of 40° S. and the Antarctic Circle (66½° S.). +The fact that the southern extremity of South America is the +only land extending into this belt gives it special physical +importance in relation to tides and currents, and its position +with reference to the Antarctic Ocean and continent makes it +convenient to regard it as a separate ocean from which the +Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans may be said to radiate. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ocean</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREAVES, JOHN<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1602-1652), English mathematician and +antiquary, was the eldest son of John Greaves, rector of Colemore, +near Alresford in Hampshire. He was educated at Balliol +College, Oxford, and in 1630 was chosen professor of geometry +in Gresham College, London. After travelling in Europe, +he visited the East in 1637, where he collected a considerable +number of Arabic, Persian and Greek manuscripts, and made a +more accurate survey of the pyramids of Egypt than any traveller +who had preceded him. On his return to Europe he visited a +second time several parts of Italy, and during his stay at Rome +instituted inquiries into the ancient weights and measures. In +1643 he was appointed to the Savilian professorship of astronomy +at Oxford, but he was deprived of his Gresham professorship +for having neglected its duties. In 1645 he essayed a reformation +of the calendar, but his plan was not adopted. In 1648 he +lost both his fellowship and his Savilian chair on account of his +adherence to the royalist party. But his private fortune more +than sufficed for all his wants till his death on the 8th of October +1652.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides his papers in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, the principal +works of Greaves are <i>Pyramidographia, or a Description of the +Pyramids in Egypt</i> (1646); <i>A Discourse on the Roman Foot and</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span> +<i>Denarius</i> (1649); and <i>Elementa linguae Persicae</i> (1649). His +miscellaneous works were published in 1737 by Dr Thomas Birch, +with a biographical notice of the author. See also Smith’s <i>Vita +quorundam erudit. virorum</i> and Ward’s <i>Gresham Professors</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREBE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (Fr. <i>grèbe</i>), the generally accepted name for all the +birds of the family <i>Podicipedidae</i>,<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> belonging to the group +<i>Pygopodes</i> of Illiger, members of which inhabit almost all parts +of the world. Some systematic writers have distributed them +into several so-called genera, but, with one exception, these +seem to be insufficiently defined, and here it will be enough to +allow but two—Latham’s <i>Podiceps</i> and the <i>Centropelma</i> of +Sclater and Salvin. Grebes are at once distinguishable from +all other water-birds by their rudimentary tail and the peculiar +structure of their feet, which are not only placed far behind, but +have the tarsi flattened and elongated toes furnished with broad +lobes of skin and flat blunt nails.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:441px; height:511px" src="images/img423.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Illustration: Great Crested Grebe.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In Europe are five well-marked species of <i>Podiceps</i>, the +commonest and smallest of which is the very well-known dab-chick +of English ponds, <i>P. fluviatilis</i> or <i>minor</i>, the little grebe +of ornithologists, found throughout the British Islands, and +with a wide range in the old world. Next in size are two species +known as the eared and horned grebes, the former of which, +<i>P. nigricollis</i>, is a visitor from the south, only occasionally +showing itself in Britain and very rarely breeding, while the +latter, <i>P. auritus</i>, has a more northern range, breeding plentifully +in Iceland, and is a not uncommon winter-visitant. Then there +is the larger red-necked grebe, <i>P. griseigena</i>, also a northern bird, +and a native of the subarctic parts of both Europe and America, +while lastly the great crested grebe, <i>P. cristatus</i> or gaunt—known +as the loon on the meres and broads of East Anglia and some +other parts of England, is also widely spread over the old world. +North America is credited with seven species of grebes, of which +two (<i>P. griseigena</i> and <i>P. auritus</i>) are admitted to be specifically +inseparable from those already named, and two (<i>P. occidentalis</i> +and <i>P. californicus</i>) appear to be but local forms; the remaining +two (<i>P. dominicus</i> and <i>P. ludovicianus</i>) may, however, be +accounted good species, and the last differs so much from other +grebes that many systematists make it the type of a distinct +genus, <i>Podilymbus</i>. South America seems to possess four or +five more species, one of which, the <i>P. micropterus</i> of Gould +(<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1858, p. 220), has been deservedly separated +from the genus <i>Podiceps</i> under the name <i>Centropelma</i> by Sclater +and Salvin (<i>Exot. Ornithology</i>, p. 189, pl. xcv.), owing to the form +of its bill, and the small size of its wings, which renders it +absolutely flightless. Lake Titicaca in Bolivia is, so far as is +known at present, its only habitat. Grebes in general, though +averse from taking wing, have much greater power of flight +than would seem possible on examination of their alar organs, +and are capable of prolonged aerial journeys. Their plumage is +short and close. Above it is commonly of some shade of brown, +but beneath it is usually white, and so glossy as to be in much +request for muffs and the trimming of ladies’ dresses. Some +species are remarkable for the crests or tippets, generally of a +golden-chestnut colour, they assume in the breeding season. +<i>P. auritus</i> is particularly remarkable in this respect, and when +in its full nuptial attire presents an extraordinary aspect, the +head (being surrounded, as it were, by a <i>nimbus</i> or aureole, such +as that with which painters adorn saintly characters), reflecting +the rays of light, glitters with a glory that passes description. +All the species seem to have similar habits of nidification. +Water-weeds are pulled from the bottom of the pool, and piled +on a convenient foundation, often a seminatant growth of bogbean +(<i>Menyanthes</i>), till they form a large mass, in the centre of +which a shallow cup is formed, and the eggs, with a chalky +white shell almost equally pointed at each end, are laid—the +parent covering them, whenever she has time to do so, before +leaving the nest. Young grebes are beautiful objects, clothed +with black, white and brown down, disposed in streaks and +their bill often brilliantly tinted. When taken from the nest +and placed on dry ground, it is curious to observe the way in +which they progress—using the wings almost as fore-feet, and +suggesting the notion that they must be quadrupeds instead of +birds.</p> +<div class="author">(A. N.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Often, but erroneously, written <i>Podicipidae</i>. The word <i>Podiceps</i> +being a contracted form of <i>Podicipes</i> (cf. Gloger, <i>Journal für Ornithologie</i>, +1854, p. 430, note), a combination of <i>podex</i>, <i>podicis</i> and <i>pes</i>, +<i>pedis</i>, its further compounds must be in accordance with its derivation.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRECO, EL,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> the name commonly given to Dominico Theotocopuli +(d. 1614), Cretan painter, architect and sculptor. He +was born in Crete, between 1545 and 1550, and announces his +Cretan origin by his signature in Greek letters on his most important +pictures, especially on the “St Maurice” in the Escorial. +He appears to have studied art first of all in Venice, and on +arriving in Rome in 1570 is described as having been a pupil +of Titian, in a letter written by the miniaturist, Giulio Clovio, +addressed to Cardinal Alessandro Farnesi, dated the 15th of +November 1570.</p> + +<p>Although a student under Titian, he was at no time an exponent +of his master’s spirit, and his early historical pictures +were attributed to many other artists, but never to Titian. +Of his early works, two pictures of “The Healing of the Blind +Man” at Dresden and Palma, and the four of “Christ driving +the money-changers out of the Temple” in the Yarborough +collection, the Cork collection, the National Gallery, and the +Beruete collection at Madrid, are the chief. His first authentic +portrait is that of his fellow-countryman, Giulio Clovio. It was +painted between 1570 and 1578, is signed in Greek characters, +and preserved at Naples, and the last portrait he painted under +the influence of the Italian school appears to be that of a cardinal +now in the National Gallery, of which four replicas painted in +Spain are known. He appears to have come to Spain in 1577, +but, on being questioned two years later in connexion with a +judicial suit, as to when he arrived in the country, and for what +purpose he came, declined to give any information. He was +probably attracted by the prospect of participating in the +decoration of the Escorial, and he appears to have settled down +in Toledo, where his first works were the paintings for the high +altar of Santo Domingo, and his famous picture of “The Disrobing +of Christ” in the sacristy of the cathedral. It was in +connexion with this last-named work that he proved refractory, +and the records of a law-suit respecting the price to be paid to +him give us the earliest information of the artist’s sojourn in +Spain. In 1590, he painted the “History of St Maurice” for +Philip II., and in 1578, his masterpiece, entitled “The Burial +of the Count Orgaz.” This magnificent picture, one of the finest +in Spain, is at last being appreciated, and can only be put a +little below the masterpieces of Velazquez. It is a strangely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span> +individual work, representing Spanish character even more +truthfully than did any Spanish artist, and it gathers up all +the fugitive moods, the grace and charm, the devices and defects +of a single race, and gives them complete stability in their +wavering expressions.</p> + +<p>Between 1595 and 1600, El Greco executed two groups of +paintings in the church of San José at Toledo, and in the hospital +of La Caridad, at Illescas. Besides these, he is known to have +painted thirty-two portraits, several manuscripts, and many +paintings for altar-pieces in Toledo and the neighbourhood. +As an architect he was responsible for more than one of the +churches of Toledo, and as a sculptor for carvings both in wood +and in marble, and he can only be properly understood in all +his varied excellences after a visit to the city where most of +his work was executed.</p> + +<p>He died on the 7th of April 1614, and the date of his death +is one of the very few certain facts which we have respecting him. +The record informs us that he made no will, that he received the +sacraments, and was buried in the church of Santo Domingo. +The popular legend of his having gone mad towards the latter +part of his career has no foundation in fact, but his painting +became more and more eccentric as his life went on, and his +natural perversity and love of strange, cold colouring, increased +towards the end of his life. As has been well said, “Light with +him was only used for emotional appeal, and was focussed or +scattered at will.” He was haughtily certain of the value of his +own art, and was determined to paint in cold, ashen colouring, +with livid, startling effect, the gaunt and extraordinary figures +that he beheld with his eccentric genius. His pictures have +wonderful visionary quality, admirable invention, and are full +of passionate fervency. They may be considered extravagant, +but are never commonplace, and are exceedingly attractive in +their intense emotion, marvellous sincerity, and strange, chilly +colour.</p> + +<p>El Greco’s work is typically modern, and from it the portrait-painter, +J. S. Sargent, claims to have learnt more than from that +of any other artist. It immortalizes the character of the people +amongst whom he dwelt, and he may be considered as the initiator +of truth and realism in art, a precursor and inspirer of Velazquez.</p> + +<p>In his own time he was exceedingly popular, and held in +great repute. Sonnets were written in his honour, and he is +himself said to have written several treatises, but these have not +come down to our time. For more than a generation his work +was hardly known, but it is now gaining rapidly in importance, +and its true position is more and more recognized. Some +examples of the artist’s own handwriting have been discovered +in Toledo, and Señor Don Manuel Cossia of Madrid has spent +many years collecting information for a work dealing with the +artist.</p> +<div class="author">(G. C. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897.<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> This war between Greece +and Turkey (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>Modern History</i>) involved two practically +distinct campaigns, in Thessaly and in Epirus. Upon the +Thessalian frontier the Turks, early in March, had concentrated +six divisions (about 58,000 men), 1500 sabres and 156 guns, +under Edhem Pasha. A seventh division was rendered available +a little later. The Greeks numbered about 45,000 infantry, +800 cavalry and 96 guns, under the crown prince. On both +sides there was a considerable dispersion of forces along the +frontier. The Turkish navy, an important factor in the war of +1877-78, had become paralytic ten years later, and the Greek +squadron held complete command of the sea. Expeditionary +forces directed against the Turkish line of communications +might have influenced the course of the campaign; but for +such work the Greeks were quite unprepared, and beyond +bombarding one or two insignificant ports on the coast-line, and +aiding the transport of troops from Athens to Volo, the navy +practically accomplished nothing. On the 9th and 10th April +Greek irregulars crossed the frontier, either with a view to +provoke hostilities or in the hope of fomenting a rising in Macedonia. +On the 16th and 17th some fighting occurred, in which +Greek regulars took part; and on the 18th Edhem Pasha, +whose headquarters had for some time been established at +Elassona, ordered a general advance. The Turkish plan was to +turn the Greek left and to bring on a decisive action, but this +was not carried out. In the centre the Turks occupied the Meluna +Pass on the 19th, and the way was practically open to Larissa. +The Turkish right wing, however, moving on Damani and the +Reveni Pass, encountered resistance, and the left wing was +temporarily checked by the Greeks among the mountains near +Nezeros. At Mati, covering the road to Tyrnavo, the Greeks +entrenched themselves. Here sharp fighting occurred on the +21st and 22nd, during which the Greeks sought to turn the right +flank of the superior Turkish central column. On the 23rd +fighting was renewed, and the advance guard of the Turkish left +column, which had been reinforced, and had pressed back the +Greeks, reached Deliler. The Turkish forces had now drawn +together, and the Greeks were threatened on both flanks. In +the evening a general retreat was ordered, and the loose discipline +of the Greek army was at once manifested. Rumours of disaster +spread among the ranks, and wild panic supervened. There +was nothing to prevent an orderly retirement upon Larissa, +which had been fortified and provisioned, and which offered a +good defensive position. The general <i>débâcle</i> could not, however, +be arrested, and in great disorder the mass of the Greek army +fled southwards to Pharsala. There was no pursuit, and the +Turkish commander-in-chief did not reach Larissa till the 27th. +Thus ended the first phase of the war, in which the Greeks +showed tenacity in defence, which proved fruitless by reason of +initially bad strategic dispositions entailing far too great dispersion, +and also because there was no plan of action beyond a +general desire to avoid risking a defeat which might prevent the +expected risings in Macedonia and elsewhere. The handling of +the Turkish army showed little skill or enterprise; but on both +sides political considerations tended to prevent the application +of sound military principles.</p> + +<p>Larissa being abandoned by the Greeks, Velestino, the junction +of the Thessalian railways, where there was a strong position +covering Volo, seemed to be the natural rallying point for the +Greek army. Here the support of the fleet would have been +secured, and a Turkish advance across the Othrys range upon +Athens could not have taken place until the flanking position +had been captured. Whether by direction or by natural impulse, +however, the mass of the Greek troops made for Pharsala, where +some order was re-established, and preparations were made to +resist attack. The importance of Velestino was recognized by +sending a brigade thither by railway from Pharsala, and the +inferior Greek army was thus split into two portions, separated +by nearly 40 m. On 27th April a Turkish reconnaissance on +Velestino was repulsed, and further fighting occurred on the +29th and 30th, in which the Greeks under Colonel Smolenski held +their own. Meanwhile the Turks made preparations to attack +Pharsala, and on 5th May the Greeks were driven from their +positions in front of the town by three divisions. Further +fighting followed on the 6th, and in the evening the Greek army +retired in fair order upon Domokos. It was intended to turn +the Greek left with the first division under Hairi Pasha, but the +flanking force did not arrive in time to bring about a decisive +result. The abandonment of Pharsala involved that of Velestino, +where the Turks had obtained no advantage, and on the evening +of the 5th Colonel Smolenski began a retirement upon Halmyros. +Again delaying, Edhem Pasha did not attack Domokos till the +17th, giving the Greeks time to entrench their positions. The +attack was delivered in three columns, of which the right was +checked and the centre failed to take the Greek trenches and +suffered much loss. The left column, however, menaced the +line of retreat, and the Greek army abandoned the whole position +during the night. No effective stand was made at the Furka +Pass, which was evacuated on the following night. Colonel +Smolenski, who arrived on the 18th from Halmyros, was directed +to hold the pass of Thermopylae. The Greek forces being much +demoralized, the intervention of the tsar was invoked by +telegraph; and the latter sent a personal appeal to the Sultan, +who directed a suspension of hostilities. On the 20th an armistice +was arranged.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span></p> + +<p>In Epirus at the outbreak of war about 15,000 Greeks, including +a cavalry regiment and five batteries, the whole under Colonel +Manos, occupied a line of defence from Arta to Peta. The +Turks, about 28,000 strong, with forty-eight guns, under Achmet +Hifsi Pasha, were distributed mainly at Iannina, Pentepagadia, +and in front of Arta. On 18th April the Turks commenced a +three days’ bombardment of Arta; but successive attempts +to take the bridge were repulsed, and during the night of the +21st they retired on Philippiada, 26 m. distant, which was +attacked and occupied by Colonel Manos on the 23rd. The +Greeks then advanced to Pentepagadia, meeting with little +resistance. Their difficulties now began. After some skirmishing +on the 27th, the position held by their advanced force near +Homopulos was attacked on the 28th. The attack was renewed +on the 29th, and no Greek reinforcements were forthcoming +when needed. The Euzones made a good defence, but were +driven back by superior force, and a retreat was ordered, which +quickly degenerated into panic-stricken flight to and across +the Arta. Reinforcements, including 2500 Epirote volunteers, +were sent to Arta from Athens, and on 12th May another incursion +into Turkish territory began, the apparent object being to +occupy a portion of the country in view of the breakdown in +Thessaly and the probability that hostilities would shortly end. +The advance was made in three columns, while the Epirote +volunteers were landed near the mouth of the Luro river with +the idea of cutting off the Turkish garrison of Prevesa. The +centre column, consisting of a brigade, three squadrons and +two batteries, which were intended to take up and hold a defensive +position, attacked the Turks near Strevina on the 13th. The +Greeks fought well, and being reinforced by a battalion from +the left column, resumed the offensive on the following day, and +fairly held their own. On the night of the 15th a retreat was +ordered and well carried out. The volunteers landed at the +mouth of the Luro, were attacked and routed with heavy loss.</p> + +<p>The campaign in Epirus thus failed as completely as that in +Thessaly. Under the terms of the treaty of peace, signed on +20th September, and arranged by the European powers, Turkey +obtained an indemnity of £T4,000,000, and a rectification of +the Thessalian frontier, carrying with it some strategic advantage. +History records few more unjustifiable wars than that which +Greece gratuitously provoked. The Greek troops on several +occasions showed tenacity and endurance, but discipline and +cohesion were manifestly wanting. Many of the officers were +incapable; the campaign was gravely mismanaged; and +politics, which led to the war, impeded its operations. On the +other hand, the fruits of the German tuition, which began in +1880, and received a powerful stimulus by the appointment +of General von der Goltz in 1883, were shown in the Turkish +army. The mobilization was on the whole smoothly carried out, +and the newly completed railways greatly facilitated the concentration +on the frontier. The young school of officers trained +by General von der Goltz displayed ability, and the artillery at +Pharsala and Domokos was well handled. The superior leading +was, however, not conspicuously successful; and while the rank +and file again showed excellent military qualities, political +conditions and the Oriental predilection for half-measures and +for denying full responsibility and full powers to commanders +in the field enfeebled the conduct of the campaign. On account +of the total want of careful and systematic peace training on both +sides, a war which presented several interesting strategic problems +provided warnings in place of military lessons.</p> +<div class="author">(G. S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREECE,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> an ancient geographical area, and a modern +kingdom more or less corresponding thereto, situated at the +south-eastern extremity of Europe and forming the most +southerly portion of the Balkan Peninsula. The modern kingdom +is bounded on the N. by European Turkey and on the E., S. and +W. by the Aegean, Mediterranean and Ionian seas. The name +<i>Graecia</i>, which was more or less vaguely given to the ancient +country by the Romans, seems not to have been employed by +any native writer before Aristotle; it was apparently derived +by the Romans from the Illyrians, who applied the name of an +Epirote tribe (<span class="grk" title="Graikoi">Γραικοί</span>, Graeci) to all their southern neighbours. +The names Hellas, Hellenes (<span class="grk" title="Hellas, Hellênes">Ἕλλας, Ἕλληνες</span>), by which the +ancient Greeks called their country and their race, and which are +still employed by the modern Greeks, originally designated a small +district in Phthiotis in Thessaly and its inhabitants, who gradually +spread over the lands south of the Cambunian mountains. +The name Hellenes was not universally applied to the Greek +race until the post-Homeric epoch (Thucyd. i. 3).</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:609px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img424.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img424a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">1. Geography and Statistics</p> + +<p>The ancient Greeks had a somewhat vague conception of the +northern limits of Hellas. Thessaly was generally included and +Epirus excluded; some writers included some of the +southern cantons of Epirus, while others excluded not +<span class="sidenote">Extent of ancient Greece.</span> +only all that country but Aetolia and Acarnania. +Generally speaking, the confines of Hellas in the age +of its greatest distinction were represented by a line drawn from +the northern shore of the Ambracian Gulf on the W. to the +mouth of the Peneus on the E. Macedonia and Thrace were +regarded as outside the pale of Hellenic civilization till 386 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +when after his conquest of Thessaly and Phocis, Philip of Macedon +obtained a seat in the Amphictyonic Council. In another sense, +however, the name Hellas expressed an ethnological rather than +a geographical unity; it denoted every country inhabited by +Hellenes. It thus embraced all the Greek settlements on the +coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, on the shores of the +Hellespont, the Bosporus and the Black Sea. Nevertheless, +the Greek peninsula within the limits described above, together +with the adjacent islands, was always regarded as Hellas <i>par +excellence</i>. The continental area of Hellas proper was no greater +than that of the modern Greek kingdom, which comprises but +a small portion of the territories actually occupied by the Greek +race. The Greeks have always been a maritime people, and the +real centre of the national life is now, as in antiquity, the Aegean +Sea or Archipelago. Thickly studded with islands and bordered +by deeply indented coasts with sheltered creeks and harbours, +the Aegean in the earliest days of navigation invited the enterprise +of the mariner; its shores, both European and Asiatic, +became covered with Greek settlements and its islands, together +with Crete and Cyprus, became Greek. True to their maritime +instincts, the Greeks rarely advanced inland to any distance +from the sea; the coasts of Macedonia, Thrace and Asia Minor +are still mainly Greek, but, except for some isolated colonies, the +<i>hinterland</i> in each case lies outside the limits of the race. Continental +Greece is divided by its mountain ranges into a number +of natural cantons; the existence of physical barriers tended +in the earliest times to the growth of isolated political communities, +and in the epoch of its ancient independence the +country was occupied by seventeen separate states, none of +them larger than an ordinary English county. These states, which +are noticed separately, were: Thessaly, in northern Greece; +Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris, Doris, Phocis, Megaris, Boeotia and +Attica in central Greece; and Corinthia, Sicyonia, Achaea, Elis, +Messenia, Laconia, Argolis and Arcadia in the Peloponnesus.</p> + +<p>Modern Greece, which (including the adjacent islands) extends +from 35° 50′ to 39° 54′ N. and from 19° 20′ to 26° 15′ E., comprises +all the area formerly occupied by these states. +Under the arrangement concluded at Constantinople +<span class="sidenote">Extent of modern Greece.</span> +on the 21st of July 1832 between Great Britain, +France, Russia and Turkey, the northern boundary +of Greece was drawn from the Gulf of Arta (Sinus Ambracius) +to the Gulf of Volo (S. Pagasaeus), the line keeping to the crest +of the Othrys range. Thessaly and part of Acarnania were thus +left to Turkey. The island of Euboea, the Cyclades and the +northern Sporades were added to the new kingdom. In 1864 +the Ionian Islands (<i>q.v.</i>) were ceded by Great Britain to Greece. +In 1880 the Conference of Berlin proposed a new frontier, which +transferred to Greece not only Thessaly but a considerable +portion of southern Epirus, extending to the river Kalamas. +This, however, was rejected by Turkey, and the existing boundary +was traced in 1881. Starting from the Aegean coast at a point +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span> +near Platamona, between Mount Olympus and the mouth of the +Salambria (Peneus), the line passes over the heights of Kritiri +and Zygos (Pindus) and descends the course of the river Arta +to its mouth. After the war of 1897 Greece restored to Turkey +some strategical points on the frontier possessing no geographical +importance. The greatest length of Greece is about 250 m., +the greatest breadth 180 m. The country is generally divided +into five parts, which are indicated by its natural features:—(i.) +Northern Greece, which extends northwards from Mount +Othrys and the gulfs of Zeitun (Lamia) and Arta to the Cambunian +Mountains, and comprises Thessaly and a small portion of +Epirus; (ii.) Central Greece, extending from the southern limits +of Northern Greece to the gulfs of Corinth and Aegina; (iii.) +the peninsula of the Peloponnesus or Morea, attached to the +mainland by the Isthmus of Corinth; (iv.) the Ionian Islands +on the west coasts of Epirus and Greece; (v.) The islands of the +Aegean Sea, including Euboea, the Cyclades and the northern +Sporades.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the complexity of its contour and the variety of its natural +features Greece surpasses every country in Europe, as Europe surpasses +every continent in the world. The broken character +of its coast-line is unique; except a few districts in Thessaly +<span class="sidenote">Physical features.</span> +no part of the country is more than 50 m. from the +sea. Although the area of Greece is considerably smaller than that +of Portugal, its coast-line is greater than that of Spain and Portugal +together. The mainland is penetrated by numerous gulfs and inlets, +and the adjoining seas are studded with islands. Another characteristic +is the number and complexity of the mountain chains, which +traverse every part of the country and which, together with their +ramifications, cover four-fifths of its surface. The mountain-chains +interlace, the interstices forming small enclosed basins, such as the +plain of Boeotia and the plateau of Arcadia; the only plain of any +extent is that of Thessaly. The mountains project into the sea, +forming peninsulas, and sometimes reappearing in rows or groups +of islands; they descend abruptly to the coast or are separated +from it by small alluvial plains. The portions of the country suitable +for human colonization were thus isolated one from the other, but +as a rule possessed easy access to the sea. The earliest settlements +were generally situated on or around some rocky elevation, which +dominated the surrounding plain and was suitable for fortification +as a citadel or acropolis; owing to the danger of piratical attacks +they were usually at some little distance from the sea, but in the +vicinity of a natural harbour. The physical features of the country +played an important part in moulding the character of its inhabitants. +Protected against foreign invasion by the mountain barriers and to +a great extent cut off from mutual intercourse except by sea, the +ancient Greek communities developed a marked individuality and a +strong sentiment of local patriotism; their inhabitants were both +mountaineers and mariners; they possessed the love of country, +the vigour and the courage which are always found in highlanders, +together with the spirit of adventure, the versatility and the passion +for freedom characteristic of a seafaring people. The great variety +of natural products as well as the facility of maritime communication +tended to the early growth of commercial enterprise, while the +peculiar beauty of the scenery, though little dwelt upon in ancient +literature, undoubtedly quickened the poetic and artistic instincts +of the race. The effects of physical environment are no less noticeable +among the modern Greeks. The rural populations of Attica +and Boeotia, though descended from Albanian colonists in the +middle ages, display the same contrast in character which marked +the inhabitants of those regions in ancient times.</p> + +<p>In its general aspect the country presents a series of striking and +interesting contrasts. Fertile tracts covered with vineyards, olive +groves, corn-fields or forests display themselves in close proximity +with rugged heights and rocky precipices; the landscape is never, +monotonous; its outlines are graceful, and its colouring, owing to +the clearness of the air, is at once brilliant and delicate, while the +sea, in most instances, adds a picturesque feature, enhancing the +charm and variety of the scenery.</p> + +<p>The ruling feature in the mountain system of northern Greece is +the great chain of Pindus, which, extending southwards from the +lofty Shar Dagh (Skardos) near Uskub, forms the backbone +of the Balkan peninsula. Reaching the frontier +<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span> +of Greece a little S. of lat. 40°, the Pindus range is intersected +by the Cambunian Mountains running E. and W.; the +eastern branch, which forms the northern boundary of Thessaly, +extends to the Gulf of Salonica and culminates in Mount Olympus +(9754 ft.) a little to the N. of the Greek frontier; then bending to +the S.E. it follows the coast-line, forming a rampart between the +Thessalian plain and the sea; the barrier is severed at one point +only where the river Salambria (anc. <i>Peneus</i>) finds an exit through +the narrow defile of Tempe. South of Tempe the mountain ridge, +known as the Mavro Vouno, connects the pyramidal Kissovo (anc. +<i>Ossa</i>, 6400 ft.) with Plessidi (anc. <i>Pelion</i>, 5310 ft.); it is prolonged +in the Magnesian peninsula, which separates the Gulf of Volo from +the Aegean, and is continued by the mountains of Euboea (highest +summits, Dirphys, 5725 ft., and Ocha, 4830 ft.) and by the islands +of Andros and Tenos. West of Pindus, the Cambunian Mountains +are continued by several ridges which traverse Epirus from north +to south, enclosing the plain and lake of Iannina; the most westerly +of these, projecting into the Adriatic, forms the Acroceraunian +promontory terminating in Cape Glossa. The principal pass through +the Cambunian Mountains is that of Meluna, through which runs +the carriage-road connecting the town of Elassona in Macedonia +with Larissa, the capital of Thessaly; there are horse-paths at +Reveni and elsewhere. The central chain of Pindus at the point +where it is intersected by the Cambunian Mountains forms the mass +of Zygos (anc. <i>Lacmon</i>, 7113 ft.) through which a horse-path connects +the town of Metzovo with Kalabaka in Thessaly; on +the declivity immediately N. of Kalabaka are a series of rocky +pinnacles on which a number of monasteries are perched. Trending +to the S., the Pindus chain terminates in the conical Mount Velouchi +(anc. <i>Tymphrestus</i>, 7609 ft.) in the heart of the mountainous region of +northern Greece. From this centre-point a number of mountains +radiate in all directions. To the E. runs the chain of Helloro (anc. +<i>Othrys</i>; highest summit, Hagios Elias, 5558 ft.) separating the plain +of Thessaly from the valley of the Spercheios and traversed by the +Phourka pass (2789 ft.); to the S.E. is Mount Katávothra (anc. +<i>Oeta</i>, 7080 ft.) extending to the southern shore of the Gulf of Lamia +at Thermopylae; to the S.E., S. and S.W. are the mountains of +Aetolia and Acarnania. The Aetolian group, which may be regarded +as the direct continuation of the Pindus range, includes Kiona +(8240 ft.), the highest mountain in Greece, and Vardusi (anc. <i>Korax</i>, +8190 ft.). The mountains of Acarnania with <span class="grk" title="Hupsêlê koruphê">Ὑψηλὴ κορυφή</span> (5215 ft.) +rise to the W. of the valley of the Aspropotamo (anc. <i>Achelous</i>). The +Aetolian Mountains are prolonged to the S.E. by the double-crested +Liakoura (anc. <i>Parnassus</i>; 8064 ft.) in Phocis; by Palaeo Vouno +(anc. <i>Helicon</i>, 5738 ft.) and Elateas (anc. <i>Cithaeron</i>, 4626 ft.) respectively +W. and S. of the Boeotian plain; and by the mountains of +Attica,—Ozea (anc. <i>Parnes</i>, 4626 ft.), Mendeli (anc. <i>Pentelicus</i> or +<i>Brilessos</i>, 3639 ft.), Trellovouno (anc. <i>Hymettus</i>, 3369 ft.), and +Keratia (2136 ft.)—terminating in the promontory of Sunium, but +reappearing in the islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos and Siphnos. +South of Cithaeron are Patera in Megaris (3583 ft.) and Makri +Plagi (anc. <i>Geraneia</i>, 4495 ft.) overlooking the Isthmus of Corinth.</p> + +<p>The mountains of the Morea, grouped around the elevated central +plateau of Arcadia, form an independent system with ramifications +extending through the Argolid peninsula on the E. and the three +southern promontories of Malea, Taenaron and Acritas. At the +eastern end of the northern chain, separating Arcadia from the Gulf +of Corinth, is Ziria (anc. <i>Cyllene</i>, 7789 ft.); it forms a counterpart to +Parnassus on the opposite side of the gulf. A little to the W. +is Chelmos (anc. <i>Aroania</i>, 7725 ft.); farther W., Olonos (anc. +<i>Erymanthus</i>, 7297 ft.) and Voïdia (anc. <i>Panachaïcon</i>, 6322 ft.) +overlooking the Gulf of Patras. The highest summit in the +Argolid peninsula is Hagios Elias (anc. <i>Arachnaeon</i>, 3930 ft.). The +series of heights forming the eastern rampart of Arcadia, including +Artemision (5814 ft.) and Ktenia (5246 ft.) is continued to the S. by +the Malevo range (anc. <i>Parnon</i>, highest summit 6365 ft.) which extends +into the peninsula of Malea and reappears in the island of +Cerigo. Separated from Parnon by the Eurotas valley to the W., +the chain of Taygetus (mod. <i>Pentedaktylon</i>; highest summit Hagios +Elias, 7874 ft., the culminating point of the Morea) forms a barrier +between the plains of Laconia and Messenia; it is traversed by the +Langáda pass leading from Sparta to Kalamata. The range is +prolonged to the S. through the arid district of Maina and terminates +in Cape Matapan (anc. <i>Taenarum</i>). The mountains of western +Arcadia are less lofty and of a less marked type; they include +Hagios Petros (4777 ft.) and Palaeócastro (anc. <i>Pholoë</i>, 2257 ft.) +N. of the Alpheus valley, Diaphorti (anc. <i>Lycaeus</i>, 4660 ft.), the +haunt of Pan, and Nomia (4554 ft.) W. of the plain of Megalopolis. +Farther south, the mountains of western Messenia form a detached +group (Varvara, 4003 ft.; Mathia, 3140 ft.) extending to Cape Gallo +(anc. <i>Acritas</i>) and the Oenussae Islands. In central Arcadia are +Apanokrapa (anc. <i>Maenalus</i>, also sacred to Pan) and Roudia (5072 +ft.); the Taygetus chain forms the southern continuation of these +mountains.</p> + +<p>The more noteworthy fortified heights of ancient Greece were the +Acrocorinthus, the citadel of Corinth (1885 ft.); Ithome (2631 ft.) at +Messene; Larissa (950 ft.) at Argos; the Acropolis of Mycenae +(910 ft.); Tiryns (60 ft.) near Nauplia, which also possessed its own +citadel, the Palamidhi or Acro-nauplia (705 ft.); the Acropolis of +Athens (300 ft. above the mean level of the city and 512 ft. above +the sea), and the Cadmea of Thebes (715 ft.).</p> + +<p>Greece has few rivers; most of these are small, rapid and turbid, as +might be expected from the mountainous configuration of the country. +They are either perennial rivers or torrents, the white beds +of the latter being dry in summer, and only filled with water +<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span> +after the autumn rains. The chief rivers (none of which is navigable) +are the Salambria (<i>Peneus</i>) in Thessaly, the Mavropotamo (<i>Cephisus</i>) +in Phocis, the Hellada (<i>Spercheios</i>) in Phthiotis, the Aspropotamo +(<i>Achelous</i>) in Aetolia, and the Ruphia (<i>Alpheus</i>) and Vasiliko +(<i>Eurotas</i>) in the Morea. Of the famous rivers of Athens, the one, +the Ilissus, is only a chain of pools all summer, and the other, the +Cephisus, though never absolutely dry, does not reach the sea, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span> +being drawn off in numerous artificial channels to irrigate the neighbouring +olive groves. A frequent peculiarity of the Greek rivers is +their sudden disappearance in subterranean chasms and reappearance +on the surface again, such as gave rise to the fabled course of +the Alpheus under the sea, and its emergence in the fountain of +Arethusa in Syracuse. Some of these chasms—“Katavothras”—are +merely sieves with herbage and gravel in the bottom, but others +are large caverns through which the course of the river may sometimes +be followed. Floods are frequent, especially in autumn, and +natural fountains abound and gush out even from the tops of the +hills. Aganippe rises high up among the peaks of Helicon, and +Peirene flows from the summit of Acrocorinthus. The only noteworthy +cascade, however, is that of the Styx in Arcadia, which has a +fall of 500 ft. During part of the year it is lost in snow, and it +is at all times almost inaccessible. Lakes are numerous, but few are +of considerable size, and many merely marshes in summer. The +largest are Karla (<i>Boebeïs</i>) in Thessaly, Trichonis in Aetolia, Copaïs +in Boeotia, Pheneus and Stymphalus in Arcadia.</p> + +<p>The valleys are generally narrow, and the plains small in extent, +deep basins walled in among the hills or more free at the mouths +of the rivers. The principal plains are those of Thessaly, +Boeotia, Messenia, Argos, Elis and Marathon. The bottom +<span class="sidenote">Plains.</span> +of these plains consists of an alluvial soil, the most fertile in Greece. +In some of the mountainous regions, especially in the Morea, are +extensive table-lands. The plain of Mantinea is 2000 ft. high, and +the upland district of Sciritis, between Sparta and Tegea, is in some +parts 3000 ft.</p> + +<p>Strabo said that the guiding thing in the geography of Greece +was the sea, which presses in upon it at all parts with a thousand +arms. From the Gulf of Arta on the one side to the Gulf +of Volo on the other the coast is indented with a succession +<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span> +of natural bays and gulfs. The most important are the Gulfs of +Aegina (<i>Saronicus</i>) and Lepanto (<i>Corinthiacus</i>), which separate +the Morea from the northern mainland of Greece,—the first an inlet +of the Aegean, the second of the Ionian Sea,—and are now connected +by a canal cut through the high land of the narrow Isthmus of Corinth +(3½ m. wide). The outer portion of the Gulf of Lepanto is called the +Gulf of Patras, and the inner part the Bay of Corinth; a narrow +inlet on the north side of the same gulf, called the Bay of Salona or +Itea, penetrates northwards into Phocis so far that it is within +24 geographical miles of the Gulf of Zeitun on the north-east coast. +The width of the entrance to the gulf of Lepanto is subject to singular +changes, which are ascribed to the formation of alluvial deposits by +certain marine currents, and their removal again by others. At +the time of the Peloponnesian war this channel was 1200 yds. broad; +in the time of Strabo it was only 850; and in our own day it has +again increased to 2200. On the coast of the Morea there are several +large gulfs, that of Arcadia (<i>Cyparissius</i>) on the west, Kalamata +(<i>Messeniacus</i>) and Kolokythia (<i>Laconicus</i>) on the south and Nauplia +(<i>Argolicus</i>) on the east. Between Euboea and the mainland lie the +channels of Trikeri, Talanti (<i>Euboicum Mare</i>) and Egripo; the latter +two are connected by the strait of Egripo (<i>Euripus</i>). This strait, +which is spanned by a swing-bridge, is about 180 ft. wide, and is +remarkable for the unexplained eccentricity of its tide, which has +puzzled ancients and moderns alike. The current runs at the +average speed of 5 m. an hour, but continues only for a short time in +one direction, changing its course, it is said, ten or twelve times in a +day; it is sometimes very violent.</p> + +<p>There are no volcanoes on the mainland of Greece, but everywhere +traces of volcanic action and frequently visitations of earthquakes, +for it lies near a centre of volcanic: agency, the +island of Santorin, which has been within recent years in +<span class="sidenote">Volcanic action.</span> +a state of eruption. There is an extinct crater at Mount +Laphystium (<i>Granitsa</i>) in Boeotia. The mountain of Methane, on +the coast of Argolis, was produced by a volcanic eruption in 282 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Earthquakes laid Thebes in ruins in 1853, destroyed every house in +Corinth in 1858, filled up the Castalian spring in 1870, devastated +Zante in 1893 and the district of Atalanta in 1894. There are hot +springs at Thermopylae and other places, which are used for sanitary +purposes. Various parts of the coast exhibit indications of upheaval +within historical times. On the coast of Elis four rocky +islets are now joined to the land, which were separate from it in the +days of ancient Greece. There are traces of earlier sea-beaches +at Corinth, and on the coast of the Morea, and at the mouth of +the Hellada. The land has gained so much that the pass of Thermopylae +which was extremely narrow in the time of Leonidas and +his three hundred, is now wide enough for the motions of a whole +army.</p> +<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div> + +<p>Structurally, Greece may be divided into two regions, an eastern +and a western. The former includes Thessaly, Boeotia, the island +of Euboea, the isthmus of Corinth, and the peninsula of +Argolis, and, throughout, the strike of the beds is nearly +<span class="sidenote">Geology.</span> +from west to east. The western region includes the Pindus and all +the parallel ranges, and the whole of the Peloponnesus excepting +Argolis. Here the folds which affect the Mesozoic and early Tertiary +strata run approximately from N.N.W. to S.S.E.</p> + +<p>Up to the close of the 19th century the greater part of Greece was +believed to be formed of Cretaceous rocks, but later researches have +shown that the supposed Cretaceous beds include a variety of geological +horizons. The geological sequence begins with crystalline +schists and limestones, followed by Palaeozoic, Triassic and Liassic +rocks. The oldest beds which hitherto have yielded fossils belong +to the Carboniferous System (<i>Fusulina</i> limestone of Euboea). +Following upon these older beds are the great limestone masses which +cover most of the eastern region, and which are now known to include +Jurassic, Tithonian, Lower and Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds. +In the Pindus and the Peloponnesus these beds are overlaid by a +series of shales and platy limestones (Olonos Limestone of the +Peloponnesus), which were formerly supposed to be of Tertiary +age. It has now been shown, however, that the upper series of +limestones has been brought upon the top of the lower by a great +overthrust. Triassic fossils have been found in the Olonos Limestone +and it is almost certain that other Mesozoic horizons are +represented.</p> + +<p>The earth movements which produced the mountain chains of +western Greece have folded the Eocene beds and must therefore +be of post-Eocene date. The Neogene beds, on the other hand, are +not affected by the folds, although by faulting without folding they +have in some places been raised to a height of nearly 6000 ft. They +lie, however, chiefly along the coast and in the valleys, and consist +of marls, conglomerates and sands, sometimes with seams of lignite. +The Pikermi deposits, of late Miocene age, are famous for their rich +mammalian fauna.</p> + +<p>Although the folding which formed the mountain chains appears +to have ceased, Greece is still continually shaken by earthquakes, +and these earthquakes are closely connected with the great lines +of fracture to which the country owes its outline. Around the +narrow gulf which separates the Peloponnesus from the mainland, +earthquakes are particularly frequent, and another region which is +often shaken is the south-western corner of Greece, the peninsula of +Messene.<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> +<div class="author">(P. La.)</div> + +<p>The vegetation of Greece in general resembles that of southern +Italy while presenting many types common to that of Asia Minor. +Owing to the geographical configuration of the peninsula and +its mountainous surface the characteristic flora of the +<span class="sidenote">Flora.</span> +Mediterranean regions is often found in juxtaposition with +that of central Europe. In respect to its vegetation the country +may be regarded as divided into four zones. In the first, extending +from the sea-level to the height of 1500 ft., oranges, olives, dates, +almonds, pomegranates, figs and vines flourish, and cotton and +tobacco are grown. In the neighbourhood of streams are found +the laurel, myrtle, oleander and lentisk, together with the plane and +white poplar; the cypress is often a picturesque feature in the +landscape, and there is a variety of aromatic plants. The second +zone, from 1500 to 3500 ft., is the region of the oak, chestnut and +other British trees. In the third, from 3500 to 5500 ft., the beech +is the characteristic forest tree; the <i>Abies cephalonica</i> and <i>Pinus +pinea</i> now take the place of the <i>Pinus halepensis</i>, which grows +everywhere in the lower regions. Above 5500 ft. is the Alpine +region, marked by small plants, lichens and mosses. During the +short period of spring anemones and other wild flowers enrich +the hillsides with magnificent colouring; in June all verdure disappears +except in the watered districts and elevated plateaus. +The asphodel grows abundantly in the dry rocky soil; aloes, planted +in rows, form impenetrable hedges. Medicinal plants are numerous, +such as the <i>Inula Helenium</i>, the <i>Mandragora Officinarum</i>, the +<i>Colchicum napolitanum</i> and the <i>Helleborus orientalis</i>, which still +grows abundantly near Aspraspitia, the ancient Anticyra, at the +foot of Parnassus.</p> + +<p>The fauna is similar to that of the other Mediterranean peninsulas, +and includes some species found in Asia Minor but not elsewhere in +Europe. The lion existed in northern Greece in the time of +Aristotle and at an earlier period in the Morea. The bear +<span class="sidenote">Fauna.</span> +is still found in the Pindus range. Wolves are common in all the +mountainous regions and jackals are numerous in the Morea. Foxes +are abundant in all parts of the country; the polecat is found in the +woods of Attica and the Morea; the lynx is now rare. The wild +boar is common in the mountains of northern Greece, but is almost +extinct in the Peloponnesus. The badger, the marten and the +weasel are found on the mainland and in the islands. The red +deer, the fallow deer and the roe exist in northern Greece, but are +becoming scarce. The otter is rare. Hares and rabbits are abundant +in many parts of the country, especially in the Cyclades; the +two species never occupy the same district, and in the Cyclades +some islands (Naxos, Melos, Tenos, &c.) form the exclusive domain +of the hares, others (Seriphos, Kimolos, Mykonos, &c.) of the rabbits. +In Andros alone a demarcation has been arrived at, the hares retaining +the northern and the rabbits the southern portion of the island. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span> +The chamois is found in the higher mountains, such as Pindus, +Parnassus and Tymphrestus. The Cretan <i>agrimi</i>, or wild goat +(<i>Capra nubiana</i>, <i>C. aegagrus</i>), found in Antimelos and said to exist +in Taygetus, the jackal, the stellion, and the chameleon are among +the Asiatic species not found westward of Greece. There is a great +variety of birds; of 358 species catalogued two-thirds are migratory. +Among the birds of prey, which are very numerous, are the golden +and imperial eagle, the yellow vulture, the <i>Gypaëtus barbatus</i>, and +several species of falcons. The celebrated owl of Athena (<i>Athene +noctua</i>) is becoming rare at Athens, but still haunts the Acropolis +and the royal garden; it is a small species, found everywhere in Greece. +The wild goose and duck, the bustard, partridge, woodcock, snipe, +wood-pigeon and turtle-dove are numerous. Immense flocks of +quails visit the southern coast of the Morea, where they are captured +in great numbers and exported alive. The stork, which was +common in the Turkish epoch, has now become scarce. There is a +great variety of reptiles, of which sixty-one species have been +catalogued. The saurians are all harmless; among them the +stellion (<i>Stellio vulgaris</i>), commonly called <span class="grk" title="krokodeilos">κροκόδειλος</span> in Mykonos +and Crete, is believed by Heldreich to have furnished a name to the +crocodile of the Nile (Herod. ii. 69). There are five species of +tortoise and nine of Amphibia. Of the serpents, which are numerous, +there are only two dangerous species, the <i>Vipera ammodytes</i> and the +<i>Vipera aspis</i>; the first-named is common. Among the marine +fauna are the dolphins, familiar in the legends and sculpture of +antiquity; in the clear water of the Aegean they often afford a +beautiful spectacle as they play round ships; porpoises and whales +are sometimes seen. Sea-fish, of which 246 species have been +ascertained, are very abundant.</p> + +<p>The climate of Greece, like that of the other countries of the Balkan +peninsula, is liable to greater extremes of heat and cold than prevail +in Spain and Italy; the difference is due to the general +contour of the peninsula, which assimilates its climatic +<span class="sidenote">Climate.</span> +conditions to those of the European mainland. Another distinctive +feature is the great variety of local contrasts; the rapid transitions +are the natural effect of diversity in the geographical configuration of +the country. Within a few hours it is possible to pass from winter to +spring and from spring to summer. The spring is short; the sun +is already powerful in March, but the increasing warmth is often +checked by cold northerly winds; in many places the corn harvest +is cut in May, when southerly winds prevail and the temperature +rises rapidly. The great heat of summer is tempered throughout the +whole region of the archipelago by the Etesian winds, which blow +regularly from the N.E. for forty to fifty days in July and August. +This current of cool dry air from the north is due to the vacuum +resulting from intense heat in the region of the Sahara. The healthy +Etesian winds are generally replaced towards the end of summer by +the southerly Libas or sirocco, which, when blowing strongly, +resembles the blast from a furnace and is most injurious to health. +The sirocco affects, though in a less degree, the other countries of +the Balkan peninsula and even Rumania. The mean summer +temperature is about 79° Fahr. The autumn is the least healthy +season of the year owing to the great increase of humidity, especially +in October and November. At the end of October snow reappears on +the higher mountains, remaining on the summits till June. The +winter is mild, and even in January there are, as a rule, many warm +clear days; but the recurrence of biting northerly winds and cold +blasts from the mountains, as well as the rapid transitions from heat +to cold and the difference in the temperature of sunshine and shade, +render the climate somewhat treacherous and unsuitable for invalids. +Snow seldom falls in the maritime and lowland districts and frost is +rare. The mean winter temperature is from 48° to 55° Fahr. The rainfall +varies greatly according to localities; it is greatest in the Ionian +Islands (53.34 ins. at Corfu), in Arcadia and in the other mountainous +districts, and least on the Aegean littoral and in the Cyclades; in +Attica, the driest region in Greece, it is 16.1 ins. The wettest +months are November, December and January; the driest July +and August, when, except for a few thunder-storms, there is practically +no rainfall. The rain generally accompanies southerly or south-westerly +winds. In all the maritime districts the sea breeze greatly +modifies the temperature; it begins about 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, attains its maximum +force soon after noon, and ceases about an hour after sunset. Greece +is renowned for the clearness of its climate; fogs and mists are +almost unknown. In most years, however, only four or five days +are recorded in which the sky is perfectly cloudless. The natural +healthiness of the climate is counteracted in the towns, especially +in Athens, by deficient sanitation and by stifling clouds of dust, +which propagate infection and are peculiarly hurtful in cases of +ophthalmia and pulmonary disease. Malarial fever is endemic in +the marshy districts, especially in the autumn.</p> +</div> + +<p>The area of the country was 18,341 sq. m. before the acquisition +of the Ionian Islands in 1864, 19,381 sq. m. prior to the annexation +of Thessaly and part of Epirus in 1881, and +24,552 sq. m. at the census in 1896. If we deduct 152 +<span class="sidenote">Area and population.</span> +sq. m., the extent of territory ceded to Turkey after +the war of 1897, the area of Greece in 1908 would be +24,400 sq. m. Other authorities give 25,164 and 25,136 sq. m. +as the area prior to the rectification of the frontier in 1898.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +The population in 1896 was 2,433,806, or 99.1 to the sq. m., +the population of the territories annexed in 1881 being approximately +350,000; and 2,631,952 in 1907, or 107.8 to the sq. m. +(according to the official estimate of the area), showing an +increase of 198,146 or 0.81% per annum, as compared with +1.61% during the period between 1896 and 1889; the diminished +increase is mainly due to emigration. The population by sex +in 1907 is given as 1,324,942 males and 1,307,010 females (or +50.3% males to 49.6 females). The preponderance of males, +which was 52% to 48% females in 1896, has also been reduced +by emigration; it is most marked in the northern departments, +especially in Larissa. Only in the departments of Arcadia, +Eurytania, Corinth, Cephalonia, Lacedaemon, Laconia, Phocis, +Argolis and in the Cyclades, is the female population in excess +of the male.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Neither the census of 1896 nor that of 1889 gave any classification +by professions, religion or language. The following figures, which +are only approximate, were derived from unofficial sources in 1901:—agricultural +and pastoral employments 444,000; industries 64,200; +traders and their employés 118,000; labourers and servants 31,300; +various professions 15,700; officials 12,000; clergy about 6000; +lawyers 4000; physicians 2500. In 1879, 1,635,698 of the population +were returned as Orthodox Christians, 14,677 as Catholics and +Protestants, 2652 as Jews, and 740 as of other religions. The +annexation of Thessaly and part of Epirus is stated to have added +24,165 Mahommedan subjects to the Hellenic kingdom. A considerable +portion of these, however, emigrated immediately after the +annexation, and, although a certain number subsequently returned, +the total Mahommedan population in Greece was estimated to be +under 5000 in 1908. A number of the Christian inhabitants of these +regions, estimated at about 50,000, retained Turkish nationality with +the object of escaping military service. The Albanian population, +estimated at 200,000 by Finlay in 1851, still probably exceeds +120,000. It is gradually being absorbed in the Hellenic population. +In 1870, 37,598 persons (an obviously untrustworthy figure) were +returned as speaking Albanian only. In 1879 the number is given as +58,858. The Vlach population, which has been increased by the +annexation of Thessaly, numbers about 60,000. The number of +foreign residents is unknown. The Italians are the most numerous, +numbering about 11,000. Some 1500 persons, mostly Maltese, +possess British nationality.</p> + +<p>By a law of 27 November 1899, Greece, which had hitherto been +divided into sixteen departments (<span class="grk" title="nomoi">νόμοι</span>) was redivided into twenty-six +departments, as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2"><i>Departments.</i></td> <td class="tcc"><i>Pop.</i></td> <td class="tcc" colspan="2"><i>Departments.</i></td> <td class="tcc"><i>Pop.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcl">Attica</td> <td class="tcr">341,247</td> <td class="tcl">14</td> <td class="tcl">Corinth</td> <td class="tcr">71,229</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcl">Boeotia</td> <td class="tcr">65,816</td> <td class="tcl">15</td> <td class="tcl">Arcadia</td> <td class="tcr">162,324</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcl">Phthiotis</td> <td class="tcr">112,328</td> <td class="tcl">16</td> <td class="tcl">Achaea</td> <td class="tcr">150,918</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcl">Phocis</td> <td class="tcr">62,246</td> <td class="tcl">17</td> <td class="tcl">Elis</td> <td class="tcr">103,810</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcl">Aetolia and Acarnania</td> <td class="tcr">141,405</td> <td class="tcl">18</td> <td class="tcl">Triphylia</td> <td class="tcr">90,523</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcl">Eurytania</td> <td class="tcr">47,192</td> <td class="tcl">19</td> <td class="tcl">Messenia</td> <td class="tcr">127,991</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcl">Arta</td> <td class="tcr">41,280</td> <td class="tcl">20</td> <td class="tcl">Laconia</td> <td class="tcr">61,522</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcl">Trikkala</td> <td class="tcr">90,548</td> <td class="tcl">21</td> <td class="tcl">Lacedaemon</td> <td class="tcr">87,106</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcl">Karditsa</td> <td class="tcr">92,941</td> <td class="tcl">22</td> <td class="tcl">Corfu</td> <td class="tcr">99,571</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcl">Larissa</td> <td class="tcr">95,066</td> <td class="tcl">23</td> <td class="tcl">Cephalonia</td> <td class="tcr">71,235</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcl">Magnesia</td> <td class="tcr">102,742</td> <td class="tcl">24</td> <td class="tcl">Leucas (with Ithaca)</td> <td class="tcr">41,186</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcl">Euboea</td> <td class="tcr">116,903</td> <td class="tcl">25</td> <td class="tcl">Zante</td> <td class="tcr">42,502</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcl">Argolis</td> <td class="tcr">81,943</td> <td class="tcl">26</td> <td class="tcl">Cyclades</td> <td class="tcr">130,378</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The population is densest in the Ionian Islands, exceeding 307 per +sq. m. The departments of Acarnania, Phocis and Euboea are the +most thinly inhabited (about 58, 61 and 66 per sq. m. respectively).</p> + +<p>Very little information is obtainable with regard to the movement +of the population; no register of births, deaths and marriages is +kept in Greece. The only official statistics are found in the periodical +returns of the mortality in the twelve principal towns, according to +which the yearly average of deaths in these towns for the five years +1903-1907 was approximately 10,253, or 23.8 per 1000; of these +more than a quarter are ascribed to pulmonary consumption, due in +the main to defective sanitation. Both the birth-rate and death-rate +are low, being 27.6 and 20.7 per 1000 respectively. Infant mortality +is slight, and in point of longevity Greece compares favourably with +most other European countries. The number of illegitimate births +is 12.25 per 1000; these are almost exclusively in the towns.</p> + +<p>Of the total population 28.5% are stated to live in towns. The +population of the principal towns is:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">1896. </td> <td class="tcr">1907. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Athens</td> <td class="tcr">111,486</td> <td class="tcr">167,479</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Peiraeus</td> <td class="tcr">43,848</td> <td class="tcr">73,579</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Patras</td> <td class="tcr">37,985</td> <td class="tcr">37,724 + <span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Trikkala</td> <td class="tcr">21,149</td> <td class="tcr">17,809</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hermopolis (Syra)</td> <td class="tcr">18,760</td> <td class="tcr">18,132</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Corfu</td> <td class="tcr">18,581</td> <td class="tcr">28,254*</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Volo</td> <td class="tcr">16,788</td> <td class="tcr">23,563</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Larissa</td> <td class="tcr">15,373</td> <td class="tcr">18,001</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Zante</td> <td class="tcr">14,906</td> <td class="tcr">13,580</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Kalamata</td> <td class="tcr">14,298</td> <td class="tcr">15,397</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pyrgos</td> <td class="tcr">12,708</td> <td class="tcr">13,690</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tripolis</td> <td class="tcr">10,465</td> <td class="tcr">10,789</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Chalcis</td> <td class="tcr">8,661</td> <td class="tcr">10,958</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Laurium</td> <td class="tcr">7,926</td> <td class="tcr">10,007</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2"> * Including suburbs.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>No trustworthy information is obtainable with regard to immigration +and emigration, of which no statistics have ever been kept. +Emigration, which was formerly in the main to Egypt and Rumania, +is now almost exclusively to the United States of America. The +principal exodus is from Arcadia, Laconia and Maina; the emigrants +from these districts, estimated at about 14,000 annually, are for the +most part young men approaching the age of military service. According +to American statistics 12,431 Greeks arrived in the United +States from Greece during the period 1869-1898 and 130,154 in +1899-1907; a considerable number, however, have returned to +Greece, and those remaining in the United States at the end of 1907 +were estimated at between 136,000 and 138,000; this number was +considerably reduced in 1908 by remigration. Since 1896 the +tendency to emigration has received a notable and somewhat +alarming impulse. There is an increasing immigration into the +towns from the rural districts, which are gradually becoming depopulated. +Both movements are due in part to the preference of the +Greeks for a town life and in part to distaste for military service, +but in the main to the poverty of the peasant population, whose +condition and interests have been neglected by the government.</p> +</div> + +<p>Greece is inhabited by three races—the Greeks, the Albanians +and the Vlachs. The Greeks who are by far the most numerous, +have to a large extent absorbed the other races; the +process of assimilation has been especially rapid since +<span class="sidenote">Ethnology.</span> +the foundation of the Greek kingdom. Like most +European nations, the modern Greeks are a mixed race. The +question of their origin has been the subject of much learned +controversy; their presumed descent from the Greeks of the +classical epoch has proved a national asset of great value; +during the period of their struggle for independence it won +them the devoted zeal of the Philhellenes, it inspired the +enthusiasm of Byron, Victor Hugo, and a host of minor poets, +and it has furnished a pleasing illusion to generations of scholarly +tourists who delight to discover in the present inhabitants of the +country the mental and physical characteristics with which they +have been familiarized by the literature and art of antiquity. +This amiable tendency is encouraged by the modern Greeks, +who possess an implicit faith in their illustrious ancestry. The +discussion of the question entered a very acrimonious stage with +the appearance in 1830 of Fallmerayer’s <i>History of the Morea +during the Middle Ages</i>. Fallmerayer maintained that after +the great Slavonic immigration at the close of the 8th century the +original population of northern Greece and the Morea, which +had already been much reduced during the Roman period, was +practically supplanted by the Slavonic element and that the +Greeks of modern times are in fact Byzantinized Slavs. This +theory was subjected to exhaustive criticism by Ross, Hopf, +Finlay and other scholars, and although many of Fallmerayer’s +conclusions remain unshaken, the view is now generally held that +the base of the population both in the mainland and the Morea +is Hellenic, not Slavonic. During the 5th and 6th centuries +Greece had been subjected to Slavonic incursions which resulted +in no permanent settlements. After the great plague of 746-747, +however, large tracts of depopulated country were colonized +by Slavonic immigrants; the towns remained in the hands of +the Greeks, many of whom emigrated to Constantinople. In +the Morea the Slavs established themselves principally in +Arcadia and the region of Taygetus, extending their settlements +into Achaia, Elis, Laconia and the promontory of Taenaron; +on the mainland they occupied portions of Acarnania, Aetolia, +Doris and Phocis. Slavonic place-names occurring in all these +districts confirm the evidence of history with regard to this +immigration. The Slavs, who were not a maritime race, did +not colonize the Aegean Islands, but a few Slavonic place-names +in Crete seem to indicate that some of the invaders reached that +island. The Slavonic settlements in the Morea proved more +permanent than those in northern Greece, which were attacked +by the armies of the Byzantine emperors. But even in the +Morea the Greeks, or “Romans” as they called themselves +(<span class="grk" title="Rhômaioi">Ῥωμαῖοι</span>), who had been left undisturbed on the eastern side of +the peninsula, eventually absorbed the alien element, which +disappeared after the 15th century. In addition to the place-names +the only remaining traces of the Slav immigration are the +Slavonic type of features, which occasionally recurs, especially +among the Arcadian peasants, and a few customs and traditions. +Even when allowance is made for the remarkable power of +assimilation which the Greeks possessed in virtue of their +superior civilization, it is difficult to resist the conclusion that the +Hellenic element must always have been the most numerous in +order to effect so complete an absorption. This element has +apparently undergone no essential change since the epoch of +Roman domination. The destructive invasions of the Goths in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 267 and 395 introduced no new ethnic feature; the various +races which during the middle ages obtained partial or complete +mastery in Greece—the Franks, the Venetians, the Turks—contributed +no appreciable ingredient to the mass of the population. +The modern Greeks may therefore be regarded as in the +main the descendants of the population which inhabited Greece +in the earlier centuries of Byzantine rule. Owing to the operation +of various causes, historical, social and economic, that +population was composed of many heterogeneous elements and +represented in a very limited degree the race which repulsed +the Persians and built the Parthenon. The internecine conflicts +of the Greek communities, wars with foreign powers and the +deadly struggles of factions in the various cities, had to a large +extent obliterated the old race of free citizens by the beginning +of the Roman period. The extermination of the Plataeans by +the Spartans and of the Melians by the Athenians during the +Peloponnesian war, the proscription of Athenian citizens after +the war, the massacre of the Corcyraean oligarchs by the +democratic party, the slaughter of the Thebans by Alexander +and of the Corinthians by Mummius, are among the more +familiar instances of the catastrophes which overtook the civic +element in the Greek cities; the void can only have been filled +from the ranks of the metics or resident aliens and of the descendants +of the far more numerous slave population. Of the latter +a portion was of Hellenic origin; when a city was taken the +males of military age were frequently put to the sword, but the +women and children were sold as slaves; in Laconia and Thessaly +there was a serf population of indigenous descent. In the classical +period four-fifths of the population of Attica were slaves and of +the remainder half were metics. In the Roman period the number +of slaves enormously increased, the supply being maintained from +the regions on the borders of the empire; the same influences +which in Italy extinguished the small landed proprietors and +created the <i>latifundia</i> prevailed also in Greece. The purely +Hellenic population, now greatly diminished, congregated in the +towns; the large estates which replaced the small freeholds +were cultivated by slaves and managed or farmed by slaves or +freedmen, and wide tracts of country were wholly depopulated. +How greatly the free citizen element had diminished by the close +of the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> may be judged from the estimate of +Plutarch that all Greece could not furnish more than 3000 +hoplites. The composite population which replaced the ancient +Hellenic stock became completely Hellenized. According to +craniologists the modern Greeks are brachycephalous while +the ancient race is stated to have been dolichocephalous, but it +seems doubtful whether any such generalization with regard +to the ancients can be conclusively established. The Aegean +islanders are more brachycephalous than the inhabitants of the +mainland, though apparently of purer Greek descent. No +general conception of the facial type of the ancient race can be +derived from the highly-idealized statues of deities, heroes and +athletes; so far as can be judged from portrait statues it was +very varied. Among the modern Greeks the same variety of +features prevails; the face is usually oval, the nose generally +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span> +long and somewhat aquiline, the teeth regular, and the eyes +remarkably bright and full of animation. The country-folk are, +as a rule, tall and well-made, though slightly built and rather +meagre; their form is graceful and supple in movement. The +urban population, as elsewhere, is physically very inferior. +The women often display a refined and delicate beauty which +disappears at an early age. The best physical types of the race +are found in Arcadia, in the Aegean Islands and in Crete.</p> + +<p>The Albanian population extends over all Attica and Megaris +(except the towns of Athens, Peiraeus and Megara), the greater +part of Boeotia, the eastern districts of Locris, the southern half +of Euboea and the northern side of Andros, the whole of the +islands of Salamis, Hydra, Spetsae and Poros, and part of Aegina, +the whole of Corinthia and Argolis, the northern districts of +Arcadia and the eastern portion of Achaea. There are also small +Albanian groups in Laconia and Messenia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albania</a></span>). The +Albanians, who call themselves <i>Shkyipetar</i>, and are called by +the Greeks <i>Arvanitae</i> (<span class="grk" title="Arbanitai">Ἀρβανῖται</span>), belong to the Tosk or +southern branch of the race; their immigration took place in +the latter half of the 14th century. Their first settlements in the +Morea were made in 1347-1355. The Albanian colonization was +first checked by the Turks; in 1454 an Albanian insurrection in +the Morea against Byzantine rule was crushed by the Turkish +general Tura Khan, whose aid had been invoked by the Palaeologi. +With a few exceptions, the Albanians in Greece retained +their Christian faith after the Turkish conquest. The failure +of the insurrection of 1770 was followed by a settlement of +Moslem Albanians, who had been employed by the Turks to +suppress the revolt. The Christian Albanians have long lived +on good terms with the Greeks while retaining their own customs +and language and rarely intermarrying with their neighbours. +They played a brilliant part during the War of Independence, +and furnished the Greeks with many of their most distinguished +leaders. The process of their Hellenization, which scarcely +began till after the establishment of the kingdom, has been +somewhat slow; most of the men can now speak Greek, but +Albanian is still the language of the household. The Albanians, +who are mainly occupied with agriculture, are less quick-witted, +less versatile, and less addicted to politics than the Greeks, who +regard them as intellectually their inferiors. A vigorous and +manly race, they furnish the best soldiers in the Greek army, +and also make excellent sailors.</p> + +<p>The Vlachs, who call themselves <i>Aromâni</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Romans, form +another important foreign element in the population of Greece. +They are found principally in Pindus (the Agrapha district), the +mountainous parts of Thessaly, Othrys, Oeta, the mountains +of Boeotia, Aetolia and Acarnania; they have a few settlements +in Euboea. They are for the most part either nomad shepherds +and herdsmen or carriers (<i>kiradjis</i>). They apparently descend +from the Latinized provincials of the Roman epoch who took +refuge in the higher mountains from the incursions of the barbarians +and Slavs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vlachs</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Macedonia</a></span>). In the 13th +century the Vlach principality of “Great Walachia” (<span class="grk" title="Megalê +Blachia">Μεγάλη Βλαχία</span>) included Thessaly and southern Macedonia as far as +Castoria; its capital was at Hypati near Lamia. Acarnania +and Aetolia were known as “Lesser Walachia.” The urban +element among the Vlachs has been almost completely Hellenized; +it has always displayed great aptitude for commerce, and Athens +owes many of its handsomest buildings to the benefactions +of wealthy Vlach merchants. The nomad population in the +mountains has retained its distinctive nationality and customs +together with its Latin language, though most of the men can +speak Greek. Like the Albanians, the pastoral Vlachs seldom +intermarry with the Greeks; they occasionally take Greek wives, +but never give their daughters to Greeks; many of them are +illiterate, and their children rarely attend the schools. Owing +to their deficient intellectual culture they are regarded with +disdain by the Greeks, who employ the term <span class="grk" title="blachos">βλάχος</span> to denote +not only a shepherd but an ignorant rustic.</p> + +<p>A considerable Italian element was introduced into the Ionian +Islands during the middle ages owing to their prolonged subjection +to Latin princes and subsequently (till 1797) to the +Venetian republic. The Italians intermarried with the Greeks; +Italian became the language of the upper classes, and Roman +Catholicism was declared the state religion. The peasantry, +however, retained the Greek language and remained faithful to +the Eastern Church; during the past century the Italian element +was completely absorbed by the Greek population.</p> + +<p>The Turkish population in Greece, which numbered about +70,000 before the war of liberation, disappeared in the course +of the struggle or emigrated at its conclusion. The Turks in +Thessaly are mainly descended either from colonists established +in the country by the Byzantine emperors or from immigrants +from Asia Minor, who arrived at the end of the 14th century; +they derive their name Konariots from Iconium (Konia). Many +of the beys or land-owning class are the lineal representatives +of the Seljuk nobles who obtained fiefs under the feudal system +introduced here and in Macedonia by the Sultan Bayezid I.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding their composite origin, their wide geographical +distribution and their cosmopolitan instincts, the +modern Greeks are a remarkably homogeneous people, +differing markedly in character from neighbouring +<span class="sidenote">National character.</span> +races, united by a common enthusiasm in the pursuit +of their national aims, and profoundly convinced of their +superiority to other nations. Their distinctive character, +combined with their traditional tendency to regard non-Hellenic +peoples as barbarous, has, indeed, to some extent counteracted +the results of their great energy and zeal in the assimilation of +other races; the advantageous position which they attained at +an early period under Turkish rule owing to their superior +civilization, their versatility, their wealth, and their monopoly +of the ecclesiastical power would probably have enabled them to +Hellenize permanently the greater part of the Balkan peninsula +had their attitude towards other Christian races been more +sympathetic. Always the most civilized race in the East, they +have successively influenced their Macedonian, Roman and +Turkish conquerors, and their remarkable intellectual endowments +bid fair to secure them a brilliant position in the future. +The intense patriotic zeal of the Greeks may be compared with +that of the Hungarians; it is liable to degenerate into arrogance +and intolerance; it sometimes blinds their judgment and involves +them in ill-considered enterprises, but it nevertheless offers the +best guarantee for the ultimate attainment of their national +aims. All Greeks, in whatever country they may reside, work +together for the realization of the Great Idea (<span class="grk" title="hê Megalê Idea">ἡ Μεγάλη Ἰδέα</span>)—the +supremacy of Hellenism in the East—and to this object they +freely devote their time, their wealth and their talents; the +large fortunes which they amass abroad are often bequeathed +for the foundation of various institutions in Greece or Turkey, +for the increase of the national fleet and army, or for the spread +of Hellenic influence in the Levant. This patriotic sentiment is +unfortunately much exploited by self-seeking demagogues and +publicists, who rival each other in exaggerating the national +pretensions and in pandering to the national vanity. In no other +country is the passion for politics so intense; “keen political +discussions are constantly going on at the cafés; the newspapers, +which are extraordinarily numerous and generally of little value, +are literally devoured, and every measure of the government is +violently criticized and ascribed to interested motives.” The +influence of the journals is enormous; even the waiters in the +cafés and domestic servants have their favourite newspaper, +and discourse fluently on the political problems of the day. +Much of the national energy is wasted by this continued political +fever; it is diverted from practical aims, and may be said to +evaporate in words. The practice of independent criticism +tends to indiscipline in the organized public services; it has +been remarked that every Greek soldier is a general and every +sailor an admiral. During the war of 1897 a young naval +lieutenant telegraphed to the minister of war condemning the +measures taken by his admiral, and his action was applauded +by several journals. There is also little discipline in the ranks +of political parties, which are held together, not by any definite +principle, but by the personal influence of the leaders; defections +are frequent, and as a rule each deputy in the Chamber makes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span> +his terms with his chief. On the other hand, the independent +character of the Greeks is favourably illustrated by the circumstance +that Greece is the only country in the Balkan peninsula +in which the government cannot count on securing a majority +by official pressure at the elections. Few scruples are observed +in political warfare, but attacks on private life are rare. The +love of free discussion is inherent in the strongly-rooted democratic +instinct of the Greeks. They are in spirit the most democratic +of European peoples; no trace of Latin feudalism survives, +and aristocratic pretensions are ridiculed. In social life there +is no artificial distinction of classes; all titles of nobility are +forbidden; a few families descended from the chiefs in the +War of Independence enjoy a certain pre-eminence, but wealth +and, still more, political or literary notoriety constitute the +principal claim to social consideration. The Greeks display great +intellectual vivacity; they are clever, inquisitive, quick-witted +and ingenious, but not profound; sustained mental industry +and careful accuracy are distasteful to them, and their aversion +to manual labour is still more marked. Even the agricultural +class is but moderately industrious; abundant opportunities +for relaxation are provided by the numerous church festivals. +The desire for instruction is intense even in the lowest ranks +of the community; rhetorical and literary accomplishments +possess a greater attraction for the majority than the fields of +modern science. The number of persons who seek to qualify +for the learned professions is excessive; they form a superfluous +element in the community, an educated proletariat, attaching +themselves to the various political parties in the hope of obtaining +state employment and spending an idle existence in the cafés +and the streets when their party is out of power. In disposition +the Greeks are lively, cheerful, plausible, tactful, sympathetic; +very affable with strangers, hospitable, kind to their servants +and dependants, remarkably temperate and frugal in their +habits, amiable and united in family life. Drunkenness is +almost unknown, thrift is universally practised; the standard +of sexual morality is high, especially in the rural districts, where +illegitimacy is extremely rare. The faults of the Greeks must +in a large degree be attributed to their prolonged subjection to +alien races; their cleverness often degenerates into cunning, +their ready invention into mendacity, their thrift into avarice, +their fertility of resource into trickery and fraud. Dishonesty +is not a national vice, but many who would scorn to steal will +not hesitate to compass illicit gains by duplicity and misrepresentation; +deceit, indeed, is often practised gratuitously for +the mere intellectual satisfaction which it affords. In the +astuteness of their monetary dealings the Greeks proverbially +surpass the Jews, but fall short of the Armenians; their remarkable +aptitude for business is sometimes marred by a certain +short-sightedness which pursues immediate profits at the cost +of ulterior advantages. Their vanity and egoism, which are +admitted by even the most favourable observers, render them +jealous, exacting, and peculiarly susceptible to flattery. In +common with other southern European peoples the Greeks are +extremely excitable; their passionate disposition is prone to take +offence at slight provocation, and trivial quarrels not infrequently +result in homicide. They are religious, but by no means +fanatical, except in regard to politico-religious questions affecting +their national aims. In general the Greeks may be described +as a clever, ambitious and versatile people, capable of great +effort and sacrifice, but deficient in some of the more solid +qualities which make for national greatness.</p> + +<p>The customs and habits of the Greek peasantry, in which +the observances of the classical age may often be traced, together +with their legends and traditions, have furnished an +interesting subject of investigation to many writers +<span class="sidenote">Customs.</span> +(see <i>Bibliography</i> below). In the towns the more cosmopolitan +population has largely adopted the “European” mode of life, +and the upper classes show a marked preference for French +manners and usages. In both town and country, however, the +influence of oriental ideas is still apparent, due in part to the +long period of Turkish domination, in part to the contact of +the Greeks with Asiatic races at all epochs of their history. In +the rural districts, especially, the women lead a somewhat +secluded life and occupy a subject position; they wait at table, +and only partake of the meal when the men of the family have +been served. In most parts of continental Greece the women +work in the fields, but in the Aegean Islands and Crete they rarely +leave the house. Like the Turks, the Greeks have a great +partiality for coffee, which can always be procured even in the +remotest hamlets; the Turkish practice of carrying a string of +beads or rosary (<i>comboloio</i>), which provides an occupation for +the hands, is very common. Many of the observances in connexion +with births, christenings, weddings and funerals are very +interesting and in some cases are evidently derived from remote +antiquity. Nuptial ceremonies are elaborate and protracted; +in some of the islands of the archipelago they continue for three +weeks. In the preliminary negotiations for a marriage the +question of the bride’s dowry plays a very important part; a +girl without a dowry often remains unmarried, notwithstanding +the considerable excess of the male over the female population. +Immediately after the christening of a female child her parents begin +to lay up her portion, and young men often refrain from marrying +until their sisters have been settled in life. The dead are carried +to the tomb in an open coffin; in the country districts professional +mourners are engaged to chant dirges; the body is washed +with wine and crowned with a wreath of flowers. A valedictory +oration is pronounced at the grave. Many superstitions still +prevail among the peasantry; the belief in the vampire and the +evil eye is almost universal. At Athens and in the larger towns +many handsome dwelling-houses may be seen, but the upper +classes have no predilection for rural life, and their country +houses are usually mere farmsteads, which they rarely visit. +In the more fertile districts two-storeyed houses of the modern +type are common, but in the mountainous regions the habitations +of the country-folk are extremely primitive; the small +stone-built hut, almost destitute of furniture, shelters not only +the family but its cattle and domestic animals. In Attica the +peasants’ houses are usually built of cob. In Maina the villagers +live in fortified towers of three or more storeys; the animals +occupy the ground floor, the family the topmost storey; the +intermediate space serves as a granary or hay-loft. The walls +are loop-holed for purposes of defence in view of the traditional +vendetta and feuds, which in some instances have been handed +down from remote generations and are maintained by occasional +sharp-shooting from these primitive fortresses. In general +cleanliness and sanitation are much neglected; the traveller in +the country districts is doomed to sleepless nights unless he has +provided himself with bedding and a hammock. Even Athens, +though enriched by many munificent benefactions, is still without +a drainage system or an adequate water supply; the sewers of +many houses open into the streets, in which rubbish is allowed +to accumulate. The effects of insanitary conditions are, however, +counteracted in some degree by the excellent climate. +The Aegean islanders contrast favourably with the continentals +in point of personal cleanliness and the neatness of their dwellings; +their houses are generally covered with the flat roof, familiar +in Asia, on which the family sleep in summer. The habits and +customs of the islanders afford an interesting study. Propitiatory +rites are still practised by the mariners and fishermen, and thank-offerings +for preservation at sea are hung up in the churches. +Among the popular amusements of the Greeks dancing holds a +prominent place; the dance is of various kinds; the most usual +is the somewhat inanimate round dance (<span class="grk" title="syrto">συρτό</span> or <span class="grk" title="trata">τράτα</span>), in +which a number of persons, usually of the same sex, take part +holding hands; it seems indentical with the Slavonic <i>kolo</i> +(“circle”). The more lively Albanian fling is generally danced +by three or four persons, one of whom executes a series of leaps +and pirouettes. The national music is primitive and monotonous. +All classes are passionately addicted to card-playing, which is +forbidden by law in places of public resort. The picturesque +national costume, which is derived from the Albanian Tosks, +has unfortunately been abandoned by the upper classes and the +urban population since the abdication of King Otho, who always +wore it; it is maintained as the uniform of the <i>euzones</i> (highland +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span> +regiments). It consists of a red cap with dark blue tassel, a +white shirt with wide sleeves, a vest and jacket, sometimes of +velvet, handsomely adorned with gold or black braid, a belt in +which various weapons are carried, a white kilt or <i>fustanella</i> of +many folds, white hose tied with garters, and red leather shoes +with pointed ends, from which a tassel depends. Over all is worn +the shaggy white <i>capote</i>. The islanders wear a dark blue costume +with a crimson waistband, loose trousers descending to the knee, +stockings and pumps or long boots. The women’s costume is +very varied; the loose red fez is sometimes worn and a short +velvet jacket with rich gold embroidery. The more elderly +women are generally attired in black. In the Megara district +and elsewhere peasant girls wear on festive occasions a headdress +composed of strings of coins which formerly represented +the dowry.</p> + +<p>Greece is a constitutional monarchy; hereditary in the male +line, or, in case of its extinction, in the female. The sovereign, +by decision of the conference of London (August 1863), +is styled “king of the Hellenes”; the title “king +<span class="sidenote">Government.