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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 4
+       "Grasshopper" to "Greek Language"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 26, 2011 [EBook #38143]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SLICE 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GREAT REBELLION: "The king's line was steadily rolled up
+      from left to right, the Parliamentary troopers captured his guns
+      and regiment after the regiment broke up." added 'the'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "The revenue accruing to the government in 1905 was
+      1,418,158 dr., as compared with 583,991 dr. in 1883. The increase
+      is mainly due to improved administration." 'accruing' amended from
+      'accuring'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "If we would judge fairly of tyranny, and of what
+      it contributed to the development of Greece ..." 'If' amended from
+      'It'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "It failed still more significantly to unite Greece
+      north of the Isthmus. It left Greece weaker and more divided than
+      it found it (see the concluding words of Xenophon's Hellenics)."
+      'significantly' amended from 'signally'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure to
+      grasp the principles of historical criticism, to understand the
+      nature of military operations, and to appreciate the importance of
+      chronology." 'to' amended from 'too'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "Four of Plutarch's Lives are concerned with this
+      period, viz. Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon and Pericles. From the
+      Aristides little can be gained." 'Plutarch's' amended from
+      'Plutatch's'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "It was evident, however, that nothing could be
+      gained by an appeal to arms, the powers not being prepared to apply
+      coercion to Turkey." 'It' amended from 'In'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREEK ART: "In the same graves with the pottery are
+      sometimes found plaques of gold or bronze, and towards the end of
+      the geometric age these sometimes bear scenes from mythology,
+      treated with the greatest simplicity." 'sometimes' amended from
+      'somtimes'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREEK LANGUAGE: "The ancestry of the Greek towns of Sicily
+      has been explained by Thucydides (vi. 2-5). Selinus, a colony of
+      Megara, betrays its origin in its dialect." 'betrays' amended from
+      'bewrays'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XII, SLICE IV
+
+        GRASSHOPPER to GREEK LANGUAGE
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GRASSHOPPER                      GRAY, THOMAS
+  GRASS OF PARNASSUS               GRAY, WALTER DE
+  GRATE                            GRAY
+  GRATIAN                          GRAYLING
+  GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS            GRAYS THURROCK
+  GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE  GRAZ
+  GRATTAN, HENRY                   GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO
+  GRATTIUS [FALISCUS]              GREAT AWAKENING
+  GRAUDENZ                         GREAT BARRIER REEF
+  GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH             GREAT BARRINGTON
+  GRAVAMEN                         GREAT BASIN
+  GRAVE                            GREAT BEAR LAKE
+  GRAVEL                           GREAT CIRCLE
+  GRAVELINES                       GREAT FALLS
+  GRAVELOTTE                       GREAT HARWOOD
+  GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL          GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY
+  GRAVESEND                        GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE
+  GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO       GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS
+  GRAVINA                          GREAT REBELLION
+  GRAVITATION                      GREAT SALT LAKE
+  GRAVY                            GREAT SLAVE LAKE
+  GRAY, ASA                        GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN
+  GRAY, DAVID                      GREAVES, JOHN
+  GRAY, ELISHA                     GREBE
+  GRAY, HENRY PETERS               GRECO, EL
+  GRAY, HORACE                     GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897
+  GRAY, JOHN DE                    GREECE
+  GRAY, JOHN EDWARD                GREEK ART
+  GRAY, PATRICK GRAY               GREEK FIRE
+  GRAY, ROBERT                     GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF
+  GRAY, SIR THOMAS                 GREEK LANGUAGE
+
+
+
+
+GRASSHOPPER (Fr. _sauterelle_, Ital. _grillo_, Ger. _Grashüpfer_,
+_Heuschrecke_, Swed. _Gräshoppa_), names applied to orthopterous insects
+belonging to the families _Locustidae_ and _Acridiidae_. They are
+especially remarkable for their saltatory powers, due to the great
+development of the hind legs, which are much longer than the others and
+have stout and powerful thighs, and also for their stridulation, which
+is not always an attribute of the male only. The distinctions between
+the two families may be briefly stated as follows:--The _Locustidae_
+have very long thread-like antennae, four-jointed tarsi, a long
+ovipositor, the auditory organs on the tibiae of the first leg and the
+stridulatory organ in the wings; the _Acridiidae_ have short stout
+antennae, three-jointed tarsi, a short ovipositor, the auditory organs
+on the first abdominal segment, and the stridulatory organ between the
+posterior leg and the wing. The term "grasshopper" is almost synonymous
+with LOCUST (q.v.). Under both "grasshopper" and "locust" are included
+members of both families above noticed, but the majority belong to the
+_Acridiidae_ in both cases. In Britain the term is chiefly applicable to
+the large green grasshopper (_Locusta_ or _Phasgonura viridissima_)
+common in most parts of the south of England, and to smaller and much
+better-known species of the genera _Stenobothrus_, _Gomphocerus_ and
+_Tettix_, the latter remarkable for the great extension of the pronotum,
+which often reaches beyond the extremity of the body. All are vegetable
+feeders, and, as in all orthopterous insects, have an incomplete
+metamorphosis, so that their destructive powers are continuous from the
+moment of emergence from the egg till death. The migratory locust
+(_Pachytylus cinerascens_) may be considered only an exaggerated
+grasshopper, and the Rocky Mountain locust (_Caloptenus spretus_) is
+still more entitled to the name. In Britain the species are not of
+sufficient size, nor of sufficient numerical importance, to do any great
+damage. The colours of many of them assimilate greatly to those of their
+habitats; the green of the _Locusta viridissima_ is wonderfully similar
+to that of the herbage amongst which it lives, and those species that
+frequent more arid spots are protected in the same manner. Yet many
+species have brilliantly coloured under-wings (though scarcely so in
+English forms), and during flight are almost as conspicuous as
+butterflies. Those that belong to the _Acridiidae_ mostly lay their eggs
+in more or less cylindrical masses, surrounded by a glutinous secretion,
+in the ground. Some of the _Locustidae_ also lay their eggs in the
+ground, but others deposit them in fissures in trees and low plants, in
+which the female is aided by a long flattened ovipositor, or process at
+the extremity of the abdomen, whereas in the _Acridiidae_ there is only
+an apparatus of valves. The stridulation or "song" in the latter is
+produced by friction of the hind legs against portions of the wings or
+wing-covers. To a practised ear it is perhaps possible to distinguish
+the "song" of even closely allied species, and some are said to produce
+a sound differing by day and night.
+
+
+
+
+GRASS OF PARNASSUS, in botany, a small herbaceous plant known as
+_Parnassia palustris_ (natural order _Saxifragaceae_), found on wet
+moors and bogs in Britain but less common in the south. The white
+regular flower is rendered very attractive by a circlet of scales,
+opposite the petals, each of which bears a fringe of delicate filaments
+ending in a yellow knob. These glisten in the sunshine and look like a
+drop of honey. Honey is secreted by the base of each of the scales.
+
+[Illustration: Grass of Parnassus (_Parnassia palustris_). 1, one of the
+gland-bearing scales enlarged.]
+
+
+
+
+GRATE (from Lat. _crates_, a hurdle), the iron or steel receptacle for a
+domestic fire. When coal replaced logs and irons were found to be
+unsuitable for burning the comparatively small lumps, and for this
+reason and on account of the more concentrated heat of coal it became
+necessary to confine the area of the fire. Thus a basket or cage came
+into use, which, as knowledge of the scientific principles of heating
+increased, was succeeded by the small grate of iron and fire-brick set
+close into the wall which has since been in ordinary use in England. In
+the early part of the 19th century polished steel grates were
+extensively used, but the labour and difficulty of keeping them bright
+were considerable, and they were gradually replaced by grates with a
+polished black surface which could be quickly renewed by an application
+of black-lead. The most frequent form of the 18th-century grate was
+rather high from the hearth, with a small hob on each side. The brothers
+Adam designed many exceedingly elegant grates in the shape of movable
+baskets ornamented with the paterae and acanthus leaves, the swags and
+festoons characteristic of their manner. The modern dog-grate is a
+somewhat similar basket supported upon dogs or andirons, fixed or
+movable. In the closing years of the 19th century a "well-grate" was
+invented, in which the fire burns upon the hearth, combustion being
+aided by an air-chamber below.
+
+
+
+
+GRATIAN (FLAVIUS GRATIANUS AUGUSTUS), Roman emperor 375-383, son of
+Valentinian I. by Severa, was born at Sirmium in Pannonia, on the 18th
+of April (or 23rd of May) 359. On the 24th of August 367 he received
+from his father the title of Augustus. On the death of Valentinian (17th
+of November 375) the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant son (by a
+second wife Justina) emperor under the title of Valentinian II. (q.v.).