</span> +of Greece” was borne by King Otho. The heir +apparent is styled <span class="grk" title="ho diadochos">ὁ διάδοχος</span>, “the successor”; the title +“duke of Sparta,” which has been accorded to the crown prince, +is not generally employed in Greece. The king and the heir +apparent must belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; a special +exception has been made for King George, who is a Lutheran. +The king attains his majority on completing his eighteenth year; +before ascending the throne he must take the oath to the constitution +in presence of the principal ecclesiastical and lay +dignitaries of the kingdom, and must convoke the Chamber +within two months after his accession. The civil list amounts +to 1,125,000 dr., in addition to which it was provided that King +George should receive £4000 annually as a personal allowance +from each of the three protecting powers, Great Britain, France +and Russia. The heir apparent receives from the state an +annuity of 200,000 dr. The king has a palace at Athens and +other residences at Corfu, Tatoi (on the slopes of Mt Parnes) +and Larissa. The present constitution dates from the 29th of +October 1864. The legislative power is shared by the king with +a single chamber (<span class="grk" title="boulê">βουλή</span>) elected by manhood suffrage for a +period of four years. The election is by ballot; candidates +must have completed their thirtieth year and electors their +twenty-first. The deputies (<span class="grk" title="bouleutai">βουλευταί</span>), according to the +constitution, receive only their travelling expenses, but they +vote themselves a payment of 1800 dr. each for the session and +a further allowance in case of an extraordinary session. The +Chamber sits for a term of not less than three or more than six +months. No law can be passed except by an absolute majority +of the house, and one-half of the members must be present to +form a quorum; these arrangements have greatly facilitated the +practice of obstruction, and often enable individual deputies +to impose terms on the government for their attendance. In +1898 the number of deputies was 234. Some years previously +a law diminishing the national representation and enlarging +the constituencies was passed by Trikoupis with the object +of checking the local influence of electors upon deputies, but +the measure was subsequently repealed. The number of deputies, +however, who had hitherto been elected in the proportion of one +to twelve thousand of the population, was reduced in 1905, +when the proportion of one to sixteen thousand was substituted; +the Chamber of 1906, elected under the new system, consisted +of 177 deputies. In 1906 the electoral districts were diminished +in number and enlarged so as to coincide with the twenty-six +administrative departments (<span class="grk" title="nomoi">νόμοι</span>); the reduction of these +departments to their former number of sixteen, which is in +contemplation, will bring about some further diminution in +parliamentary representation. It is hoped that recent legislation +will tend to check the pernicious practice of bartering personal +favours, known as <span class="grk" title="synallagê">συναλλαγή</span>, which still prevails to the great +detriment of public morality, paralysing all branches of the +administration and wasting the resources of the state. Political +parties are formed not for the furtherance of any principle or +cause, but with the object of obtaining the spoils of office, and +the various groups, possessing no party watchword or programme, +frankly designate themselves by the names of their leaders. +Even the strongest government is compelled to bargain with its +supporters in regard to the distribution of patronage and other +favours. The consequent instability of successive ministries +has retarded useful legislation and seriously checked the national +progress. In 1906 a law was passed disqualifying junior officers +of the army and navy for membership of the Chamber; great +numbers of these had hitherto been candidates at every election. +This much-needed measure had previously been passed by +Trikoupis, but had been repealed by his rival Delyannes. The +executive is vested in the king, who is personally irresponsible, +and governs through ministers chosen by himself and responsible +to the Chamber, of which they are <i>ex-officio</i> members. He +appoints all public officials, sanctions and proclaims laws, +convokes, prorogues and dissolves the Chamber, grants pardon +or amnesty, coins money and confers decorations. There are +seven ministries which respectively control the departments +of foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, education and +worship, the army and the navy.</p> + +<p>The 26 departments or <span class="grk" title="nomoi">νομοί</span>, into which the country is divided +for administrative purposes, are each under a prefect or nomarch +(<span class="grk" title="nomarchos">νόμαρχος</span>); they are subdivided into 69 districts or +eparchies, and into 445 communes or demes (<span class="grk" title="dêmoi">δῆμοι</span>) +<span class="sidenote">Local Administration.</span> +under mayors or demarchs (<span class="grk" title="dêmarchoi">δήμαρχοι</span>). The prefects +and sub-prefects are nominated by the government; +the mayors are elected by the communes for a period of four +years. The prefects are assisted by a departmental council, +elected by the population, which manages local business and +assesses rates; there are also communal councils under the +presidency of the mayors. There are altogether some 12,000 +state-paid officials in the country, most of them inadequately +remunerated and liable to removal or transferral upon a change +of government. A host of office-seekers has thus been created, +and large numbers of educated persons spend many years in +idleness or in political agitation. A law passed in 1905 secures +tenure of office to civil servants of fifteen years’ standing, and +some restrictions have been placed on the dismissal and transferral +of schoolmasters.</p> + +<p>Under the Turks the Greeks retained, together with their +ecclesiastical institutions, a certain measure of local self-government +and judicial independence. The Byzantine code, +based on the Roman, as embodied in the <span class="grk" title="Hexabiblos">Ἑξάβιβλος</span> +<span class="sidenote">Justice.</span> +of Armenopoulos (1345), was sanctioned by royal decree in 1835 +with some modifications as the civil law of Greece. Further +modifications and new enactments were subsequently introduced, +derived from the old French and Bavarian systems. The penal +code is Bavarian, the commercial French. Liberty of person +and domicile is inviolate; no arrest can be made, no house +entered, and no letter opened without a judicial warrant. Trial +by jury is established for criminal, political and press offences. +A new civil code, based on Saxon and Italian law, has been +drawn up by a commission of jurists, but it has not yet been +considered by the Chamber. A separate civil code, partly French, +partly Italian, is in force in the Ionian Islands. The law is +administered by 1 court of cassation (styled the “Areopagus”), +5 courts of appeal, 26 courts of first instance, 233 justices of the +peace and 19 correctional tribunals.</p> + +<p>The judges, who are appointed by the Crown, are liable to +removal by the minister of justice, whose exercise of this right +is often invoked by political partisans. The administration of +justice suffers in consequence, more especially in the country +districts, where the judges must reckon with the influential +politicians and their adherents. The pardon or release of a +convicted criminal is not infrequently due to pressure on the part +of some powerful patron. The lamentable effects of this system +have long been recognized, and in 1906 a law was introduced +securing tenure of office for two or four years to judges of the +courts of first instance and of the inferior tribunals. In the +circumstances crime is less rife than might be expected; the +temperate habits of the Greeks have conduced to this result. +A serious feature is the great prevalence of homicide, due in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span> +part to the passionate character of the people, but still more to +the almost universal practice of carrying weapons. The traditions +of the vendetta are almost extinct in the Ionian Islands, +but still linger in Maina, where family feuds are transmitted +from generation to generation. The brigand of the old-fashioned +type (<span class="grk" title="lêstês, klephtês">λῃστής, κλέφτης</span>) has almost disappeared, except in the +remoter country districts, and piracy, once so prevalent in the +Aegean, has been practically suppressed, but numbers of outlaws +or absconding criminals (<span class="grk" title="phygodikoi">φυγόδικοι</span>) still haunt the mountains, +and the efforts of the police to bring them to justice are far from +successful. Their ranks were considerably increased after the +war of 1897, when many deserters from the army and adventurers +who came to Greece as volunteers betook themselves to a predatory +life. On the other hand, there is no habitually criminal +class in Greece, such as exists in the large centres of civilization, +and professional mendicancy is still rare.</p> + +<p>Police duties, for which officers and, in some cases, soldiers +of the regular army were formerly employed, are since 1906 +carried out by a reorganized gendarmerie force of 194 officers +and 6344 non-commissioned officers and men, distributed in +the twenty-six departments and commanded by an inspector-general +resident at Athens, who is aided by a consultative commission. +There are male and female prisons at all the departmental +centres; the number of prisoners in 1906 was 5705. +Except in the Ionian Islands, the general condition of the prisons +is deplorable; discipline and sanitation are very deficient, and +conflicts among the prisoners are sometimes reported in which +knives and even revolvers are employed. A good prison has +been built near Athens by Andreas Syngros, and a reformatory +for juvenile offenders (<span class="grk" title="ephêbeion">ἐφηβεῖον</span>) has been founded by George +Averoff, another national benefactor. Capital sentences are +usually commuted to penal servitude for life; executions, for +which the guillotine is employed, are for the most part carried +out on the island of Bourzi near Nauplia; they are often postponed +for months or even for years. There is no enactment +resembling the Habeas Corpus Act, and accused persons may +be detained indefinitely before trial. The Greeks, like the other +nations liberated from Turkish rule, are somewhat litigious, and +numbers of lawyers find occupation even in the smaller country +towns.</p> + +<p>The Greeks, an intelligent people, have always shown a remarkable +zeal for learning, and popular education has made great +strides. So eager is the desire for instruction that +schools are often founded in the rural districts on the +<span class="sidenote">Education.</span> +initiative of the villagers, and the sons of peasants, +artisans and small shopkeepers come in numbers to Athens, +where they support themselves by domestic service or other +humble occupations in order to study at the university during +their spare hours. Almost immediately after the accession of +King Otho steps were taken to establish elementary schools in +all the communes, and education was made obligatory. The +law is not very rigorously applied in the remoter districts, but +its enforcement is scarcely necessary. In 1898 there were 2914 +“demotic” or primary schools, with 3465 teachers, attended by +129,210 boys (5.38% of the population) and 29,119 girls (1.19% +of the population). By a law passed in 1905 the primary schools, +which had reached the number of 3359 in that year, were reduced +to 2604. The expenditure on primary schools is nominally +sustained by the communes, but in reality by the government +in the form of advances to the communes, which are not repaid; +it was reduced in 1905 from upwards of 7,000,000 dr. to under +6,000,000 dr. In 1905 there were 306 “Hellenic” or secondary +schools, with 819 teachers and 21,575 pupils (boys only) maintained +by the state at a cost of 1,720,096 dr.; and 39 higher +schools, or gymnasia, with 261 masters and 6485 pupils, partly +maintained by the state (expenditure 615,600 dr.) and partly +by benefactions and other means. Besides these public schools +there are several private educational institutions, of which there +are eight at Athens with 650 pupils. The Polytechnic Institute +of Athens affords technical instruction in the departments of art +and science to 221 students. Scientific agricultural instruction +has been much neglected; there is an agricultural school at +Aïdinion in Thessaly with 40 pupils; there are eight agricultural +stations (<span class="grk" title="stathmoi">σταθμοί</span>) in various parts of the country. There are +two theological seminaries—the Rizari School at Athens (120 +pupils) and a preparatory school at Arta; three other seminaries +have been suppressed. The Commercial and Industrial Academy +at Athens (about 225 pupils), a private institution, has proved +highly useful to the country; there are four commercial schools, +each in one of the country towns. A large school for females +at Athens, the Arsakíon, is attended by 1500 girls. There are +several military and naval schools, including the military college +of the Euelpides at Athens and the school of naval cadets (<span class="grk" title="tôn +dokimôn">τῶν δοκίμων</span>). The university of Athens in 1905 numbered 57 +professors and 2598 students, of whom 557 were from abroad. +Of the six faculties, theology numbered 79 students, law 1467, +medicine 567, arts 206, physics and mathematics 192, and +pharmacy 87. The university receives a subvention from the +state, which in 1905 amounted to 563,960 dr.; it possesses +a library of over 150,000 volumes and geological, zoological and +botanical museums. A small tax on university education was +imposed in 1903; the total cost to the student for the four years’ +course at the university is about £25. Higher education is +practically gratuitous in Greece, and there is a somewhat ominous +increase in the number of educated persons who disdain agricultural +pursuits and manual labour. The intellectual culture +acquired is too often of a superficial character owing to the +tendency to sacrifice scientific thoroughness and accuracy, to +neglect the more useful branches of knowledge, and to aim at a +showy dialectic and literary proficiency. (For the native and +foreign archaeological institutions see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The Greek branch of the Orthodox Eastern Church is practically +independent, like those of Servia, Montenegro and Rumania, +though nominally subject to the patriarchate of +Constantinople. The jurisdiction of the patriarch +<span class="sidenote">Religion.</span> +was in fact repudiated in 1833, when the king was declared the +supreme head of the church, and the severance was completed +in 1850. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of the +Ministry of Education. Church government is vested in the +Holy Synod, a council of five ecclesiastics under the presidency +of the metropolitan of Athens; its sittings are attended by a +royal commissioner. The church can invoke the aid of the civil +authorities for the punishment of heresy and the suppression of +unorthodox literature, pictures, &c. There were formerly 21 +archbishoprics and 29 bishoprics in Greece, but a law passed in +1899 suppressed the archbishoprics (except the metropolitan +see of Athens) on the death of the existing prelates, and fixed +the total number of sees at 32. The prelates derive their incomes +partly from the state and partly from the church lands. There +are about 5500 priests, who belong for the most part to the +poorest classes. The parochial clergy have no fixed stipends, +and often resort to agriculture or small trading in order to +supplement the scanty fees earned by their ministrations. Owing +to their lack of education their personal influence over their +parishioners is seldom considerable. In addition to the parochial +clergy there are 19 preachers (<span class="grk" title="hierokêrukes">ἱεροκήρυκες</span>) salaried by the state. +There are 170 monasteries and 4 nunneries in Greece, with about +1600 monks and 250 nuns. In regard to their constitution the +monasteries are either “idiorrhythmic” or “coenobian” (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athos</a></span>); the monks (<span class="grk" title="kalogeroi">καλόγεροι</span>) are in some cases assisted +by lay brothers (<span class="grk" title="kosmikoi">κοσμικοί</span>). More than 300 of the smaller +monasteries were suppressed in 1829 and their revenues secularized. +Among the more important and interesting monasteries +are those of Megaspelaeon and Lavra (where the standard of +insurrection, unfurled in 1821, is preserved) near Kalavryta, +St Luke of Stiris near Arachova, Daphne and Penteli near Athens, +and the Meteora group in northern Thessaly. The bishops, who +must be unmarried, are as a rule selected from the monastic +order and are nominated by the king; the parish priests are +allowed to marry, but the remarriage of widowers is forbidden. +The bulk of the population, about 2,000,000, belongs to the +Orthodox Church; other Christian confessions number about +15,000, the great majority being Roman Catholics. The Roman +Catholics (principally in Naxos and the Cyclades) have three +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span> +archbisboprics (Athens, Naxos and Corfu), five bishoprics and about +60 churches. The Jews, who are regarded with much hostility, +have almost disappeared from the Greek mainland; they now +number about 5000, and are found principally at Corfu. The +Mahommedans are confined to Thessaly except a few at Chalcis. +National sentiment is a more powerful factor than personal +religious conviction in the attachment of the Greeks to the +Orthodox Church; a Greek without the pale of the church is +more or less an alien. The Catholic Greeks of Syros sided with +the Turks at the time of the revolution; the Mahommedans of +Crete, though of pure Greek descent, have always been hostile +to their Christian fellow-countrymen and are commonly called +Turks. On the other hand, that portion of the Macedonian +population which acknowledges the patriarch of Constantinople +is regarded as Greek, while that which adheres to the Bulgarian +exarchate, though differing in no point of doctrine, has been +declared schismatic. The constitution of 1864 guarantees +toleration to all creeds in Greece and imposes no civil disabilities +on account of religion.</p> + +<p>Greece is essentially an agricultural country; its prosperity +depends on its agricultural products, and more than half the +population is occupied in the cultivation of the soil +and kindred pursuits. The land in the plains and +<span class="sidenote">Agriculture.</span> +valleys is exceedingly rich, and, wherever there is +a sufficiency of water, produces magnificent crops. Cereals +nevertheless furnish the principal figure in the list of imports, +the annual value being about 30,000,000 fr. The country, +especially since the acquisition of the fertile province of Thessaly, +might under a well-developed agricultural system provide a +food-supply for all its inhabitants and an abundant surplus +for exportation. Thessaly alone, indeed, could furnish cereals +for the whole of Greece. Unfortunately, however, agriculture +is still in a primitive state, and the condition of the rural population +has received very inadequate attention from successive +governments. The wooden plough of the Hesiodic type is still +in use, especially in Thessaly; modern implements, however, +are being gradually introduced. The employment of manure +and the rotation of crops are almost unknown; the fields are +generally allowed to lie fallow in alternate years. As a rule, +countries dependent on agriculture are liable to sudden fluctuations +in prosperity, but in Greece the diversity of products is so +great that a failure in one class of crops is usually compensated +by exceptional abundance in another. Among the causes which +have hitherto retarded agricultural progress are the ignorance +and conservatism of the peasantry, antiquated methods of +cultivation, want of capital, absentee proprietorship, sparsity +of population, bad roads, the prevalence of usury, the uncertainty +of boundaries and the land tax, which, in the absence of a survey, +is levied on ploughing oxen; to these may be added the insecurity +hitherto prevailing in many of the country districts +and the growing distaste for rural life which has accompanied +the spread of education. Large estates are managed under the +metayer system; the cultivator paying the proprietor from +one-third to half of the gross produce; the landlords, who +prefer to live in the larger towns, see little of their tenants, and +rarely interest themselves in their welfare. A great proportion +of the best arable land in Thessaly is owned by persons who +reside permanently out of the country. The great estates in +this province extend over some 1,500,000 acres, of which about +500,000 are cultivated. In the Peloponnesus peasant proprietorship +is almost universal; elsewhere it is gradually supplanting +the metayer system; the small properties vary from 2 or 3 to +50 acres. The extensive state lands, about one-third of the +area of Greece, were formerly the property of Mahommedan +religious communities (<i>vakoufs</i>); they are for the most part +farmed out annually by auction. They have been much encroached +upon by neighbouring owners; a considerable portion +has also been sold to the peasants. The rich plain of Thessaly +suffers from alternate droughts and inundations, and from the +ravages of field mice; with improved cultivation, drainage +and irrigation it might be rendered enormously productive. +A commission has been occupied for some years in preparing +a scheme of hydraulic works. Usury is, perhaps, a greater +scourge to the rural population than any visitation of nature; +the institution of agricultural banks, lending money at a fair +rate of interest on the security of their land, would do much +to rescue the peasants from the clutches of local Shylocks. +There is a difficulty, however, in establishing any system of +land credit owing to the lack of a survey. Since 1897 a law +passed in 1882 limiting the rate of interest to 8% (to 9% in the +case of commercial debts) has to some extent been enforced by +the tribunals. In the Ionian Islands the rate of 10% still +prevails.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following figures give approximately the acreage in 1906 +and the average annual yield of agricultural produce, no official +statistics being available:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Acres. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fields sown or lying fallow</td> <td class="tcr">3,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Vineyards</td> <td class="tcr">337,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Currant plantations</td> <td class="tcr">175,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Olives (10,000,000 trees)</td> <td class="tcr">250,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fruit trees (fig, mulberry, &c.)</td> <td class="tcr">125,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Meadows and pastures</td> <td class="tcr">7,500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Forests</td> <td class="tcr">2,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Waste lands</td> <td class="tcr">2,875,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">16,262,500</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The average annual yield is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Wheat</td> <td class="tcr">350,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">kilograms</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Maize</td> <td class="tcr">100,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Rye</td> <td class="tcr">20,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Barley</td> <td class="tcr">70,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Oats</td> <td class="tcr">75,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Beans, lentils, &c</td> <td class="tcr">25,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Currants</td> <td class="tcr">350,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">Venetian ℔</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sultanina</td> <td class="tcr">4,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Wine</td> <td class="tcr">3,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">hectolitres</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Olive oil</td> <td class="tcr">300,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Olives (preserved)</td> <td class="tcr">100,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">kilograms</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Figs (exported only)</td> <td class="tcr">12,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Seed cotton</td> <td class="tcr">6,500,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tobacco</td> <td class="tcr">8,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Vegetables and fresh fruits</td> <td class="tcr">20,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cocoons</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hesperidiums (exported only)</td> <td class="tcr">4,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Carobs (exported only)</td> <td class="tcr">10,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Resin</td> <td class="tcr">5,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Beet</td> <td class="tcr">12,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">”</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Rice is grown in the marshy plains of Elis, Boeotia, Marathon +and Missolonghi; beet in Thessaly. The cultivation of vegetables +is increasing; beans, peas and lentils are the most common. Potatoes +are grown in the upland districts, but are not a general article of diet. +Of late years market-gardening has been taken up as a new industry +in the neighbourhood of Athens. There is a great variety of fruits. +Olive plantations are found everywhere; in 1860 they occupied +about 90,000 acres; in 1887, 433,701 acres. The trees are sometimes +of immense age and form a picturesque feature in the landscape. +In latter years the groves in many parts of the western Morea and +Zante have been cut down to make room for currant plantations; +the destruction has been deplorable in its consequences, for, as the +tree requires twenty years to come into full bearing, replanting +is seldom resorted to. Preserved olives, eaten with bread, are a +common article of food. Excellent olive oil is produced in Attica +and elsewhere. The value of the oil and fruit exported varies from +five to ten million francs. Figs are also abundant, especially in +Messenia and in the Cyclades. Mulberry trees are planted for the +purposes of sericulture; they have been cut down in great numbers +in the currant-growing districts. Other fruit trees are the orange, +citron, lemon, pomegranate and almond. Peaches, apricots, pears, +cherries, &c., abound, but are seldom scientifically cultivated; the +fruit is generally gathered while unripe. Cotton in 1906 occupied +about 12,500 acres, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Livadia. Tobacco +plantations in 1893 covered 16,320 acres, yielding about 3,500,000 +kilograms; the yield in 1906 was 9,000,000 kilograms. About 40% +of the produce is exported, principally to Egypt and Turkey. More +important are the vineyards, which occupied in 1887 an area of 306,421 +acres. The best wine is made at Patras, on the royal estate at +Decelea, and on other estates in Attica; a peculiar flavour is imparted +to the wine of the country by the addition of resin. The +wine of Santorin, the modern representative of the famous “malmsey,” +is mainly exported to Russia. The foreign demand for Greek +wines is rapidly increasing; 3,770,257 gallons were exported in 1890, +4,974,196 gallons in 1894, There is also a growing demand for +Greek cognac. The export of wine in 1905 was 20,850,941 okes, +value 5,848,544 fr.; of cognac, 363,720 okes, value 1,091,160 fr.</p> + +<p>The currant, by far the most important of Greek exports, is cultivated +in a limited area extending along the southern shore of the +Gulf of Corinth and the seaboard of the Western Peloponnesus, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span> +in Zante, Cephalonia and Leucas, and in certain districts of +<span class="sidenote">Currants.</span> +Acarnania and Aetolia; attempts to cultivate it elsewhere have +generally proved unsuccessful. The history of the currant +industry has been a record of extraordinary vicissitudes. +Previously to 1877 the currant was exported solely for eating purposes, +the amounts for the years 1872 to 1877 being 70,766 tons, 71,222 +tons, 76,210 tons, 72,916 tons, 86,947 tons, and 82,181 tons respectively. +In 1877, however, the French vineyards began to suffer +seriously from the phylloxera, and French wine producers were +obliged to have recourse to dried currants, which make an excellent +wine for blending purposes. The importation of currants into +France at once rose from 881 tons in 1877 to 20,999 tons in 1880, +and to 70,401 tons in 1889, or about 20,000 tons more than were +imported into England in that year. Meanwhile the total amount +of currants produced in Greece had nearly doubled in these thirteen +years. The country was seized with a mania for currant planting; +every other industry was neglected, and olive, orange and lemon +groves were cut down to make room for the more lucrative growth. +The currant growers, in order to increase their production as rapidly +as possible, had recourse to loans at a high rate of interest, and the +great profits which they made were devoted to further planting, +while the loans remained unpaid. A crisis followed rapidly. By +1891 the French vineyards had to a great extent recovered from the +disease, and wine producers in France began to clamour against the +competition of foreign wines and wine-producing raisins and currants. +The import duty on these was thereupon raised from 6 francs to 15 +francs per 100 kilos, and was further increased in 1894 to 25 +francs. The currant trade with France was thus extinguished; of a +crop averaging 160,000 tons, only some 110,000 now found a market. +Although a fresh opening for exportation was found in Russia, the +value of the fruit dropped from £15 to £5 per ton, a price scarcely +covering the cost of cultivation. In July 1895 the government +introduced a measure, since known as the Retention (<span class="grk" title="parakratêsis">παρακράτησις</span>) +Law, by which it was enacted that every shipper should deliver +into depots provided by the government a weight of currants equivalent +to 15% of the amount which he intended to export. A later law +fixed the quantity to be retained by the state at 10%, which might +be increased to 20%, should a representative committee, meeting +every summer at Athens, so advise the government. The currants +thus taken over by the government cannot be exported unless they +are reduced to pulp, syrup or otherwise rendered unsuitable for +eating purposes; they may be sold locally for wine-making or distilling, +due precautions being taken that they are not used in any other +way. The price of exported currants is thus maintained at an artificial +figure. The Retention Law, which after 1895 was voted annually, +was passed for a period of ten years in 1899. This pernicious +measure, which is in defiance of all economic laws, perpetuates a +superfluous production, retards the development of other branches +of agriculture and burdens the government with vast accumulations +of an unmarketable commodity. It might excusably be adopted as +a temporary expedient to meet a pressing crisis, but as a permanent +system it can only prove detrimental to the country and the currant +growers themselves.</p> + +<p>In 1899 a “Bank of Viticulture” was established at Patras for the +purpose of assisting the growers, to whom it was bound to make +advances at a low rate of interest; it undertook the storage and the +sale of the retained fruit, from which its capital was derived. The +bank soon found itself burdened with an enormous unsaleable +stock, while its loans for the most part remained unpaid; meantime +over-production, the cause of the trouble, continued to increase, +and prices further diminished. In 1903 a syndicate of English and +other foreign capitalists made proposals for a monopoly of the export, +guaranteeing fixed prices to the growers. The scheme, which conflicted +with Anglo-Greek commercial conventions, was rejected by the +Theotokis ministry; serious disturbances followed in the currant-growing +districts, and M. Theotokis resigned. His successor, M. +Rallis, in order to appease the cultivators, arranged that the Currant +Bank should offer them fixed minimum prices for the various growths, +and guaranteed it a loan of 6,000,000 dr. The resources of the bank, +however, gave out before the end of the season, and prices pursued +their downward course. Another experiment was then tried; the +export duty (15%) was made payable in kind, the retention quota +being thus practically raised from 20 to 35%. The only result of this +measure was a diminution of the export; in the spring of 1905 prices +fell very low and the growers began to despair. A syndicate of banks +and capitalists then came forward, which introduced the system now +in operation. A privileged company was formed which obtained +a charter from the government for twenty years, during which period +the retention and export duties are maintained at the fixed rates +of 20 and 15% respectively. The company aims at keeping up the +prices of the marketable qualities by employing profitably for +industrial purposes the unexported surplus and retained inferior +qualities; it pays to the state 4,000,000 dr. annually under the head +of export duty; offers all growers at the beginning of each agricultural +year a fixed price of 115 dr. per 1000 Venetian ℔ irrespective +of quality, and pays a price varying from 115 dr. to 145 dr. according +to quality at the end of the year for the unexported surplus. In +return for these advantages to the growers the company is entitled +to receive 7 dr. on every 1000 ℔ of currants produced and to dispose +of the whole retained amount. A special company has been formed +for the conversion of the superfluous product into spirit, wine, &c. +The system may perhaps prove commercially remunerative, but it +penalizes the producers of the better growths in order to provide a +livelihood for the growers of inferior and unmarketable kinds and +protracts an abnormal situation. The following table gives the +annual currant crop from 1877 to 1905:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total crop<br />(tons).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exported to<br />Gt. Britain.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exported to<br />France.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1877</td> <td class="tcr rb">82,181</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">881</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1878</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,004</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,086</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1879</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,311</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,087</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,337</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,999</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcr rb">121,994</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,315</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcr rb">109,403</td> <td class="tcr rb">51,933</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,282</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1883</td> <td class="tcr rb">114,980</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,099</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,815</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">129,268</td> <td class="tcr rb">59,629</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,198</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb">113,287</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,765</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,730</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcr rb">127,570</td> <td class="tcr rb">48,892</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1887</td> <td class="tcr rb">127,160</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,549</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,438</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcr rb">158,728</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,714</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,735</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">142,308</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,251</td> <td class="tcr rb">69,555</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">146,749</td> <td class="tcr rb">67,502</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,816</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">161,545</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,762</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,712</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">116,944</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,418</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,721</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">119,886</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">135,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">167,695</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">153,514</td> <td class="tcr rb">65,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcr rb">115,730</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">153,514</td> <td class="tcr rb">69,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">144,071</td> <td class="tcr rb">65,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,236</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">300</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">139,820</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,216</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">152,580</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,782</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">179,499</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,800</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,470</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">146,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,850</td> <td class="tcr rb">820</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">162,957</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">61,700</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,042</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The “peronospora,” a species of white blight, first caused considerable +damage in the Greek vineyards in 1892, recurring in 1897 +and 1900.</p> + +<p>More than half the cultivable area of Greece is devoted to pasturage. +Cattle-rearing, as a rule, is a distinct occupation from agricultural +farming; the herds are sent to pasture on the +mountains in the summer, and return to the plains at the +<span class="sidenote">Stock-farming.</span> +beginning of winter. The larger cattle are comparatively +rare, being kept almost exclusively for agricultural labour; the +smaller are very abundant. Beef is scarcely eaten in Greece, the +milk of cows is rarely drunk and butter is almost unknown. Cheese, +a staple article of diet, is made from the milk of sheep and goats. +The number of larger cattle has declined in recent years; that of +the smaller has increased. The native breed of oxen is small; +buffaloes are seldom seen except in north-western Thessaly; a few +camels are used in the neighbourhood of Parnassus. The Thessalian +breed of horses, small but sturdy and enduring, can hardly be taken +to represent the celebrated chargers of antiquity. Mules are much +employed in the mountainous districts; the best type of these +animals is found in the islands. The flocks of long-horned sheep and +goats add a picturesque feature to Greek rural scenery. The goats +are more numerous in proportion to the population than in any other +European country (137 per 100 inhabitants). The shepherds’ dogs +rival those of Bulgaria in ferocity. According to an unofficial estimate +published in 1905 the numbers of the various domestic animals in +1899 were as follows: Oxen and buffaloes, 408,744; horses, 157,068; +mules, 88,869; donkeys, 141,174; camels, 51; sheep, 4,568,151; +goats, 3,339,439; pigs, 79,716. During the four years 1899-1902 +the annual average value of imported cattle was 4,218,015 dr., of +exported cattle 209,321 dr.</p> + +<p>The forest area (about 2,500,000 acres or one-fifth of the surface +of the mainland) is for the most part state property. The value of +the forests has been estimated at 200,000,000 fr.; the +most productive are in the district extending from the +<span class="sidenote">Forests.</span> +Pindus range to the Gulf of Corinth. The principal trees are the +oak (about 30 varieties), the various coniferae, the chestnut, maple, +elm, beech, alder, cornel and arbutus. In Greece, as in other lands +formerly subject to Turkish rule, the forests are not only neglected, +but often deliberately destroyed; this great source of national +wealth is thus continually diminishing. Every year immense forest +fires may be seen raging in the mountains, and many of the most +picturesque districts in the country are converted into desolate +wildernesses. These conflagrations are mainly the work of shepherds +eager to provide increased pasturage for their flocks; they are +sometimes, however, due to the carelessness of smokers, and occasionally, +it is said, to spontaneous ignition in hot weather. Great +damage is also done by the goats, which browse on the young saplings; +the pine trees are much injured by the practice of scoring their bark +for resin. With the disappearance of the trees the soil of the mountain +slopes, deprived of its natural protection, is soon washed away +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span> +by the rain; the rapid descent of the water causes inundations in +the plains, while the uplands become sterile and lose their vegetation. +The climate has been affected by the change; rain falls less frequently +but with greater violence, and the process of denudation is +accelerated. The government has from time to time made efforts +for the protection of the forests, but with little success till recently. +A staff of inspectors and forest guards was first organized in 1877. +The administration of the forests has since 1893 been entrusted to a +department of the Ministry of Finance, which controls a staff of 4 +inspectors (<span class="grk" title="epitheôrêtai">ἐπιθεωρῆται</span>), 31 superintendents (<span class="grk" title="dasarchoi">δασαρχοί</span>), 52 head +foresters (<span class="grk" title="archiphylakes">ἀρχιφύλακες</span>) and 298 foresters (<span class="grk" title="dasyphylakes">δασυφύλακες</span>). The +foresters are aided during the summer months, when fires are most +frequent, by about 500 soldiers and gendarmes. About a third +of these functionaries have received instruction in the school of +forestry at Vythine in the Morea, open since 1898. Owing to the +measures now taken, which include excommunication by the parish +priests of incendiaries and their accomplices, the conflagrations have +considerably diminished. The total annual value of the products of +the Greek forests averages 15,000,000 drachmae. The revenue +<span class="correction" title="amended from accuring">accruing</span> to the government in 1905 was 1,418,158 dr., as compared +with 583,991 dr. in 1883. The increase is mainly due to improved +administration. The supply of timber for house-construction, ship-building, +furniture-making, railway sleepers, &c., is insufficient, and +is supplemented by importation (annual value about 12,000,000 +francs); transport is rendered difficult by the lack of roads and +navigable streams. The principal secondary products are valonea +(annual exportation about 1,250,000 fr.) and resin, which is locally +employed as a preservative ingredient in the fabrication of wine. +The administration of the forests is still defective, and measures +for the augmentation and better instruction of the staff of foresters +have been designed by the government. In 1900 a society for the re-afforesting +of the country districts and environs of the large towns +was founded at Athens under the patronage of the crown princess.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Francs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chrome</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">337,952</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Emery</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,972</td> <td class="tcr rb">742,486</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gypsum</td> <td class="tcr rb">185</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,995</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Iron ore</td> <td class="tcr rb">465,622</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,387,467</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ferromanganese</td> <td class="tcr rb">89,687</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,182,652</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lead (argentiferous pig) ore</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,729</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,811,792</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lignite</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,757</td> <td class="tcr rb">143,814</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesite</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,498</td> <td class="tcr rb">864,982</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Manganese ore</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,171</td> <td class="tcr rb">122,565</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mill stones</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,628</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,660</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Salt</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,201</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,638,065</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,126</td> <td class="tcr rb">121,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Zinc ore</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">22,562</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,852,355</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The chief minerals are silver, lead, zinc, copper manganese, +magnesia, iron, sulphur and coal. Emery, salt, millstone and +gypsum, which are found in considerable quantities, +are worked by the government. The important mines +<span class="sidenote">Mines.</span> +at Laurium, a source of great wealth to ancient Athens, were reopened +in 1864 by a Franco-Italian company, but were declared to be state +property in 1871; they are now worked by a Greek and a French +company. The output of marketable ore in 1899 amounted to +486,760 tons, besides 289,292 tons of dressed lead ore. In 1905 +the output was as follows: Raw and roasted manganese iron ore, +113,636 tons; hematite iron ore, 94,734 tons; calamine or zinc +ore, 22,612 tons; arsenic and argentiferous lead, 1875 tons; zinc +blende and galena, 443 tons; total, 233,300 tons, together with +164,857 tons of dressed lead, producing 13,822 tons of silver pig lead +containing 1657 to 1910 grams of silver per ton. It has been found +profitable to resmelt the scoriae of the ancient workings. The total +value of the exports from the Laurium mines, which in 1875 amounted +to only £150,513, had in 1899 increased to £827,209, but fell in 1905 +to £499,882. The revenue accruing to the government from all mines +and quarries, including those worked by the state, was estimated +in the budget for 1906 at 1,332,000 dr. The emery of Naxos, which +is a state monopoly, is excellent in quality and very abundant. +Mines of iron ore have latterly been opened at Larimna in Locris. +Magnesite mines are worked by an Anglo-Greek company in Euboea. +There are sulphur and manganese mines in the island of Melos, and +the volcanic island of Santorin produces pozzolana, a kind of cement, +which is exported in considerable quantities. The great abundance +of marble in Greece has latterly attracted the attention of foreign +capitalists. New quarries have been opened since 1897 by an +English company on the north slope of Mount Pentelicus, and are +now connected by rail with Athens and the Peiraeus. The marble +on this side of the mountain is harder than that on the south, which +alone was worked by the ancients. The output in 1905 was 1573 +tons. Mount Pentelicus furnished material for most of the celebrated +buildings of ancient Athens; the marble, which is white, blue-veined, +and somewhat transparent, assumes a rich yellow hue after +long exposure to the air. The famous Parian quarries are still +worked; white marble is also found at Scyros, Tenos and Naxos; +grey at Stoura and Karystos; variegated at Valaxa and Karystos; +green on Taygetus and in Thessaly; black at Tenos; and red +(porphyry) in Maina.</p> + +<p>The official statistics of the output and value of minerals produced +in 1905 were as in the preceding table.</p> + +<p>The number of persons employed in mining operations in 1905 +was 9934.</p> +</div> + +<p>Owing to the natural aptitude of the Greeks for commerce +and their predilection for a seafaring life a great portion of the +trade of the Levant has fallen into their hands. Important +Greek mercantile colonies exist in all the +<span class="sidenote">Commerce and industry.</span> +larger ports of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, +and many of them possess great wealth. In some of +the islands of the archipelago almost every householder is the +owner or joint owner of a ship. The Greek mercantile marine, +which in 1888 consisted of 1352 vessels (70 steamers) with a total +tonnage of 219,415 tons, numbered in 1906, according to official +returns, 1364 vessels (275 steamers) with a total tonnage of +427,291 tons. This figure is apparently too low, as the ship-owners +are prone to understate the tonnage in order to diminish +the payment of dues. Almost the whole corn trade of Turkey +is in Greek hands. A large number of the sailing ships, especially +the smaller vessels engaged in the coasting trade, belong to the +islanders. A considerable portion of the shipping on the Danube +and Pruth is owned by the inhabitants of Ithaca and Cephalonia; +a certain number of their <i>sleps</i> (<span class="grk" title="slepia">σλέπια</span>) have latterly been +acquired by Rumanian Jews, but the Greek flag is still predominant. +There are seven principal Greek steamship companies +owning 40 liners with a total tonnage of 21,972 tons. In 1847 +there was but one lighthouse in Greek waters; in 1906 there +were 70 lighthouses and 68 port lanterns. Hermoupolis (Syra) +is the chief seat of the carrying trade, but as a commercial port +it yields to Peiraeus, which is the principal centre of distribution +for imports. Other important ports are Patras, Volo, Corfu, +Kalamata and Laurium.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following table gives the total value (in francs) of special +Greek commerce for the given years:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">1887.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1892.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1897.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1902.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">131,849,325</td> <td class="tcr rb">119,306,007</td> <td class="tcr rb">116,363,348</td> <td class="tcr rb">137,229,364</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">102,652,487</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">82,261,464</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">81,708,626</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">79,663,473</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The marked fluctuations in the returns are mainly attributable +to variations in the price and quantity of imported cereals and in +the sale of currants. The great excess of imports, caused by the +large importation of food-stuffs and manufactured articles, is due +to the neglect of agriculture and the undeveloped condition of local +industries.</p> + +<p>The imports and exports for 1905 were distributed as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc allb"> </td> <td class="tcc allb">Imports from.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Exports to.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Frs.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Frs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,725,218</td> <td class="tcr rb">810,925</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,516,928</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,436,707</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,444,415</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,876,806</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,538,370</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,516,403</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,896,687</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,514,474</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,101,070</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,078,321</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,190,253</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,266,210</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bulgaria</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,135,718</td> <td class="tcr rb">133,106</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,814,641</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,152,207</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">America</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,656,501</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,440,648</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,276,393</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,068,138</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,921,762</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,180,301</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egypt</td> <td class="tcr rb">634,035</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,928,555</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">348,281</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,555,781</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,288,365</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">————</td> <td class="tcc rb">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">141,756,053</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">83,691,166</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>An enumeration of the chief articles of importation and exportation, +together with their value, will be found in tabular form overleaf.</p> + +<p>Greece does not possess any manufacturing industries on a large +scale; the absence of a native coal supply is an obstacle to their +development. In 1889 there were 145 establishments employing +steam of 5568 indicated horse-power; in 1892 the total horse-power +employed was estimated at 10,000. In addition to the smelting-works +at Laurium, at which some 5000 hands are employed by Greek and +French companies and local proprietors, there are flour mills, cloth, +cotton and silk spinning mills, ship-building and engineering works, +oil-presses, tanneries, powder and dynamite mills, soap mills (about +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span> +40), and some manufactures of paper, glass, matches, turpentine, white +lead, hats, gloves, candles, &c. About 100 factories are established +in the neighbourhood of Athens and Peiraeus. The wine industry +(10 factories) is of considerable importance, and the manufacture +of cognac has latterly made great progress; there are 10 large and +numerous small cognac distilleries. Ship-building is carried on +actively at all the ports on the mainland and islands; about 200 +ships, mostly of low tonnage, are launched annually.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>Principal Articles of Importation.</i></p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Articles.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total value<br />in francs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imported from<br />the United<br />Kingdom.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Total value<br />in francs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imported from<br />the United<br />Kingdom.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cereals</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,735,808</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,511,784</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Textiles</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,999,344</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,762,464</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,460,620</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,497,172</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Raw minerals</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,341,191</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,630,633</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Forest products</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,146,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,769</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,254,190</td> <td class="tcr rb">61,309</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wrought metals</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,757,444</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,162,250</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Coals and pit-coal</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,522,086</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,087,068</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,073,841</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,308,357</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Yarn and tissues</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,739,819</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,504,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,021,523</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,838,079</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fish</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,992,615</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,394,224</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,014,164</td> <td class="tcr rb">186,072</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Raw hides</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,558,101</td> <td class="tcr rb">478,965</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,909,657</td> <td class="tcr rb">215,745</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Various animals</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,271,151</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,373,523</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,268</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Horses</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,011,450</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,070,250</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paper, books, &c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,327,144</td> <td class="tcr rb">157,017</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,319,700</td> <td class="tcr rb">76,454</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Coffee</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,957,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">293,610</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,060,904</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,296</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sugar</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,606,696</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,887,854</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rice</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,977,894</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,882</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,901,486</td> <td class="tcr rb">236,027</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb1">Colours</td> <td class="tcr rb bb1">1,750,858</td> <td class="tcr rb bb1">341,839</td> <td class="tcr rb bb1">2,146,509</td> <td class="tcr rb bb1">281,433</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb ptb1" colspan="5"><i>Chief Articles of Exportation.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Articles.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1905.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total value<br />in francs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exported to<br />the United<br />Kingdom.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Total value<br />in francs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exported to<br />the United<br />Kingdom.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Currants</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,841,678</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,569,137</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,299,780</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,008,929</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Minerals and raw metals</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,134,185</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,161,898</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,125,072</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,438,698</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wines</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,084,960</td> <td class="tcr rb">429,143</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,832,139</td> <td class="tcr rb">881,696</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tobacco</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,285,385</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,512</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,157,092</td> <td class="tcr rb">147,565</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Olive oil</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,163,262</td> <td class="tcr rb">212,081</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,150,285</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,310</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Figs</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,583,428</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,304</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,309,432</td> <td class="tcr rb">338,196</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Minerals and metals (worked)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,754,245</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,750</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,607,580</td> <td class="tcr rb">900</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Olives</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,793,362</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,833</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,138,116</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,800</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Valonea</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,558,678</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,849</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,917,014</td> <td class="tcr rb">146,927</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Cognac</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,027,224</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,099</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,091,160</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,283</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Public Works.</i>—The important drainage-works at Lake Copais +were taken over by an English company in 1890. The lake covered +an area of 58,080 acres, the greater part of which is now rendered +fit for cultivation. The drainage works consist of a canal, 28 kilometres +in length, and a tunnel of 600 metres descending through +the mountain to a lower lake, which is connected by a second tunnel +with the sea. The reclaimed land is highly fertile. The area under +crops amounted in 1906 to 27,414 acres, of which 20,744 were let +to tenants and the remainder farmed by the company. The uncultivated +portion affords excellent grazing. The canal through the +Isthmus of Corinth was opened to navigation in November 1893. +The total cost of the works, which were begun by a company in 1882, +was 70,000,000 francs. The narrowness of the canal, which is only +24.60 metres broad at the surface, and the strength of the current +which passes through it, seriously detract from its utility. The high +charges imposed on foreign vessels have proved almost prohibitive. +There are reduced rates for ships sailing in Greek waters. Up to the +31st of July 1906, 37,214 vessels, with a tonnage of 4,971,922, had +passed through the canal. The receipts up to that date were 3,207,835 +drachmae (mainly from Greek ships) and 415,976 francs (mainly +from foreign ships). In 1905, 2930 vessels (2735 Greek) passed +through, the receipts being 281,935 drachmae and 34,142 francs. +The total liabilities of the company in 1906 were about 40,000,000 fr. +The canal would be more frequented by foreign shipping if the +harbours at its entrances were improved, and its sides, which are of +masonry, lined with beams; efforts are being made to raise funds for +these purposes. The widening of the Euripus Channel at Chalcis +to the extent of 21.56 metres was accomplished in 1894. The operations +involved the destruction of the picturesque Venetian tower +which guarded the strait. A canal was completed in 1903 rendering +navigable the shallow channel between Leucas (Santa Maura) and +the mainland (breadth 15 metres, depth 5 metres). Large careening +docks were undertaken in 1909 at Peiraeus at an estimated cost of +4,750,000 drachmae.</p> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—Internal communication by roads is improving, +though much remains to be done, especially as regards the quality +of the roads. A considerable impetus was given to road-making +under the Trikoupis administration. +In 1878 there were only 555 m. of +roads; in 1898 there were 2398 m.; +in 1906, 3275 m. Electric trams have +been introduced at Patras. Railways +were open to traffic in 1900 for a length +of 598 m.; in 1906 for a length of +867 m. The circuit of the Morea railways +(462 m.) was completed in 1902; +from Diakophto, on the north coast, a +cogwheel railway, finished in 1894, +ascends to Kalavryta. A very important +undertaking is the completion +of a line from Peiraeus to the frontier, +the contract for which was signed in +1900 between the Greek government +and the Eastern Railway Extension +Syndicate (subsequently converted into +the <i>Société des Chemins de Fer helléniques</i>). +A line Connecting Peiraeus +with Larissa was begun in 1890, but +in 1894 the English company which +had undertaken the contract went into +liquidation. Under the contract of +1900 the line was drawn through +Demerli, in the south of Thessaly, to +Larissa, a distance of 217 m., and continued +through the vale of Tempe to +the Turkish frontier (about 246 m. in +all). Branch lines have been constructed +to Lamia and Chalcis. The +establishment of a connexion with the +continental railway system, by a +junction with the line from Belgrade +to Salonica, would be of immense advantage +to Greece, and the Peiraeus +would become an important place of +embarkation for Egypt, India and the +Far East.</p> + +<p>In 1905 the number of post offices +was 640. Of these 320 were also telegraph +and 89 telephone +stations, with 664 clerks; +the remaining post offices +possess no special staff, but +are served by persons who also pursue other occupations. The +<span class="sidenote">Posts and telegraphs.</span> +number of postmen and other employees was 889. During the +year there passed through the post 6,897,899 ordinary letters +for the interior, 2,980,958 for foreign destinations, 2,788,477 from +abroad; 540,411 registered letters or parcels for the interior, 309,907 +for foreign countries, and 300,150 from abroad; 880,673 post-cards +for the interior, 504,785 from abroad, and 187,975 sent abroad; +100,680 samples; 7,068,125 printed papers for the interior, 5,278,405 +to or from foreign countries. Telegraph lines in 1905 extended +over 4222 m. with 6836 m. of wires; 841,913 inland telegrams, +221,188 service telegrams and 129,036 telegrams to foreign destinations +were despatched, and 169,519 received from abroad. Receipts +amounted to 4,589,601 drachmae (postal service 2,744,212, telegraph +and telephone services 1,845,389 drachmae) and expenditure to +3,954,742 drachmae.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Greek army has recently been in a state of transition. +Its condition has never been satisfactory, partly owing to the +absence of systematic effort in the work of organization, +partly owing to the pernicious influence of political +<span class="sidenote">Army.</span> +parties, and in times of national emergency it has never been +in a condition of readiness. The experience of the war of 1897 +proved the need of far-reaching administrative changes and +disciplinary reforms. A scheme of complete reorganization was +subsequently elaborated under the auspices of the crown prince +Constantine, the commander-in-chief, and received the assent +of the Chamber in June 1904. During the war of 1897 about +65,000 infantry, 1000 cavalry, and 24 batteries were put into the +field, and after great efforts another 15,000 men were mobilized. +Under the new scheme it is proposed to maintain on a peace +footing 1887 officers, 25,140 non-commissioned officers and men, +and 4059 horses and mules; in time of war the active army +will consist of at least 120,000 men and the territorial army of +at least 60,000 men. The heavy expenditure entailed by the +project has been an obstacle to its immediate realization. In +order to meet this expenditure a special fund has been instituted +in addition to the ordinary military budget, and certain revenues +have been assigned to it amounting to about 5,500,000 drachmae +annually. In 1906, however, it was decided to suspend partially +for five years the operation of the law of 1904 and to devote +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span> +the resources thus economized together with other funds to +the immediate purchase of new armaments and equipment. +Under this temporary arrangement the peace strength of the +army in 1908 consisted of 1939 officers and civilians, 19,416 +non-commissioned officers and men and 2661 horses and +mules; it is calculated that the reserves will furnish about +77,000 men and the territorial army about 37,000 men in time +of war.</p> + +<p>Military service is obligatory, and liability to serve begins +from the twenty-first year. The term of service comprises +two years in the active army, ten years in the active army +reserve (for cavalry eight years), eight years in the territorial +army (for cavalry ten years) and ten years for all branches in +the territorial army reserve. As a rule, however, the period +of service in the active army has hitherto been considerably +shortened; with a view to economy, the men, under the law +of 1904, receive furlough after eighteen months with the colours. +Exemptions from military service, which were previously very +numerous, are also restricted considerably by the law of 1904, +which will secure a yearly contingent of about 13,000 men in +time of peace. The conscripts in excess of the yearly contingent +are withdrawn by lot; they are required to receive six months’ +training in the ranks as supernumeraries before passing into the +reserve, in which they form a special category of “liability” men. +Under the temporary system of 1906 the contingent is reduced +to about 10,000 men by postponing the abrogation of several +exemptions, and the period of service is fixed at fourteen months +for all the conscripts alike. The field army as constituted by +the law of 1904 consists of 3 divisions, each division comprising +2 brigades of infantry, each of 2 regiments of 3 battalions and +other units. There are thus 36 battalions of infantry (of which +12 are cadres); also 6 battalions of <i>evzones</i> (highlanders), +18 squadrons of cavalry (6 cadres), 33 batteries of artillery (6 +cadres), 3 battalions of engineers and telegraphists, 3 companies +of ambulance, 3 of train, &c. The artillery is composed of 24 +field batteries, 3 heavy and 6 mountain batteries; it is mainly +provided with Krupp 7.5 cm. guns dating from 1870 or earlier. +After a series of trials in 1907 it was decided to order 36 field +batteries of 7.5 cm. quick-firing guns and 6 mountain batteries, +in all 168 guns, with 1500 projectiles for each battery from the +Creuzot factory. The infantry, which was hitherto armed +with the obsolete Gras rifle (.433 in.), was furnished in 1907 with +the Mannlicher-Schönauer (model 1903) of which 100,000 had +been delivered in May 1908. Hitherto the gendarmerie, which +replaced the police, have formed a corps drawn from the army, +which in 1908 consisted of 194 officers and 6344 non-commissioned +officers and men, but a law passed in 1907 provided for these +forces being thenceforth recruited separately by voluntary +enlistment in annual contingents of 700 men. The participation +of the officers in politics, which has proved very injurious to +discipline, has been checked by a law forbidding officers below +the rank of colonel to stand for the Chamber. In the elections +of 1905 115 officers were candidates. The three divisional +headquarters are at Larissa, Athens and Missolonghi; the six +headquarters of brigades are at Trikkala, Larissa, Athens, +Chalcis, Missolonghi and Nauplia. In 1907 annual manœuvres +were instituted.</p> + +<p>The Greek fleet consisted in 1907 of 3 armoured barbette ships +of 4885 tons (built in France in 1890, reconstructed 1899), +carrying each three 10.8-in. guns, five 6-in., thirteen +quick-firing and smaller guns, and three torpedo tubes; +<span class="sidenote">Navy.</span> +1 cruiser of 1770 tons (built in 1879), with two 6.7-in. and six +light quick-firing guns; 1 armoured central battery ship of +1774 tons (built 1867, reconstructed 1897) with two 8.4 in. +and nine small quick-firing guns; 2 coast-defence gunboats +with one 10.6-in. gun each; 4 corvettes; 1 torpedo depôt ship; +8 destroyers, each with six guns (ordered in 1905); 3 transport +steamers; 7 small gunboats; 3 mining boats; 5 torpedo boats; +1 royal yacht; 2 school ships and various minor vessels. The +personnel of the navy was composed in 1907 of 437 officers, 26 +cadets, 1118 petty officers, 2372 seamen and stokers, 60 boys +and 99 civilians, together with 386 artisans employed at the +arsenal. The navy is manned chiefly by conscription; the period +of service is two years, with four years in the reserve. The +headquarters of the fleet and arsenal are in the island of Salamis, +where there is a dockyard with naval stores, a floating dock and +a torpedo school. Most of the vessels of the Greek fleet were in +1907 obsolete; in 1904 a commission under the presidency +of Prince George proposed the rearmament of the existing ironclads +and the purchase of three new ironclads and other +vessels. A different scheme of reorganization, providing almost +exclusively for submarines and scout vessels, was suggested +to the government by the French admiral Fournier in 1908, but +was opposed by the Greek naval officers. With a view to the +augmentation and better equipment of the fleet a special fund +was instituted in 1900 to which certain revenues have been +assigned; it has been increased by various donations and +bequests and by the proceeds of a state lottery. The fleet is not +exercised methodically either in navigation or gunnery practice; +a long voyage, however, was undertaken by the ironclad vessels +in 1904. The Greeks, especially the islanders of the Aegean, +make better sailors than soldiers; the personnel of the navy, +if trained by foreign officers, might be brought to a high state +of efficiency.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The financial history of Greece has been unsatisfactory from the +outset. Excessive military and naval expenditure (mainly due to +repeated and hasty mobilizations), a lax and improvident +system of administration, the corruption of political parties +<span class="sidenote">Finance.</span> +and the instability of the government, which has rendered impossible +the continuous application of any scheme of fiscal reform—all alike +have contributed to the economic ruin of the country. For a long +series of years preceding the declaration of national insolvency in +1893 successive budgets presented a deficit, which in years of political +excitement and military activity assumed enormous proportions: +the shortcomings of the budget were supplied by the proceeds of +foreign loans, or by means of advances obtained in the country at +a high rate of interest. The two loans which had been contracted +during the war of independence were extinguished by means of a +conversion in 1889. Of the existing foreign loans the earliest is +that of 60,000,000 frs., guaranteed by the three protecting powers +in 1832; owing to the payment of interest and amortization by the +powers, the capital amounted in 1871 to 100,392,833 fr.; on this +Greece pays an annual sum of 900,000 fr., of which 300,000 have been +granted by the powers as a yearly subvention to King George. +The only other existing foreign obligation of early date is the debt to +the heirs of King Otho (4,500,000 dr.) contracted in 1868. A large +amount of internal debt was incurred between 1848 and 1880, but +a considerable proportion of this was redeemed with the proceeds +of the foreign loans negotiated after this period. At the end of 1880 +the entire national debt, external and internal, stood at 252,652,481 +dr. In 1881 the era of great foreign loans began. In that year a 5% +loan of 120,000,000 fr. was raised to defray the expenses of the +mobilization of 1880. This was followed in 1884 by a 5% loan of +170,000,000 fr., of which 100,000,000 was actually issued. The +service of these loans was guaranteed by various State revenues. A +“patriotic loan” of 30,000,000 dr. without interest, issued during the +war excitement of 1885, proved a failure, only 2,723,860 dr. being +subscribed. In 1888 a 4% loan of 135,000,000 fr. was contracted, +secured on the receipts of the five State monopolies, the management +of which was entrusted to a privileged company. In the following +year (1889) two 4% loans of 30,000,000 fr. and 125,000,000 fr. +respectively were issued without guarantee or sinking fund; Greek +credit had now apparently attained an established position in the +foreign money market, but a decline of public confidence soon +became evident. In 1890, of a 5% loan of 80,000,000 fr. effective, +authorized for the construction of the Peiraeus-Larissa railway, +only 40,050,000 fr. was taken up abroad and 12,900,000 fr. at home; +large portions of the proceeds were devoted to other purposes. +In 1892 the government was compelled to make large additions +to the internal floating debt, and to borrow 16,500,000 fr. from the +National Bank on onerous terms. In 1893 an effort to obtain a +foreign loan for the reduction of the forced currency proved unsuccessful. +(For the events leading up to the declaration of national +bankruptcy in that year see under <i>Recent History</i>.) A funding +convention was concluded in the summer, under which the creditors +accepted scrip instead of cash payments of interest. A few months +later this arrangement was reversed by the Chamber, and on the +13th December a law was passed assigning provisionally to all the +foreign loans alike 30% of the stipulated interest; the reduced +coupons were made payable in paper instead of gold, the sinking +funds were suspended, and the sums encashed by the monopoly +company were confiscated. The causes of the financial catastrophe +may be briefly summarized as follows: (1) The military preparations +of 1885-1886, with the attendant disorganization of the +country; the extraordinary expenditure of these years amounted to +130,987,772 dr. (2) Excessive borrowing abroad, involving a charge +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span> +for the service of foreign loans altogether disproportionate to the +revenue. (3) Remissness in the collection of taxation: the total +loss through arrears in a period of ten years (1882-1891) was +36,549,202 dr., being in the main attributable to non-payment of +direct taxes. (4) The adverse balance of trade, largely due to the +neglected condition of agriculture; in the five years preceding the +crisis (1888-1892) the exports were stated to amount to £19,578,973, +while the imports reached £24,890,146; foreign live stock and cereals +being imported to the amount of £6,193,579. The proximate cause +of the crisis was the rise in the exchange owing to the excessive +amount of paper money in circulation. Forced currency was first +introduced in 1868, when 15,000,000 dr. in paper money was issued; +it was abolished in the following year, but reintroduced in 1877 with +a paper issue of 44,000,000 dr. It was abolished a second time in +1884, but again put into circulation in 1885, when paper loans to +the amount of 45,000,000 dr. were authorized. In 1893 the total +authorized forced currency was 146,000,000 dr., of which 88,000,000 +(including 14,000,000 dr. in small notes) was on account of the government. +The gold and silver coinage had practically disappeared from +circulation. The rate of exchange, as a rule, varies directly with the +amount of paper money in circulation, but, owing to speculation, it +is liable to violent fluctuations whenever there is an exceptional +demand for gold in the market. In 1893 the gold franc stood at +the ratio of 1.60 to the paper drachma; the service of the foreign +loans required upwards of 31,000,000 dr. in gold, and any attempt +to realize this sum in the market would have involved an outlay +equivalent to at least half the budget. With the failure of the +projected loan for the withdrawal of the forced currency repudiation +became inevitable. The law of the 13th of December was not recognized +by the national creditors: prolonged negotiations followed, +but no arrangement was arrived at till 1897, when the intervention +of the powers after the war with Turkey furnished the opportunity +for a definite settlement. It was stipulated that Turkey should +receive an indemnity of £T4,000,000 contingent on the evacuation +of Thessaly; in order to secure the payment of this sum by Greece +without prejudice to the interests of her creditors, and to enable +the country to recover from the economic consequences of the war, +Great Britain, France and Russia undertook to guarantee a 2½% +loan of 170,000,000 fr., of which 150,000,000 fr. has been issued. +By the preliminary treaty of peace (18th of September 1897) an +International Financial Commission, composed of six representatives +of the powers, was charged with the payment of the indemnity to +Turkey, and with “absolute control” over the collection and +employment of revenues sufficient for the service of the foreign debt. +A law defining the powers of the Commission was passed by the +Chamber, 26th of February 1898 (o.s.). The revenues assigned +to its supervision were the five government monopolies, the tobacco +and stamp duties, and the import duties of Peiraeus (total annual +value estimated at 39,600,000 dr.): the collection was entrusted to a +Greek society, which is under the absolute control of the Commission. +The returns of Peiraeus customs (estimated at 10,700,000 dr.) are +regarded as an extra guarantee, and are handed over to the Greek +government; when the produce of the other revenues exceeds +28,900,000 dr. the “plus value” or surplus is divided in the proportion +of 50.8% to the Greek government and 49.2% to the creditors. +The plus values amounted to 3,301,481 dr. in 1898, 3,533,755 dr. +in 1899, and 3,442,713 dr. in 1900. Simultaneously with the establishment +of the control the interest for the Monopoly Loan was +fixed at 43%, for the Funding Loan at 40%, and for the other +loans at 32% of the original interest. With the revenues at its +disposal the International Commission has already been enabled +to make certain augmentations in the service of the foreign debt; +since 1900 it has begun to take measures for the reduction of the +forced currency, of which 2,000,000 dr. will be annually bought up +and destroyed till the amount in circulation is reduced to 40,000,000 +dr. On the 1st of January 1901 the authorized paper issue was +164,000,000 dr., of which 92,000,000 (including 18,000,000 in +fractional currency) was on account of the government; the amount +in actual circulation was 148,619,618 dr. On the 31st of July 1906 +the paper issue had been reduced to 152,775,975 dr., and the amount +in circulation was 124,668,057 dr. The financial commission retains +its powers until the extinction of all the foreign loans contracted +since 1881. Though its activity is mainly limited to the administration +of the assigned revenues, it has exercised a beneficial influence +over the whole domain of Greek finance; the effect may be observed +in the greatly enhanced value of Greek securities since its institution, +averaging 25.76% in 1906. No change can be made in its composition +or working without the consent of the six powers, and none of +the officials employed in the collection of the revenues subject to its +control can be dismissed or transferred without its consent. It +thus constitutes an element of stability and order which cannot +fail to react on the general administration. It is unable, however, +to control the expenditure or to assert any direct influence over +the government, with which the responsibility still rests for an improved +system of collection, a more efficient staff of functionaries +and the repression of smuggling. The country has shown a remarkable +vitality in recovering from the disasters of 1897, and +should it in future obtain a respite from paroxysms of military +and political excitement, its financial regeneration will be +assured.</p> + +<p>The following table gives the actual expenditure and receipts for +the period 1889-1906 inclusive:</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Actual<br />Receipts.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Actual<br />Expenditure.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Surplus or<br />Deficit.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Drachmae.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Drachmae.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Drachmae.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">83,731,591</td> <td class="tcr rb">110,772,327</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 27,040,736</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">79,931,795</td> <td class="tcr rb">125,932,579</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 46,000,784</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">90,321,872</td> <td class="tcr rb">122,836,385</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 32,514,513</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">95,465,569</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,283,498</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 11,817,929</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1893*</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,723,418</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,133,565</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 4,589,853</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">102,885,643</td> <td class="tcr rb">85,135,752</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 17,749,891</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">94,657,065</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,641,967</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 3,015,098</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,931,726</td> <td class="tcr rb">90,890,607</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 6,041,119</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1897**</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,485,825</td> <td class="tcr rb">137,043,929</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 44,558,104</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1898***</td> <td class="tcr rb">104,949,718</td> <td class="tcr rb">110,341,431</td> <td class="tcr rb">− 5,391,713</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">111,318,273</td> <td class="tcr rb">104,586,504</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 6,731,769</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">112,206,849</td> <td class="tcr rb">112,049,279</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 157,570</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">115,734,159</td> <td class="tcr rb">113,646,301</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 2,087,858</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">123,949,931</td> <td class="tcr rb">121,885,707</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 2,064,224</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">120,194,362</td> <td class="tcr rb">117,436,549</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 2,757,813</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">121,186,246</td> <td class="tcr rb">120,200,247</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 985,999</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">126,472,580</td> <td class="tcr rb">118,699,761</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 7,772,819</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">125,753,358</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">124,461,577</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">+ 1,291,781</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4"> * Reduction of interest on foreign debt by 70%.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4"> ** War with Turkey.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4">*** International Financial Commission instituted.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The steady increase of receipts since 1898 attests the growing +prosperity of the country, but expenditure has been allowed to outstrip +revenue, and, notwithstanding the official figures which +represent a series of surpluses, the accumulated deficit in 1905 +amounted to about 14,000,000, dr. in addition to treasury bonds for +8,000,000 dr. A remarkable feature has been the rapid fall in the +exchange since 1903; the gold franc, which stood at 1.63 dr. in 1902, +had fallen to 1.08 in October 1906. The decline, a favourable +symptom if resulting from normal economic factors, is apparently +due to a combination of exceptional circumstances, and consequently +may not be maintained; it has imposed a considerable strain on the +financial and commercial situation. The purchasing power of the +drachma remains almost stationary and the price of imported +commodities continues high; import dues, which since 1904 are +payable in drachmae at the fixed rate of 1.45 to the franc, have been +practically increased by more than 30%. In April 1900 a 4% loan +of 43,750,000 francs for the completion of the railway from Peiraeus +to the Turkish frontier, and another loan of 11,750,000 drachmae +for the construction of a line from Pyrgos to Meligala, linking up +the Morea railway system, were sanctioned by the Chamber; the +first-named, the “Greek Railways Loan,” was taken up at 80 by the +syndicate contracting for the works and was placed on the market +in 1902. The service of both loans is provided by the International +Commission from the surplus funds of the assigned revenues. On +the 1st of January 1906 the external debt amounted to 725,939,500 +francs and the internal (including the paper circulation) to 171,629,436 +drachmae.</p> + +<p>The budget estimates for 1906 were as follows: Civil list, 1,325,000 +dr.; pensions, payment of deputies, &c., 7,706,676 dr.; public debt, +34,253,471 dr.; foreign affairs, 3,563,994 dr.; justice, 6,240,271 +dr.; interior, 13,890,927 dr.; religion and education, 7,143,924 dr.; +army, 20,618,563 dr.; navy, 7,583,369 dr.; finance, 2,362,143 +dr.; collection of revenue, 10,650,487 dr.; various expenditure, +9,122,752 dr.; total, 124,461,577 dr.</p> + +<p>The two privileged banks in Greece are the National Bank, +founded in 1841; capital 20,000,000 drachmae in 20,000 shares of +1000 dr. each, fully paid up; reserve fund 13,500,000 dr.; notes +in circulation (September 1906) 126,721,887 dr., of which 76,360,905 +dr. on account of the government; and the Ionian Bank, incorporated +in 1839; capital paid up £315,500 in 63,102 shares, of £5 each; +notes in circulation, 10,200,000 drachmae, of which 3,500,000 (in +fractional notes of 1 and 2 dr.) on account of the government. The +notes issued by these two banks constitute the forced paper currency +circulating throughout the kingdom. In the case of the Ionian Bank +the privilege of issuing notes, originally limited to the Ionian Islands, +will expire in 1920. The National Bank is a private institution under +supervision of the government, which is represented by a royal +commissioner on the board of administration; the central establishment +is at Athens with forty-two branches throughout the country. +The headquarters of the Ionian Bank, which is a British institution, +are in London; the bank has a central office at Athens and five +branches in Greece. The privileged Epiro-Thessalian Bank ceased to +exist from the 4th of January 1900, when it was amalgamated with +the National Bank. There are several other banking companies, as +well as private banks, at Athens. The most important is the Bank +of Athens (capital 40,000,000 dr.), founded in 1893; it possesses +five branches in Greece and six abroad.</p> + +<p>Greece entered the Latin Monetary Union in 1868. The monetary +unit is the new drachma, equivalent to the franc, and divided into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span> +100 lepta or centimes. There are nickel coins of 20, 10 and 5 lepta, +copper coins of 10 and 5 lepta. Gold and silver coins were minted +<span class="sidenote">Currency, weights and measures.</span> +in Paris between 1868 and 1884, but have since practically +disappeared from the country. The paper currency +consists of notes for 1000 dr., 500 dr., 100 dr., 25 dr., 10 +dr. and 5 dr., and of fractional notes for 2 dr. and 1 dr. +The decimal system of weights and measures was adopted +in 1876, but some of the old Turkish standards are still in general +use. The dram = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">10</span> oz. avoirdupois approximately; the oke = 400 +drams or 2.8 ℔; the kilo = 22 okes or 0.114 of an imperial quarter; +the cantar or quintal = 44 okes or 123.2 ℔. Liquids are measured +by weight. The punta = 1<span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in.; the ruppa, 3½ in.; the pik, 26 in.; +the stadion = 1 kilometre or 1093½ yds. The stremma (square +measure) is nearly one-third of an acre.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—W. Leake, <i>Researches in Greece</i> (1814), <i>Travels in +the Morea</i> (3 vols., 1830), <i>Travels in Northern Greece</i> (4 vols., 1834), +<i>Peloponnesiaca</i> (1846); Bursian, <i>Geographie von Griechenland</i> (2 vols., +Leipzig, 1862-1873); Lolling, “Hellenische Landeskunde und +Topographie” in Ivan Müller’s <i>Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>; +C. Wordsworth, <i>Greece; Pictorial, Descriptive and +Historical</i> (new ed., revised by H. F. Tozer, London, 1882); K. +Stephanos, <i>La Grèce</i> (Paris, 1884); C. Neumann and J. Partsch, +<i>Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland</i> (Breslau, 1885); K. +Krumbacher, <i>Griechische Reise</i> (Berlin, 1886); J. P. Mahaffy, +<i>Rambles and Studies in Greece</i> (London, 1887); R. A. H. Bickford-Smith, +<i>Greece under King George</i> (London, 1893); Ch. Diehl, <i>Excursions +archéologiques en Grèce</i> (Paris, 1893); Perrot and Chipiez, +<i>Histoire de l’art</i>, tome vi., “La Grèce primitive” (Paris, 1894); +tome vii., “La Grèce archaïque” (Paris, 1898); A. Philippson, +<i>Griechenland und seine Stellung im Orient</i> (Leipzig, 1897); L. +Sergeant, <i>Greece in the Nineteenth Century</i> (London, 1897); J. G. +Frazer, <i>Pausanias’s Description of Greece</i> (6 vols., London, 1898); +<i>Pausanias and other Greek Sketches</i> (London, 1900); <i>Greco-Turkish +War of 1897</i>, from official sources, by a German staff officer (Eng. +trans., London, 1898); J. A. Symonds, <i>Studies</i>, and <i>Sketches in +Italy and Greece</i> (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1898); V. Bérard, <i>La +Turquie et l’hellénisme contemporaine</i> (Paris, 1900).</p> + +<p>For the climate: D. Aeginetes,<span class="grk" title="To klima tês Hellados">Τὸ κλῖμα τῆς Ἑλλάδος</span> (Athens, +1908).</p> + +<p>For the fauna: Th. de Heldreich, <i>La Fauna de la Grèce</i> (Athens, +1878).</p> + +<p>For special topography: A. Meliarakes, <span class="grk" title="Kukladika êtoi geographia +kai historia tôn Kukladikôn nêsôn">Κυκλαδικὰ ἤτοι γεωγραφία καί ἱστορία τῶν Κυκλαδικῶν νήσων</span> (Athens, 1874); <span class="grk" title="’Tpomnêmata perigraphika +tôn Kukladôn nêsôn Androu kai Keô">Ὑπομνήματα περιγραφικὰ τῶν Κυκλάδων νήσων Ἄνδρου καὶ Κέω</span> (Athens, 1880); +<span class="grk" title="Geographia politikê nea kai archaia tou nomou Argolidos kai Korinthias">Γεωγραφία πολιτικὴ νέα καὶ ἀρχαία τοῦ νομοῦ Ἀργολίδος καὶ Κορινθίας</span> (Athens, +1886); <span class="grk" title="Geographia politikê nea kai archaia tou nomou Kephallênias">Γεωγραφία πολιτικὴ νέα καὶ ἀρχαία τοῦ νομοῦ Κεφαλληνίας</span>. +(Athens, 1890); Th. Bent, <i>The Cyclades</i> (London, 1885); A. +Bötticher, <i>Olympia</i> (2nd ed., Berlin, 1886); J. Partsch, <i>Die Insel +Corfu: eine geographische Monographie</i> (Gotha, 1887); <i>Die Insel +Leukas</i> (Gotha, 1889); <i>Kephallenia und Ithaka</i> (Gotha, 1890); +<i>Die Insel Zante</i> (Gotha, 1891); A. Philippson, <i>Der Peloponnes</i>. +(<i>Versuch einer Landeskunde auf geologischer Grundlage.</i>) (Berlin, +1892); “Thessalien und Epirus” (<i>Reisen und Forschungen im +nördlichen Griechenland</i>) (Berlin, 1897); <i>Die griechischen Inseln +des ägäischen Meeres</i> (Berlin, 1897); W. J. Woodhouse, <i>Aetolia</i> +(Oxford, 1897); Schultz and Barnsley, <i>The Monastery of St Luke of +Stiris</i> (London, 1901); M. Lamprinides, <span class="grk" title="He Nauplia">Ἡ Ναυπλία</span> (Athens, 1898); +<i>Monuments de l’art byzantin</i>, publiés par le Ministère de l’Instruction, +tome i.; G. Millet, “Le Monastère de Daphni” (Paris, 1900). For +the life, customs and habits of the modern Greeks: C. Wachsmuth, +<i>Das alte Griechenland im neuen</i> (Bonn, 1864); C. K. Tuckerman, +<i>The Greeks of to-day</i> (London, 1873); B. Schmidt, <i>Volksleben der +Neugriechen und das hellenische Altertum</i> (Leipzig, 1871); Estournelle +de Constant, <i>La Vie de province en Grèce</i> (Paris, 1878); E. +About, <i>La Grèce contemporaine</i> (Paris, 1855; 8th ed., 1883); J. T. +Bent, <i>Modern Life and Thought among the Greeks</i> (London, 1891); +J. Rennell Rodd, The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece (London, +1892). Guide-books, Baedeker’s <i>Greece</i> (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1905); +Murray’s <i>Handbook for Greece</i> (7th ed., London, 1905); Macmillan’s +<i>Guide to the Eastern Mediterranean</i> (London, 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">2. History</p> + +<p class="center"><i>a.</i> <i>Ancient; to 146</i> <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>1. <i>Introductory.</i>—It is necessary to indicate at the outset the +scope and object of the present article. The reader must not +expect to find in it a compendious summary of the chief events +in the history of ancient Greece. It is not intended to supply +an “Outlines of Greek History.” It may be questioned whether +such a sketch of the history, within the limits of space which are +necessarily imposed in a work of reference, would be of utility +to any class of readers. At any rate, the plan of the present +work, in which the subject of Greek history is treated of in a +large number of separate articles, allows of the narrative of +events being given in a more satisfactory form under the more +general of the headings (<i>e.g.</i> <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sparta</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peloponnesian +War</a></span>). The character of the history itself suggests a further +reason why a general article upon Greek history should not +be confined to, or even attempt, a narrative of events. A sketch +of Greek history is not possible in the sense in which a sketch of +Roman history, or even of English history, is possible. Greek +history is not the history of a single state. When Aristotle +composed his work upon the constitutions of the Greek states, +he found it necessary to extend his survey to no less that 158 +states. Greek history is thus concerned with more than 150 +separate and independent political communities. Nor is it even +the history of a single country. The area occupied by the Greek +race extended from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus, and from +southern Russia to northern Africa. It is inevitable, therefore, +that the impression conveyed by a sketch of Greek history +should be a misleading one. A mere narrative can hardly fail +to give a false perspective. Experience shows that such a +sketch is apt to resolve itself into the history of a few great +movements and of a few leading states. What is still worse, +it is apt to confine itself, at any rate for the greater part of the +period dealt with, to the history of Greece in the narrower sense, +<i>i.e.</i> of the Greek peninsula. For the identification of Greece +with Greece proper there may be some degree of excuse when we +come to the 5th and 4th centuries. In the period that lies behind +the year 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Greece proper forms but a small part of the +Greek world. In the 7th and 6th centuries it is outside Greece +itself that we must look for the most active life of the Greek +people and the most brilliant manifestations of the Greek spirit. +The present article, therefore, will be concerned with the causes +and conditions of events, rather than with the events themselves; +it will attempt analysis rather than narrative. Its object will +be to indicate problems and to criticize views; to suggest +lessons and parallels, and to estimate the importance of the +Hellenic factor in the development of civilization.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The Minoan and Mycenaean Ages.</i>—When does Greek +history begin? Whatever may be the answer that is given to +this question, it will be widely different from any that could +have been proposed a generation ago. Then the question was, +How late does Greek history begin? To-day the question is, +How early does it begin? The suggestion made by Grote that +the first Olympiad (776 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) should be taken as the starting-point +of the history of Greece, in the proper sense of the term +“history,” seemed likely, not so many years ago, to win general +acceptance. At the present moment the tendency would seem +to be to go back as far as the 3rd or 4th millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in order +to reach a starting-point. It is to the results of archaeological +research during the last thirty years that we must attribute so +startling a change in the attitude of historical science towards +this problem. In the days when Grote published the first volumes +of his <i>History of Greece</i> archaeology was in its infancy. Its +results, so far as they affected the earlier periods of Greek history, +were scanty; its methods were unscientific. The methods have +been gradually perfected by numerous workers in the field; but +the results, which have so profoundly modified our conceptions +of the early history of the Aegean area, are principally due to the +discoveries of two men, Heinrich Schliemann and A. J. Evans. +A full account of these discoveries will be found elsewhere (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>). It will be sufficient to +mention here that Schliemann’s labours began with the excavations +on the site of Troy in the years 1870-1873; that he passed +on to the excavations at Mycenae in 1876 and to those at Tiryns +in 1884. It was the discoveries of these years that revealed +to us the Mycenaean age, and carried back the history to the +middle of the 2nd millennium. The discoveries of Dr A. J. Evans +in the island of Crete belong to a later period. The work of +excavation was begun in 1900, and was carried on in subsequent +years. It has revealed to us the Minoan age, and enabled us +to trace back the development and origins of the civilization +for a further period of 1000 or 1500 years. The dates assigned +by archaeologists to the different periods of Mycenaean and +Minoan art must be regarded as merely approximate. Even +the relation of the two civilizations is still, to some extent, a +matter of conjecture. The general chronological scheme, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span> +however, in the sense of the relative order of the various periods +and the approximate intervals between them, is too firmly +established, both by internal evidence, such as the development +of the styles of pottery, and of the art in general, and by external +evidence, such as the points of contact with Egyptian art and +history, to admit of its being any longer seriously called in +question.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:860px; height:607px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img440.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img440a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<p>If, then, by “Greek history” is to be understood the history +of the lands occupied in later times by the Greek race (<i>i.e.</i> the +Greek peninsula and the Aegean basin), the beginnings of the +history must be carried back some 2000 years before Grote’s +proposed starting-point. If, however, “Greek history” is taken +to mean the history of the Greek people, the determination of +the starting-point is far from easy. For the question to which +archaeology does not as yet supply any certain answer is the +question of race. Were the creators of the Minoan and +Mycenaean civilization Greeks or were they not? In some +degree the Minoan evidence has modified the answer suggested +by the Mycenaean. Although wide differences of opinion as to +the origin of the Mycenaean civilization existed among scholars +when the results of Schliemann’s labours were first given to the +world, a general agreement had gradually been arrived at in +favour of the view which would identify Mycenaean with Achaean +or Homeric. In presence of the Cretan evidence it is no longer +possible to maintain this view with the same confidence. The +two chief difficulties in the way of attributing either the Minoan +or the Mycenaean civilization to an Hellenic people are connected +respectively with the script and the religion. The excavations +at Cnossus have yielded thousands of tablets written in the linear +script. There is evidence that this script was in use among the +Mycenaeans as well. If Greek was the language spoken at +Cnossus and Mycenae, how is it that all attempts to decipher +the script have hitherto failed? The Cretan excavations, again, +have taught us a great deal as to the religion of the Minoan age; +they have, at the same time, thrown a new light upon the evidence +supplied by Mycenaean sites. It is no longer possible to ignore +the contrast between the cults of the Minoan and Mycenaean +ages, and the religious conceptions which they imply, and the +cults and religious conceptions prevalent in the historical period. +On the other hand, it may safely be asserted that the argument +derived from the Mycenaean art, in which we seem to trace a +freedom of treatment which is akin to the spirit of the later +Greek art, and is in complete contrast to the spirit of Oriental +art, has received striking confirmation from the remains of +Minoan art. The decipherment of the script would at once +solve the problem. We should at least know whether the +dominant race in Crete in the Minoan age spoke an Hellenic or +a non-Hellenic dialect. And what could be inferred with regard +to Crete in the Minoan age could almost certainly be inferred +with regard to the mainland in the Mycenaean age. In the +meanwhile, possibly until the tablets are read, at any rate until +further evidence is forthcoming, any answer that can be given +to the question must necessarily be tentative and provisional. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>It has already been implied that this period of the history +of Greece may be subdivided into a Minoan and a Mycenaean +age. Whether these terms are appropriate is a question of +comparatively little importance. They at least serve to remind +us of the part played by the discoveries at Mycenae and Cnossus +in the reconstruction of the history. The term “Mycenaean,” +it is true, has other associations than those of locality. It may +seem to imply that the civilization disclosed in the excavations +at Mycenae is Achaean in character, and that it is to be connected +with the Pelopid dynasty to which Agamemnon belonged. In +its scientific use, the term must be cleared of all such associations. +Further, as opposed to “Minoan” it must be understood in a +more definite sense than that in which it has often been employed. +It has come to be generally recognized that two different periods +are to be distinguished in Schliemann’s discoveries at Mycenae +itself. There is an earlier period, to which belong the objects +found in the shaft-graves, and there is a later period, to which +belong the beehive tombs and the remains of the palaces. It +is the latter period which is “Mycenaean” in the strict sense; +<i>i.e.</i> it is “Mycenaean” as opposed to “Minoan.” To this +period belong also the palace at Tiryns, the beehive-tombs +discovered elsewhere on the mainland of Greece and one of the +cities on the site of Troy (Schliemann’s sixth). The pottery +of this period is as characteristic of it, both in its forms (<i>e.g.</i> the +“stirrup” or “false-necked” form of vase) and in its peculiar +glaze, as is the architecture of the palaces and the beehive-tombs. +Although the chief remains have been found on the mainland +of Greece itself, the art of this period is found to have extended +as far north as Troy and as far east as Cyprus. On the other +hand, hardly any traces of it have been discovered on the west +coast of Asia Minor, south of the Troad. The Mycenaean age, +in this sense, may be regarded as extending from 1600 to 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +The Minoan age is of far wider extent. Its latest period includes +both the earlier and the later periods of the remains found at +Mycenae. This is the period called by Dr Evans “Late Minoan.” +To this period belong the Great Palace at Cnossus and the +linear system of writing. The “Middle Minoan” period, to +which the earlier palace belongs, is characterized by the pictographic +system of writing and by polychrome pottery of a +peculiarly beautiful kind. Dr Evans proposes to carry back +this period as far as 2500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Even behind it there are traces +of a still earlier civilization. Thus the Minoan age, even if +limited to the middle and later periods, will cover at least a +thousand years. Perhaps the most surprising result of the +excavations in Crete is the discovery that Minoan art is on a +higher level than Mycenaean art. To the scholars of a generation +ago it seemed a thing incredible that the art of the shaft-graves, +and the architecture of the beehive-tombs and the palaces, could +belong to the age before the Dorian invasion. The most recent +discoveries seem to indicate that the art of Mycenae is a decadent +art; they certainly prove that an art, hardly inferior in its way +to the art of the classical period, and a civilization which implies +the command of great material resources, were flourishing in the +Aegean perhaps a thousand years before the siege of Troy.</p> + +<p>To the question, “What is the origin of this civilization? +Is it of foreign derivation or of native growth?” it is not +possible to give a direct answer. It is clear, on the one +hand that it was developed, by a gradual process of +<span class="sidenote">Oriental influence.</span> +differentiation, from a culture which was common to +the whole Aegean basin and extended as far to the +west as Sicily. It is equally clear, on the other hand, that +foreign influences contributed largely to the process of development. +Egyptian influences, in particular, can be traced throughout +the “Minoan” and “Mycenaean” periods. The developed +art, however, both in Crete and on the mainland, displays +characteristics which are the very opposite of those which are +commonly associated with the term “oriental.” Egyptian +work, even of the best period, is stiff and conventional; in the +best Cretan work, and, in a less degree, in Mycenaean work, +we find an originality and a freedom of treatment which remind +one of the spirit of the Greek artists. The civilization is, in +many respects, of an advanced type. The Cretan architects +could design on a grand scale, and could carry out their designs +with no small degree of mechanical skill. At Cnossus we find a +system of drainage in use, which is far in advance of anything +known in the modern world before the 19th century. If the art +of the Minoan age falls short of the art of the Periclean age, it is +hardly inferior to that of the age of Peisistratus. It is a civilization, +too, which has long been familiar with the art of writing. +But it is one that belongs entirely to the Bronze Age. Iron is not +found until the very end of the Mycenaean period, and then +only in small quantities. Nor is this the only point of contrast +between the culture of the earliest age and that of the historical +period in Greece. The chief seats of the early culture are to be +found either in the island of Crete, or, on the mainland, at Tiryns +and Mycenae. In the later history Crete plays no part, and +Tiryns and Mycenae are obscure. With the great names of a +later age, Argos, Sparta and Athens, no great discoveries are +connected. In northern Greece, Orchomenos rather than Thebes +is the centre of influence. Further points of contrast readily +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span> +suggest themselves. The so-called Phoenician alphabet, in +use amongst the later Greeks, is unknown in the earliest age. +Its systems of writing, both the earlier and the later one, are +syllabic in character, and analogous to those in vogue in Asia +Minor and Cyprus. In the art of war, the chariot is of more +importance than the foot-soldier, and the latter, unlike the +Greek hoplite, is lightly clad, and trusts to a shield large enough +to cover the whole body, rather than to the metal helmet, breastplate +and greaves of later times (see Arms and Armour: Greek). +The political system appears to have been a despotic monarchy, +and the realm of the monarch to have extended to far wider +limits than those of the “city-states” of historical Greece. +It is, perhaps, in the religious practices of the age, and in the +ideas implied in them, that the contrast is most apparent. +Neither in Crete nor on the mainland is there any trace of the +worship of the “Olympian” deities. The cults in vogue remind +us rather of Asia than of Greece. The worship of pillars and of +trees carries us back to Canaan, while the double-headed axe, +so prominent in the ritual of Cnossus, survives in later times +as the symbol of the national deity of the Carians. The beehive-tombs, +found on many sites on the mainland besides Mycenae, +are evidence both of a method of sepulture and of ideas of the +future state, which are alien to the practice and the thought +of the Greeks of history. It is only in one region—in the island +of Cyprus—that the culture of the Mycenaean age is found +surviving into the historical period. As late as the beginning +of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Cyprus is still ruled by kings, the alphabet +has not yet displaced a syllabary, the characteristic forms of +Mycenaean vases still linger on, and the chief deity of the island +is the goddess with attendant doves whose images are among +the common objects of Mycenaean finds.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The Homeric Age.</i>—Alike in Crete and on the mainland +the civilization disclosed by excavation comes abruptly to an +end. In Crete we can trace it back from c. 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the +Neolithic period. From the Stone Age to the end of the Minoan +Age the development is continuous and uninterrupted.<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> But +between the culture of the Early Age and the culture of the +Dorians, who occupied the island in historical times, no connexion +whatever can be established. Between the two there is a great +gulf fixed. It would be difficult to imagine a greater contrast +than that presented by the rude life of the Dorian communities +in Crete when it is compared with the political power, the material +resources and the extensive commerce of the earlier period. +The same gap between the archaeological age and the historical +exists on the mainland also. It is true that the solution of +continuity is here less complete. Mycenaean art continues, here +and there, in a debased form down to the 9th century, a date to +which we can trace back the beginnings of the later Greek art. +On one or two lines (<i>e.g.</i> architecture) it is even possible to +establish some sort of connexion between them. But Greek +art as a whole cannot be evolved from Mycenaean art. We +cannot bridge over the interval that separates the latter art, even +in its decline, from the former. It is sufficient to compare the +“dipylon” ware (with which the process of development begins, +which culminates in the pottery of the Great Age) with the +Mycenaean vases, to satisfy oneself that the gulf exists. What +then is the relation of the Heroic or Homeric Age (<i>i.e.</i> the age +whose life is portrayed for us in the poems of Homer) to the +Earliest Age? It too presents many contrasts to the later +periods. On the other hand, it presents contrasts to the Minoan +Age, which, in their way, are not less striking. Is it then to be +identified with the Mycenaean Age? Schliemann, the discoverer +of the Mycenaean culture, unhesitatingly identified +Mycenaean with Homeric. He even identified the shaft-graves +of Mycenae with the tombs of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. +Later inquirers, while refusing to discover so literal a correspondence +between things Homeric and things Mycenaean, +have not hesitated to accept a general correspondence between +the Homeric Age and the Mycenaean. Where it is a case of +comparing literary evidence with archaeological, an exact +coincidence is not of course to be demanded. The most that +can be asked is that a general correspondence should be established. +It may be conceded that the case for such a correspondence +appears prima facie a strong one. There is much in Homer +that seems to find confirmation or explanation in Schliemann’s +finds. Mycenae is Agamemnon’s city; the plan of the Homeric +house agrees fairly well with the palaces at Tiryns and Mycenae; +the forms and the technique of Mycenaean art serve to illustrate +passages in the poems; such are only a few of the arguments +that have been urged. It is the great merit of Professor Ridgeway’s +work (<i>The Early Age of Greece</i>) that it has demonstrated, +once and for all, that Mycenaean is not Homeric pure and simple. +He insists upon differences as great as the resemblances. Iron is +in common use in Homer; it is practically unknown to the +Mycenaeans. In place of the round shield and the metal armour +of the Homeric soldier, we find at Mycenae that the warrior is +lightly clad in linen, and that he fights behind an oblong shield, +which covers the whole body; nor are the chariots the same in +form. The Homeric dead are cremated; the Mycenaean are +buried. The gods of Homer are the deities of Olympus, of whose +cult no traces are to be found in the Mycenaean Age. The +novelty of Professor Ridgeway’s theory is that for the accepted +equation, Homeric = Achaean = Mycenaean, he proposes to +substitute the equations, Homeric = Achaean = post-Mycenaean, +and Mycenaean = pre-Achaean = Pelasgian. The Mycenaean +civilization he attributes to the Pelasgians, whom he regards +as the indigenous population of Greece, the ancestors of the later +Greeks, and themselves Greek both in speech and blood. The +Homeric heroes are Achaeans, a fair-haired Celtic race, whose +home was in the Danube valley, where they had learned the use +of iron. In Greece they are newcomers, a conquering class +comparable to the Norman invaders of England or Ireland, +and like them they have acquired the language of their subjects +in the course of a few generations. The Homeric civilization +is thus Achaean, <i>i.e.</i> it is Pelasgian (Mycenaean) civilization, +appropriated by a ruder race; but the Homeric culture is far +inferior to the Mycenaean. Here, at any rate, the Norman +analogy breaks down. Norman art in England is far in advance +of Saxon. Even in Normandy (as in Sicily), where the Norman +appropriated rather than introduced, he not only assimilated +but developed. In Greece the process must have been reversed.</p> + +<p>The theory thus outlined is probably stronger on its destructive +side than on its constructive. To treat the Achaeans as an +immigrant race is to run counter to the tradition of the Greeks +themselves, by whom the Achaeans were regarded as indigenous +(cf. Herod. viii. 73). Nor is the Pelasgian part of the theory +easy to reconcile with the Homeric evidence. If the Achaeans +were a conquering class ruling over a Pelasgian population, +we should expect to find this difference of race a prominent +feature in Homeric society. We should, at least, expect to find +a Pelasgian background to the Homeric picture. As a matter +of fact, we find nothing of the sort. There is no consciousness +in the Homeric poems of a distinction of race between the +governing and the subject classes. There are, indeed, Pelasgians +in Homer, but the references either to the people or the name +are extraordinarily few. They appear as a people, presumably +in Asia Minor, in alliance with the Trojans; they appear also, +in a single passage, as one of the tribes inhabiting Crete. The +name survives in “Pelasgicon Argos,” which is probably to be +identified with the valley of the Spercheius,<a name="fa5g" id="fa5g" href="#ft5g"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and as an epithet +of Zeus of Dodona. The population, however, of Pelasgicon +Argos and of Dodona is no longer Pelasgian. Thus, in the age +of Homer, the Pelasgians belong, so far as Greece proper is +concerned, to a past that is already remote. It is inadmissible +to appeal to Herodotus against Homer. For the conditions +of the Homeric age Homer is the sole authoritative witness. +If, however, Professor Ridgeway has failed to prove that +“Mycenaean” equals “Pelasgian,” he has certainly proved +that much that is Homeric is post-Mycenaean. It is possible +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span> +that different strata are to be distinguished in the Homeric +poems. There are passages which seem to assume the conditions +of the Mycenaean age; there are others which presuppose the +conditions of a later age. It may be that the latter passages +reflect the circumstances of the poet’s own times, while the +former ones reproduce those of an earlier period. If so, the +substitution of iron for bronze must have been effected in the +interval between the earlier and the later periods.</p> + +<p>It has already been pointed out that the question whether +the makers of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were +Greeks must still be regarded as an open one. No +such question can be raised as to the Homeric Age. +<span class="sidenote">The Homeric state.</span> +The Achaeans may or may not have been Greek in +blood. What is certain is that the Achaean Age +forms an integral part of Greek history. Alike on the linguistic, +the religious and the political sides, Homer is the starting-point +of subsequent developments. In the Greek dialects the great +distinction is that between the Doric and the rest. Of the non-Doric +dialects the two main groups are the Aeolic and Ionic, +both of which have been developed, by a gradual process of +differentiation, from the language of the Homeric poems. With +regard to religion it is sufficient to refer to the judgment of +Herodotus, that it was Homer and Hesiod who were the authors +of the Greek theogony (ii. 53 <span class="grk" title="houtoi eisi hoi poiêsantes theogoniên +Hellêsi">οὗτοί εἰσι οἱ ποιήσαντες θεογονίην Ἔλλησι</span>). It is a commonplace that Homer was the Bible of the +Greeks. On the political side, Greek constitutional development +would be unintelligible without Homer. When Greek history, +in the proper sense, begins, oligarchy is almost universal. Everywhere, +however, an antecedent stage of monarchy has to be +presupposed. In the Homeric system monarchy is the sole +form of government; but it is monarchy already well on the +way to being transformed into oligarchy. In the person of the +king are united the functions of priest, of judge and of leader +in war. He belongs to a family which claims divine descent +and his office is hereditary. He is, however, no despotic monarch. +He is compelled by custom to consult the council (<i>boulē</i>) of the +elders, or chiefs. He must ask their opinion, and, if he fails +to obtain their consent, he has no power to enforce his will. +Even when he has obtained the consent of the council, the +proposal still awaits the approval of the assembly (<i>agora</i>), of the +people.</p> + +<p>Thus in the Homeric state we find the germs not only of the +oligarchy and democracy of later Greece, but also of all the +various forms of constitution known to the Western +world. And a monarchy such as is depicted in the +<span class="sidenote">Homeric society.</span> +Homeric poems is clearly ripe for transmutation +into oligarchy. The chiefs are addressed as kings (<span class="grk" title="basilêes">βασιλῆες</span>), and +claim, equally with the monarch, descent from the gods. +In Homer, again, we can trace the later organization into tribe +(<span class="grk" title="phylê">φυλή</span>), clan (<span class="grk" title="genos">γένος</span>), and phratry, which is characteristic of +Greek society in the historical period, and meets us in analogous +forms in other Aryan societies. The <span class="grk" title="genos">γένος</span> corresponds to the +Roman <i>gens</i>, the <span class="grk" title="phylê">φυλή</span> to the Roman tribe, and the phratry to +the <i>curia</i>. The importance of the <i>phratry</i> in Homeric society is +illustrated by the well-known passage (<i>Iliad</i> ix. 63) in which +the outcast is described as “one who belongs to no phratry” +(<span class="grk" title="aphrêtôr">ἀφρήτωρ</span>). It is a society that is, of course, based upon slavery, +but it is slavery in its least repulsive aspect. The treatment +which Eumaeus and Eurycleia receive at the hands of the poet +of the <i>Odyssey</i> is highly creditable to the humanity of the age. +A society which regarded the slave as a mere chattel would have +been impatient of the interest shown in a swineherd and a nurse. +It is a society, too, that exhibits many of the distinguishing +traits of later Greek life. Feasting and quarrels, it is true, are +of more moment to the heroes than to the contemporaries of +Pericles or Plato; but “music” and “gymnastic” (though +the terms must be understood in a more restricted sense) are as +distinctive of the age of Homer as of that of Pindar. In one +respect there is retrogression in the historical period. Woman +in Homeric society enjoys a greater freedom, and receives greater +respect, than in the Athens of Sophocles and Pericles.</p> + +<p>4. <i>The Growth of the Greek States.</i>—The Greek world at the +beginning of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> presents a picture in many +respects different from that of the Homeric Age. The Greek +race is no longer confined to the Greek peninsula. It occupies +the islands of the Aegean, the western seaboard of Asia Minor, +the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, of southern Italy and +Sicily. Scattered settlements are found as far apart as the mouth +of the Rhone, the north of Africa, the Crimea and the eastern +end of the Black Sea. The Greeks are called by a national name, +<i>Hellenes</i>, the symbol of a fully-developed national self-consciousness. +They are divided into three great branches, the Dorian, +the Ionian and the Aeolian, names almost, or entirely, unknown +to Homer. The heroic monarchy has nearly everywhere disappeared. +In Greece proper, south of Thermopylae, it survives, +but in a peculiar form, in the Spartan state alone. What is the +significance and the explanation of contrasts so profound?</p> + +<p>It is probable that the explanation is to be found, directly +or indirectly, in a single cause, the Dorian invasion. In Homer +the Dorians are mentioned in one passage only (<i>Odyssey</i> +xix. 177). They there appear as one of the races which +<span class="sidenote">Dorian invasion.</span> +inhabit Crete. In the historical period the whole +Peloponnese, with the exception of Arcadia, Elis and Achaea, +is Dorian. In northern Greece the Dorians occupy the little +state of Doris, and in the Aegean they form the population +of Crete, Rhodes and some smaller islands. Thus the chief +centres of Minoan and Mycenaean culture have passed into +Dorian hands, and the chief seats of Achaean power are included +in Dorian states. Greek tradition explained the overthrow of +the Achaean system by an invasion of the Peloponnese by the +Dorians, a northern tribe, which had found a temporary home in +Doris. The story ran that, after an unsuccessful attempt to +force an entrance by the Isthmus of Corinth, they had crossed +from Naupactus, at the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, landed +on the opposite shore, and made their way into the heart of the +Peloponnese, where a single victory gave them possession of the +Achaean states. Their conquests were divided among the +invaders into three shares, for which lots were cast, and thus +the three states of Argos, Sparta and Messenia were created. +There is much in this tradition that is impossible or improbable. +It is impossible, <i>e.g.</i> for the tiny state of Doris, with its three +or four “small, sad villages” (<span class="grk" title="poleis mikrai kai lyprochôroi">πολεις μικραὶ καὶ λυπρόχωροι</span>, +Strabo, p. 427), to have furnished a force of invaders sufficient +to conquer and re-people the greater part of the Peloponnese. +It is improbable that the conquest should have been either as +sudden, or as complete, as the legend represents. On the +contrary, there are indications that the conquest was gradual, +and that the displacement of the older population was incomplete. +The improbability of the details affords, however, no ground +for questioning the reality of the invasion.<a name="fa6g" id="fa6g" href="#ft6g"><span class="sp">6</span></a> The tradition +can be traced back at Sparta to the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Tyrtaeus, +quoted by Strabo, p. 362), and there is abundant evidence, other +than that of legend, to corroborate it. There is the Dorian name, +to begin with. If, as Beloch supposes, it originated on the coast +of Asia Minor, where it served to distinguish the settlers in +Rhodes and the neighbouring islands from the Ionians and +Aeolians to the north of them, how came the great and famous +states of the Peloponnese to adopt a name in use among the +petty colonies planted by their kinsmen across the sea? Or, if +Dorian is simply Old Peloponnesian, how are we to account for +the Doric dialect or the Dorian pride of race?</p> + +<p>It is true that there are great differences between the literary +Doric, the dialect of Corinth and Argos, and the dialects of +Laconia and Crete, and that there are affinities between the +dialect of Laconia and the non-Dorian dialects of Arcadia and +Elis. It is equally true, however, and of far more consequence, +that all the Doric dialects are distinguished from all other Greek +dialects by certain common characteristics. Perhaps the +strongest sentiment in the Dorian nature is the pride of race. +Indeed, it looks as if the Dorians claimed to be the sole genuine +Hellenes. How can we account for an indigenous population, +first imagining itself to be immigrant, and then developing a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span> +contempt for the rest of the race, equally indigenous with itself, +on account of a fictitious difference in origin? Finally, there +is the archaeological evidence. The older civilization comes to +an abrupt end, and it does so, on the mainland at least, at the +very period to which tradition assigns the Dorian migration. +Its development is greatest, and its overthrow most complete, +precisely in the regions occupied by the Dorians and the other +tribes, whose migrations were traditionally connected with +theirs. It is hardly too much to say that the archaeologist would +have been compelled to postulate an inroad into central and +southern Greece of tribes from the north, at a lower level of +culture, in the course of the 12th and 11th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, if the +historian had not been able to direct him to the traditions of the +great migrations (<span class="grk" title="metanastaseis">μεταναστάσεις</span>), of which the Dorian invasion +was the chief. With the Dorian migration Greek tradition +connected the expansion of the Greek race eastwards across the +Aegean. In the historical period the Greek settlements on the +western coast of Asia Minor fall into three clearly defined groups. +To the north is the Aeolic group, consisting of the island of +Lesbos and twelve towns, mostly insignificant, on the opposite +mainland. To the south is the Dorian <i>hexapolis</i>, consisting of +Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the mainland, and the islands of +Rhodes and Cos. In the centre comes the Ionian <i>dodecapolis</i>, +a group consisting of ten towns on the mainland, together with +the islands of Samos and Chios. Of these three groups, the +Ionian is incomparably the most important. The Ionians also +occupy Euboea and the Cyclades. Although it would appear +that Cyprus (and possibly Pamphylia) had been occupied by +settlers from Greece in the Mycenaean age, Greek tradition is +probably correct in putting the colonization of Asia Minor and +the islands of the Aegean after the Dorian migration. Both the +Homeric and the archaeological evidence seem to point to the +same conclusion. Between Rhodes on the south and the Troad +on the north scarcely any Mycenaean remains have been found. +Homer is ignorant of any Greeks east of Euboea. If the poems +are earlier than the Dorian Invasion, his silence is conclusive. +If the poems are some centuries later than the Invasion, they at +least prove that, within a few generations of that event, it was +the belief of the Greeks of Asia Minor that their ancestors had +crossed the seas after the close of the Heroic Age. It is probable, +too, that the names Ionian and Aeolian, the former of which is +found once in Homer, and the latter not at all, originated among +the colonists in Asia Minor, and served to designate, in the first +instance, the members of the Ionic and Aeolic <i>dodecapoleis</i>. +As Curtius<a name="fa7g" id="fa7g" href="#ft7g"><span class="sp">7</span></a> pointed out, the only Ionia known to history is in +Asia Minor. It does not follow that Ionia is the original home +of the Ionian race, as Curtius argued. It almost certainly +follows, however, that it is the original home of the Ionian +name.</p> + +<p>It is less easy to account for the name <i>Hellenes</i>. The Greeks +were profoundly conscious of their common nationality, and of +the gulf that separated them from the rest of mankind. They +themselves recognized a common race and language, and a +common type of religion and culture, as the chief factors in this +sentiment of nationality (see Herod. viii. 144 <span class="grk" title="to Hellênikon eon +homaimon te kai homoglôsson kai theôn hidrymata te koina kai +thusiai êthea te homotropa">Ἑλληνικὸν ἐὸν ὅμαιμόν τε καὶ ὁμόγλωσσον καὶ θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι ἤθεά τε ὁμότροπα</span>). “Hellenes” was the name of their +common race, and “Hellas” of their common country. In +Homer there is no distinct consciousness of a common nationality, +and consequently no antithesis of Greek and Barbarian +(see Thuc. i. 3). Nor is there a true collective name. There are +indeed Hellenes (though the name occurs in one passage only, +<i>Iliad</i> ii. 684), and there is a Hellas; but his Hellas, whatever its +precise signification may be, is, at any rate, not equivalent either +to Greece proper or to the land of the Greeks, and his Hellenes are +the inhabitants of a small district to the south of Thessaly. It +is possible that the diffusion of the Hellenic name was due to the +Dorian invaders. Its use can be traced back to the first half of +the 7th century. Not less obscure are the causes of the fall of +monarchy. It cannot have been the immediate effect of the +Dorian conquest, for the states founded by the Dorians were at +first monarchically governed. It may, however, have been an indirect +effect of it. We have already seen that the power of the +<span class="sidenote">Government.</span> +Homeric king is more limited than that of the rulers of +Cnossus, Tiryns or Mycenae. In other words, monarchy +is already in decay at the epoch of the Invasion. The +Invasion, in its effects on wealth, commerce and civilization, is +almost comparable to the irruption of the barbarians into the +Roman empire. The monarch of the Minoan and Mycenaean age +has extensive revenues at his command; the monarch of the early +Dorian states is little better than a petty chief. Thus the interval, +once a wide one, that separates him from the nobles tends to disappear. +The decay of monarchy was gradual; much more gradual +than is generally recognized. There were parts of the Greek world +in which it still survived in the 6th century, <i>e.g.</i> Sparta, Cyrene, +Cyprus, and possibly Argos and Tarentum. Both Herodotus +and Thucydides apply the title “king” (<span class="grk" title="basileus">βασιλεύς</span>) to the rulers +of Thessaly in the 5th century. The date at which monarchy +gave place to a republican form of government must have +differed, and differed widely, in different cases. The traditions +relating to the foundation of Cyrene assume the existence of +monarchy in Thera and in Crete in the middle of the 7th century +(Herodotus iv. 150 and 154), and the reign of Amphicrates +at Samos (Herod, iii. 59) can hardly be placed more than a +generation earlier. In view of our general ignorance of the history +of the 7th and 8th centuries, it is hazardous to pronounce these +instances exceptional. On the other hand, the change from +monarchy to oligarchy was completed at Athens before the end +of the 8th century, and at a still earlier date in some of the other +states. The process, again, by which the change was effected +was, in all probability, less uniform than is generally assumed. +There are extremely few cases in which we have any trustworthy +evidence, and the instances about which we are informed refuse +to be reduced to any common type. In Greece proper our +information is fullest in the case of Athens and Argos. In the +former case, the king is gradually stripped of his powers by a +process of devolution. An hereditary king, ruling for life, is +replaced by three annual and elective magistrates, between +whom are divided the executive, military and religious functions +of the monarch (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>). At Argos the fall of the monarchy +is preceded by an aggrandisement of the royal prerogatives. +There is nothing in common between these two cases, and there +is no reason to suppose that the process elsewhere was analogous +to that at Athens. Everywhere, however, oligarchy is the +form of government which succeeds to monarchy. Political +power is monopolized by a class of nobles, whose claim to govern +is based upon birth and the possession of land, the most valuable +form of property in an early society. Sometimes power is +confined to a single clan (<i>e.g.</i> the Bacchiadae at Corinth); more +commonly, as at Athens, all houses that are noble are equally +privileged. In every case there is found, as the adviser of the +executive, a Boulē, or council, representative of the privileged +class. Without such a council a Greek oligarchy is inconceivable. +The relations of the executive to the council doubtless varied. +At Athens it is clear that the real authority was exercised by the +archons;<a name="fa8g" id="fa8g" href="#ft8g"><span class="sp">8</span></a> in many states the magistrates were probably subordinate +to the council (cf. the relation of the consuls to the senate +at Rome). And it is clear that the way in which the oligarchies +used their power varied also. The cases in which the power was +abused are naturally the ones of which we hear; for an abuse +of power gave rise to discontent and was the ultimate cause of +revolution. We hear little or nothing of the cases in which +power was exercised wisely. Happy is the constitution which +has no annals! We know, however, that oligarchy held its +ground for generations, or even for centuries, in a large proportion +of the Greek states; and a government which, like the +oligarchies of Elis, Thebes or Aegina, could maintain itself for +three or four centuries cannot have been merely oppressive.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span></p> + +<p>The period of the transition from monarchy to oligarchy +is the period in which commerce begins to develop, and trade-routes +to be organized. Greece had been the centre of +an active trade in the Minoan and Mycenaean epochs. +<span class="sidenote">Trade.</span> +The products of Crete and of the Peloponnese had found their +way to Egypt and Asia Minor. The overthrow of the older +civilization put an end to commerce. The seas became insecure +and intercourse with the East was interrupted. Our earliest +glimpses of the Aegean after the period of the migrations disclose +the raids of the pirate and the activity of the Phoenician trader. +It is not till the 8th century has dawned that trade begins to +revive, and the Phoenician has to retire before his Greek competitor. +For some time to come, however, no clear distinction is +drawn between the trader and the pirate. The pioneers of Greek +trade in the West are the pirates of Cumae (Thucyd. vi. 4). +The expansion of Greek commerce, unlike that of the commerce +of the modern world, was not connected with any great scientific +discoveries. There is nothing in the history of ancient navigation +that is analogous to the invention of the mariner’s compass or +of the steam-engine. In spite of this, the development of Greek +commerce in the 7th and 6th centuries was rapid. It must have +been assisted by the great discovery of the early part of the +former century, the invention of coined money. To the Lydians, +rather than the Greeks, belongs the credit of the discovery; +but it was the genius of the latter race that divined the importance +of the invention and spread its use. The coinage of the +Ionian towns goes back to the reign of Gyges (<i>c.</i> 675 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). And +it is in Ionia that commercial development is earliest and greatest. +In the most distant regions the Ionian is first in the field. Egypt +and the Black Sea are both opened up to Greek trade by Miletus, +the Adriatic and the Western Mediterranean by Phocaea and +Samos. It is significant that of the twelve states engaged in the +Egyptian trade in the 6th century all, with the exception of +Aegina, are from the eastern side of the Aegean (Herod. ii. 178). +On the western side the chief centres of trade during these +centuries were the islands of Euboea and Aegina and the town +of Corinth. The Aeginetan are the earliest coins of Greece +proper (<i>c.</i> 650 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); and the two rival scales of weights and +measures, in use amongst the Greeks of every age, are the +Aeginetan and the Euboic. Commerce naturally gave rise to +commercial leagues, and commercial relations tended to bring +about political alliances. Foreign policy even at this early +epoch seems to have been largely determined by considerations +of commerce. Two leagues, the members of which were connected +by political as well as commercial ties, can be recognized. At +the head of each stood one of the two rival powers in the island +of Euboea, Chalcis and Eretria. Their primary object was +doubtless protection from the pirate and the foreigner. Competing +routes were organized at an early date under their influence, +and their trading connexions can be traced from the heart of +Asia Minor to the north of Italy. Miletus, Sybaris and Etruria +were members of the Eretrian league; Samos, Corinth, Rhegium +and Zancle (commanding the Straits of Messina), and Cumae, +on the Bay of Naples, of the Chalcidian. The wool of the +Phrygian uplands, woven in the looms of Miletus, reached the +Etruscan markets by way of Sybaris; through Cumae, Rome +and the rest of Latium obtained the elements of Greek culture. +Greek trade, however, was confined to the Mediterranean area. +The Phoenician and the Carthaginian navigators penetrated +to Britain; they discovered the passage round the Cape two +thousand years before Vasco da Gama’s time. The Greek sailor +dared not adventure himself outside the Black Sea, the Adriatic +and the Mediterranean. Greek trade, too, was essentially maritime. +Ports visited by Greek vessels were often the starting +points of trade-routes into the interior; the traffic along those +routes was left in the hands of the natives (see <i>e.g.</i> Herod. iv. 24). +One service, the importance of which can hardly be overestimated, +was rendered to civilization by the Greek traders—the invention +of geography. The science of geography is the invention of the +Greeks. The first maps were made by them (in the 6th century); +and it was the discoveries and surveys of their sailors that made +map-making possible.</p> + +<p>Closely connected with the history of Greek trade is the +history of Greek colonization. The period of colonization, in +its narrower sense, extends from the middle of the +8th to the middle of the 6th century. Greek colonization +<span class="sidenote">Colonization.</span> +is, however, merely a continuation of the process +which at an earlier epoch had led to the settlement, first of +Cyprus, and then of the islands and coasts of the Aegean. From +the earlier settlements the colonization of the historical period +is distinguished by three characteristics. The later colony +acknowledges a definite <i>metropolis</i> (“mother-city”); it is +planted by a definite <i>oecist</i> (<span class="grk" title="oikistês">οἰκιστής</span>); it has a definite date +assigned to its foundation.<a name="fa9g" id="fa9g" href="#ft9g"><span class="sp">9</span></a> It would be a mistake to regard +Greek colonization as commercial in origin, in the sense that the +colonies were in all cases established as trading-posts. This +was the case with the Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements, +most of which remained mere factories; and some of the Greek +colonies (<i>e.g.</i> many of those planted by Miletus on the shores +of the Black Sea) bore this character. The typical Greek colony, +however, was neither in origin nor in development a mere +trading-post. It was, or it became, a <i>polis</i>, a city-state, in which +was reproduced the life of the parent state. Nor was Greek +colonization, like the emigration from Europe to America and +Australia in the 19th century, simply the result of over-population. +The causes were as various as those which can be traced +in the history of modern colonization. Those which were +established for the purposes of trade may be compared to the +factories of the Portuguese and Dutch in Africa and the Far East. +Others were the result of political discontent, in some form or +shape; these may be compared to the Puritan settlements +in New England. Others again were due to ambition or the +mere love of adventure (see Herod. v. 42 ff., the career of +Dorieus). But however various the causes, two conditions +must always be presupposed—an expansion of commerce and +a growth of population. Within the narrow limits of the city-state +there was a constant tendency for population to become +redundant, until, as in the later centuries of Greek life, its +growth was artificially restricted. Alike from the Roman +colonies, and from those founded by the European nations +in the course of the last few centuries, the Greek colonies are +distinguished by a fundamental contrast. It is significant that +the contrast is a political one. The Roman colony was in a +position of entire subordination to the Roman state, of which it +formed a part. The modern colony was, in varying degrees, +in political subjection to the home government. The Greek +colony was completely independent; and it was independent +from the first. The ties that united a colony to its metropolis +were those of sentiment and interest; the political tie did not +exist. There were, it is true, exceptions. The colonies established +by imperial Athens closely resembled the colonies of +imperial Rome. The cleruchy (<i>q.v.</i>) formed part of the Athenian +state; the cleruchs kept their status as citizens of Athens and +acted as a military garrison. And if the political tie, in the +proper sense, was wanting, it was inevitable that political +relations should spring out of commercial or sentimental ones. +Thus we find Corinth interfering twice to save her colony Syracuse +from destruction, and Megara bringing about the revolt of +Byzantium, her colony, from Athens. Sometimes it is not easy +to distinguish political relations from a political tie (<i>e.g.</i> the +relations of Corinth, both in the Persian and Peloponnesian +Wars, to Ambracia and the neighbouring group of colonies). +When we compare the development of the Greek and the modern +colonies we shall find that the development of the former was +even more rapid than that of the latter. In at least three +respects the Greek settler was at an advantage as compared +with the colonist of modern times. The differences of race, of +colour and of climate, with which the chief problems of modern +colonization are connected, played no part in the history of the +Greek settlements. The races amongst whom the Greeks planted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span> +themselves were in some cases on a similar level of culture. +Where the natives were still backward or barbarous, they came +of a stock either closely related to the Greek, or at least separated +from it by no great physical differences. We need only contrast +the Carian, the Sicel, the Thracian or even the Scythian, with +the native Australian, the Hottentot, the Red Indian or the +Maori, to apprehend the advantage of the Greek. Amalgamation +with the native races was easy, and it involved neither +physical nor intellectual degeneracy as its consequence. Of the +races with which the Greeks came in contact the Thracian was +far from the highest in the scale of culture; yet three of the +greatest names in the Great Age of Athens are those of men who +had Thracian blood in their veins, viz. Themistocles, Cimon +and the historian Thucydides. In the absence of any distinction +of colour, no insuperable barrier existed between the Greek and +the hellenized native. The <i>demos</i> of the colonial cities was +largely recruited from the native population,<a name="fa10g" id="fa10g" href="#ft10g"><span class="sp">10</span></a> nor was there +anything in the Greek world analogous to the “mean whites” +or the “black belt.” Of hardly less importance were the +climatic conditions. In this respect the Mediterranean area is +unique. There is no other region of the world of equal extent +in which these conditions are at once so uniform and so favourable. +Nowhere had the Greek settler to encounter a climate which +was either unsuited to his labour or subversive of his vigour. +That in spite of these advantages so little, comparatively +speaking, was effected in the work of Hellenization before +the epoch of Alexander and the Diadochi, was the effect of a +single counteracting cause. The Greek colonist, like the Greek +trader, clung to the shore. He penetrated no farther inland +than the sea-breeze. Hence it was only in islands, such as +Sicily or Cyprus, that the process of Hellenization was complete. +Elsewhere the Greek settlements formed a mere fringe along the +coast.</p> + +<p>To the 7th century there belongs another movement of high +importance in its bearing upon the economic, religious and +literary development of Greece, as well as upon its +constitutional history. This movement is the rise of +<span class="sidenote">The tyrants.</span> +the <i>tyrannis</i>. In the political writers of a later age the +word possesses a clear-cut connotation. From other forms +of monarchy it is distinguished by a twofold differentiation. +The <i>tyrannus</i> is an unconstitutional ruler, and his authority +is exercised over unwilling subjects. In the 7th and 6th centuries +the line was not drawn so distinctly between the tyrant and the +legitimate monarch. Even Herodotus uses the words “tyrant” +and “king” interchangeably (<i>e.g.</i> the princes of Cyprus are +called “kings” in v. 110 and “tyrants” in v. 109), so that it +is sometimes difficult to decide whether a legitimate monarch +or a tyrant is meant (<i>e.g.</i> Aristophilides of Tarentum, iii. 136, +or Telys of Sybaris, v. 44). But the distinction between the +tyrant and the king of the Heroic Age is a valid one. It is not +true that his rule was always exercised over unwilling subjects; +it is true that his position was always unconstitutional. The +Homeric king is a legitimate monarch; his authority is invested +with the sanctions of religion and immemorial custom. The +tyrant is an illegitimate ruler; his authority is not recognized, +either by customary usage or by express enactment. But the +word “tyrant” was originally a neutral team; it did not +necessarily imply a misuse of power. The origin of the <i>tyrannis</i> +is obscure. The word <i>tyrannus</i> has been thought, with some +reason, to be a Lydian one. Probably both the name and the +thing originated in the Greek colonies of Asia Minor, though the +earliest tyrants of whom we hear in Asia Minor (at Ephesus and +Miletus) are a generation later than the earliest in Greece itself, +where, both at Sicyon and at Corinth, tyranny appears to date +back to the second quarter of the 7th century. It is not unusual +to regard tyranny as a universal stage in the constitutional +development of the Greek states, and as a stage that occurs +everywhere at one and the same period. In reality, tyranny +is confined to certain regions, and it is a phenomenon that is +peculiar to no one age or century. In Greece proper, before the +4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it is confined to a small group of states round the +Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs. The greater part of the Peloponnese +was exempt from it, and there is no good evidence for its +existence north of the Isthmus, except at Megara and Athens. +It plays no part in the history of the Greek cities in Chalcidice +and Thrace. It appears to have been rare in the Cyclades. +The regions in which it finds a congenial soil are two, Asia Minor +and Sicily. Thus it is incorrect to say that most Greek states +passed through this stage. It is still wider of the mark to +assume that they passed through it at the same time. There is +no “Age of the Tyrants.” Tyranny began in the Peloponnese +a hundred years before it appears in Sicily, and it has disappeared +in the Peloponnese almost before it begins in Sicily. In the +latter the great age of tyranny comes at the beginning of the +5th century; in the former it is at the end of the 7th and the +beginning of the 6th. At Athens the history of tyranny begins +after it has ended both at Sicyon and Corinth. There is, indeed, +a period in which tyranny is non-existent in the Greek states; +roughly speaking, the last sixty years of the 5th century. But +with this exception, there is no period in which the tyrant is +not to be found. The greatest of all the tyrannies, that of +Dionysius at Syracuse, belongs to the 4th century. Nor must +it be assumed that tyranny always comes at the same stage in +the history of a constitution; that it is always a stage between +oligarchy and democracy. At Corinth it is followed, not by +democracy but by oligarchy, and it is an oligarchy that lasts, +with a brief interruption, for two hundred and fifty years. At +Athens it is not immediately preceded by oligarchy. Between +the Eupatrid oligarchy and the rule of Peisistratus there comes +the timocracy of Solon. These exceptions do not stand alone. +The cause of tyranny is, in one sense, uniform. In the earlier +centuries, at any rate, tyranny is always the expression of +discontent; the tyrant is always the champion of a cause. +But it would be a mistake to suppose that the discontent is +necessarily political, or that the cause which he champions is +always a constitutional one. At Sicyon it is a racial one; +Cleisthenes is the champion of the older population against their +Dorian oppressors (see Herod. v. 67, 68). At Athens the +discontent is economic rather than political; Peisistratus is the +champion of the Diacrii, the inhabitants of the poorest region of +Attica. The party-strifes of which we hear in the early history +of Miletus, which doubtless gave the tyrant his opportunity, +are concerned with the claims of rival industrial classes. In +Sicily the tyrant is the ally of the rich and the foe of the <i>demos</i>, +and the cause which he champions, both in the 5th century and +the 4th, is a national one, that of the Greek against the Carthaginian. +We may suspect that in Greece itself the tyrannies of +the 7th century are the expression of an anti-Dorian reaction. +It can hardly be an accident that the states in which the tyrannis +is found at this epoch, Corinth, Megara, Sicyon, Epidaurus, +are all of them states in which a Dorian upper class ruled over +a subject population. In Asia Minor the <i>tyrannis</i> assumes a +peculiar character after the Persian conquest. The tyrant +rules as the deputy of the Persian satrap. Thus in the East the +tyrant is the enemy of the national cause; in the West, in Sicily, +he is its champion.</p> + +<p>Tyranny is not a phenomenon peculiar to Greek history. +It is possible to find analogies to it in Roman history, in the +power of Caesar, or of the Caesars; in the despotisms of medieval +Italy; or even in the Napoleonic empire. Between the tyrant +and the Italian despot there is indeed a real analogy; but +between the Roman principate and the Greek <i>tyrannis</i> there are +two essential differences. In the first place, the principate was +expressed in constitutional forms, or veiled under constitutional +fictions; the tyrant stood altogether outside the constitution. +And, secondly, at Rome both Julius and Augustus owed their +position to the power of the sword. The power of the sword, +it is true, plays a large part in the history of the later tyrants +(<i>e.g.</i> Dionysius of Syracuse); the earlier ones, however, had no +mercenary armies at their command. We can hardly compare +the bodyguard of Peisistratus to the legions of the first or the +second Caesar.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span></p> + +<p>The view taken of the <i>tyrannis</i> in Greek literature is almost +uniformly unfavourable. In this respect there is no difference +between Plato and Aristotle, or between Herodotus and the +later historians.<a name="fa11g" id="fa11g" href="#ft11g"><span class="sp">11</span></a> His policy is represented as purely selfish, +and his rule as oppressive. Herodotus is influenced partly by +the traditions current among the oligarchs, who had been the +chief sufferers, and partly by the odious associations which had +gathered round tyranny in Asia Minor. The philosophers write +under their impressions of the later <i>tyrannis</i>, and their account +is largely an a priori one. It is seldom that we find any attempt, +either in the philosophers or the historians, to do justice to the +real services rendered by the tyrants.<a name="fa12g" id="fa12g" href="#ft12g"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Their first service was +a constitutional one. They helped to break down the power +of the old aristocratic houses, and thus to create the social and +political conditions indispensable to democracy. The <i>tyrannis</i> +involved the sacrifice of liberty in the cause of equality. When +tyranny falls, it is never succeeded by the aristocracies which +it had overthrown. It is frequently succeeded by an oligarchy, +but it is an oligarchy in which the claim to exclusive power is +based, not upon mere birth, but upon wealth, or the possession +of land. It would be unfair to treat this service as one that +was rendered unconsciously and unwillingly. Where the tyrant +asserted the claims of an oppressed class, he consciously aimed at +the destruction of privilege and the effacement of class distinctions. +Hence it is unjust to treat his power as resting upon +mere force. A government which can last eighty or a hundred +years, as was the case with the tyrannies at Corinth and Sicyon, +must have a moral force behind it. It must rest upon the +consent of its subjects. The second service which the tyrants +rendered to Greece was a political one. Their policy tended to +break down the barriers which isolated each petty state from +its neighbours. In their history we can trace a system of widespread +alliances, which are often cemented by matrimonial +connexions. The Cypselid tyrants of Corinth appear to have been +allied with the royal families of Egypt, Lydia and Phrygia, as +well as with the tyrants of Miletus and Epidaurus, and with +some of the great Athenian families. In Sicily we find a league +of the northern tyrants opposed to a league of the southern; +and in each ease there is a corresponding matrimonial alliance. +Anaxilaus of Rhegium is the son-in-law and ally of Terillus of +Himera; Gelo of Syracuse stands in the same relation to Theron +of Agrigentum. Royal marriages have played a great part in +the politics of Europe. In the comparison of Greek and modern +history it has been too often forgotten how great a difference +it makes, and how great a disadvantage it involves, to a republic +that it has neither sons nor daughters to give in marriage. In +commerce and colonization the tyrants were only continuing +the work of the oligarchies to which they succeeded. Greek +trade owed its expansion to the intelligent efforts of the oligarchs +who ruled at Miletus and Corinth, in Samos, Aegina and Euboea; +but in particular cases, such as Miletus, Corinth, Sicyon and +Athens, there was a further development, and a still more rapid +growth, under the tyrants. In the same way, the foundation +of the colonies was in most cases due to the policy of the oligarchical +governments. They can claim credit for the colonies +of Chalcis and Eretria, of Megara, Phocaea and Samos, as well +as for the great Achaean settlements in southern Italy. The +Cypselids at Corinth, and Thrasybulus at Miletus, are instances +of tyrants who colonized on a great scale.</p> + +<p>In their religious policy the tyrants went far to democratize +Greek religion. The functions of monarchy had been largely +religious; but, while the king was necessarily a +priest, he was not the only priest in the community. +<span class="sidenote">Religion under the “tyrants.”</span> +There were special priesthoods, hereditary in particular +families, even in the monarchical period; and +upon the fall of the monarchy, while the priestly functions of +the kings passed to republican magistrates, the priesthoods +which were in the exclusive possession of the great families +tended to become the important ones. Thus, before the rise of +tyranny, Greek religion is aristocratic. The cults recognized +by the state are the <i>sacra</i> of noble clans. The religious prerogatives +of the nobles helped to confirm their political ones, +and, as long as religion retained its aristocratic character, it was +impossible for democracy to take root. The policy of the tyrants +aimed at fostering popular cults which had no associations with +the old families, and at establishing new festivals. The cult +of the wine-god, Dionysus, was thus fostered at Sicyon by +Cleisthenes, and at Corinth by the Cypselids; while at Athens +a new festival of this deity, which so completely overshadowed +the older festival that it became known as the Great Dionysia, +probably owed its institution to Peisistratus. Another festival, +the Panathenaea, which had been instituted only a few years +before his rise to power, became under his rule, and thanks to his +policy, the chief national festival of the Athenian state. Everywhere, +again, we find the tyrants the patrons of literature. +Pindar and Bacchylides, Aeschylus and Simonides found a +welcome at the court of Hiero. Polycrates was the patron of +Anacreon, Periander of Arion. To Peisistratus has been attributed, +possibly not without reason, the first critical edition of +the text of Homer, a work as important in the literary history +of Greece as was the issue of the Authorized Version of the Bible +in English history. <span class="correction" title="amended from It">If</span> we would judge fairly of tyranny, and of +what it contributed to the development of Greece, we must +remember how many states there were in whose history the +period of greatest power coincides with the rule of a tyrant. +This is unquestionably true of Corinth and Sicyon, as well as of +Syracuse in the 5th, and again in the 4th century; it is probably +true of Samos and Miletus. In the case of Athens it is only the +splendour of the Great Age that blinds us to the greatness of +the results achieved by the policy of the Peisistratids.</p> + +<p>With the overthrow of this dynasty tyranny disappears from +Greece proper for more than a century. During the century and +a half which had elapsed since its first appearance the whole +aspect of Greek life, and of the Greek world, had changed. +The development was as yet incomplete, but the lines on which +it was to proceed had been clearly marked out. Political power +was no longer the monopoly of a class. The struggle between +the “few” and the “many” had begun; in one state at least +(Athens) the victory of the “many” was assured. The first +chapter in the history of democracy was already written. In +the art of war the two innovations which were ultimately to +establish the military supremacy of Greece, hoplite tactics and +the trireme, had already been introduced. Greek literature was +<span class="sidenote">The arts.</span> +no longer synonymous with epic poetry. Some of +its most distinctive forms had not yet been evolved; +indeed, it is only quite at the end of the period that +prose-writing begins; but both lyric and elegiac poetry had been +brought to perfection. In art, statuary was still comparatively +stiff and crude; but in other branches, in architecture, in vase-painting +and in coin-types, the aesthetic genius of the race had +asserted its pre-eminence. Philosophy, the supreme gift of Greece +to the modern world, had become a living power. Some of her +most original thinkers belong to the 6th century. Criticism had +been applied to everything in turn: to the gods, to conduct, +and to the conception of the universe. Before the Great Age +begins, the claims of intellectual as well as of political freedom +had been vindicated. It was not, however, in Greece proper +that progress had been greatest. In the next century the centre +of gravity of Greek civilization shifts to the western side of the +Aegean; in the 6th century it must be looked for at Miletus, +rather than at Athens. In order to estimate how far the development +of Greece had advanced, or to appreciate the distinctive +features of Greek life at this period, we must study Ionia, rather +than Attica or the Peloponnese. Almost all that is greatest and +most characteristic is to be found on the eastern side of the +Aegean. The great names in the history of science and philosophy +before the beginning of the 5th century—Thales, Pythagoras, +Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Anaximander, Hecataeus; +names which are representative of mathematics, astronomy, +geography and metaphysics, are all, without exception, Ionian. +In poetry, too, the most famous names, if not so exclusively +Ionian, are connected either with the Asiatic coast or with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span> +the Cyclades. Against Archilochus and Anacreon, Sappho and +Alcaeus, Greece has nothing better to set, after the age of Hesiod, +than Tyrtaeus and Theognis. Reference has already been made +to the greatness of the Ionians as navigators, as colonizers and +as traders. In wealth and in population, Miletus, at the epoch +of the Persian conquest, must have been far ahead of any city +of European Greece. Sybaris, in Magna Graecia, can have been +its only rival outside Ionia. There were two respects, however, +in which the comparison was in favour of the mother-country. +In warfare, the superiority of the Spartan infantry was unquestioned; +in politics, the Greek states showed a greater power +of combination than the Ionian.</p> + +<p>Finally, Ionia was the scene of the first conflicts with the +Persian. Here were decided the first stages of a struggle which +was to determine the place of Greece in the history +of the world. The rise of Persia under Cyrus was, as +<span class="sidenote">External relations.</span> +Herodotus saw, the turning-point of Greek history. +Hitherto the Greek had proved himself indispensable to +the oriental monarchies with which he had been brought into +contact. In Egypt the power of the Saite kings rested upon the +support of their Greek mercenaries. Amasis (569-525 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who +is raised to the throne as the leader of a reaction against the +influence of the foreign garrison, ends by showing greater favour +to the Greek soldiery and the Greek traders than all that were +before him. With Lydia the relations were originally hostile; +the conquest of the Greek fringe is the constant aim of Lydian +policy. Greek influences, however, seem to have quickly permeated +Lydia, and to have penetrated to the court. Alyattes +(610-560 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) marries an Ionian wife, and the succession is +disputed between the son of this marriage and Croesus, whose +mother was a Carian. Croesus (560-546 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) secures the throne, +only to become the lavish patron of Greek sanctuaries and the +ally of a Greek state. The history of Hellenism had begun. +It was the rise of Cyrus that closed the East to Greek enterprise +and Greek influences. In Persia we find the antithesis of all +that is characteristic of Greece—autocracy as opposed to liberty; +a military society organized on an aristocratic basis, to an +industrial society, animated by a democratic spirit; an army, +whose strength lay in its cavalry, to an army, in which the foot-soldier +alone counted; a morality, which assigned the chief +place to veracity, to a morality which subordinated it to other +virtues; a religion, which ranks among the great religions of +the world, to a religion, which appeared to the most spiritual +minds among the Greeks themselves both immoral and absurd. +Between two such races there could be neither sympathy nor +mutual understanding. In the Great Age the Greek had learned +<span class="sidenote">Persian wars.</span> +to despise the Persian, and the Persian to fear the Greek. +In the 6th century it was the Persian who despised, +and the Greek who feared. The history of the conflicts +between the Ionian Greeks and the Persian empire affords a +striking example of the combination of intellectual strength and +political weakness in the character of a people. The causes of +the failure of the Ionians to offer a successful resistance to Persia, +both at the time of the conquest by Harpagus (546-545 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and +in the Ionic revolt (499-494 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), are not far to seek. The +centrifugal forces always tended to prove the stronger in the +Greek system, and nowhere were they stronger than in Ionia. +The tie of their tribal union proved weaker, every time it was +put to the test, than the political and commercial interests of +the individual states. A league of jealous commercial rivals is +certain not to stand the strain of a protracted struggle against +great odds. Against the advancing power of Lydia a common +resistance had not so much as been attempted. Miletus, the +greatest of the Ionian towns, had received aid from Chios alone. +Against Persia a common resistance was attempted. The Panionium, +the centre of a religious amphictyony, became for the +moment the centre of a political league. At the time of the +Persian conquest Miletus held aloof. She secured favourable +terms for herself, and left the rest of Ionia to its fate. In the +later conflict, on the contrary, Miletus is the leader in the revolt. +The issue was determined, not as Herodotus represents it, by +the inherent indolence of the Ionian nature, but by the selfish +policy of the leading states. In the sea-fight at Lade (494 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +the decisive battle of the war, the Milesians and Chians fought +with desperate courage. The day was lost thanks to the treachery +of the Samian and Lesbian contingents.</p> + +<p>The causes of the successful resistance of the Greeks to the +invasions of their country, first by Datis and Artaphernes +(490 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), in the reign of Darius, and then by Xerxes in person +(480-479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), are more complex. Their success was partly +due to a moral cause. And this was realized by the Greeks +themselves. They felt (see Herod. vii. 104) that the subjects +of a despot are no match for the citizens of a free state, who +yield obedience to a law which is self-imposed. But the cause +was not solely a moral one. Nor was the result due to the +numbers and efficiency of the Athenian fleet, in the degree that +the Athenians claimed (see Herod. vii. 139). The truth is that +the conditions, both political and military, were far more favourable +to the Greek defence in Europe than they had been in Asia. +At this crisis the centripetal forces proved stronger than the +centrifugal. The moral ascendancy of Sparta was the determining +factor. In Sparta the Greeks had a leader whom all +were ready to obey (Herod. viii. 2). But for her influence the +forces of disintegration would have made themselves felt as +quickly as in Ionia. Sparta was confronted with immense +difficulties in conducting the defence against Xerxes. The two +chief naval powers, Athens and Aegina, had to be reconciled +after a long and exasperating warfare (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegina</a></span>). After +Thermopylae, the whole of northern Greece, with the exception +of Athens and a few minor states, was lost to the Greek cause. +The supposed interests of the Peloponnesians, who formed the +greater part of the national forces, conflicted with the supposed +interests of the Athenians. A more impartial view than was +possible to the generation for which Herodotus wrote suggests +that Sparta performed her task with intelligence and patriotism. +The claims of Athens and Sparta were about equally balanced. +And in spite of her great superiority in numbers,<a name="fa13g" id="fa13g" href="#ft13g"><span class="sp">13</span></a> the military +conditions were far from favourable to Persia. A land so mountainous +as Greece is was unsuited to the operations of cavalry, +the most efficient arm of the service in the Persian Army, as +in most oriental ones. Ignorance of local conditions, combined +with the dangerous nature of the Greek coast, exposed their ships +to the risk of destruction; while the composite character of the +fleet, and the jealousies of its various contingents, tended to +neutralize the advantage of numbers. In courage and discipline, +the flower of the Persian infantry was probably little inferior +to the Greek; in equipment, they were no match for the Greek +panoply. Lastly, Xerxes laboured under a disadvantage, which +may be illustrated by the experience of the British army in the +South African War—distance from his base.</p> + +<p>5. <i>The Great Age</i> (<i>480-338</i> <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).—The effects of the repulse +of Persia were momentous in their influence upon Greece. The +effects upon Elizabethan England of the defeat of the Spanish +armada would afford quite an inadequate parallel. It gave +the Greeks a heightened sense, both of their own national unity +and of their superiority to the barbarian, while at the same time +it helped to create the material conditions requisite alike for +the artistic and political development of the 5th century. Other +cities besides Athens were adorned with the proceeds of the +spoils won from Persia, and Greek trade benefited both from the +reunion of Ionia with Greece, and from the suppression of piracy +in the Aegean and the Hellespont. Do these developments +justify us in giving to the period, which begins with the repulse +of Xerxes, and ends with the victory of Philip, the title of +“the Great Age”? If the title is justified in the case of the 5th +century, should the 4th century be excluded from the period? +At first sight, the difference between the 4th century and the +5th may seem greater than that which exists between the 5th +and the 6th. On the political side, the 5th century is an age +of growth, the 4th an age of decay; on the literary side, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span> +former is an age of poetry, the latter an age of prose. In spite +of these contrasts, there is a real unity in the period which begins +with the repulse of Xerxes and ends with the death of Alexander, +as compared with any preceding one. It is an age of maturity +in politics, in literature, and in art; and this is true of no earlier +age. Nor can we say that the 5th century is, in all these aspects +of Greek life, immature as compared with the 4th, or, on the +other hand, that the 4th is decadent as compared with the +5th. On the political side, maturity is, in one sense, reached +in the earlier century. There is nothing in the later century so +great as the Athenian empire. In another sense, maturity is +not reached till the 4th century. It is only in the later century +that the tendency of the Greek constitutions to conform to a +common type, democracy, is (at least approximately) realized, +and it is only in this century that the principles upon which +democracy is based are carried to their logical conclusion. In +literature, if we confine our attention to poetry, we must pronounce +the 5th century the age of completed development; +but in prose the case is different. The style even of Thucydides +is immature, as compared with that of Isocrates and Plato. In +philosophy, however high may be the estimate that is formed +of the genius of the earlier thinkers, it cannot be disputed that in +Plato and Aristotle we find a more mature stage of thought. +In art, architecture may perhaps be said to reach its zenith in +the 5th, sculpture in the 4th century. In its political aspect, +the history of the Great Age resolves itself into the history of +two movements, the imperial and the democratic. Hitherto +Greece had meant, politically, an aggregate of independent +states, very numerous, and, as a rule, very small. The principle +<span class="sidenote">Systems of government.</span> +of autonomy was to the Greek the most sacred of all +political principles; the passion for autonomy the +most potent of political factors. In the latter half of +the 6th century Sparta had succeeded in combining +the majority of the Peloponnesian states into a loose federal +union; so loose, however, that it appears to have been dormant +in the intervals of peace. In the crisis of the Persian invasion +the Peloponnesian League was extended so as to include all the +states which had espoused the national cause. It looked on the +morrow of Plataea and Mycale (the two victories, won simultaneously, +in 479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, by Spartan commanders, by which the +danger from Persia was finally averted) as if a permanent basis +for union might be found in the hegemony of Sparta. The sense +of a common peril and a common triumph brought with it the +need of a common union; it was Athens, however, instead of +Sparta, by whom the first conscious effort was made to transcend +the isolation of the Greek political system and to bring the units +into combination. The league thus founded (the Delian League, +established in 477 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was under the presidency of Athens, +but it included hardly any other state besides those that had +conducted the defence of Greece. It was formed, almost entirely, +of the states which had been liberated from Persian rule by +the great victories of the war. The Delian League, even in the +form in which it was first established, as a confederation of +autonomous allies, marks an advance in political conceptions +upon the Peloponnesian League. Provision is made for an +annual revenue, for periodical meetings of the council, and for +a permanent executive. It is a real federation, though an +imperfect one. There were defects in its constitution which +rendered it inevitable that it should be transformed into an +empire. Athens was from the first “the predominant partner.” +The fleet was mainly Athenian, the commanders entirely so; +the assessment of the tribute was in Athenian hands; there +was no federal court appointed to determine questions at issue +between Athens and the other members; and, worst omission +of all, the right of secession was left undecided. By the middle +of the century the Delian League has become the Athenian +empire. Henceforward the imperial idea, in one form or another, +dominates Greek politics. Athens failed to extend her authority +over the whole of Greece. Her empire was overthrown; but the +triumph of autonomy proved the triumph of imperialism. +The Spartan empire succeeds to the Athenian, and, when it is +finally shattered at Leuctra (371 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the hegemony of Thebes, +which is established on its ruins, is an empire in all but name. +The decay of Theban power paves the way for the rise of Macedon.</p> + +<p>Thus throughout this period we can trace two forces contending +for mastery in the Greek political system. Two causes divide +the allegiance of the Greek world, the cause of empire and the +cause of autonomy. The formation of the confederacy of Delos +did not involve the dissolution of the alliance between Athens +and Sparta. For seventeen years more Athens retained her +place in the league, “which had been established against the +Mede” under the presidency of Sparta in 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Thuc. i. 102). +The ascendancy of Cimon and the Philolaconian party at Athens +was favourable to a good understanding between the two states, +and at Sparta in normal times the balance inclined in favour +of the party whose policy is best described by the motto “quieta +non movere.”</p> + +<p>In the end, however, the opposition of the two contending +forces proved too strong for Spartan neutrality. The fall of +Cimon (461 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was followed by the so-called “First +Peloponnesian War,” a conflict between Athens and +<span class="sidenote">The Peloponnesian Wars.</span> +her maritime rivals, Corinth and Aegina, into which +Sparta was ultimately drawn. Thucydides regards +the hostilities of these years (460-454 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), which were resumed +for a few months in 446 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, on the expiration of the Five Years’ +Truce, as preliminary to those of the great Peloponnesian War +(431-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The real question at issue was in both cases the +same. The tie that united the opponents of Athens was found +in a common hostility to the imperial idea. It is a complete +misapprehension to regard the Peloponnesian War as a mere +duel between two rival claimants for empire. The ultimatum +presented by Sparta on the eve of the war demanded the restoration +of autonomy to the subjects of Athens. There is no reason +for doubting her sincerity in presenting it in this form. It would, +however, be an equal misapprehension to regard the war as +merely a struggle between the cause of empire and the cause of +autonomy. Corresponding to this fundamental contrast there +are other contrasts, constitutional, racial and military. The +military interest of the war is largely due to the fact that Athens +was a sea power and Sparta a land one. As the war went on, +the constitutional aspect tended to become more marked. At +first there were democracies on the side of Sparta, and oligarchies +on the side of Athens. In the last stage of the war, when +Lysander’s influence was supreme, we see the forces of oligarchy +everywhere united and organized for the destruction of democracy. +In its origin the war was certainly not due to the rivalry +of Dorian and Ionian. This racial, or tribal, contrast counted +for more in the politics of Sicily than of Greece; and, though +the two great branches of the Greek race were represented +respectively by the leaders of the two sides, the allies on neither +side belonged exclusively to the one branch or the other. Still, +it remains true that the Dorian states were, as a rule, on the +Spartan side, and the Ionian states, as a rule, on the Athenian—a +division of sentiment which must have helped to widen the +breach, and to intensify the animosities.</p> + +<p>As a political experiment the Athenian empire possesses a +unique interest. It represents the first attempt to fuse the +principles of imperialism and democracy. It is at +once the first empire in history possessed and administered +<span class="sidenote">The Athenian empire.</span> +by a sovereign people, and the first which +sought to establish a common system of democratic +institutions amongst its subjects.<a name="fa14g" id="fa14g" href="#ft14g"><span class="sp">14</span></a> It was an experiment that +failed, partly owing to the inherent strength of the oligarchic +cause, partly owing to the exclusive character of ancient citizenship. +The Athenians themselves recognized that their empire +depended for its existence upon the solidarity of democratic +interests (see Thuc. iii. 47; Pseudo-Xenophon, <i>de Rep. Ath.</i> i. 14, +iii. 10). An understanding existed between the democratic +leaders in the subject-states and the democratic party at Athens. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span> +Charges were easily trumped up against obnoxious oligarchs, +and conviction as easily obtained in the Athenian courts of +law. Such a system forced the oligarchs into an attitude of +opposition. How much this opposition counted for was realized +when the Sicilian disaster (413 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) gave the subjects their chance +to revolt. The organization of the oligarchical party throughout +the empire, which was effected by Lysander in the last stage +of the war, contributed to the overthrow of Athenian ascendancy +hardly less than the subsidies of Persia. Had Athens aimed at +establishing a community of interest between herself and her +subjects, based upon a common citizenship, her empire might +have endured. It would have been a policy akin to that which +secured the permanence of the Roman empire. And it was a +policy which found advocates when the day for it was past (see +Aristophanes, <i>Lysistrata</i>, 574 ff.; cf. the grant of citizenship +to the Samians after Aegospotami, <i>C.I.A.</i> iv. 2, 1b). But the +policy pursued by Athens in the plenitude of her power was the +reverse of the policy pursued by Rome in her treatment of the +franchise. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the fate of the +empire was sealed by the law of Pericles (451 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), by which the +franchise was restricted to those who could establish Athenian +descent on both sides. It was not merely that the process of +amalgamation through intermarriage was abruptly checked; +what was more serious was that a hard and fast line was drawn, +once and for all, between the small body of privileged rulers and +the great mass of unprivileged subjects. Maine (<i>Early Institutions</i>, +lecture 13) has classed the Athenian empire with those +of the familiar Oriental type, which attempt nothing beyond the +raising of taxes and the levying of troops. The Athenian empire +cannot, indeed, be classed with the Roman, or with the British +rule in India; it does not, therefore, deserve to be classed with +the empires of Cyrus or of Jenghiz Khan. Though the basis of +its organization, like that of the Persian empire under Darius, +was financial, it attempted, and secured, objects beyond the +mere payment of tribute and the supply of ships. If Athens did +not introduce a common religion, or a common system of education, +or a common citizenship, she did introduce a common type +of political institutions, and a common jurisdiction.<a name="fa15g" id="fa15g" href="#ft15g"><span class="sp">15</span></a> She went +some way, too, in the direction of establishing a common system +of coins, and of weights and measures. A common language +was there already. In a word, the Athenian empire marks a +definite stage of political evolution.</p> + +<p>The other great political movement of the age was the progress +of democracy. Before the Persian invasion democracy was a +rare phenomenon in Greek politics. Where it was +found it existed in an undeveloped form, and its tenure +<span class="sidenote">The mature democracy.</span> +of power was precarious. By the beginning of the +Peloponnesian War it had become the prevalent form +of government. The great majority of Greek states had adopted +democratic constitutions. Both in the Athenian sphere of +influence and in the colonial world outside that sphere, democracy +was all but the only form of constitution known. It was +only in Greece proper that oligarchy held its own. In the +Peloponnese it could count a majority of the states; in northern +Greece at least a half of them. The spread of democratic institutions +was arrested by the victory of Sparta in the East, and +the rise of Dionysius in the West. There was a moment at the +end of the 5th century when it looked as if democracy was a lost +cause. Even Athens was for a brief period under the rule of +the Thirty (404-403 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In the regions which had formed +the empire of Athens the decarchies set up by Lysander were +soon overthrown, and democracies restored in most cases, but +oligarchy continued to be the prevalent form in Greece proper +until Leuctra (371 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and in Sicily tyranny had a still longer +tenure of power. By the end of the Great Age oligarchy has +almost disappeared from the Greek world, except in the sphere +of Persian influence. The Spartan monarchy still survives; a +few Peloponnesian states still maintain the rule of the few; here +and there in Greece itself we meet with a revival of the <i>tyrannis</i>; +but, with these exceptions, democracy is everywhere the only +type of constitution. And democracy has developed as well +as spread. At the end of the 5th century the constitution of +Cleisthenes, which was a democracy in the view of his contemporaries, +had come to be regarded as an aristocracy (Aristot. +<i>Ath. Pol.</i> 29. 