+Gratian acquiesced in their choice; reserving for himself the
+administration of the Gallic provinces, he handed over Italy, Illyria
+and Africa to Valentinian and his mother, who fixed their residence at
+Milan. The division, however, was merely nominal, and the real authority
+remained in the hands of Gratian. The eastern portion of the empire was
+under the rule of his uncle Valens. In May 378 Gratian completely
+defeated the Lentienses, the southernmost branch of the Alamanni, at
+Argentaria, near the site of the modern Colmar. When Valens met his
+death fighting against the Goths near Adrianople on the 9th of August in
+the same year, the government of the eastern empire devolved upon
+Gratian, but feeling himself unable to resist unaided the incursions of
+the barbarians, he ceded it to Theodosius (January 379). With Theodosius
+he cleared the Balkans of barbarians. For some years Gratian governed
+the empire with energy and success, but gradually he sank into
+indolence, occupied himself chiefly with the pleasures of the chase, and
+became a tool in the hands of the Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop
+Ambrose. By taking into his personal service a body of Alani, and
+appearing in public in the dress of a Scythian warrior, he aroused the
+contempt and resentment of his Roman troops. A Roman named Maximus took
+advantage of this feeling to raise the standard of revolt in Britain and
+invaded Gaul with a large army, upon which Gratian, who was then in
+Paris, being deserted by his troops, fled to Lyons, where, through the
+treachery of the governor, he was delivered over to one of the rebel
+generals and assassinated on the 25th of August 383.
+
+The reign of Gratian forms an important epoch in ecclesiastical history,
+since during that period orthodox Christianity for the first time became
+dominant throughout the empire. In dealing with pagans and heretics
+Gratian, who during his later years was greatly influenced by Ambrose,
+bishop of Milan, exhibited severity and injustice at variance with his
+usual character. He prohibited heathen worship at Rome; refused to wear
+the insignia of the pontifex maximus as unbefitting a Christian; removed
+the altar of Victory from the senate-house at Rome, in spite of the
+remonstrance of the pagan members of the senate, and confiscated its
+revenues; forbade legacies of real property to the Vestals; and
+abolished other privileges belonging to them and to the pontiffs. For
+his treatment of heretics see the church histories of the period.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii.-xxxi.; Aurelius Victor,
+  _Epit._ 47; Zosimus iv. vi.; Ausonius (Gratian's tutor), especially
+  the _Gratiarum actio pro consulatu_; Symmachus x. epp. 2 and 61;
+  Ambrose, _De fide_, prolegomena to _Epistolae_ 11, 17, 21, _Consolatio
+  de obitu Valentiniani_; H. Richter, _Das weströmische Reich, besonders
+  unter den Kaisern Gratian, Valentinian II. und Maximus_ (1865); A. de
+  Broglie, _L'Église et l'empire romain au IV^e siècle_ (4th ed., 1882);
+  H. Schiller, _Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit_, iii., iv. 31-33;
+  Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch. 27; R. Gumpoltsberger, _Kaiser
+  Gratian_ (Vienna, 1879); T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (Oxford,
+  1892), vol. i.; Tillemont, _Hist. des empereurs_, v.; J. Wordsworth in
+  Smith's _Dictionary of Christian Biography_.     (J. H. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS, compiler of the _Concordia discordantium canonum_
+or _Decretum Gratiani_, and founder of the science of canon law, was
+born about the end of the 11th century at Chiusi in Tuscany or,
+according to another account, at Carraria near Orvieto. In early life he
+appears to have been received into the Camaldulian monastery of Classe
+near Ravenna, whence he afterwards removed to that of San Felice in
+Bologna, where he spent many years in the preparation of the
+_Concordia_. The precise date of this work cannot be ascertained, but
+it contains references to the decisions of the Lateran council of 1139,
+and there is fair authority for believing that it was completed while
+Pope Alexander III. was still simply professor of theology at
+Bologna,--in other words, prior to 1150. The labours of Gratian are said
+to have been rewarded with the bishopric of Chiusi, but if so he appears
+never to have been consecrated; at least his name is not in any
+authentic list of those who have occupied that see. The year of his
+death is unknown.
+
+  For some account of the _Decretum Gratiani_ and its history see CANON
+  LAW. The best edition is that of Friedberg (_Corpus juris canonici_,
+  Leipzig, 1879). Compare Schultze, _Zur Geschichte der Litteratur über
+  das Decret Gratians_ (1870), _Die Glosse zum Decret Gratians_ (1872),
+  and _Geschichte der Quellen und Litteratur des kanonischen Rechts_ (3
+  vols., Stuttgart, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE (1805-1872), French author and
+theologian, was born at Lille on the 10th of March 1805. He was educated
+at the École Polytechnique, Paris, and, after a period of mental
+struggle which he has described in _Souvenirs de ma jeunesse_, he was
+ordained priest in 1832. After a stay at Strassburg as professor of the
+Petit Séminaire, he was appointed director of the Collège Stanislas in
+Paris in 1842 and, in 1847, chaplain of the École Normale Supérieure. He
+became vicar-general of Orleans in 1861, professor of ethics at the
+Sorbonne in 1862, and, on the death of Barante, a member of the French
+Academy in 1867, where he occupied the seat formerly held by Voltaire.
+Together with M. Pététot, _curé_ of Saint Roch, he reconstituted the
+Oratory of the Immaculate Conception, a society of priests mainly
+devoted to education. Gratry was one of the principal opponents of the
+definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, but in this respect he
+submitted to the authority of the Vatican Council. He died at Montreux
+in Switzerland on the 6th of February 1872.
+
+  His chief works are: _De la connaissance de Dieu_, opposing Positivism
+  (1855); _La Logique_ (1856); _Les Sources, conseils pour la conduite
+  de l'esprit_ (1861-1862); _La Philosophie du credo_ (1861);
+  _Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Matthieu_ (1863); _Jésus-Christ,
+  lettres à M. Renan_ (1864); _Les Sophistes et la critique_ (in
+  controversy with E. Vacherot) (1864); _La Morale et la loi de
+  l'histoire_, setting forth his social views (1868); _Mgr. l'évêque
+  d'Orléans et Mgr. l'archevêque de Malines_ (1869), containing a clear
+  exposition of the historical arguments against the doctrine of papal
+  infallibility. There is a selection of Gratry's writings and
+  appreciation of his style by the Abbé Pichot, in _Pages choisies des
+  Grands Écrivains_ series, published by Armand-Colin (1897). See also
+  the critical study by the oratorian A. Chauvin, _L'Abbé Gratry_
+  (1901); _Le Père Gratry_ (1900), and _Les Derniers Jours du Père
+  Gratry et son testament spirituel_, (1872), by Cardinal Adolphe
+  Perraud, Gratry's friend and disciple.
+
+
+
+
+GRATTAN, HENRY (1746-1820), Irish statesman, son of James Grattan, for
+many years recorder of Dublin, was born in Dublin on the 3rd of July
+1746. He early gave evidence of exceptional gifts both of intellect and
+character. At Trinity College, Dublin, where he had a distinguished
+career, he began a lifelong devotion to classical literature and
+especially to the great orators of antiquity. He was called to the Irish
+bar in 1772, but never seriously practised the law. Like Flood, with
+whom he was on terms of friendship, he cultivated his natural genius for
+eloquence by study of good models, including Bolingbroke and Junius. A
+visit to the English House of Lords excited boundless admiration for
+Lord Chatham, of whose style of oratory Grattan contributed an
+interesting description to _Baratariana_ (see FLOOD, HENRY). The
+influence of Flood did much to give direction to Grattan's political
+aims; and it was through no design on Grattan's part that when Lord
+Charlemont brought him into the Irish parliament in 1775, in the very
+session in which Flood damaged his popularity by accepting office,
+Grattan quickly superseded his friend in the leadership of the national
+party. Grattan was well qualified for it. His oratorical powers were
+unsurpassed among his contemporaries. He conspicuously lacked, indeed,
+the grace of gesture which he so much admired in Chatham; he had not the
+sustained dignity of Pitt; his powers of close reasoning were inferior
+to those of Fox and Flood. But his speeches were packed with epigram,
+and expressed with rare felicity of phrase; his terse and telling
+sentences were richer in profound aphorisms and maxims of political
+philosophy than those of any other statesman save Burke; he possessed
+the orator's incomparable gift of conveying his own enthusiasm to his
+audience and convincing them of the loftiness of his aims.
+
+The principal object of the national party was to set the Irish
+parliament free from constitutional bondage to the English privy
+council. By virtue of Poyning's Act, a celebrated statute of Henry VII.,
+all proposed Irish legislation had to be submitted to the English privy
+council for its approval under the great seal of England before being
+passed by the Irish parliament. A bill so approved might be accepted or
+rejected, but not amended. More recent English acts had further
+emphasized the complete dependence of the Irish parliament, and the
+appellate jurisdiction of the Irish House of Lords had also been
+annulled. Moreover, the English Houses claimed and exercised the power
+to legislate directly for Ireland without even the nominal concurrence
+of the parliament in Dublin. This was the constitution which Molyneux
+and Swift had denounced, which Flood had attacked, and which Grattan was
+to destroy. The menacing attitude of the Volunteer Convention at
+Dungannon greatly influenced the decision of the government in 1782 to
+resist the agitation no longer. It was through ranks of volunteers drawn
+up outside the parliament house in Dublin that Grattan passed on the
+16th of April 1782, amidst unparalleled popular enthusiasm, to move a
+declaration of the independence of the Irish parliament. "I found
+Ireland on her knees," Grattan exclaimed, "I watched over her with a
+paternal solicitude; I have traced her progress from injuries to arms,
+and from arms to liberty. Spirit of Swift, spirit of Molyneux, your
+genius has prevailed! Ireland is now a nation!" After a month of
+negotiation the claims of Ireland were conceded. The gratitude of his
+countrymen to Grattan found expression in a parliamentary grant of
+£100,000, which had to be reduced by one half before he would consent to
+accept it.
+
+One of the first acts of "Grattan's parliament" was to prove its loyalty
+to England by passing a vote for the support of 20,000 sailors for the
+navy. Grattan himself never failed in loyalty to the crown and the
+English connexion. He was, however, anxious for moderate parliamentary
+reform, and, unlike Flood, he favoured Catholic emancipation. It was,
+indeed, evident that without reform the Irish House of Commons would not
+be able to make much use of its newly won independence. Though now free
+from constitutional control it was no less subject than before to the
+influence of corruption, which the English government had wielded
+through the Irish borough owners, known as the "undertakers," or more
+directly through the great executive officers. "Grattan's parliament"
+had no control over the Irish executive. The lord lieutenant and his
+chief secretary continued to be appointed by the English ministers;
+their tenure of office depended on the vicissitudes of English, not
+Irish, party politics; the royal prerogative was exercised in Ireland on
+the advice of English ministers. The House of Commons was in no sense
+representative of the Irish people. The great majority of the people
+were excluded as Roman Catholics from the franchise; two-thirds of the
+members of the House of Commons were returned by small boroughs at the
+absolute disposal of single patrons, whose support was bought by a
+lavish distribution of peerages and pensions. It was to give stability
+and true independence to the new constitution that Grattan pressed for
+reform. Having quarrelled with Flood over "simple repeal" Grattan also
+differed from him on the question of maintaining the Volunteer
+Convention. He opposed the policy of protective duties, but supported
+Pitt's famous commercial propositions in 1785 for establishing free
+trade between Great Britain and Ireland, which, however, had to be
+abandoned owing to the hostility of the English mercantile classes. In
+general Grattan supported the government for a time after 1782, and in
+particular spoke and voted for the stringent coercive legislation
+rendered necessary by the Whiteboy outrages in 1785; but as the years
+passed without Pitt's personal favour towards parliamentary reform
+bearing fruit in legislation, he gravitated towards the opposition,
+agitated for commutation of tithes in Ireland, and supported the Whigs
+on the regency question in 1788. In 1792 he succeeded in carrying an
+Act conferring the franchise on the Roman Catholics; in 1794 in
+conjunction with William Ponsonby he introduced a reform bill which was
+even less democratic than Flood's bill of 1783. He was as anxious as
+Flood had been to retain the legislative power in the hands of men of
+property, for "he had through the whole of his life a strong conviction
+that while Ireland could best be governed by Irish hands, democracy in
+Ireland would inevitably turn to plunder and anarchy."[1] At the same
+time he desired to admit the Roman Catholic gentry of property to
+membership of the House of Commons, a proposal that was the logical
+corollary of the Relief Act of 1792. The defeat of Grattan's mild
+proposals helped to promote more extreme opinions, which, under French
+revolutionary influence, were now becoming heard in Ireland.
+
+The Catholic question had rapidly become of the first importance, and
+when a powerful section of the Whigs joined Pitt's ministry in 1794, and
+it became known that the lord-lieutenancy was to go to Lord Fitzwilliam,
+who shared Grattan's views, expectations were raised that the question
+was about to be settled in a manner satisfactory to the Irish Catholics.
+Such seems to have been Pitt's intention, though there has been much
+controversy as to how far Lord Fitzwilliam (q.v.) had been authorized to
+pledge the government. After taking Grattan into his confidence, it was
+arranged that the latter should bring in a Roman Catholic emancipation
+bill, and that it should then receive government support. But finally it
+appeared that the viceroy had either misunderstood or exceeded his
+instructions; and on the 19th of February 1795 Fitzwilliam was recalled.
+In the outburst of indignation, followed by increasing disaffection in
+Ireland, which this event produced, Grattan acted with conspicuous
+moderation and loyalty, which won for him warm acknowledgments from a
+member of the English cabinet.[2] That cabinet, however, doubtless
+influenced by the wishes of the king, was now determined firmly to
+resist the Catholic demands, with the result that the country rapidly
+drifted towards rebellion. Grattan warned the government in a series of
+masterly speeches of the lawless condition to which Ireland had been
+driven. But he could now count on no more than some forty followers in
+the House of Commons, and his words were unheeded. He retired from
+parliament in May 1797, and departed from his customary moderation by
+attacking the government in an inflammatory "Letter to the citizens of
+Dublin."
+
+At this time religious animosity had almost died out in Ireland, and men
+of different faiths were ready to combine for common political objects.
+Thus the Presbyterians of the north, who were mainly republican in
+sentiment, combined with a section of the Roman Catholics to form the
+organization of the United Irishmen, to promote revolutionary ideas
+imported from France; and a party prepared to welcome a French invasion
+soon came into existence. Thus stimulated, the increasing disaffection
+culminated in the rebellion of 1798, which was sternly and cruelly
+repressed. No sooner was this effected than the project of a legislative
+union between the British and Irish parliaments, which had been from
+time to time discussed since the beginning of the 18th century, was
+taken up in earnest by Pitt's government. Grattan from the first
+denounced the scheme with implacable hostility. There was, however, much
+to be said in its favour. The constitution of Grattan's parliament
+offered no security, as the differences over the regency question had
+made evident that in matters of imperial interest the policy of the
+Irish parliament and that of Great Britain would be in agreement; and at
+a moment when England was engaged in a life and death struggle with
+France it was impossible for the ministry to ignore the danger, which
+had so recently been emphasized by the fact that the independent
+constitution of 1782 had offered no safeguard against armed revolt. The
+rebellion put an end to the growing reconciliation between Roman
+Catholics and Protestants; religious passions were now violently
+inflamed, and the Orangemen and Catholics divided the island into two
+hostile factions. It is a curious circumstance, in view of the
+subsequent history of Irish politics, that it was from the Protestant
+Established Church, and particularly from the Orangemen, that the
+bitterest opposition to the union proceeded; and that the proposal found
+support chiefly among the Roman Catholic clergy and especially the
+bishops, while in no part of Ireland was it received with more favour
+than in the city of Cork. This attitude of the Catholics was caused by
+Pitt's encouragement of the expectation that Catholic emancipation, the
+commutation of tithes, and the endowment of the Catholic priesthood,
+would accompany or quickly follow the passing of the measure.
+
+When in 1799 the government brought forward their bill it was defeated
+in the Irish House of Commons. Grattan was still in retirement. His
+popularity had temporarily declined, and the fact that his proposals for
+parliamentary reform and Catholic emancipation had become the watchwords
+of the rebellious United Irishmen had brought upon him the bitter
+hostility of the governing classes. He was dismissed from the privy
+council; his portrait was removed from the hall of Trinity College; the
+Merchant Guild of Dublin struck his name off their rolls. But the
+threatened destruction of the constitution of 1782 quickly restored its
+author to his former place in the affections of the Irish people. The
+parliamentary recess had been effectually employed by the government in
+securing by lavish corruption a majority in favour of their policy. On
+the 15th of January 1800 the Irish parliament met for its last session;
+on the same day Grattan secured by purchase a seat for Wicklow; and at a
+late hour, while the debate was proceeding, he appeared to take his
+seat. "There was a moment's pause, an electric thrill passed through the
+House, and a long wild cheer burst from the galleries."[3] Enfeebled by
+illness, Grattan's strength gave way when he rose to speak, and he
+obtained leave to address the House sitting. Nevertheless his speech was
+a superb effort of oratory; for more than two hours he kept his audience
+spellbound by a flood of epigram, of sustained reasoning, of eloquent
+appeal. After prolonged debates Grattan, on the 26th of May, spoke
+finally against the committal of the bill, ending with an impassioned
+peroration in which he declared, "I will remain anchored here with
+fidelity to the fortunes of my country, faithful to her freedom,
+faithful to her fall."[4] These were the last words spoken by Grattan in
+the Irish parliament.
+
+The bill establishing the union was carried through its final stages by
+substantial majorities. The people remained listless, giving no
+indications of any eager dislike of the government policy. "There were
+absolutely none of the signs which are invariably found when a nation
+struggles passionately against what it deems an impending tyranny, or
+rallies around some institution which it really loves."[5] One of
+Grattan's main grounds of opposition to the union had been his dread of
+seeing the political leadership in Ireland pass out of the hands of the
+landed gentry; and he prophesied that the time would come when Ireland
+would send to the united parliament "a hundred of the greatest rascals
+in the kingdom."[6] Like Flood before him, Grattan had no leaning
+towards democracy; and he anticipated that by the removal of the centre
+of political interest from Ireland the evil of absenteeism would be
+intensified.
+
+For the next five years Grattan took no active part in public affairs;
+it was not till 1805 that he became a member of the parliament of the
+United Kingdom. He modestly took his seat on one of the back benches,
+till Fox brought him forward to a seat near his own, exclaiming, "This
+is no place for the Irish Demosthenes!" His first speech was on the
+Catholic question, and though some doubt had been felt lest Grattan,
+like Flood, should belie at Westminster the reputation made in Dublin,
+all agreed with the description of his speech by the Annual Register as
+"one of the most brilliant and eloquent ever pronounced within the walls
+of parliament." When Fox and Grenville came into power in 1806 Grattan
+was offered, but refused to accept, an office in the government. In the
+following year he showed the strength of his judgment and character by
+supporting, in spite of consequent unpopularity in Ireland, a measure
+for increasing the powers of the executive to deal with Irish disorder.