3). We can trace a similar change of sentiment +in Sicily. As compared with the extreme form of constitution +adopted at Syracuse after the defeat of the Athenian expedition, +the democracies established two generations earlier, on the fall +of the <i>tyrannis</i>, appeared oligarchical. The changes by which +the character of the Greek democracies was revolutionized were +four in number: the substitution of sortition for election, the +abolition of a property qualification, the payment of officials +and the rise of a class of professional politicians. In the democracy +of Cleisthenes no payment was given for service, whether +as a magistrate, a juror or a member of the Boulē. The higher +magistracies were filled by election, and they were held almost +exclusively by the members of the great Athenian families. +For the highest office of all, the archonship, none but <i>Pentacosiomedimni</i> +(the first of the four Solonian classes) were eligible. +The introduction of pay and the removal of the property qualification +formed part of the reforms of Pericles. Sortition had been +instituted for election a generation earlier (487 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="fa16g" id="fa16g" href="#ft16g"><span class="sp">16</span></a> What is +perhaps the most important of all these changes, the rise of the +demagogues, belongs to the era of the Peloponnesian War. +From the time of Cleisthenes to the outbreak of the war every +statesman of note at Athens, with the exception of Themistocles +(and, perhaps, of Ephialtes), is of aristocratic birth. Down to +the fall of Cimon the course of Athenian politics is to a great +extent determined by the alliances and antipathies of the great +clans. With the Peloponnesian War a new epoch begins. The +chief office, the <i>strategia</i>, is still, as a rule, held by men of rank. +But leadership in the Ecclesia has passed to men of a different +class. The demagogues were not necessarily poor men. Cleon +was a wealthy man; Eucrates, Lysicles and Hyperbolus were, +at any rate, tradesmen rather than artisans. The first “labour +member” proper is Cleophon (411-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a lyre-maker. +They belonged, however, not to the land-owning, but to the industrial +classes; they were distinguished from the older race of +party-leaders by a vulgar accent, and by a violence of gesture +in public speaking, and they found their supporters among the +population of the city and its port, the Peiraeus, rather than +among the farmers of the country districts. In the 4th century +the demagogues, though under another name, that of orators, +have acquired entire control of the Ecclesia. It is an age of +professionalism, and the professional soldier has his counterpart +in the professional politician. Down to the death of Pericles +the party-leader had always held office as Strategus. His rival, +Thucydides, son of Melesias, forms a solitary exception to this +statement. In the 4th century the divorce between the general +and the statesman is complete. The generals are professional +soldiers, who aspire to no political influence in the state, and the +statesmen devote themselves exclusively to politics, a career +for which they have prepared themselves by a professional +training in oratory or administrative work. The ruin of agriculture +during the war had reduced the old families to insignificance. +Birth counts for less than nothing as a political asset +in the age of Demosthenes.</p> + +<p>But great as are the contrasts which have been pointed +out between the earlier and the later democracy, those that +distinguish the ancient conception of democracy from +the modern are of a still more essential nature. The +<span class="sidenote">The city-state.</span> +differences that distinguish the democracies of ancient +Greece from those of the modern world have their origin, +to a great extent, in the difference between a city-state +and a nation-state. Many of the most famous Greek states +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span> +had an area of a few square miles; the largest of them was no +larger than an English county. Political theory put the limit +of the citizen-body at 10,000. Though this number was exceeded +in a few cases, it is doubtful if any state, except Athens, ever +counted more than 20,000 citizens. In the nation-states of +modern times, democratic government is possible only under the +form of a representative system; in the city-state representative +government was unnecessary, and therefore unknown. In the +ancient type of democracy a popular chamber has no existence. +The Ecclesia is not a chamber in any sense of the term; it is an +assembly of the whole people, which every citizen is entitled +to attend, and in which every one is equally entitled to vote and +speak. The question raised in modern political science, as to +whether sovereignty resides in the electors or their representatives, +has thus neither place nor meaning in ancient theory. In the +same way, one of the most familiar results of modern analysis, +the distinction between the executive and the legislative, finds +no recognition in the Greek writers. In a direct system of +government there can be no executive in the proper sense. +Executive functions are discharged by the ecclesia, to whose +decision the details of administration may be referred. The +position of the strategi, the chief officials in the Athenian +democracy of the 5th century, was in no sense comparable to +that of a modern cabinet. Hence the individual citizen in an +ancient democracy was concerned in, and responsible for, the +actual work of government to a degree that is inconceivable in +a modern state. Thus participation in the administrative and +judicial business of the state is made by Aristotle the differentia +of the citizen (<span class="grk" title="politês estin ho metechôn kriseôs kai archês">πολίτης ἐστὶν ὁ μετέχων κρίσεως καὶ ἀρχῆς</span>, +Aristot. <i>Politics</i>, p. 1275 a 20). A large proportion of the citizens +of Athens, in addition to frequent service in the courts of law, +must in the course of their lives have held a magistracy, great +or small, or have acted for a year or two as members of the +Boulē.<a name="fa17g" id="fa17g" href="#ft17g"><span class="sp">17</span></a> It must be remembered that there was nothing corresponding +to a permanent civil service in the ancient state. +Much of the work of a government office would have been +transacted by the Athenian Boulē. It must be remembered, +too, that political and administrative questions of great importance +came before the popular courts of law. Hence it follows +that the ordinary citizen of an ancient democracy, in the course +of his service in the Boulē or the law-courts, acquired an interest +in political questions, and a grasp of administrative work, which +none but a select few can hope to acquire under the conditions +of the modern system. Where there existed neither a popular +chamber nor a distinct executive, there was no opportunity for +the growth of a party-system. There were, of course, political +parties at Athens and elsewhere—oligarchs and democrats, +conservatives and radicals, a peace-party and a war-party, +according to the burning question of the day. There was, +however, nothing equivalent to a general election, to a cabinet +(or to that collective responsibility which is of the essence of a +cabinet), or to the government and the opposition. Party +organization, therefore, and a party system, in the proper sense, +were never developed. Whatever may have been the evils +incident to the ancient form of democracy, the “boss,” the +caucus and the spoils-system were not among them.</p> + +<p>Besides these differences, which, directly or indirectly, result +from the difference of scale, there are others, hardly less profound, +which are not connected with the size of the city-state. Perhaps +the most striking contrast between the democracies of ancient +and of modern times is to be found in their attitude towards +privilege. Ancient democracy implies privilege; modern +democracy implies its destruction. In the more fully developed +democracies of the modern world (<i>e.g.</i> in the United States, or in +Australia), the privilege of class is unknown; in some of them +(<i>e.g.</i> New Zealand, Australia, Norway) even the privilege of +sex has been abolished. Ancient democracy was bound up with +privilege as much as oligarchy was. The transition from the +latter to the former was effected by enlarging the area of privilege +and by altering its basis. In an oligarchical state citizenship +might be confined to 10% of the free population; under a +democracy 50% might enjoy it. In the former case the qualification +might be wealth or land; in the latter case it might be, +as it was at Athens, birth, <i>i.e.</i> descent, on both sides, from a +citizen family. But, in both cases alike, the distinction between +a privileged and an unprivileged body of free-born residents +is fundamental. To the unprivileged class belonged, not only +foreigners temporarily resident (<span class="grk" title="xenoi">ξένοι</span>) and aliens permanently +domiciled (<span class="grk" title="metoikoi">μέτοικοι</span>), but also those native-born inhabitants of +the state who were of foreign extraction, on one side or the +other.<a name="fa18g" id="fa18g" href="#ft18g"><span class="sp">18</span></a> The privileges attaching to citizenship included, in +addition to eligibility for office and a vote in the assembly, such +private rights as that of owning land or a house, or of contracting +a marriage with one of citizen status. The citizen, too, was +alone the recipient of all the various forms of pay (<i>e.g.</i> for attendance +in the assembly, for service in the Boulē or the law-courts, +or for the celebration of the great festivals) which are so conspicuous +a feature in the developed democracy of the 4th century. +The <i>metoeci</i> could not even plead in a court of law in person, +but only through a patron (<span class="grk" title="prostatês">προστάτης</span>). It is intelligible that +privileges so great should be jealously guarded. In the democracies +of the modern world naturalization is easy; in those +of ancient Greece admission to the franchise was rarely accorded. +In modern times, again, we are accustomed to connect democracy +<span class="sidenote">Position of women.</span> +with the emancipation of women. It is true that only +a few democratic constitutions grant them the suffrage; +but though, as a rule, they are denied public rights, +the growth of popular government has been almost +everywhere accompanied by an extension of their private rights, +and by the removal of the restrictions imposed by law, custom +or public opinion upon their freedom of action. In ancient +Greece the democracies were as illiberal in their policy as the +oligarchies. Women of the respectable class were condemned +to comparative seclusion. They enjoyed far less freedom in +4th-century Athens than in the Homeric Age. It is not in any +of the democracies, but in conservative Sparta, that they +possess privilege and exercise influence.</p> + +<p>The most fundamental of all the contrasts between democracy +in its ancient and in its modern form remains to be stated. +The ancient state was inseparable from slavery. In +this respect there was no difference between democracy +<span class="sidenote">Slavery.</span> +and the other forms of government. No inconsistency was felt, +therefore, between this institution and the democratic principle. +Modern political theory has been profoundly affected by the +conception of the dignity of labour; ancient political theory +tended to regard labour as a disqualification for the exercise +of political rights. Where slavery exists, the taint of it will +inevitably cling to all labour that can be performed by the +slave. In ancient Athens (which may be taken as typical of +the Greek democracies) unskilled labour was almost entirely +slave-labour, and skilled labour was largely so. The arts and +crafts were, to some extent, exercised by citizens, but to a less +extent in the 4th than in the 6th century. They were, however, +chiefly left to aliens or slaves. The citizen-body of Athens in +the age of Demosthenes has been stigmatized as consisting in +great measure of salaried paupers. There is, doubtless, an +exaggeration in this. It is, however, true, both that the system +of state-pay went a long way towards supplying the simple wants +of a southern population, and that a large proportion of the +citizens had time to spare for the service of the state. Had the +life of the lower class of citizens been absorbed in a round of +mechanical labours, as fully as is the life of our industrial classes, +the working of an ancient democracy would have been impossible. +In justice to the ancient democracies it must be conceded that, +while popular government carried with it neither the enfranchisement +of the alien nor the emancipation of the slave, the rights +secured to both classes were more considerable in the democratic +states than elsewhere. The lot of the slave, as well as that of the +alien, was a peculiarly favourable one at Athens. The pseudo-Xenophon +in the 5th century (<i>De rep. Ath.</i> 1. 10-12) and Plato +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span> +in the 4th (<i>Republic</i>, p. 563 B), prove that the spirit of liberty, +with which Athenian life was permeated, was not without its +influence upon the position of these classes. When we read that +critics complained of the opulence of slaves, and of the liberties +they took, and when we are told that the slave could not be +distinguished from the poorer class of citizens either by his dress +or his look, we begin to realize the difference between the slavery +of ancient Athens and the system as it was worked on the Roman +<i>latifundia</i> or the plantations of the New World.</p> + +<p>It had been anticipated that the fall of Athens would mean +the triumph of the principle of autonomy. If Athens had +surrendered within a year or so of the Sicilian catastrophe, +this anticipation would probably have been +<span class="sidenote">The Spartan empire.</span> +fulfilled. It was the last phase of the struggle (412-404 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) that rendered a Spartan empire inevitable. +The oligarchical governments established by Lysander recognized +that their tenure of power was dependent upon Spartan support, +while Lysander himself, to whose genius, as a political organizer +not less than as a commander, the triumph of Sparta was due, +was unwilling to see his work undone. The Athenian empire +had never included the greater part of Greece proper; since +the Thirty Years’ Peace its possessions on the mainland, outside +the boundaries of Attica, were limited to Naupactus and Plataea. +Sparta, on the other hand, attempted the control of the entire +Greek world east of the Adriatic. Athens had been compelled +to acknowledge a dual system; Sparta sought to establish +uniformity. The attempt failed from the first. Within a year +of the surrender of Athens, Thebes and Corinth had drifted into +an attitude of opposition, while Argos remained hostile. It was +not long before the policy of Lysander succeeded in uniting +against Sparta the very forces upon which she had relied when +she entered on the Peloponnesian War. The Corinthian War +(394-387 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was brought about by the alliance of all the second-class +powers—Thebes, Athens, Corinth, Argos—against the one +first-class power, Sparta. Though Sparta emerged successful +from the war, it was with the loss of her maritime empire, and +at the cost of recognizing the principle of autonomy as the basis +of the Greek political system. It was already evident, thus +early in the century, that the centrifugal forces were to prove +stronger than the centripetal. Two further causes may be +indicated which help to explain the failure of the Spartan +empire. In the first place Spartan sea-power was an artificial +creation. History seems to show that it is idle for a state to +aspire to naval supremacy unless it possesses a great commercial +marine. Athens had possessed such a marine; her naval +supremacy was due not to the mere size of her fleet, but to the +numbers and skill of her seafaring population. Sparta had no +commerce. She could build fleets more easily than she could +man them. A single defeat (at Cnidus, 391 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) sufficed for +the ruin of her sea-power. The second cause is to be found in the +financial weakness of the Spartan state. The Spartan treasury +had been temporarily enriched by the spoils of the Peloponnesian +War, but neither during that war, nor afterwards, did Sparta +succeed in developing any scientific financial system. Athens +was the only state which either possessed a large annual revenue +or accumulated a considerable reserve. Under the conditions +of Greek warfare, fleets were more expensive than armies. Not +only was money needed for the building and maintenance of the +ships, but the sailor must be paid, while the soldier served for +nothing. Hence the power with the longest purse could both +build the largest fleet and attract the most skilful seamen.</p> + +<p>The battle of Leuctra transferred the hegemony from Sparta +to Thebes, but the attempt to unite Greece under the leadership +of Thebes was from the first doomed to failure. The +conditions were less favourable to Thebes than they +<span class="sidenote">Theban hegemony.</span> +had been to Athens or Sparta. Thebes was even more +exclusively a land-power than Sparta. She had no +revenue comparable to that of Athens in the preceding century. +Unlike Athens and Sparta, she had not the advantage of being +identified with a political cause. As the enemy of Athens in the +5th century, she was on the side of oligarchy; as the rival of +Sparta in the 4th, she was on the side of democracy; but in her +bid for primacy she could not appeal, as Athens and Sparta +could, to a great political tradition, nor had she behind her, +as they had, the moral force of a great political principle. Her +position, too, in Boeotia itself was insecure. The rise of Athens +was in great measure the result of the <i>synoecism</i> (<span class="grk" title="sunoikismos)">συνοικισμός</span> +of Attica. All inhabitants of Attica were Athenians. But +“Boeotian” and “Theban” were not synonymous terms. The +Boeotian league was an imperfect form of union, as compared +with the Athenian state, and the claim of Thebes to the presidency +of the league was, at best, sullenly acquiesced in by the +other towns. The destruction of some of the most famous of +the Boeotian cities, however necessary it may have been in order +to unite the country, was a measure which at once impaired the +resources of Thebes and outraged Greek sentiment. It has been +often held that the failure of Theban policy was due to the death +of Epaminondas (at the battle of Mantinea, 362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). For this +view there is no justification. His policy had proved a failure +before his death. Where it harmonized with the spirit of the +age, the spirit of dissidence, it succeeded; where it attempted +to run counter to it, it failed. It succeeded in destroying the +supremacy of Sparta in the Peloponnese; it failed to unite the +Peloponnese on a new basis. It failed still more <span class="correction" title="amended from signally">significantly</span> to unite +Greece north of the Isthmus. It left Greece weaker and more +divided than it found it (see the concluding words of Xenophon’s +<i>Hellenics</i>). It would be difficult to overestimate the importance +of his policy as a destructive force; as a constructive force it +effected nothing.<a name="fa19g" id="fa19g" href="#ft19g"><span class="sp">19</span></a> The Peloponnesian system which Epaminondas +overthrew had lasted two hundred years. Under +Spartan leadership the Peloponnese had enjoyed almost complete +immunity from invasion and comparative immunity from +<i>stasis</i> (faction). The claim that Isocrates makes for Sparta is +probably well-founded (<i>Archidamus</i>, 64-69; during the period +of Spartan ascendency the Peloponnesians were <span class="grk" title="eudaimonestatoi +tôn Hellênôn">εὐδαιμονέστατοι τῶν Ἑλλήνων</span>). Peloponnesian sentiment had been one of the +chief factors in Greek politics; to it, indeed, in no small degree +was due the victory over Persia. The Theban victory at Leuctra +destroyed the unity, and with it the peace and the prosperity, +of the Peloponnese. It inaugurated a period of misery, the +natural result of <i>stasis</i> and invasion, to which no parallel can +be found in the earlier history (See Isocrates, <i>Archidamus</i>, 65, +66; the Peloponnesians were <span class="grk" title="ômalismenoi tais sumphopais">ὡμαλισμένοι ταῖς συμφοραῖς</span>). It +destroyed, too, the Peloponnesian sentiment of hostility to the +invader. The bulk of the army that defeated Mardonius at +Plataea came from the Peloponnese; at Chaeronea no Peloponnesian +state was represented.</p> + +<p>The question remains, Why did the city-state fail to save +Greece from conquest by Macedon? Was this result due to the +inherent weakness either of the city-state itself, or of +one particular form of it, democracy? It is clear, in +<span class="sidenote">The rise of Macedon.</span> +any case, that the triumph of Macedon was the effect +of causes which had long been at work. If neither +Philip nor Alexander had appeared on the scene, Greece might +have maintained her independence for another generation or +two; but, when invasion came, it would have found her weaker +and more distracted, and the conquerors might easily have been +less imbued with the Greek spirit, and less sympathetic towards +Greek ideals, than the great Macedonian and his son. These +causes are to be found in the tendencies of the age, political, +economic and moral. Of the two movements which characterized +the Great Age in its political aspect, the imperial and the +democratic, the one failed and the other succeeded. The failure +and the success were equally fatal to the chances of Greece in +the conflict with Macedon. By the middle of the 4th century +Greek politics had come to be dominated by the theory of the +balance of power. This theory, enunciated in its coarsest form +by Demosthenes (<i>Pro Megalopolit.</i> 4 <span class="grk" title="sumpherei tê polei kai +Lakedaimonious astheneis einai kai Thêbaious">συμφέρει τῇ πόλει καὶ Λακεδαιμονίους ἀσθενεῖς εἶναι καὶ Θηβαίους</span>; cf. <i>in Aristocrat.</i> +102, 103), had shaped the foreign policy of Athens since the end +of the Peloponnesian War. As long as Sparta was the stronger, +Athens inclined to a Theban alliance; after Leuctra she tended +in the direction of a Spartan one. At the epoch of Philip’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span> +accession the forces were everywhere nicely balanced. The +Peloponnese was fairly equally divided between the Theban and +the Spartan interests, and central Greece was similarly divided +between the Theban and the Athenian. Farther north we get +an Athenian party opposed to an Olynthian in Chalcidice, and +a republican party, dependent upon the support of Thebes, +opposed to that of the tyrants in Thessaly. It is easy to see that +the political conditions of Greece, both in the north and in the +south, invited interference from without. And the triumph of +democracy in its extreme form was ruinous to the military +efficiency of Greece. On the one side there was a monarchical +state, in which all powers, civil as well as military, were concentrated +in the hands of a single ruler; on the other, a constitutional +system, in which a complete separation had been effected between +the responsibility of the statesman and that of the commander.<a name="fa20g" id="fa20g" href="#ft20g"><span class="sp">20</span></a></p> + +<p>It could not be doubtful with which side victory would rest. +Meanwhile, the economic conditions were steadily growing worse. +The cause which Aristotle assigns for the decay of the Spartan +state—a declining population (see <i>Politics</i>, p. 1270 a <span class="grk" title="apôleto +ê pólis tôn Lakedaimoniôn dià tên oliganthrôpian">ἀπώλετο ἡ πόλις τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων διὰ τὴν ὀλιγανθρωπίαν</span>)—might be +extended to the Greek world generally. The loss of population +was partly the result of war and <i>stasis</i>—Isocrates speaks of the +number of political exiles from the various states as enormous<a name="fa21g" id="fa21g" href="#ft21g"><span class="sp">21</span></a>—but +it was also due to a declining birth-rate, and to the exposure +of infants. Aristotle, while condemning exposure, sanctions the +procuring of abortion (<i>Politics</i>, 1335 b). It is probable that +both ante-natal and post-natal infanticide were rife everywhere, +except among the more backward communities. A people +which has condemned itself to racial suicide can have little +chance when pitted against a nation in which healthier instincts +prevail. The materials for forming a trustworthy estimate of +the population of Greece at any given epoch are not available; +there is enough evidence, however, to prove that the military +population of the leading Greek states at the era of the battle +of Chaeronea (338 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) fell far short of what it had been at the +beginning of the Peloponnesian War. The decline in population +had been accompanied by a decline in wealth, both public and +private; and while revenues had shrunk, expenditure had +grown. It was a century of warfare; and warfare had become +enormously more expensive, partly through the increased employment +of mercenaries, partly through the enhanced cost of +material. The power of the purse had made itself felt even in +the 5th century; Persian gold had helped to decide the issue +of the great war. In the politics of the 4th century the power +of the purse becomes the determining factor. The public +finance of the ancient world was singularly simple in character, +and the expedients for raising a revenue were comparatively few. +The distinction between direct and indirect taxation was recognized +in practice, but states as a rule were reluctant to submit +to the former system. The revenue of Athens in the 5th century +was mainly derived from the tribute paid by her subjects; it +was only in time of war that a direct tax was levied upon the +citizen-body.<a name="fa22g" id="fa22g" href="#ft22g"><span class="sp">22</span></a> In the age of Demosthenes the revenue derived +from the Athenian Confederacy was insignificant. The whole +burden of the expenses of a war fell upon the 1200 richest +citizens, who were subject to direct taxation in the dual form of +the <i>Trierarchy</i> and the <i>Eisphora</i> (property-tax). The revenue +thus raised was wholly insufficient for an effort on a great scale; +yet the revenues of Athens at this period must have exceeded +those of any other state.</p> + +<p>It is to moral causes, however, rather than to political or +economic ones, that the failure of Greece in the conflict with +Macedon is attributed by the most famous Greek statesmen +of that age. Demosthenes is never weary of insisting upon the +decay of patriotism among the citizens and upon the decay +of probity among their leaders. Venality had always been +the besetting sin of Greek statesmen. Pericles’ boast as to his +own incorruptibility (Thuc. ii. 60) is significant as to the reputation +of his contemporaries. In the age of Demosthenes the level of +public life in this respect had sunk at least as low as that which +prevails in many states of the modern world (see Demosth. <i>On the +Crown</i>, 61 <span class="grk" title="para tois Hellêsin, oì tisin all’ apasin omoíos phørà +proòton kai dorodókon sunébê">παρὰ τοῖς Ἔλλησιν, οὐ τισὶν ἀλλ᾽ ἅπασιν ὁμοίως φορὰ προδοτῶν καὶ δωροδόκων συνέβη</span>; cf. §§ 295, 296). Corruption was +certainly not confined to the Macedonian party. The best that +can be said in defence of the patriots, as well as of their opponents, +is that they honestly believed that the policy which they were +bribed to advocate was the best for their country’s interests. +The evidence for the general decay of patriotism among the mass +of the citizens is less conclusive. The battle of Megalopolis +(331 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), in which the Spartan soldiery “went down in a blaze +of glory,” proves that the spirit of the Lacedemonian state +remained unchanged. But at Athens it seemed to contemporary +observers—to Isocrates equally with Demosthenes—that the +spirit of the great days was extinct (see Isocr. <i>On the Peace</i>, +47, 48). It cannot, of course, be denied that public opinion was +obstinately opposed to the diversion of the Theoric Fund to the +purposes of the war with Philip. It was not till the year before +Chaeronea that Demosthenes succeeded in persuading the +assembly to devote the entire surplus to the expenses of the war.<a name="fa23g" id="fa23g" href="#ft23g"><span class="sp">23</span></a> +Nor can it be denied that mercenaries were far more largely +employed in the 4th century than in the 5th. In justice, however, +to the Athenians of the Demosthenic era, it should be remembered +that the burden of direct taxation was rarely imposed, and was +reluctantly endured, in the previous century. It must also be +remembered that, even in the 4th century, the Athenian citizen +was ready to take the field, provided that it was not a question +of a distant expedition or of prolonged service.<a name="fa24g" id="fa24g" href="#ft24g"><span class="sp">24</span></a> For distant +expeditions, or for prolonged service, a citizen-militia is unsuited. +The substitution of a professional force for an unprofessional +one is to be explained, partly by the change in the character of +Greek warfare, and partly by the operation of the laws of supply +and demand. There had been a time when warfare meant a +brief campaign in the summer months against a neighbouring +state. It had come to mean prolonged operations against a +distant enemy.<a name="fa25g" id="fa25g" href="#ft25g"><span class="sp">25</span></a> Athens was at war, <i>e.g.</i> with Philip, for eleven +years continuously (357-346 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). If winter campaigns in +Thrace were unpopular at this epoch, they had been hardly +less unpopular in the epoch of the Peloponnesian War. In the +days of her greatness, too, Athens had freely employed mercenaries, +but it was in the navy rather than the army. In the +age of Pericles the supply of mercenary rowers was abundant, +the supply of mercenary troops inconsiderable. In the age of +Demosthenes incessant warfare and ceaseless revolution had +filled Greece with crowds of homeless adventurers. The supply +helped to create the demand. The mercenary was as cheap as +the citizen-soldier, and much more effective. On the whole, +then, it may be inferred that it is a mistake to regard the prevalence +of the mercenary system as the expression of a declining +patriotism. It would be nearer the mark to treat the transition +from the voluntary to the professional system as cause rather +than effect: as one among the causes which contributed to the +decay of public spirit in the Greek world.</p> + +<p>6. <i>From Alexander to the Roman Conquest</i> (<i>336-146</i> <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).—In +the history of Greece proper during this period the interest is +mainly constitutional. It may be called the age of +federation. Federation, indeed, was no novelty in +<span class="sidenote">Federal government.</span> +Greece. Federal unions had existed in Thessaly, in +Boeotia and elsewhere, and the Boeotian league can be +traced back at least to the 6th century. Two newly-founded +federations, the Chalcidian and the Arcadian, play no inconsiderable +part in the politics of the 4th century. But it is not till the +3rd century that federation attains to its full development in +Greece, and becomes the normal type of polity. The two great +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span> +leagues of this period are the Aetolian and the Achaean. Both +had existed in the 4th century, but the latter, which had been +dissolved shortly before the beginning of the 3rd century, +becomes important only after its restoration in 280 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, about +which date the former, too, first begins to attract notice. The +interest of federalism lies in the fact that it marks an advance +beyond the conception of the city-state. It is an attempt to +solve the problem which the Athenian empire failed to solve, the +reconciliation of the claims of local autonomy with those of +national union. The federal leagues of the 3rd century possess +a further interest for the modern world, in that there can be +traced in their constitutions a nearer approach to a representative +system than is found elsewhere in Greek experience. A genuine +representative system, it is true, was never developed in any +Greek polity. What we find in the leagues is a sort of compromise +between the principle of a primary assembly and the principle +of a representative chamber. In both leagues the nominal +sovereign was a primary assembly, in which every individual +citizen had the right to vote. In both of them, however, the +real power lay with a council (<span class="grk" title="Boulê">βουλή</span>) composed of members +representative of each of the component states.<a name="fa26g" id="fa26g" href="#ft26g"><span class="sp">26</span></a></p> + +<p>The real interest of this period, however, is to be looked for +elsewhere than in Greece itself. Alexander’s career is one of the +turning-points in history. He is one of the few to +whom it has been given to modify the whole future +<span class="sidenote">Alexander’s empire.</span> +of the human race. He originated two forces which +have profoundly affected the development of civilization. +He created Hellenism, and he created for the western +world the monarchical ideal. Greece had produced personal +rulers of ability, or even of genius; but to the greatest of these, +to Peisistratus, to Dionysius, even to Jason of Pherae, there +clung the fatal taint of illegitimacy. As yet no ruler had succeeded +in making the person of the monarch respectable. +Alexander made it sacred. From him is derived, for the West, +that “divinity that doth hedge a king.” And in creating +Hellenism he created, for the first time, a common type of +civilization, with a common language, literature and art, as +well as a common form of political organization. In Asia Minor +he was content to reinforce the existing Hellenic elements +(cf. the case of Side, Arrian, <i>Anabasis</i>, i. 26. 4). In the rest of +the East his instrument of hellenization was the <i>polis</i>. He is +said to have founded no less than seventy cities, destined to +become centres of Greek influence; and the great majority +of these were in lands in which city-life was almost unknown. +In this respect his example was emulated by his successors. The +eastern provinces were soon lost, though Greek influences +lingered on even in Bactria and across the Indus. It was only +the regions lying to the west of the Euphrates that were +effectively hellenized, and the permanence of this result was +largely due to the policy of Rome. But after all deductions have +been made, the great fact remains that for many centuries after +Alexander’s death Greek was the language of literature and +religion, of commerce and of administration throughout the +Nearer East. Alexander had created a universal empire as well +as a universal culture. His empire perished at his death, but +its central idea survived—that of the municipal freedom of the +Greek <i>polis</i> within the framework of an imperial system. Hellenistic +civilization may appear degenerate when compared with +Hellenic; when compared with the civilizations which it superseded +in non-Hellenic lands, it marks an unquestionable advance. +(For the history of Greek civilization in the East, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hellenism</a></span>.) +Greece left her mark upon the civilization of the West as well +as upon that of the East, but the process by which her influence +was diffused was essentially different. In the East Hellenism +came in the train of the conqueror, and Rome was content to +build upon the foundations laid by Alexander. In the West +Greek influences were diffused by the Roman conquest of Greece. +It was through the ascendancy which Greek literature, philosophy +and art acquired over the Roman mind that Greek culture +penetrated to the nations of western Europe. The civilization +of the East remained Greek. The civilization of the West +became and remained Latin, but it was a Latin civilization that +was saturated with Greek influences. The ultimate division, +both of the empire and the church, into two halves, finds its +explanation in this original difference of culture.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Ancient Authorities.</span>—(I.) For the earliest periods of Greek +history, the so-called Minoan and Mycenaean, the evidence is +purely archaeological. It is sufficient here to refer to the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>. For the next period, the Heroic or +Homeric Age, the evidence is derived from the poems of Homer. +In any estimate of the value of these poems as historical evidence, +much will depend upon the view taken of the authorship, age +and unity of the poems. For a full discussion of these questions +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Homer</a></span>. It cannot be questioned that the poems are evidence +for the existence of a period in the history of the Greek race, +which differed from later periods in political and social, military +and economic conditions. But here agreement ends. If, as is +generally held by German critics, the poems are not earlier than +the 9th century, if they contain large interpolations of considerably +later date and if they are Ionian in origin, the authority +of the poems becomes comparatively slight. The existence of +different strata in the poems will imply the existence of inconsistencies +and contradictions in the evidence; nor will the +evidence be that of a contemporary. It will also follow that the +picture of the heroic age contained in the poems is an idealized +one. The more extreme critics, <i>e.g.</i> Beloch, deny that the poems +are evidence even for the existence of a pre-Dorian epoch. If, +on the other hand, the poems are assigned to the 11th or 12th +century, to a Peloponnesian writer, and to a period anterior to +the Dorian Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor (this +is the view of the late Dr D. B. Munro), the evidence becomes +that of a contemporary, and the authority of the poems for the +distribution of races and tribes in the Heroic Age, as well as for +the social and political conditions of the poet’s time, would be +conclusive. Homer recognizes no Dorians in Greece, except in +Crete (see <i>Odyssey</i>, xix. 177), and no Greek colonies in Asia +Minor. Only two explanations are possible. Either there is +deliberate archaism in the poems, or else they are earlier in date +than the Dorian Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor.</p> + +<p>II. For the period that extends from the end of the Heroic +Age to the end of the Peloponnesian War<a name="fa27g" id="fa27g" href="#ft27g"><span class="sp">27</span></a> the two principal +authorities are Herodotus and Thucydides. Not only +have the other historical works which treated of this +<span class="sidenote">Herodotus.</span> +period perished (those at least whose date is earlier than +the Christian era), but their authority was secondary and +their material chiefly derived from these two writers. In one +respect then this period of Greek history stands alone. Indeed, +it might be said, with hardly an exaggeration, that there is +nothing like it elsewhere in history. Almost our sole authorities +are two writers of unique genius, and they are writers whose +works have come down to us intact. For the period which ends +with the repulse of the Persian invasion our authority is Herodotus. +For the period which extends from 478 to 411 we are +dependent upon Thucydides’. In each case, however, a distinction +must be drawn. The Persian Wars form the proper subject +of Herodotus’s work; the Peloponnesian War is the subject of +Thucydides. The interval between the two wars is merely +sketched by Thucydides; while of the period anterior to the +conflicts of the Greek with the Persian, Herodotus does not +attempt either a complete or a continuous narrative. His +references to it are episodical and accidental. Hence our knowledge +of the Persian Wars and of the Peloponnesian War is +widely different in character from our knowledge of the rest of +this period. In the history of these wars the <i>lacunae</i> are few; +in the rest of the history they are alike frequent and serious. In +the history, therefore, of the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars +little is to be learnt from the secondary sources. Elsewhere, +especially in the interval between the two wars, they become +relatively important.</p> + +<p>In estimating the authority of Herodotus (<i>q.v.</i>) we must be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span> +careful to distinguish between the invasion of Xerxes and all +that is earlier. Herodotus’s work was published soon after +430 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, <i>i.e.</i> about half a century after the invasion. Much of his +information was gathered in the course of the preceding twenty +years. Although his evidence is not that of an eye-witness, he +had had opportunities of meeting those who had themselves +played a part in the war, on one side or the other (<i>e.g.</i> Thersander +of Orchomenos, ix. 16). In any case, we are dealing with a +tradition which is little more than a generation old, and the +events to which the tradition relates, the incidents of the struggle +against Xerxes, were of a nature to impress themselves indelibly +upon the minds of contemporaries. Where, on the other hand, +he is treating of the period anterior to the invasion of Xerxes, +he is dependent upon a tradition which is never less than two +generations old, and is sometimes centuries old. His informants +were, at best, the sons or grandsons of the actors in the wars +(<i>e.g.</i> Archias the Spartan, iii. 55). Moreover, the invasion of +Xerxes, entailing, as it did, the destruction of cities and sanctuaries, +especially of Athens and its temples, marks a dividing +line in Greek history. It was not merely that evidence perished +and records were destroyed. What in reference to tradition is +even more important, a new consciousness of power was awakened, +new interests were aroused, and new questions and problems +came to the front. The former things had passed away; all +things were become new. A generation that is occupied with +making history on a great scale is not likely to busy itself with +the history of the past. Consequently, the earlier traditions +became faint and obscured, and the history difficult to reconstruct. +As we trace back the conflict between Greece and +Persia to its beginnings and antecedents, we are conscious that +the tradition becomes less trustworthy as we pass back from +one stage to another. The tradition of the expedition of Datis +and Artaphernes is less credible in its details than that of the +expedition of Xerxes, but it is at once fuller and more credible +than the tradition of the Ionian revolt. When we get back to +the Scythian expedition, we can discover but few grains of +historical truth.</p> + +<p>Much recent criticism of Herodotus has been directed against +his veracity as a traveller. With this we are not here concerned. +The criticism of him as an historian begins with Thucydides. +Among the references of the latter writer to his predecessor are +the following passages: i. 21; i. 22 <i>ad fin.</i>; i. 20 <i>ad fin.</i> +(cf. Herod. ix. 53, and vi. 57 <i>ad fin.</i>); iii. 62 § 4 (cf. Herod. +ix. 87); ii. 2 §§ 1 and 3 (cf. Herod. vii. 233); ii. 8 § 3 (cf. Herod. +vi. 98). Perhaps the two clearest examples of this criticism are +to be found in Thucydides’ correction of Herodotus’s account +of the Cylonian conspiracy (Thuc. i. 126, cf. Herod. v. 71) and +in his appreciation of the character of Themistocles—a veiled +protest against the slanderous tales accepted by Herodotus +(i. 138). In Plutarch’s tract “On the Malignity of Herodotus” +there is much that is suggestive, although his general standpoint, +viz. that Herodotus was in duty bound to suppress all that was +discreditable to the valour or patriotism of the Greeks, is not +that of the modern critic. It must be conceded to Plutarch +that he makes good his charge of bias in Herodotus’s attitude +towards certain of the Greek states. The question, however, +may fairly be asked, how far this bias is personal to the author, +or how far it is due to the character of the sources from which +his information was derived. He cannot, indeed, altogether be +acquitted of personal bias. His work is, to some extent, intended +as an <i>apologia</i> for the Athenian empire. In answer to the charge +that Athens was guilty of robbing other Greek states of their +freedom, Herodotus seeks to show, firstly, that it was to Athens +that the Greek world, as a whole, owed its freedom from Persia, +and secondly, that the subjects of Athens, the Ionian Greeks, +were unworthy to be free. This leads him to be unjust both +to the services of Sparta and to the qualities of the Ionian race. +For his estimate of the debt due to Athens see vii. 139. For +bias against the Ionians see especially iv. 142 (cf. Thuc. vi. 77); +cf. also i. 143 and 146, vi. 12-14 (Ladë), vi. 112 <i>ad fin.</i> A +striking example of his prejudice in favour of Athens is furnished +by vi. 91. At a moment when Greece rang with the crime of +Athens in expelling the Aeginetans from their Island, he ventures +to trace in their expulsion the vengeance of heaven for an act +of sacrilege nearly sixty years earlier (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegina</a></span>). As a rule, +however, the bias apparent in his narrative is due to the sources +from which it is derived. Writing at Athens, in the first years +of the Peloponnesian War, he can hardly help seeing the past +through an Athenian medium. It was inevitable that much +of what he heard should come to him from Athenian informants, +and should be coloured by Athenian prejudices. We may thus +explain the leniency which he shows towards Argos and Thessaly, +the old allies of Athens, in marked contrast to his treatment of +Thebes, Corinth and Aegina, her deadliest foes. For Argos +cf. vii. 152; Thessaly, vii. 172-174; Thebes, vii. 132, vii. 233, +ix. 87; Corinth (especially the Corinthian general Adeimantus, +whose son Aristeus was the most active enemy of Athens at the +outbreak of the Peloponnesian War), vii. 5, vii. 21, viii. 29 and +61, vii. 94; Aegina, ix. 78-80 and 85. In his intimacy with +members of the great Alcmaeonid house we probably have the +explanation of his depreciation of the services of Themistocles, as +well as of his defence of the family from the charges brought +against it in connexion with Cylon and with the incident of the +shield shown on Pentelicus at the time of Marathon (v. 71, vi. +121-124). His failure to do justice to the Cypselid tyrants of +Corinth (v. 92), and to the Spartan king Cleomenes, is to be +accounted for by the nature of his sources—in the former case, +the tradition of the Corinthian oligarchy; in the latter, accounts, +partly derived from the family of the exiled king Demaratus and +partly representative of the view of the ephorate. Much of the +earlier history is cast in a religious mould, <i>e.g.</i> the story of the +Mermnad kings of Lydia in book i., or of the fortunes of the +colony of Cyrene (iv. 145-167). In such cases we cannot fail +to recognize the influence of the Delphic priesthood. Grote +has pointed out that the moralizing tendency observable in +Herodotus is partly to be explained by the fact that much of his +information was gathered from priests and at temples, and that +it was given in explanation of votive offerings, or of the fulfilment +of oracles. Hence the determination of the sources of his narrative +has become one of the principal tasks of Herodotean criticism. In +addition to the current tradition of Athens, the family tradition +of the Alcmaeonidae, and the stories to be heard at Delphi and +other sanctuaries, there may be indicated the Spartan tradition, +in the form in which it existed in the middle of the 5th century; +that of his native Halicarnassus, to which is due the prominence +of its queen Artemisia; the traditions of the Ionian cities, +especially of Samos and Miletus (important both for the history +of the Mermnadae and for the Ionian Revolt); and those current +in Sicily and Magna Graecia, which were learned during his +residence at Thurii (Sybaris and Croton, v. 44, 45; Syracuse and +Gela, vii. 153-167). Among his more special sources we can +point to the descendants of Demaratus, who still held, at the +beginning of the 4th century, the principality in the Troad +which had been granted to their ancestor by Darius (Xen. <i>Hell.</i> +iii. i. 6), and to the family of the Persian general Artabazus, +in which the satrapy of Dascylium (Phrygia) was hereditary in +the 5th century.<a name="fa28g" id="fa28g" href="#ft28g"><span class="sp">28</span></a> His use of written material is more difficult +to determine. It is generally agreed that the list of Persian +satrapies, with their respective assessments of tribute (iii. 89-97), +the description of the royal road from Sardis to Susa (v. 52-54), +and of the march of Xerxes, together with the list of the contingents +that took part in the expedition (vii. 26-131), are all +derived from documentary and authoritative sources. From +previous writers (<i>e.g.</i> Dionysius of Miletus, Hecataeus, Charon +of Lampsacus and Xanthus the Lydian) it is probable that he +has borrowed little, though the fragments are too scanty to +permit of adequate comparison. His references to monuments, +dedicatory offerings, inscriptions and oracles are frequent.</p> + +<p>The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure <span class="correction" title="amended from too">to</span> grasp the +principles of historical criticism, to understand the nature of +military operations, and to appreciate the importance of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span> +chronology. In place of historical criticism we find a crude +rationalism (<i>e.g.</i> ii. 45, vii. 129, viii. 8). Having no conception of +the distinction between occasion and cause, he is content to find +the explanation of great historical movements in trivial incidents +or personal motives. An example of this is furnished by his +account of the Ionian revolt, in which he fails to discover the +real causes either of the movement or of its result. Indeed, it +is clear that he regarded criticism as no part of his task as an +historian. In vii. 152 he states the principles which have guided +him—<span class="grk" title="egô de opheilô legein ta legomena, peithesthai ge men ou +pantapasi opheilô, kai moi touto to epos echeto es panta logon">ἐγὼ δὲ ὀφείλω λέγειν τὰ λεγόμενα, +πείθεσθαί γε μὲν οὐ παντάπασι ὀφείλω, +καί μοι τοῦτο τὸ ἔπος ἐχέτω ἐς πάντα λόγον</span>. +In obedience to this principle he again and again gives two or +more versions of a story. We are thus frequently enabled to +arrive at the truth by a comparison of the discrepant traditions. +It would have been fortunate if all ancient writers who lacked +the critical genius of Thucydides had been content to adopt the +practice of Herodotus. His accounts of battles are always +unsatisfactory. The great battles, Marathon, Thermopylae, +Salamis and Plataea, present a series of problems. This result +is partly due to the character of the traditions which he follows—traditions +which were to some extent inconsistent or contradictory, +and were derived from different sources; it is, however, +in great measure due to his inability to think out a strategical +combination or a tactical movement. It is not too much to say +that the battle of Plataea, as described by Herodotus, is wholly +unintelligible. Most serious of all his deficiencies is his careless +chronology. Even in the case of the 5th century, the data +which he affords are inadequate or ambiguous. The interval +between the Scythian expedition and the Ionian revolt is +described by so vague an expression as <span class="grk" title="meta de ou pollon chronon +anesis kakôn ên">μετὰ δὲ οὐ πολλὸν χρόνον ἄνεσις κακῶν ἦν</span> (v. 28). In the history of the revolt itself, +though he gives us the interval between its outbreak and the +fall of Miletus (<span class="grk" title="ektô etei">ἔκτῳ ἔτεῒ</span>, vi. 18), he does not give us the interval +between this and the battle of Ladē, nor does he indicate with +sufficient precision the years to which the successive phases of +the movement belong. Throughout the work professed synchronisms +too often prove to be mere literary devices for facilitating +a transition from one subject to another (cf. <i>e.g.</i> v. 81 with +89, 90; or vi. 51 with 87 and 94). In the 6th century, as Grote +pointed out, a whole generation, or more, disappears in his +historical perspective (cf. i. 30, vi. 125, v. 94, iii. 47, 48, +v. 113 contrasted with v. 104 and iv. 162). The attempts to +reconstruct the chronology of this century upon the basis of the +data afforded by Herodotus (<i>e.g.</i> by Beloch, <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, +xlv., 1890, pp. 465-473) have completely failed.</p> + +<p>In spite of all such defects Herodotus is an author, not only +of unrivalled literary charm, but of the utmost value to the +historian. If much remains uncertain or obscure, even in the +history of the Persian Wars, it is chiefly to motives or policy, +to topography or strategy, to dates or numbers, that uncertainty +attaches. It is to these that a sober criticism will confine itself.</p> + +<p>Thucydides is at once the father of contemporary history and +the father of historical criticism. From a comparison of i. 1, +i. 22 and v. 26, we may gather both the principles to +which he adhered in the composition of his work and +<span class="sidenote">Thucydides.</span> +the conditions under which it was composed. It is +seldom that the circumstances of an historical writer have been +so favourable for the accomplishment of his task. Thucydides +was a contemporary of the Twenty-Seven Years’ War in the +fullest sense of the term. He had reached manhood at its outbreak, +and he survived its close by at least half-a-dozen years. +And he was more than a mere contemporary. As a man of high +birth, a member of the Periclean circle, and the holder of the +chief political office in the Athenian state, the <i>strategia</i>, he was +not only familiar with the business of administration and the +conduct of military operations, but he possessed in addition +a personal knowledge of those who played the principal part in +the political life of the age. His exile in the year 424 afforded +him opportunities of visiting the scenes of distant operations +(<i>e.g.</i> Sicily) and of coming in contact with the actors on the other +side. He himself tells us that he spared no pains to obtain the +best information available in each case. He also tells us that +he began collecting materials for his work from the very beginning +of the war. Indeed, it is probable that much of books i.-v. 24 +was written soon after the Peace of Nicias (421), just as it is +possible that the history of the Sicilian Expedition (books vi. +and vii.) was originally intended to form a separate work. To +the view, however, which has obtained wide support in recent +years, that books i.-v. 22 and books vi. and vii. were separately +published, the rest of book v. and book viii. being little more than +a rough draught, composed after the author had adopted the +theory of a single war of twenty-seven years’ duration, of which +the Sicilian Expedition and the operations of the years 431-421 +formed integral parts, there seem to the present writer to be +insuperable objections. The work, as a whole, appears to have +been composed in the first years of the 4th century, after his +return from exile in 404, when the material already in existence +must have been revised and largely recast. There are exceedingly +few passages, such as iv. 48. 5, which appear to have been +overlooked in the process of revision. It can hardly be +questioned that the impression left upon the reader’s mind is +that the point of view of the author, in all the books alike, is +that of one writing after the fall of Athens.</p> + +<p>The task of historical criticism in the case of the Peloponnesian +War is widely different from its task in the case of the Persian +Wars. It has to deal, not with facts as they appear in the +traditions of an imaginative race, but with facts as they appeared +to a scientific observer. Facts, indeed, are seldom in dispute. +The question is rather whether facts of importance are omitted, +whether the explanation of causes is correct, or whether the +judgment of men and measures is just. Such inaccuracies as +have been brought home to Thucydides on the strength, <i>e.g.</i> of +epigraphic evidence, are, as a rule, trivial. His most serious +errors relate to topographical details, in cases where he was +dependent on the information of others. Sphacteria (see Pylos) +(see G. B. Grundy, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, xvi., 1896, p. 1) +is a case in point. Nor have the difficulties connected with the +siege of Plataea been cleared up either by Grundy or by others +(see Grundy, <i>Topography of the Battle of Plataea</i>, &c., 1894). +Where, on the contrary, he is writing at first hand his descriptions +of sites are surprisingly correct. The most serious charge +as yet brought against his authority as to matters of fact relates +to his account of the Revolution of the Four Hundred, which +appears, at first sight, to be inconsistent with the documentary +evidence supplied by Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of Athens</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). It +may be questioned, however, whether the documents have +been correctly interpreted by Aristotle. On the whole, it is +probable that the general course of events was such as Thucydides +describes (see E. Meyer, <i>Forschungen</i>, ii. 406-436), though he +failed to appreciate the position of Theramenes and the Moderate +party, and was clearly misinformed on some important points of +detail. With regard to the omission of facts, it is unquestionable +that much is omitted that would not be omitted by a modern +writer. Such omissions are generally due to the author’s conception +of his task. Thus the internal history of Athens is +passed over as forming no part of the history of the war. It +is only where the course of the war is directly affected by the +course of political events (<i>e.g.</i> by the Revolution of the Four +Hundred) that the internal history is referred to. However +much it may be regretted that the relations of political parties +are not more fully described, especially in book v., it cannot be +denied that from his standpoint there is logical justification +even for the omission of the ostracism of Hyperbolus. There +are omissions, however, which are not so easily explained. +Perhaps the most notable instance is that of the raising of the +tribute in 425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delian League</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Nowhere is the contrast between the historical methods of +Herodotus and Thucydides more apparent than in the treatment +of the causes of events. The distinction between the occasion +and the cause is constantly present to the mind of Thucydides, +and it is his tendency to make too little rather than too much +of the personal factor. Sometimes, however, it may be doubted +whether his explanation of the causes of an event is adequate or +correct. In tracing the causes of the Peloponnesian War itself, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span> +modern writers are disposed to allow more weight to the commercial +rivalry of Corinth; while in the case of the Sicilian +expedition, they would actually reverse his judgment (ii. 65 <span class="grk" title="ho es +Sikelian plous hos ou tosoutov gnômês hamartêma ên pros hous +epêesan">ὁ ἐς Σικελίαν πλοῦς ὃς οὐ τοσοῦτον γνώμης ἁμάρτημα ἦν πρὸς οὓς ἐπῄεσαν</span>). To us it seems that the very idea of the expedition +implied a gigantic miscalculation of the resources of Athens and of +the difficulty of the task. His judgments of men and of measures +have been criticized by writers of different schools and from +different points of view. Grote criticized his verdict upon Cleon, +while he accepted his estimate of the policy of Pericles. More +recent writers, on the other hand, have accepted his view of +Cleon, while they have selected for attack his appreciation alike +of the policy and the strategy of Pericles. He has been charged, +too, with failure to do justice to the statesmanship of Alcibiades.<a name="fa29g" id="fa29g" href="#ft29g"><span class="sp">29</span></a> +There are cases, undoubtedly, in which the balance of recent +opinion will be adverse to the view of Thucydides. There are +many more in which the result of criticism has been to establish +his view. That he should occasionally have been mistaken in +his judgment and his views is certainly no detraction from his +claim to greatness.</p> + +<p>On the whole, it may be said that while the criticism of +Herodotus, since Grote wrote, has tended seriously to modify +our view of the Persian Wars, as well as of the earlier history, +the criticism of Thucydides, in spite of its imposing bulk, has +affected but slightly our view of the course of the Peloponnesian +War. The labours of recent workers in this field have borne +most fruit where they have been directed to subjects neglected +by Thucydides, such as the history of political parties, or the +organization of the empire (G. Gilbert’s <i>Innere Geschichte Athens +im Zeitalter des pel. Krieges</i> is a good example of such work).</p> + +<p>In regard to Thucydides’ treatment of the period between the +Persian and Peloponnesian Wars (the so-called <i>Pentecontaëteris</i>) +it should be remembered that he does not profess to give, even +in outline, the history of this period as a whole. The period is +regarded simply as a prelude to the Peloponnesian War. There +is no attempt to sketch the history of the Greek world or of +Greece proper during this period. There is, indeed, no attempt +to give a complete sketch of Athenian history. His object is to +trace the growth of the Athenian Empire, and the causes that +made the war inevitable. Much is therefore omitted not only +in the history of the other Greek states, especially the Peloponnesian, +but even in the history of Athens. Nor does Thucydides +attempt an exact chronology. He gives us a few dates +(<i>e.g.</i> surrender of Ithome, in the tenth year, i. 103; of Thasos, +in the third year, i. 101; duration of the Egyptian expedition +six years, i. 110; interval between Tanagra and Oenophyta +61 days, i. 108; revolt of Samos, in the sixth year after the +Thirty Years’ Truce, i. 115), but from these data alone it would +be impossible to reconstruct the chronology of the period. In +spite of all that can be gleaned from our other authorities, our +knowledge of this, the true period of Athenian greatness, must +remain slight and imperfect as compared with our knowledge +of the next thirty years.</p> + +<p>Of the secondary authorities for this period the two principal +ones are Diodorus (xi. 38 to xii. 37) and Plutarch. Diodorus +is of value chiefly in relation to Sicilian affairs, to which +he devotes about a third of this section of his work +<span class="sidenote">Diodorus.</span> +and for which he is almost our sole authority. His source for +Sicilian history is the Sicilian writer Timaeus (<i>q.v.</i>), an author +of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> For the history of Greece Proper during +the Pentecontaetia Diodorus contributes comparatively little +of importance. Isolated notices of particular events (<i>e.g.</i> the +<i>Synoecism</i> of Elis, 471 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, or the foundation of Amphipolis, +437 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), which appear to be derived from a chronological writer, +may generally be trusted. The greater part of his narrative +is, however, derived from Ephorus, who appears to have had +before him little authentic information for this period of Greek +history other than that afforded by Thucydides’ work. Four of +<span class="correction" title="amended from Plutatch's">Plutarch’s</span> <i>Lives</i> are concerned with this period, viz. <i>Themistocles</i>, +<i>Aristides</i>, <i>Cimon</i> and <i>Pericles</i>. From the <i>Aristides</i> little can +be gained. Plutarch, in this biography, appears to be mainly +dependent upon Idomeneus of Lampsacus, an excessively untrustworthy +<span class="sidenote">Plutarch.</span> +writer of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, who is probably +to be credited with the invention of the oligarchical +conspiracy at the time of the battle of Plataea (ch. 13), and of +the decree of Aristides, rendering all four classes of citizens +eligible for the archonship (ch. 22). The <i>Cimon</i>, on the other +hand, contains much that is valuable; such as, <i>e.g.</i> the account +of the battle of the Eurymedon (chs. 12 and 13). To the <i>Pericles</i> +we owe several quotations from the Old Comedy. Two other +of the <i>Lives</i>, <i>Lycurgus</i> and <i>Solon</i>, are amongst our most important +sources for the early history of Sparta and Athens respectively. +Of the two (besides <i>Pericles</i>) which relate to the Peloponnesian +War, <i>Alcibiades</i> adds little to what can be gained from Thucydides +and Xenophon; the <i>Nicias</i>, on the other hand, supplements +Thucydides’ narrative of the Sicilian expedition with many +valuable details, which, it may safely be assumed, are derived +from the contemporary historian, Philistus of Syracuse. +Amongst the most valuable material afforded by Plutarch are +the quotations, which occur in almost all the <i>Lives</i>, from the +collection of Athenian decrees (<span class="grk" title="psêphismatôn sunagôgê">ψηφισμάτων συναγωγή</span>) formed +by the Macedonian writer Craterus, in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Two other works may be mentioned in connexion with the +history of Athens. For the history of the Athenian Constitution +<span class="sidenote">The constitutions.</span> +down to the end of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Aristotle’s +<i>Constitution of Athens</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) is our chief authority. +The other <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, erroneously attributed +to Xenophon, a tract of singular interest both on literary and +historical grounds, throws a good deal of light on the internal +condition of Athens, and on the system of government, both of +the state and of the empire, in the age of the Peloponnesian War, +during the earlier years of which it was composed.</p> + +<p>To the literary sources for the history of Greece, especially of +Athens, in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> must be added the epigraphic. +Few inscriptions have been discovered which date +back beyond the Persian Wars. For the latter half +<span class="sidenote">Inscriptions.</span> +of the 5th century they are both numerous and important. +Of especial value are the series of Quota-lists, from +which can be calculated the amount of tribute paid by the +subject-allies of Athens from the year 454 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards. The +great majority of the inscriptions of this period are of Athenian +origin. Their value is enhanced by the fact that they relate, as +a rule, to questions of organization, finance and administration, +as to which little information is to be gained from the literary +sources.</p> + +<p>For the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars +Busolt, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, iii. 1, is indispensable. Hill’s +<i>Sources of Greek History, <span class="scs">B.C.</span> 478-431</i> (Oxford, 1897) is excellent. +It gives the most important inscriptions in a convenient form.</p> + +<p>III. <i>The 4th Century to the Death of Alexander.</i>—Of the historians +who flourished in the 4th century the sole writer whose works +have come down to us is Xenophon. It is a singular +accident of fortune that neither of the two authors, +<span class="sidenote">Xenophon.</span> +who at once were most representative of their age and did most +to determine the views of Greek history current in subsequent +generations, Ephorus (<i>q.v.</i>) and Theopompus (<i>q.v.</i>), should be +extant. It was from them, rather than from Herodotus, Thucydides +or Xenophon that the Roman world obtained its knowledge +of the history of Greece in the past, and its conception of its +significance. Both were pupils of Isocrates, and both, therefore, +bred up in an atmosphere of rhetoric. Hence their popularity +and their influence. The scientific spirit of Thucydides was alien +to the temper of the 4th century, and hardly more congenial to +the age of Cicero or Tacitus. To the rhetorical spirit, which is +common to both, each added defects peculiar to himself. Theopompus +is a strong partisan, a sworn foe to Athens and to +Democracy. Ephorus, though a military historian, is ignorant +of the art of war. He is also incredibly careless and uncritical. +It is enough to point to his description of the battle of the +Eurymedon (Diodorus xi. 60-62), in which, misled by an epigram, +which he supposed to relate to this engagement (it really refers +to the Athenian victory off Salamis in Cyprus, 449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span> +makes the coast of Cyprus the scene of Cimon’s naval victory, +and finds no difficulty in putting it on the same day as the +victory on shore on the banks of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia. +Only a few fragments remain of either writer, but Theopompus +(<i>q.v.</i>) was largely used by Plutarch in several of the <i>Lives</i>, +while Ephorus continues to be the main source of Diodorus’ +history, as far as the outbreak of the Sacred War (Fragments of +Ephorus in Müller’s <i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum</i>, vol.i.; +of Theopompus in <i>Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, cum Theopompi +et Cratippi fragmentis</i>, ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, +1909).</p> + +<p>It may be at least claimed for Xenophon (<i>q.v.</i>) that he is free +from all taint of the rhetorical spirit. It may also be claimed +for him that, as a witness, he is both honest and well-informed. +But, if there is no justification for the charge of deliberate +falsification, it cannot be denied that he had strong political +prejudices, and that his narrative has suffered from them. His +historical writings are the <i>Anabasis</i>, an account of the expedition +of the Ten Thousand, the <i>Hellenica</i> and the <i>Agesilaus</i>, a eulogy +of the Spartan king. Of these the <i>Hellenica</i> is far the most +important for the student of history. It consists of two distinct +parts (though there is no ground for the theory that the two +parts were separately written and published), books i. and ii., +and books iii. to vii. The first two books are intended as a +continuation of Thucydides’ work. They begin, quite abruptly, +in the middle of the Attic year 411/10, and they carry the +history down to the fall of the Thirty, in 403. Books iii. to vii., +the <i>Hellenica</i> proper, cover the period from 401 to 362, and give +the histories of the Spartan and Theban hegemonies down to +the death of Epaminondas. There is thus a gap of two years +between the point at which the first part ends and that at which +the second part begins. The two parts differ widely, both in +their aim and in the arrangement of the material. In the first +part Xenophon attempts, though not with complete success, +to follow the chronological method of Thucydides, and to make +each successive spring, when military and naval operations were +resumed after the winter’s interruption, the starting-point of a +fresh section. The resemblance between the two writers ends, +however, with the outward form of the narrative. All that is +characteristic of Thucydides is absent in Xenophon. The +latter writer shows neither skill in portraiture, nor insight into +motives. He is deficient in the sense of proportion and of the +distinction between occasion and cause. Perhaps his worst +fault is a lack of imagination. To make a story intelligible +it is necessary sometimes to put oneself in the reader’s place, +and to appreciate his ignorance of circumstances and events +which would be perfectly familiar to the actors in the scene +or to contemporaries. It was not given to Xenophon, as it was +to Thucydides, to discriminate between the circumstances that +are essential and those that are not essential to the comprehension +of the story. In spite, therefore, of its wealth of detail, +his narrative is frequently obscure. It is quite clear that in the +trial of the generals, <i>e.g.</i>, something is omitted. It may be +supplied as Diodorus has supplied it (xiii. 101), or it may be +supplied otherwise. It is probable that, when under cross-examination +before the council, the generals, or some of them, +disclosed the commission given to Theramenes and Thrasybulus. +The important point is that Xenophon himself has omitted to +supply it. As it stands his narrative is unintelligible. In the +first two books, though there are omissions (<i>e.g.</i> the loss of +Nisaea, 409 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), they are not so serious as in the last five, nor +is the bias so evident. It is true that if the account of the rule +of the Thirty given in Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of Athens</i> be +accepted, Xenophon must have deliberately misrepresented +the course of events to the prejudice of Theramenes. But it is +at least doubtful whether Aristotle’s version can be sustained +against Xenophon’s, though it may be admitted, not only that +there are mistakes as to details in the latter writer’s narrative, +but that less than justice is done to the policy and motives +of the “Buskin.” The <i>Hellenica</i> was written, it should be +remembered, at Corinth, after 362. More than forty years had +thus elapsed since the events recorded in the first two books, +and after so long an interval accuracy of detail, even where the +detail is of importance, is not always to be expected.<a name="fa30g" id="fa30g" href="#ft30g"><span class="sp">30</span></a> In the +second part the chronological method is abandoned. A subject +once begun is followed out to its natural ending, so that sections +of the narrative which are consecutive in order are frequently +parallel in point of date. A good example of this will be found +in book iv. In chapters 2 to 7 the history of the Corinthian +war is carried down to the end of 390, so far as the operations +on land are concerned, while chapter 8 contains an account of +the naval operations from 394 to 388. In this second part of the +<i>Hellenica</i> the author’s disqualifications for his task are more +apparent than in the first two books. The more he is acquitted +of bias in his selection of events and in his omissions, the more +clearly does he stand convicted of lacking all sense of the proportion +of things. Down to Leuctra (371 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Sparta is the centre +of interest, and it is of the Spartan state alone that a complete +or continuous history is given. After Leuctra, if the point of +view is no longer exclusively Spartan, the narrative of events +is hardly less incomplete. Throughout the second part of the +<i>Hellenica</i> omissions abound which it is difficult either to explain +or justify. The formation of the Second Athenian Confederacy +of 377 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the foundation of Megalopolis and the restoration +of the Messenian state are all left unrecorded. Yet the writer +who passes them over without mention thinks it worth while +to devote more than one-sixth of an entire book to a chronicle +of the unimportant feats of the citizens of the petty state of +Phlius. Nor is any attempt made to appraise the policy of +the great Theban leaders, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The +former, indeed, is mentioned only in a single passage, relating +to the embassy to Susa in 368; the latter does not appear on +the scene till a year later, and receives mention but twice before +the battle of Mantinea. An author who omits from his narrative +some of the most important events of his period, and elaborates +the portraiture of an Agesilaus while not attempting the bare +outline of an Epaminondas, may be honest; he may even +write without a consciousness of bias; he certainly cannot rank +among the great writers of history.<a name="fa31g" id="fa31g" href="#ft31g"><span class="sp">31</span></a></p> + +<p>For the history of the 4th century Diodorus assumes a higher +degree of importance than belongs to him in the earlier periods. +This is partly to be explained by the deficiencies of +Xenophon’s <i>Hellenica</i>, partly by the fact that for the +<span class="sidenote">Diodorus.</span> +interval between the death of Epaminondas and the accession of +Alexander we have in Diodorus alone a continuous narrative +of events. Books xiv. and xv. of his history include the period +covered by the <i>Hellenica</i>. More than half of book xiv. is devoted +to the history of Sicily and the reign of Dionysius, the tyrant of +Syracuse. For this period of Sicilian history he is, practically, +our sole authority. In the rest of the book, as well as in book xv., +there is much of value, especially in the notices of Macedonian +history. Thanks to Diodorus we are enabled to supply many +of the omissions of the <i>Hellenica</i>. Diodorus is, <i>e.g.</i>, our sole +literary authority for the Athenian naval confederation of 377. +Book xvi. must rank, with the <i>Hellenica</i> and Arrian’s <i>Anabasis</i>, +as one of the three principal authorities for this century, so far, +at least, as works of an historical character are concerned. It is +our authority for the Social and the Sacred Wars, as well as +for the reign of Philip. It is a curious irony of fate that, for +what is perhaps the most momentous epoch in the history +of Greece, we should have to turn to a writer of such inferior +capacity. For this period his material is better and his importance +greater: his intelligence is as limited as ever. Who but +Diodorus would be capable of narrating the siege and capture +of Methone twice over, once under the year 354, and again under +the year 352 (xvi. 31 and 34; cf. xii. 35 and 42; Archidamus (<i>q.v.</i>) +dies in 434, commands Peloponnesian army in 431); or of giving +three different numbers of years (eleven, ten and nine) in three +different passages (chs. 14, 23 and 59) for the length of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span> +Sacred War; or of asserting the conclusion of peace between +Athens and Philip in 340, after the failure of his attack on +Perinthus and Byzantium? Amongst the subjects which are +omitted is the Peace of Philocrates. For the earlier chapters, +which bring the narrative down to the outbreak of the Sacred War, +Ephorus, as in the previous book, is Diodorus’ main source. +His source for the rest of the book, <i>i.e.</i> for the greater part of +Philip’s reign, cannot be determined. It is generally agreed that +it is not the <i>Philippica</i> of Theopompus.</p> + +<p>For the reign of Alexander our earliest extant authority is +Diodorus, who belongs to the age of Augustus. Of the others, +Q. Curtius Rufus, who wrote in Latin, lived in the +reign of the emperor Claudius, Arrian and Plutarch +<span class="sidenote">Historians of Alexander’s reign.</span> +in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Yet Alexander’s reign is +one of the best known periods of ancient history. +The Peloponnesian War and the twenty years of Roman +history which begin with 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> are the only two periods +which we can be said to know more fully or for which we +have more trustworthy evidence. For there is no period of +ancient history which was recorded by a larger number of +contemporary writers, or for which better or more abundant +materials were available. Of the writers actually contemporary +with Alexander there were five of importance—Ptolemy, Aristobulus, +Callisthenes, Onesicritus and Nearchus; and all of them +occupied positions which afforded exceptional opportunities +of ascertaining the facts. Four of them were officers in +Alexander’s service. Ptolemy, the future king of Egypt, was +one of the <i>somatophylaces</i> (we may, perhaps, regard them as +corresponding to Napoleon’s marshals); Aristobulus was also +an officer of high rank (see Arrian, <i>Anab.</i> vi. 29. 10); Nearchus +was admiral of the fleet which surveyed the Indus and the +Persian Gulf, and Onesicritus was one of his subordinates. The +fifth, Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied Alexander +on his march down to his death in 327 and was admitted to the +circle of his intimate friends. A sixth historian, Cleitarchus, +was possibly also a contemporary; at any rate he is not more +than a generation later. These writers had at their command a +mass of official documents, such as the <span class="grk" title="basileioi ephêmerides">βασίλειοι ἐφημερίδες</span>—the +<i>Gazette</i> and <i>Court Circular</i> combined—edited and published +after Alexander’s death by his secretary, Eumenes of Cardia; +the <span class="grk" title="stathmoi">σταθμοί</span>, or records of the marches of the armies, which were +carefully measured at the time; and the official reports on the +conquered provinces. That these documents were made use of +by the historians is proved by the references to them which are +to be found in Arrian, Plutarch and Strabo; <i>e.g.</i> Arrian, <i>Anab.</i> +vii. 25 and 26, and Plutarch, <i>Alexander</i> 76 (quotation from the +<span class="grk" title="basileioi ephêmerides">βασίλειοι ἐφημερίδες</span>); Strabo xv. 723 (reference to the <span class="grk" title="stathmoi">σταθμοί</span>), +ii. 69 (reports drawn up on the various provinces). We have, +in addition, in Plutarch numerous quotations from Alexander’s +correspondence with his mother, Olympias, and with his officers. +The contemporary historians may be roughly divided into two +groups. On the one hand there are Ptolemy and Aristobulus, +who, except in a single instance, are free from all suspicion of +deliberate invention. On the other hand, there are Callisthenes, +Onesicritus and Cleitarchus, whose tendency is rhetorical. +Nearchus appears to have allowed full scope to his imagination +in dealing with the wonders of India, but to have been otherwise +veracious. Of the extant writers Arrian (<i>q.v.</i>) is incomparably +the most valuable. His merits are twofold. As the commander +of Roman legions and the author of a work on tactics, he combined +a practical with a theoretical knowledge of the military art, +while the writers whom he follows in the <i>Anabasis</i> are the two +most worthy of credit, Ptolemy and Aristobulus. We may well +hesitate to call in question the authority of writers who exhibit +an agreement which it would be difficult to parallel elsewhere +in the case of two independent historians. It may be inferred +from Arrian’s references to them that there were only eleven +cases in all in which he found discrepancies between them. +The most serious drawback which can be alleged against them +is an inevitable bias in Alexander’s favour. It would be only +natural that they should pass over in silence the worst blots on +their great commander’s fame. Next in value to the <i>Anabasis</i> +comes Plutarch’s <i>Life of Alexander</i>, the merits of which, however, +are not to be gauged by the influence which it has exercised upon +literature. The <i>Life</i> is a valuable supplement to the <i>Anabasis</i>, +partly because Plutarch, as he is writing biography rather than +history (for his conception of the difference between the two +see the famous preface, <i>Life of Alexander</i>, ch. i.), is concerned +to record all that will throw light upon Alexander’s character +(<i>e.g.</i> his epigrammatic sayings and quotations from his letters); +partly because he tells us much about his early life, before he +became king, while Arrian tells us nothing. It is unfortunate +that Plutarch writes in an uncritical spirit; it is hardly less +unfortunate that he should have formed no clear conception +and drawn no consistent picture of Alexander’s character. +Book xvii. of Diodorus and the <i>Historiae Alexandri</i> of Curtius +Rufus are thoroughly rhetorical in spirit. It is probable that +in both cases the ultimate source is the work of Clitarchus.</p> + +<p>It is towards the end of the 5th century that a fresh source +of information becomes available in the speeches of the orators, +the earliest of whom is Antiphon (d. 411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Lysias +is of great importance for the history of the Thirty +<span class="sidenote">The orators.</span> +(see the speeches against Eratosthenes and Agoratus), +and a good deal may be gathered from Andocides with regard +to the last years of the 5th and the opening years of the next +century. At the other end of this period Lycurgus, Hyperides +and Dinarchus throw light upon the time of Philip and Alexander. +The three, however, who are of most importance to the historian +are Isocrates, Aeschines and Demosthenes. Isocrates (<i>q.v.</i>), +whose long life (436-338) more than spans the interval +<span class="sidenote">Isocrates.</span> +between the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War and +the triumph of Macedon at Chaeronea, is one of the +most characteristic figures in the Greek world of his day. To +comprehend that world the study of Isocrates is indispensable; +for in an age dominated by rhetoric he is the prince of rhetoricians. +It is difficult for a modern reader to do him justice, so alien is +his spirit and the spirit of his age from ours. It must be allowed +that he is frequently monotonous and prolix; at the same time +it must not be forgotten that, as the most famous representative +of rhetoric, he was read from one end of the Greek world to the +other. He was the friend of Evagoras and Archidamus, of +Dionysius and Philip; he was the master of Aeschines and +Lycurgus amongst orators and of Ephorus and Theopompus +amongst historians. No other contemporary writer has left +so indelible a stamp upon the style and the sentiment of his +generation. It is a commonplace that Isocrates is the apostle +of Panhellenism. It is not so generally recognized that he is the +prophet of Hellenism. A passage in the Panegyricus (§ 50 +<span class="grk" title="hôste to tôn Hellênon onoma mêketi tou genous alla tês dianoias +dokein einai kai mallon Hellênas kaleisthai tous tês paideuseôs +tês hêmeteras ê tous tês koinês physeôs metechontas">ὥστε τὸ τῶν Ἑλλήνων ὄνομα μήκετι τοῦ γένους ἀλλὰ τῆς διανοίας +δοκεῖν εἶναι καὶ μᾶλλον Ἕλληνας καλεῖσθαι τοὺς τῆς παιδεύσεως +τῆς ἡμετέρας ἤ τοὺς τῆς κοινῆς φύσεως μετέχοντας</span>) is the key +to the history of the next three centuries. Doubtless he had no +conception of the extent to which the East was to be hellenized. +He was, however, the first to recognize that it would be hellenized +by the diffusion of Greek culture rather than of Greek blood. His +Panhellenism was the outcome of his recognition of the new +forces and tendencies which were at work in the midst of a new +generation. When Greek culture was becoming more and more +international, the exaggeration of the principle of autonomy +in the Greek political system was becoming more and more +absurd. He had sufficient insight to be aware that the price +paid for this autonomy was the domination of Persia; a domination +which meant the servitude of the Greek states across the +Aegean and the demoralization of Greek political life at home. +His Panhellenism led him to a more liberal view of the distinction +between what was Greek and what was not than was possible +to the intenser patriotism of a Demosthenes. In his later orations +he has the courage not only to pronounce that the day of Athens +as a first-rate power is past, but to see in Philip the needful +leader in the crusade against Persia. The earliest and greatest of +his political orations is the <i>Panegyricus</i>, published in 380 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +midway between the peace of Antalcidas and Leuctra. It is +his <i>apologia</i> for Panhellenism. To the period of the Social War +belong the <i>De pace</i> (355 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and the <i>Areopagiticus</i> (354 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span> +both of great value as evidence for the internal conditions of +Athens at the beginning of the struggle with Macedon. The +<i>Plataicus</i> (373 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and the <i>Archidamus</i> (366 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) throw light +upon the politics of Boeotia and the Peloponnese respectively. +The <i>Panathenaicus</i> (339 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the child of his old age, contains +little that may not be found in the earlier orations. The +<i>Philippus</i> (346 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is of peculiar interest, as giving the views +of the Macedonian party.</p> + +<p>Not the least remarkable feature in recent historical criticism +is the reaction against the view which was at one time almost +universally accepted of the character, statesmanship +and authority of the orator Demosthenes (<i>q.v.</i>). +<span class="sidenote">Demosthenes.</span> +During the last quarter of a century his character and +statesmanship have been attacked, and his authority impugned, +by a series of writers of whom Holm and Beloch are the best +known. With the estimate of his character and statesmanship +we are not here concerned. With regard to his value as an +authority for the history of the period, it is to his speeches, and +to those of his contemporaries, Aeschines, Hypereides, Dinarchus +and Lycurgus, that we owe our intimate knowledge, both of +the working of the constitutional and legal systems, and of the +life of the people, at this period of Athenian history. From this +point of view his value can hardly be overestimated. As a +witness, however, to matters of fact, his authority can no longer +be rated as highly as it once was, <i>e.g.</i> by Schaefer and by Grote. +The orator’s attitude towards events, both in the past and in the +present, is inevitably a different one from the historian’s. The +object of a Thucydides is to ascertain a fact, or to exhibit it in +its true relations. The object of a Demosthenes is to make +a point, or to win his case. In their dealings with the past the +orators exhibit a levity which is almost inconceivable to a modern +reader. Andocides, in a passage of his speech <i>On the Mysteries</i> +(§ 107), speaks of Marathon as the crowning victory of Xerxes’ +campaign; in his speech <i>On the Peace</i> (§ 3) he confuses Miltiades +with Cimon, and the Five Years’ Peace with the Thirty Years’ +Truce. Though the latter passage is a mass of absurdities and +confusions, it was so generally admired that it was incorporated +by Aeschines in his speech <i>On the Embassy</i> (§§ 172-176). If such +was their attitude towards the past; if, in order to make a point, +they do not hesitate to pervert history, is it likely that they +would conform to a higher standard of veracity in their statements +as to the present—as to their contemporaries, their rivals +or their own actions? When we compare different speeches of +Demosthenes, separated by an interval of years, we cannot fail +to observe a marked difference in his statements. The farther +he is from the events, the bolder are his mis-statements. It is +only necessary to compare the speech <i>On the Crown</i> with that <i>On +the Embassy</i>, and this latter speech with the <i>Philippics</i> and +<i>Olynthiacs</i>, to find illustrations. It has come to be recognized +that no statement as to a matter of fact is to be accepted, unless +it receives independent corroboration, or unless it is admitted +by both sides. The speeches of Demosthenes may be conveniently +divided into four classes according to their dates. To the pre-Philippic +period belong the speeches <i>On the Symmories</i> (354 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +<i>On Megalopolis</i> (352 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), <i>Against Aristocrates</i> (351 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and, +perhaps, the speech <i>On Rhodes</i> (? 351 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). These speeches +betray no consciousness of the danger threatened by Philip’s +ambition. The policy recommended is one based upon the +principle of the balance of power. To the succeeding period, +which ends with the peace of Philocrates (346 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), belong the +<i>First Philippic</i> and the three <i>Olynthiacs</i>. To the period between +the peace of Philocrates and Chaeronea belong the speech <i>On +the Peace</i> (346 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the <i>Second Philippic</i> (344 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the speeches +<i>On the Embassy</i> (344 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and <i>On the Chersonese</i> (341 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and +the <i>Third Philippic</i>. The masterpiece of his genius, the speech +On the Crown, was delivered in 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in the reign of Alexander. +Of the three extant speeches of Aeschines (<i>q.v.</i>) that <i>On the +Embassy</i> is of great value, as enabling us to correct the mis-statements +of Demosthenes. For the period from the death of +Alexander to the fall of Corinth (323-146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) our literary +authorities are singularly defective. For the Diadochi Diodorus +(books xviii.-xx.) is our chief source. These books form the +most valuable part of Diodorus’ work. They are mainly based +upon the work of Hieronymus of Cardia, a writer who combined +exceptional opportunities for ascertaining the truth (he was in +the service first of Eumenes, and then of Antigonus) with an +exceptional sense of its importance. Hieronymus ended his +history at the death of Pyrrhus (272 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), but, unfortunately, +book xx. of Diodorus’ work carries us no farther than 303 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +and of the later books we have but scanty fragments. The +narrative of Diodorus may be supplemented by the fragments +of Arrian’s <i>History of the events after Alexander’s death</i> (which +reach, however, only to 321 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and by Plutarch’s <i>Lives of +Eumenes</i> and of <i>Demetrius</i>. For the rest of the 3rd century and +the first half of the 2nd we have his <i>Lives of Pyrrhus</i>, of <i>Aratus</i>, +of <i>Philopoemen</i>, and of <i>Agis and Cleomenes</i>. For the period +from 220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards Polybius (<i>q.v.</i>) is our chief authority (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>, section “Authorities”). In a period +in which the literary sources are so scanty great weight attaches +to the epigraphic and numismatic evidence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—The literature which deals with the history of +Greece, in its various periods, departments and aspects, is of so vast +a bulk that all that can be attempted here is to indicate the most important +and most accessible works.</p> + +<p><i>General Histories of Greece.