+Roman Catholic emancipation, which he continued to advocate with
+unflagging energy though now advanced in age, became complicated after
+1808 by the question whether a veto on the appointment of Roman Catholic
+bishops should rest with the crown. Grattan supported the veto, but a
+more extreme Catholic party was now arising in Ireland under the
+leadership of Daniel O'Connell, and Grattan's influence gradually
+declined. He seldom spoke in parliament after 1810, the most notable
+exception being in 1815, when he separated himself from the Whigs and
+supported the final struggle against Napoleon. His last speech of all,
+in 1819, contained a passage referring to the union he had so
+passionately resisted, which exhibits the statesmanship and at the same
+time the equable quality of Grattan's character. His sentiments with
+regard to the policy of the union remained, he said, unchanged; but "the
+marriage having taken place it is now the duty, as it ought to be the
+inclination, of every individual to render it as fruitful, as profitable
+and as advantageous as possible." In the following summer, after
+crossing from Ireland to London when out of health to bring forward the
+Catholic question once more, he became seriously ill. On his death-bed
+he spoke generously of Castlereagh, and with warm eulogy of his former
+rival, Flood. He died on the 6th of June 1820, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey close to the tombs of Pitt and Fox. His statue is in
+the outer lobby of the Houses of Parliament at Westminster. Grattan had
+married in 1782 Henrietta Fitzgerald, a lady descended from the ancient
+family of Desmond, by whom he had two sons and two daughters.
+
+The most searching scrutiny of his private life only increases the
+respect due to the memory of Grattan as a statesman and the greatest of
+Irish orators. His patriotism was untainted by self-seeking; he was
+courageous in risking his popularity for what his sound judgment showed
+him to be the right course. As Sydney Smith said with truth of Grattan
+soon after his death: "No government ever dismayed him. The world could
+not bribe him. He thought only of Ireland; lived for no other object;
+dedicated to her his beautiful fancy, his elegant wit, his manly
+courage, and all the splendour of his astonishing eloquence."[7]
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Henry Grattan, _Memoirs of the Life and Times of the
+  Right Hon. H. Grattan_ (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); _Grattan's
+  Speeches_ (ed. by H. Grattan, junr., 1822); _Irish Parl. Debates_; W.
+  E. H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_ (8 vols.,
+  London, 1878-1890) and _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_
+  (enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903). For the controversy concerning the
+  recall of Lord Fitzwilliam see, in addition to the foregoing, Lord
+  Rosebery, _Pitt_ (London, 1891); Lord Ashbourne, _Pitt: Some Chapters
+  of his Life_ (London, 1898); _The Pelham Papers (Brit. Mus. Add.
+  MSS._, 33118); _Carlisle Correspondence_; _Beresford Correspondence_;
+  _Stanhope Miscellanies_; for the Catholic question, W. J. Amhurst,
+  _History of Catholic Emancipation_ (2 vols., London, 1886); Sir Thomas
+  Wyse, _Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association of Ireland_
+  (London, 1829); W. J. MacNeven, _Pieces of Irish History_ (New York,
+  1807) containing an account of the United Irishmen; for the volunteer
+  movement Thomas MacNevin, _History of the Volunteers of 1782_ (Dublin,
+  1845); _Proceedings of the Volunteer Delegates of Ireland 1784_ (Anon.
+  Pamph. Brit. Mus.). See also F. Hardy, _Memoirs of Lord Charlemont_
+  (London, 1812); Warden Flood, _Memoirs of Henry Flood_ (London, 1838);
+  Francis Plowden, _Historical Review of the State of Ireland_ (London,
+  1803); Alfred Webb, _Compendium of Irish Biography_ (Dublin, 1878);
+  Sir Jonah Barrington, _Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation_ (London,
+  1833); W. J. O'Neill Daunt, _Ireland and her Agitators_; Lord
+  Mountmorres, _History of the Irish Parliament_ (2 vols., London,
+  1792); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._ (4 vols.,
+  London, 1845 and 1894); Lord Stanhope, _Life of William Pitt_ (4
+  vols., London, 1861); Thomas Davis, _Life of J. P. Curran_ (Dublin,
+  1846)--this contains a memoir of Grattan by D. O. Madden, and
+  Grattan's reply to Lord Clare on the question of the Union; Charles
+  Phillips, _Recollections of Curran and some of his Contemporaries_
+  (London, 1822); J. A. Froude, _The English in Ireland_ (London, 1881);
+  J. G. McCarthy, _Henry Grattan: an Historical Study_ (London, 1886);
+  Lord Mahon's _History of England_, vol. vii. (1858). With special
+  reference to the Union see _Castlereagh Correspondence_; _Cornwallis
+  Correspondence_; _Westmorland Papers_ (Irish State Paper Office).
+       (R. J. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] W. E. H. Lecky, _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_, i. 127
+    (enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903).
+
+  [2] _Ibid._ i. 204.
+
+  [3] _Ibid._ i. 241.
+
+  [4] _Grattan's Speeches_, iv. 23.
+
+  [5] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_,
+    viii. 491. Cf. _Cornwallis Correspondence_, iii. 250.
+
+  [6] W. E. H. Lecky, _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_, i. 270.
+
+  [7] Sydney Smith's _Works_, ii. 166-167.
+
+
+
+
+GRATTIUS [FALISCUS], Roman poet, of the age of Augustus, author of a
+poem on hunting (_Cynegetica_), of which 541 hexameters remain. He was
+possibly a native of Falerii. The only reference to him in any ancient
+writer is incidental (Ovid, _Ex Ponto_, iv. 16. 33). He describes
+various kinds of game, methods of hunting, the best breeds of horses and
+dogs.
+
+  There are editions by R. Stern (1832); E. Bährens in _Poëtae Latini
+  Minores_ (i., 1879) and G. G. Curcio in _Poeti Latini Minori_ (i.,
+  1902), with bibliography; see also H. Schenkl, _Zur Kritik des G._
+  (1898). There is a translation by Christopher Wase (1654).
+
+
+
+
+GRAUDENZ (Polish _Grudziadz_), a town in the kingdom of Prussia,
+province of West Prussia, on the right bank of the Vistula, 18 m. S.S.W.
+of Marienwerder and 37 m. by rail N.N.E. of Thorn. Pop. (1885) 17,336,
+(1905) 35,988. It has two Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches,
+and a synagogue. It is a place of considerable manufacturing activity.
+The town possesses a museum and a monument to Guillaume René Courbière
+(1733-1811), the defender of the town in 1807. It has fine promenades
+along the bank of the Vistula. Graudenz is an important place in the
+German system of fortifications, and has a garrison of considerable
+size.
+
+Graudenz was founded about 1250, and received civic rights in 1291. At
+the peace of Thorn in 1466 it came under the lordship of Poland. From
+1665 to 1759 it was held by Sweden, and in 1772 it came into the
+possession of Prussia. The fortress of Graudenz, which since 1873 has
+been used as a barracks and a military depot and prison, is situated on
+a steep eminence about 1½ m. north of the town and outside its limits.
+It was completed by Frederick the Great in 1776, and was rendered famous
+through its defence by Courbière against the French in 1807.
+
+
+
+
+GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH (1701-1759), German musical composer, the youngest
+of three brothers, all more or less musical, was born on the 7th of May
+1701 at Wahrenbrück in Saxony. His father held a small government post
+and he gave his children a careful education. Graun's beautiful soprano
+voice secured him an appointment in the choir at Dresden. At an early
+age he composed a number of sacred cantatas and other pieces for the
+church service. He completed his studies under Johann Christoph Schmidt
+(1664-1728), and profited much by the Italian operas which were
+performed at Dresden under the composer Lotti. After his voice had
+changed to a tenor, he made his début at the opera of Brunswick, in a
+work by Schürmann, an inferior composer of the day; but not being
+satisfied with the arias assigned him he re-wrote them, so much to the
+satisfaction of the court that he was commissioned to write an opera for
+the next season. This work, _Polydorus_ (1726), and five other operas
+written for Brunswick, spread his fame all over Germany. Other works,
+mostly of a sacred character, including two settings of the _Passion_,
+also belong to the Brunswick period. Frederick the Great, at that time
+crown prince of Prussia, heard the singer in Brunswick in 1735, and
+immediately engaged him for his private chapel at Rheinsberg. There
+Graun remained for five years, and wrote a number of cantatas, mostly to
+words written by Frederick himself in French, and translated into
+Italian by Boltarelli. On his accession to the throne in 1740, Frederick
+sent Graun to Italy to engage singers for a new opera to be established
+at Berlin. Graun remained a year on his travels, earning universal
+applause as a singer in the chief cities of Italy. After his return to
+Berlin he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra
+(_Kapellmeister_) with a salary of 2000 thalers (£300). In this capacity
+he wrote twenty-eight operas, all to Italian words, of which the last,
+_Merope_ (1756), is perhaps the most perfect. It is probable that Graun
+was subjected to considerable humiliation from the arbitrary caprices of
+his royal master, who was never tired of praising the operas of Hasse
+and abusing those of his _Kapellmeister_. In his oratorio _The Death of
+Jesus_ Graun shows his skill as a contrapuntist, and his originality of
+melodious invention. In the Italian operas he imitates the florid style
+of his time, but even in these the recitatives occasionally show
+considerable dramatic power. Graun died on the 8th of August 1759, at
+Berlin, in the same house in which, thirty-two years later, Meyerbeer
+was born.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVAMEN. (from Lat. _gravare_, to weigh down; _gravis_, heavy), a
+complaint or grievance, the ground of a legal action, and particularly
+the more serious part of a charge against an accused person. In English
+the term is used chiefly in ecclesiastical cases, being the technical
+designation of a memorial presented from the Lower to the Upper House of
+Convocation, setting forth grievances to be redressed, or calling
+attention to breaches in church discipline.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVE. (1) (From a common Teutonic verb, meaning "to dig"; in O. Eng.
+_grafan_; cf. Dutch _graven_, Ger. _graben_), a place dug out of the
+earth in which a dead body is laid for burial, and hence any place of
+burial, not necessarily an excavation (see FUNERAL RITES and BURIAL).
+The verb "to grave," meaning properly to dig, is particularly used of
+the making of incisions in a hard surface (see ENGRAVING). (2) A title,
+now obsolete, of a local administrative official for a township in
+certain parts of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire; it also sometimes appears
+in the form "grieve," which in Scotland and Northumberland is used for
+sheriff (q.v.), and also for a bailiff or under-steward. The origin of
+the word is obscure, but it is probably connected with the German
+_graf_, count, and thus appears as the second part of many Teutonic
+titles, such as landgrave, burgrave and margrave. "Grieve," on the other
+hand, seems to be the northern representative of O.E. _gerefa_, reeve;
+cf. "sheriff" and "count." (3) (From the Lat. _gravis_, heavy), weighty,
+serious, particularly with the idea of dangerous, as applied to diseases
+and the like, of character or temperament as opposed to gay. It is also
+applied to sound, low or deep, and is thus opposed to "acute." In music
+the term is adopted from the French and Italian, and applied to a
+movement which is solemn or slow. (4) To clean a ship's bottom in a
+specially constructed dock, called a "graving dock." The origin of the
+word is obscure; according to the _New English Dictionary_ there is no
+foundation for the connexion with "greaves" or "graves," the refuse of
+tallow, in candle or soap-making, supposed to be used in "graving" a
+ship. It may be connected with an O. Fr. _grave_, mod. _grève_, shore.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS, the name given to deposits of rounded,
+subangular, water-worn stones, mingled with finer material such as sand
+and clay. The word "gravel" is adapted from the O. Fr. _gravele_, mod.
+_gravelle_, dim. of _grave_, coarse sand, sea-shore, Mod. Fr. _grève_.
+The deposits are produced by the attrition of rock fragments by moving
+water, the waves and tides of the sea and the flow of rivers. Extensive
+beds of gravel are forming at the present time on many parts of the
+British coasts where suitable rocks are exposed to the attack of the
+atmosphere and of the sea waves during storms. The flint gravels of the
+coast of the Channel, Norfolk, &c., are excellent examples. When the sea
+is rough the lesser stones are washed up and down the beach by each
+wave, and in this way are rounded, worn down and finally reduced to
+sand. These gravels are constantly in movement, being urged forward by
+the shore currents especially during storms. Large banks of gravel may
+be swept away in a single night, and in this way the coast is laid bare
+to the erosive action of the sea. Moreover, the movement of the gravel
+itself wears down the subjacent rocks. Hence in many places barriers
+have been erected to prevent the drift of the pebbles and preserve the
+land, while often it has been found necessary to protect the shores by
+masonry or cement work. Where the pebbles are swept along to a
+projecting cape they may be carried onwards and form a long spit or
+submarine bank, which is constantly reduced in size by the currents and
+tides which flow across it (e.g. Spurn Head at the mouth of the Humber).
+The Chesil Bank is the best instance in Britain of a great accumulation
+of pebbles constantly urged forward by storms in a definite direction.
+In the shallower parts of the North Sea considerable areas are covered
+with coarse sand and pebbles. In deeper water, however, as in the
+Atlantic, beyond the 100 fathom line pebbles are very rare, and those
+which are found are mostly erratics carried southward by floating
+icebergs, or volcanic rocks ejected by submarine volcanoes.
+
+In many parts of Britain, Scandinavia and North America there are marine
+gravels, in every essential resembling those of the sea-shore, at
+levels considerably above high tide. These gravels often lie In
+flat-topped terraces which may be traced for great distances along the
+coast. They are indications that the sea at one time stood higher than
+it does at present, and are known to geologists as "raised beaches." In
+Scotland such beaches are known 25, 50 and 100 ft. above the present
+shores. In exposed situations they have old shore cliffs behind them;
+although their deposits are mainly gravelly there is much fine sand and
+silt in the raised beaches of sheltered estuaries and near river mouths.
+
+River gravels occur most commonly in the middle and upper parts of
+streams where the currents in times of flood are strong enough to
+transport fairly large stones. In deltas and the lower portions of large
+rivers gravel deposits are comparatively rare and indicate periods when
+the volume of the stream was temporarily greatly increased. In the
+higher torrents also, gravels are rare because transport is so effective
+that no considerable accumulations can form. In most countries where the
+drainage is of a mature type, river gravels occur in the lower parts of
+the courses of the rivers as banks or terraces which lie some distance
+above the stream level. Individual terraces usually do not persist for a
+long space but are represented by a series of benches at about the same
+altitude. These were once continuous, and have been separated by the
+stream cutting away the intervening portions as it deepened and
+broadened its channel. Terraces of this kind often occur in successive
+series at different heights, and the highest are the oldest because they
+were laid down at a time when the stream flowed at their level and mark
+the various stages by which the valley has been eroded. While marine
+terraces are nearly always horizontal, stream terraces slope downwards
+along the course of the river.
+
+The extensive deposits of river gravels in many parts of England,
+France, Switzerland, North America, &c., would indicate that at some
+former time the rivers flowed in greater volume than at the present day.
+This is believed to be connected with the glacial epoch and the
+augmentation of the streams during those periods when the ice was
+melting away. Many changes in drainage have taken place since then;
+consequently wide sheets of glacial and fluvio-glacial gravel lie spread
+out where at present there is no stream. Often they are commingled with
+sand, and where there were temporary post-glacial lakes deposits of
+silt, brick clay and mud have been formed. These may be compared to the
+similar deposits now forming in Greenland, Spitzbergen and other
+countries which are at present in a glacial condition.
+
+As a rule gravels consist mainly of the harder kinds of stone because
+these alone can resist attrition. Thus the gravels formed from chalk
+consist almost entirely of flint, which is so hard that the chalk is
+ground to powder and washed away, while the flint remains little
+affected. Other hard rocks such as chert, quartzite, felsite, granite,
+sandstone and volcanic rocks very frequently are largely represented in
+gravels, while coal, limestone and shale are far less common. The size
+of the pebbles varies from a fraction of an inch to several feet; it
+depends partly on the fissility of the original rocks and partly on the
+strength of the currents of water; coarse gravels indicate the action of
+powerful eroding agents. In the Tertiary systems gravels occur on many
+horizons, e.g. the Woolwich and Reading beds, Oldhaven beds and Bagshot
+beds of the Eocene of the London basin. They do not essentially differ
+from recent gravel deposits. But in course of time the action of
+percolating water assisted by pressure tends to convert gravels into
+firm masses of conglomerate by depositing carbonate of lime, silica and
+other substances in their interstices. Gravels are not usually so
+fossiliferous as finer deposits of the same age, partly because their
+porous texture enables organic remains to be dissolved away by water,
+and partly because shells and other fossils are comparatively fragile
+and would be broken up during the accumulation of the pebbles. The rock
+fragments in conglomerates, however, sometimes contain fossils which
+have not been found elsewhere.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAVELINES (Flem. _Gravelinghe_), a fortified seaport town of northern
+France, in the department of Nord and arrondissement of Dunkirk, 15 m.
+S.W. of Dunkirk on the railway to Calais. Pop. (1906) town, 1858;
+commune, 6284. Gravelines is situated on the Aa, 1¼ m. from its mouth in
+the North Sea. It is surrounded by a double circuit of ramparts and by a
+tidal moat. The river is canalized and opens out beneath the
+fortifications into a floating basin. The situation of the port is one
+of the best in France on the North Sea, though its trade has suffered
+owing to the nearness of Calais and Dunkirk and the silting up of the
+channel to the sea. It is a centre for the cod and herring fisheries.
+Imports consist chiefly of timber from Northern Europe and coal from
+England, to which eggs and fruit are exported. Gravelines has
+paper-manufactories, sugar-works, fish-curing works, salt-refineries,
+chicory-roasting factories, a cannery for preserved peas and other
+vegetables and an important timber-yard. The harbour is accessible to
+vessels drawing 18 ft. at high tides. The greater part of the population
+of the commune of Gravelines dwells in the maritime quarter of
+Petit-Fort-Philippe at the mouth of the Aa, and in the village of Les
+Huttes (to the east of the town), which is inhabited by the fisher-folk.