</i>—Down to the middle of the 19th +century the only histories of Greece deserving of mention were the +products of English scholarship. The two earliest of these were +published about the same date, towards the end of the 18th century, +nearly three-quarters of a century before any history of Greece, +other than a mere compendium, appeared on the Continent. John +Gillies’ <i>History of Greece</i> was published in 1786, Mitford’s in 1784. +Both works were composed with a political bias and a political object. +Gillies was a Whig. In the dedication (to George III.) he expresses +the view that “the History of Greece exposes the dangerous turbulence +of Democracy, and arraigns the despotism of Tyrants, while +it evinces the inestimable benefits, resulting to Liberty itself, from +the steady operation of well-regulated monarchy.” Mitford was +a Tory, who thought to demonstrate the evils of democracy from +the example of the Athenian state. His <i>History</i>, in spite of its bias, +was a work of real value. More than fifty years elapsed between +Mitford’s work and Thirlwall’s. Connop Thirlwall, fellow of Trinity +College, Cambridge, afterwards bishop of St David’s, brought a +sound judgment to the aid of ripe scholarship. His <i>History of Greece</i>, +published in 1835-1838 (8 vols.), is entirely free from the controversial +tone of Mitford’s volumes. Ten years later (1846) George Grote +published the first volumes of his history, which was not completed +(in 12 vols.) till 1856. Grote, like Mitford, was a politician—an +ardent Radical, with republican sympathies. It was in order to +refute the slanders of the Tory partisan that he was impelled to +write a history of Greece, which should do justice to the greatest +democracy of the ancient world, the Athenian state. Thus, in the +case of three of these four writers, the interest in their subject was +mainly political. Incomparably the greatest of these works is +Grote’s. Grote had his faults and his limitations. His prejudices +are strong, and his scholarship is weak; he had never visited Greece, +and he knew little or nothing of Greek art; and, at the time he wrote, +the importance of coins and inscriptions was imperfectly apprehended. +In spite of every defect, however, his work is the greatest +history of Greece that has yet been written. It is not too much to +say that nobody knows Greek history till he has mastered Grote. +No history of Greece has since appeared in England on a scale at all +comparable to that of Grote’s work. The most important of the +more recent ones is that by J. B. Bury (1 vol., 1900), formerly fellow +of Trinity College, Dublin, afterwards Regius Professor of Modern +History at Cambridge. Mitford and Bury end with the death of +Alexander; Gillies and Grote carry on the narrative a generation +farther; while Thirlwall’s work extends to the absorption of Greece +in the Roman Empire (146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p> + +<p>While in France the <i>Histoire des Grecs</i> (ending at 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) of +Victor Duruy (new edition, 2 vols., 1883), Minister of Public Instruction +under Napoleon III., is the only one that need be mentioned, +in Germany there has been a succession of histories of Greece since +the middle of the 19th century. Kortüm’s <i>Geschichte Griechenlands</i> +(3 vols., 1854), a work of little merit, was followed by Max Duncker’s +<i>Geschichte der Griechen</i> (vols. 1 and 2 published in 1856; vols. 1 and +2, Neue Folge, which bring the narrative down to the death of +Pericles, in 1884; the two former volumes form vols. 5, 6 and 7 +of his <i>Geschichte des Altertums</i>), and by the <i>Griechische Geschichte</i> +of Ernst Curtius (3 vols., 1857-1867). An English translation of +Duncker, by S. F. Alleyne, appeared in 1883 (2 vols., Bentley), +and of Curtius, by A. W. Ward (5 vols., Bentley, 1868-1873). Among +more recent works may be mentioned the <i>Griechische Geschichte</i> of +Adolf Holm (4 vols., Berlin, 1886-1894; English translation by F. +Clarke, 4 vols., Macmillan, 1894-1898), and histories with the same +title by Julius Beloch (3 vols., Strassburg, 1893-1904) and Georg +Busolt (2nd ed., 3 vols., Gotha, 1893-1904). Holm carries on the +narrative to 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Beloch to 217 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Busolt to Chaeronea +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span> +(338 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="fa32g" id="fa32g" href="#ft32g"><span class="sp">32</span></a> Busolt’s work is entirely different in character from any +other history of Greece. The writer’s object is to refer in the notes +(which constitute five-sixths of the book) to the views of every writer +in any language upon every controverted question. It is absolutely +indispensable, as a work of reference, for any serious study of Greek +history. The ablest work since Grote’s is Eduard Meyer’s <i>Geschichte +des Altertums</i>, of which 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1884-1902) +have appeared, carrying the narrative down to the death of Epaminondas +(362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Vols. 2-5 are principally concerned with Greek +history. It must be remembered that, partly owing to the literary +finds and the archaeological discoveries of the last thirty years, +and partly owing to the advance made in the study of epigraphy +and numismatics, all the histories published before those of Busolt, +Beloch, Meyer and Bury are out of date.</p> + +<p><i>Works bearing on the History of Greece.</i>—Earlier works and editions +are omitted, except in the case of a work which has not been superseded.</p> + +<p><i>Introductions.</i>—C. Wachsmuth, <i>Einleitung in das Studium der +alten Geschichte</i> (1 vol., Leipzig, 1895); E. Meyer, <i>Forschungen zur +alten Geschichte</i> (2 parts, Halle, 1892-1899; quite indispensable); +J. B. Bury, <i>The Ancient Greek Historians</i> (London, 1909).</p> + +<p><i>Constitutional History and Institutions.</i>—G. F. Schömann, <i>Griechische +Altertümer</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1855-1859; vol. i., tr. by E. G. +Hardy and J. S. Mann, Rivingtons, 1880); G. Gilbert, <i>Griechische +Staatsaltertümer</i> (2nd ed., 2 vols., Leipzig, 1893; vol. i. tr. by E. J. +Brooks and T. Nicklin, Swan Sonnenschein, 1895); K. F. Hermann, +<i>Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten</i> (6th ed., 4 vols., Freiburg, +1882-1895); Iwan Müller, <i>Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i> +(9 vols., Nördlingen, 1886, in progress; several of the +volumes are concerned with Greek history); J. H. Lipsius, <i>Das +attische Recht und Rechtsverfahren</i> (Leipzig, 1905, in progress); +A. H. J. Greenidge, <i>Handbook of Greek Constitutional History</i> (1 vol., +Macmillan, 1896); Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyklopädie der klassischen +Altertumswissenschaft</i> (Stuttgart, 1894 foll.).</p> + +<p><i>Geography.</i>—E. H. Bunbury, <i>History of Ancient Geography +amongst the Greeks and Romans</i> (2nd ed., 2 vols., Murray, 1883), +W. M. Leake, <i>Travels in the Morea</i> (3 vols., 1830), and <i>Travels in +Northern Greece</i> (4 vols., 1834); H. F. Tozer, <i>Lectures on the Geography +of Greece</i> (1 vol., Murray, 1873), and <i>History of Ancient Geography</i> +(1 vol., Cambridge, 1897); J. P. Mahaffy, <i>Rambles and Studies in +Greece</i> (3rd ed., 1 vol., Macmillan, 1887, an admirable book); C. +Bursian, <i>Geographie von Griechenland</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1872); H. +Berger, <i>Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen</i> +(4 parts, Leipzig, 1887-1893); Ernst Curtius, <i>Peloponnesos</i> (2 vols., +Gotha, 1850-1851).</p> + +<p><i>Epigraphy and Numismatics.</i>—<i>Corpus inscriptionum Atticarum</i> +(Berlin, 1875, in progress), <i>Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum</i> (Berlin, +1892, in progress). The following selections of Greek inscriptions may +be mentioned: E. F. Hicks and G. F. Hill, <i>Manual of Greek Historical +Inscriptions</i> (new ed., 1 vol., Oxford, 1901): W. Dittenberger, <i>Sylloge +inscriptionum Graecarum</i> (2nd ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1898); C. Michel, +<i>Recueil d’inscriptions grecques</i> (Paris, 1900). Among works on +numismatics the English reader may refer to B. V. Head, <i>Historia +numorum</i> (1 vol., Oxford, 1887); G. F. Hill, <i>Handbook of Greek and +Roman Coins</i> (1 vol., Macmillan, 1899), as well as to the <i>British +Museum Catalogue of Greek Coins</i>. In French the most important +general work is the <i>Monnaies grecques</i> of F. Imhoof-Blumer (Paris, +1883).</p> + +<p><i>Chronology, Trade, War, Social Life, &c.</i>—H. F. Clinton, <i>Fasti +Hellenici</i> (3rd ed., 3 vols., Oxford, 1841, a work of which English +scholarship may well be proud; it is still invaluable for the study +of Greek chronology); B. Büchsenschütz, <i>Besitz und Erwerb im +griechischen Altertume</i> (1 vol., Halle, 1869; this is still the best +book on Greek commerce); J. Beloch, <i>Die Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen +Welt</i> (1 vol., Leipzig, 1886); W. Rüstow and H. Köchly, +<i>Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens</i> (1 vol., Aarau, 1852); J. P. +Mahaffy, <i>Social Life in Greece</i> (2nd ed., 1 vol., 1875).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. M. W.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>b.</i> <i>Post-Classical: 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1800</i></p> + +<p>I. <span class="sc">The Period of Roman Rule.</span>—(i.) <i>Greece under the +Republic</i> (146-27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). After the collapse of the Achaean +League (<i>q.v.</i>) the Senate appointed a commission to reorganize +Greece as a Roman dependency. Corinth, the chief centre of +resistance, was destroyed and its inhabitants sold into slavery. +In addition to this act of exemplary punishment, which may +perhaps have been inspired in part by the desire to crush a +commercial competitor, steps were taken to obviate future +insurrections. The national and cantonal federations were +dissolved, commercial intercourse between cities was restricted, +and the government transferred from the democracies to the +propertied classes, whose interests were bound up with Roman +supremacy. In other respects few changes were made in existing +institutions. Some favoured states like Athens and Sparta +retained their full sovereign rights as <i>civitates liberae</i>, the other +cities continued to enjoy local self-government. The ownership +of the land was not greatly disturbed by confiscations, and +though a tribute upon it was levied, this impost may not have +been universal. General powers of supervision were entrusted +to the governor of Macedonia, who could reserve cases of high +treason for his decision, and in case of need send troops into the +country. But although Greece was in the <i>provincia</i> of the +Macedonian proconsul, in the sense of belonging to his sphere of +command, its status was in fact more favourable than that of +other provincial dependencies.</p> + +<p>This settlement was acquiesced in by the Greek people, who +had come to realize the hopelessness of further resistance. The +internal disorder which was arising from the numerous disputes +about property rights consequent upon the political revolutions +was checked by the good offices of the historian Polybius, whom +the Senate deputed to mediate between the litigants. The +pacification of the country eventually became so complete that +the Romans withdrew the former restrictions upon intercourse +and allowed some of the leagues to revive. But its quiet was +seriously disturbed during the first Mithradatic War (88-84 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +when numerous Greek states sided with Mithradates (<i>q.v.</i>). +The success which the invader experienced in detaching the +Greeks from Rome is partly to be explained by the skilful way +in which his agents incited the imperialistic ambitions of +prominent cities like Athens, partly perhaps by his promises +of support to the democratic parties. The result of the war was +disastrous to Greece. Apart from the confiscations and exactions +by which the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla punished the +disloyal communities, the extensive and protracted campaigns +left Central Greece in a ruinous condition. During the last +decades of the Roman republic European Greece was scarcely +affected by contemporary wars nor yet exploited by Roman +magistrates in the same systematic manner as most other +provinces. Yet oppression by officials who traversed Greece +from time to time and demanded lavish entertainments and +presentations in the guise of <i>viaticum</i> or <i>aurum coronarium</i> was +not unknown. Still greater was the suffering produced by the +rapacity of Roman traders and capitalists: it is recorded that +Sicyon was reduced to sell its most cherished art treasures in +order to satisfy its creditors. A more indirect but none the less +far-reaching drawback to Greek prosperity was the diversion +of trade which followed upon the establishment of direct communication +between Italy and the Levant. The most lucrative +source of wealth which remained to the European Greeks was +pasturage in large domains, an industry which almost exclusively +profited the richer citizens and so tended to widen the breach +between capitalists and the poorer classes, and still further to +pauperize the latter. The coast districts and islands also +suffered considerably from swarms of pirates who, in the absence +of any strong fleet in Greek waters, were able to obtain a firm +footing in Crete and freely plundered the chief trading places +and sanctuaries; the most notable of such visitations was +experienced in 69 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the island of Delos. This evil came to +an end with the general suppression of piracy in the Mediterranean +by Pompey (67 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), but the depopulation which it had +caused in some regions is attested by the fact that the victorious +admiral settled some of his captives on the desolated coast +strip of Achaea.</p> + +<p>In the conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Greeks +provided the latter with a large part of his excellent fleet. In +48 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the decisive campaign of the war was fought on Greek +soil, and the resources of the land were severely taxed by the +requisitions of both armies. As a result of Caesar’s victory at +Pharsalus, the whole country fell into his power; the treatment +which it received was on the whole lenient, though individual +cities were punished severely. After the murder of Caesar the +Greeks supported the cause of Brutus (42 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), but were too +weak to render any considerable service. In 39 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Peloponnese +for a short time was made over to Sextus Pompeius. +During the subsequent period Greece remained in the hands of +M. Antonius (Mark Antony), who imposed further exactions in +order to defray the cost of his wars. The extensive levies which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span> +he made in 31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> for his campaign against Octavian, and the +contributions which his gigantic army required, exhausted the +country’s resources so completely that a general famine was +prevented only by Octavian’s prompt action after the battle of +Actium in distributing supplies of grain and evacuating the land +with all haste. The depopulation which resulted from the civil +wars was partly remedied by the settlement of Italian colonists at +Corinth and Patrae by Julius Caesar and Octavian; on the other +hand, the foundation of Nicopolis (<i>q.v.</i>) by the latter merely had +the effect of transferring the people from the country to the city.</p> + +<p>(ii.) <i>The Early Roman Empire</i> (27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 323).—Under the +emperor Augustus Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia; +the rest of Greece was converted into the province of Achaea, +under the control of a senatorial proconsul resident at Corinth. +Many states, including Athens and Sparta, retained their rights +as free and nominally independent cities. The provincials were +encouraged to send delegates to a communal synod (<span class="grk" title="koinon tôn +Achaiôn">κοινὸν τῶν Ἀχαίων</span>) which met at Argos to consider the general interests +of the country and to uphold national Hellenic sentiment; the +Delphic amphictyony was revived and extended so as to represent +in a similar fashion northern and central Greece.</p> + +<p>Economic conditions did not greatly improve under the +empire. Although new industries sprang up to meet the needs +of Roman luxury, and Greek marble, textiles and +table delicacies were in great demand, the only cities +<span class="sidenote">Social conditions.</span> +which regained a really flourishing trade were the +Italian communities of Corinth and Patrae. Commerce +languished in general, and the soil was mainly abandoned to +pasturage. Though certain districts retained a measure of +prosperity, <i>e.g.</i> Thessaly, Phocis, Elis, Argos and Laconia, huge +tracts stood depopulated and many notable cities had sunk +into ruins; Aetolia, Acarnania and Epirus never recovered +from the effects of former wars and from the withdrawal of +their surviving inhabitants into Nicopolis. Such wealth as +remained was amassed in the hands of a few great landowners +and capitalists; the middle class continued to dwindle, and +large numbers of the people were reduced to earning a precarious +subsistence, supplemented by frequent doles and largesses.</p> + +<p>The social aspect of Greek life henceforward becomes its most +attractive feature. After a long period of storm and stress, the +European Hellenes had relapsed into a quiet and resigned +frame of mind which stands in sharp contrast on the one hand +with the energy and ability, and on the other with the vulgar +intriguing of their Asiatic kinsmen. Seeing no future before +them, the inhabitants were content to dwell in contemplation +amid the glories of the past. National pride was fostered by the +undisguised respect with which the leading Romans of the age +treated Hellenic culture. And although this sentiment could +degenerate into antiquarian pedantry and vanity, such as finds +its climax in the diatribes of Apollonius of Tyana against the +“barbarians,” it prevented the nation from sinking into some +of the worst vices of the age. A healthy social tone repressed +extravagant luxury and the ostentatious display of wealth, and +good taste long checked the spread of gladiatorial contests +beyond the Italian community of Corinth. The most widespread +abuse of that period, the adulation and adoration of emperors, +was indeed introduced into European Greece and formed an +essential feature of the proceedings at the Delphic amphictyony, +but it never absorbed the energies of the people in the same +way as it did in Asia. In order to perpetuate their old culture, +the Greeks continued to set great store by classical education, +and in Athens they possessed an academic centre which gradually +became the chief university of the Roman empire. The highest +representatives of this type of old-world refinement are to be +found in Dio Chrysostom and especially in Plutarch of Chaeroneia +(<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The relations between European Greece and Rome were +practically confined to the sphere of scholarship. The Hellenes +had so far lost their warlike qualities that they supplied scarcely +any recruits to the army. They retained too much local patriotism +to crowd into the official careers of senators or imperial +servants. Although in the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> the astute Greek +man of affairs and the <i>Graeculus esuriens</i> of Juvenal abounded +in Rome, both these classes were mainly derived from the +less pure-blooded population beyond the Aegean.</p> + +<p>The influx of Greek rhetoricians and professors into Italy +during the 2nd and 3rd centuries was balanced by the large +number of travellers who came to Greece to frequent its sanatoria, +and especially to admire its works of art; the abundance in +which these latter were preserved is strikingly attested in the +extant record of Pausanias (about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 170).</p> + +<p>The experience of the Greeks under their earliest governors +seems to have been unfortunate, for in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 15 they petitioned +Tiberius to transfer the administration to an imperial +legate. This new arrangement was sanctioned, but +<span class="sidenote">Roman administration.</span> +only lasted till <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 44, when Claudius restored the +province to the senate. The proconsuls of the later +1st and 2nd centuries were sometimes ill qualified for their posts, +but cases of oppression are seldom recorded against them. +The years 66 and 67 were marked by a visit of the emperor Nero, +who made a prolonged tour through Greece in order to display +his artistic accomplishments at the various national festivals. In +return for the flattering reception accorded to him he bestowed +freedom and exemption from tribute upon the country. But +this favour was almost neutralized by the wholesale depredations +which he committed among the chief collections of art. A +scheme for cutting through the Corinthian isthmus and so +reviving the Greek carrying trade was inaugurated in his presence, +but soon abandoned.</p> + +<p>As Nero’s grant of self-government brought about a recrudescence +of misplaced ambition and party strife, Vespasian revoked +the gift and turned Achaea again into a province, at the same +time burdening it with increased taxes. In the 2nd century a +succession of genuinely phil-Hellenic emperors made serious +attempts to revive the nation’s prosperity. Important material +benefits were conferred by Hadrian, who made a lengthy visit to +Greece. Besides erecting useful public works in many cities, +he relieved Achaea of its arrears of tribute and exempted it from +various imposts. In order to check extravagance on the part +of the free cities, he greatly extended the practice of placing +them under the supervision of imperial functionaries known as +<i>correctores</i>. Hadrian fostered national sentiment by establishing +a new pan-Hellenic congress at Athens, while he gave recognition +to the increasing ascendancy of Hellenic culture at Rome by +his institution of the Athenaeum.</p> + +<p>In the 3rd century the only political event of importance was +the edict of Caracalla which threw open the Roman citizenship +to large numbers of provincials. Its chief effect in Greece was +to diminish the preponderance of the wealthy classes, who +formerly had used their riches to purchase the franchise and so +to secure exemption from taxation. The chief feature of this +period is the renewal of the danger from foreign invasions. +Already in 175 a tribe named Costoboci had penetrated into +central Greece, but was there broken up by the local militia. +In 253 a threatened attack was averted by the stubborn resistance +of Thessalonica. In 267-268 the province was overrun by +Gothic bands, which captured Athens and some other towns, +but were finally repulsed by the Attic levies and exterminated +with the help of a Roman fleet.</p> + +<p>(iii.) <i>The Late Roman Empire.</i>—After the reorganization of the +empire by Diocletian, Achaea occupied a prominent position +in the “diocese” of Macedonia. Under Constantine I. it was +included in the “prefecture” of Illyricum. It was subdivided +into the “eparchies” of Hellas, Peloponnesus, Nicopolis and +the islands, with headquarters at Thebes, Corinth, Nicopolis +and Samos. Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia. A +complex hierarchy of imperial officials was now introduced and +the system of taxation elaborated so as to yield a steady revenue +to the central power. The levying of the land-tax was imposed +upon the <span class="grk" title="dekaprôtoi">δεκάπρωτοι</span> or “ten leading men,” who, like the Latin +<i>decuriones</i>, were entrusted henceforth with the administration +in most cities. The tendency to reduce all constitutions to the +Roman municipal pattern became prevalent under the rulers +of this period, and the greater number of them was stereotyped +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span> +by the general regulations of the Codex Theodosianus (438). +Although the elevation of Constantinople to the rank of capital +was prejudicial to Greece, which felt the competition of the +new centre of culture and learning and had to part with numerous +works of art destined to embellish its privileged neighbour, the +general level of prosperity in the 4th century was rising. Commercial +stagnation was checked by a renewed expansion of +trade consequent upon the diversion of the trade routes to +the east from Egypt to the Euxine and Aegean Seas. Agriculture +remained in a depressed condition, and many small +proprietors were reduced to serfdom; but the fiscal interests +of the government called for the good treatment of this class, +whose growth at the expense of the slaves was an important +step in the gradual equalization of the entire population under the +central despotism which restored solidarity to the Greek nation.</p> + +<p>This prosperity received a sharp set-back by a series of unusually +severe earthquakes in 375 and by the irruption of a host +of Visigoths under Alaric (395-396), whom the imperial officers +allowed to overrun the whole land unmolested and the local +levies were unable to check. Though ultimately hunted down +in Arcadia and induced to leave the province, Alaric had time +to execute systematic devastations which crippled Greece for +several decades. The arrears of taxation which accumulated +in consequence were remitted by Theodosius II. in 428.</p> + +<p>The emperors of the 4th century made several attempts to +stamp out by edict the old pagan religion, which, with its +accompaniment of festivals, oracles and mysteries, still maintained +an outward appearance of vigour, and, along with the +philosophy in which the intellectual classes found comfort, +retained the affection of the Greeks. Except for the decree of +Theodosius I. by which the Olympian games were interdicted +(394), these measures had no great effect, and indeed were not +rigorously enforced. Paganism survived in Greece till about +600, but the interchange of ideas and practices which the long-continued +contact with Christianity had effected considerably +modified its character. Hence the Christian religion, though +slow in making its way, eventually gained a sure footing among +a nation which accepted it spontaneously. The hold of the +Church upon the Greeks was strengthened by the judicious +manner in which the clergy, unsupported by official patronage +and often out of sympathy with the Arian emperors, identified +itself with the interests of the people. Though in the days when +the orthodox Church found favour at court corruption spread +among its higher branches, the clergy as a whole rendered +conspicuous service in opposing the arbitrary interferences of +the central government and in upholding the use of the Hellenic +tongue, together with some rudiments of Hellenic culture.</p> + +<p>The separation of the eastern and western provinces of the +empire ultimately had an important effect in restoring the +language and customs of Greece to their predominant position +in the Levant. This result, however, was long retarded by the +romanizing policy of Constantine and his successors. The +emperors of the 5th and 6th centuries had no regard for Greek +culture, and Justinian I. actively counteracted Hellenism by +propagating Roman law in Greece, by impairing the powers of +the self-governing cities, and by closing the philosophical schools +at Athens (529). In course of time the inhabitants had so far +forgotten their ancient culture that they abandoned the name +of Hellenes for that of Romans (<i>Rhomaioi</i>). For a long time +Greece continued to be an obscure and neglected province, with +no interests beyond its church and its commercial operations, +and its culture declined rapidly. Its history for some centuries +dwindles into a record of barbarian invasions which, in addition +to occasional plagues and earthquakes, seem to have been the +only events found worthy of record by the contemporary +chroniclers.</p> + +<p>In the 5th century Greece was only subjected to brief raids +by Vandal pirates (466-474) and Ostrogoths (482). In Justinian’s +reign irruptions by Huns and Avars took place, but led to no +far-reaching results. The emperor had endeavoured to strengthen +the country’s defences by repairing the fortifications of cities +and frontier posts (530), but his policy of supplanting the local +guards by imperial troops and so rendering the natives incapable +of self-defence was ill-advised; fortunately it was never carried +out with energy, and so the Greek militias were occasionally +able to render good service against invaders.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the century mention is made for the first +time of an incursion by Slavonic tribes (581). These invaders +are to be regarded as merely the forerunners of a +steady movement of immigration by which a considerable +<span class="sidenote">Slavonic immigrations.</span> +part of Greece passed for a time into foreign +hands. It is doubtful how far the newcomers won +their territory by force of arms; in view of the desolation of +many rural tracts, which had long been in progress as a result +of economic changes, it seems probable that numerous settlements +were made on unoccupied land and did not challenge +serious opposition. At any rate the effect upon the Greek population +was merely to accelerate its emigration from the interior +to the coastland and the cities. The foreigners, consisting mainly +of Slovenes and Wends, occupied the mountainous inland, +where they mostly led a pastoral life; the natives retained some +strips of plain and dwelt secure in their walled towns, among +which the newly-built fortresses of Monemvasia, Corone and +Calamata soon rose to prosperity. The Slavonic element, to +judge by the geographical names in that tongue which survive +in Greece, is specially marked in N.W. Greece and Peloponnesus; +central Greece appears to have been protected against them +by the fortress-square of Chalcis, Thebes, Corinth and Athens. +For a long time the two nations dwelt side by side without either +displacing the other. The Slavs were too rude and poor, and +too much distracted with cantonal feuds, to make any further +headway; the Greeks, unused to arms and engrossed in commerce, +were content to adopt a passive attitude. The central +government took no steps to dislodge the invaders, until in 783 +the empress Irene sent an expedition which reduced most of +the tribes to pay tribute. In 810 a desperate attempt by the +Slavs to capture Patrae was foiled; henceforth their power +steadily decreased and their submission to the emperor was +made complete by 850. A powerful factor in their subjugation +was the Greek clergy, who by the 10th century had christianized +and largely hellenized all the foreigners save a remnant in the +peninsula of Maina.</p> + +<p>II. <span class="sc">The Byzantine Period.</span>—In the 7th century the Greek +language made its way into the imperial army and civil service, +but European Greece continued to have little voice in the +administration. The land was divided into four “themes” +under a yearly appointed civil and military governor. Imperial +troops were stationed at the chief strategic points, while the +natives contributed ships for naval defence. During the dispute +about images the Greeks were the backbone of the image-worshipping +party, and the iconoclastic edicts of Leo III. led +to a revolt in 727 which, however, was easily crushed by the +imperial fleet; a similar movement in 823, when the Greeks +sent 350 ships to aid a pretender, met with the same fate. The +firm government of the Isaurian dynasty seems to have benefited +Greece, whose commerce and industry again became flourishing. +In spite of occasional set-backs due to the depredations of +pirates, notably the Arab corsairs who visited the Aegean from +the 7th century onwards, the Greeks remained the chief carriers +in the Levant until the rise of the Italian republics, supplying +all Europe with its silk fabrics.</p> + +<p>In the 10th century Greece experienced a renewal of raids +from the Balkan tribes. The Bulgarians made incursions after +929 and sometimes penetrated to the Isthmus; but they mostly +failed to capture the cities, and in 995 their strength was broken +by a crushing defeat on the Spercheius at the hands of the +Byzantine army. Yet their devastations greatly thinned the +population of northern Greece, and after 1084 Thessaly was +occupied without resistance by nomad tribes of Vlachs. In +1084 also Greece was subjected to the first attack from the new +nations of the west, when the Sicilian Normans gained a footing +in the Ionian islands. The same people made a notable raid upon +the seaboard of Greece in 1145-1146, and sacked the cities of +Thebes and Corinth. The Venetians also appear as rivals of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span> +the Greeks, and after 1122 their encroachments in the Aegean +Sea never ceased.</p> + +<p>In spite of these attacks, the country on the whole maintained +its prosperity. The travellers Idrīsī of Palermo (1153) and +Benjamin of Tudela (1161) testify to the briskness of commerce, +which induced many foreign merchants to take up their residence +in Greece. But this prosperity revived an aristocracy of wealth +which used its riches and power for purely selfish ends, and under +the increasing laxity of imperial control the <i>archontes</i> or municipal +rulers often combined with the clergy in oppressing the poorer +classes. Least of all were these nobles prepared to become the +champions of Greece against foreign invaders at a time when they +alone could have organized an effectual resistance.</p> + +<p>III. <i>The Latin Occupation and Turkish Conquest.</i>—The +capture of Constantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine +empire by the Latins (1204) brought in its train an invasion of +Greece by Frankish barons eager for new territory. The +natives, who had long forgotten the use of arms and dreaded +no worse oppression from their new masters, submitted almost +without resistance, and only the N.W. corner of Greece, where +Michael Angelus, a Byzantine prince, founded the “despotat” +of Epirus, was saved from foreign occupation. The rest of the +country was divided up between a number of Frankish barons, +chief among whom were the dukes of Achaea (or Peloponnese) +and “grand signors” of Thebes and Athens, the Venetians, who +held naval stations at different points and the island of Crete, +and various Italian adventurers who mainly settled in the +Cyclades. The conquerors transplanted their own language, +customs and religion to their new possessions, and endeavoured +to institute the feudal system of land-tenure. Yet recognizing +the superiority of Greek civil institutions they allowed the +natives to retain their law and internal administration and confirmed +proprietors in possession of their land on payment of a +rent; the Greek church was subordinated to the Roman archbishops, +but upheld its former control over the people. The +commerce and industry of the Greek cities was hardly affected +by the change of government.</p> + +<p>Greek history during the Latin occupation loses its unity and +has to be followed in several threads. In the north the “despots” +of Epirus extended their rule to Thessaly and Macedonia, but +eventually were repulsed by the Asiatic Greeks of Nicaea, and +after a decisive defeat at Pelagonia (1259) reduced to a small +dominion round Iannina. Thessaly continued to change masters +rapidly. Till 1308 it was governed by a branch line of the +Epirote dynasty. When this family died out it fell to the Grand +Catalan Company; in 1350 it was conquered along with Epirus +by Stephen Dushan, king of Servia. About 1397 it was annexed +by the Ottoman Turks, who after 1431 also gradually wrested +Epirus from its latest possessors, the Beneventine family of +Tocco (1390-1469).</p> + +<p>The leading power in central Greece was the Burgundian +house de la Roche, which established a mild and judicious government +in Boeotia and Attica and in 1261 was raised to ducal rank +by the French king Louis IX. A conflict with the Grand Catalan +Company resulted in a disastrous defeat of the Franks on the +Boeotian Cephissus (1311) and the occupation of central Greece +by the Spanish mercenaries, who seized for themselves the barons’ +fiefs and installed princes from the Sicilian house of Aragon as +“dukes of Athens and Neopatras” (Thessaly). After seventy-five +years of oppressive rule and constant wars with their +neighbours the Catalans were expelled by the Peloponnesian +baron Nerio Acciaiuoli. The new dynasty, whose peaceful +government revived its subjects’ industry, became tributary to +the Turks about 1415, but was deposed by Sultan Mahommed II., +who annexed central Greece in 1456.</p> + +<p>The conquest of the Peloponnese was effected by two French +knights, William Champlitte and Geoffrey Villehardouin, the +latter of whom founded a dynasty of “princes of all Achaea.” +The rulers of this line were men of ability, who controlled their +barons and spiritual vassals with a firm hand and established +good order throughout their province. The Franks of the +Morea maintained as high a standard of culture as their compatriots +at home, while the natives grew rich enough from their +industry to pay considerable taxes without discontent. The +climax of the Villehardouins’ power was attained under Prince +William, who subdued the last independent cities of the coast +and the mountaineers of Maina (1246-1248). In 1259, however, +the same ruler was involved in the war between the rulers of +Epirus and Nicaea, and being captured at the battle of Pelagonia, +could only ransom himself by the cession of Laconia +to the restored Byzantine empire. This new dependency after +1349 was treated with great care by the Byzantine monarchs, +who sought to repress the violence of the local aristocracies by +sending their kinsmen to govern under the title of “despots.” +On the other hand, with the extinction of the Villehardouin +dynasty the Frankish province fell more and more into anarchy; +at the same time the numbers of the foreigners were constantly +dwindling through war, and as they disdained to recruit them +by intermarriage, the preponderance of the native element +in the Morea eventually became complete. Thus by 1400 the +Byzantines were enabled to recover control over almost the +whole peninsula and apportion it among several “despots.” +But the mutual quarrels of these princes soon proved fatal to +their rule. Already in the 14th century they had employed +Albanians and the Turkish pirates who harried their coasts as +auxiliaries in their wars. The Albanians largely remained as +settlers, and the connexion with the Turks could no longer be +shaken off. In spite of attempts to fortify the Isthmus (1415) an +Ottoman army penetrated into Morea and deported many +inhabitants in 1423. An invasion of central Greece by the despot +Constantine was punished by renewed raids in 1446 and 1450. +In 1457 the despot Thomas withheld the tribute which he had +recently stipulated to pay, but was reduced to obedience by an +expedition under Mahommed II. (1458). A renewed revolt in +1459 was punished by an invasion attended with executions and +deportations on a large scale, and by the annexation of the +Morea to Turkey (1460).</p> + +<p>IV. <i>The Turkish Dominion till 1800.</i>—Under the Ottoman +government Greece was split up into six <i>sanjaks</i> or military +divisions: (1) Morea, (2) Epirus, (3) Thessaly, (4) Euboea, +Boeotia and Attica, (5) Aetolia and Acarnania, (6) the rest of +central Greece, with capitals at Nauplia, Jannina, Trikkala, +Negropont (Chalkis), Karlili and Lepanto; further divisions +were subsequently composed of Crete and the islands. In each +<i>sanjak</i> a number of fiefs was apportioned to Turkish settlers, +who were bound in return to furnish some mounted men for +the sultan’s army, the total force thus held in readiness being +over 7000. The local government was left in the hands of the +archontes or primates in each community, who also undertook +the farming of the taxes and the policing of their districts. Law +was usually administered by the Greek clergy. The natives +were not burdened with large imposts, but the levying of the +land-tithes was effected in an inconvenient fashion, and the +capitation-tax, to which all Christians were subjected was felt +as a humiliation. A further grievance lay in the requisitions +of forced labour which the pashas were entitled to call for; but +the most galling exaction was the tribute of children for the +recruiting of the Janissaries (<i>q.v.</i>), which was often levied with +great ruthlessness. The habitual weakness of the central government +also left the Greeks exposed to frequent oppression by the +Turkish residents and by their own magistrates and clergy. +But the new rulers met with singularly little opposition. The +dangerous elements of the population had been cleared away by +Mahommed’s executions; the rest were content to absorb +their energies in agriculture and commerce, which in spite of +preferential duties and capitulations to foreign powers largely +fell again into the hands of Greeks. Another important instrument +by which the people were kept down was their own clergy, +whom the Turkish rulers treated with marked favour and so +induced to acquiesce in their dominion.</p> + +<p>In the following centuries Greece was often the theatre of +war in which the Greeks played but a passive part. Several +wars with Venice (1463-79, 1498-1504) put the Turks in possession +of the last Italian strongholds on the mainland. But the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span> +issue was mainly fought out on sea; the conflicts which had +never ceased in the Aegean since the coming of the Italians +now grew fiercer than ever; Greek ships and sailors were +frequently requisitioned for the Turkish fleets, and the damage +done to the Greek seaboard by the belligerents and by fleets of +adventurers and corsairs brought about the depopulation of +many islands and coast-strips. The conquest of the Aegean +by the Ottomans was completed by 1570; but Venice retained +Crete till 1669 and never lost Corfu until its cession to France +in 1797.</p> + +<p>In 1684 the Venetians took advantage of the preoccupation of +Turkey on the Danube to attack the Morea. A small mercenary +army under Francesco Morosini captured the strong places +with remarkable ease, and by 1687 had conquered almost the +whole peninsula. In 1687 the invaders also captured Athens +and Lepanto; but the former town had soon to be abandoned, +and with their failure to capture Negropont (1688) the Venetians +were brought to a standstill. By the peace of Karlowitz (1699) +the Morea became a possession of Venice. The new rulers, in +spite of the commercial restrictions which they imposed in favour +of their own traders, checked the impoverishment and decrease +of population (from 300,000 to 86,000) which the war had +caused. By their attempts to cooperate with the native magistrates +and the mildness of their administration they improved +the spirit of their subjects. But they failed to make their +government popular, and when in 1715 the Ottomans with +a large and well-disciplined army set themselves to recover +the Morea, the Venetians were left without support from the +Greeks. The peninsula was rapidly recaptured and by the peace +of Passarowitz (1718) again became a Turkish dependency. +The gaps left about this time in the Greek population were +largely made up by an immigration from Albania.</p> + +<p>The condition of the Greeks in the 18th century showed a +great improvement which gave rise to yet greater hopes. Already +in the 17th century the personal services of the subjects had +been commuted into money contributions, and since 1676 the +tribute of children fell into abeyance. The increasing use of +Greek officials in the Turkish civil service, coupled with the +privileges accorded to the Greek clergy throughout the Balkan +countries, tended to recall the consciousness of former days of +predominance in the Levant. Lastly, the education of the +Greeks, which had always remained on a comparatively high +level, was rapidly improved by the foundation of new schools +and academies.</p> + +<p>The long neglect which Greece had experienced at the hands +of the European Powers was broken in 1764, when Russian +agents appeared in the country with promises of a speedy +deliverance from the Turks. A small expedition under Feodor +and Alexis Orloff actually landed in the Morea in 1769, but failed +to rouse national sentiment. Although the Russian fleet gained +a notable victory off Chesme near Chios, a heavy defeat near +Tripolitza ruined the prospects of the army. The Albanian +troops in the Turkish army subsequently ravaged the country +far and wide, until in 1779 they were exterminated by a force +of Turkish regulars. In 1774 a concession, embodied in the +treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, by which Greek traders were allowed +to sail under the protection of the Russian flag, marked an +important step in the rehabilitation of the country as an independent +power. Greek commerce henceforth spread swiftly +over the Mediterranean, and increased intercourse developed a +new sense of Hellenic unity. Among the pioneers who fostered +this movement should be mentioned Constantine Rhigas, the +“modern Tyrtaeus,” and Adamantios Coraës (<i>q.v.</i>), the reformer +of the Greek tongue. The revived memories of ancient Hellas +and the impression created by the French revolution combined +to give the final impulse which made the Greeks strike for +freedom. By 1800 the population of Greece had increased to +1,000,000, and although 200,000 of these were Albanians, the +common aversion to the Moslem united the two races. The +military resources of the country alone remained deficient, for +the <i>armatoli</i> or local militias, which had never been quite disbanded +since Byzantine times, were at last suppressed by Ali +Pasha of Iannina and found but a poor substitute in the klephts +who henceforth spring into prominence. But at the first sign +of weakness in the Turkish dominion the Greek nation was +ready to rise, and the actual outbreak of revolt had become +merely a question of time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—General: G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i> (ed. Tozer, +Oxford, 1877), especially vols. i., iv., v.; K. Paparrhigopoulos, +<span class="grk" title="Historia tou Hellênikou ethnous">Ἱστορία τοῦ Ἑλληνικοῦ ἔθνους</span> (4th ed., Athens, 1903), vols. ii.-v.; +<i>Histoire de la civilisation hellénique</i> (Paris, 1878); R. v. Scala, +<i>Das Griechentum seit Alexander dem Grossen</i> (Leipzig and Vienna, +1904); and specially W. Miller, <i>The Latins in the Levant</i> (1908).</p> + +<p>Special—(<i>a</i>) The Roman period: Strabo, bks. viii.-x.; Pausanias, +<i>Descriptio Graeciae</i>; G. F. Hertzberg, <i>Die Geschichte Griechenlands +unter der Herrschaft der Römer</i> (Halle, 1866-1875); Sp. Lampros, +<span class="grk" title="Historia tês Hellados">Ἱστορία τῆς Ἑλλάδος</span> (Athens, 1888 sqq.), vol. iii.; A. Holm, +<i>History of Greece</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1894-1898). vol. iv., chs. +19, 24, 26, 28 seq.; Th. Mommsen, <i>The Provinces of the Roman +Empire</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1886, ch. 7); J. P. Mahaffy, <i>The +Greek World under Roman Sway, from Polybius to Plutarch</i> (London, +1890); W. Miller, “The Romans in Greece” (<i>Westminster Review</i>, +August 1903, pp. 186-210); L. Friedländer, “Griechenland unter +den Römern” (<i>Deutsche Rundschau</i>, 1899, pp. 251-274, 402-430). +(<i>b</i>) The Byzantine and Latin periods: G. F. Hertzberg, <i>Geschichte +Griechenlands seit dem Absterben des antiken Lebens</i> (Gotha, 1876-1879), +vols. i., ii.; C. Hopf, <i>Geschichte Griechenlands im Mittelalter</i> +(Leipzig, 1868); J. A. Buchon, <i>Histoire des conquêtes et de l’établissement +des Français dans les États de l’ancienne Grèce</i> (Paris, 1846); +G. Schmitt, <i>The Chronicle of Morea</i> (London, 1904); W. Miller, +“The Princes of the Peloponnese” (<i>Quarterly Review</i>, July 1905, +pp. 109-135); D. Bikelas, <i>Seven Essays on Christian Greece</i> (Paisley +and London, 1890); <i>La Grèce byzantine et moderne</i> (Paris, 1893), +pp. 1-193. (<i>c</i>) The Turkish and Venetian periods: Hertzberg, +<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. iii.; K. M. Bartholdy, <i>Geschichte Griechenlands von der +Eroberung Konstantinopels</i> (Leipzig, 1870), bks. i. and ii., pp. 1-155; +K. N. Sathas, <span class="grk" title="Tourkokratoumenê Hellas">Τουρκοκρατουμένη Ἑλλάς</span> (Athens, 1869); W. Miller, +“Greece under the Turks” (<i>Westminster Review</i>, August and +September 1904, pp. 195-210, 304-320; <i>English Historical Review</i>, +1904, pp. 646-668); L. Ranke, “Die Venetianer in Morea” +(<i>Historisch-politische Zeitschrift</i>, ii. 405-502). (<i>d</i>) Special subjects: +Religion. E. Hatch, <i>The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon +the Christian Church</i> (London, 1890). Ethnology. J. P. Fallmerayer, +<i>Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea während des Mittelalters</i> (Stuttgart +and Tübingen, 1830); S. Zampelios, <span class="grk" title="Peri pêgôn neoellênikês ethnotêtos">Περὶ πηγῶν νεοελληνικῆς ἐθνότητος</span> +(Athens, 1857); A. Philippson, “Zur Ethnographie des Peloponnes” +[<i>Petermann’s Mitteilungen</i> 36 (1890), pp. 1-11, 33-41]; A. Vasiljev, +“Die Slaven in Griechenland” [<i>Vizantijsky Vremennik</i>, St Petersburg, +5 (1898), pp. 404-438, 626-670].</p> + +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Empire, Later</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>c.</i> <i>Modern History: 1800-1908.</i></p> + +<p>At the beginning of the 19th century Greece was still under +Turkish domination, but the dawn of freedom was already +breaking, and a variety of forces were at work which +prepared the way for the acquisition of national +<span class="sidenote">The decadence of Turkey.</span> +independence. The decadence of the Ottoman empire, +which began with the retreat of the Turks from Vienna +in 1683, was indicated in the 18th century by the weakening of +the central power, the spread of anarchy in the provinces, the +ravages of the janissaries, and the establishment of practically +independent sovereignties or fiefs, such as those of Mehemet +of Bushat at Skodra and of Ali Pasha of Tepelen at Iannina; +the 19th century witnessed the first uprisings of the Christian +populations and the detachment of the outlying portions of +European Turkey. Up to the end of the 18th century none of +the subject races had risen in spontaneous revolt against the +Turks, though in some instances they rendered aid to the sultan’s +enemies; the spirit of the conquered nations had been broken +by ages of oppression. In some of the remoter and more mountainous +districts, however, the authority of the Turks had never +been completely established; in Montenegro a small fragment +of the Serb race maintained its independence; among the Greeks, +the Mainotes in the extreme south of the Morea and the Sphakiote +mountaineers in Crete had never been completely subdued. +Resistance to Ottoman rule was maintained sporadically in the +mountainous districts by the Greek <i>klephts</i> or brigands, the +counterpart of the Slavonic <i>haiduks</i>, and by the pirates of the +Aegean; the <i>armatoles</i> or bodies of Christian warriors, recognized +by the Turks as a local police, often differed little in their +proceedings from the brigands whom they were appointed to +pursue.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span></p> + +<p>Of the series of insurrections which took place in the 19th +century, the first in order of time was the Servian, which broke +out in 1804; the second was the Greek, which began +in 1821. In both these movements the influence of +<span class="sidenote">Russian influence.</span> +Russia played a considerable part. In the case of +the Servians Russian aid was mainly diplomatic, in that of the +Greeks it eventually took a more material form. Since the days +of Peter the Great, the eyes of Russia had been fixed on Constantinople, +the great metropolis of the Orthodox faith. The +policy of inciting the Greek Christians to revolt against their +oppressors, which was first adopted in the reign of the empress +Anna, was put into practical operation by the empress Catharine +II., whose favourite, Orlov, appeared in the Aegean with a fleet +in 1769 and landed in the Morea, where he organized a revolt. +The attempt proved a failure; Orlov re-embarked, leaving the +Greeks at the mercy of the Turks, and terrible massacres took +place at Tripolitza, Lemnos and elsewhere. By the treaty of +Kutchuk-Kainarji (July 21, 1774) Russia obtained a vaguely-defined +protectorate over the Orthodox Greek subjects of Turkey, +and in 1781 she arrived at an arrangement with Austria, known +as the “Greek project,” for a partition of Turkish territory +and the restoration of the Byzantine empire under Constantine, +the son of Catharine II. The outbreak of the French Revolution +distracted the attention of the two empires, but Russia never +ceased to intrigue among the Christian subjects of Turkey. A +revolt of the inhabitants of Suli in 1790 took place with her +connivance, and in the two first decades of the 19th century +her agents were active and ubiquitous.</p> + +<p>The influence of the French Revolution, which pervaded +all Europe, extended to the shores of the Aegean. The Greeks, +who had hitherto been drawn together mainly by a +common religion, were now animated by the sentiment +<span class="sidenote">Greek revolutionary activity.</span> +of nationality and by an ardent desire for political +freedom. The national awakening, as in the case of +the other subject Christian nations, was preceded by a literary +revival. Literary and patriotic societies, the Philhellenes, the +Philomousi, came into existence; Greek schools were founded +everywhere; the philological labours of Coraës, which created +the modern written language, furnished the nation with a mode +of literary expression; the songs of Rhigas of Velestino fired +the enthusiasm of the people. In 1815 was founded the celebrated +<i>Philiké Hetaerea</i>, or friendly society, a revolutionary +organization with centres at Moscow, Bucharest, Triest, and in +all the cities of the Levant; it collected subscriptions, issued +manifestos, distributed arms and made preparations for the +coming insurrection. The revolt of Ali Pasha of Iannina against +the authority of the sultan in 1820 formed the prelude to the +Greek uprising; this despot, who had massacred the Greeks +by hundreds, now declared himself their friend, and became +a member of the Hetaerea. In March 1821 Alexander Ypsilanti, +a former aide-de-camp of the tsar Alexander I., and +president of the Hetaerea, entered Moldavia from Russian +territory at the head of a small force; in the same month +Archbishop Germanos of Patras unfurled the standard of revolt +at Kalavryta in the Morea.</p> + +<p>For the history of the prolonged struggle which followed +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek War of Independence</a></span>. The warfare was practically +brought to a close by the annihilation of the Egyptian +fleet at Navarino by the fleets of Great Britain, France +<span class="sidenote">Independence of Greece.</span> +and Russia on the 20th of October 1827. Nine months +previously, Count John Capo d’Istria (<i>q.v.</i>), formerly +minister of foreign affairs of the tsar Alexander, had been +elected president of the Greek republic for seven years beginning +on January 18, 1828. By the protocol of London (March 22, +1829) the Greek mainland south of a line drawn from the Gulf +of Arta to the Gulf of Volo, the Morea and the Cyclades were +declared a principality tributary to the sultan under a Christian +prince. The limits drawn by the protocol of London were +confirmed by the treaty of Adrianople (September 14, 1829), +by which Greece was constituted an independent monarchy. +The governments of Russia, France and England were far +from sharing the enthusiasm which the gallant resistance of the +Greeks had excited among the peoples of Europe, and which +inspired the devotion of Byron, Cochrane, Sir Richard Church, +Fabvier and other distinguished Philhellenes; jealousies +prevailed among the three protecting powers, and the newly-liberated +nation was treated in a niggardly spirit; its narrow +limits were reduced by a new protocol (February 3, 1830), which +drew the boundary line at the Aspropotamo, the Spercheios and +the Gulf of Lamia. Capo d’Istria, whose Russian proclivities +and arbitrary government gave great offence to the Greeks, was +assassinated by two members of the Mavromichalis family +(October 9, 1831), and a state of anarchy followed. Before his +death the throne of Greece had been offered to Prince Leopold +of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians, who +declined it, basing his refusal on the inadequacy of the limits +assigned to the new kingdom and especially the exclusion of +Crete.</p> + +<p>By the convention of London (May 7, 1832) Greece was +declared an independent kingdom under the protection of +Great Britain, France and Russia with Prince Otto, +son of King Louis I. of Bavaria, as king. The frontier +<span class="sidenote">King Otto.</span> +line, now traced from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Lamia, +was fixed by the arrangement of Constantinople (July 21, 1832). +King Otto, who had been brought up in a despotic court, +ruled absolutely for the first eleven years of his reign; he +surrounded himself with Bavarian advisers and Bavarian troops, +and his rule was never popular. The Greek chiefs and politicians, +who found themselves excluded from all influence and advancement, +were divided into three factions which attached themselves +respectively to the three protecting powers. On the 15th of +September 1843 a military revolt broke out which compelled the +king to dismiss the Bavarians and to accept a constitution. A +responsible ministry, a senate nominated by the king, and a +chamber elected by universal suffrage were now instituted. +Mavrocordatos, the leader of the English party, became the first +prime minister, but his government was overthrown at the +ensuing elections, and a coalition of the French and Russian +parties under Kolettes and Metaxas succeeded to power. The +warfare of factions was aggravated by the rivalry between the +British and French ministers, Sir Edmond Lyons and M. +Piscatory; King Otto supported the French party, and trouble +arose with the British government, which in 1847 despatched +warships to enforce the payment of interest on the loan contracted +after the War of Independence. A British fleet subsequently +blockaded the Peiraeus in order to obtain satisfaction +for the claims of Pacifico, a Portuguese Jew under British +protection, whose house had been plundered during a riot. On +the outbreak of hostilities between Russia and Turkey in 1853 +the Greeks displayed sympathy with Russia; armed bands +were sent into Thessaly, and an insurrection was fomented in +Epirus in the hope of securing an accession of territory. In +order to prevent further hostile action on the part of Greece, +British and French fleets made a demonstration against the +Peiraeus, which was occupied by a French force during the +Crimean War. The disappointment of the national hopes +increased the unpopularity of King Otto, who had never +acquiesced in constitutional rule. In 1862 a military revolt +broke out, and a national assembly pronounced his deposition. +The vacant throne was offered by the assembly to Duke Nicholas +of Leuchtenberg, a cousin of the tsar, but the mass of the people +desired a constitutional monarchy of the British type; a +plebiscite was taken, and Prince Alfred of England was elected +by an almost unanimous vote. The three protecting powers, +however, had bound themselves to the exclusion of any member +of their ruling houses. In the following year Prince William +George of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, whom +the British government had designated as a suitable candidate, +was elected by the National Assembly with the title “George I., +king of the Hellenes.” Under the treaty of London (July 13, +1863) the change of dynasty was sanctioned by the three protecting +powers, Great Britain undertaking to cede to Greece the +seven Ionian Islands, which since 1815 had formed a commonwealth +under British protection.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span></p> + +<p>On the 29th of October 1863 the new sovereign arrived in +Athens, and in the following June the British authorities handed +over the Ionian Islands to a Greek commissioner. +King George thus began his reign under the most +<span class="sidenote">Accession of George I.</span> +favourable auspices, the patriotic sentiments of the +Greeks being flattered by the acquisition of new territory. +He was, however, soon confronted with constitutional difficulties; +party spirit ran riot at Athens, the ministries which he appointed +proved short-lived, his counsellor, Count Sponneck, became +the object of violent attacks, and at the end of 1864 he was +compelled to accept an ultra-democratic constitution, drawn +up by the National Assembly. This, the sixth constitution voted +since the establishment of the kingdom, is that which is still in +force. In the following year Count Sponneck left Greece, and +the attention of the nation was concentrated on the affairs of +Crete. The revolution which broke out in that island received +moral and material support from the Greek government, with +the tacit approval of Russia; military preparations were +pressed forward at Athens, and cruisers were purchased, but the +king, aware of the inability of Greece to attain her ends by +warlike means, discouraged a provocative attitude towards +Turkey, and eventually dismissed the bellicose cabinet of +Koumoundouros. The removal of a powerful minister commanding +a large parliamentary majority constituted an important +precedent in the exercise of the royal prerogative; the king +adopted a similar course with regard to Delyannes in 1892 and +1897. The relations with the porte, however, continued to grow +worse, and Hobart Pasha, with a Turkish fleet, made a demonstration +off Syra. The Cretan insurrection was finally crushed in +the spring of 1869, and a conference of the powers, which +assembled that year at Paris, imposed a settlement of the +Turkish dispute on Greece, but took no steps on behalf of the +Cretans. In 1870 the murder of several Englishmen by brigands +in the neighbourhood of Athens produced an unfavourable +impression in Europe; in the following year the confiscation +of the Laurion mines, which had been ceded to a Franco-Italian +company, provoked energetic action on the part of France and +Italy. In 1875, after an acute constitutional crisis, Charilaos +Trikoupes, who but ten months previously had been imprisoned +for denouncing the crown in a newspaper article, was summoned +to form a cabinet. This remarkable man, the only great statesman +whom modern Greece has produced, exercised an extraordinary +influence over his countrymen for the next twenty +years; had he been able to maintain himself uninterruptedly +in power during that period, Greece might have escaped a long +succession of misfortunes. His principal opponent, Theodore +Delyannes, succeeded in rallying a strong body of adherents, +and political parties, hitherto divided into numerous factions, +centred around these two prominent figures.</p> + +<p>In 1877 the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War produced a +fever of excitement in Greece; it was felt that the quarrels +of the party leaders compromised the interests of the +country, and the populace of Athens insisted on the +<span class="sidenote">New frontier, 1881.</span> +formation of a coalition cabinet. The “great” or +“oecumenical” ministry, as it was called, now came +into existence under the presidency of the veteran Kanares; in +reality, however, it was controlled by Trikoupes, who, recognizing +the unpreparedness of the country, resolved on a pacific policy. +The capture of Plevna by the Russians brought about the fall +of the “oecumenical” ministry, and Koumoundouros and +Delyannes, who succeeded to power, ordered the invasion of +Thessaly. Their warlike energies, however, were soon checked +by the signing of the San Stefano Treaty, in which the claims +of Greece to an extension of frontier were altogether ignored. +At the Berlin congress two Greek delegates obtained a hearing +on the proposal of Lord Salisbury. The congress decided that +the rectification of the frontier should be left to Turkey and +Greece, the mediation of the powers being proposed in case of +non-agreement; it was suggested, however, that the rectified +frontier should extend from the valley of the Peneus on the east +to the mouth of the Kalamas, opposite the southern extremity +of Corfu, on the west. In 1879 a Greco-Turkish commission +for the delimitation met first at Prevesa, and subsequently at +Constantinople, but its conferences were without result, the +Turkish commissioners declining the boundary suggested at +Berlin. Greece then invoked the arbitration of the powers, +and the settlement of the question was undertaken by a conference +of ambassadors at Berlin (1880). The line approved by +the conference was practically that suggested by the congress; +Turkey, however, refused to accept it, and the Greek army was +once more mobilized. <span class="correction" title="amended from In">It</span> was evident, however, that nothing +could be gained by an appeal to arms, the powers not being +prepared to apply coercion to Turkey. By a convention signed +at Constantinople in July 1881, the demarcation was entrusted +to a commission representing the six powers and the two +interested parties. The line drawn ran westwards from a point +between the mouth of the Peneus and Platamona to the summits +of Mounts Kritiri and Zygos, thence following the course of +the river Arta to its mouth. An area of 13,395 square kilometres, +with a population of 300,000 souls, was thus added to the kingdom, +while Turkey was left in possession of Iannina, Metzovo and +most of Epirus. The ceded territory was occupied by Greek +troops before the close of the year.</p> + +<p>In 1882 Trikoupes came into power at the head of a strong +party, over which he exercised an influence and authority +hitherto unknown in Greek political life. With the +exception of three brief intervals (May 1885 to May +<span class="sidenote">Trikoupes and Delyannes.</span> +1886, October 1890 to February 1892, and a few +months in 1893), he continued in office for the next +twelve years. The reforms which he introduced during this period +were generally of an unpopular character, and were loudly +denounced by his democratic rivals; most of them were cancelled +during the intervals when his opponent Delyannes occupied the +premiership. The same want of continuity proved fatal to the +somewhat ambitious financial programme which he now inaugurated. +While pursuing a cautious foreign policy, and keeping +in control the rash impetuosity of his fellow-countrymen, he +shared to the full the national desire for expansion, but he looked +to the development of the material resources of the country +as a necessary preliminary to the realization of the dreams of +Hellenism. With this view he endeavoured to attract foreign +capital to the country, and the confidence which he inspired in +financial circles abroad enabled him to contract a number of +loans and to better the financial situation by a series of conversions. +Under a stable, wise, and economical administration +this far-reaching programme might perhaps have been carried +out with success, but the vicissitudes of party politics and the +periodical outbursts of national sentiment rendered its realization +impossible. In April 1885 Trikoupes fell from power, and a +few months later the indignation excited in Greece by the revolution +of Philippopolis placed Delyannes once more at the head +of a warlike movement. The army and fleet were again +mobilized with a view to exacting territorial compensation +for the aggrandizement of Bulgaria, and several conflicts with +the Turkish troops took place on the frontier. The powers, +after repeatedly inviting the Delyannes cabinet to disarm, +established a blockade of Peiraeus and other Greek ports (8th +May 1886), France alone declining to cooperate in this measure. +Delyannes resigned (11th May) and Trikoupes, who succeeded +to power, issued a decree of disarmament (25th May). Hostilities, +however, continued on the frontier, and the blockade was not +raised till 7th June. Trikoupes had now to face the serious +financial situation brought about by the military activity of his +predecessor. He imposed heavy taxation, which the people, +for the time at least, bore without murmuring, and he continued +to inspire such confidence abroad that Greek securities maintained +their price in the foreign market. It was ominous, however, +that a loan which he issued in 1890 was only partially covered. +Meanwhile the Cretan difficulty had become once more a source +of trouble to Greece. In 1889 Trikoupes was grossly deceived +by the Turkish government, which, after inducing him to +dissuade the Cretans from opposing the occupation of certain +fortified posts, issued a firman annulling many important +provisions in the constitution of the island. The indignation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span> +in Greece was intense, and popular discontent was increased +by the success of the Bulgarians in obtaining the <i>exequatur</i> of +the sultan for a number of bishops in Macedonia. In the +autumn of 1890 Trikoupes was beaten at the elections, and +Delyannes, who had promised the people a radical reform of +the taxation, succeeded to power. He proved unequal, however, +to cope with the financial difficulty, which now became urgent; +and the king, perceiving that a crisis was imminent, dismissed +him and recalled Trikoupes. The hope of averting national +bankruptcy depended on the possibility of raising a loan by +which the rapid depreciation of the paper currency might be +arrested, but foreign financiers demanded guarantees which +seemed likely to prove hurtful to Greek susceptibilities; an +agitation was raised at Athens, and Trikoupes suddenly resigned +(May 1893). His conduct at this juncture appears to have been +due to some misunderstandings which had arisen between him +and the king. The Sotiropoulos-Rhalles ministry which followed +effected a temporary settlement with the national creditors, +but Trikoupes, returning to power in the autumn, at once +annulled the arrangement. He now proceeded to a series of +arbitrary measures which provoked the severest criticism +throughout Europe and exposed Greece to the determined +hostility of Germany. A law was hastily passed which deprived +the creditors of 70% of their interest, and the proceeds of the +revenues conceded to the monopoly bondholders were seized +(December 1893). Long negotiations followed, resulting in an +arrangement which was subsequently reversed by the German +bondholders. In January 1895 Trikoupes resigned office, in +consequence of a disagreement with the crown prince on a +question of military discipline. His popularity had vanished, +his health was shattered, and he determined to abandon his +political career. His death at Cannes (11th April 1896), on the +eve of a great national convulsion, deprived Greece of his +masterly guidance and sober judgment at a critical moment +in her history.</p> + +<p>His funeral took place at Athens on 23rd April, while the city +was still decorated with flags and garlands after the celebration +of the Olympic games. The revival of the ancient +festival, which drew together multitudes of Greeks +<span class="sidenote">Nationalist agitation, 1896.</span> +from abroad, led to a lively awakening of the national +sentiment, hitherto depressed by the economic misfortunes +of the kingdom, and a secret patriotic society, known +as the <i>Ethniké Hetaerea</i>, began to develop prodigious activity, +enrolling members from every rank of life and establishing +branches in all parts of the Hellenic world. The society had +been founded in 1894, by a handful of young officers who considered +that the military organization of the country was +neglected by the government; its principal aim was the preparation +of an insurrectionary movement in Macedonia, which, +owing to the activity of the Bulgarians and the reconciliation +of Prince Ferdinand with Russia, seemed likely to be withdrawn +for ever from the domain of Greek irredentism. The outbreak +of another insurrection in Crete supplied the means of creating +a diversion for Turkey while the movement in Macedonia was +being matured; arms and volunteers were shipped to the +island, but the society was as yet unable to force the hand of the +government, and Delyannes, who had succeeded Trikoupes in +1895, loyally aided the powers in the restoration of order by +advising the Cretans to accept the constitution of 1896. The +appearance of strong insurgent bands in Macedonia in the +summer of that year testified to the activity of the society and +provoked the remonstrances of the powers, while the spread +of its propaganda in the army led to the issue of a royal rescript +announcing grand military manœuvres, the formation of a +standing camp, and the rearmament of the troops with a new +weapon (6th December). The objects of the society were +effectually furthered by the evident determination of the porte +to evade the application of the stipulated reforms in Crete; the +Cretan Christians lost patience, and indignation was widespread +in Greece. Emissaries of the society were despatched to the +island, and affairs were brought to a climax by an outbreak +at Canea on 4th February 1897. The Turkish troops fired on +the Christians, thousands of whom took refuge on the warships +of the powers, and a portion of the town was consumed by fire.</p> + +<p>Delyannes now announced that the government had +abandoned the policy of abstention. On the 6th two warships +were despatched to Canea, and on the 10th a torpedo +flotilla, commanded by Prince George, left Peiraeus +<span class="sidenote">Cretan crisis, 1897.</span> +amid tumultuous demonstrations. The ostensible object +of these measures was the protection of Greek subjects +in Crete, and Delyannes was still anxious to avoid a definite +rupture with Turkey, but the Ethniké Hetaerea had found +means to influence several members of the ministry and to alarm +the king. Prince George, who had received orders to prevent +the landing of Turkish reinforcements on the island, soon withdrew +from Cretan waters owing to the decisive attitude adopted +by the commanders of the international squadron. A note was +now addressed by the government to the powers, declaring +that Greece could no longer remain a passive spectator of events +in Crete, and on the 13th of February a force of 1500 men, under +Colonel Vassos, embarked at Peiraeus. On the same day a +Greek warship fired on a Turkish steam yacht which was conveying +troops from Candia to Sitia. Landing near Canea on the +night of the 14th, Colonel Vassos issued a proclamation announcing +the occupation of Crete in the name of King George. He +had received orders to expel the Turkish garrisons from the +fortresses, but his advance on Canea was arrested by the international +occupation of that town, and after a few engagements +with the Turkish troops and irregulars he withdrew into the +interior of the island. Proposals for the coercion of Greece were +now put forward by Germany, but Great Britain declined to +take action until an understanding had been arrived at with +regard to the future government of Crete. Eventually (2nd +March) collective notes were addressed to the Greek and Turkish +governments announcing the decision of the powers that (1) +Crete could in no case in present circumstances be annexed to +Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application +of the reforms, Crete should be endowed with an effective +autonomous administration, calculated to ensure it a separate +government, under the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at +the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet within +the space of six days, and Turkey was warned that its troops +must for the present be concentrated in the fortified towns and +ultimately withdrawn from the island. The action of the powers +produced the utmost exasperation at Athens; the populace +demanded war with Turkey and the annexation of Crete, and +the government drew up a reply to the powers in which, while +expressing the conviction that autonomy would prove a failure, +it indicated its readiness to withdraw some of the ships, but +declined to recall the army. A suggestion that the troops might +receive a European mandate for the preservation of order in +the island proved unacceptable to the powers, owing to the +aggressive action of Colonel Vassos after his arrival. Meanwhile +troops, volunteers and munitions of war were hurriedly +despatched to the Turkish frontier in anticipation of an international +blockade of the Greek ports, but the powers contented +themselves with a pacific blockade of Crete, and military preparations +went on unimpeded.</p> + +<p>While the powers dallied, the danger of war increased; on +29th March the crown prince assumed command of the Greek +troops in Thessaly, and a few days later hostilities +were precipitated by the irregular forces of the Ethniké +<span class="sidenote">War with Turkey.</span> +Hetaerea, which attacked several Turkish outposts +near Grevena. According to a report of its proceedings, subsequently +published by the society, this invasion received the +previous sanction of the prime minister. On 17th April Turkey +declared war. The disastrous campaign which followed was of +short duration, and it was evident from the outset that the +Greeks had greatly underrated the military strength of their +opponents (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greco-Turkish War</a></span>). After the evacuation +of Larissa on the 24th, great discontent prevailed at Athens; +Delyannes was invited by the king to resign, but refusing to do +so was dismissed (29th April). His successor, Rhalles, after +recalling the army from Crete (9th May) invoked the mediation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span> +of the powers, and an armistice was concluded on the 19th of +that month. Thus ended an unfortunate enterprise, which +was undertaken in the hope that discord among the powers +would lead to a European war and the dismemberment of Turkey. +Greek interference in Crete had at least the result of compelling +Europe to withdraw the island for ever from Turkish rule. The +conditions of peace put forward by Turkey included a war +indemnity of £10,000,000 and the retention of Thessaly; the +latter demand, however, was resolutely opposed by Great +Britain, and the indemnity was subsequently reduced to +£4,000,000. The terms agreed to by the powers were rejected +by Rhalles; the chamber, however, refused him a vote of +confidence and King George summoned Zaimes to power +(October 3). The definitive treaty of peace, which was signed +at Constantinople on the 6th of December, contained a provision +for a slight modification of the frontier, designed to afford +Turkey certain strategical advantages; the delimitation was +carried out by a commission composed of military delegates of +the powers and representatives of the interested parties. The +evacuation of Thessaly by the Turkish troops was completed +in June 1898. An immediate result of the war was the institution +of an international financial commission at Athens, charged with +the control of certain revenues assigned to the service of the +national debt. The state of the country after the conclusion of +hostilities was deplorable; the towns of northern Greece and +the islands were crowded with destitute refugees from Thessaly; +violent recriminations prevailed at Athens, and the position of +the dynasty seemed endangered. A reaction, however, set in, +in consequence of an attempt to assassinate King George (28th +February 1898), whose great services to the nation in obtaining +favourable terms from the powers began to receive general +recognition. In the following summer the king made a tour +through the country, and was everywhere received with +enthusiasm. In the autumn the powers, on the initiative of +Russia, decided to entrust Prince George of Greece with the +government of Crete; on 26th November an intimation that +the prince had been appointed high commissioner in the island +was formally conveyed to the court of Athens, and on 21st +December he landed in Crete amid enthusiastic demonstrations +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In April 1899 Zaimes gave way to Theotokes, the chief of +the Trikoupist party, who introduced various improvements in +the administration of justice and other reforms including +a measure transferring the administration of the +<span class="sidenote">Macedonian troubles.</span> +army from the minister of war to the crown prince. +In May 1901 a meeting took place at Abbazia, under the +auspices of the Austro-Hungarian government, between King +George and King Charles of Rumania with a view to the conclusion +of a Graeco-Rumanian understanding directed against the growth +of Slavonic, and especially Bulgarian, influence in Macedonia. +The compact, however, was destined to be short-lived owing +to the prosecution of a Rumanian propaganda among the +semi-Hellenized Vlachs of Macedonia. In November riots took +place at Athens, the patriotic indignation of the university +students and the populace being excited by the issue of a translation +of the Gospels into modern Greek at the suggestion of the +queen. The publication was attributed to Panslavist intrigues +against Greek supremacy over the Orthodox populations of +the East, and the archbishop of Athens was compelled to resign. +Theotokes, whose life was attempted, retired from power, and +Zaimes formed a cabinet. In 1902 the progress of the Bulgarian +movement in Macedonia once more caused great irritation in +Greece. Zaimes, having been defeated at the elections in +December, resigned, and was succeeded by Delyannes, whose +popularity had not been permanently impaired by the misfortunes +of the war. Delyannes now undertook to carry out extensive +economic reforms, and introduced a measure restoring the +control of the army to the ministry of war. He failed, however, +to carry out his programme, and, being deserted by a section +of his followers, resigned in June 1903, when Theotokes again +became prime minister. The new cabinet resigned within a +month owing to the outbreak of disturbances in the currant-growing +districts, and Rhalles took office for the second time +(July 8). The Bulgarian insurrection in Macedonia during the +autumn caused great excitement in Athens, and Rhalles adopted +a policy of friendship with Turkey (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Macedonia</a></span>). The +co-operation of the Greek party in Macedonia with the Turkish +authorities exposed it to the vengeance of the insurgents, and +in the following year a number of Greek bands were sent into +that country. The campaign of retaliation was continued in +subsequent years.</p> + +<p>In December Rhalles, who had lost the support of the +Delyannist party, was replaced by Theotokes, who promulgated +a scheme of army reorganization, introduced various +economies and imposed fresh taxation. In December +<span class="sidenote">Murder of Delyannes.</span> +the government was defeated on a vote of confidence +and Delyannes once more became prime minister, obtaining a +considerable majority in the elections which followed (March +1905), but on the 13th of June he was assassinated. He was +succeeded by Rhalles, who effected a settlement of the currant +question and cultivated friendly relations with Turkey in regard +to Macedonia.</p> + +<p>In the autumn anti-Greek demonstrations in Rumania led +to a rupture of relations with that country. In December the +ministry resigned owing to an adverse vote of the chamber, +and Theotokes formed a cabinet. The new government, as a +preliminary to military and naval reorganization, introduced +a law directed against the candidature of military officers for +parliament. Owing to obstruction practised by the military +members of the chamber a dissolution took place, and at the +subsequent elections (April 1906) Theotokes secured a large +majority. In the autumn various excesses committed against +the Greeks in Bulgaria in reprisal for the depredations of the +Greek bands in Macedonia caused great indignation in Greece, +but diplomatic relations between the two countries were not +suspended. On the 26th of September Prince George, who had +resigned the high commissionership of Crete, returned to Athens; +the designation of his successors was accorded by the protecting +powers to King George as a satisfaction to Greek national sentiment +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>). The great increase in the activity of the +Greek bands in Macedonia during the following spring and summer +led to the delivery of a Turkish note at Athens (July 1907), +which was supported by representations of the powers.</p> + +<p>In October 1908 the proclamation by the Cretan assembly of +union with Greece threatened fresh complications, the cautious +attitude of the Greek government leading to an agitation in the +army, which came to a head in 1909. On the 18th of July a +popular demonstration against his Cretan policy led to the +resignation of Theotokes, whose successor, Rhalles, announced +a programme of military and economical reform. The army, +however, took matters into its own hands, and on the 23rd of +August Rhalles was replaced by Mavromichales, the nominee of +the “Military League.” For the next six months constitutional +government was practically superseded by that of the League, +and for a while the crown itself seemed to be in danger. The +influence of the League, however, rapidly declined; army and +navy quarrelled; and a fresh <i>coup d’état</i> at the beginning of 1910 +failed of its effect, owing to the firmness of the king. On the 7th +of February Mavromichales resigned, and his successor, Dragoumis, +accepting the Cretan leader Venezelo’s suggestion of a +national assembly, succeeded in persuading the League to +dissolve (March 29) on receiving the king’s assurance that such +an assembly would be convened. On the 31st, accordingly, +King George formally proclaimed the convocation of a national +assembly to deal with the questions at issue.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i> (Oxford, 1877); K. N. +Sathas, <span class="grk" title="Mesaiônikê Bibliothêkê">Μεσαιωνικὴ βιβλιοθήκη</span> (7 vols., Venice, 1872-1894); and +<span class="grk" title="Mnêmeia Hellênikês historias">Μνημεῖα Ἑλληνικῆς ἱστορίας</span>. <i>Documents inédits relatifs à l’histoire du +moyen âge</i> (9 vols., Paris, 1880-1890); Sp. Trikoupes, <span class="grk" title="Historia tês +Hellênikês epanastaseôs">Ἱστορία τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς ἐπαναστάσεως</span> (4 vols., 3rd ed., Athens, 1888); K. +Paparrhegopoulos, <span class="grk" title="Historia tou Hellênikou ethnous">Ἱστορία τοῦ Ἑλληνικοῦ ἔθνους</span> (5 vols., 4th ed., +Athens, 1903); J. Philemon, <span class="grk" title="Dokimion historikon peri tês Hellênikês +epanastaseôs">Δοκίμιον ἱστορικὸν περὶ τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς ἐπσναστάσεως</span> (Athens, 1859-1861); P. Kontoyannes, <span class="grk" title="Oi Hellênes kata +ton prôton epi Aikaterinês 'Rhôssotourkikon polemon">Οἱ Ἕλληνες κατὰ τὸν πρῶτον ἐπὶ Αἰκατερίνης Ῥωσσοτουρκικὸν πόλεμον</span> (Athens, 1903); +D. G. Kampouroglos, <span class="grk" title="Historia tôn Athênaiôn, Tourkokratia,">Ἱστορία τῶν Ἀθηναίων, Τουρκοκρατία</span>, 1458-1687 +(2 vols., Athens, 1889-1890); and <span class="grk" title="Mnêmeia tês historias tôn Athênaiôn">Μνημεῖα τῆς ἱστορίας τῶν Ἀθηναίων</span>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span> +(3 vols., Athens, 1889-1892); G. E. Mavrogiannes, <span class="grk" title="Historia tôn Ioniôn +nêsôn,">Ἱστορία τῶν Ἰονίων νήσων</span>, 1797-1815 (2 vols., Athens, 1889); P. Karolides, <span class="grk" title="Historia tou +ith aiônos">Ἱστορία τοῦ ιθ᾿ αἰῶνος</span>, 1814-1892 (Athens, 1891-1893); E. Kyriakides, <span class="grk" title="Historia +tou sugchronou Hellênismou">Ἱστορία τοῦ συγχρόνου Ἑλληνισμοῦ</span> 1832-1892 (2 vols., Athens, 1892); G. +Konstantinides, <span class="grk" title="Historia tôn Hathênôn apo Xristou gennêseôs mechri tou">Ἱστορία τῶν Ἀθηνῶν ἀπὸ Χριστοῦ γεννήσεως μεχρὶ τοῦ</span> 1821 +(2nd ed., Athens, 1894); D. Bikelas, <i>La Grèce byzantine et moderne</i> +(Paris, 1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Language</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Law</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek +Literature</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Religion</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For the Geology of Greece see: M. Neumayr, &c., <i>Denks. k. +Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. Cl.</i> vol. xl. (1880); A. Philippson, <i>Der +Peloponnes</i> (Berlin, 1892) and “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der griechischen +Inselwelt,” <i>Peterm. Mitt.</i>, Ergänz.-heft No. 134 (1901); R. Lepsius, +<i>Geologie von Attika</i> (Berlin, 1893); L. Cayeux, “Phénomènes de +charriage dans la Méditerranée orientale,” <i>C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris</i>, +vol. cxxxvi. (1903) pp. 474-476; J. Deprat, “Note préliminaire sur la +géologie de l’île d’Eubée,” <i>Bull. Soc. Géol. France</i>, ser. 4, vol. iii. +(1903) pp. 229-243, p. vii. and “Note sur la géologie du massif +du Pélion et sur l’influence exercée par les massifs archéens sur la +tectonique de l’Égéide,” <i>ib.</i> vol. iv. (1904), pp. 299-338.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> No state survey of Greece was available in 1908, though a +survey had been undertaken by the ministry of war.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4g" id="ft4g" href="#fa4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It would be more accurate to say to the year 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At +Cnossus the palace is sacked soon after this date, and the art, both +in Crete and in the whole Aegean area, becomes lifeless and decadent.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5g" id="ft5g" href="#fa5g"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See T. W. Allen in the <i>Classical Review</i>, vol. xx. (1906), No. 4 +(May).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6g" id="ft6g" href="#fa6g"><span class="fn">6</span></a> It has been impugned by J. Beloch, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i. +149 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7g" id="ft7g" href="#fa7g"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>History of Greece</i> (Eng. trans., i. 32 ff.); cf. the same writer’s +<i>Ioner vor der ionischen Wanderung</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8g" id="ft8g" href="#fa8g"><span class="fn">8</span></a> If the account of early Athenian constitutional history given in +the <i>Athenaion Politeia</i> were accepted, it would follow that the +archons were inferior in authority to the Eupatrid Boulē, the +Areopagus.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9g" id="ft9g" href="#fa9g"><span class="fn">9</span></a> The dates before the middle of the 7th century are in most cases +artificial, <i>e.g.</i> those given by Thucydides (book vi.) for the earlier +Sicilian settlements. See J. P. Mahaffy, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, +ii. 164 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10g" id="ft10g" href="#fa10g"><span class="fn">10</span></a> At Syracuse the <i>demos</i> makes common cause with the Sicel +serf-population against the nobles (Herod. vii. 155).</p> + +<p><a name="ft11g" id="ft11g" href="#fa11g"><span class="fn">11</span></a> An exception should perhaps be made in the case of Thucydides.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12g" id="ft12g" href="#fa12g"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The Peisistratidae come off better, however.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13g" id="ft13g" href="#fa13g"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The numbers given by Herodotus (upwards of 5,000,000) are +enormously exaggerated. We must divide by ten or fifteen to +arrive at a probable estimate of the forces that actually crossed +the Hellespont.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14g" id="ft14g" href="#fa14g"><span class="fn">14</span></a> It has been denied by some writers (<i>e.g.</i> by A. H. J. Greenidge) +that Athens interfered with the constitutions of the subject-states. +For the view put forward in the text, the following passages may +be quoted: Aristotle, <i>Politics</i> 1307 b 20; Isocrates, <i>Panegyricus</i>, +105, 106, <i>Panathenaicus</i>, 54 and 68; Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, iii. 4. 7; +Ps.-Xen. <i>Athen. Constit.</i> i. 14, iii. 10.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15g" id="ft15g" href="#fa15g"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The evidence seems to indicate that all the more important +criminal cases throughout the empire were tried in the Athenian +courts. In civil cases Athens secured to the citizens of the subject-states +the right of suing Athenian citizens, as well as citizens of other +subject-states.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16g" id="ft16g" href="#fa16g"><span class="fn">16</span></a> After this date, and partly in consequence of the change, the +archonship, to which sortition was applied, loses its importance. +The <i>strategi</i> (generals) become the chief executive officials. As election +was never replaced by the lot in their case, the change had less +practical meaning than might appear at first sight. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><a name="ft17g" id="ft17g" href="#fa17g"><span class="fn">17</span></a> For an estimate of the numbers annually engaged in the service +of Athens, see Aristot. <i>Ath. Pol.</i> 24. 3.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18g" id="ft18g" href="#fa18g"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Foreign is not used here as equivalent to non-Hellenic. It means +“belonging to another state, whether Greek or barbarian.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft19g" id="ft19g" href="#fa19g"><span class="fn">19</span></a> It failed even to create a united Arcadia or a strong Messenia.</p> + +<p><a name="ft20g" id="ft20g" href="#fa20g"><span class="fn">20</span></a> See Demosthenes, <i>On the Crown</i>, 235. Philip was <span class="grk" title="autokratôr, +despotês, êgemôn, kurios panton.">αὐτοκράτωρ, δεσπότης, ἡγεμών, κύριος πάντων</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft21g" id="ft21g" href="#fa21g"><span class="fn">21</span></a> See <i>Archidamus</i>, 68; Philippus, 96, <span class="grk" title="ôste raon eínai sustêsai +stratopedon meizon kai kreltton ek ton planômênôn e ek ton politeuomenon.">ὤστε ῥᾷον εἶναι συστῆσαι στρατόπεδον μεῖζον καὶ κρεῖττον ἐκ τῶν πλανωμένων ῆ ἐκ τῶν πολιτευομένων</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft22g" id="ft22g" href="#fa22g"><span class="fn">22</span></a> The <i>Liturgies</i> (<i>e.g.</i> the trierarchy) had much the same effect as +a direct tax levied upon the wealthiest citizens.</p> + +<p><a name="ft23g" id="ft23g" href="#fa23g"><span class="fn">23</span></a> His extreme caution in approaching the question at an earlier +date is to be noticed. See, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>Olynthiacs</i>, i. 19, 20.</p> + +<p><a name="ft24g" id="ft24g" href="#fa24g"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> the two expeditions sent to Euboea, the cavalry force that +took part in the battle of Mantinea, and the army that fought at +Chaeronea. The troops in all these cases were citizens.</p> + +<p><a name="ft25g" id="ft25g" href="#fa25g"><span class="fn">25</span></a> For the altered character of warfare see Demosthenes, <i>Philippics</i>, +iii. 48, 49.</p> + +<p><a name="ft26g" id="ft26g" href="#fa26g"><span class="fn">26</span></a> It is known that the councillors were appointed by the states +in the Aetolian league; it is only surmised in the case of the Achaean.</p> + +<p><a name="ft27g" id="ft27g" href="#fa27g"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Strictly speaking, to 411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> For the last seven years of the +war our principal authority is Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, i., ii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft28g" id="ft28g" href="#fa28g"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Possibly some of his information about Persian affairs may have +been derived, at first or second hand, from Zopyrus, son of Megabyzus, +whose flight to Athens is mentioned in iii. 160.</p> + +<p><a name="ft29g" id="ft29g" href="#fa29g"><span class="fn">29</span></a> For a defence of Thucydides’ judgment on all three statesmen, +see E. Meyer, <i>Forschungen</i>, ii. 296-379.</p> + +<p><a name="ft30g" id="ft30g" href="#fa30g"><span class="fn">30</span></a> On the discrepancies between Xenophon’s account of the Thirty, +and Aristotle’s, see G. Busolt, <i>Hermes</i> (1898), pp. 71-86.</p> + +<p><a name="ft31g" id="ft31g" href="#fa31g"><span class="fn">31</span></a> The fragment of the New Historian (<i>Oxyrhynchus Papyri</i>, vol. v.) +affords exceedingly important material for the criticism of Xenophon’s +narrative. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theopompus</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><a name="ft32g" id="ft32g" href="#fa32g"><span class="fn">32</span></a> Vol. iii. goes down to the end of the Peloponnesian War.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEK ART.<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> It is proposed in the present article to give a +brief account of the history of Greek art and of the principles +embodied in that history. In any broad view of history, the +products of the various arts practised by a people constitute an +objective and most important record of the spirit of that people. +But all nations have not excelled in the same way: some have +found their best expression in architecture, some in music, some +in poetry. The Greeks most fully embodied their ideas in two +ways, first in their splendid literature, both prose and verse, and +secondly, in their plastic and pictorial art, in which matter they +have remained to our days among the greatest instructors of +mankind. The three arts of architecture, sculpture and painting +were brought by them into a focus; and by their aid they produced +a visible splendour of public life such as has perhaps been +nowhere else attained.</p> + +<p>The volume of the remains of Greek civilization is so vast, and +the learning with which these have been discussed is so ample, +that it is hopeless to attempt to give in a work like the present +any complete account of either. Rather we shall be frankly +eclectic, choosing for consideration such results of Greek art +as are most noteworthy and most characteristic. In some cases +it will be possible to give a reference to a more detailed treatment +of particular monuments in these volumes under the +heading of the places to which they belong. Architectural +detail is relegated to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span> and allied architectural +articles. Coins (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>) and gems (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gems</a></span>) are +treated apart, as are vases (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>), and in the bibliography +which closes this article an effort is made to direct those who +wish for further information in any particular branch of our +subject.</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Rediscovery of Greek Art.</i>—The visible works of Greek +architect, sculptor and painter, accumulated in the cities of +Greece and Asia Minor until the Roman conquest. And in spite +of the ravages of conquering Roman generals, and the more +systematic despoilings of the emperors, we know that when +Pausanias visited Greece, in the age of the Antonines, it was from +coast to coast a museum of works of art of all ages. But the tide +soon turned. Works of originality were no longer produced, and +a succession of disasters gradually obliterated those of previous +ages. In the course of the Teutonic and Slavonic invasions from +the north, or in consequence of earthquakes, very frequent in +Greece, the splendid cities and temples fell into ruins; and +with the taking of Constantinople by the Franks in 1204 the last +great collection of works of Greek sculpture disappeared. But +while paintings decayed, and works in metal were melted down, +many marble buildings and statues survived, at least in a +mutilated condition, while terra-cotta is almost proof against +decay.</p> + +<p>With the Renaissance attention was directed to the extant +remains of Greek and Roman art; as early as the 15th century +collections of ancient sculpture, coins and gems began to be formed +in Italy; and in the 16th the enthusiasm spread to Germany and +France. The earl of Arundel, in the reign of James I., was the +first Englishman to collect antiques from Italy and Asia Minor: +his marbles are now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. +Systematic travel in Greece for the discovery of buildings and +works of art was begun by Spon and Wheler (1675-1676); and +the discovery of Pompeii in 1748 opened a new chapter in the +history of ancient art.</p> + +<p>But though kings delighted to form galleries of ancient statues, +and the great Italian artists of the Renaissance drew from them +inspiration for their paintings and bronzes, the first really +critical appreciation of Greek art belongs to Winckelmann +(<i>Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums</i>, 1764). The monuments +accessible to Winckelmann were but a very small proportion of +those we now possess, and in fact mostly works of inferior merit: +but he was the first to introduce the historical method into the +treatment of ancient art, and to show how it embodied the +ideas of the great peoples of the ancient world. He was succeeded +by Lessing, and the waves of thought and feeling set +in motion by these two affected the cultivated class in all nations,—they +inspired in particular Goethe in Germany and Lord Byron +in England.</p> + +<p>The second stage in the recovery of Greek art begins with the +permission accorded by the Porte to Lord Elgin in 1800 to remove +to England the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon +and other buildings of Athens. These splendid works, after +various vicissitudes, became the property of the English nation, +and are now the chief treasures of the British Museum. The +sight of them was a revelation to critics and artists, accustomed +only to the base copies which fill the Italian galleries, and a new +epoch in the appreciation of Greek art began. English and +German savants, among whom Cockerell and Stackelberg were +conspicuous, recovered the glories of the temples of Aegina and +Bassae. Leake and Ross, and later Curtius, journeyed through +the length and breadth of Greece, identifying ancient sites and +studying the monuments which were above ground. Ross reconstructed +the temple of Athena Nikē on the Acropolis of Athens +from fragments rescued from a Turkish bastion.</p> + +<p>Meantime more methodical exploration brought to light the +remains of remarkable civilizations in Asia, not only in the valley +of the Euphrates, but in Lycia, whence Sir Charles Fellows +brought to London the remains of noteworthy tombs, among +which the so-called Harpy Monument and Nereid Monument +take the first place. Still more important were the accessions +derived from the excavations of Sir Charles Newton, who in the +years 1852-1859 resided as consul in Asia Minor, and explored +the sites of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the shrine of +Demeter at Cnidus. Pullan at Priene, and Wood at Ephesus also +made fruitful excavations.</p> + +<p>The next landmark is set by the German excavations at +Olympia (1876 and foll.), which not only were conducted with +a scientific completeness before unknown, and at great cost, but +also established the principle that in future all the results of +excavations in Greece must remain in the country, the right of +first publication only remaining with the explorers. The discovery +of the Hermes of Praxiteles, almost the only certain +original of a great Greek sculptor which we possess, has furnished +a new and invaluable fulcrum for the study of ancient art. +In emulation of the achievements of the Germans at Olympia, +the Greek archaeological society methodically excavated the +Athenian acropolis, and were rewarded by finding numerous +statues and fragments of pediments belonging to the age of +Peisistratus, an age when the promise of art was in full bud. +More recently French explorers have made a very thorough +examination of the site of Delphi, and have succeeded in recovering +almost complete two small treasuries, those of the people of +Athens and of Cnidus or Siphnos, the latter of 6th-century +Ionian work, and adorned with extremely important sculpture.</p> + +<p>No other site of the same importance as Athens, Olympia and +Delphi remains for excavation in Greece proper. But in all +parts of the country, at Tegea, Corinth, Sparta and on a number +of other ancient sites, striking and important monuments have +come to light. And at the same time monuments already known +in Italy and Sicily, such as the temples of Paestum, Selinus and +Agrigentum have been re-examined with fuller knowledge and +better system. Only Asia Minor, under the influence of Turkish +rule, has remained a country where systematic exploration is +difficult. Something, however, has been accomplished at Ephesus, +Priene, Assos and Miletus, and great works of sculpture such as +the reliefs of the great altar at Pergamum, now at Berlin, and the +splendid sarcophagi from Sidon, now at Constantinople, show +what might be expected from methodic investigation of the +wealthy Greek cities of Asia.</p> + +<p>From further excavations at Herculaneum we may expect a +rich harvest of works of art of the highest class, such as have +already been found in the excavations on that site in the past; +and the building operations at Rome are constantly bringing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span> +to light fine statues brought from Greece in the time of the +Empire, which are now placed in the collections of the Capitol +and the Baths of Diocletian.</p> + +<p>The work of explorers on Greek sites requires as its complement +and corrective much labour in the great museums of +Europe. As museum work apart from exploration tends to +dilettantism and pedantry, so exploration by itself does not +produce reasoned knowledge. When a new building, a great +original statue, a series of vases is discovered, these have to be +fitted in to the existing frame of our knowledge; and it is by +such fitting in that the edifice of knowledge is enlarged. In all +the museums and universities of Europe the fresh examination +of new monuments, the study of style and subject, and attempts +to work out points in the history of ancient art, are incessantly +going on. Such archaeological work is an important element in +the gradual education of the world, and is fruitful, quite apart +from the particular results attained, because it encourages a +method of thought. Archaeology, dealing with things which +can be seen and handled, yet being a species of historic study, +lies on the borderland between the province of natural science +and that of historic science, and furnishes a bridge whereby the +methods of investigation proper to physical and biological study +may pass into the human field.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>These investigations and studies are recorded, partly in books, but +more particularly in papers in learned journals (see bibliography), +such as the <i>Mitteilungen</i> of the German Institute, and the <i>English +Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>An example or two may serve to give the reader a clearer +notion of the recent progress in the knowledge of Greek art.</p> + +<p>To begin with architecture. Each of the palmary sites of +which we have spoken has rendered up examples of early Greek +temples. At Olympia there is the Heraeum, earliest of known +temples of Greece proper, which clearly shows the process +whereby stone gradually superseded wood as a constructive +material. At Delphi the explorers have been so fortunate as to +be able to put together the treasuries of the Cnidians (or +Siphnians) and of the Athenians. The former (see fig. 17) is a +gem of early Ionic art, with two Caryatid figures in front in the +place of columns, and adorned with the most delicate tracery +and fine reliefs. On the Athenian acropolis very considerable +remains have been found of temples which were destroyed by +the Persians when they temporarily occupied the site in 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +And recently the ever-renewed study of the Erechtheum has +resulted in a restoration of its original form more valuable and +trustworthy than any previously made.</p> + +<p>In the field of sculpture recent discoveries have been too many +and too important to be mentioned at any length. One instance +may serve to mark the rapidity of our advance. When the +remains of the Mausoleum were brought to London from the +excavations begun by Sir Charles Newton in 1856 we knew from +Pliny that four great sculptors, Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and +Timotheus, had worked on the sculpture; but we knew of these +artists little more than the names. At present we possess many +fragments of two pediments at Tegea executed under the direction +of Scopas, we have a basis with reliefs signed by Bryaxis, we +have identified a group in the Vatican museum as a copy of the +Ganymede of Leochares, and we have pedimental remains from +Epidaurus which we know from inscriptional evidence to be +either the works of Timotheus or made from his models. Any one +can judge how enormously our power of criticizing the Mausoleum +sculptures, and of comparing them with contemporary monuments, +has increased.</p> + +<p>In regard to ancient painting we can of course expect no such +fresh illumination. Many important wail-paintings of the Roman +age have been found at Rome and Pompeii: but we have no +certain or even probable work of any great Greek painter. We +have to content ourselves with studying the colouring of reliefs, +such as those of the sarcophagi at Constantinople, and the +drawings on vases, in order to get some notion of the composition +and drawing of painted scenes in the great age of Greece. As +to the portraits of the Roman age painted on wood which have +come in considerable quantities from Egypt, they stand at a far +lower level than even the paintings of Pompeii. The number of +our vase-paintings, however, increases steadily, and whole +classes, such as the early vases of Ionia, are being marked off +from the crowd, and so becoming available for use in illustrating +the history of Hellenic civilization.</p> + +<p>The study of Greek art is thus one which is eminently progressive. +It has over the study of Greek literature the immense +advantage that its materials increase far more rapidly. And it +is becoming more and more evident that a sound and methodic +study of Greek art is quite as indispensable as a foundation for +an artistic and archaeological education as the study of Greek +poets and orators is as a basis of literary education. The extreme +simplicity and thorough rationality of Greek art make it an +unrivalled field for the training and exercise of the faculties +which go to the making of the art-critic and art historian.</p> + +<p>2. <i>The General Principles of Greek Art.</i>—Before proceeding +to sketch the history of the rise and decline of Greek art, it is +desirable briefly to set forth the principles which underlie it +(see also P. Gardner’s <i>Grammar of Greek Art</i>).</p> + +<p>As the literature of Greece is composed in a particular language, +the grammar and the syntax of which have to be studied before +the works in poetry and prose can be read, so Greek works of art +are composed in what may be called an artistic language. To +the accidence of a grammar may be compared the mere technique +of sculpture and painting: to the syntax of a grammar correspond +the principles of composition and grouping of individual +figures into a relief or picture. By means of the rules of this +grammar the Greek artist threw into form the ideas which +belonged to him as a personal or a racial possession.</p> + +<p>We may mention first some of the more external conditions +of Greek art; next, some of those which the Greek spirit posited +for itself.</p> + +<p>No nation is in its works wholly free from the domination of +climate and geographical position; least of all a people so keenly +alive to the influence of the outer world as the Greeks. They +lived in a land where the soil was dry and rocky, far less hospitable +to vegetation than that of western Europe, while on all sides +the horizon of the land was bounded by hard and jagged lines +of mountain. The sky was extremely clear and bright, sunshine +for a great part of the year almost perpetual, and storms, which +are more than passing gales, rare. It was in accordance with these +natural features that temples and other buildings should be +simple in form and bounded by clear lines. Such forms as +the cube, the oblong, the cylinder, the triangle, the pyramid +abound in their constructions. Just as in Switzerland the gables +of the chalets match the pine-clad slopes and lofty summits of +the mountains, so in Greece, amid barer hills of less elevation, +the Greek temple looks thoroughly in place. But its construction +is related not only to the surface of the land, but also to the +character of the race. M. Émile Boutmy, in his interesting +<i>Philosophie de l’architecture en Grèce</i>, has shown how the temple +is a triumph of the senses and the intellect, not primarily +emotional, but showing in every part definite purpose and +design. It also exhibits in a remarkable degree the love of +balance, of symmetry, of a mathematical proportion of parts and +correctness of curvature which belong to the Greek artist.</p> + +<p>The purposes of a Greek temple may be readily judged from +its plan. Primarily it was the abode of the deity, whose statue +dwelt in it as men dwell in their own houses. Hence the cella +or <i>naos</i> is the central feature of the building. Here was placed +the image to which worship was brought, while the treasures +belonging to the god were disposed partly in the cella itself, +partly in a kind of treasury which often existed, as in the +Parthenon, behind the cella. There was in large temples a +porch of approach, the <i>pronaos</i>, and another behind, the <i>opisthodomos</i>. +Temples were not meant for, nor accommodated to, +regular services or a throng of worshippers. Processions and +festivals took place in the open air, in the streets and fields, and +men entered the abodes of the gods at most in groups and +families, commonly alone. Thus when a place had been found +for the statue, which stood for the presence of the god, for the +small altar of incense, for the implements of cult and the gifts of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span> +votaries, little space remained free, and great spaces or subsidiary +chapels such as are usual in Christian cathedrals did not exist +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Temple</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Here our concern is not with the purposes or arrangements +of a temple, but with its appearance and construction, regarded +as a work of art, and as an embodiment of Greek ideas. A few +simple and striking principles may be formulated, which are +characteristic of all Greek buildings:—</p> + +<p>(i.) Each member of the building has one function, and only +one, and this function controls even the decoration of that +member. The pillar of a temple is made to support the architrave +and is for that purpose only. The flutings of the pillar, being +perpendicular, emphasize this fact. The line of support which +runs up through the pillar is continued in the triglyph, which +also shows perpendicular grooves. On the other hand, the wall +of a temple is primarily meant to divide or space off; thus it +may well at the top be decorated by a horizontal band of relief, +which belongs to it as a border belongs to a curtain. The base of +a column, if moulded, is moulded in such a way as to suggest +support of a great weight; the capital of a column is so carved +as to form a transition between the column and the cornice which +it supports.</p> + +<p>(ii.) Greek architects took the utmost pains with the proportions, +the symmetry as they called it, of the parts of their +buildings. This was a thing in which the keen and methodical +eyes of the Greeks delighted, to a degree which a modern finds +it hard to understand. Simple and natural relations, 1:2, +1:3, 2:3 and the like, prevailed between various members of a +construction. All curves were planned with great care, to +please the eye with their flow; and the alternations and correspondences +of features is visible at a glance. For example, the +temple must have two pediments and two porches, and on its +sides and fronts triglyph and metope must alternate with +unvarying regularity.</p> + +<p>(iii.) Rigidity in the simple lines of a temple is avoided by the +device that scarcely any outline is actually straight. All are +carefully planned and adapted to the eye of the spectator. In +the Parthenon the line of the floor is curved, the profiles of the +columns are curved, the corner columns slope inward from their +bases, the columns are not even equidistant. This elaborate +adaptation, called entasis, was expounded by F. C. Penrose in +his work on Athenian architecture, and has since been observed +in several of the great temples of Greece.</p> + +<p>(iv.) Elaborate decoration is reserved for those parts of the +temple which have, or at least appear to have, no strain laid upon +them. It is true that in the archaic age experiments were made +in carving reliefs on the lower drums of columns (as at Ephesus) +and on the line of the architrave (as at Assus). But such examples +were not followed. Nearly always the spaces reserved for +mythological reliefs or groups are the tops of walls, the spaces +between the triglyphs, and particularly the pediments surmounting +the two fronts, which might be left hollow without danger +to the stability of the edifice. Detached figures in the round are +in fact found only in the pediments, or standing upon the tops +of the pediments. And metopes are sculptured in higher relief +than friezes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“When we examine in detail even the simplest architectural +decoration, we discover a combination of care, sense of proportion, +and reason. The flutings of an Ionic column are not in section mere +arcs of a circle, but made up of a combination of curves which produce +a beautiful optical effect; the lines of decoration, as may be best +seen in the case of the Erechtheum, are cut with a marvellous +delicacy. Instead of trying to invent new schemes, the mason +contents himself with improving the regular patterns until they +approach perfection, and he takes everything into consideration. +Mouldings on the outside of a temple, in the full light of the sun, are +differently planned from those in the diffused light of the interior. +Mouldings executed in soft stone are less fine than those in marble. +The mason thinks before he works, and while he works, and thinks +in entire correspondence with his surroundings.”<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>Greek architecture, however, is treated elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>); +we will therefore proceed to speak briefly of the +principles exemplified in sculpture. Existing works of Greek +sculpture fall easily into two classes. The first class comprises +what may be called works of substantive art, statues or groups +made for their own sake and to be judged by themselves. Such +are cult-statues of gods and goddesses from temple and shrine, +honorary portraits of rulers or of athletes, dedicated groups +and the like. The second class comprises decorative sculptures, +such as were made, usually in relief, for the decoration of temples +and tombs and other buildings, and were intended to be subordinate +to architectural effect.</p> + +<p>Speaking broadly, it may be said that the works of substantive +sculpture in our museums are in the great majority of cases +copies of doubtful exactness and very various merit. The +Hermes of Praxiteles is almost the only marble statue which can +be assigned positively to one of the great sculptors; we have to +work back towards the productions of the peers of Praxiteles +through works of poor execution, often so much restored in modern +times as to be scarcely recognizable. Decorative works, on the +other hand, are very commonly originals, and their date can often +be accurately fixed, as they belong to known buildings. They are +thus infinitely more trustworthy and more easy to deal with than +the copies of statues of which the museums of Europe, and more +especially those of Italy, are full. They are also more commonly +unrestored. But yet there are certain disadvantages attaching +to them. Decorative works, even when carried out under the +supervision of a great sculptor, were but seldom executed by him. +Usually they were the productions of his pupils or masons. +Thus they are not on the same level of art as substantive sculpture. +And they vary in merit to an extraordinary extent, according +to the capacity of the man who happened to have them in hand, +and who was probably but little controlled. Every one knows +how noble are the pedimental sculptures of the Parthenon. But +we know no reason why they should be so vastly superior to the +frieze from Phigalia; nor why the heads from the temple at Tegea +should be so fine, while those from the contemporary temple +at Epidaurus should be comparatively insignificant. From the +records of payments made to the sculptors who worked on the +Erechtheum at Athens it appears that they were ordinary masons, +some of them not even citizens, and paid at the rate of 60 drachms +(about 60 francs) for each figure, whether of man or horse, which +they produced. Such piece-work would not, in our days, produce +a very satisfactory result.</p> + +<p>Works of substantive sculpture may be divided into two +classes, the statues of human beings and those of the gods. +The line between the two is not, however, very easy to draw, +or very definite. For in representing men the Greek sculptor +had an irresistible inclination to idealize, to represent what was +generic and typical rather than what was individual, and the +essential rather than the accidental. And in representing +deities he so fully anthropomorphized them that they became +men and women, only raised above the level of everyday life +and endowed with a superhuman stateliness. Moreover, there +was a class of heroes represented largely in art who covered +the transition from men to gods. For example, if one regards +Heracles as a deity and Achilles as a man of the heroic age and of +heroic mould, the line between the two will be found to be very +narrow.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:342px; height:511px" src="images/img472a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:437px; height:494px" src="images/img472b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Brogi.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Brogi.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 50. HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON.<br /> +(Nat. Mus. Naples.)</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 51. FARNESE BULL. (Naples.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:370px; height:498px" src="images/img472c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:409px; height:506px" src="images/img472d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 52. LAOCOON GROUP. (Vatican.)</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 53. GANYMEDE OF LEOCHARES. (Vatican.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:152px; height:646px" src="images/img472e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:383px; height:611px" src="images/img472f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 54.—FLYING OF<br />MARSYAS. (Villa<br />Albani, Rome.)</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 55.—APOLLO OF THE BELVIDERE. (Vatican.)</td></tr></table> + +</td><td> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:194px; height:287px" src="images/img472g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 56.—HEAD OF YOUNG<br />ALEXANDER. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:185px; height:347px" src="images/img472h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Seebah.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 57.—HERMES OF<br />ALCAMENES. (Constantinople.)</td></tr></table> + +</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:165px; height:337px" src="images/img472i.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:312px; height:328px" src="images/img472j.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:193px; height:329px" src="images/img472k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"> </td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Mansell.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Baldwin Coolidge.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 58.—THESEUS AND<br />AMAZON (ERETRIA).</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 59.—DRUM OF COLUMN FROM EPHESUS.<br />(Brit. Mus.)</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 60.—YOUNG HERMES.<br />(Mus. of Fine Arts, Boston.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Nevertheless one may for convenience speak first of human +and afterwards of divine figures. It was the custom from the +6th century onwards to honour those who had done any great +achievement by setting up their statues in conspicuous positions. +One of the earliest examples is that of the tyrannicides, Harmodius +and Aristogiton, a group, a copy of which has come down to us +(Plate I. fig. 50<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a>). Again, people who had not won any distinction +were in the habit of dedicating to the deities portraits of +themselves or of a priest or priestess, thus bringing themselves, +as it were, constantly under the notice of a divine patron. The +rows of statues before the temples at Miletus, Athens and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span> +elsewhere came thus into being. But from the point of view of +art, by far the most important class of portraits consisted of +athletes who had won victories at some of the great games of +Greece, at Olympia, Delphi or elsewhere. Early in the 6th +century the custom arose of setting up portraits of athletic +victors in the great sacred places. We have records of numberless +such statues executed by all the greatest sculptors. When +Pausanias visited Greece he found them everywhere far too +numerous for complete mention.</p> + +<p>It is the custom of studying and copying the forms of the +finest of the young athletes, combined with the Greek habit of +complete nudity during the sports, which lies at the basis of +Greek excellence in sculpture. Every sculptor had unlimited +opportunities for observing young vigorous bodies in every +pose and in every variety of strain. The natural sense of beauty +which was an endowment of the Greek race impelled him to copy +and preserve what was excellent, and to omit what was ungainly +or poor. Thus there existed, and in fact there was constantly +accumulating, a vast series of types of male beauty, and the +public taste was cultivated to an extreme delicacy. And of +course this taste, though it took its start from athletic customs, +and was mainly nurtured by them, spread to all branches of +portraiture, so that elderly men, women, and at last even children, +were represented in art with a mixture of ideality and fidelity +to nature such as has not been reached by the sculpture of any +other people.</p> + +<p>The statues of the gods began either with stiff and ungainly +figures roughly cut out of the trunk of a tree, or with the +monstrous and symbolical representations of Oriental art. In +the Greece of late times there were still standing rude pillars, +with the tops sometimes cut into a rough likeness to the human +form. And in early decoration of vases and vessels one may +find Greek deities represented with wings, carrying in their hands +lions or griffins, bearing on their heads lofty crowns. But as +Greek art progressed it grew out of this crude symbolism. In +the language of Brunn, the Greek artists borrowed from Oriental +or Mycenaean sources the letters used in their works, but with +these letters they spelled out the ideas of their own nation. +What the artists of Babylon and Egypt express in the character +of the gods by added attribute or symbol, swiftness by wings, +control of storms by the thunderbolt, traits of character by +animal heads, the artists of Greece work more and more fully +into the sculptural type; modifying the human subject by the +constant addition of something which is above the ordinary level +of humanity, until we reach the Zeus of Pheidias or the Demeter +of Cnidus. When the decay of the high ethical art of Greece +sets in, the gods become more and more warped to the merely +human level. They lose their dignity, but they never lose their +charm.</p> + +<p>The decorative sculpture of Greece consists not of single +figures, but of groups; and in the arrangement of these groups +the strict Greek laws of symmetry, of rhythm, and of balance, +come in. We will take the three most usual forms, the pediment, +the metope and the frieze, all of which belong properly to the +temple, but are characteristic of all decoration, whether of tomb, +trophy or other monument.</p> + +<p>The form of the pediment is triangular; the height of the +triangle in proportion to its length being about 1:8. The +conditions of space are here strict and dominant; to comply +with them requires some ingenuity. To a modern sculptor the +problem thus presented is almost insoluble; but it was allowable +in ancient art to represent figures in a single composition as +of various sizes, in correspondence not to actual physical +measurement but to importance. As the more important figures +naturally occupy the midmost place in a pediment, their greater +size comes in conveniently. And by placing some of the persons +of the group in a standing, some in a seated, some in a reclining +position, it can be so contrived that their heads are equidistant +from the upper line of the pediment.</p> + +<p>The statues in a Greek pediment, which are after quite an +early period usually executed in the round, fall into three, five +or seven groups, according to the size of the whole. As examples +to illustrate this exposition we take the two pediments of the +temple at Olympia, the most complete which have come down to +us, which are represented in figs. 33 and 34. The east pediment +represents the preparation for the chariot race between Pelops +and Oenomaus. The central group consists of five figures, Zeus +standing between the two pairs of competitors and their wives. +In the corners recline the two river-gods Alpheus and Cladeus, +who mark the locality; and the two sides are filled up with the +closely corresponding groups of the chariots of Oenomaus and +Pelops with their grooms and attendants. Every figure to the +left of Zeus balances a corresponding figure on his right, and all +the lines of the composition slope towards a point above the +apex of the pediment.</p> + +<p>In the opposite or western pediment is represented the battle +between Lapiths and Centaurs which broke out at the marriage +of Peirithous in Thessaly. Here we have no less than nine groups. +In the midst is Apollo. On each side of him is a group of three, +a centaur trying to carry off a woman and a Lapith striking at +him. Beyond these on each side is a struggling pair, next once +more a trio of two combatants and a woman, and finally in each +corner two reclining female figures, the outermost apparently +nymphs to mark locality. A careful examination of these +compositions will show the reader more clearly than detailed +description how clearly in this kind of group Greek artists +adhered to the rules of rhythm and of balance.</p> + +<p>The metopes were the long series of square spaces which ran +along the outer walls of temples between the upright triglyphs +and the cornice. Originally they may have been left open and +served as windows; but the custom came in as early as the 7th +century, first of filling them in with painted boards or slabs of +stone, and next of adorning them with sculpture. The metopes +of the Treasury of Sicyon at Delphi (Plate IV. fig. 66) are as +early as the first half of the 6th century. This recurrence of a +long series of square fields for occupation well suited the genius +and the habits of the sculptor. As subjects he took the successive +exploits of some hero such as Heracles or Theseus, or the contemporary +groups of a battle. His number of figures was +limited to two or three, and these figures had to be worked into +a group or scheme, the main features of which were determined +by artistic tradition, but which could be varied in a hundred +ways so as to produce a pleasing and in some degree novel result.</p> + +<p>With metopes, as regards shape, we may compare the reliefs +of Greek tombs, which also usually occupy a space roughly +square, and which also comprise but a few figures arranged +in a scheme generally traditional. A figure standing giving +his hand to one seated, two men standing hand in hand, or a +single figure in some vigorous pose is sufficient to satisfy the +simple but severe taste of the Greeks.</p> + +<p>In regard to friezes, which are long reliefs containing figures +ranged between parallel lines, there is more variety of custom. +In temples the height of the relief from the background varies +according to the light in which it was to stand, whether direct +or diffused. Almost all Greek friezes, however, are of great +simplicity in arrangement and perspective. Locality is at most +hinted at by a few stones or trees, never actually portrayed. +There is seldom more than one line of figures, in combat or procession, +their heads all equidistant from the top line of the +frieze. They are often broken up into groups; and when this is +the case, figure will often balance figure on either side of a central +point almost as rigidly as in a pediment. An example of this +will be found in the section of the Mausoleum frieze shown in +fig. 70, Plate IV. Some of the friezes executed by Greek artists +for semi-Greek peoples, such as those adorning the tomb at +Trysa in Lycia, have two planes, the figures in the background +being at a higher level.</p> + +<p>The rules of balance and symmetry in composition which are +followed in Greek decorative art are still more to be discerned +in the paintings of vases, which must serve, in the absence of +more dignified compositions, to enlighten us as to the methods +of Greek painters. Great painters would not, of course, be bound +by architectonic rule in the same degree as the mere workmen +who painted vases. Nevertheless we must never forget that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span> +Greek painting of the earlier ages was of extreme simplicity. It +did not represent localities, save by some slight hint; it had +next to no perspective; the colours used were but very few even +down to the days of Apelles. Most of the great pictures of which +we hear consisted of but one or two figures; and when several +figures were introduced they were kept apart and separately +treated, though, of course, not without relation to one another. +Idealism and ethical purpose must have predominated in painting +as in sculpture and in the drama and in the writing of history.</p> + +<p>We will take from vases a few simple groups to illustrate the +laws of Greek drawing; colouring we cannot illustrate.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:296px" src="images/img474a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(<i>Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Vases</i>, iii, Pl. vi. 2).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Kylix by Epictetus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The fields offered to the draughtsman on Greek vases naturally +follow the form of the vase; but they may be set down as +approximately round, square or oblong. To each of these spaces +the artist carefully adapts his designs. In fig. 1 we have a +characteristic adaptation to circular form by the vase painter +Epictetus.</p> + +<p>In the early period of painting all the space not occupied by the +figures is filled with patterns or accessories, or even animals +which have no connexion with the subject (fig. 9). In later and +more developed art, as in this example, the outlines are so +figured as to fill the space.</p> + +<p>When the space is square we have much the same problem as is +presented by the metope spaces of a temple. In the case of both +square and oblong fields the laws of balance are carefully +observed. Thus if there is an even number of figures in the +scheme, two of them will form a sort of centre-piece, those on +either side balancing one another. If the number of figures is +uneven, either there will be a group of three in the midst, or +the midmost figure will be so contrived that he belongs wholly to +neither side, but is the balance between them. These remarks will +be made clear by figs. 2 and 3, which repeat the two sides of +an amphora, one of which bears a design of three figures, the +other of four.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:515px; height:377px" src="images/img474b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Wiener Vorlegeblätter</i>, 1890, Pl. +viii., by permission of the Director of the <i>K. K. Österr. +Archäol. Institut.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:509px; height:368px" src="images/img474c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Vase Drawings.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Greek artist not only adhered to the architectonic laws of +balance and symmetry, but he thought in schemes. Certain group +arrangements had a recognized signification. There are schemes +for warriors fighting on equal terms, and schemes which represent +the defeat of one of these by the other; the vanquished has +commonly fallen on his knees, but still defends himself. There +is a scheme for the leading away of a captive woman; the captor +leads her by the hand looking back at her, while a friend walks +behind to ward off pursuit. Such schemes, are constantly varied +in detail, and often very skilfully varied; but the Greek artist +uses schemes as a sort of shorthand, to show as clearly as +possible what he meant. They serve the same purpose as the mask +in the acting of a play, the first glance at which will tell the +spectators what they have to look for.</p> + +<p>No doubt the great painters of Greece were not so much under the +dominion of these schemes as the very inferior painters of vases. +They used the schemes for their own purposes instead of being +used by them. But as great poets do not revolt against the +restrictions of the sonnet or of rhyme, so great artists in +Greece probably found recognized conventions more helpful than +hurtful.</p> + +<p>Students of Greek sculpture and vases must be warned not to +suppose that Greek reliefs and drawings can be taken as direct +illustrations of Homer or the dramatists. Book illustration in +the modern sense did not exist in Greece. The poet and the +painter pursued courses which were parallel, but never in actual +contact. Each moved by the traditions of his own craft. The poet +took the accepted tale and enshrined it in a setting of feeling +and imagination. The painter took the traditional schemes which +were current, and altered or enlarged them, adding new figures +and new motives, but not attempting to set aside the general +scheme. But varieties suitable to poetry were not likely to be +suitable in painting. Thus it is but seldom that a vase-painter +seems to have had in his mind, as he drew, passages of the +Homeric poems, though these might well be familiar to him. And +almost never does a vase-painting of the 5th century show any +sign of the influence of the dramatists, who were bringing before +the Athenian public on the stage many of the tales and incidents +popular with the vase-painter. Only on vases of lower Italy of +the 4th century and later we can occasionally discern something +of Aeschylean and Euripidean influence in the treatment of a +myth; and even in a few cases we may discern that the +vase-painter has taken suggestions direct from the actors in the +theatre.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Historic Sketch.</i>—We propose next to trace in brief outline +the history of Greek art from its rise to its decay. We begin +with the rise of a national art, after the destruction of the +Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations of early Greece by the +irruption of tribes from the north, that is to say, about 800 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and we stop with the Roman age of Greece, after which Greek +art works in the service of the conquerors (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Art</a></span>). +The period 800-50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> we divide into four sections: (1) the +period down to the Persian Wars, 800-480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; (2) the period +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span> +of the early schools of art, 480-400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; (3) the period of the +later great schools, 400-300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; (4) the period of Hellenistic +art, 300-50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In dealing with these successive periods we +confine our sketch to the three greater branches of representative +art, architecture, sculpture and painting, which in Greece are +closely connected. The lesser arts, of pottery, gem-engraving, +coin-stamping and the like, are treated of under the heads of +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gem</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>, &c., while the more technical +treatment of architectural construction are dealt with under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span> and allied architectural articles. Further, for +brief accounts of the chief artists the reader is referred to biographical +articles, under such heads as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pheidias</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Praxiteles</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apelles</a></span>. We treat here only of the main course of art in its +historic evolution.</p> + +<p><i>Period I. 800-480</i> <span class="scs">B.C.</span>—The fact is now generally allowed +that the Mycenaean, or as it is now termed Aegean, civilization +was for the most part destroyed by an invasion from +the north. This invasion appears to have been +<span class="sidenote">Northern invasion.</span> +gradual; its racial character is much in dispute. +Archaeological evidence abundantly proves that it was the +conquest of a more by a less rich and civilized race. In the graves +of the period (900-600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) we find none of the wealthy spoil +which has made celebrated the tombs of Mycenae and Vaphio (<i>q.v.</i>). +The character of the pottery and the bronze-work which is found +in these later graves reminds us of the art of the necropolis +of Hallstatt in Austria, and other sites belonging to what is +called the bronze age of North Europe. Its predominant +characteristic is the use of geometrical forms, the lozenge, the +triangle, the maeander, the circle with tangents, in place of the +elaborate spirals and plant-forms which mark Mycenaean ware. +For this reason the period from the 9th to the 7th century in +Greece passes by the name of “the Geometric Age.” It is +commonly held that in the remains of the Geometric Age we +may trace the influence of the Dorians, who, coming in as a +hardy but uncultivated race, probably of purer Aryan blood +than the previous inhabitants of Greece, not only brought to an +end the wealth and the luxury which marked the Mycenaean +age, but also replaced an art which was in character essentially +southern by one which belonged rather to the north and the +west. The great difficulty inherent in this view, a difficulty +which has yet to be met, lies in the fact that some of the most +abundant and characteristic remains of the geometric age which +we possess come, not from Peloponnesus, but from Athens and +Boeotia, which were never conquered by the Dorians.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:245px" src="images/img475a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>—Geometric Vase from Rhodes. (Ashmolean Museum.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:451px; height:314px" src="images/img475b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Mon. d. Inst.</i> ix. 39.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>—Corpse with Mourners.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:455px; height:173px" src="images/img475c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Arch. Zeit.</i> 1884, 8.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>—Gold Plaques: Corinth.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:377px" src="images/img475d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Olympia</i> iv. 33.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>—Handle of Tripod.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The geometric ware is for the most part adorned with painted +patterns only. Fig. 4 is a characteristic example, a small two-handled +vase from Rhodes in the Ashmolean Museum, +the adornment of which consists in zigzags, circles +<span class="sidenote">Geometric ware.</span> +with tangents, and lines of water birds, perhaps swans. +Sometimes, however, especially in the case of large vases from +the cemetery at Athens, which adjoins the Dipylon gate, scenes +from Greek life are depicted, from daily life, not from legend or +divine myth. Especially scenes from the lying-in-state and the +burial of the dead are prevalent. An excerpt from a Dipylon +vase (fig. 5) shows a dead man on his couch surrounded by +mourners, male and female. Both sexes are apparently represented +naked, and are distinguished very simply; some of them +hold branches to sprinkle the corpse or to keep away flies. It +will be seen how primitive and conventional is the drawing of +this age, presenting a wonderful contrast to the free drawing +and modelling of the Mycenaean age. In the same graves with +the pottery are sometimes found plaques of gold or bronze, and +towards the end of the geometric age these <span class="correction" title="amended from somtimes">sometimes</span> bear +scenes from mythology, treated with the greatest simplicity. +For example, in the museum of Berlin are the contents of a +tomb found at Corinth, consisting mainly of gold work of geometric +decoration. But in the same tomb were also found gold +plates or plaques of repoussé work bearing subjects from Greek +legend. Two of these are shown in fig. 6. On one Theseus is +slaying the Minotaur, while Ariadne stands by and encourages +the hero. The tale could not have been told in a simpler or more +straightforward way. On the other we have an armed warrior +with his charioteer in a +chariot drawn by two +horses. The treatment of +the human body is here +more advanced than on +the vases of the Dipylon. +On the site of Olympia, +where Mycenaean remains +are not found, but the +earliest monuments show +the geometric style, a +quantity of dedications +in bronze have been +found, the decoration of +which belongs to this +style. Fig. 7 shows the +handle of a tripod from +Olympia, which is +adorned with geometric +patterns and surmounted +by the figure of a horse.</p> + +<p>It was about the 6th +century that the genius of the Greeks, almost suddenly, as it +seems to us, emancipated itself from the thraldom of tradition, +and passed beyond the limits with which the nations of the +east and west had hitherto been content, in a free and +bold effort towards the ideal. Thus the 6th century marks +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span> +the stage in art in which it may be said to have become +definitely Hellenic. The Greeks still borrowed many of their +decorative forms, either from the prehistoric remains in their +own country or, through Phoenician agency, from the old-world +empires of Egypt and Babylon, but they used those forms freely +to express their own meaning. And gradually, in the course of +the century, we see both in the painting of vases and in sculpture +a national spirit and a national style forming under the influence +of Greek religion and mythology, Greek athletic training, Greek +worship of beauty. We must here lay emphasis on the fact, +which is sometimes overlooked in an age which is greatly given +to the Darwinian search after origins, that it is one thing to +trace back to its original sources the nascent art of Greece, and +quite another thing to follow and to understand its gradual +embodiment of Hellenic ideas and civilization. The immense +success with which the veil has in late years been lifted from the +prehistoric age of Greece, and the clearness with which we can +discern the various strands woven into the web of Greek art, +have tended to fix our attention rather on what Greece possessed +in common with all other peoples at the same early stage of +civilization than on what Greece added for herself to this common +stock. In many respects the art of Greece is incomparable—one +of the great inspirations which have redeemed the world from +mediocrity and vulgarity. And it is the searching out and +appreciation of this unique and ideal beauty in all its phases, +in idea and composition and execution, which is the true task +of Greek archaeological science.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:299px; height:448px" src="images/img476a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Mus. Napoléon</i>, 57.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>—Jug from Rhodes.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In very recent years it has been possible, for the first time, +to trace the influence of Ionian painting, as represented by vases, +on the rise of art. The discoveries at Naucratis and +Daphnae in Egypt, due to the keenness and pertinacity +<span class="sidenote">Ionian vases.</span> +of W. M. Flinders Petrie, threw new light on this matter. +It became evident that when those cities were first inhabited +by Ionian Greeks, in the 7th century, they used pottery of +several distinct but allied +styles, the most notable +feature of which was the +use of the lotus in decoration, +the presence of continuous +friezes of animals +and of monsters, and the +filling up of the background +with rosettes, +lozenges and other forms. +Fig. 8 shows a vase found +in Rhodes which illustrates +this Ionian decoration. +The sphinx, the +deer and the swan are +prominent on it, the last-named +serving as a link +between the geometric +ware and the more +brilliant and varied ware +of the Ionian cities. The +assignment of the many +species of early Ionic ware +to various Greek localities, +Miletus, Samos, Phocaea +and other cities, is a work of great difficulty, which now closely +occupies the attention of archaeologists. For the results of +their studies the reader is referred to two recent German works, +Böhlau’s <i>Aus ionischen und italischen Nekropolen</i>, and Endt’s +<i>Beiträge zur ionischen Vasenmalerei</i>. The feature which is most +interesting in this pottery from our present point of view is the +way in which representations of Greek myth and legend gradually +make their way, and relegate the mere decoration of the vases to +borders and neck. One of the earliest examples of representation +of a really Greek subject is the contest of Menelaus and Euphorbus +on a plate found in Rhodes. On the vases of Melos, of the 7th +century, which are, however, not Ionian, but rather Dorian in +character, we have a certain number of mythological scenes, +battles of Homeric heroes and the like. One of these is shown in +fig. 9. It represents Apollo in a chariot drawn by winged horses, +playing on the lyre, and accompanied by a pair of Muses, meeting +his sister Artemis. It is notable that Apollo is bearded, and that +Artemis holds her stag by the horns, much in the manner of the +deities on Babylonian cylinders; in the other hand she carries +an arrow; above is a line of water birds.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:268px" src="images/img476b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">Conze. <i>Mel. Tongefässe</i>, 4.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>—Vase Painting: Melos.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Some sites in Asia Minor and the islands adjoining, such cities +as Samos, Camirus in Rhodes, and the Ionian colonies on the +Black Sea, have furnished us with a mass of ware of the Ionian +class, but it seldom bears interesting subjects; it is essentially +decorative. For Ionian ware which has closer relation to Greek +mythology and history we must turn elsewhere. The cemeteries +of the great Etruscan cities, Caere in particular, have preserved +for us a large number of vases, which are now generally recognized +as Ionian in design and drawing, though they may in some cases +be only Italian imitations of Ionian imported ware. Thus has +been filled up what was a blank page in the history of early +Greek art. The Ionian painting is unrestrained in character, +characterized by a licence not foreign to the nature of the race, +and wants the self-control and moderation which belong to +Doric art, and to Attic art after the first.</p> + +<p>Some of the most interesting examples of early Ionic painting +are found on the sarcophagi of Clazomenae. In that city in +archaic times an exceptional custom prevailed of burying the +dead in great coffins of terra-cotta adorned with painted scenes +from chariot-racing, war and the chase. The British Museum +possesses some remarkable specimens, which are published in +A. S. Murray’s <i>Terra-Cotta Sarcophagi of the British Museum</i>. +On one of them he sees depicted a battle between Cimmerian +invaders and Greeks, the former accompanied to the field by +their great war-dogs. In some of the representations of hunting +on these sarcophagi the hunters ride in chariots, a way of hunting +quite foreign to the Greeks, but familiar to us from Assyrian +wall-sculptures. We know that the life of the Ionians before +the Persian conquest was refined and not untinged with luxury, +and they borrowed many of the stately ways of the satraps of +the kings of Assyria and Persia.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:192px" src="images/img476c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">Furtwängler, <i>Goldfund v. Vettersfelde</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>—Fish of gold.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Fig. 10 shows a curious product of the Ionian workshops, a +fish of solid gold, adorned with reliefs which represent a flying +eagle, lions pulling down their prey, and a monstrous sea-god +among his fishes. This relic is the more valuable on account of +the spot where it was found—Vettersfelde in Brandenburg. It +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span> +furnishes a proof that the influence and perhaps the commerce +of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea spread far to the north +through the countries of the Scythians and other barbarians. +The fish dates from the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate III.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:189px; height:272px" src="images/img476d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Giraudon.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 61.—WINGED VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE. (Louvre.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:188px; height:254px" src="images/img476f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 63. HEAD OF WARRIOR, RESTORED, FROM TEGEA.</td></tr></table> + +</td><td> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:255px; height:533px" src="images/img476e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:299px; height:569px" src="images/img476g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Giraudon.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 62.—WINGED VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE. (Louvre.)</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 64.—MARSYAS OF MYRON. (Lateran Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:785px; height:440px" src="images/img476h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Mansell.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 65.—EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON; LEFT AND RIGHT +ENDS. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate IV.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:344px; height:286px" src="images/img476i.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:312px" src="images/img476j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 66.—METOPE OF THE TREASURY OF SICYON AT DELPHI.</span><br /> +(From <i>Fouilles de Delphes</i>, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 67.—GREEK PAINTING OF WOMAN’S HEAD.</span><br /> +(From <i>Comptes Rendus</i> of St. Petersburg, 1865. Pl. I.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:345px; height:449px" src="images/img476k.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:391px; height:452px" src="images/img476l.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F. Bruckmann.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Giraudon.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 68.—DISCOBOLUS OF MYRON, RESTORED BY +PROF. FURTWÄNGLER.</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 69.—FIGHTER OF AGASIAS. (Louvre.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:794px; height:249px" src="images/img476m.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Mansell.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 70.—PORTION OF FRIEZE OF MAUSOLEUM. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:301px; height:332px" src="images/img477a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Brit. Mus.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>—Gold Ornaments from +Camirus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>We may compare some of the gold ornaments from Camirus +in Rhodes, which show an Ionian tendency, perhaps combined +with Phoenician elements. On one of them (fig. 11) we see +a centaur with human forelegs holding up a fawn, on the other +the oriental goddess +whom the Greeks identified +with their Artemis, +winged, and flanked by +lions. This form was +given to Artemis on the +Corinthian chest of +Cypselus, a work of art +preserved at Olympia, +and carefully described +for us by Pausanias.</p> + +<p>From Ionia the style +of vase-painting which +has been called by various +names, but may best be +termed the “orientalizing,” +spread to Greece +proper. Its main home +here was in Corinth; and +small Corinthian unguent-vases +bearing +figures of swans, lions, monsters and human beings, the intervals +between which are filled by rosettes, are found wherever +Corinthian trade penetrated, notably in the cemeteries of +Sicily. For the larger Corinthian vases, which bore more +elaborate scenes from mythology, we must again turn to the +graves of the cities of Etruria. Here, besides the Ionian +ware, of which mention has already been made, we find +pottery of three Greek cities clearly defined, that of Corinth, +that of Chalcis in Euboea, and that of Athens. Corinthian +and Chalcidian ware is most readily distinguished by means +of the alphabets used in the inscriptions which have +distinctive forms easily to be identified. Whether in the style +of the paintings coming from the various cities any distinct +differences may be traced is a far more difficult question, into +which we cannot now enter. The subjects are mostly from heroic +legend, and are treated with great simplicity and directness. +There is a manly vigour about them which distinguishes them +at a glance from the laxer works of Ionian style. Fig. 12 shows +a group from a Chalcidian vase, which represents the conflict +over the dead body of Achilles. The corpse of the hero lies in +the midst, the arrow in his heel. The Trojan Glaucus tries to +draw away the body by means of a rope tied round the ankle, +but in doing so is transfixed by the spear of Ajax, who charges +under the protection of the goddess Athena. Paris on the Trojan +side shoots an arrow at Ajax.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:441px; height:218px" src="images/img477b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Mon. d. Inst.</i> i. 51.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>—Fight over the Body of Achilles.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In fig. 13, from a Corinthian vase, Ajax falls on his sword in +the presence of his colleagues, Odysseus and Diomedes. The short +stature of Odysseus is a well-known Homeric feature. These +vases are black-figured; the heroes are painted in silhouette on +the red ground of the vases. Their names are appended in +archaic Greek letters.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:340px" src="images/img477c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Mus. Napoléon</i>, 66.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>—Suicide of Ajax.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:284px" src="images/img477d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Arch. Zeit.</i> 1882, 9.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span> Harpies: Attic Vase.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The early history of vase-painting at Athens is complicated. +It was only by degrees that the geometric style gave way to, +or developed into, what is known as the black-figured +style. It would seem that until the age of Peisistratus +<span class="sidenote">Athens.</span> +Athens was not notable in the world of art, and nothing could +be ruder than some of the vases of Athens in the 7th century, +for example that here figured, on one side of which are represented +the winged Harpies (fig. 14) and on the other Perseus accompanied +by Athena flying from the pursuit of the Gorgons. This vase +retains in its decoration some features of geometric style; but +the lotus and rosette, the lion and sphinx which appear on it, +belong to the wave of Ionian influence. Although it involves a +departure from strict chronological order, it will be well here to +follow the course of development in pottery at Athens until the +end of our period. Neighbouring cities, and especially Corinth, +seem to have exercised a strong influence at Athens about the +7th century. We have even a class of vases called by archaeologists +Corintho-Attic. But in the course of the 6th century +there is formed at Athens a distinct and marked black-figured +style. The most-remarkable example of this ware is the so-called +François vase at Munich, by Clitias and Ergotimus, which +contains, in most careful and precise rendering, a number of +scenes from Greek myth. One of these vases is dated, since it +bears the name and the figure of Callias in his chariot (<i>Mon. +dell’ Inst.</i> iii. 45), and this Callias won a victory at Olympia in +564 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Fig. 15 shows the reverse of a somewhat later black-figured +vase of the Panathenaic class, given at Athens as a +prize to the winner of a foot-race at the Panathenaea, with the +foot-race (<i>stadion</i>) represented on it. A large number of Athenian +vases of the 6th century have reached us, which bear the signatures +of the potters who made, or the artists who painted them; +lists of these will be found in the useful work of Klein, <i>Griechische +Vasen mit Meistersignaturen</i>. The recent excavations on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span> +Acropolis have proved the erroneousness of the view, strongly +maintained by Brunn, that the mass of the black-figured vases +were of a late and imitative fabric. We now know that, with a +few exceptions, vases of this class are not later than the early +part of the 5th century. The same excavations have also +proved that red-figured vase-painting, that is, vase-painting +in which the background was blocked out with black, and the +figures left in the natural colour of the vase originated at Athens +in the last quarter of the 6th century. We cannot here give a +detailed account of the beautiful series of Athenian vases of this +fabric. Many of the finest of them are in the British Museum. +As an example, fig. 16 presents a group by the painter Pamphaeus, +representing Heracles wrestling with the river-monster Achelous, +which belongs to the age of the Persian Wars. The clear precision +of the figures, the vigour of the grouping, the correctness of the +anatomy and the delicacy of the lines are all marks of distinction. +The student of art will perhaps find the nearest parallel to these +vase-pictures in Japanese drawings. The Japanese artists are +very inferior to the Greek in their love and understanding of +the human body, but equal them in freshness and vigour of +design. At the same time began the beautiful series of white +vases made at Athens for the purpose of burial with the dead, +and found in great quantities in the cemeteries of Athens, of +Eretria, of Gela in Sicily, and of some other cities. They are +well represented in the British Museum and that of Oxford.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:289px" src="images/img478a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Mon. d. Inst.</i> x. 48 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>—Foot-race: Panathenaic Vase.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:455px; height:349px" src="images/img478b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Wiener Vorlegeblätter</i>, D. 6.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>—Heracles and Achelous.</td></tr></table> + +<p>We now return to the early years of the 6th century, and +proceed to trace, by the aid of recent discoveries, the rise of +architecture and sculpture. The Greek temple in its character +and form gives the clue to the whole character of Greek art. +It is the abode of the deity, who is represented by his sacred +image; and the flat surfaces of the temple offer a great field +to the sculptor for the depicting of sacred legend. The process +of discovery has emphasized the line which divides Ionian from +Dorian architecture and art. We will speak first of the temples +and the sculpture of Ionia. The Ionians were a people far more +susceptible than were the Dorians to oriental influences. The +dress, the art, the luxury of western Asia attracted them with +irresistible force. We may suspect, as Brunn has suggested, +that Ionian artists worked in the great Assyrian and Persian +palaces, and that the reliefs which adorn the walls of those +palaces were in part their handiwork. Some of the great temples +of Ionia have been excavated in recent years, notably those of +Apollo at Miletus, of Hera at Samos, and of Artemis at Ephesus. +Very little, however, of the architecture of the 6th-century temples +of those sites has been recovered. Quite recently, however, the +French excavators at Delphi have successfully restored the +<span class="sidenote">Delphi.</span> +treasury of the people of Cnidus, which is quite a gem +of Ionic style, the entablature being supported in front +not by pillars but by two maidens or Corae, and a frieze running +all round the building above. But though this building is of +Ionic type, it is scarcely in the technical sense of +Ionic style, since the columns have not Ionic +capitals, but are carved with curious reliefs. The +Ionic capital proper is developed in Asia by degrees (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capital</a></span>; also Perrot and Chipiez, <i>Hist. +de l’art</i>, vii. ch. 4).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:570px" src="images/img478c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>—Restoration of the Treasury of Cnidus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Doric temple is not wholly of European origin. One +of the earliest examples is the old temple of Assus in Troas. +Yet it was developed mainly in Hellas and the west. The most +ancient example is the Heraeum at Olympia, next to which come +the fragmentary temples of Corinth and of Selinus in Sicily. +With the early Doric temple we are familiar from examples +which have survived in fair preservation to our own days at +Agrigentum in Sicily, Paestum in Italy, and other sites.</p> + +<p>Of the decorative sculpture which adorned these early temples +we have more extensive remains than we have of actual construction. +It will be best to speak of them under their districts. +On the coast of Asia Minor, the most extensive series of archaic +decorative sculptures which has come down to us is that which +adorned the temple of Assus (fig. 18). These were placed in a +unique position on the temple, a long frieze running along the +entablature, with representations of wild animals, of centaurs, +of Hercules seizing Achelous, and of men feasting, scene succeeding +scene without much order or method. The only figures from +Miletus which can be considered as belonging to the original +temple destroyed by Darius, are the dedicated seated statues, +some of which, brought away by Sir Charles Newton, are now +preserved at the British Museum. At Ephesus Mr Wood has +been more successful, and has recovered considerable fragments +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span> +of the temple of Artemis, to which, as Herodotus tells us, Croesus +presented many columns. The lower part of one of these columns, +bearing figures in relief of early Ionian style, has been put +together at the British Museum; and remains of inscriptions +recording the presentation by Croesus are still to be traced. +Reliefs from a cornice of somewhat later date are also to be +found at the British Museum. Among the Aegean Islands, +Delos has furnished us with the most important remains of early +art. French excavators have there found a very early statue of +a woman dedicated by one Nicandra to Artemis, a figure which +may be instructively compared with another from Samus, +dedicated to Hera by Cheramues. The Delian statue is in shape +like a flat beam; the Samian, which is headless, is like a round +tree. The arms of the Delian figure are rigid to the sides; the +Samian lady has one arm clasped to her breast. A great improvement +on these helpless and inexpressive figures is marked +by another figure found at Delos, and connected, though perhaps +incorrectly, with a basis recording the execution of a statue by +Archermus and Micciades, two sculptors who stood, in the +middle of the 6th century, at the head of a sculptural school at +Chios. The representation (fig. 19) is of a running or flying +figure, having six wings, like the seraphim in the vision of +Isaiah, and clad in long drapery. It may be a statue of Nike or +Victory, who is said to have been represented in winged form +by Archermus. The figure, with its neatness and precision of +work, its expressive face and strong outlines, certainly marks +great progress in the art of sculpture. When we examine the +early sculpture of Athens, we find reason to think that the Chian +school had great influence in that city in the days of Peisistratus.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:330px" src="images/img479a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Perrot and Chipiez, vii. pl. 35, by permission of Chapman and Hall, Ltd., and +Hachette & Co.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>—Restoration of the Temple at Assus.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:378px; height:439px" src="images/img479b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>—Nikē of Delos, restored.</td></tr></table> + +<p>At Athens, in the age 650-480, we may trace two quite distinct +periods of architecture and sculpture. In the earlier of the two +periods, a rough limestone was used alike for the walls +and the sculptural decoration of temples; in the +<span class="sidenote">Athenian sculpture.</span> +later period it was superseded by marble, whether +native or imported. Every visitor to the museum of the +Athenian acropolis stands astonished at the recently recovered +groups which decorated the pediments of Athenian temples +before the age of Peisistratus—groups of large size, rudely cut +in soft stone, of primitive workmanship, and painted with bright +red, blue and green, in a fashion which makes no attempt to +follow nature, but only to produce a vivid result. The two +largest in scale of these groups seem to have belonged to the +pediments of the early 6th-century temple of Athena. On other +smaller pediments, perhaps belonging to shrines of Heracles +and Dionysus, we have conflicts of Heracles with Triton or with +other monstrous foes. It is notable how fond the Athenian artists +of this early time are of exaggerated muscles and of monstrous +forms, which combine the limbs of men and of animals; the +measure and moderation which mark developed Greek art are +as completely absent as are skill in execution or power of grouping. +Fig. 20 shows a small pediment in which appears in relief +the slaying of the Lernaean hydra by Heracles. The hero strikes +at the many-headed water-snake, somewhat inappropriately, +with his club. Iolaus, his usual companion, holds the reins of +the chariot which awaits Heracles after his victory. On the +extreme left a huge crab comes to the aid of the hydra.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:120px" src="images/img479c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Athen. Mitteil.</i> x. 237.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>—Athenian Pediment: Heracles and Hydra.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:435px; height:450px" src="images/img479d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Athen. Mitteil.</i> xxii. 3.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>—Pediment: Athena and Giant.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:138px; height:446px" src="images/img480a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>—Figure by Antenor, restored.</td></tr></table> + +<p>There can be little doubt that Athens owed its great start in +art to the influence of the court of Peisistratus, at which artists +of all kinds were welcome. We can trace a gradual transformation +in sculpture, in which the influence of the Chian and other +progressive schools of sculpture is visible, not only in the substitution +of island marble for native stone, but in increased +grace and truth to nature, in the toning down of glaring colour, +and the appearance of taste in composition. A transition +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span> +between the older and the newer is furnished by the well-known +statue of the calf-bearer, an Athenian preparing to sacrifice a +calf to the deities, which is made of marble of Hymettus, and in +robust clumsiness of forms is not far removed from the limestone +pediments. The sacrificer has been +commonly spoken of as Hermes or Theseus, +but he seems rather to be an ordinary +human votary.</p> + +<p>In the time of Peisistratus or his sons a +peristyle of columns was added to the old +temple of Athena; and this necessitated +the preparation of fresh pediments. These +were of marble. In one of them was represented +the battle between gods and +giants; in the midst Athena herself striking +at a prostrate foe (fig. 21). In these +figures no eye can fail to trace remarkable +progress. On about the same level of art +are the charming statues dedicated to +Athena, which were set up in the latter half +of the 6th century in the Acropolis, whose +graceful though conventional forms and +delicate colouring make them one of the +great attractions of the Acropolis Museum. +We show a figure (fig. 22) which, if it be +rightly connected with the basis on which +it stands, is the work of the sculptor +Antenor, who was also author of a celebrated +group representing the tyrant-slayers, +Harmodius and Aristogiton. To the same age belong many +other votive reliefs of the Acropolis, representing horsemen, +scribes and other votaries of Athena.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:333px; height:452px" src="images/img480b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>—Bust from Crete.</td></tr></table> + +<p>From Athens we pass to the seats of Dorian art. And in +doing so we find a complete change of character. In place of +Dorian draped goddesses and female figures, we find nude +male forms. In place of Ionian softness and elegance, +<span class="sidenote">Dorian sculpture.</span> +we find hard, rigid outlines, strong muscular development, +a greater love of and faithfulness to the actual human +form—the influence of the palaestra rather than of the harem. +To the known series +of archaic male +figures, recent years +have added many +examples. We may +especially mention a +series of figures from +the temple of Apollo +Ptoos in Boeotia, +probably representing +the god himself. +Still more noteworthy +are two +colossal nude figures +of Apollo, remarkable +both for force and +for rudeness, found +at Delphi, the inscriptions +of which +prove them to be +the work of an +Argive sculptor. +(Plate V. fig. 76.) +From Crete we have +acquired the upper +part of a draped figure (fig. 23), whether male or female is not +certain, which should be an example of the early Daedalid +school, whence the art of Peloponnesus was derived; but we +can scarcely venture to treat it as a characteristic product of +that school; rather the likeness to the dedication of Nicandra +is striking.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:269px; height:407px" src="images/img480c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>—Head of Hera: Olympia.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:306px; height:396px" src="images/img480d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>—Spartan Tombstone: Berlin.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Another remarkable piece of Athenian sculpture, of the time +of the Persian Wars, is the group of the tyrannicides Harmodius +and Aristogiton, set up by the people of Athens, and made by +the sculptors Critius and Nesiotes. These figures were hard and +rigid in outline, but showing some progress in the treatment of +the nude. Copies are preserved in the museum of Naples (Plate I. +fig. 50). It should be observed that one of the heads does not +belong.</p> + +<p>Next in importance to Athens, as a find-spot for works of +early Greek art, ranks Olympia. Olympia, however, did not +suffer like Athens from sudden violence, and the +explorations there have brought to light a continuous +<span class="sidenote">Olympia, Sparta, Selinus.</span> +series of remains, beginning with the bronze tripods +of the geometric age already mentioned and ending +at the barbarian invasions of the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Notable +among the 6th-century stone-sculpture of Olympia are the +pediment of the treasury of +the people of Megara, in +which is represented a battle +of gods and giants, and a +huge rude head of Hera (fig. +24), which seems to be part of +the image worshipped in the +Heraeum. Its flatness and +want of style are noteworthy. +Among the temples of Greece +proper the Heraeum of +Olympia stands almost alone +for antiquity and interest, its +chief rival, besides the temples +of Athens, being the other +temple of Hera at Argos. It +appears to have been originally +constructed of wood, for +which stone was by slow +degrees, part by part, substituted. +In the time of +Pausanias one of the pillars +was still of oak, and at the +present day the varying diameter of the columns and other +structural irregularities bear witness to the process of constant +renewal which must have taken place. The early small +bronzes of Olympia form an important series, figures of deities +standing or striding, warriors in their armour, athletes with +exaggerated muscles, and +women draped in the +Ionian fashion, which did +not become unpopular in +Greece until after the +Persian Wars. Excavations +at Sparta have revealed +interesting monuments +belonging to the +worship of ancestors, +which seems in the conservative +Dorian states of +Greece to have been more +strongly developed than +elsewhere. On some of +these stones, which doubtless +belonged to the family +cults of Sparta, we see +the ancestor seated holding +a wine-cup, accompanied +by his faithful +horse or dog; on some we +see the ancestor and ancestress seated side by side (fig. 25), +ready to receive the gifts of their descendants, who appear +in the corner of the relief on a much smaller scale. The male +figure holds a wine-cup, in allusion to the libations of wine +made at the tomb. The female figure holds her veil and the +pomegranate, the recognized food of the dead. A huge +serpent stands erect behind the pair. The style of these +sculptures is as striking as the subjects; we see lean, rigid +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span> +forms with severe outline carved in a very low relief, +the surface of which is not rounded but flat. The name of +Selinus in Sicily, an early Megarian colony, has long been associated +with some of the most curious of early sculptures, the +metopes of ancient temples, representing the exploits of Heracles +and of Perseus. Even more archaic metopes have in recent +years been brought to light, one representing a seated sphinx, +one the journey of Europa over the sea on the back of the +amorous bull (fig. 26), a pair of dolphins swimming beside her. +In simplicity and in rudeness of work these reliefs remind us +of the limestone pediments of Athens (fig. 20), but yet they are +of another and a severer style; the Ionian laxity is wanting.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate V.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:207px; height:505px" src="images/img480e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:291px; height:500px" src="images/img480f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:224px; height:533px" src="images/img480g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>From a Cast.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 71.—APHRODITE OF CNIDUS. (Vatican.)</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 72.—BRONZE BOXER OF TERME. (Rome.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 73.—BRONZE OF CERIGOTTO. (Athens.)</span> +Found in the sea near Cythera.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:166px; height:506px" src="images/img480h.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:360px; height:507px" src="images/img480i.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:166px; height:504px" src="images/img480j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 74.—AGIAS AT DELPHI.</span> +(From <i>Fouilles de Delphes</i>, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 75.—CORA (KORÉ) OF ERECHTHEUM. (Athens.)</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 76.—APOLLO AT DELPHI.</span> +(From <i>Fouilles de Delphes</i>, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noinf f90 sc">Plate VI.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:186px; height:490px" src="images/img480k.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:323px; height:495px" src="images/img480l.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:226px; height:497px" src="images/img480m.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Giraudon.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Alinari.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 77.—APHRODITE PF MELOS. (Louvre.)</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 78.—NIOBE AND HER YOUNGEST DAUGHTER. (Florence.)</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 79.—APOXYOMENUS. (Vatican.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:206px; height:503px" src="images/img480n.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:283px; height:499px" src="images/img480o.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:224px; height:504px" src="images/img480p.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Brogi.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Alinari.</i></td> +<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, English Photographic Co.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 80.—DORYPHORUS OF POLYCLITUS. (Nat. Mus., Naples.)</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 81.—ANTIOCH SEATED ON A ROCK. (Vatican.)</td> +<td class="caption sc">Fig. 82.—HERMES OF TELES. (Olympia.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:316px; height:407px" src="images/img481a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"> <span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>—Metope: Europa on Bull: +Palermo.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The recent French excavations at Delphi add a new and +important chapter to the history of 6th-century art. Of three +treasure-houses, those of Sicyon, Cnidus and Athens, +the sculptural adornments have been in great part +<span class="sidenote">Delphi.</span> +recovered. These sculptures form a series almost covering the +century 570-470 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and include representations of some myths +of which we have hitherto +had no example. We +may say here a few +words as to the sculpture +which has been discovered, +leaving to the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delphi</a></span> an +account of the topography +and the buildings +of the sacred site. Of +the archaic temple of +Apollo, built as Herodotus +tells us by the +Alcmaeonidae of Athens, +the only sculptural remains +which have come +down to us are some +fragments of the pedimental +figures. Of the +treasuries which contained +the offerings of +the pious at Delphi, the +most archaic of which +there are remains is that belonging to the people of Sicyon. +To it appertain a set of exceedingly primitive metopes. +One represents Idas and Dioscuri driving off cattle (Plate IV. +fig. 66); another, the ship Argo; another, Europa on the bull, +others merely animals, a ram or a boar. The treasury of the +people of Cnidus (or perhaps Siphnos) is in style some half a +century later (see fig. 17). To it belongs a long frieze representing +a variety of curious subjects: a battle, perhaps between Greeks +and Trojans, with gods and goddesses looking on; a gigantomachy +in which the figures of Poseidon, Athena, Hera, Apollo, +Artemis and Cybele can be made out, with their opponents, +who are armed like Greek hoplites; Athena and Heracles in a +chariot; the carrying off of the daughters of Leucippus by +Castor and Pollux; Aeolus holding the winds in sacks. The +Treasury of the Athenians, erected at the time of the Persian +Wars, was adorned with metopes of singularly clear-cut and +beautiful style, but very fragmentary, representing the deeds +of Heracles and Theseus.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:298px" src="images/img481b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>—Restoration of West Pediment, Aegina.</td></tr></table> + +<p>We have yet to speak of the most interesting and important of +all Greek archaic sculptures, the pediments of the temple at +Aegina (<i>q.v.</i>). These groups of nude athletes fighting +over the corpses of their comrades are preserved at +<span class="sidenote">Aegina.</span> +Munich, and are familiar to artists and students. But the very +fruitful excavations of Professor Furtwängler have put them in +quite a new light. Furtwängler (<i>Aegina: Heiligtum der Aphaia</i>) +has entirely rearranged these pediments, in a way which removes +the extreme simplicity and rigour of the composition, and +introduces far greater variety of attitudes and motive. We +repeat here these new arrangements (figs. 27 and 28), the reasons +for which must be sought in Furtwängler’s great publication. +The individual figures are not much altered, as the restorations of +Thorwaldsen, even when incorrect, have now a prescriptive right +of which it is not easy to deprive them. Besides the pediments of +Aegina must be set the remains of the pediments of the temple +of Apollo at Eretria in Euboea, the chief group of which (Plate II. +fig. 58), Theseus carrying off an Amazon, is one of the most +finely executed works of early Greek art.</p> + +<p><i>Period II. 480-400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></i>—The most marvellous phenomenon +in the whole history of art is the rapid progress made by Greece +in painting and sculpture during the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> As in +literature the 5th century takes us from the rude peasant plays +of Thespis to the drama of Sophocles and Euripides; as in +philosophy it takes us from Pythagoras to Socrates; so in +sculpture it covers the space from the primitive works made for +the Peisistratidae to some of the most perfect productions of the +chisel.</p> + +<p>In architecture the 5th century is ennobled by the Theseum, +the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the temples of Zeus at +Olympia, of Apollo at Phigalia, and many other central +<span class="sidenote">Architecture.</span> +shrines, as well as by the Hall of the Mystae at Eleusis +and the Propylaea of the Acropolis. Some of the most +important of the Greek temples of Italy and Sicily, such as those +of Segesta and Selinus, date from the same age. It is, however, +only of their sculptural decorations, carried out by the greatest +masters in Greece, that we need here treat in any detail.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:516px; height:308px" src="images/img481c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span>—Restoration of East Pediment, Aegina.</td></tr></table> + +<p>It is the rule in the history of art that innovations and technical +progress are shown earlier in the case of painting than in that of +sculpture, a fact easily explained by the greater ease +and rapidity of the brush compared with the chisel. +<span class="sidenote">Painting.</span> +That this was the order of development in Greek art cannot be +doubted. But our means for judging of the painting of the +5th century are very slight. The noble paintings of such masters +as Polygnotus, Micon and Panaenus, which once adorned the +walls of the great porticoes of Athens and Delphi, have disappeared. +There remain only the designs drawn rather than +painted on the beautiful vases of the age, which in some degree +help us to realize, not the colouring or the charm of contemporary +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span> +paintings, but the principle of their composition and the accuracy +of their drawing.