+
+The canalization of the Aa by a count of Flanders about the middle of
+the 12th century led to the foundation of Gravelines (_grave-linghe_,
+meaning "count's canal."). In 1558 it was the scene of the signal
+victory of the Spaniards under the count of Egmont over the French. It
+finally passed from the Spaniards to the French by the treaty of the
+Pyrenees in 1659.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVELOTTE, a village of Lorraine between Metz and the French frontier,
+famous as the scene of the battle of the 18th of August 1870 between the
+Germans under King William of Prussia and the French under Marshal
+Bazaine (see METZ and FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). The battlefield extends from
+the woods which border the Moselle above Metz to Roncourt, near the
+river Orne. Other villages which played an important part in the battle
+of Gravelotte were Saint Privat, Amanweiler or Amanvillers and
+Sainte-Marie-aux-Chênes, all lying to the N. of Gravelotte.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846-   ), Irish writer, was born in Dublin,
+the son of the bishop of Limerick. He was educated at Windermere
+College, and took high honours at Dublin University. In 1869 he entered
+the Civil Service as clerk in the Home Office, where he remained until
+he became in 1874 an inspector of schools. He was a constant contributor
+of prose and verse to the _Spectator_, _The Athenaeum_, _John Bull_, and
+_Punch_, and took a leading part in the revival of Irish letters. He was
+for several years president of the Irish Literary Society, and is the
+author of the famous ballad of "Father O'Flynn" and many other songs and
+ballads. In collaboration with Sir C. V. Stanford he published _Songs of
+Old Ireland_ (1882), _Irish Songs and Ballads_ (1893), the airs of which
+are taken from the Petrie MSS.; the airs of his _Irish Folk-Songs_
+(1897) were arranged by Charles Wood, with whom he also collaborated in
+_Songs of Erin_ (1901).
+
+His brother, Charles L. Graves (b. 1856), educated at Marlborough and at
+Christ Church, Oxford, also became well known as a journalist, author of
+two volumes of parodies, _The Hawarden Horace_ (1894) and _More Hawarden
+Horace_ (1896), and of skits in prose and verse. An admirable musical
+critic, his _Life and Letters of Sir George Grove_ (1903) is a model
+biography.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVESEND, a municipal and parliamentary borough, river-port and market
+town of Kent, England, on the right bank of the Thames opposite Tilbury
+Fort, 22 m. E. by S. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
+Pop. (1901) 27,196. It extends about 2 m. along the river bank,
+occupying a slight acclivity which reaches its summit at Windmill Hill,
+whence extensive views are obtained of the river, with its windings and
+shipping. The older and lower part of the town is irregularly built,
+with narrow and inconvenient streets, but the upper and newer portion
+contains several handsome streets and terraces. Among several piers are
+the town pier, erected in 1832, and the terrace pier, built in 1845, at
+a time when local river-traffic by steamboat was specially prosperous.
+Gravesend is a favourite resort of the inhabitants of London, both for
+excursions and as a summer residence; it is also a favourite yachting
+centre. The principal buildings are the town-hall, the parish church of
+Gravesend, erected on the site of an ancient building destroyed by fire
+in 1727; Milton parish church, a Decorated and Perpendicular building
+erected in the time of Edward II.; and the county courts. Milton Mount
+College is a large institution for the daughters of Congregational
+ministers. East of the town are the earthworks designed to assist
+Tilbury Fort in obstructing the passage up river of an enemy's force.
+They were originally constructed on Vauban's system in the reign of
+Charles II. Rosherville Gardens, a popular resort, are in the western
+suburb of Rosherville, a residential quarter named after James Rosher,
+an owner of lime works. They were founded in 1843 by George Jones.
+Gravesend, which is within the Port of London, has some import trade in
+coal and timber, and fishing, especially of shrimps, is carried on
+extensively. The principal other industries are boat-building,
+ironfounding, brewing and soap-boiling. Fruit and vegetables are largely
+grown in the neighbourhood for the London market. Since 1867 Gravesend
+has returned a member to parliament, the borough including Northfleet to
+the west. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
+councillors. Area, 1259 acres.
+
+In the Domesday Survey "Gravesham" is entered among the bishop of
+Bayeux's lands, and a "hythe" or landing-place is mentioned. In 1401
+Henry IV. granted the men of Gravesend the sole right of conveying in
+their own vessels all persons travelling between London and Gravesend,
+and this right was confirmed by Edward IV. in 1462. In 1562 the town was
+granted a charter of incorporation by Elizabeth, which vested the
+government in 2 portreeves and 12 jurats, but by a later charter of 1568
+one portreeve was substituted for the two. Charles I. incorporated the
+town anew under the title of the mayor, jurats and inhabitants of
+Gravesend, and a further charter of liberties was granted by James II.
+in 1687. A Thursday market and fair on the 13th of October were granted
+to the men of Gravesend by Edward III. in 1367; Elizabeth's charters
+gave them a Wednesday market and fairs on the 24th of June and the 13th
+of October, with a court of pie-powder; by the charter of Charles I.
+Thursday and Saturday were made the market days, and these were changed
+again to Wednesday and Saturday by a charter of 1694, which also granted
+a fair on the 23rd of April; the fairs on these dates have died out, but
+the Saturday market is still held.
+
+From the beginning of the 17th century Gravesend was the chief station
+for East Indiamen; most of the ships outward bound from London stopped
+here to victual. A customs house was built in 1782. Queen Elizabeth
+established Gravesend as the point where the corporation of London
+should welcome in state eminent foreign visitors arriving by water.
+State processions by water from Gravesend to London had previously taken
+place, as in 1522, when Henry VIII. escorted the emperor Charles V. A
+similar practice was maintained until modern times; as when, on the 7th
+of March 1863, the princess Alexandra was received here by the prince of
+Wales (King Edward VII.) three days before their marriage. Gravesend
+parish church contains memorials to "Princess" Pocahontas, who died when
+preparing to return home from a visit to England in 1617, and was buried
+in the old church. A memorial pulpit from the state of Indiana, U.S.A.,
+made of Virginian wood, was provided in 1904, and a fund was raised for
+a stained-glass window by ladies of the state of Virginia.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO (1664-1718), Italian littérateur and
+jurisconsult, was born at Roggiano, a small town near Cosenza, in
+Calabria, on the 20th of January 1664. He was descended from a
+distinguished family, and under the direction of his maternal uncle,
+Gregorio Caloprese, who possessed some reputation as a poet and
+philosopher, received a learned education, after which he studied at
+Naples civil and canon law. In 1689 he came to Rome, where in 1695 he
+united with several others of literary tastes in forming the Academy of
+Arcadians. A schism occurred in the academy in 1711, and Gravina and his
+followers founded in opposition to it the Academy of Quirina. From
+Innocent XII. Gravina received the offer of various ecclesiastical
+honours, but declined them from a disinclination to enter the clerical
+profession. In 1699 he was appointed to the chair of civil law in the
+college of La Sapienza, and in 1703 he was transferred to the chair of
+canon law. He died at Rome on the 6th of January 1718. He was the
+adoptive father of Metastasio.
+
+  Gravina is the author of a number of works of great erudition, the
+  principal being his _Origines juris civilis_, completed in 3 vols.
+  (1713) and his _De Romano imperio_ (1712). A French translation of the
+  former appeared in 1775, of which a second edition was published in
+  1822. His collected works were published at Leipzig in 1737, and at
+  Naples, with notes by Mascovius, in 1756.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVINA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the province of
+Bari, from which it is 63 m. S.W. by rail (29 m. direct), 1148 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1901) 18,197. The town is probably of medieval origin,
+though some conjecture that it occupies the site of the ancient Blera, a
+post station on the Via Appia. The cathedral is a basilica of the 15th
+century. The town is surrounded with walls and towers, and a castle of
+the emperor Frederick II. rises above the town, which later belonged to
+the Orsini, dukes of Gravina; just outside it are dwellings and a church
+(S. Michele) all hewn in the rock, and now abandoned.
+
+  Prehistoric remains in the district (remains of ancient settlements,
+  _tumuli_, &c.) are described by V. di Cicco in _Notizie degli scavi_
+  (1901), p. 217.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVITATION (from Lat. _gravis_, heavy), in physical science, that
+mutual action between masses of matter by virtue of which every such
+mass tends toward every other with a force varying directly as the
+product of the masses and inversely as the square of their distances
+apart. Although the law was first clearly and rigorously formulated by
+Sir Isaac Newton, the fact of the action indicated by it was more or
+less clearly seen by others. Even Ptolemy had a vague conception of a
+force tending toward the centre of the earth which not only kept bodies
+upon its surface, but in some way upheld the order of the universe. John
+Kepler inferred that the planets move in their orbits under some
+influence or force exerted by the sun; but the laws of motion were not
+then sufficiently developed, nor were Kepler's ideas of force
+sufficiently clear, to admit of a precise statement of the nature of the
+force. C. Huygens and R. Hooke, contemporaries of Newton, saw that
+Kepler's third law implied a force tending toward the sun which, acting
+on the several planets, varied inversely as the square of the distance.
+But two requirements necessary to generalize the theory were still
+wanting. One was to show that the law of the inverse square not only
+represented Kepler's third law, but his first two laws also. The other
+was to show that the gravitation of the earth, following one and the
+same law with that of the sun, extended to the moon. Newton's researches
+showed that the attraction of the earth on the moon was the same as that
+for bodies at the earth's surface, only reduced in the inverse square of
+the moon's distance from the earth's centre. He also showed that the
+total gravitation of the earth, assumed as spherical, on external
+bodies, would be the same as if the earth's mass were concentrated in
+the centre. This led at once to the statement of the law in its most
+general form.