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:286px" src="images/img482a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>From monumenti dell’ Instituto di Correspondenza archeologica</i>, xi. 40.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>—Vase of Orvieto. (The Children of Niobe.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Polygnotus of Thasos was regarded by his compatriots as a +great ethical painter. His colouring and composition were alike +very simple, his figures quiet and statuesque, his drawing careful +and precise. He won his fame largely by incorporating in his +works the best current ideas as to mythology, religion and morals. +In particular his painting of Hades with its rewards and punishments, +which was on the walls of the building of the people of +Cnidus at Delphi, might be considered as a great religious work, +parallel to the paintings of the Campo Santo at Pisa or to the +painted windows of such churches as that at Fairford. But he +also introduced improvements in perspective and greater freedom +in grouping.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:334px; height:349px" src="images/img482b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Arch. Zeit.</i> 1878, pl. 22.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>—Vase Drawing.</td></tr></table> + +<p>It is fortunate for us that the Greek traveller Pausanias has +left us very careful and detailed descriptions of some of the most +important of the frescoes of Polygnotus, notably of the Taking +of Troy and the Visit to Hades, which were at Delphi. A comparison +of these descriptions with vase paintings of the middle +of the 5th century has enabled us to discern with great probability +the principles of Polygnotan drawing and perspective. +Professor Robert has even ventured to restore the paintings +on the evidence of vases. We here represent one of the scenes +depicted on a vase found at Orvieto (fig. 29), which is certainly +Polygnotan in character. It represents the slaying of the +children of Niobe +by Apollo and +Artemis. Here we +may observe a +remarkable perspective. +The +different heights +of the rocky background +are represented +by lines +traversing the +picture on which +the figures stand; +but the more +distant figures are +no smaller than +the nearer. The +forests of Mount +Sipylus are represented +by a single +conventional tree. +The figures are +beautifully drawn, and full of charm; but there is a want of +energy in the action.</p> + +<p>There can be little doubt that the school of Polygnotus +exercised great influence on contemporary sculpture. Panaenus, +brother of Pheidias, worked with Polygnotus, and many of the +groupings found in the sculptures of the Parthenon remind us of +those usual with the Thasian master. At this simple and early +stage of art there was no essential difference between fresco-painting +and coloured relief, light and shade and aerial perspective +being unknown. We reproduce two vase-paintings, +one (fig. 30) a group of man and horse which closely resembles +figures in the Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon (fig. 31); +the other (fig. 32) representing Victory pouring water for a +sacrificial ox to drink, which reminds us of the balustrade of the +shrine of Wingless Victory at Athens.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:379px; height:282px" src="images/img482c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>—Part of Frieze of the Parthenon.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Most writers on Greek painting have supposed that after the +middle of the 5th century the technique of painting rapidly +improved. This +may well have +been the case; +but we have +little means of +testing the question. +Such improvements +would soon raise +such a barrier +between fresco-painting +and +vase-painting,—which +by its +very nature +must be simple +and architectonic,—that +vases can no longer be used with confidence as +evidence for contemporary painting. The stories told us by +Pliny of the lives of Greek painters are mostly of a trivial and +untrustworthy character. Some of them are mentioned in this +<i>Encyclopaedia</i> under the names of individual artists. We can +only discern a few general facts. Of Agatharchus of Athens we +learn that he painted, under compulsion, the interior of the house +of Alcibiades. And we are told that he painted a scene for the +tragedies of Aeschylus or Sophocles. This has led some writers +to suppose that he attempted illusive landscape; but this is +contrary to the possibilities of the time; and it is fairly certain +that what he really did was to paint the wooden front of the +stage building in imitation of architecture; in fact he painted +a permanent architectural background, and not one suited to +any particular play. Of other painters who flourished at the +end of the century, such as Zeuxis and Aristides, it will be best +to speak under the next period.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:352px" src="images/img482d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Gerhard’s <i>Auserlesene Vasenbilder</i>, ii. pl. 1.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>—Nikē and Bull.</td></tr></table> + +<p>It is now generally held, in consequence of evidence furnished +by tombs, that the 5th century saw the end of the making of +vases on a great scale at Athens for export to Italy and Sicily. +And in fact few things in the history of art are more remarkable +than the rapidity with which vase-painting at Athens reached +its highest point and passed it on the downward road. At the +beginning of the century black-figured ware was scarcely out +of fashion, and the masters of the severe red-figured style, +Pamphaeus, Epictetus and their contemporaries, were in vogue. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span> +The schools of Euphronius, Hiero and Duris belong to the age +of the Persian wars. With the middle of the century the works +of these makers are succeeded by unsigned vases of most beautiful +design, some of them showing the influence of Polygnotus. In +the later years of the century, when the empire of Athens was +approaching its fall, drawing becomes laxer and more careless, +and in the treatment of drapery we frequently note the over-elaboration +of folds, the want of simplicity, which begin to mark +contemporary sculpture. These changes of style can only be +satisfactorily followed in the vase rooms of the British Museum, +or other treasuries of Greek art (see also A. B. Walters, <i>History +of Ancient Pottery</i>; and the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:900px; height:250px" src="images/img483a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>—East Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:900px; height:242px" src="images/img483b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>—West Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Among the sculptural works of this period the first place may +be given to the great temple of Zeus at Olympia. The statue by +Pheidias which once occupied the place of honour in +that temple, and was regarded as the noblest monument +<span class="sidenote">Olympia: Temple of Zeus.</span> +of Greek religion, has of course disappeared, nor +are we able with confidence to restore it. But the plan +of the temple, its pavement, some of its architectural ornaments, +remain. The marbles which occupied the pediments and the +metopes of the temple have been in large part recovered, having +been probably thrown down by earthquakes and gradually buried +in the alluvial soil. The utmost ingenuity and science of the +archaeologists of Germany have been employed in the recovery +of the composition of these groups; and although doubt remains +as to the places of some figures, and their precise attitudes, yet +we may fairly say that we know more about the sculpture of +the Olympian temple of Zeus than about the sculpture of any +other great Greek temple. The exact date of these sculptures +is not certain, but we may with some confidence give them to +470-460 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (In speaking of them we shall mostly follow the +opinion of Dr Treu, whose masterly work in vol. iii. of the great +German publication on Olympia is a model of patience and of +science.) In the eastern pediment (fig. 33), as Pausanias tells +us, were represented the preparations for the chariot-race +between Oenomaüs and Pelops, the result of which was to +determine whether Pelops should find death or a bride and a +kingdom. In the midst, invisible to the contending heroes, +stood Zeus the supreme arbiter. On one side of him stood +Oenomaüs with his wife Sterope, on the other Pelops and Hippodameia, +the daughter of Oenomaüs, whose position at once +indicates that she is on the side of the newcomer, whatever her +parents may feel. Next on either side are the four-horse chariots +of the two competitors, that of Oenomaüs in the charge of his +perfidious groom Myrtilus, who contrived that it should break +down in the running, that of Pelops tended by his grooms. +At either end, where the pediment narrows to a point, reclines a +river god, at one end Alpheus, the chief stream of Olympia, at +the other end his tributary Cladeus. Only one figure remains, +not noticed in the careful description of Pausanias, the figure +of a handmaid kneeling, perhaps one of the attendants of Sterope. +Our engraving gives two conjectural restorations of the pediment, +that of Treu and that of Kekule, which differ principally in the +arrangement of the corners of the composition; the position +of the central figures and of the chariots can scarcely be called +in question. The moment chosen is one, not of action, but of +expectancy, perhaps of preparation for sacrifice. The arrangement +is undeniably stiff and formal, and in the figures we note +none of the trained perfection of style which belongs to the +sculptures of the Parthenon, an almost contemporary temple. +Faults abound, alike in the rendering of drapery and in the +representation of the human forms, and the sculptor has +evidently trusted to the painter who was afterwards to colour +his work, to remedy some of his clumsiness, or to make clear the +ambiguous. Nevertheless there is in the whole a dignity, a +sobriety, and a simplicity, which reconcile us to the knowledge +that this pediment was certainly regarded in antiquity as a noble +work, fit to adorn even the palace of Zeus. In the other, the +western pediment (fig. 34), the subject is the riot of the Centaurs +when they attended the wedding of Peirithous in Thessaly, and, +attempting to carry off the bride and her comrades, were slain +by Peirithous and Theseus. In the midst of the pediment, +invisible like Zeus in the eastern pediment, stands Apollo, while +on either side of him Theseus and Peirithous attack the Centaurs +with weapons hastily snatched. Our illustration gives two +possible arrangements. The monsters are in various attitudes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span> +of attempted violence, of combat and defeat; with each grapples +one of the Lapith heroes in the endeavour to rob them of their +prey. In the corners of the pediment recline female figures, +perhaps attendant slaves, though the farthest pair may best be +identified as local Thessalian nymphs, looking on with the +calmness of divine superiority, yet not wholly unconcerned in +what is going forward. Though the composition of the two +pediments differs notably, the one bearing the impress of a +parade-like repose, the other of an overstrained activity, yet +the style and execution are the same in both, and the shortcomings +must be attributed to the inferior skill of a local school +of sculptors compared with those of Athens or of Aegina. It +even appears likely that the designs also belong to a local school. +Pausanias, it is true, tells us that the pediments were the work +of Alcamenes, the pupil of Pheidias, and of Paeonius, a sculptor +of Thrace, respectively; but it is almost certain that he was +misled by the local guides, +who would naturally be +anxious to connect the +sculptures of their great +temple with well-known +names.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:384px; height:409px" src="images/img484a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Olympia</i>, iii. 45.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35</span>—Metope: Olympia; restored.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:447px" src="images/img484b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Olympia</i>, iii. 48.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36</span>—Nikē of Paeonius; restored.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The metopes of the +temple are in the same style +of art as the pediments, but +the defects of awkwardness +and want of mastery are +less conspicuous, because +the narrow limits of the +metope exclude any elaborate +grouping. The subjects +are provided by the +twelve labours of Heracles; +the figures introduced in +each metope are but two or +at most three; and the +action is simplified as much +as possible. The example +shown (fig. 35) represents +Heracles holding up the +sky on a cushion, with the +friendly aid of a Hesperid nymph, while Atlas, whom he has +relieved of his usual burden, approaches bringing the apples +which it was the task of Heracles to procure.</p> + +<p>Another of the fruits of the excavations of Olympia is the +floating Victory by Paeonius, unfortunately faceless (fig. 36), +which was set up in all probability in memory of the victory of +the Athenians and their Messenian allies at Sphacteria in 425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +The inscription states that it was dedicated by the Messenians +and people of Naupactus from the spoils of their enemies, but +the name of the enemy is not mentioned in the inscription. +The statue of Paeonius, which comes floating down through the +air with drapery borne backward, is of a bold and innovating +type, and we may trace its influence in many works of the next +age.</p> + +<p>Among the discoveries at Delphi none is so striking and +valuable to us as the life-size statue in bronze of a charioteer +holding in his hand the reins. This is maintained +by M. Homolle to be part of a chariot-group set up +<span class="sidenote">Delphic charioteer.</span> +by Polyzalus, brother of Gelo and Hiero of Syracuse, +in honour of a victory won in the chariot-race at the Pythian +games at Delphi (fig. 37). The charioteer is evidently a high-born +youth, and is clad in the long chiton which was necessary to +protect a driver of a chariot from the rush of air. The date +would be about 480-470 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Bronze groups representing +victorious chariots with their drivers were among the noblest +and most costly dedications of antiquity; the present figure +is our only satisfactory representative of them. In style the +figure is very notable, tall and slight beyond all contemporary +examples. The contrast between the conventional decorousness +of face and drapery and the lifelike accuracy of hands and +feet is very striking, and indicates the clashing of various +tendencies in art at the time when the great style was formed +in Greece.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:369px; height:398px" src="images/img484c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Mémoires, Piot</i>, 1807, 16.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>—Bronze Charioteer: Delphi.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The three great masters of the 5th century, Myron, Pheidias +and Polyclitus are all in some degree known to us from their +works. Of Myron we have copies of two works, the Marsyas +(Plate III. fig. 64) and the Discobolus. The Marsyas (a copy in +the Lateran Museum) represents the Satyr so named in the +grasp of conflicting emotions, eager to pick up the flutes which +Athena has thrown down, but at the same time dreading her +displeasure if he does so. The Discobolus has usually been +judged from the examples in the Vatican and the British Museum, +in which the anatomy is modernized and the head wrongly put on. +We have now photographs of the very superior replica in the +Lancelotti gallery at Rome, the pose of which is much nearer +to the original. Our illustration represents a restoration made +at Munich, by combining the Lancelotti head with the Vatican +body (Plate IV. fig. 68).</p> + +<p>Of the works of Pheidias we have unfortunately no certain +copy, if we except the small replicas at Athens of his Athena +Parthenos. The larger of these (fig. 38) was found in 1880: +it is very clumsy, and the wretched device by which a pillar +is introduced to support the Victory in the hand of Athena can +scarcely be supposed to have belonged to the great original. +Tempting theories have been published by Furtwängler (<i>Masterpieces +of Greek Sculpture</i>) and other archaeologists, which +identify copies of the Athena Lemnia of Pheidias, his Pantarces, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span> +his Aphrodite Urania and other statues; but doubt hangs over +all these attributions.</p> + +<p>A more pertinent and more promising question is, how far +we may take the decorative sculpture of the Parthenon, since +Lord Elgin’s time the pride of the British Museum, as the +actual work of Pheidias, or as done from his designs. Here +again we have no conclusive evidence; but it appears from the +testimony of inscriptions that the pediments at all events were +not executed until after Pheidias’s death.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:294px; height:443px" src="images/img485a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span>—Statuette of Athena Parthenos.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Of course the pediments and frieze of the Parthenon (<i>q.v.</i>), +whose work soever they may be, stand at the head of all Greek +decorative sculpture. +Whether we regard the +grace of the composition, +the exquisite finish +of the statues in the +round, or the delightful +atmosphere of poetry +and religion which surrounds +these sculptures, +they rank among the +masterpieces of the +world. The Greeks +esteemed them far below +the statue which the +temple was made to +shelter; but to us, who +have lost the great +figure in ivory and gold, +the carvings of the casket +which once contained it +are a perpetual source of +instruction and delight. +The whole is reproduced +by photography +in A. S. Murray’s <i>Sculptures of the Parthenon</i>.</p> + +<p>An abundant literature has sprung up in regard to these +sculptures in recent years. It will suffice here to mention the +discussions in Furtwängler’s <i>Masterpieces</i>, and the very ingenious +attempts of Sauer to determine by a careful examination of the +bases and backgrounds of the pediments as they now stand how +the figures must have been arranged in them. The two ends +of the eastern pediment (Plate III. fig. 65) are the only fairly +well-preserved part of the pediments.</p> + +<p>Among the pupils of Pheidias who may naturally be supposed +to have worked on the sculptures of the Parthenon, the most +notable were Alcamenes and Agoracritus. Some fragments +remain of the great statue of Nemesis at Rhamnus by Agoracritus. +And an interesting light has been thrown on Alcamenes by the +discovery at Pergamum of a professed copy of his Hermes set +up at the entrance to the Acropolis at Athens (Plate II. +fig. 57). The style of this work, however, is conventional +and archaistic, and we can scarcely regard it as typical of the +master.</p> + +<p>Another noted contemporary who was celebrated mainly for +his portraits was Cresilas, a Cretan. Several copies of his +portrait of Pericles exist, and testify to the lofty and idealizing +style of portraiture in this great age.</p> + +<p>We possess also admirable sculpture belonging to the other +important temples of the Acropolis, the Erechtheum and the +temple of Nike. The temple of Nike is the earlier, being possibly +a memorial of the Spartan defeat at Sphacteria. The Erechtheum +belongs to the end of our period, and embodies the +delicacy and finish of the conservative school of sculpture at +Athens just as the Parthenon illustrates the ideas of the more +progressive school. The reconstruction of the Erechtheum has +been a task which has long occupied the attention of archaeologists +(see the paper by Mr Stevens in the <i>American Journal +of Archaeology</i>, 1906). Our illustration (Plate V. fig. 75) shows +one of the Corae or maidens who support the entablature of the +south porch of the Erechtheum in her proper setting. This +use of the female figure in place of a pillar is based on old Ionian +precedent (see fig. 17) and is not altogether happy; but the +idea is carried out with remarkable skill, the perfect repose +and solid strength of the maiden being emphasized.</p> + +<p>Beside Pheidias of Athens must be placed the greatest of early +Argive sculptors, Polyclitus. His two typical athletes, the +Doryphorus or spear-bearer (Plate VI. fig. 80) and the Diadumenus, +have long been identified, and though the copies are not +first-rate, they enable us to recover the principles of the master’s +art.</p> + +<p>Among the bases discovered at Olympia, whence the statues +had been removed, are three or four which bear the name of +Polyclitus, and the definite evidence furnished by +these bases as to the position of the feet of the +<span class="sidenote">Polyclitus.</span> +statues which they once bore has enabled archaeologists, +especially Professor Furtwängler, to identify copies of those +statues among known works. Also newly discovered copies of +Polyclitan works have made their appearance. At Delos there +has been found a copy of the Diadumenus, which is of much +finer work than the statue in the British Museum from Vaison. +The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston, U.S.A., has secured a very +beautiful statue of a young Hermes, who but for the wings on +the temples might pass as a boy athlete of Polyclitan style +(Plate II. fig. 60). In fact, instead of relying as regards the +manner of Polyclitus on Roman copies of the Doryphorus and +Diadumenus, we have quite a gallery of athletes, boys and men, +who all claim relationship, nearer or more remote, to the school +of the great Argive master. It might have been hoped that the +excavations, made under the leadership of Professor Waldstein +at the Argive Heraeum, would have enlightened us as to the +style of Polyclitus. Just as the sculptures of the Parthenon +are the best monument of Pheidias, so it might seem likely that +the sculptural decoration of the great temple which contained +the Hera of Polyclitus would show us at large how his school +worked in marble. Unfortunately the fragments of sculpture +from the Heraeum are few. The most remarkable is a female +head, which may perhaps come from a pediment (fig. 39). But +archaeologists are not in agreement whether it is in style Polyclitan +or whether it rather resembles in style Attic works. Other +heads and some highly-finished fragments of bodies come +apparently from the metopes of the same temple. (See also +article Argos.)</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:358px; height:423px" src="images/img485b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span>—Female Head: Heraeum.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Another work of Polyclitus was his Amazon, made it is said +in competition with his great contemporaries, Pheidias, Cresilas +and Phradmon, all of whose Amazons were preserved in the +great temple of Artemis at Ephesus. In our museums are many +statues of Amazons representing 5th century originals. These +have usually been largely restored, and it is no easy matter to +discover their original type. Professor Michaelis has recovered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span> +successfully three types (fig. 40). The attribution of these is a +matter of controversy. The first has been given to the chisel +of Polyclitus; the second seems to represent the Wounded +Amazon of Cresilas; the third has by some archaeologists been +given to Pheidias. It does not represent a wounded amazon, +but one alert, about to leap upon her horse with the help of a +spear as a leaping pole.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:392px" src="images/img486a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>—Types of Amazons (Michaelis.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>We can devote little more than a passing mention to the +sculpture of other temples and shrines of the later 5th century, +which nevertheless deserve careful study. The frieze +from the temple of Apollo at Phigalia, representing +<span class="sidenote">Lycia.</span> +Centaur and Amazon battles, is familiar to visitors of the British +Museum, where, however, its proximity to the remains of the +Parthenon lays stress upon the faults of grouping and execution +which this frieze presents. It seems to have been executed by +local Arcadian artists. More pleasing is the sculpture of the +Ionic tomb called the Nereid monument, brought by Sir Charles +Fellows from Lycia. Here we have not only a series of bands +of relief which ran round the tomb, but also detached female +figures, whence the name which it bears is derived. A recent +view sees in these women with their fluttering drapery not +nymphs of the sea, but personifications of sea-breezes.</p> + +<p>The series of known Lycian tombs has been in recent years +enriched through the acquisition by the museum of Vienna of +the sculptured friezes which adorned a heroon near Geul Bashi. +In the midst of the enclosure was a tomb, and the walls of the +enclosure itself were adorned within and without with a great +series of reliefs, mostly of mythologic purport. Many subjects +which but rarely occur in early Greek art, the siege of Troy, the +adventure of the Seven against Thebes, the carrying off of the +daughters of Leucippus, Ulysses shooting down the Suitors, are +here represented in detail. Professor Benndorf, who has published +these sculptures in an admirable volume, is disposed to +see in them the influence of the Thasian painter Polygnotus. +Any one can see their kinship to painting, and their subjects +recur in some of the great frescoes painted by Polygnotus, +Micon and others for the Athenians. Like other Lycian sculptures, +they contain non-Hellenic elements; in fact Lycia forms +a link of the chain which extends from the wall-paintings of +Assyria to works like the columns of Trajan and of Antoninus, +but is not embodied in the more purely idealistic works of the +highest Greek art. The date of the Vienna tomb is not much +later than the middle of the 5th century. A small part of the +frieze of this monument is shown in fig. 41. It will be seen that +in this fragment there are two scenes, one directly above the other. +In the upper line Ulysses, accompanied by his son Telemachus, +is in the act of shooting the suitors, who are reclining at table +in the midst of a feast; a cup-bearer, possibly Melanthius, is +escaping by a door behind Ulysses. In the lower line is the +central group of a frieze which represents the hunting of the +Calydonian boar, which is represented, as is usual in the best time +of Greek art, as an ordinary animal and no monster.</p> + +<p>Archaeologists have recently begun to pay more attention +to an interesting branch of Greek art which had until recently +been neglected, that of sculptured portraits. The +known portraits of the 5th century now include +<span class="sidenote">Portraits.</span> +Pericles, Herodotus, Thucydides, Anacreon, Sophocles, Euripides, +Socrates and others. As might be expected in a time when style +in sculpture was so strongly pronounced, these portraits, when not +later unfaithful copies, are notably ideal. They represent the +great men whom they portray not in the spirit of realism. +Details are neglected, expression is not elaborated; the sculptor +tries to represent what is permanent in his subject rather than +what is temporary. Hence these portraits do not seem to belong +to a particular time of life; they only represent a man in the +perfection of physical force and mental energy. And the race +or type is clearly shown through individual traits. In some +cases it is still disputed whether statues of this age represent +deities or mortals, so notable are the repose and dignity which +even human figures acquire under the hands of 5th-century +masters. The Pericles after Cresilas in the British Museum, +and the athlete-portraits of Polyclitus, are good examples.</p> + +<p><i>Period III. 400-300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></i>—The high ideal level attained by +Greek art at the end of the 5th century is maintained in the 4th. +There cannot be any question of decay in it save at Athens, +where undoubtedly the loss of religion and the decrease of +national prosperity acted prejudicially. But in Peloponnesus +the time was one of expansion; several new and important cities, +such as Messene, Megalopolis and Mantinea, arose under the +protection of Epaminondas. And in Asia the Greek cities were +still prosperous and artistic, as were the cities of Italy and Sicily +which kept their independence. On the whole we find during +this age some diminution of the freshness and simplicity of art; +it works less in the service of the gods and more in that of private +patrons; it becomes less ethical and more sentimental and +emotional. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that +technique both in painting and sculpture advanced with rapid +strides; artists had a greater mastery of their materials, and +ventured on a wider range of subject.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:453px; height:354px" src="images/img486b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Heroon of Gyeul Bashi Trysa</i>, Pl. 7.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>—Odysseus and Suitors; Hunting of Boar.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the 4th century no new temples of importance rose at +Athens; the Acropolis had taken its final form; but at Messene, +Tegea, Epidaurus and elsewhere, very admirable buildings arose. +The remains of the temple at Tegea are of wonderful beauty +and finish; as are those of the theatre and the so-called <i>Tholus</i> +of Epidaurus. In Asia Minor vast temples of the Ionic order +arose, especially at Miletus and Ephesus. The colossal pillars +of Miletus astonish the visitors to the Louvre; while the +sculptured columns of Ephesus in the British Museum (Plate II. +fig. 59) show a high level of artistic skill. The Mausoleum +erected about 350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> at Halicarnassus in memory of Mausolus, +king of Caria, and adorned with sculpture by the most noted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span> +artists of the day, was reckoned one of the wonders of the world. +It has been in part restored in the British Museum. Mr Oldfield’s +conjectural restoration, published in <i>Archaeologia</i> for 1895, +though it has many rivals, surpasses them all in the lightness +of the effect, and in close correspondence to the description by +Pliny. We show a small part of the sculptural decoration, +representing a battle between Greeks and Amazons (Plate IV. +fig. 70), wherein the energy of the action and the careful balance +of figure against figure are remarkable. We possess also the +fine portraits of Mausolus himself and his wife Artemisia, which +stood in or on the building, as well as part of a gigantic chariot +with four horses which surmounted it.</p> + +<p>Another architectural work of the 4th century, in its way a +gem, is the structure set up at Athens by Lysicrates, in memory +of a choragic victory. This still survives, though the reliefs +with which it is adorned have suffered severely from the weather.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:543px" src="images/img487a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">Nat. Mus., Naples.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>—Greek Drawing of Women Playing at Knucklebones.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The 4th century is the brilliant period of ancient painting. +It opens with the painters of the Asiatic School, Zeuxis and Parrhasius +and Protogenes, with their contemporaries Nicias and +Apollodorus of Athens, Timanthes of Sicyon or Cythnus, and +Euphranor of Corinth. It witnesses the rise of a great school +at Sicyon, under Eupompus and Pamphilus, which was noted +for its scientific character and the fineness of its drawing, and +which culminated in Apelles, the painter of Alexander the Great, +and probably the greatest master of the art in antiquity. To +each of these painters a separate article is given, fixing their +place in the history of the art. Of their paintings unfortunately +we can form but a very inadequate notion. Vase-paintings, +which in the 5th century give us some notion at least of contemporary +drawing, are less careful in the 4th century. Now +and then we find on them figures admirably designed, or successfully +foreshortened; but these are rare occurrences. The art +of the vase decorator has ceased to follow the methods and +improvements of contemporary fresco painters, and is pursued +as a mere branch of commerce.</p> + +<p>But very few actual paintings of the age survive, and even +these fragmentary remains have with time lost the freshness of +their colouring; nor are they in any case the work of a noteworthy +hand. We reproduce two examples. The first is from +a stone of the vault of a Crimean grave (Plate IV. fig. 67). The +date of the grave is fixed to the 4th century by ornaments found +in it, among which was a gold coin of Alexander the Great. The +representation is probably of Demeter or her priestess, her hair +bound with poppies and other flowers. The original is of large +size. The other illustration (fig. 42) represents the remains of +a drawing on marble, representing a group of women playing +knucklebones. It was found at Herculaneum. Though signed +by one Alexander of Athens, who was probably a worker of the +Roman age, Professor Robert is right in maintaining that +Alexander only copied a design of the age of Zeuxis and Parrhasius. +In fact the drawing and grouping is so closely like that +of reliefs of about 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that the drawing is of great historic +value, though there be no colouring. Several other drawings +of the same class have been found at Herculaneum, and on the +walls of the Transtiberine Villa at Rome (now in the Terme +Museum).</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:235px; height:430px" src="images/img487b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Olympia</i>, iii. 53.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>—Hermes of Praxiteles; +restored.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Until about the year 1880, our knowledge of the great Greek +sculptors of the 4th century was derived mostly from the +statements of ancient writers and from Roman +copies, or what were supposed to be copies, of +<span class="sidenote">Praxiteles.</span> +their works. We are now in a far more satisfactory +position. We now possess an original work of Praxiteles, and +sculptures executed under the immediate direction of, if not from +the hand of, other great sculptors of that age—Scopas, Timotheus +and others. Among all the discoveries made at Olympia, none +has become so familiar to the artistic world as that of the Hermes +of Praxiteles. It is the first time that we have become possessed +of a first-rate Greek original by one of the greatest of sculptors. +Hitherto almost all the statues in our museums have been either +late copies of Greek works of art, or else the mere decorative +sculpture of temples and tombs, which was by the ancients +themselves but little regarded. But we can venture without +misgiving to submit the new Hermes to the strictest examination, +sure that in every line and touch we have the work of a great +artist. This is more than we can say of any of the literary +remains of antiquity—poem, play or oration. Hermes is represented +by the sculptor (fig. 43 +and Plate VI. fig. 82) in the act +of carrying the young child +Dionysus to the nymphs who +were charged with his rearing. +On the journey he pauses and +amuses himself by holding out to +the child-god a bunch of grapes, +and watching his eagerness to +grasp them. To the modern eye +the child is not a success; only +the latest art of Greece is at home +in dealing with children. But the +Hermes, strong without excessive +muscular development, and graceful +without leanness, is a model +of physical formation, and his +face expresses the perfection of +health, natural endowment and +sweet nature. The statue can +scarcely be called a work of +religious art in the modern or +Christian sense of the word +religious, but from the Greek +point of view it is religious, as +embodying the result of the harmonious +development of all human faculties and life in accordance +with nature.</p> + +<p>The Hermes not only adds to our knowledge of Praxiteles, +but also confirms the received views in regard to him. Already +many works in galleries of sculpture had been identified as +copies of statues of his school. Noteworthy among these are, +the group at Munich representing Peace nursing the infant +Wealth, from an original by Cephisodotus, father of Praxiteles; +copies of the Cnidian Aphrodite of Praxiteles, especially one in +the Vatican which is here illustrated (Plate V. fig. 71); copies +of the Apollo slaying a lizard (Sauroctonus), of a Satyr (in the +Capitol Museum), and others. These works, which are noted +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span> +for their softness and charm, make us understand the saying of +ancient critics that Praxiteles and Scopas were noted for the +pathos of their works, as Pheidias and Polyclitus for the ethical +quality of those they produced. But the pathos of Praxiteles +is of a soft and dreamy character; there is no action, or next +to none; and the emotions which he rouses are sentimental +rather than passionate. Scopas, as we shall see, was of another +mood. The discovery of the Hermes has naturally set archaeologists +searching in the museums of Europe for other works +which may from their likeness to it in various respects be set +down as Praxitelean in character. In the case of many of the +great sculptors of Greece—Strongylion, Silanion, Calamis and +others—it is of little use to search for copies of their works, +since we have little really trustworthy evidence on which to +base our inquiries. But in the case of Praxiteles we really stand +on a safe level. Naturally it is impossible in these pages to give +any sketch of the results, some almost certain, some very doubtful, +of the researches of archaeologists in quest of Praxitelean works. +But we may mention a few works which have been claimed +by good judges as coming from the master himself. Professor +Brunn claimed as work of Praxiteles a torso of a satyr in the +Louvre, in scheme identical with the well-known satyr of the +Capitol. Professor Furtwängler puts in the same category a +delicately beautiful head of Aphrodite at Petworth. And his +translator, Mrs Strong, regards the Aberdeen head of a young +man in the British Museum as the actual work of Praxiteles. +Certainly this last head does not suffer when placed beside the +Olympian head of Hermes. At Mantinea has been found a basis +whereon stood a group of Latona and her two children, Apollo +and Artemis, made by Praxiteles. This base bears reliefs +representing the musical contest of Apollo and Marsyas, with the +Muses as spectators, reliefs very pleasing in style, and quite +in the manner of Attic artists of the 4th century. But of course +we must not ascribe them to the hand of Praxiteles himself; +great sculptors did not themselves execute the reliefs which +adorned temples and other monuments, but reserved them for +their pupils. Yet the graceful figures of the Muses of Mantinea +suggest how much was due to Praxiteles in determining the tone +and character of Athenian art in relief in the 4th century. +Exactly the same style which marks them belongs also to a mass +of sepulchral monuments at Athens, and such works as the +Sidonian sarcophagus of the Mourning Women, to be presently +mentioned.</p> + +<p>Excavation on the site of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea +has resulted in the recovery of works of the school of Scopas. +Pausanias tells us that Scopas was the architect of +the temple, and so important in the case of a Greek +<span class="sidenote">Scopas.</span> +temple is the sculptural decoration, that we can scarcely +doubt that the sculpture also of the temple at Tegea was +under the supervision of Scopas, especially as he was more +noted as a sculptor than as an architect. In the pediments +of the temple were represented two scenes from mythology, +the hunting of the Calydonian boar and the combat between +Achilles and Telephus. To one or other of these scenes belong +several heads of local marble discovered on the spot, which are +very striking from their extraordinary life and animation. +Unfortunately they are so much injured that they can scarcely +be made intelligible except by the help of restoration; we +therefore engrave one of them, the helmeted head, as restored +by a German sculptor (Plate III. fig. 63). The strong bony +frame of this head, and its depth from front to back, are not +less noteworthy than the parted lips and deeply set and strongly +shaded eye; the latter features impart to the head a vividness +of expression such as we have found in no previous work of Greek +art, but which sets the key to the developments of art which +take place in the Hellenistic age. A draped torso of Atalanta +from the same pediment has been fitted to one of these heads. +Hitherto Scopas was known to us, setting aside literary records, +only as one of the sculptors who had worked at the Mausoleum. +Ancient critics and travellers, however, bear ample testimony to +his fame, and the wide range of his activity, which extended to +northern Greece, Peloponnese and Asia Minor. His Maenads +and his Tritons and other beings of the sea were much copied in +antiquity. But perhaps he reached his highest level in statues +such as that of Apollo as leader of the Muses, clad in long drapery.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:333px; height:418px" src="images/img488.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 44.</span>—Amazon from Epidaurus.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The interesting precinct of Aesculapius at Epidaurus has +furnished us with specimens of the style of an Athenian contemporary +of Scopas, who worked with him on the +Mausoleum. An inscription which records the sums +<span class="sidenote">Timotheus, Bryaxis, Leochares.</span> +spent on the temple of the Physician-god, informs us +that the models for the sculptures of the pediments, and +one set of acroteria or roof adornments, were the work of Timotheus. +Of the pedimental figures and the acroteria considerable +fragments have been recovered, and we may with confidence +assume that at all events the models for these were by Timotheus. +It is strange that the unsatisfactory arrangement whereby a +noted sculptor makes models and some local workman the +figures enlarged from those models, should have been tolerated +by so artistic a people as the Greeks. The subjects of the pediments +appear to have been the common ones of battles between +Greek and Amazon and between Lapith and Centaur. We +possess fragments of some of the Amazon figures, one of which, +striking downwards at the enemy, is here shown (fig. 44). Their +attitudes are vigorous and alert; but the work shows no delicacy +of detail. Figures of +Nereids riding on +horses, which were +found on the same site, +may very probably be +roof ornaments (acroteria) +of the temple. +We have also several +figures of Victory, +which probably were +acroteria on some +smaller temple, perhaps +that of Artemis. +A base found at +Athens, sculptured +with figures of horsemen +in relief, bears the +name of Bryaxis, and +was probably made by +a pupil of his. Probable +conjecture assigns +to Leochares the +originals copied in the +Ganymede of the Vatican, borne aloft by an eagle (Plate I. +fig. 53) and the noble statue of Alexander the Great at Munich +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leochares</a></span>). Thus we may fairly say that we are now +acquainted with the work of all the great sculptors who worked +on the Mausoleum—Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and Timotheus; +and are in a far more advantageous position than were the +archaeologists of 1880 for determining the artistic problems +connected with that noblest of ancient tombs.</p> + +<p>Contemporary with the Athenian school of Praxiteles and +Scopas was the great school of Argos and Sicyon, of which +Lysippus was the most distinguished member. Lysippus continued +the academic traditions of Polyclitus, but he was far +bolder in his choice of subjects and more innovating in style. +Gods, heroes and mortals alike found in him a sculptor who knew +how to combine fine ideality with a vigorous actuality. He +was at the height of his fame during Alexander’s life, and the +grandiose ambition of the great Macedonian found him ample +employment, especially in the frequent representation of himself +and his marshals.</p> + +<p>We have none of the actual works of Lysippus; but our best +evidence for his style will be found in the statue of Agias an +athlete (Plate V. fig. 74) found at Delphi, and shown by an +inscription to be a marble copy of a bronze original by Lysippus. +The Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (man scraping himself with a +strigil) (Plate VI. fig. 79) has hitherto been regarded as a copy +from Lysippus; but of this there is no evidence, and the style +of that statue belongs rather to the 3rd century than the 4th. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span> +The Agias, on the other hand, is in style contemporary with the +works of 4th-century sculptors.</p> + +<p>Of the elaborate groups of combatants with which Lysippus +enriched such centres as Olympia and Delphi, or of the huge bronze +statues which he erected in temples and shrines, we can form no +adequate notion. Perhaps among the extant heads of Alexander +the one which is most likely to preserve the style of Lysippus +is the head from Alexandria in the British Museum (Plate II. +fig. 56), though this was executed at a later time.</p> + +<p>Many noted extant statues may be attributed with probability +to the latter part of the 4th or the earlier part of the 3rd century. +We will mention a few only. The celebrated group at Florence +representing Niobe and her children falling before the arrows of +Apollo and Artemis is certainly a work of the pathetic school, +and may be by a pupil of Praxiteles. Niobe, in an agony of +grief, which is in the marble tempered and idealized, tries to +protect her youngest daughter from destruction (Plate VI. fig. 78). +Whether the group can have originally been fitted into the gable +of a temple is a matter of dispute.</p> + +<p>Two great works preserved in the Louvre are so noted that it is +but necessary to mention them, the Aphrodite of Melos (Plate +VI. fig. 77), in which archaeologists are now disposed to see the +influence of Scopas, and the Victory of Samothrace (Plate III. figs. +61 and 62), an original set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes after a +naval victory won at Salamis in Cyprus in 306 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> over the +fleet of Ptolemy, king of Egypt.</p> + +<p>Nor can we pass over without notice two works so celebrated +as the Apollo of the Belvidere in the Vatican (Plate II. fig. 55), +and the Artemis of Versailles. The Apollo is now by most +archaeologists regarded as probably a copy of a work of Leochares, +to whose Ganymede it bears a superficial resemblance. The +Artemis is regarded as possibly due to some artist of the same +age. But it is by no means clear that we have the right to +remove either of these figures from among the statues of the +Hellenistic age. The old theory of Preller, which saw in them +copies from a trophy set up to commemorate the repulse of the +Gauls at Delphi in 278 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, has not lost its plausibility.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:299px; height:335px" src="images/img489.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">Hamdy et Reinach, <i>Nécropole à Sidon</i>, Pl. 7.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 45.</span>—Tomb of Mourning Women: +Sidon.</td></tr></table> + +<p>This may be the most appropriate place for mentioning the +remarkable find made at Sidon in 1886 of a number of sarcophagi, +which once doubtless contained the remains of kings +of Sidon. They are now in the museum of Constantinople, +<span class="sidenote">Sarcophagi of Sidon.</span> +and are admirably published by Hamdy Bey +and T. Reinach (<i>Une Nécropole royale à Sidon</i>, 1892-1896). +The sarcophagi in date cover a considerable period. +The earlier are made on Egyptian models, the covers shaped +roughly in the form of a human body or mummy. The later, +however, are Greek in form, and are clearly the work of skilled +Greek sculptors, who seem +to have been employed by +the grandees of Phoenicia +in the adornment of their +last resting-places. Four +of these sarcophagi in particular +claim attention, +and in fact present us +with examples of Greek +art of the 5th and 4th +centuries in several of its +aspects. To the 5th +century belong the tomb +of the Satrap, the reliefs of +which bring before us the +activities and glories of +some unknown king, and +the Lycian sarcophagus, +so called from its form, +which resembles that of +tombs found in Lycia, and which is also adorned with reliefs +which have reference to the past deeds of the hero buried in the +tomb, though these deeds are represented, not in the Oriental +manner directly, but in the Greek manner, clad in mythological +forms. To the 4th century belong two other sarcophagi. One +of these is called the Tomb of Mourning Women. On all sides +of it alike are ranged a series of beautiful female figures, separated +by Ionic pillars, each in a somewhat different attitude, though all +attitudes denoting grief (fig. 45). The pediments at the ends of the +cover are also closely connected with the mourning for the loss of +a friend and protector, which is the theme of the whole decoration +of the sarcophagus. We see depicted in them the telling of the +news of the death, with the results in the mournful attitude of the +two seated figures. The mourning women must be taken, not +as the representation of any persons in particular, but generally +as the expression of the feeling of a city. Such figures are familiar +to us in the art of the second Attic school; we could easily find +parallels to the sarcophagus among the 4th-century sepulchral +reliefs of Athens. We can scarcely be mistaken in attributing +the workmanship of this beautiful sarcophagus to some sculptor +trained in the school of Praxiteles. And it is a conjecture full of +probability that it once contained the body of Strato, king of +Sidon, who ruled about 380 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and who was <i>proxenos</i> or public +friend of the Athenians.</p> + +<p>More celebrated is the astonishing tomb called that of +Alexander, though there can be no doubt that, although it +commemorates the victories and exploits of Alexander, it was +made not to hold his remains, but those of some ruler of Sidon +who was high in his favour. Among all the monuments of antiquity +which have come down to us, none is more admirable than +this, and none more characteristic of the Greek genius. We give, +in two lines, the composition which adorned one of the sides of +this sarcophagus. It represents a victory of Alexander, probably +that of the Granicus (fig. 46). On the left we see the Macedonian +king charging the Persian horse, on the right his general +Parmenio, and in the midst a younger officer, perhaps Cleitus. +Mingled with the chiefs are foot-soldiers, Greek and Macedonian, +with whom the Persians are mingled in unequal fray. What +most strikes the modern eye is the remarkable freshness and +force of the action and the attitudes. Those, however, who +have seen the originals have been specially impressed with the +colouring, whereof, of course, our engraving gives no hint, but +which is applied to the whole surface of the relief with equal +skill and delicacy. There are other features in the relief on +which a Greek eye would have dwelt with special pleasure—the +exceedingly careful symmetry of the whole, the balancing of +figure against figure, the skill with which the result of the battle +is hinted rather than depicted. The composition is one in which +the most careful planning and the most precise calculation are +mingled with freedom of hand and expressiveness in detail. +The faces in particular show more expression than would be +tolerated in art of the previous century. We are unable as yet +to assign an author or even a school to the sculptor of this +sarcophagus; he comes to us as a new and striking phenomenon +in the history of ancient art. The reliefs which adorn the other +sides of the sarcophagus are almost equally interesting. On +one side we see Alexander again, in the company of a Persian +noble, hunting a lion. The short sides also show us scenes of +fighting and hunting. In fact it can scarcely be doubted that +if we had but a clue to the interpretation of the reliefs, they +would be found to embody historic events of the end of the 4th +century. There are but a few other works of art, such as the +Bayeux tapestry and the Column of Trajan, which bring contemporary +history so vividly before our eyes. The battles with +the Persians represented in some of the sculpture of the Parthenon +and the temple of Nike at Athens are treated conventionally +and with no attempt at realism; but here the ideal and the actual +are blended into a work of consummate art, which is at the same +time, to those who can read the language of Greek art, a historic +record. The portraits of Alexander the Great which appear on +this sarcophagus are almost contemporary, and the most +authentic likenesses of him which we possess. The great Macedonian +exercised so strong an influence on contemporary art +that a multitude of heads of the age, both of gods and men, and +even the portraits of his successors, show traces of his type.</p> + +<p>We have yet to mention what are among the most charming +and the most characteristic products of the Greek chisel, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span> +beautiful tombs, adorned with seated or standing portraits or with +reliefs, which were erected in great numbers on all the main roads of +Greece. A great number of these from the Dipylon cemetery are preserved +in the Central Museum at Athens, and impress all visitors by the gentle +sentiment and the charm of grouping which they display (Gardner, +<i>Sculptured Tombs of Hellas</i>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:879px; height:662px" src="images/img490a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">Hamdy et Reinach. <i>Nécropole à Sidon</i>, Pl. 30.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 46.</span>—Battle of The Granicus: Sarcophagus from Sidon.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Period IV., 300-50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></i>—There can be no question but that the period +which followed the death of Alexander, commonly called the age of +Hellenism, was one of great activity and expansion in architecture. The +number of cities founded by himself and his immediate successors in Asia +and Egypt was enormous. The remains of these cities have in a few cases +(Ephesus, Pergamum, Assus, Priene, Alexandria) been partially excavated. +But the adaptation of Greek architecture to the needs of the semi-Greek +peoples included in the dominions of the kings of Egypt, Syria and +Pergamum is too vast a subject for us to enter upon here (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Painting during this age ceased to be religious. It was no longer for +temples and public stoae that artists worked, but for private persons; +especially they made frescoes for the decoration of the walls of houses, +and panel pictures for galleries set up by rich patrons. The names of +very few painters of the Hellenistic age have come down to us. There can +be no doubt that the character of the art declined, and there were no +longer produced great works to be the pride of cities, or to form an +embodiment for all future time of the qualities of a deity or the +circumstances of scenes mythical or historic. But at the same time the +mural paintings of Pompeii and other works of the Roman age, which are +usually more or less nearly derived from Hellenistic models, prove that +in technical matters painting continued to progress. Colouring became +more varied, groups more elaborate, perspective was worked out with +greater accuracy, and imagination shook itself free from many of the +conventions of early art. Pompeian painting, however, must be treated of +under Roman, not under Greek art. We figure a single example, to show +the elaboration of painting at Alexandria and elsewhere, the wonderful +Pompeian mosaic (fig. 47), which represents the victory of Alexander at +Issus. This work being in stone has preserved its colouring; and it +stands at a far higher level of art than ordinary Pompeian paintings, +which are the work of mere house-decorators. This on the contrary is +certainly copied from the work of a great master. It is instructive to +compare it with the sarcophagus illustrated in Fig. 46, which it excels +in perspective and in the freedom of individual figures, though the +composition is much less careful and precise. Alexander charges from the +left (his portrait being the least successful part of the picture), and +bears down a young Persian; Darius in his chariot flees towards the +right; in the foreground a young knight is trying to manage a restive +horse. It will be observed how very simple is the indication of +locality: a few stones and a broken tree stand for rocks and woods.</p> + +<p>Among the original sculptural creations of the early Hellenistic +age, a prominent place is claimed by the statue of Fortune, +typifying the city of Antioch (Plate VI. fig. 81), a work of +Eutychides, a pupil of Lysippus. Of this we possess a small copy, +which is sufficient to show how worthy of admiration was the +original. We have a beautiful embodiment of the personality of +the city, seated on a rock, holding ears of corn, while the river +Orontes, embodied in a young male figure, springs forth at her +feet.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:250px" src="images/img490b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80">From a photograph by G. Borgi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span>—Mosaic of the Battle of Issus (Naples).</td></tr></table> + +<p>This is, so far as we know, almost the only work of the early part of +the 3rd century which shows imagination. Sculptors often worked on a +colossal scale, producing such monsters as the colossal Apollo at +Rhodes, the work of Chares of Lindus, which was more than 100 ft. in +height. But they did not show freshness or invention; and for the most +part content themselves with varying the types produced in the great +schools of the 4th century. The wealthy kings of Syria, Egypt and Asia +Minor formed art galleries, and were lavish in their payments; but it +has often been proved in the history of art that originality cannot be +produced by mere expenditure.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span></p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:269px; height:445px" src="images/img491a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.</span>—Head of Anytus: Lycosura.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A great artist, whose date has been disputed, but who is +now assigned to the Hellenistic age, Damophon of Messene, +is known to us from his actual works. He set up in the shrine +of the <i>Mistress</i> (Despoena) at Lycosura in Arcadia a great +group of figures consisting of Despoena, Demeter, Artemis +and the Titan Anytus. Three colossal heads found on the spot +probably belong to the three last-mentioned deities. We +illustrate the head of Anytus, with wild disordered hair and +turbulent expression (fig. 48). Dr Dörpfeld has argued, on +architectural grounds, that +shrine and images alike +must be given to a later +time than the 4th century; +and this judgment is now +confirmed by inscriptional +and other evidence.</p> + +<p>In one important direction +sculpture certainly +made progress. Hitherto +Greek sculptors had contented +themselves with +studying the human body +whether in rest or motion, +from outside. The dissection +of the human body, +with a consequent increase +in knowledge of anatomy, +became usual at Alexandria +in the medical school which +flourished under the Ptolemies. +This improved anatomical +knowledge soon +reacted upon the art of +sculpture. Works such as +the Fighter of Agasias in the Louvre (Plate IV. fig. 69), and in a +less degree the Apoxyomenus (Plate VI. fig. 79), display a +remarkable internal knowledge of the human frame, such as +could only come from the habit of dissection. Whether this +was really productive of improvement in sculpture may be +doubted. But it is impossible to withhold one’s admiration +from works which show an astonishing knowledge of the body +of man down to its bony framework, and a power and mastery +of execution which have never since been surpassed.</p> + +<p>With accuracy in the portrayal of men’s bodies goes of necessity +a more naturalistic tendency in portraiture. As we have seen, +the art of portraiture was at a high ideal level in the Pheidian +age; and even in the age of Alexander the Great, notable men +were rendered rather according to the idea than the fact. To a +base and mechanical naturalism Greek art never at any time +descended. But from 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards we have a marvellous +series of portraits which may be termed rather characteristic +than ideal, which are very minute in their execution, and delight +in laying emphasis on the havoc wrought by time and life on +the faces of noteworthy men. Such are the portraits of Demosthenes, +of Antisthenes, of Zeno and others, which exist in our +galleries. And it was no long step from these actual portraits +to the invention of characteristic types to represent the great +men of a past generation, such as Homer and Lycurgus, or to +form generic images to represent weatherbeaten fishermen or +toothless old women.</p> + +<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:248px; height:430px" src="images/img491b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 49.</span>—Giant from Great Altar: +Pergamum.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Our knowledge of the art of the later Hellenistic age has +received a great accession since 1875 through the systematic +labours directed by the German Archaeological Institute, +which have resulted in recovering the remains +<span class="sidenote">Altar of Pergamum.</span> +of Pergamum, the fortress-city which was the capital +of the dynasty of the Philetaeri. Among the ancient +buildings of Pergamum none was more ambitious in scale and +striking in execution than the great altar used for sacrifices to +Zeus, a monument supposed to be referred to in the phrase of +the Apocalypse “where Satan’s throne is.” This altar, like many +great sacrificial altars of later Greece, was a vast erection to +which one mounted by many steps, and its outside was adorned +with a frieze which represented on a gigantic scale, in the style +of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the battle between the gods and the +giants. This enormous frieze (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pergamum</a></span>) is now one of the +treasures of the Royal Museums of Berlin, and it cannot fail to +impress visitors by the size of the figures, the energy of the action, +and the strong vein of sentiment which pervades the whole, +giving it a certain air of modernity, though the subject is strange +to the Christian world. In early Greek art the giants where +they oppose the gods are represented as men armed in full +panoply, “in shining armour, holding long spears in their +hands,” to use the phrase in which Hesiod describes them. +But in the Pergamene frieze the giants are strange compounds, +having the heads and bodies of wild and fierce barbarians, +sometimes also human legs, but sometimes in the place of legs +two long serpents, the heads of which take with the giants themselves +a share in the battle. Sometimes also they are winged. +The gods appear in the forms which had been gradually made +for them in the course of Greek history, but they are usually +accompanied by the animals sacred to them in cultus, between +which and the serpent-feet of the giants a weird combat goes on. +We can conjecture the source whence the Pergamene artist +derived the shaggy hair, the fierce expression, the huge muscles +of his giants (fig. 49); probably these features came originally +from the Galatians, who at the time had settled in Asia Minor, +and were spreading the terror of their name and the report of +their savage devastations through all Asia Minor. The victory +over the giants clearly stands for the victory of Greek civilization +over Gallic barbarism; and this meaning is made more emphatic +because the gods are obviously inferior in physical force to their +opponents, indeed, a large proportion of the divine combatants +are goddesses. Yet everywhere the giants are overthrown, +writhing in pain on the ground, or transfixed by the weapons of +their opponents; everywhere the gods are victorious, yet in the +victory retain much of their divine calm. The piecing together +of the frieze at Berlin has been a labour of many years; it is +now complete, and there is +a special museum devoted to +it. Some of the groups have +become familiar to students +from photographs, especially +the group which represents +Zeus slaying his enemies with +thunderbolts, and the group +wherein Athena seizes by the +hair an overthrown opponent, +who is winged, while Victory +runs to crown her, and beneath +is seen Gaia, the earth-goddess +who is the mother of +the giants, rising out of the +ground, and mourning over +her vanquished and tortured +children. Another and smaller +frieze which also decorated +the altar-place gives us scenes +from the history of Telephus, +who opposed the landing of +the army of Agamemnon in +Asia Minor and was overthrown +by Achilles. This +frieze, which is quite fragmentary, is put together by Dr Schneider +in the <i>Jahrbuch</i> of the German Archaeological Institute for 1900.</p> + +<p>Since the Renaissance Rome has continually produced a crop +of works of Greek art of all periods, partly originals brought +from Greece by conquering generals, partly copies, such as the +group at Rome formerly known as Paetus and Arria, and the +overthrown giants and barbarians which came from the elaborate +trophy set up by Attalus at Athens, of which copies exist in +many museums. A noted work of kindred school is the group +of Laocoon and his sons (Plate I. fig. 52), signed by Rhodian +sculptors of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, which has been perhaps more +discussed than any work of the Greek chisel, and served as a peg +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span> +for the aesthetic theories of Lessing and Goethe. In our days +the histrionic and strained character of the group is regarded as +greatly diminishing its interest, in spite of the astounding skill +and knowledge of the human body shown by the artists. To +the same school belong the late representations of Marsyas +being flayed by the victorious Apollo (Plate II. fig. 54), a somewhat +repulsive subject, chosen by the artists of this age as a +means for displaying their accurate knowledge of anatomy.</p> + +<p>On what a scale some of the artists of Asia Minor would work +is shown us by the enormous group, by Apollonius and Tauriscus +of Tralles, which is called the Farnese Bull (Plate I. fig. 51), and +which represents how Dirce was tied to a wild bull by her stepsons +Zethus and Amphion.</p> + +<p>The extensive excavations and alterations which have taken +place at Rome in recent years have been very fruitful; the +results may be found partly in the palace of the +Conservatori on the Capitol, partly in the new museum +<span class="sidenote">Rome.</span> +of the Terme. Among recently found statues none excel in +interest some bronzes of large size dating from the Hellenistic age. +In the figure of a seated boxer (Plate V. fig. 72), in scale somewhat +exceeding life, attitude and gesture are expressive. Evidently +the boxer has fought already, and is awaiting a further conflict. +His face is cut and swollen; on his hands are the terrible caestus, +here made of leather, and not loaded with iron, like the caestus +described by Virgil. The figure is of astounding force; but +though the face is brutal and the expression savage, in the sweep +of the limbs there is nobility, even ideal beauty. To the last the +Greek artist could not set aside his admiration for physical +perfection. Another bronze figure of more than life-size is that +of a king of the Hellenistic age standing leaning on a spear. He +is absolutely nude, like the athletes of Polyclitus. Another +large bronze presents us with a Hellenistic type of Dionysus.</p> + +<p>Besides the bronzes found in Rome we may set those recently +found in the sea on the coast of Cythera, the contents of a ship +sailing from Greece to Rome, and lost on the way. The date of +these bronze statues has been disputed. In any case, even if +executed in the Roman age, they go back to originals of the 5th +and 4th centuries. The most noteworthy among them is a +beautiful athlete (Plate V. fig. 73) standing with hand upraised, +which reflects the style of the Attic school of the 4th century.</p> + +<p>After 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> when Corinth was destroyed and Greece became +a Roman province, Greek art, though by no means extinct, +worked mainly in the employ of the Roman conquerors (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Art</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>IV. <span class="sc">Select Bibliography.</span><a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a>—I. <b>General works on Greek Art.</b>—The +only recent general histories of Greek art are: H. Brunn, +<i>Griechische Kunstgeschichte</i>, bks. i. and ii., dealing with archaic art; +W. Klein, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Kunst</i>, no illustrations; Perrot +et Chipiez, <i>Histoire de l’art dans l’antiquité</i>, vols. vii. and viii. +(archaic art only).</p> + +<p>Introductory are: P. Gardner, <i>Grammar of Greek Art</i>; J. E. +Harrison, <i>Introductory Studies in Greek Art</i>; H. B. Walters, <i>Art of +the Greeks</i>.</p> + +<p>Useful are also: H. Brunn, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Künstler</i>, +(new edition, 1889); J. Overbeck, <i>Die antiken Schriftquellen zur +Geschichte der bildenden Künste bei den Griechen</i>; untranslated +passages in Latin and Greek; the Elder Pliny’s <i>Chapters on the +History of Art</i>, edited by K. Jex-Blake and E. Sellers; H. S. Jones, +<i>Ancient Writers on Greek Sculpture</i>.</p> + +<p>II. <b>Periodicals dealing with Greek Archaeology.</b>—England: +<i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>; <i>Annual of the British School at Athens</i>; +<i>Classical Review</i>. France: <i>Revue archéologique</i>; <i>Gazette archéologique</i>; +<i>Bulletin de correspondance hellénique</i>. Germany: <i>Jahrbuch +des K. deutschen arch. Instituts</i>; <i>Mitteilungen des arch. Inst.</i>, +Athenische Abteilung, Römische Abteilung; <i>Antike Denkmäler</i>. +Austria: <i>Jahreshefte des K. Österreich. arch. Instituts</i>. Italy: +Publications of the <i>Accademia dei Lincei</i>; <i>Monumenti antichi</i>; <i>Not. +dei scavi</i>; <i>Bulletino comunale di Roma</i>. Greece: <i>Ephemeris +archaiologikè</i>; <i>Deltion archaiologikon</i>; <i>Praktika</i> of the Athenian +Archaeological Society.</p> + +<p>III. <b>Greek Architecture.</b>—General: Perrot et Chipiez, <i>Histoire de +l’art dans l’antiquité</i>, vol. vii.; A. Choisy, <i>Histoire de l’architecture</i>, +vol. i.; Anderson and Spiers, <i>Architecture of Greece and Rome</i>; E. +Boutmy, <i>Philosophie de l’architecture en Grèce</i>; R. Sturgis, <i>History of +Architecture</i>, vol. i.; A. Marquand, <i>Greek Architecture</i>.</p> + +<p>IV. <b>Greek Sculpture.</b>—General: M. Collignon, <i>Histoire de la +sculpture grecque</i> (2 vols.); E. A. Gardner, <i>Handbook of Greek Sculpture</i>; +A. Furtwängler, <i>Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture</i>, translated and +edited by E. Sellers; Friederichs and Wolters, <i>Bausteine zur +Geschichte der griechisch-römischen Plastik</i> (1887); von Mach, <i>Handbook +of Greek and Roman Sculpture</i>, 500 plates; H. Bulle, <i>Der schöne +Mensch in der Kunst: Altertum</i>, 216 plates; S. Reinach, <i>Répertoire +de la statuaire grecque et romaine</i>, 3 vols.</p> + +<p>V. <b>Greek Painting and Vases.</b>—Woltmann and Woermann, <i>History +of Painting</i>, vol. i., translated and edited by S. Colvin (1880); H. B. +Walters, <i>History of Ancient Pottery</i> (2 vols.); Harrison and MacColl, +<i>Greek Vase-paintings</i> (1894); O. Rayet et M. Collignon, <i>Histoire de +la céramique grecque</i> (1888); P. Girard, <i>La Peinture antique</i> (1892); +S. Reinach, <i>Répertoire des vases peints grecs et étrusques</i> (2 vols.); +Furtwängler und Reichhold, “Griechische Vasenmalerei,” <i>Wiener +Vorlegeblätter für archäologische Übungen</i> (1887-1890).</p> + +<p>VI. <b>Special Schools and Sites.</b>—A. Joubin, <i>La Sculpture grecque +entre les guerres médiques et l’époque de Périclès</i>; C. Waldstein, <i>Essays +on the Art of Pheidias</i> (1885); W. Klein, <i>Praxiteles</i>; G. Perrot, +<i>Praxitèle</i>; A. S. Murray, <i>Sculptures of the Parthenon</i>; W. Klein, +<i>Euphronios</i>; E. Pottier, <i>Douris</i>; P. Gardner, <i>Sculptured Tombs of +Hellas</i>; E. A. Gardner, <i>Ancient Athens</i>; A. Bötticher, <i>Olympia</i>; +Bernoulli, <i>Griechische Ikonographie</i>; P. Gardner, <i>The Types of Greek +Coins</i> (1883); E. A. Gardner, <i>Six Greek Sculptors.</i></p> + +<p>VII. <b>Books related to the subject.</b>—J. G. Frazer, <i>Pausanias’s +Description of Greece</i> (6 vols.); J. Lange, <i>Darstellung des Menschen in +der älteren griechischen Kunst</i>; E. Brücke, <i>The Human Figure; its +Beauties and Defects</i>; A. Michaelis, <i>Ancient Marbles in Great Britain</i> +(1882); <i>Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum</i> (3 vols.); +<i>Catalogue of Greek Vases in the British Museum</i> (4 vols.); J. B. Bury, +<i>History of Greece</i> (illustrated edition); Baumeister, <i>Denkmäler des +klassischen Altertums</i> (3 vols.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. G.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Grammar of Greek Art.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It may here be pointed out that it was found impossible, with +any regard for the appearance of the pages, to arrange the Plates for +this article so as to preserve a chronological order in the individual +figures; they are not arranged consecutively as regards the history +or the period, and are only grouped for convenience in paging.—Ed.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The date is given when the work cannot be considered new.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEK FIRE,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> the name applied to inflammable and +destructive compositions used in warfare during the middle +ages and particularly by the Byzantine Greeks at the sieges of +Constantinople. The employment of liquid fire is represented +on Assyrian bas-reliefs. At the siege of Plataea (429 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the +Spartans attempted to burn the town by piling up against the +walls wood saturated with pitch and sulphur and setting it on +fire (Thuc. ii. 77), and at the siege of Delium (424 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) a cauldron +containing pitch, sulphur and burning charcoal, was placed +against the walls and urged into flame by the aid of a bellows, +the blast from which was conveyed through a hollow tree-trunk +(Thuc. iv. 100). Aeneas Tacticus in the following century +mentions a mixture of sulphur, pitch, charcoal, incense and tow, +which was packed in wooden vessels and thrown lighted upon +the decks of the enemy’s ships. Later, as in receipts given by +Vegetius (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 350), naphtha or petroleum is added, and some +nine centuries afterwards the same substances are found forming +part of mixtures described in the later receipts (which probably +date from the beginning of the 13th century) of the collection +known as the <i>Liber ignium</i> of Marcus Graecus. In subsequent +receipts saltpetre and turpentine make their appearance, and +the modern “carcass composition,” containing sulphur, tallow, +rosin, turpentine, saltpetre and crude antimony, is a representative +of the same class of mixtures, which became known +to the Crusaders as Greek fire but were more usually called +wildfire. Greek fire, properly so-called, was, however, of a somewhat +different character. It is said that in the reign of Constantine +Pogonatus (648-685) an architect named Callinicus, +who had fled from Heliopolis in Syria to Constantinople, prepared +a wet fire which was thrown out from siphons (<span class="grk" title="to dia tôn siphônôn +ekpheromenon pyr hugron">τὸ διὰ τῶν σιφώνων ἐκφερόμενον πῦρ ὑγρόν</span>), and that by its aid the ships of the +Saracens were set on fire at Cyzicus and their defeat assured. +The art of compounding this mixture, which is also referred to +as <span class="grk" title="pyr thalassion">πῦρ θαλάσσιον</span>, or sea fire, was jealously guarded at Constantinople, +and the possession of the secret on several occasions +proved of great advantage to the city. The nature of the +compound is somewhat obscure. It has been supposed that the +novelty introduced by Callinicus was saltpetre, but this view +involves the difficulty that that substance was apparently not +known till the 13th century, even if it were capable of accounting +for the properties attributed to the wet fire. Lieut.-Colonel +H. W. L. Hime, after a close examination of the available +evidence, concludes that what distinguished Greek fire from the +other incendiaries of the period was the presence of quicklime, +which was well known to give rise to a large development of +heat when brought into contact with water. The mixture, then, +was composed of such materials as sulphur and naphtha with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span> +quicklime, and took fire spontaneously when wetted—whence +the name of wet fire or sea fire; and portions of it were “projected +and at the same time ignited by applying the hose of a +water engine to the breech” of the siphon, which was a wooden +tube, cased with bronze.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lieut.-Col. H. W. L. Hime, <i>Gunpowder and Ammunition, their +Origin and Progress</i> (London, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span>, the name given to the +great rising of the Greek subjects of the sultan against the +Ottoman domination, which began in 1821 and ended in 1833 +with the establishment of the independent kingdom of Greece. +The circumstances that led to the insurrection and the general +diplomatic situation by which its fortunes were from time to time +affected are described elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turkey</a></span>: +<i>History</i>). The present article is confined to a description of the +general character and main events of the war itself. If we +exclude the abortive invasion of the Danubian principalities +by Prince Alexander Ypsilanti (March 1821), which collapsed +ignominiously as soon as it was disavowed by the tsar, the +theatre of the war was confined to continental Greece, the Morea, +and the adjacent narrow seas. Its history may, broadly speaking, +be divided into three periods: the first (1821-1824), during +which the Greeks, aided by numerous volunteers from Europe, +were successfully pitted against the sultan’s forces alone; the +second, from 1824, when the disciplined troops of Mehemet Ali, +pasha of Egypt, turned the tide against the insurgents; the +third, from the intervention of the European powers in the +autumn of 1827 to the end.</p> + +<p>When, on the 2nd of April 1821, Archbishop Germanos, head +of the <i>Hetaeria</i> in the Morea, raised the standard of the cross at +Kalavryta as the signal for a general rising of the Christian +population, the circumstances were highly favourable. In the +Morea itself, in spite of plentiful warning, the Turks were wholly +unprepared; while the bulk of the Ottoman army, under the +<i>seraskier</i> Khurshid Pasha, was engaged in the long task of +reducing the intrepid Ali, pasha of Iannina (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ali</a></span>, pasha of +Iannina).</p> + +<p>Another factor, and that the determining one, soon came to the +aid of the Greeks. In warfare carried on in such a country as +Greece, sea-girt and with a coast deeply indented, inland without +roads and intersected with rugged mountains, victory—as +Wellington was quick to observe—must rest with the side that +has command of the sea. This was assured to the insurgents at +the outset by the revolt of the maritime communities of the +Greek archipelago. The Greeks of the islands had been accustomed +from time immemorial to seafaring; their ships—some +as large as frigates—were well armed, to guard against the +Barbary pirates and rovers of their own kin; lastly, they had +furnished the bulk of the sailors to the Ottoman navy which, +now that this recruiting ground was closed, had to be manned +hastily with impressed crews of dock-labourers and peasants, +many of whom had never seen the sea. The Turkish fleet, +“adrift in the Archipelago”—as the British seamen put it—though +greatly superior in tonnage and weight of metal, could +never be a match for the Greek brigs, manned as these were by +trained, if not disciplined, crews.</p> + +<p>The war was begun by the Greeks without definite plan and +without any generally recognized leadership. The force with +which Germanos marched from Kalavryta against +Patras was composed of peasants armed with scythes, +<span class="sidenote">Outbreak of the insurrection.</span> +clubs and slings, among whom the “primates” exercised +a somewhat honorary authority. The town +itself was destroyed and those of its Mussulman inhabitants +who could not escape into the citadel were massacred; but the +citadel remained in the hands of the Turks till 1828. Meanwhile, +in the south, leaders of another stamp had appeared: +Petros, bey of the Maina (<i>q.v.</i>) chief of the Mavromichales, who +at the head of his clan attacked Kalamata and put the Mussulman +inhabitants to the sword; and Kolokotrones, a notable +brigand once in the service of the Ionian government, who—fortified +by a vision of the Virgin—captured Karytaena and +slaughtered its infidel population. Encouraged by these +successes the revolt spread rapidly; within three weeks there +was not a Mussulman left in the open country, and the remnants +of the once dominant class were closely besieged in the fortified +towns by hosts of wild peasants and brigands. The flames of +revolt now spread across the Isthmus of Corinth: early in April +the Christians of Dervenokhoria rose, and the whole of Boeotia +and Attica quickly followed suit; at the beginning of May the +Mussulman inhabitants of Athens were blockaded in the Acropolis. +In the Morea, meanwhile, a few Mussulman fortresses still +held out: Coron, Modon, Navarino, Patras, Nauplia, Monemvasia, +Tripolitsa. One by one they fell, and everywhere were repeated +the same scenes of butchery. The horrors culminated in the +capture of Tripolitsa, the capital of the vilayet. In September +this was taken by storm; Kolokotrones rode in triumph +to the citadel over streets carpeted with the dead; and the +crowning triumph of the Cross was celebrated by a cold-blooded +massacre of 2000 prisoners of all ages and both sexes. This +completed the success of the insurrection in the Morea, where +only Patras, Nauplia, and one or two lesser fortresses remained to +the Turks.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, north of the Isthmus, the fortunes of war had been +less one-sided. In the west Khurshid’s lieutenant, Omar +Vrioni (a Mussulman Greek of the race of the Palaeologi), had +inflicted a series of defeats on the insurgents, recaptured Levadia, +and on the 30th of June relieved the Acropolis; but the rout +of the troops which Mahommed Pasha was bringing to his aid +by the Greeks in the defile of Mount Oeta, and the news of the fall +of Tripolitsa, forced him to retreat, and the campaign of 1821 +ended with the retirement of the Turks into Thessaly.</p> + +<p>The month of April had witnessed the revolt of the principal +Greek islands, Spetsae on the 7th, Psara on the 23rd, Hydra +on the 28th and Samos on the 30th. Their fleets were divided +into squadrons, of which one, under Tombazes, was deputed +to watch for the entrance of the Ottomans into the archipelago, +while the other under Andreas Miaoulis (<i>q.v.</i>) sailed to blockade +Patras and watch the coasts of Epirus. At sea, as on land, the +Greeks opened the campaign with hideous atrocities, almost +their first exploit being the capture of a vessel carrying to Mecca +the sheik-ul-Islam and his family, whom they murdered with +every aggravation of outrage.</p> + +<p>These inauspicious beginnings, indeed, set the whole tone of +the war, which was frankly one of mutual extermination. On +both sides the combatants were barbarians, without +discipline or competent organization. At sea the +<span class="sidenote">General character of the war.</span> +Greeks rapidly developed into mere pirates, and even +Miaoulis, for all his high character and courage, was +often unable to prevent his captains from sailing home at critical +moments, when pay or booty failed. On land the presence of +a few educated Phanariots, such as Demetrios Ypsilanti or +Alexander Mavrocordato, was powerless to inspire the rude +hordes with any sense of order or of humanity in warfare; while +every lull in the fighting, due to a temporary check to the Turks, +was the signal for internecine conflicts due to the rivalry of +leaders who, with rare exceptions, thought more of their personal +power and profit than of the cause of Greece.</p> + +<p>This cause, indeed, was helped more by the impolitic reprisals +of the Turks than by the heroism of the insurgents. All +Europe stood aghast at the news of the execution of +<span class="sidenote">Turkish reprisals.</span> +the Patriarch Gregorios of Constantinople (April 22, +1821) and the wholesale massacres that followed, +culminating as these did in the extermination of the +prosperous community of Scio (Chios) in March 1822. The +cause of Greece was now that of Christendom, of the Catholic +and Protestant West, as of the Orthodox East. European +Liberalism, too, gagged and fettered under Metternich’s +<span class="sidenote">Europe and the rising Philhellenism.</span> +“system,” recognized in the Greeks the champions +of its own cause; while even conservative statesmen, +schooled in the memories of ancient Hellas, +saw in the struggle a fight of civilization against +barbarism. This latter belief, which was, moreover, flattering +to their vanity, the Greek leaders were astute enough to foster; +the propaganda of Adamantios Coraës (<i>q.v.</i>) had done its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span> +work; and wily brigands, like Odysseus of Ithaka, assuming +the style and trappings of antiquity, posed as the champions +of classic culture against the barbarian. All Europe, then, +hailed with joy the exploit of Constantine Kanaris, who on the +night of June 18-19 succeeded in steering a fire-ship among the +Turkish squadron off Scio, and burned the flag-ship of the +capudan-pasha with 3000 souls on board.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Sultan Mahmud, now wide awake to the danger, +had been preparing for a systematic effort to suppress the +rising. The threatened breach with Russia had been avoided +by Metternich’s influence on the tsar Alexander; the death of +Ali of Iannina had set free the army of Khurshid Pasha, who now, +as <i>seraskier</i> of Rumelia, was charged with the task of reducing +the Morea. In the spring of 1822 two Turkish armies advanced +southwards: one, under Omar Vrioni, along the coast of Western +Hellas, the other, under Ali, pasha of Drama (Dramali), through +Boeotia and Attica. Omar was held in check by the mud +<span class="sidenote">Expedition of Dramali, 1822.</span> +ramparts of Missolonghi; but Dramali, after exacting +fearful vengeance for the massacre of the Turkish +garrison of the Acropolis at Athens, crossed the +Isthmus and with the over-confidence of a conquering +barbarian advanced to the relief of the hard-pressed garrison +of Nauplia. He crossed the perilous defile of Dervenaki unopposed; +and at the news of his approach most of the members +of the Greek government assembled at Argos fled in panic terror. +Demetrios Ypsilanti, however, with a few hundred men joined +the Mainote Karayanni in the castle of Larissa, which crowns +the acropolis of ancient Argos. This held Dramali in check, +and gave Kolokotrones time to collect an army. The Turks, +in the absence of the fleet which was to have brought them +supplies, were forced to retreat (August 6); the Greeks, inspired +with new courage, awaited them in the pass of Dervenaki, where +the undisciplined Ottoman host, thrown into confusion by an +avalanche of boulders hurled upon them, was annihilated. In +Western Greece the campaign had an outcome scarcely less +disastrous for the Turks. The death of Ali of Iannina had been +followed by the suppression of the insurgent Suliotes and the +advance of Omar Vrioni southwards to Missolonghi; but the +town held out gallantly, a Turkish surprise attack, on the 6th of +January 1823, was beaten off, and Omar Vrioni had to abandon +the siege and retire northwards over the pass of Makrynoros.</p> + +<p>The victorious outcome of the year’s fighting had a disastrous +effect upon the Greeks. Their victories had been due mainly +to the guerilla tactics of the leaders of the type of +Kolokotrones; Mavrocordato, whose character and +<span class="sidenote">Civil war among the Greeks.</span> +antecedents had marked him out as the natural head +of the new Greek state, in spite of his successful +defence of Missolonghi, had been discredited by failures elsewhere; +and the Greeks thus learned to despise their civilized +advisers and to underrate the importance of discipline. The +temporary removal of the common peril, moreover, let loose all +the sectional and personal jealousies, which even in face of the +enemy had been with difficulty restrained, and the year 1823 +witnessed the first civil war between the Greek parties. These +internecine feuds might easily have proved fatal to the cause +of Greece. In the Archipelago Hydriotes and Spetsiotes were +at daggers drawn; the men of Psara were at open war with +those of Samos; all semblance of discipline and cohesion had +vanished from the Greek fleet. Had Khosrev, the new Ottoman +admiral, been a man of enterprise, he might have regained the +command of the sea and, with it, that of the whole situation. +But the fate of his predecessor had filled him with a lively terror +of Kanaris and his fire-ships; he contented himself with a +<span class="sidenote">Campaign of 1823.</span> +cruise round the coasts of Greece, and was happy +to return to safety under the guns of the Dardanelles +without having accomplished anything beyond throwing +supplies and troops into Coron, Modon and Patras. +On land, meanwhile, the events of the year before practically +repeated themselves. In the west an army of Mussulman and +Catholic Albanians, under Mustai Pasha, advanced southwards. +On the night of the 21st of August occurred the celebrated +exploit of Marko Botzaris and his Suliotes: a successful surprise +attack on the camp of the Ottoman vanguard, in which the +Suliote leader fell. The jealousy of the Aetolian militia for the +Suliotes, however, prevented the victory being decisive; and +Mustai advanced to the siege of Anatoliko, a little town in the +lagoons near Missolonghi. Here he was detained until, on the +11th of December, he was forced to raise the siege and retire +northwards. His colleague, Yussuf Pasha, in East Hellas fared +no better; here, too, the Turks gained some initial successes, +but in the end the harassing tactics of Kolokotrones and his +guerilla bands forced them back into the plain of the Kephissos. +At the end of the year the Greeks were once more free to renew +their internecine feuds.</p> + +<p>Just when these feuds were at their height, in the autumn +of 1823, the most famous of the Philhellenes who sacrificed +themselves for the cause of Greece, Lord Byron, arrived in +Greece.</p> + +<p>The year 1824 was destined to be a fateful one for the Greek +cause. The large loans raised in Europe, the first instalment +of which Byron had himself brought over, while +providing the Greeks with the sinews of war, provided +<span class="sidenote">Second civil war, 1824.</span> +them also with fresh material for strife. To the +struggle for power was added a struggle for a share of +this booty, and a second civil war broke out, Kolokotrones +leading the attack on the forces of the government. Early in +1825 the government was victorious; Kolokotrones was in +prison; and Odysseus, the hero of so many exploits and so +many crimes, who had ended by turning traitor and selling his +services to the Turks, had been captured, imprisoned in the +Acropolis, and finally assassinated by his former lieutenant +Gouras (July 16, 1824). But a new and more terrible danger +now threatened Greece. Sultan Mahmud, despairing of suppressing +the insurrection by his own power, had reluctantly +summoned to his aid Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, whose +<span class="sidenote">Intervention of Mehemet Ali.</span> +well-equipped fleet and disciplined army were now +thrown into the scale against the Greeks. Already, +in June 1823, the pasha’s son-in-law Hussein Bey +had landed in Crete, and by April of the following +year had reduced the insurgent islanders to submission. Crete +now became the base of operations against the Greeks. On the +19th of June Hussein appeared before Kasos, a nest of pirates +of evil reputation, which he captured and destroyed. The same +day the Egyptian fleet, under Ibrahim Pasha, sailed from +Alexandria. Khosrev, too, emboldened by this new sense of +support, ventured to sea, surprised and destroyed Psara (July 2), +and planned an attack on Samos, which was defeated by Miaoulis +and his fire-ships (August 16, 17). On the 1st of September, +however, Khosrev succeeded in effecting a junction with Ibrahim +off Budrun, and two indecisive engagements followed with the +united Greek fleet on the 5th and 10th. The object of Ibrahim +was to reach Suda Bay with his transports, which the Greeks +should at all costs have prevented. A first attempt was defeated +by Miaoulis on the 16th of November, and Ibrahim was compelled +to retire and anchor off Rhodes; but the Greek admiral was +unable to keep his fleet together, the season was far advanced, +his captains were clamouring for arrears of pay, and the Greek +fleet sailed for Nauplia, leaving the sea unguarded. On the +5th of December Ibrahim again set sail, and reached Suda +without striking a blow. Here he completed his preparations, +and, on the 24th of February 1825, landed at Modon in the +Morea with a force of 4000 regular infantry and 500 cavalry. +The rest followed, without the Greeks making any effort to +intercept them.