+
+The law of gravitation is unique among the laws of nature, not only in
+its wide generality, taking the whole universe in its scope, but in the
+fact that, so far as yet known, it is absolutely unmodified by any
+condition or cause whatever. All other forms of action between masses of
+matter, vary with circumstances. The mutual action of electrified
+bodies, for example, is affected by their relative or absolute motion.
+But no conditions to which matter has ever been subjected, or under
+which it has ever been observed, have been found to influence its
+gravitation in the slightest degree. We might conceive the rapid motions
+of the heavenly bodies to result in some change either in the direction
+or amount of their gravitation towards each other at each moment; but
+such is not the case, even in the most rapidly moving bodies of the
+solar system. The question has also been raised whether the action of
+gravitation is absolutely instantaneous. If not, the action would not be
+exactly in the line adjoining the two bodies at the instant, but would
+be affected by the motion of the line joining them during the time
+required by the force to pass from one body to the other. The result of
+this would be seen in the motions of the planets around the sun; but the
+most refined observations show no such effect. It is also conceivable
+that bodies might gravitate differently at different temperatures. But
+the most careful researches have failed to show any apparent
+modification produced in this way except what might be attributed to the
+surrounding conditions. The most recent and exhaustive experiment was
+that of J. H. Poynting and P. Phillips (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 76A, p. 445).
+The result was that the change, if any, was less than 1/10 of the force
+for one degree change of temperature, a result too minute to be
+established by any measures.
+
+Another cause which might be supposed to modify the action of
+gravitation between two bodies would be the interposition of masses of
+matter between them, a cause which materially modifies the action of
+electrified bodies. The question whether this cause modifies gravitation
+admits of an easy test from observation. If it did, then a portion of
+the earth's mass or of that of any other planet turned away from the sun
+would not be subjected to the same action of the sun as if directly
+exposed to that action. Great masses, as those of the great planets,
+would not be attracted with a force proportional to the mass because of
+the hindrance or other effect of the interposed portions. But not the
+slightest modification due to this cause is shown. The general
+conclusion from everything we see is that a mass of matter in Australia
+attracts a mass in London precisely as it would if the earth were not
+interposed between the two masses.
+
+We must therefore regard the law in question as the broadest and most
+fundamental one which nature makes known to us.
+
+It is not yet experimentally proved that variation as the inverse square
+is absolutely true at all distances. Astronomical observations extend
+over too brief a period of time to show any attraction between different
+stars except those in each other's neighbourhood. But this proves
+nothing because, in the case of distances so great, centuries or even
+thousands of years of accurate observation will be required to show any
+action. On the other hand the enigmatical motion of the perihelion of
+Mercury has not yet found any plausible explanation except on the
+hypothesis that the gravitation of the sun diminishes at a rate slightly
+greater than that of the inverse square--the most simple modification
+being to suppose that instead of the exponent of the distance being
+exactly -2, it is -2.000 000 161 2.
+
+The argument is extremely simple in form. It is certain that, in the
+general average, year after year, the force with which Mercury is drawn
+toward the sun does vary from the exact inverse square of its distance
+from the sun. The most plausible explanation of this is that one or more
+masses of matter move around the sun, whose action, whether they are
+inside or outside the orbit of Mercury, would produce the required
+modification in the force. From an investigation of all the observations
+upon Mercury and the other three interior planets, Simon Newcomb found
+it almost out of the question that any such mass of matter could exist
+without changing either the figure of the sun itself or the motion of
+the planes of the orbits of either Mercury or Venus. The qualification
+"almost" is necessary because so complex a system of actions comes into
+play, and accurate observations have extended through so short a period,
+that the proof cannot be regarded as absolute. But the fact that careful
+and repeated search for a mass of matter sufficient to produce the
+desired effect has been in vain, affords additional evidence of its
+non-existence. The most obvious test of the reality of the required
+modifications would be afforded by two other bodies, the motions of
+whose pericentres should be similarly affected. These are Mars and the
+moon. Newcomb found an excess of motions in the perihelion of Mars
+amounting to about 5' per century. But the combination of observations
+and theory on which this is based is not sufficient fully to establish
+so slight a motion. In the case of the motion of the moon around the
+earth, assuming the gravitation of the latter to be subject to the
+modification in question, the annual motion of the moon's perigee
+should be greater by 1.5' than the theoretical motion. E. W. Brown is
+the first investigator to determine the theoretical motions with this
+degree of precision; and he finds that there is no such divergence
+between the actual and the computed motion. There is therefore as yet no
+ground for regarding any deviation from the law of inverse square as
+more than a possibility.     (S. N.)
+
+
+GRAVITATION CONSTANT AND MEAN DENSITY OF THE EARTH
+
+The law of gravitation states that two masses M1 and M2, distant d from
+each other, are pulled together each with a force G. M1M2/d², where G is
+a constant for all kinds of matter--the _gravitation constant_. The
+acceleration of M2 towards M1 or the force exerted on it by M1 per unit
+of its mass is therefore GM1/d². Astronomical observations of the
+accelerations of different planets towards the sun, or of different
+satellites towards the same primary, give us the most accurate
+confirmation of the distance part of the law. By comparing accelerations
+towards different bodies we obtain the ratios of the masses of those
+different bodies and, in so far as the ratios are consistent, we obtain
+confirmation of the mass part. But we only obtain the ratios of the
+masses to the mass of some one member of the system, say the earth. We
+do not find the mass in terms of grammes or pounds. In fact, astronomy
+gives us the product GM, but neither G nor M. For example, the
+acceleration of the earth towards the sun is about 0.6 cm/sec.² at a
+distance from it about 15 × 10^12 cm. The acceleration of the moon
+towards the earth is about 0.27 cm/sec.² at a distance from it about 4 ×
+10^10 cm. If S is the mass of the sun and E the mass of the earth we
+have 0.6 = GS/(15 × 10^12)² and 0.27 = GE/(4 × 10^10)² giving us GS and
+GE, and the ratio S/E = 300,000 roughly; but we do not obtain either S
+or E in grammes, and we do not find G.
+
+The aim of the experiments to be described here may be regarded either
+as the determination of the mass of the earth in grammes, most
+conveniently expressed by its mass ÷ its volume, that is by its "mean
+density" [Delta], or the determination of the "gravitation constant" G.
+Corresponding to these two aspects of the problem there are two modes of
+attack. Suppose that a body of mass m is suspended at the earth's
+surface where it is pulled with a force w vertically downwards by the
+earth--its weight. At the same time let it be pulled with a force p by a
+measurable mass M which may be a mountain, or some measurable part of
+the earth's surface layers, or an artificially prepared mass brought
+near m, and let the pull of M be the same as if it were concentrated at
+a distance d. The earth pull may be regarded as the same as if the earth
+were all concentrated at its centre, distant R.
+
+Then
+
+  w = G · (4/3)[pi]R³[Delta]m/R² = G · (4/3)[pi]R[Delta]m,   (1)
+
+and
+
+  p = GMm/d²  (2)
+
+By division
+
+               3M      w
+  [Delta] = -------- · --.
+            4[pi]Rd²   p
+
+If then we can arrange to observe w/p we obtain [Delta], the mean
+density of the earth.
+
+But the same observations give us G also. For, putting m = w/g in (2),
+we get
+
+      d²   p
+  G = -- · -- · g.
+      M    w
+
+In the second mode of attack the pull p between two artificially
+prepared measured masses M1, M2 is determined when they are a distance d
+apart, and since p = G · M1M2/d² we get at once G = pd²/M1M2. But we can
+also deduce [Delta]. For putting w = mg in (1) we get
+
+              g      1
+  [Delta] = ¾ -- · -----.
+              G    [pi]R
+
+Experiments of the first class in which the pull of a known mass is
+compared with the pull of the earth maybe termed experiments on the mean
+density of the earth, while experiments of the second class in which the
+pull between two known masses is directly measured may be termed
+experiments on the gravitation constant.
+
+We shall, however, adopt a slightly different classification for the
+purpose of describing methods of experiment, viz:--
+
+  1. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of a natural
+  mass as in the Schiehallion experiment.
+
+  2. Determination of the attraction between two artificial masses as in
+  Cavendish's experiment.
+
+  3. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of an
+  artificial mass as in experiments with the common balance.
+
+It is interesting to note that the possibility of gravitation
+experiments of this kind was first considered by Newton, and in both of
+the forms (1) and (2). In the _System of the World_ (3rd ed., 1737, p.
+40) he calculates that the deviation by a hemispherical mountain, of the
+earth's density and with radius 3 m., on a plumb-line at its side will
+be less than 2 minutes. He also calculates (though with an error in his
+arithmetic) the acceleration towards each other of two spheres each a
+foot in diameter and of the earth's density, and comes to the conclusion
+that in either case the effect is too small for measurement. In the
+_Principia_, bk. iii., prop. x., he makes a celebrated estimate that the
+earth's mean density is five or six times that of water. Adopting this
+estimate, the deviation by an actual mountain or the attraction of two
+terrestrial spheres would be of the orders calculated, and regarded by
+Newton as immeasurably small.
+
+Whatever method is adopted the force to be measured is very minute. This
+may be realized if we here anticipate the results of the experiments,
+which show that in round numbers [Delta] = 5.5 and G = 1/15,000,000 when
+the masses are in grammes and the distances in centimetres.