</p> + +<p>The conditions of the war were now completely changed. +The Greeks, who had been squandering the money provided +by the loans in every sort of senseless extravagance, +affected to despise the Egyptian invaders, but they +<span class="sidenote">Ibrahim in the Morea.</span> +were soon undeceived. On the 21st of March Ibrahim +had laid siege to Navarino, and after some delay a +Greek force under Skourti, a Hydriote sea-captain, was sent to +its relief. The Greeks had in all some 7000 men, Suliotes, +Albanians, <i>armatoli</i> from Rumelia, and some irregular Bulgarian +and Vlach cavalry. On the 19th of April they were met by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span> +Ibrahim at Krommydi with 2000 regular infantry, 400 cavalry +and four guns. The Greek entrenchments were stormed at the +point of the bayonet by Ibrahim’s fellahin at the first onset; the +defenders broke and fled, leaving 600 dead on the field. The +news of this disaster, and of the fall of Pylos and Navarino that +followed, struck terror into the Greek government; and in +answer to popular clamour Kolokotrones was taken from prison +and placed at the head of the army. But the guerilla tactics +of the wily klepht were powerless against Ibrahim, who marched +northward, and, avoiding Nauplia for the present, seized +Tripolitsa, and made this the base from which his columns +marched to devastate the country far and wide.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile from the north the Ottomans were making another +supreme effort. The command of the army that was to operate +in west Hellas had been given to Reshid “Kutahia,” +pasha of Iannina, an able general and a man of determined +<span class="sidenote">Reshid “Kutahia” besieges Missolonghi.</span> +character. On the 6th of April, after bribing +the Albanian clansmen to neutrality, he passed the +defile of Makrynoros, which the Greeks had left +undefended, and on the 7th of May opened the second siege of +Missolonghi. For twelve months the population held out, repulsing +the attacks of the enemy, refusing every offer of honourable +capitulation. This resistance was rendered possible by the +Greek command of the sea, Miaoulis from time to time entering +the lagoons with supplies; it came to an end when this command +was lost. In September 1825 Ibrahim, at the order of the sultan, +had joined Reshid before the town; piecemeal the outlying +forts and defences now fell, until the garrison, reduced by +starvation and disease, determined to hazard all on a final sortie. +This took place on the night of the 22nd of April 1826; but a +mistaken order threw the ranks of the Greeks into disorder, +and the Turks entered the town pell-mell with the retreating +crowd. Only a remnant of the defenders succeeded in gaining +the forests of Mount Zygos, where most of them perished.</p> + +<p>The fall of Missolonghi, followed as this was by the submission +of many of the more notable chiefs, left Reshid free to turn his +attention to East Hellas, where Gouras had been ruling +as a practically independent chief and in the spirit +<span class="sidenote">Karaiskakis.</span> +of a brigand. The peasants of the open country +welcomed the Turks as deliverers, and Reshid’s conciliatory +policy facilitated his march to Athens, which fell at the first +assault on the 25th of August, siege being at once laid to the +Acropolis, where Gouras and his troops had taken refuge. +Round this the war now centred; for all recognized that its +fall would involve that of the cause of Greece. In these straits +the Greek government entrusted the supreme command of the +troops to Karaiskakis, an old retainer of Ali of Iannina, a master +of the art of guerilla war, and, above all, a man of dauntless +courage and devoted patriotism. A first attempt to relieve the +Acropolis, with the assistance of some disciplined troops under +the French Colonel Fabvier, was defeated at Chaidari by the +Turks. The garrison of the Acropolis was hard pressed, and the +death of Gouras (October 13th) would have ended all, had not +his heroic wife taken over the command and inspired the defenders +with new courage. For months the siege dragged on, while +Karaiskakis fought with varying success in the mountains, a +final victory at Distomo (February 1827) over Omar Vrioni +securing the restoration to the Greek cause of all continental +Greece, except the towns actually held by the Turks.</p> + +<p>It was at this juncture that the Greek government, reinforced +by a fresh loan from Europe, handed over the chief command +at sea to Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald, <i>q.v.</i>), and +that of the land forces to General (afterwards Sir +<span class="sidenote">Cochrane and Church.</span> +Richard) Church, both Miaoulis and Karaiskakis +consenting without demur to serve under them. +Cochrane and Church at once concentrated their energies on the +task of relieving the Acropolis. Already, on the 5th of February, +General Gordon had landed and entrenched himself on the hill +of Munychia, near the ancient Piraeus, and the efforts of the +Turks to dislodge him had failed, mainly owing to the fire of +the steamer “Karteria” commanded by Captain Hastings. +When Church and Cochrane arrived, a general assault on the +Ottoman camp was decided on. This was preceded, on the +25th of April, by an attack, headed by Cochrane, on the Turkish +troops established near the monastery of St Spiridion, the result +of which was to establish communications between the Greeks +at Munychia and Phalerum and isolate Reshid’s vanguard on +the promontory of the Piraeus. The monastery held out for +two days longer, when the Albanian garrison surrendered on +terms, but were massacred by the Greeks as they were marching +away under escort. For this miserable crime Church has, by +some historians, been held responsible by default; it is clear, +however, from his own account that no blame rests upon him +(see his MS. <i>Narrative</i>, vol. i. chap. ii. p. 34). The assault on +the Turkish main camp was fixed for the 6th of May; but, +unfortunately, a chance skirmish brought on an engagement +the day before, in the course of which Karaiskakis was killed, +an irreparable loss in view of his prestige with the wild <i>armatoli</i>. +The assault on the following day was a disastrous failure. The +<span class="sidenote">Greek defeat at Athens.</span> +Greeks, advancing prematurely over broken ground +and in no sort of order, were fallen upon in flank by +Reshid’s horsemen, and fled in panic terror. The +English officers, who in vain tried to rally them, +themselves only just escaped by scrambling into their boats +and putting off to the war-vessels, whose guns checked the +pursuit and enabled a remnant of the fugitives to escape. +Church held Munychia till the 27th, when he sent instructions +for the garrison of the Acropolis to surrender. On the 5th of +June the remnant of the defenders marched out with the +honours of war, and continental Greece was once more in the +power of the Turks. Had Reshid at once advanced over the +Isthmus, the Morea also must have been subdued; but he +was jealous of Ibrahim, and preferred to return to Iannina to +consolidate his conquests.</p> + +<p>The fate of Greece was now in the hands of the Powers, who +after years of diplomatic wrangling had at last realized that +intervention was necessary if Greece was to be saved +for European civilization. The worst enemy of the +<span class="sidenote">Renewed anarchy.</span> +Greeks was their own incurable spirit of faction; in +the very crisis of their fate, during the siege of Missolonghi, rival +presidents and rival assemblies struggled for supremacy, and a +third civil war had only been prevented by the arrival of Cochrane +and Church. Under their influence a new National Assembly +met at Troezene in March 1827 and elected as president Count +Capo d’Istria (<i>q.v.</i>), formerly Russian minister for foreign affairs; +at the same time a new constitution was promulgated which, +when the very life of the insurrection seemed on the point of +flickering out, set forth the full ideal of Pan-Hellenic dreams. +Anarchy followed; war of Rumeliotes against Moreotes, of chief +against chief; rival factions bombarded each other from the +two forts at Nauplia over the stricken town, and in derision of +the impotent government. Finally, after months of inaction, +Ibrahim began once more his systematic devastation of the +country. To put a stop to this the Powers decided to intervene +by means of a joint demonstration of their fleets, in order to +enforce an armistice and compel Ibrahim to evacuate the Morea +(Treaty of London, July 6, 1827). The refusal of Ibrahim to +obey, without special instruction from the sultan, led to the +entrance of the allied British, French and Russian fleet into the +harbour of Navarino and the battle of the 20th of October 1827 +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Navarino</a></span>). This, and the two campaigns of the Russo-Turkish +war of 1828-29, decided the issue.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—There is no trustworthy history of the war, based +on all the material now available, and all the existing works must be +read with caution, especially those by eye-witnesses, who were too +often prejudiced or the dupes of the Greek factions. The best-known +works are: G. Finlay, <i>Hist. of the Greek Revolution</i> (2 vols., London, +1861); T. Gordon, <i>Hist. of the Greek Revolution</i> (London, 1833); +C. W. P. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, <i>Geschichte Griechenlands</i>, &c. +(<i>Staatengeschichte der neuesten Zeit</i>) (2 vols., Leipzig, 1870-1874); +F. C. H. L. Pouqueville, <i>Histoire de la régénération de la Grèce, &c.</i> +(4 vols., Paris, 1824),—the author was French resident at the court +of Ali of Iannina and afterwards consul at Patras; Count A. +Prokesch-Osten, <i>Geschichte des Abfalls der Griechen vom türkischen +Reich, &c.</i> (6 vols., Vienna, 1867), the last four volumes consisting +of <i>pièces justificatives</i> of much value. See also W. Alison +Phillips, <i>The War of Greek Independence</i> (London and New York, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span> +1897), a sketch compiled mainly from the above-mentioned works: +Spiridionos Tricoupi, <span class="grk" title="Historia tês Hellênikês epanastaseôs">Ἱστορία τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς ἐπαναστάσεως</span> (Athens, +1853); J. Philemon, <span class="grk" title="Dokimion historikon peri tês Hellênikês epanastaseôs">Δοκίμιον ἱστορικὸν περὶ τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς ἐπαναστάσεως</span> +(Athens, 1859), in four parts: (1) History of the Hetaeria Philike, +(2) The heralding of the war and the rising under Ypsilanti, (3 and 4). +The insurrection in Greece to 1822, with many documents. Of great +value also are the 29 volumes of Correspondence and Papers of Sir +Richard Church, now in the British Museum (Add MSS. 36,543-36,571). +Among these is a Narrative by Church of the war in Greece +during his tenure of the command (vols. xxi.-xxiii., Nos. 36,563-36,565), +which contains the material for correcting many errors repeated +in most works on the war, notably the strictures of Finlay and +others on Church’s conduct before Athens. For further references +see the bibliography appended to W. Alison Phillips’s chapter on +“Greece and the Balkan Peninsula” in the <i>Cambridge Modern +History</i>, x. 803.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">GREEK LANGUAGE.<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> Greek is one of the eight main +branches into which the Indo-European languages (<i>q.v.</i>) are +divided. The area in which it is spoken has been curiously +constant throughout its recorded history. These limits are, +roughly speaking, the shores of the Aegean, on both the +European and the Asiatic side, and the intermediate islands +(one of the most archaic of Greek dialects being found on the +eastern side in the island of Cyprus), and the Greek peninsula +generally from its southern promontories as far as the +mountains which shut in Thessaly on the north. Beyond +Mt. Olympus and the Cambunian mountains lay Macedonia, +in which a closely kindred dialect was spoken, so closely +related, indeed, that O. Hoffmann has argued (<i>Die Makedonen</i>, +Göttingen, 1906) that Macedonian is not only Greek, but +a part of the great Aeolic dialect which included Thessalian +to the south and Lesbian to the east. In the north-west, +Greek included many rude dialects little known even to the +ancient Greeks themselves, and it extended northwards beyond +Aetolia and Ambracia to southern Epirus and Thesprotia. +In the Homeric age the great shrine of Pelasgian Zeus was at +Dodona, but, by the time of Thucydides, Aetolia and all north +of it had come to be looked upon as the most backward of Greek +lands, where men lived a savage life, speaking an almost unintelligible +language, and eating raw flesh (<span class="grk" title="agnôstotatoi de glôssan +kai ômophagoi">ἀγνωστότατοι δὲ γλῶσσαν καὶ ὠμοφάγοι</span>, Thuc. iii. 94, of the Aetolian Eurytanes). The +Greeks themselves had no memory of how they came to occupy +this land. Their earliest legends connected the origin of their +race with Thessaly and Mt. Pindus, but Athenians and Arcadians +also boasted themselves of autochthonous race, inhabiting a +country wherein no man had preceded their ancestors. The +Greek language, at any rate as it has come down to us, is +remarkably perfect, in vowel sounds being the most primitive +of any of the Indo-European languages, while its verb system +has no rival in completeness except in the earliest Sanskrit of +the Vedic literature. Its noun system, on the other hand, is +much less complete, its cases being more broken down than +those of the Aryan, Armenian, Slavonic and Italic families.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The most remarkable characteristic of Greek is one conditioned +by the geographical aspect of the land. Few countries are so broken +up with mountains as Greece. Not only do mountain ranges as +elsewhere on the European continent run east and west, but other +ranges cross them from north to south, thus dividing the portions +of Greece at some distance from the sea into hollows without outlet, +every valley being separated for a considerable part of the year +from contact with every other, and inter-communication at all +seasons being rendered difficult. Thus till external coercion from +Macedon came into play it was never possible to establish a great +central government controlling the Greek mainland. The geographical +situation of the islands in the Aegean equally led to the +isolation of one little territory from another. To these geographical +considerations may be added the inveterate desire of the Greeks +to make the <span class="grk" title="polis">πόλις</span>, the city state, everywhere and at all times an +independent unit, a desire which, originating in the geographical +conditions, even accentuated the isolating effect of the natural +features of the country. Thus at one time in the little island of +Amorgos there were no less than three separate and independent +political units. The inevitable result of geographical and political +division was the maintenance of a great number of local characteristics +in language, differentiating in this respect also each political +community from its nearest neighbours. It was only natural that +the inhabitants of a country so little adapted to maintain a numerous +population should have early sent off swarms to other lands. The +earliest stage of colonization lies in the borderland between myth +and history. The Greeks themselves knew that a population had +preceded them in the islands of the Cyclades which they identified +with the Carians of Asia Minor (Herodotus i. 171; Thucydides i. +4. 8). The same population indeed appears to have preceded them +on the mainland of Greece, for there are similar place-names in Caria +and in Greece which have no etymology in Greek. Thus the endings +of words like Parnassus and Halicarnassus seem identical, and the +common ending of place-names in -<span class="grk" title="inthos, Korinthos, Probalinthos">ινθος, Κόρινθος, Προβάλινθος</span>, &c., +seems to be the same in origin with the common ending of Asiatic +names in -<i>nda</i>, Alinda, Karyanda, &c. Probably the earliest portion +of Asia Minor to be colonized by the Greeks was the north-west, to +which came settlers from Thessaly, when the early inhabitants were +driven out by the Thesprotians, who later controlled Thessaly. The +name Aeolis, which after times gave to the N.W. of Asia Minor, +was the old name for Thessaly (Hdt. vii. 176). These Thesprotians +were of the same stock as the Dorians, to whose invasion of the +Peloponnese the later migration, which carried the Ionians to Asia +and the Cypriot Greeks to Cyprus, in all probability was due. From +the north Aegean probably the Dorians reached Crete, where alone +their existence is recorded by Homer (<i>Odyssey</i>, xix. 175 ff.; Diodorus +Siculus v. 80. 2); cp. Fick, <i>Vorgriechische Ortsnamen</i> (1906).</p> + +<p>Among the Greeks of the pre-Dorian period Herodotus distinguishes +various stocks. Though the name is not Homeric, both +Herodotus and Thucydides recognize an Aeolian stock which must +have spread over Thessaly and far to the west till it was suppressed +and absorbed by the Dorian stock which came in from the north-west. +The name of Aeolis still attached in Thucydides’ time to the +western area of Calydon between the mountains and the N. side of +the entrance to the Corinthian gulf (iii. 102). In Boeotia the same +stock survived (Thuc. vii. 57. 5), overlaid by an influx of Dorians, +and it came down to the isthmus; for the Corinthians, though +speaking in historical times a Doric dialect, were originally Aeolians +(Thuc. iv. 42). In the Peloponnese Herodotus recognizes (viii. 73) +three original stocks, the Arcadians, the Ionians of Cynuria, and the +Achaeans. In Arcadia there is little doubt that the pre-Dorian +population maintained itself and its language, just as in the mountains +of Wales, the Scottish Highlands and Connemara the Celtic +language has maintained itself against the Saxon invaders. By +Herodotus’ time the Cynurians had been doricized, while the Ionians, +along the south side of the Corinthian gulf, were expelled by the +Achaeans (vii. 94, viii. 73), apparently themselves driven from their +own homes by the Dorian invasion (Strabo viii. p. 333 <i>fin</i>.). However +this may be, the Achaeans of historical times spoke a dialect +akin to that of northern Elis and of the Greeks on the north side of +the Corinthian gulf. How close the relation may have been between +the language of the Achaeans of the Peloponnese in the Homeric age +and their contemporaries in Thessaly we have no means of ascertaining +definitely, the documentary evidence for the history of the +dialects being all very much later than Homeric times. Even in +the Homeric catalogue Agamemnon has to lend the Arcadians ships +to take them to Troy (<i>Iliad</i>, ii. 612). But a population speaking the +same or a very similar dialect was probably seated on the eastern +coast, and migrated at the beginning of the Doric invasion to Cyprus. +As this population wrote not in the Greek alphabet but in a peculiar +syllabary and held little communication with the rest of the Greek +world, it succeeded in preserving in Cyprus a very archaic dialect +very closely akin to that of Arcadia, and also containing a considerable +number of words found in the Homeric vocabulary but lost or +modified in later Greek elsewhere.</p> + +<p>On this historical foundation alone is it possible to understand +clearly the relation of the dialects in historical times. The prehistoric +movements of the Greek tribes can to some extent be realized in +their dialects, as recorded in their inscriptions, though all existing +inscriptions belong to a much later period. Thus from the ancient +Aeolis of northern Greece sprang the historical dialects of Thessaly +and Lesbos with the neighbouring coast of Asia Minor. At an early +period the Dorians had invaded and to some extent affected the +character of the southern Thessalian and to a much greater extent +that of the Boeotian dialect. The dialects of Locris, Phocis and +Aetolia were a somewhat uncouth and unliterary form of Doric. +According to accepted tradition, Elis had been colonized by Oxylus +the Aetolian, and the dialect of the more northerly part of Elis, as +already pointed out, is, along with the Achaean of the south side of +the Corinthian gulf, closely akin to those dialects north of the +Isthmus. The most southerly part of Elis—Triphylia—has a dialect +akin to Arcadian. Apart from Arcadian the other dialects of the +Peloponnese in historical times are all Doric, though in small details +they differ among themselves. Though we are unable to check the +statements of the historians as to the area occupied by Ionic in +prehistoric times, it is clear from the legends of the close connexion +between Athens and Troezen that the same dialect, had been spoken +on both sides of the Saronic gulf, and may well have extended, as +Herodotus says, along the eastern coast of the Peloponnese and the +south side of the Corinthian gulf. According to legend, the Ionians +expelled from the Peloponnese collected at Athens before they +started on their migrations to the coast of Asia Minor. Be that as +it may, legend and language alike connected the Athenians with the +Ionians, though by the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Athenians no longer +cared to be known by the name (Hdt. i. 143). Lemnos, Imbros and +Scyros, which had long belonged to Athens, were Athenian also in +language. The great island of Euboea and all the islands of the +central Aegean between Greece and Asia were Ionic. Chios, the most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span> +northerly Ionic island on the Asiatic coast, seems to have been originally +Aeolic, and its Ionic retained some Aeolic characteristics. The +most southerly of the mainland towns which were originally Aeolic was +Smyrna, but this at an early date became Ionic (Hdt. i. 149). The +last important Ionic town to the south was Miletus, but at an early +period Ionic widened its area towards the south also and took in +Halicarnassus from the Dorians. According to Herodotus, there +were four kinds of Ionic (<span class="grk" title="charaktêres glôssês tesseres">χαρακτῆρες γλώσσης τέσσερες</span>, i. 142). +Herodotus tells us the areas in which these dialects were spoken, +but nothing of the differences between them. They were (1) Samos, +(2) Chios and Erythrae, (3) the towns in Lydia, (4) the towns in Caria. +The language of the inscriptions unfortunately is a <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span>, a conventional +literary language which reveals no differences of importance. +Only recently has the characteristic so well known in Herodotus of κ +appearing in certain words where other dialects have π (<span class="grk" title="hokôs">ὅκως</span> for +<span class="grk" title="hopôs">ὅπως</span>, <span class="grk" title="kou">κοῦ</span> for <span class="grk" title="pou">ποῦ</span>, &c.) been found in any inscription. It is, however, +clear that this was a popular characteristic not considered to +be sufficiently dignified for official documents. We may conjecture +that the native languages spoken on the Lydian and Carian coasts +had affected the character of the language spoken by the Greek +immigrants, more especially as the settlers from Athens married +Carian women, while the settlers in the other towns were a mixture +of Greek tribes, many of them not Ionic at all (Hdt. i. 146).</p> + +<p>The more southerly islands of the Aegean and the most southerly +peninsula of Asia Minor were Doric. In the Homeric age Dorians +were only one of many peoples in Crete, but in historical times, +though the dialects of the eastern and the western ends of the island +differ from one another and from the middle whence our most +valuable documents come, all are Doric. By Melos and Thera Dorians +carried their language to Cos, Calymnus, Cnidus and Rhodes.</p> + +<p>These settlements, Aeolic, Ionic and Doric, grew and prospered, +and like flourishing hives themselves sent out fresh swarms to other +lands. Most prosperous and energetic of all was Miletus, which +established its trading posts in the Black Sea to the north and in the +delta of the Nile (Naucratis) to the south. The islands also sent off +their colonies, carrying their dialects with them, Paros to Thasos, +Euboea to the peninsulas of Chalcidice; the Dorians of Megara +guarded the entrance to the Black Sea at Chalcedon and Byzantium. +While Achaean influence spread out to the more southerly Ionian +islands, Corinth carried her dialect with her colonies to the coast of +Acarnania, Leucas and Corcyra. But the greatest of all Corinthian +colonies was much farther to the west—at Syracuse in Sicily. Unfortunately +the continuous occupation of the same or adjacent sites +has led to the loss of almost all that is early from Corinth and from +Syracuse. Corcyra has bequeathed to us some interesting grave +inscriptions from the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Southern Italy and Sicily +were early colonized by Greeks. According to tradition Cumae was +founded not long after the Trojan War; even if we bring the date +nearer the founding of Syracuse in 735 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, we have apparently no +record earlier than the first half of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, though it is +still the earliest of Chalcidian inscriptions. Tarentum was a Laconian +foundation, but the longest and most important document from a +Laconian colony in Italy comes from Heraclea about the end of the +4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>—the report of a commission upon and the lease of +temple lands with description and conditions almost of modern +precision. To Achaea belonged the south Italian towns of Croton, +Metapontum and Sybaris. The ancestry of the Greek towns of Sicily +has been explained by Thucydides (vi. 2-5). Selinus, a colony of +Megara, <span class="correction" title="amended from bewrays">betrays</span> its origin in its dialect. Gela and Agrigentum no +less clearly show their descent from Rhodes. According to tradition +the great city of Cyrene in Africa was founded from Thera, itself an +offshoot from Sparta.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Chief Characteristics of the Greek Dialects</p> + +<p>1. <i>Arcadian and Cyprian.</i>—As Cyprian was written in a syllabary +which could not represent a consonant by itself, did not distinguish +between voiced, unvoiced and aspirated consonants, did not represent +at all a nasal before another consonant, and did not distinguish +between long and short vowels, the interpretation of the symbols is +of the nature of a conundrum and the answer is not always certain. +Thus the same combination of two symbols would have to stand +for <span class="grk" title="tote, tode, dote, dothê, tonde, tôde, to, dê">τότε, τόδε, δότε, δοθῆ, τόνδε, τῶδε, τὸ, δή</span>. No inscription of more +than a few words in length is found in either dialect earlier than +the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In both dialects the number of important inscriptions +is steadily increasing. Both dialects change final ο to υ, +<span class="grk" title="apo">ἀπό</span> passing into <span class="grk" title="apy">ἀπύ</span>. Arcadian changes the verb ending -<span class="grk" title="ai">αι</span> into +-<span class="grk" title="oi">οι</span>. Arcadian uses δ or ζ for an original <i>gw</i>-sound, which appears in +Attic Greek as β: <span class="grk" title="zellô">ζέλλω</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="ballô">βάλλω</span>, “throw.” In inflexion both +agree in changing -<span class="grk" title="ao">ᾶο</span> of masculine -α stems into <span class="grk" title="au">αυ</span> (Arcadian carries +this form also into the feminine -α stems), and in using locatives in +-<span class="grk" title="ai">αι</span> and -<span class="grk" title="oi">οι</span> for the dative, such locatives being governed by the +prepositions <span class="grk" title="apy">ἀπύ</span> and <span class="grk" title="ex">ἐξ</span> (before a consonant <span class="grk" title="es">ἐς</span> in Arcadian). Verbs +in -<span class="grk" title="aô">αω</span>, -<span class="grk" title="eô">εω</span> and -<span class="grk" title="oô">οω</span> are declined not as -ω, but as -<span class="grk" title="mi">μι</span> verbs. The final +ι of the ending of the 3rd plural present changes the preceding τ +to σ: <span class="grk" title="pheronsi">φέρονσι</span>, cp. Laconian (Doric) <span class="grk" title="pheronti">φέροντι</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="pherousi">φέρουσι</span>, Lesbian +<span class="grk" title="pheroisi">φέροισι</span>. Instead of the Attic <span class="grk" title="tis">τίς</span>, the interrogative pronoun appears +as <span class="grk" title="sis">σίς</span>, the initial σ in Arcadian being written with a special symbol +ϟ. The pronunciation is not certain. The original sound was <i>qw</i>, +as in Latin <i>quis</i>, whence Attic <span class="grk" title="tis">τίς</span> and Thessalian <span class="grk" title="kis">κίς</span>. In Arcadian +<span class="grk" title="kan">καν</span> the Aeolic particle <span class="grk" title="ke">κε</span> and the Ionic <span class="grk" title="an">αν</span> seem to be combined.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Aeolic.</i>—Though Boeotian is overlaid with a Doric element, it +nevertheless agrees with Thessalian and Lesbian in some characteristics. +Unlike Greek generally, they represent the original <i>qw</i> of the +word for <i>four</i> by π before ε, where Attic and other dialects have τ: +<span class="grk" title="pettares">πέτταρες</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="tettares">τέτταρες</span>. The corresponding voiced and aspirated +sounds are similarly treated: <span class="grk" title="Belphaios">Βέλφαιος</span> the adjective in Thessalian to +<span class="grk" title="Delphoi">Δελφοί</span>, and <span class="grk" title="phêr">φήρ</span> for <span class="grk" title="thêr">θήρ</span>. They all tend to change ο to υ: <span class="grk" title="onyma">ὄνυμα</span>, “name”; +<span class="grk" title="ou">ου</span> for ω in Thessalian: <span class="grk" title="Aploun">Ἄπλουν</span>, “Apollo”; and υ in Boeotian for <span class="grk" title="oi">οι</span>: +<span class="grk" title="wukia">ϝυκία</span> (<span class="grk" title="oikia">οἰκία</span>), “house.” They also make the dative plural of the +third declension in -<span class="grk" title="essi">εσσι</span>, and the perfect participle active is declined +like a present participle in -<span class="grk" title="ôn">ων</span>. Instead of the Athenian method of +giving the father’s name in the genitive when a citizen is described, +these dialects (especially Thessalian) tend to make an adjective: +thus instead of the Attic <span class="grk" title="Dêmosthenês Dêmosthenous">Δημοσθένης Δημοσθένους</span>, Aeolic would +rather have <span class="grk" title="D. Dêmostheneios">Δ. Δημοσθένειος</span>. Thessalian stands midway between +Lesbian and Boeotian, agreeing with Lesbian in the use of double +consonants, where Attic has a single consonant, with or without +lengthening of the previous syllable: <span class="grk" title="emmi">ἐμμί</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="eimi">εἰμί</span> for an +original *<i>esmi</i>; <span class="grk" title="stalla">στάλλα</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="stêlê">στήλη</span>; <span class="grk" title="xennos">ξέννος</span> for an earlier <span class="grk" title="xenwos">ξένϝος</span>, Attic +<span class="grk" title="xenos">ξένος</span>, Ionic <span class="grk" title="xeinos">ξεῖνος</span>, Doric <span class="grk" title="xênos">ξῆνος</span>. Where Attic has -<span class="grk" title="as">ᾶς</span> from an earlier +-<span class="grk" title="ans">ανς</span> or -<span class="grk" title="ants">αντς</span>, Lesbian has -<span class="grk" title="ais">αις</span>: <span class="grk" title="tais archais">ταὶς ἄρχαις</span> accusative in Lesbian +for older <span class="grk" title="tans archans">τὰνς ἄρχανς</span>. Lesbian has no oxyton words according to +the grammarians, the accent being carried back to the penult or ante-penultimate +syllable. It has also no “rough breathing,” but this +characteristic it shared with the Ionic of Asia Minor, and in the course +of time with other dialects. The characteristic particle of the dialects +is <span class="grk" title="ke">κε</span>, which is used like the Doric <span class="grk" title="ka">κα</span>, the Arcadian <span class="grk" title="kan">καν</span>, and the Attic +and Ionic <span class="grk" title="an">ἄν</span>. Thessalian and Lesbian agree in making their long +vowels close, η belonging <span class="grk" title="ei">ει</span> (a close <i>ē</i>, not a diphthong), <span class="grk" title="pateir">πατείρ</span>, +“father.” The υ sound did not become <i>ü</i> as in Attic and Ionic, +and hence when the Ionic alphabet was introduced it was spelt <span class="grk" title="ou">ου</span>, +or when in contact with dentals <span class="grk" title="iou">ιου</span>, as in <span class="grk" title="oniouma">ὀνίουμα</span> = <span class="grk" title="onyma">ὄνυμα</span>, “name,” +<span class="grk" title="tioucha">τιούχα</span> = <span class="grk" title="tychê">τύχη</span>, “chance”; the pronunciation, therefore, must have +been like the English sound in <i>news</i>, <i>tune</i>. Boeotian developed earlier +than other dialects the changes in the vowels which characterize +modern Greek: <span class="grk" title="ai">αι</span> became <i>ē</i>, <span class="grk" title="kai">καὶ</span> passing into <span class="grk" title="kê">κή</span>: compare <span class="grk" title="pateir">πατείρ</span> +and <span class="grk" title="wukia">ϝυκία</span> above: <span class="grk" title="ei">ει</span> became ι in <span class="grk" title="echi">ἔχι</span>, “has.” Thessalian shows +some examples of the Homeric genitive in -<span class="grk" title="oio">οιο</span>: <span class="grk" title="polemoio">πολέμοιο</span>, &c.; +its ordinary genitive of ο- stems is in -<span class="grk" title="oi">οι</span>.</p> + +<p>There are some points of connexion between this group and +Arcadian-Cyprian: in both Thessalian and Cyprian the characteristic +<span class="grk" title="ptolis">πτόλις</span> (Attic, &c., <span class="grk" title="polis">πόλις</span>) and <span class="grk" title="dauchna">δαυχνα</span>- for <span class="grk" title="daphnê">δάφνη</span> are found, and +both groups form the “contracting verbs” not in -ω but in -<span class="grk" title="mi">μι</span>. +In the second group as in the first there is little that precedes the +5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Future additions to our materials may be expected +to lessen the gap between the two groups and Homer.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Ionic-Attic.</i>—One of the earliest of Greek inscriptions—of the +7th century, at least—is the Attic inscription written in two lines +from right to left upon a wine goblet (<span class="grk" title="oinochoê">οἰνοχόη</span>) given as a prize: +<span class="grk" title="hos nun orcheston panton | atalotata paizei toto dekan min">hός νῦν ὀρχεστον πάντον | ἀταλότατα παίζει τοτο δεκᾶν μιν</span>. The last +words are uncertain. Till lately early inscriptions in Ionic were +few, but recently an early inscription has been found at Ephesus +and a later copy of a long early inscription at Miletus.</p> + +<p>The most noticeable characteristic of Attic and Ionic is the change +of α into η which is universal in Ionic but does not appear in Attic +after another vowel or ρ. Thus both dialects used <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">μήτηρ</span>, <span class="grk" title="timê">τιμή</span> from +an earlier <span class="grk" title="matêr">μᾱτηρ</span>, <span class="grk" title="tima">τιμα</span>, but Attic had <span class="grk" title="sophia">σοφία</span>, <span class="grk" title="pragma">πρᾶγμα</span> and <span class="grk" title="chôra">χώρα</span>, not +<span class="grk" title="sophiê">σοφίη</span>, <span class="grk" title="prêgma">πρῆγμα</span> and <span class="grk" title="chôrê">χώρη</span> as in Ionic. The apparent exception <span class="grk" title="korê">κόρη</span> +is explained by the fact that in this word a digamma ϝ has been lost +after ρ, in Doric <span class="grk" title="korwa">κόρϝα</span>. That the change took place after the Ionians +came into Asia is shown by the word <span class="grk" title="Mêdoi">Μῆδοι</span>, which in Cyprian is +<span class="grk" title="Madoi">Μᾶδοι</span>; the Medes were certainly not known to the Greeks till long +after the conquest of Ionia. While Aeolic and the greater part of +Doric kept ϝ, this symbol and the sound <i>w</i> represented by it had +disappeared from both Ionic and Attic before existing records begin—in +other words, were certainly not in use after 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The symbol +was known and occurs in a few isolated instances. Both dialects +agreed in changing <i>u</i> into <i>ü</i>, so that a <i>u</i> sound has to be represented +by <span class="grk" title="ou">ου</span>. The short <i>o</i> tended towards <i>u</i>, so that the contraction of +ο + ο gave <span class="grk" title="ou">ου</span>. In the same way short <i>e</i> tended towards <i>i</i>, so that the +contraction of ε + ε gave <span class="grk" title="ei">ει</span>, which was not a diphthong but a close +<i>ē</i>-sound. In Attic Greek these contractions were represented by O +and E respectively till the official adoption of the Ionic alphabet at +Athens in 403 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> So also were the lengthened syllables which +represent in their length the loss of an earlier consonant, as <span class="grk" title="emeina">ἔμεινα</span> +and <span class="grk" title="eneima">ἔνειμα</span>, Aeolic <span class="grk" title="emenna">ἔμεννα</span>, <span class="grk" title="enemma">ἔνεμμα</span>, which stand for a prehistoric +*<span class="grk" title="emensa">ἔμενσα</span> and *<span class="grk" title="enemsa">ἔνεμσα</span>, containing the -σ- of the first aorist, and +<span class="grk" title="tous">τοὺς</span>, <span class="grk" title="oikous">οἴκους</span>, <span class="grk" title="echousi">ἔχουσι</span> representing an earlier <span class="grk" title="tons">τόνς</span>, <span class="grk" title="oikons">οἴκονς</span>, <span class="grk" title="echonti">ἔχοντι</span> +(3 pl. present) or *<span class="grk" title="echontsi">ἔχοντσι</span> (dative pl. of present participle). Both +dialects also agreed in changing τ before ι into σ (like Aeolic), as in +<span class="grk" title="echousi">ἔχουσι</span> above, and in the 3rd person singular of -<span class="grk" title="mi">μι</span> verbs, <span class="grk" title="tithêsi">τίθησι</span>, +<span class="grk" title="didôsi">δίδωσι</span>, &c., and in noun stems, as in <span class="grk" title="dosis">δόσις</span> for an earlier *<span class="grk" title="dotis">δότις</span>. +Neither dialect used the particle <span class="grk" title="ke">κε</span> or <span class="grk" title="ka">κα</span>, but both have <span class="grk" title="an">ἄν</span> instead. +One of the effects of the change of ᾱ into η was that the combination +<span class="grk" title="ao">ᾱο</span> changed in both dialects to <span class="grk" title="êo">ηο</span>, which in all Attic records and in +the later Ionic has become <span class="grk" title="eô">εω</span> by a metathesis in the quantity of the +vowels: <span class="grk" title="naos">νᾱός</span>, earlier <span class="grk" title="nawos">νᾱϝός</span>, “temple,” is in Homeric Greek <span class="grk" title="nêos">νηός</span>, +in later Ionic and Attic <span class="grk" title="neôs">νεώς</span>. In the dative (locative) plural of the +-ᾱ stems, Ionic has generally -<span class="grk" title="êisi">ηισι</span> on the analogy of the singular; +Attic had first the old locative form in -<span class="grk" title="êsi">ησι</span>, -<span class="grk" title="asi">ᾱσι</span>, which survived +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span> +in forms which became adverbs like <span class="grk" title="Athênêsi">Ἀθήνησι</span> and <span class="grk" title="thurasi">θύρᾱσι</span>; but +after 420 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> these were replaced by -<span class="grk" title="ais">αις</span>, <span class="grk" title="thurais">θύραις</span>, &c. The Ionic +of Asia Minor showed many changes earlier than that of the Cyclades +and Euboea. It lost the aspirate very early: hence in the Ionic +alphabet H is <i>ē</i>, not <i>h</i>; it changed <span class="grk" title="au">αυ</span> and <span class="grk" title="eu">ευ</span> into <span class="grk" title="ao">αο</span> and <span class="grk" title="eo">εο</span>, and +very early replaced to a large extent the -<span class="grk" title="mi">μι</span> by the -ω verbs. This +confusion can be seen in progress in the Attic literature of the 5th +and 4th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, <span class="grk" title="deiknymi">δείκνυμι</span> gradually giving way to <span class="grk" title="deiknyô">δεικνύω</span>, +while the literature generally uses forms like <span class="grk" title="ephiei">ἐφίει</span> for <span class="grk" title="ephiê">ἐφίη</span> (impft.). +In Attica also the aspiration which survived in the Ionic of Euboea +and the Cyclades ceased by the end of the 5th century. The Ionic +of Asia Minor has -<span class="grk" title="ios">ιος</span> as the genitive of ι-stems; the other forms of +Ionic have -<span class="grk" title="idos">ιδος</span>.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Doric.</i>—As already mentioned, the dialects of the North-West +differ in several respects from Doric elsewhere. As general characteristics +of Doric may be noted the contractions of α + ε into η, and +of α + ο or ω into ᾱ, while the results in Attic and Ionic of these contractions +are ᾱ and ω respectively: <span class="grk" title="enikê">ἐνίκη</span> from <span class="grk" title="nikaô">νικάω</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="enika">ἐνίκα</span>; +<span class="grk" title="timames">τιμᾶμες</span> 1 pl. pres. from <span class="grk" title="timaô">τιμάω</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="timômen">τιμῶμεν</span>; <span class="grk" title="timan">τιμᾶν</span> gen. pl. of <span class="grk" title="tima">τιμᾱ</span> +“honour,” Attic <span class="grk" title="timôn">τιμῶν</span>. In inflection the most noticeable points are +the pronominal adverbs in locative form: <span class="grk" title="toutei">τουτεῖ</span>, <span class="grk" title="tênei">τηνεῖ</span> (this from a +stem limited to a few Doric dialects and the Bucolic Poets), <span class="grk" title="teide">τεῖδε</span>, +<span class="grk" title="hopei">ὅπει</span>, &c.; the nom. pl. of the article <span class="grk" title="toi">τοί</span>, <span class="grk" title="tai">ταί</span>, not <span class="grk" title="hoi">οἱ</span>, <span class="grk" title="hai">αἱ</span> and so +<span class="grk" title="toutoi">τοῦτοι</span> in Selinus and Rhodes; the 1st pl. of the verb in -<span class="grk" title="mes">μες</span>, +not in -<span class="grk" title="men">μεν</span>, cp. the Latin -<i>mus</i>; the aorist and future in -ξ-, where +other dialects have -σ-, or contraction from presents in-<span class="grk" title="zô">ζω</span>; <span class="grk" title="dikazô">δικάζω</span>, +<span class="grk" title="dikasô">δικάσω</span>, Doric <span class="grk" title="dikaxô">δικάξω</span>, &c.; the future passive with active endings, +<span class="grk" title="epimelêthêseunti">ἐπιμεληθησεῦντι</span> (Rhodes), found as yet only in the Doric islands +and in the Doric prose of Archimedes; the particles <span class="grk" title="ai">αἱ</span> “if” and +<span class="grk" title="ka">κα</span> with a similar value to the Aeolic <span class="grk" title="ke">κε</span> and the Attic-Ionic <span class="grk" title="an">ἄν</span>. +Doric had an accentuation system different both from Aeolic and +from Ionic-Attic, but the details of the system are very imperfectly +known.</p> + +<p>In older works Doric is often divided into a <i>dialectus severior</i> and a +<i>dialectus mitis</i>. But the difference is one of time rather than of +place, the peculiarities of Doric being gradually softened down till +it was ultimately merged in the <i>lingua franca</i>, the <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span>, which in +time engulfed all the local dialects except the descendant of Spartan, +Tzakonian. Here it is possible to mention its varieties only in the +briefest form. (<i>a</i>) The southern dialects are well illustrated in the +inscriptions of Laconia recently much increased in number by the +excavations of the British School at Athens. Apart from some brief +dedications, the earliest inscription of importance is the list of names +placed on a bronze column soon after 479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to commemorate the +tribes which had repulsed the Persians. The column, originally at +Delphi, is now at Constantinople. The most striking features of the +dialect are the retention of ϝ at the beginning of words, as in the +dedication from the 6th century <span class="grk" title="wanaxibios">ϝαναξίβιος</span> (<i>Annual of British +School</i>, xiv. 144). The dialect changed -σ- between vowels into +-h-, <span class="grk" title="môha">μῶhα</span> for <span class="grk" title="môsa">μῶσα</span> “muse.” Later it changed θ into a sound like the +English <i>th</i>, which was represented by σ. Before <i>o</i>-sounds ε here and +in some other Doric dialects changed to ι: <span class="grk" title="thios">θιός</span>, <span class="grk" title="sios">σιός</span> for <span class="grk" title="theos">θεός</span> “god.” +The result of contraction and “compensatory lengthening” was not +<span class="grk" title="ei">ει</span> and <span class="grk" title="ou">ου</span> as in Attic and Ionic, but η and ω: <span class="grk" title="êmen">ἦμεν</span> infinitive = <span class="grk" title="einai">εἶναι</span> +from *<i>esmen</i>; gen. sing. of <i>o</i>-stems in ω: <span class="grk" title="theô">θεῶ</span>, acc. pl. in -<span class="grk" title="ôs">ως</span>: <span class="grk" title="theôs">θεώς</span>; +<i>dy</i> was represented by <span class="grk" title="dd">δδ</span>, not ζ, as in Attic-Ionic; <span class="grk" title="musidde">μύσιδδε</span> = +<span class="grk" title="muthize">μύθιζε</span>. The dialect has many strange words, especially in connexion +with the state education and organization of the boys and young men. +The Heraclean tables from a Laconian colony in S. Italy have curious +forms in -<span class="grk" title="assi">ασσι</span> for the dat. pl. of the participle <span class="grk" title="prassontassi">πρασσόντασσι</span> = Attic +<span class="grk" title="prattousi">πράττουσι</span>. Of the dialect of Messenia we know little, the long +inscription about mysteries from Andania being only about 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +From Argolis there are a considerable number of early inscriptions, +and in a later form of the dialect the cures recorded at the temple of +Asklepios at Epidaurus present many points of interest. There is +also an inscription of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> from the temple of +Aphaia in Aegina. ϝ survives in the old inscriptions: <span class="grk" title="wewremena">ϝεϝρεμένα</span> +(= <span class="grk" title="eirêmena">εἰρημένα</span>); <span class="grk" title="ns">νς</span>, whether original or arising by sound change from -<i>nty</i>, +persists till the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>: <span class="grk" title="hantitychonsa">hαντιτυχόνσα</span> = <span class="grk" title="hê antitychousa">ἡ ἀντιτυχοῦσα</span>, <span class="grk" title="tons +huions">τὸνς υἱόνς</span> = <span class="grk" title="tous huious">τοὺς υἱούς</span>. The dialect of the Inachus valley seems to +resemble Laconian more closely than does that of the rest of the +Argolic area. Corinth and her colonies in the earliest inscriptions preserve +ϝ and ϙ (= Latin Q) before ο and υ sounds, and write ξ and ψ by <span class="grk" title="chs">χσ</span> +and <span class="grk" title="phs">φσ</span>, the symbols which are used also for this purpose in old Attic. +In the Corcyrean and Sicilian forms of the dialect, λ before a dental +appears as ν: <span class="grk" title="Phintias">Φιντίας</span> = <span class="grk" title="Philtias">Φιλτίας</span>; and in Sicilian the perfect-active +was treated as a present: <span class="grk" title="dedoikô">δεδοίκω</span> for <span class="grk" title="dedoika">δέδοικα</span>, &c. From Megara +has come lately an obscure inscription from the beginning of the 5th +century; its colony Selinus has inscriptions from the middle of the +same century; the inscriptions from Byzantium and its other Pontic +colonies date only from Hellenistic times. In Crete, which shows a +considerable variety of subdialects, the most important document is +the great inscription from Gortyn containing twelve tables of family +law, which was discovered in 1884. The local alphabet has no +separate symbols for χ and φ, and these sounds are therefore written +with κ and π. As in Argive the combination -<span class="grk" title="ns">νς</span> was kept both +medially and finally except before words beginning with a consonant; +-<i>ty</i>- was represented by ζ, later by -<span class="grk" title="tt">ττ</span>-, as in Thessalian and Boeotian: +<span class="grk" title="hopottoi">ὁπόττοι</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="hoposoi">ὁπόσοι</span>; and finally by +-<span class="grk" title="tt">θθ</span>-; λ combined with a preceding +vowel into an <i>au</i>-diphthong: <span class="grk" title="auka">αὐκά</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="alkê">ἀλκή</span>, cp. the English +pronunciation of <i>talk</i>, &c. In Gortyn and some other towns -<span class="grk" title="st">σθ</span>—was +assimilated to—<span class="grk" title="tt">θθ</span>, where θ must have been a spirant like the English +<i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>; ζ of Attic Greek is represented initially by δ, medially +by <span class="grk" title="dd">δδ</span>, but in some towns by τ and <span class="grk" title="tt">ττ</span>: <span class="grk" title="doos">δοός</span> (= <span class="grk" title="zôos">ζωός</span>), <span class="grk" title="dikadden">δικάδδεν</span> +(= <span class="grk" title="dicazein">δικάζειν</span>). Final consonants are generally assimilated to the +beginning of the next word. In inflection there are many local +peculiarities. In Melos and Thera some very old inscriptions have +been found written in an alphabet without symbols for φ, χ, φ, ξ, +which are therefore written as πh, κh or ϙh, <span class="grk" title="ps, ks">πσ, κσ</span>. The contractions +of ε + ε and of ο + ο are represented by E and O respectively. The +old rock inscriptions of Thera are among the most archaic yet +discovered. The most characteristic feature of Rhodian Doric +is the infinitive in -<span class="grk" title="mein">μειν</span>: <span class="grk" title="domein">δοῦναι</span>, &c. (= Attic <span class="grk" title="dounai">δοῦναι</span>), which +passed also to Gela and Agrigentum. The inscriptions from Cos +are numerous, but too late to represent the earliest form of the +dialect.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The dialects of N.W. Doric, Locrian, Phocian, Aetolian, with +which go Elean and Achaean, present a more uncouth appearance +than the other Doric dialects except perhaps Cretan. Only from +Locris and Phocis come fairly old inscriptions; later a <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> was +developed, in which the documents of the Aetolian league are +written, and of which the most distinctive mark is the dative plural +of consonant stems in -<span class="grk" title="ois">οις</span>: <span class="grk" title="archontois">ἀρχόντοις</span> (= Attic <span class="grk" title="archousi">ἄρχουσι</span>), <span class="grk" title="agônois">ἀγώνοις</span> +(= Attic <span class="grk" title="agôsi">ἀγῶσι</span>), &c. Phocian and the Locrian of Opus have also +forms like Aeolic in -<span class="grk" title="essi">εσσι</span>. In place of the dative in -ῳ, locatives in +-<span class="grk" title="oi">οι</span> are used in Locrian and Phocian. Generally north of the Corinthian +gulf the middle present participle from -<span class="grk" title="eô">εω</span>-verbs ends in-<span class="grk" title="eimenos">ειμενος</span>; +similar forms are found also in Elean. Locrian changed ε before ρ +into α: <span class="grk" title="patara">πατάρα</span> for <span class="grk" title="patera">πατέρα</span>; cf. English <i>Kerr</i> and <i>Carr</i>, <i>sergeant</i> and +<i>Sargeaunt</i>. <span class="grk" title="st">στ</span> appears for <span class="grk" title="st">σθ</span>, and ϙ and ϝ are still much in use in +the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Many thousands of inscriptions were found in +the French excavations at Delphi, but nothing earlier than the 5th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In the older inscriptions the Aeolic influence—datives +in -<span class="grk" title="essi">εσσι</span>, <span class="grk" title="onyma">ὄνυμα</span> for <span class="grk" title="onoma">ὄνομα</span>—is better marked than later. In the +Laws of the Labyad phratry (about 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the genitive is in <span class="grk" title="ou">ου</span>, +but a form in -ω is also found, <span class="grk" title="woikô">ϝοίκω</span>, which seems to be an old +ablative fossilized as an adverb. The nom. pl. <span class="grk" title="dekatetores">δεκατέτορες</span> is used +for the acc.; similar forms are found in Elean and Achaean.</p> + +<p>The more important of the older materials for Achaean come from +the Achaean colonies of S. Italy, and being scanty give us only an +imperfect view of the dialect, but it is clearly in its main features +Doric. Much more remarkable is the Elean dialect known chiefly +from inscriptions found at Olympia, some of which are as early as the +beginning of the 6th century. The native dialect was replaced first +by a Doric and then by the Attic <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span>, but under the Caesars the +archaic dialect was restored. Many of its characteristics it shares +with the dialects north of the Corinthian gulf, but it changes original +ē to α: <span class="grk" title="ma">μά</span> = <span class="grk" title="mê">μη</span>, &c.; δ was apparently a spirant, as in modern Greek +(= <i>th</i> in English <i>the</i>, <i>thine</i>), and is represented by ζ in some of the +earliest inscriptions. Final -σ became -ρ; this is found also in +Laconian; -<i>ty</i>- became -<span class="grk" title="ss">σσ</span>-, but was not simplified as in Attic to +-σ-: <span class="grk" title="ossa">ὄσσα</span> = Attic <span class="grk" title="hosa">ὄσα</span>.</p> + +<p>As we have seen, Ionians, Aetolians and Dorians tended to level +local peculiarities and make a generally intelligible dialect in which +treaties and other important records were framed. The language of +literature is always of necessity to some extent a <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span>: with some +Greek writers the use of a <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> was especially necessary. The +local dialect of Boeotia was not easily intelligible in other districts, +and a writer like Pindar, whose patrons were mostly not Boeotians, +had perforce to write in a dialect that they could understand. Hence +he writes in a conventional Doric with Aeolic elements, which forms +a strong contrast to that of Corinna, who kept more or less closely +to the Boeotian dialect. For different literary purposes Greek had +different <span class="grk" title="koinai">κοιναί</span>. A poet who would write an epic must adopt a +form of language modelled on that of Homer and Hesiod; Alcaeus +and Sappho were the models for the love lyric, which was therefore +Aeolic; Stesichorus was the founder of the triumphal ode, which, as +he was a Dorian of Sicily, must henceforth be in Doric, though Pindar +was an Aeolian, and its other chief representatives, Simonides and +Bacchylides, were Ionians from Ceos. The choral ode of tragedy +was always conventional Doric, and in the iambics also are Doric +words like <span class="grk" title="draô">δράω</span>, <span class="grk" title="laô">λάω</span>, &c. Elegy and epigram were founded on epic; +the satirical iambics of Hipponax and his late disciple Herondas are +Ionic. The first Greek prose was developed in Ionia, of which an +excellent example has been preserved to us in Herodotus. Thucydides +was not an Ionian, but he could not shake himself free of the +tradition: he therefore writes <span class="grk" title="prassô, tassô">πράσσω, τάσσω</span>, &c., with -<span class="grk" title="ss">σσ</span>-, which +was Ionic, but is never found in Attic inscriptions nor in the writers +who imitate the language of common life—Aristophanes (when not +parodying tragedy, or other forms of literature or dialect), Plato and +the Orators (with the partial exception of Antiphon, who ordinarily +has -<span class="grk" title="ss">σσ</span>-, but in the one speech actually intended for the law-courts +-<span class="grk" title="tt">ττ</span>-). Similarly Hippocrates and his medical school in Cos wrote +in Ionic, not, however, in the Ionic of Herodotus, but in a language +more akin to the Ionic <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> of the inscriptions; and this dialect +continued to be used in medicine later, much as doctors now use +Latin for their prescriptions. The first literary document written +in Attic prose is the treatise on the <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, which is +generally printed amongst the minor works of Xenophon, but really +belongs to about 425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> From the fragment of Aristophanes’ +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span> +<i>Banqueters</i> and from the first speech of Lysias “Against Theomnestos” +it is clear that the Attic dialect had changed rapidly in the 6th and +5th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and that much of the phraseology of Solon’s laws +was no longer intelligible by 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Among the most difficult of +the literary dialects to trace is the earliest—the Homeric dialect. +The Homeric question cannot be discussed here, and on that question +it may be said <i>quot homines tot sententiae</i>. To the present writer, +however, it seems probable that the poems were composed in Chios +as tradition asserted; the language contains many Aeolisms, and +the heroes sung are, except for the Athenians (very briefly referred +to), and possibly Telamonian Ajax, not of the Ionic stock. Chios was +itself an Ionicized Aeolic colony (Diodorus v. 81. 7). The hypothesis +of a great poet writing on the basis of earlier Aeolic lays (<span class="grk" title="klea +andrôn">κλέα ἀνδρῶν</span>) in Chios seems to explain the main peculiarities of the +Homeric language, which, however, was modified to some extent +in later times first under Ionic and afterwards under Athenian +influence.</p> + +<p>Of Dorian literature we know little. The works of Archimedes +written in the Syracusan dialect were much altered in language by +the late copyists. The most striking development of the late classical +age in Doric lands is that of pastoral poetry, which, like Spenser, is +“writ in no language,” but, on a basis of Syracusan and possibly +Coan Doric, has in its structure many elements borrowed from the +Aeolic love lyric and from epic.</p> + +<p>From the latter part of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Athens became ever +more important as a literary centre, and Attic prose became the +model for the later <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span>, which grew up as a consequence of the +decay of the local dialects. For this decay there were several +reasons. If the Athenian empire had survived the Peloponnesian +War, Attic influence would no doubt soon have permeated the whole +of that empire. This consummation was postponed. Attic became +the court language of Macedon, and, when Alexander’s conquests +led to the foundation of great new towns, like Alexandria, filled with +inhabitants from all parts of the Greek world, this dialect furnished +a basis for common intercourse. Naturally the resultant dialect +was not pure Attic. There were in it considerable traces of Ionic. +In Attica itself the dialect was less uniform than elsewhere even in +the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, because Athens was a centre of empire, literature +and commerce. Like every other language which is not under +the dominion of the schoolmaster, it borrowed the names of foreign +objects which it imported from foreign lands, not only from those of +Greek-speaking peoples, but also from Egypt, Persia, Lydia, Phoenicia, +Thrace and elsewhere. The Ionians were great seafarers, and +from them Athens borrowed words for seacraft and even for the tides: +<span class="grk" title="amtôtis">ἄμτωτις</span> “ebb,” <span class="grk" title="rhachia">ῥαχία</span> “high tide,” an Ionic word <span class="grk" title="rhêchiê">ῥηχίη</span> spelt in +Attic fashion. From the Dorians it borrowed words connected with +war and sport: <span class="grk" title="lochagos">λοχαγός</span>, <span class="grk" title="kunagos">κυναγός</span>, &c. A soldier of fortune like +Xenophon, who spent most of his life away from Athens, introduced +not only strange words but strange grammatical constructions also +into his literary compositions. With Aristotle, not a born Athenian +but long resident in Athens, the <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> may be said to have begun. +Some characteristics of Attic foreigners found it hard to acquire—its +subtle use of particles and its accent. Hence in Hellenistic Greek +particles are comparatively rare. According to Cicero, Theophrastus, +who came from as near Attica as Eretria in Euboea, was easily +detected by a market-woman as no Athenian after he had lived +thirty years in Athens. Thoucritus, an Athenian, who was taken +prisoner in the Peloponnesian War and lived for many years in +Epirus as a slave, was unable to recover the Athenian accent on his +return, and his family lay under the suspicion that they were an +alien’s children, as his son tells us in Demosthenes’ speech “Against +Eubulides.” In the <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> there were several divisions, though the +line between them is faint and irregular. There was a <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> of +literary men like Polybius and of carefully prepared state documents, +as at Magnesia or Pergamum; and a different <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> of the vulgar +which is represented to us in its Egyptian form in the Pentateuch, +in a later and at least partially Palestinian form in the Gospels. +Still more corrupt is the language which we find in the ill-written +and ill-spelt private letters found amongst the Egyptian papyri. +Not out of the old dialects but out of this <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> arose modern Greek, +with a variety of dialects no less bewildering than that of ancient +Greek. In one place more rapidly, in another more slowly, the +characteristics of modern Greek begin to appear. As we have seen, +in Boeotia the vowels and diphthongs began to pass into the characteristic +sounds of modern Greek four centuries before Christ. +Dorian dialects illustrate early the passing of the old aspirate θ, +the sound of which was like the final <i>t</i> in English <i>bit</i>, into a sound like +the English <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>, <i>pith</i>, which it still retains in modern Greek. +The change of γ between vowels into a <i>y</i> sound was charged by the +comic poets against Hyperbolus the demagogue about 415 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Only when the Attic sound changes stood isolated amongst the Greek +dialects did they give way in the <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> to Ionic. Thus the forms +with -<span class="grk" title="ss">σσ</span>- instead of -<span class="grk" title="tt">ττ</span>- won the day, while modern Greek shows that +sometimes the -<span class="grk" title="rr">ρρ</span>- which Attic shared with some Doric dialects and +Arcadian was retained, and that sometimes the Ionic -<span class="grk" title="rs">ρσ</span>-, which +was also Lesbian and partly Doric, took its place. In other cases, +where Ionic and Attic did not agree, forms came in which were +different from either: the genitives of masculine ā stems were now +formed as in Doric with ᾱ, but the analogy of the other cases may +have been the effective force. The form <span class="grk" title="naos">ναός</span> “temple,” instead of +Ionic <span class="grk" title="nêos">νηός</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="neôs">νεώς</span>, can only be Doric.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the first five centuries of +the Christian era came in the modern Greek characteristics of Itacism +and vowel contraction, of the pronunciation of <span class="grk" title="mp">μπ</span> and <span class="grk" title="nt">ντ</span> as <i>mb</i> +and <i>nd</i> and many other sound changes, the loss of the dative and the +confusion of the 1st with the 3rd declension, the dropping of the -<span class="grk" title="mi">μι</span> +conjugation, the loss of the optative and the assimilation of the +imperfect and second aorist endings to those of the first aorist.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +There were meantime spasmodic attempts at the revival of the old +language. Lucian wrote Attic dialogue with a facility almost equal +to Plato; the old dialect was revived in the inscriptions of Sparta; +Balbilla, a lady-in-waiting on Hadrian’s empress, wrote epigrams +in Aeolic, and there were other attempts of the same kind. But they +were only <i>tours de force</i>, <span class="grk" title="kêpoi Adônidos">κῆποι Ἀδώνιδος</span>, whose flowers had no root +in the spoken language and therefore could not survive. Even in +the hands of a cultivated man like Plutarch the <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> of the 1st +century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> looks entirely different from Attic Greek. Apart from +non-Attic constructions, which are not very numerous, the difference +consists largely in the new vocabulary of the philosophical schools +since Aristotle, whose jargon had become part of the language of +educated men in Plutarch’s time, and made a difference in the +language not unlike that which has been brought about in English +by the development of the natural sciences. It is hardly necessary +to say that these changes, whether of the <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> or of modern Greek, +did not of necessity impair the powers of the language as an organ of +expression; if elaborate inflection were a necessity for the highest +literary merit, then we must prefer Cædmon to Milton and Cynewulf +to Shakespeare.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center"><i>The Chief Characteristics of Greek.</i></p> + +<p>As is obvious from the foregoing account of the Greek dialects, +it is not possible to speak of the early history of Greek as handed +down to us as that of a single uniform tongue. From the earliest +times it shows much variety of dialect accentuated by the geographical +characteristics of the country, but arising, at least in part, +from the fact that the Greeks came into the country in separate +waves divided from one another by centuries. For the history of the +language it is necessary to take as a beginning the form of the Indo-European +language from which Greek descended, so far as it can be +reconstructed from a comparison of the individual I.E. languages +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-European Languages</a></span>). The sounds of this language, so +far as at present ascertained, were the following:—</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) 11 vowels: <i>a</i>, <i>ā</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>ē</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>ī</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>ō</i>, <i>u</i>, <i>ū</i>, <i>ǝ</i> (a short indistinct vowel).</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) 14 diphthongs: <i>ai</i>, <i>au</i>, <i>ei</i>, <i>eu</i>, <i>oi</i>, <i>ou</i>, <i>āi</i>, <i>āu</i>, <i>ēi</i>, <i>ēu</i>, <i>ōi</i>, <i>ōu</i>, <i>ǝi</i>, <i>ǝu</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) 20 stop consonants.</p> + +<p>Labials: <i>p</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>ph</i>, <i>bh</i> (<i>ph</i> and <i>bh</i> being <i>p</i> and <i>b</i> followed by an +audible breath, not <i>f</i> and <i>v</i>).</p> + +<p>Dentals: <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>th</i>, <i>dh</i> (<i>th</i> and <i>dh</i> <i>not</i> spirants like the two English +sounds in <i>thin</i> and <i>then</i>, but aspirated <i>t</i> and <i>d</i>).</p> + +<p>Palatals: <i>ǩ</i>, <i>ǧ</i>, <i>ǩh</i>, <i>ǧh</i> (<i>kh</i> and <i>gh</i> aspirates as explained above).</p> + +<p>Velars: <i>q</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>qh</i>, <i>gh</i> (velars differ from palatals by being produced +against the soft palate instead of the roof of the mouth).</p> + +<p>Labio-velars: <i>qṷ</i>, <i>qṷ</i>, <i>qṷh</i>, <i>gṷh</i> (these differ from the velars by being +combined with a slight labial <i>w</i>-sound).</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) Spirants—</p> + +<div class="list1"> +<p>Labial: <i>w</i>.</p> + +<p>Dental: <i>s</i>, <i>z</i>, post-dental <i>ṣ</i>, <i>ẓ</i>, interdental possibly þ, ð.</p> + +<p>Palatal: χ (Scotch ch), y.</p> + +<p>Velar: <i>x</i> (a deeply guttural χ, heard now in Swiss dialects), ℨ.</p> +</div> + +<p>Closely akin to <i>w</i> and <i>y</i> and often confused with them were +the semi-vowels <i>ṷ</i> and <i>ḭ</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) Liquids: <i>l</i>, <i>r</i>.</p> + +<p>(<i>f</i>) Nasals: <i>m</i> (labial), <i>n</i> (dental), <i>ñ</i> (palatal), ɲ (velar), the last +three in combination with similar consonants.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) As far as the vowels are concerned, Greek retains the original +state of things more accurately than any other language. The sounds +of short <i>e</i> and short <i>o</i> in Attic and Ionic were close, so that <i>e</i> + <i>e</i> +contracted to a long close e represented by <span class="grk" title="ei">ει</span>, <i>o</i> + <i>o</i> to a long close <i>o</i> +represented by <span class="grk" title="oe">ου</span>. In these dialects <i>u</i>, both long and short, was +modified to <i>ü</i>, and they changed the long <i>ā</i> to <i>ē</i>, though Attic has ᾱ +after ε, ι and ρ. In Greek ǝ appeared regularly as α, but under the +influence of analogy often as ε and ο.</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) The short diphthongs as a whole remained unchanged before a +following consonant. Before a following vowel the diphthong was +divided between the two syllables, the ι or υ forming a consonant at +the beginning of the second syllable, which ultimately disappeared. +Thus from a root <i>dheu</i>- “run” comes a verb <span class="grk" title="theô">θέω</span> for <span class="grk" title="the-wô">θε-ϝω</span>, from +an earlier *<span class="grk" title="theu-ô">θευ-ω</span>. The corresponding adjective is <span class="grk" title="thoos">θοός</span> “swift,” +for <span class="grk" title="tho-wo-s">θο-ϝο-ς</span>, from an earlier *<span class="grk" title="thou-o-s">θου-ο-ς</span>. The only dialect which kept +the whole diphthong in one syllable was Aeolic. The long diphthongs, +except at the ends of words, were shortened in Attic. Some +of these appear merely as long vowels, having lost their second +element in the proethnic period. Apparent long diphthongs like +those in <span class="grk" title="lêtourgia, sôzô">λῃτουργία, σᾡζω</span> arise by contraction of two syllables.</p> + +<p>(<i>c</i>) The consonants suffered more extensive change. The voiced +aspirates became unvoiced, so that <i>bh</i>, <i>dh</i>, <i>ḡh</i>, <i>gh</i>, <i>gṷh</i> are confused +with original <i>ph</i>, <i>th</i>, <i>ǩh</i>, <i>qh</i>, <i>qṷh</i>: I.E. *<i>bherō</i> (Skt. <i>bharāmi</i>) is Gr. +<span class="grk" title="pherô">φέρω</span>; I.E. *<i>dhūmos</i> (Skt. <i>dhūmas</i>), Gr. <span class="grk" title="thymos">θῡμος</span>; I.E. *<i>ǧhimo</i>- (Skt. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span> +<i>hima</i>-), Gr. <span class="grk" title="(dys)-chimo-s">(δυσ)-χιμο-ς</span>; I.E. *<i>stigh</i>- (Skt. <i>stigh</i>-), Gr. <span class="grk" title="stiches">στίχες</span>; +I.E. <i>gṷhen</i>- (Skt. <i>han</i>-), Gr. <span class="grk" title="theinô">θείνω</span> (probably), <span class="grk" title="phonos">φόνος</span>. The palatal +and velar series cannot be distinguished in Greek; for the differences +between them resort must be had to languages of the <i>satem</i>-group, +such as Sanskrit, Zend or Slavonic, where the palatals appear +as sibilants (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-European Languages</a></span>). The labio-velar +series present a great variety of forms in the different Greek dialects, +and in the same dialect before different sounds. Thus in Attic before +<i>o</i> vowels, nasals and liquids, the series appears as π, β, φ; before <i>e</i> +and <i>i</i> vowels as τ, β (δ), θ; in combination with <i>u</i>, which led to loss +of the <i>ṷ</i> by dissimilation, κ, γ χ. Thus <span class="grk" title="hepomai">ἕπομαι</span> corresponds to the +Latin <i>sequo-r</i>, apart from the ending; <span class="grk" title="boûs">βοῦς</span> to Latin <i>bos</i> (borrowed +from Sabine), English <i>cow</i>; <span class="grk" title="phonos">φόνος</span> “slaughter,” <span class="grk" title="epephnon">ἕπεφνον</span>, old Irish +<i>gonim</i>, “I wound.” Parallel to these forms with <i>p</i> are forms in the +Italic languages except Latin and Faliscan, and in the Cymric +group of the Celtic languages. The dental forms τ, δ, θ stand by +themselves. Thus <span class="grk" title="tis">τις</span> (from the same root as <span class="grk" title="pou, poi, pothen">ποῦ, ποῖ, πόθεν</span>, etc.) +is parallel to the Latin <i>quis</i>, the Oscan <i>pis</i>, old Irish <i>cía</i>, Welsh <i>pwy</i>, +“who?” “what?”; Attic <span class="grk" title="tettares">τέτταρες</span>, Ionic <span class="grk" title="tesseres">τέσσερες</span> “four” is +parallel to Latin <i>quattuor</i>, Oscan <span class="grk" title="petora">πετορα</span>, old Irish <i>cethir</i>, old Welsh +<i>petguar</i>; <span class="grk" title="tisis">τίσις</span> is from the same root as <span class="grk" title="poinê">ποινή</span>. For the voiced +sound, β is much more common than δ before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> sounds; thus +<span class="grk" title="bios">βίος</span> “life,” from the same root as Skt. <i>jīvas</i>, Latin <i>vīvus</i>; <span class="grk" title="bios">βιός</span> +“bowstring,” Skt. <i>jyā</i>, &c. In Arcado-Cyprian and Aeolic, π and β +often precede <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> sounds. Thus parallel to Attic <span class="grk" title="tettares">τέτταρες</span> +Lesbian has <span class="grk" title="pessyres">πέσσυρες</span>, Homer <span class="grk" title="pisyres">πίσυρες</span>, Boeotian <span class="grk" title="pettares">πέτταρες</span>; Thessalian +<span class="grk" title="bellomai">βέλλομαι</span>, Boeotian <span class="grk" title="beilomai">βείλομαι</span> alongside of Attic <span class="grk" title="boulomai">βούλομαι</span>, +Lesbian <span class="grk" title="bollomai">βόλλομαι</span>, Doric <span class="grk" title="bôlomai">βώλομαι</span> and also <span class="grk" title="dêlomai">δήλομαι</span>. In Arcadian +and Cyprian the form corresponding to <span class="grk" title="tis">τις</span> was <span class="grk" title="sis">σις</span>, in Thessalian +<span class="grk" title="kis">κις</span>, where the labialization was lost (see the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Q</a></span>).</p> + +<p>A great variety of changes in the stopped consonants arose in +combination with other sounds, especially <i>ḭ</i> (a semivowel of the nature +of English <i>y</i>), <i>ṷ</i> (<i>w</i>) and <i>s</i>; -τḭ-, -θḭ- became first -σσ- and later -σ- in +Attic Greek, -ττ- in Boeotian (the precise pronunciation of -σσ- and +-ττ- is uncertain): Attic <span class="grk" title="ho-posos">ὁ-πόσος</span>, earlier <span class="grk" title="ho-possos">ὁ-πόσσος</span>, Boeotian <span class="grk" title="ho-pottos">ὁ-πόττος</span>, +from the same stem as the Latin <i>quot</i>, <i>quotiens</i>; Homeric <span class="grk" title="messos">μέσσος</span>, +Attic <span class="grk" title="mesos">μέσος</span> from *<span class="grk" title="methios">μεθιος</span>, Latin <i>medius</i>; -κḭ-, -χḭ- became -σσ-, +Attic -ττ-: <span class="grk" title="pissa">πίσσα</span> “pitch,” Attic <span class="grk" title="pitta">πίττα</span> from *<span class="grk" title="píkia">πίκḭα</span>, cp. Latin +<i>pix</i>, <i>picis</i>, <span class="grk" title="elasson">ἐλάσσων</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="elatton">ἐλάττων</span> comparative to <span class="grk" title="elachus">ἐλαχύς</span>. <span class="grk" title="di">δḭ</span> and <span class="grk" title="gi">γḭ</span> +became ζ: <span class="grk" title="Zeus">Ζεύς</span> (Skt. Dyāuṣ) <span class="grk" title="elpizo">ἐλπίζω</span> from <span class="grk" title="elpis">ἐλπίς</span>, stem <span class="grk" title="èlpid">ἐλπιδ</span>- +“hope,” <span class="grk" title="mastizo">μαστίζω</span> from <span class="grk" title="mastix">μάστιξ</span>, stem <span class="grk" title="mastig">μαστῑγ</span>- “lash.”</p> + +<p>(<i>d</i>) The sound <i>ṷ</i> was represented in the Greek alphabet by ϝ, the +“digamma,” but in Attic and Ionic the sound was lost very early. +In Aeolic, particularly Boeotian and Lesbian, it was persistent, and +so also in many Doric dialects, especially at the beginning of words. +When the Ionic alphabet was adopted by districts which had retained +ϝ, it was represented by β: <span class="grk" title="brodon">βρόδον</span> Aeolic for <span class="grk" title="rodon">ῥόδον</span>, <i>i.e.</i> <span class="grk" title="wrodon">ϝρόδον</span>. +In Attic it disappeared, leaving no trace; in Ionic it lengthened the +preceding syllable; thus in Homer <span class="grk" title="hupodeisas">ὑποδείσας</span> is scanned with ο long +because the root of the verb contained ϝ: <span class="grk" title="dwei">δϝει</span>-. Attic has <span class="grk" title="xenos">ξένος</span>, +but Ionic <span class="grk" title="xeinos">ξεῖνος</span> for <span class="grk" title="xenwos">ξένϝος</span>. Its combination with τ became -σσ-, +Attic and Boeotian -ττ-, in <span class="grk" title="tesseres">τέσσερες</span>, <span class="grk" title="tettares">τέτταρες</span>, <span class="grk" title="pettares">πέτταρες</span> for I.E. <i>gṷetu</i>-.</p> + +<p>But the most effective of all elements in changing the appearance +of Greek words was the sound <i>s</i>. Before vowels at the beginning, +or between vowels in the middle of words, it passed into an <i>h</i> sound, +the “rough breathing.” Thus <span class="grk" title="hepta">ἑπτά</span> is the same word as the Latin +<i>septem</i>, English <i>seven</i>; <span class="grk" title="hal-s">ἅλ-ς</span> has the same stem as the Latin <i>sal</i>, +English <i>sal-t</i>; <span class="grk" title="euo">εὕω</span> for <span class="grk" title="euho">εὐhω</span> is the same as the Latin <i>uro</i> (*<i>eusô</i>). +Combined with <i>i</i> or <i>ṷ</i> also it passes into <i>h</i>; <span class="grk" title="hymên">ὑμήν</span>, Skt. <i>syūman</i>, +“band”; <span class="grk" title="hêdus">ἡδύς</span>, Doric <span class="grk" title="adus">ἆδύς</span>, Latin <i>suā(d)vis</i>, English <i>sweet</i>; cp. +<span class="grk" title="oikoio">οἴκοιο</span> for *<span class="grk" title="woíkosio, nêos">ϝοικοḭο, νηός</span>, Lesbian <span class="grk" title="nauos">ναῦος</span> “temple,” through <span class="grk" title="nawos">ναϝός</span> +from *<span class="grk" title="naswo-s">νασϝο-ς</span> connected with <span class="grk" title="naiô">ναίω</span> “dwell.” Before nasals and +liquids <i>s</i> was assimilated: <span class="grk" title="mei-daô">μει-δάω</span>, Latin <i>mi-ru-s</i>, English <i>smile</i>; +<span class="grk" title="nipha">νίφα</span>, Latin <i>nivem</i>, English <i>snow</i>; <span class="grk" title="lêgo">λήγω</span>, Latin <i>laxus</i>, English <i>slack</i>; +<span class="grk" title="rheô">ῥέω</span> from *<i>sreu-ō</i> of the same origin as English <i>stream</i> (where <i>t</i> is a +later insertion), imperfect <span class="grk" title="erreon">ἔῤῥεον</span> for *<i>esreṷom</i>; cp. also <span class="grk" title="philommeidês">φιλομμείδης</span>, +<span class="grk" title="aganniphos">ἀγάννιφος</span>, <span class="grk" title="allêktos">ἄλληκτος</span>.</p> + +<p>After nasals <i>s</i> is assimilated except finally; when assimilated, in all +dialects except Aeolic the previous syllable is lengthened if not +already long: Attic <span class="grk" title="eneima">ἔνειμα</span>, <span class="grk" title="emeina">ἔμεινα</span> for the first aorist *<i>enemsa</i>, +*<i>emensa</i>; but <span class="grk" title="tons">τόνς</span>, <span class="grk" title="tans">τάνς</span>, &c., of the accusative pl. either remained +or became in Aeolic <span class="grk" title="tois">τοίς</span>, <span class="grk" title="tais">ταίς</span>, in Ionic and Attic <span class="grk" title="tous">τούς</span>, <span class="grk" title="tas">τάς</span>, in Doric +<span class="grk" title="tôs">τώς</span>, <span class="grk" title="tas">τάς</span>; cp. <span class="grk" title="titheis">τιθείς</span> for *<span class="grk" title="tithents">τιθέντς</span>, <span class="grk" title="bas">βάς</span> for *<span class="grk" title="bants, heis">βάντς, είς</span> “one” for +*<i>sem-s</i>, then by analogy of the neuter *<i>sens</i>. Assimilation of σ to +preceding ρ and λ is a matter of dialect: Ionic <span class="grk" title="tharseo">θαρσέω</span>, but Attic +<span class="grk" title="tharrô">θαρρῶ</span>, and so also the Doric of Thera: <span class="grk" title="ekelsa">ἔκελσα</span>, but <span class="grk" title="esteila">ἔστειλα</span> for +*<span class="grk" title="ettelsa">ἔστελσα</span>. With nasals ḭ affected the previous syllable: <span class="grk" title="tektainô">τεκταίνω</span> +(*<span class="grk" title="tekteio">τεκτṋḭω</span>), where ṋ is the nasal of the stem <span class="grk" title="tektôn">τέκτων</span>, itself forming a +syllable (see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">N</a></span> for these so-called sonant nasals). Before +ḭ original <i>m</i> becomes <i>n</i>; hence <span class="grk" title="bainô">βαίνω</span> with <i>n</i>, though from the same +root as English <i>come</i>. Original ḭ does not survive in Greek, but is +represented by the aspirate at the beginning of words, <span class="grk" title="hagnos">ἁγνός</span> = Skt. +<i>yajnas</i>; medially after consonants it disappears, affecting the +preceding consonant or syllable where a consonant precedes; +between vowels it disappears. A sound of the same kind is +indicated in Cyprian and some other dialects as a glide or transition +sound between two vowels.</p> + +<p>(<i>e</i>) The most remarkable feature in the treatment of the nasals is +that when <i>n</i> or <i>m</i> forms a syllable by itself its consonant character +disappears altogether and it is represented by the vowel α only: +<span class="grk" title="tatos">τατός</span>, Latin <i>tentus</i>, α- negative particle, Latin <i>in</i>, English <i>un</i>; +<span class="grk" title="ha-ploos">ἁ-πλόος</span> has the same prefix as the Latin <i>sim-plex</i> (<i>sṃ</i>). The liquids +in similar cases show <span class="grk" title="la">λα</span> or <span class="grk" title="al">αλ</span> and <span class="grk" title="ra">ρα</span> or <span class="grk" title="ar: te-tla-men, pe-paltai; +edrakon, thrasys, tharsos">αρ: τέ-τλα-μεν, πέ-παλται; ἔδρακον, θρασύς, θάρσος</span>.</p> + +<p>The ends of words were modified in appearance by the loss of all +stop-consonants and the change of final <i>m</i> to <i>n</i>, <span class="grk" title="edeixe">ἔδειξε</span>, Latin <i>dixit</i>; +<span class="grk" title="zygon">ζυγόν</span>, Latin <i>iugum</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Accent.</i>—The vowel system of Greek has been so well preserved +because it shows till late times very little in the way of stress accent. +As in early Sanskrit the accent was predominantly a pitch accent +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Accent</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Noun System.</i>—The I.E. noun had three numbers, but the dual +was limited to pairs, the two hands, the two horses in the chariot, +and was so little in use that the original form of the oblique cases +cannot be restored with certainty. Ionic has no dual. The I.E. +noun had the following cases: Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, +Ablative, Instrumental, Locative and Dative. The vocative was +not properly a case, because it usually stands outside the syntactical +construction of the sentence; when a distinctive form appears, it is +the bare stem, and there is no form (separate from the nominative) +for the plural. Greek has confused genitive and ablative (the distinction +between them seems to have been derived from the pronouns), +except for the solitary <span class="grk" title="woikô">ϝοίκω</span> = <span class="grk" title="oikothen">οἴκοθεν</span> in an inscription +of Delphi. The instrumental, locative and dative are mixed in one +case, partly for phonetic, partly for syntactical reasons. In Arcadian, +Elean, Boeotian, and later widely in N. Greece, the locative -<span class="grk" title="oi">οι</span> is +used for the dative. The masculine <i>ā</i>-stems make the nom. in +most dialects in -<span class="grk" title="as">ᾱς</span>. The genitive is in -<span class="grk" title="ao">ᾱο</span> (with ο borrowed from +the <i>o</i>-stems), which remains in Homer and Boeotian, appears in +Arcado-Cyprian as -<span class="grk" title="au">αυ</span>, and with metathesis of quantity -<span class="grk" title="eô">εω</span> in +Ionic. The Attic form in -<span class="grk" title="ou">ου</span> is borrowed directly from the <i>o</i>-stems. +In the plural the ᾱ and -<i>o</i> stems follow the article in making their +nominatives in -<span class="grk" title="ai">αι</span> and -<span class="grk" title="oi">οι</span> instead of the original -<i>ās</i> and -<i>ōs</i>. The +neuter plural was in origin a collective singular, and for this reason +takes a singular verb; the plural of <span class="grk" title="zygon">ζυγόν</span> “yoke” was originally +*<i>iugā</i>, and declined like any other -<i>ā</i> stem. But through the influence +of the masculine and feminine forms the neuter took the same oblique +cases, and like its own singular made the accusative the same as the +nominative. In the plural of -<i>ā</i> and -<i>ō</i> stems, the locative in -<span class="grk" title="aisi, -oisi">αισι, -οισι</span> +was long kept apart from the instrumental-dative form in +-<span class="grk" title="ais, -ois">αις, -οις</span>.</p> + +<p><i>The Verb System.</i>—The verb system of Greek is more complete +than that of any of the other I.E. languages. Its only rival, the early +Vedic verb system, is already in decay when history begins, and +when the classical period of Sanskrit arrives the moods have broken +down, and the aorist, perfect, and imperfect tenses are syntactically +confused. Throughout the Greek classical period the moods are +maintained, but in the period of the <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> the optative occurs less +and less and finally disappears. The original I.E. had two voices, +an active and a middle, and to these Greek has added a third, the +passive, distinguished from the middle in many verbs by separate +forms for the future and aorist, made with a syllable -<span class="grk" title="thê-, timêthêsomai, +etimêthên">θη-, τιμηθήσομαι, ἐτιμήθην</span>, though in this instance, <span class="grk" title="timêsomai">τιμήσομαι</span>, the future middle, is +often used with a passive sense. Other forms which Greek has added +to the original system are the pluperfect—in form a past of the +perfect stem with aorist endings. It merely expressed the perfect +action in past time, and, except as derived from the context, did not +possess the notion of relative time (past at a time already past), +which attaches to the Latin forms with the same name. The future +optative was also a new formation, betraying its origin in the fact +that it is almost entirely limited to <i>Oratio Obliqua</i>. The aorist +imperatives were also new; the history of some of them, as the second +sing. act. <span class="grk" title="pauson">παῦσον</span>, is not very clear. The whole verb system is affected +by the distinction between -<i>ō</i> and -<i>mi</i> verbs; the former or thematic +verbs have a so-called “thematic vowel” between the root and the +personal suffix, while the -<i>mi</i> verbs attach the suffixes directly to +the root. The distinction is really one between monosyllabic and +disyllabic roots. The history of the personal endings is not altogether +clear; the -<i>ō</i> verbs have in the present forms for the 2nd and 3rd +person in -<span class="grk" title="eis">εις</span> and -<span class="grk" title="ei">ει</span>, which are not yet elucidated. In the middle, +Greek does not entirely agree with Sanskrit in its personal endings, +and the original forms cannot all be restored with certainty. The +endings of the primary tenses differed from those of the secondary, +but there has been a certain amount of confusion between them.</p> + +<p>The syntax of the verb is founded on the original I.E. distinction +of the verb forms, not by time (tense), but by forms of action, progressive +action (present and imperfect), consummated action (aorist), +state arising from action, emphatic or repeated action (perfect). +For the details of this see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-European Languages</a></span>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>—(i.) A grammar of Greek, which will deal fully +with the whole material of the language, is at present a <i>desideratum</i>, +and is hardly possible so long as new dialect material is being constantly +added and while comparatively so little has been done on +the syntax of the dialects. The greatest collection of material is +to be found in the new edition of Kühner’s <i>Griechische Grammatik, +Laut- und Formenlehre</i>, by Blass (2 vols., 1890-1892); <i>Syntax</i>, by +Gerth (2 vols., 1896, 1900). Blass’s part is useful only for material, +the explanations being entirely antiquated. The only full historical +account of the language (sounds, forms and syntax) at present in +existence is K. Brugmann’s <i>Griechische Grammatik</i> (3rd ed., 1900). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span> +Gustav Meyer’s <i>Griechische Grammatik</i> (nothing on accent or syntax), +which did excellent pioneer work when it first appeared in 1880, was +hardly brought up to date in its 3rd edition (1896), but is still useful +for the dialect and bibliographical material collected. See also +H. Hirt, <i>Handbuch der griech. Laut- und Formenlehre</i> (1902). Of +smaller grammars in English perhaps the most complete is that of +J. Thompson (London, 1902). The grammar of Homer was handled +by D. B. Monro (2nd ed., Oxford, 1891). The syntax has been treated +in many special works, amongst which may be mentioned W. W. +Goodwin, <i>Syntax of the Greek Moods and Tenses</i> (new ed., 1889); +B. L. Gildersleeve and C. W. E. Miller, <i>Syntax of Classical Greek from +Homer to Demosthenes</i>, pt. i. (New York, 1901—and following); +J. M. Stahl, <i>Kritisch-historische Syntax des griechischen Verbums</i> +(1907); F. E. Thompson, <i>Attic Greek Syntax</i> (1907). (ii.) The +relations between Greek and the other I.E. languages are very well +brought out in P. Kretschmer’s <i>Einleitung in die Geschichte der +griechischen Sprache</i> (Göttingen, 1896). For comparative grammar +see K. Brugmann and B. Delbrück, <i>Grundriss der vergleichenden +Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen</i> (the 2nd ed., begun 1897, +is still incomplete) and Brugmann’s <i>Kurze vergleichende Grammatik</i> +(1902-1903); A. Meillet, <i>Introduction à l’étude comparative des langues +indo-européennes</i> (2nd ed., 1908). Greek compared with Latin and +English: P. Giles, <i>A Short Manual of Comparative Philology for Classical +Students</i> (2nd ed., 1901, with an appendix containing a brief account +and specimens of the dialects); Riemann and Goelzer, <i>Grammaire +comparative du Grec et du Latin</i> (1901), a parallel grammar in 2 vols., +specially valuable for syntax. (iii.) For the dialects two works have +recently appeared, both covering in brief space the whole field: +A. Thumb, <i>Handbuch der griechischen Dialekte</i> (with bibliographies +for each dialect, 1909); C. D. Buck, <i>Introduction to the Study of the +Greek Dialects, Grammar, Selected Inscriptions, Glossary</i> (Boston, +1910). Works on a larger scale have been undertaken by R. Meister, +by O. Hoffmann and by H. W. Smyth. For the <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> may be +specially mentioned A. Thumb, <i>Die griech. Sprache in Zeitalter des +Hellenismus</i> (1901); E. Mayser, <i>Grammatik der griechischen Papyri +aus der Ptolemäerzeit: Laut- und Wortlehre</i> (1906); H. St J. Thackeray, +<i>A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek</i>, vol. i. (1909); Blass, +<i>Grammar of New Testament Greek</i>, trans. by Thackeray (1898); J. H. +Moulton, <i>A Grammar of New Testament Greek. I. Prolegomena</i> (3rd +ed., 1906). (iv.) For the development from the <span class="grk" title="koinê">κοινή</span> to modern +Greek: A. N. Jannaris, <i>An Historical Greek Grammar, chiefly of the +Attic Dialect, as written and spoken from Classical Antiquity down +to the Present Time</i> (1901); G. N. Hatzidakis, <i>Einleitung in die +neugriechische Grammatik</i> (1892); A. Thumb, <i>Handbuch der neugriechischen +Volkssprache</i> (2nd ed. 1910). (v.) The inscriptions are +collected in <i>Inscriptiones Graecae</i> in the course of publication by +the Berlin Academy, those important for dialect in the <i>Sammlung +der griech. Dialektinschriften</i>, edited by Collitz and Bechtel. The +earlier parts of this collection are to some extent superseded by +later volumes of the <i>Inscr. Graecae</i>, containing better readings and +new inscriptions. A good selection (too brief) is Solmsen’s <i>Inscriptiones +Graecae ad inlustrandas dialectos selectae</i> (3rd ed., 1910). A +serviceable lexicon for dialect words is van Herwerden’s <i>Lexicon +Graecum suppletorium et dialecticum</i> (2nd ed., much enlarged, 2 vols. +1910). (vi.) The historical basis for the distribution of the Greek +dialects is discussed at length in the histories of E. Meyer (<i>Geschichte +des Altertums</i>, ii.) and G. Busolt (<i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i.); by Professor +Ridgeway, <i>Early Age of Greece</i>, i. (1901), and P. Kretschmer +in <i>Glotta</i>, i. 9 ff. See also A. Fick, <i>Die vorgriechischen Ortsnamen</i> +(1905). (vii.) Bibliographies containing the new publications on +Greek, with some account of their contents, appear from time +to time in <i>Indogermanische Forschungen: Anzeiger</i> (Strassburg, +Trübner), annually in <i>Glotta</i> (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck und +Ruprecht), and <i>The Year’s Work in Classical Studies</i> (London, +Murray).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. Gi.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Thumb, <i>Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus</i> +(1901), pp. 242-243.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Thumb, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 249.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 12, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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