+
+Newton's mountain, which would probably have density about [Delta]/2
+would deviate the plumb-line not much more than half a minute. Two
+spheres 30 cm. in diameter (about 1 ft.) and of density 11 (about that
+of lead) just not touching would pull each other with a force rather
+less than 2 dynes, and their acceleration would be such that they would
+move into contact if starting 1 cm. apart in rather over 400 seconds.
+
+From these examples it will be realized that in gravitation experiments
+extraordinary precautions must be adopted to eliminate disturbing forces
+which may easily rise to be comparable with the forces to be measured.
+We shall not attempt to give an account of these precautions, but only
+seek to set forth the general principles of the different experiments
+which have been made.
+
+
+I. _Comparison of the Earth Pull with that of a Natural Mass._
+
+_Bouguer's Experiments._--The earliest experiments were made by Pierre
+Bouguer about 1740, and they are recorded in his _Figure de la terre_
+(1749). They were of two kinds. In the first he determined the length of
+the seconds pendulum, and thence _g_ at different levels. Thus at Quito,
+which may be regarded as on a table-land 1466 toises (a toise is about
+6.4 ft.) above sea-level, the seconds pendulum was less by 1/1331 than
+on the Isle of Inca at sea-level. But if there were no matter above the
+sea-level, the inverse square law would make the pendulum less by 1/1118
+at the higher level. The value of _g_ then at the higher level was
+greater than could be accounted for by the attraction of an earth ending
+at sea-level by the difference 1/1118-1/1331 = 1/6983, and this was put
+down to the attraction of the plateau 1466 toises high; or the
+attraction of the whole earth was 6983 times the attraction of the
+plateau. Using the rule, now known as "Young's rule," for the attraction
+of the plateau, Bouguer found that the density of the earth was 4.7
+times that of the plateau, a result certainly much too large.
+
+In the second kind of experiment he attempted to measure the horizontal
+pull of Chimborazo, a mountain about 20,000 ft. high, by the deflection
+of a plumb-line at a station on its south side. Fig. 1 shows the
+principle of the method. Suppose that two stations are fixed, one on the
+side of the mountain due south of the summit, and the other on the same
+latitude but some distance westward, away from the influence of the
+mountain. Suppose that at the second station a star is observed to pass
+the meridian, for simplicity we will say directly overhead, then a
+plumb-line will hang down exactly parallel to the observing telescope.
+If the mountain were away it would also hang parallel to the telescope
+at the first station when directed to the same star. But the mountain
+pulls the plumb-line towards it and the star appears to the north of the
+zenith and evidently mountain pull/earth pull = tangent of angle of
+displacement of zenith.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Bouguer's Plumb-line Experiment on the
+attraction of Chimborazo.]
+
+Bouguer observed the meridian altitude of several stars at the two
+stations. There was still some deflection at the second station, a
+deflection which he estimated as 1/14 that at the first station, and he
+found on allowing for this that his observations gave a deflection of 8
+seconds at the first station. From the form and size of the mountain he
+found that if its density were that of the earth the deflection should
+be 103 seconds, or the earth was nearly 13 times as dense as the
+mountain, a result several times too large. But the work was carried on
+under enormous difficulties owing to the severity of the weather, and no
+exactness could be expected. The importance of the experiment lay in its
+proof that the method was possible.
+
+_Maskelyne's Experiment._--In 1774 Nevil Maskelyne (_Phil. Trans._,
+1775, p. 495) made an experiment on the deflection of the plumb-line by
+Schiehallion, a mountain in Perthshire, which has a short ridge nearly
+east and west, and sides sloping steeply on the north and south. He
+selected two stations on the same meridian, one on the north, the other
+on the south slope, and by means of a zenith sector, a telescope
+provided with a plumb-bob, he determined at each station the meridian
+zenith distances of a number of stars. From a survey of the district
+made in the years 1774-1776 the geographical difference of latitude
+between the two stations was found to be 42.94 seconds, and this would
+have been the difference in the meridian zenith difference of the same
+star at the two stations had the mountain been away. But at the north
+station the plumb-bob was pulled south and the zenith was deflected
+northwards, while at the south station the effect was reversed. Hence
+the angle between the zeniths, or the angle between the zenith distances
+of the same star at the two stations was greater than the geographical
+42.94 seconds. The mean of the observations gave a difference of 54.2
+seconds, or the double deflection of the plumb-line was 54.2 - 42.94,
+say 11.26 seconds.
+
+The computation of the attraction of the mountain on the supposition
+that its density was that of the earth was made by Charles Hutton from
+the results of the survey (_Phil. Trans._, 1778, p. 689), a computation
+carried out by ingenious and important methods. He found that the
+deflection should have been greater in the ratio 17804 : 9933 say 9 : 5,
+whence the density of the earth comes out at 9/5 that of the mountain.
+Hutton took the density of the mountain at 2.5, giving the mean density
+of the earth 4.5. A revision of the density of the mountain from a
+careful survey of the rocks composing it was made by John Playfair many
+years later (_Phil. Trans._, 1811, p. 347), and the density of the earth
+was given as lying between 4.5588 and 4.867.
+
+Other experiments have been made on the attraction of mountains by
+Francesco Carlini (_Milano Effem. Ast._, 1824, p. 28) on Mt. Blanc in
+1821, using the pendulum method after the manner of Bouguer, by Colonel
+Sir Henry James and Captain A. R. Clarke (_Phil. Trans._, 1856, p. 591),
+using the plumb-line deflection at Arthur's Seat, by T. C. Mendenhall
+(_Amer. Jour. of Sci._ xxi. p. 99), using the pendulum method on
+Fujiyama in Japan, and by E. D. Preston (_U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey
+Rep._, 1893, p. 513) in Hawaii, using both methods.
+
+_Airy's Experiment._--In 1854 Sir G. B. Airy (_Phil. Trans._ 1856, p.
+297) carried out at Harton pit near South Shields an experiment which he
+had attempted many years before in conjunction with W. Whewell and R.
+Sheepshanks at Dolcoath. This consisted in comparing gravity at the top
+and at the bottom of a mine by the swings of the same pendulum, and
+thence finding the ratio of the pull of the intervening strata to the
+pull of the whole earth. The principle of the method may be understood
+by assuming that the earth consists of concentric spherical shells each
+homogeneous, the last of thickness h equal to the depth of the mine. Let
+the radius of the earth to the bottom of the mine be R, and the mean
+density up to that point be [Delta]. This will not differ appreciably
+from the mean density of the whole. Let the density of the strata of
+depth h be [delta]. Denoting the values of gravity above and below by
+g_a and g_b we have
+
+                [pi]R³[Delta]
+  g_b = G (4/3) ------------- = G · (4/3) [pi]R[Delta],
+                      R²
+
+and
+
+                [pi]R³[Delta]
+  g_a = G (4/3) ------------- + G · 4[pi]h[delta]
+                   (R + h)²
+
+(since the attraction of a shell h thick on a point just outside it is
+G · 4[pi](R + h)²h[delta]/(R + h)² = G · 4[pi]h[delta]). Therefore
+
+                                /    2h   3h [delta] \
+  g_a = G · (4/3) [pi]R[Delta] ( 1 - -- + -- -------  ) nearly,
+                                \    R    R  [Delta] /
+
+whence
+
+  g_a       2h   3h [delta]
+  --- = 1 - -- + -- -------,
+  g_b       R    R  [Delta]
+
+and
+
+  [Delta]   3h   / /     2h   g_a \
+  ------- = --  / ( -1 + -- + ---  ).
+  [delta]   R  /   \     R    g_b /
+
+Stations were chosen in the same vertical, one near the pit bank,
+another 1250 ft. below in a disused working, and a "comparison" clock
+was fixed at each station. A third clock was placed at the upper station
+connected by an electric circuit to the lower station. It gave an
+electric signal every 15 seconds by which the rates of the two
+comparison clocks could be accurately compared. Two "invariable" seconds
+pendulums were swung, one in front of the upper and the other in front
+of the lower comparison clock after the manner of Kater, and these
+invariables were interchanged at intervals. From continuous observations
+extending over three weeks and after applying various corrections Airy
+obtained g_b/g_a = 1.00005185. Making corrections for the irregularity
+of the neighbouring strata he found [Delta]/[delta] = 2.6266. W. H.
+Miller made a careful determination of [delta] from specimens of the
+strata, finding it 2.5. The final result taking into account the
+ellipticity and rotation of the earth is [Delta] = 6.565.
+
+_Von Sterneck's Experiments._--(_Mitth. des K.U.K. Mil. Geog. Inst. zu
+Wien_, ii, 1882, p. 77; 1883, p. 59; vi., 1886, p. 97). R. von Sterneck
+repeated the mine experiment in 1882-1883 at the Adalbert shaft at
+Pribram in Bohemia and in 1885 at the Abraham shaft near Freiberg. He
+used two invariable half-seconds pendulums, one swung at the surface,
+the other below at the same time. The two were at intervals
+interchanged. Von Sterneck introduced a most important improvement by
+comparing the swings of the two invariables with the same clock which by
+an electric circuit gave a signal at each station each second. This
+eliminated clock rates. His method, of which it is not necessary to give
+the details here, began a new era in the determinations of local
+variations of gravity. The values which von Sterneck obtained for
+[Delta] were not consistent, but increased with the depth of the second
+station. This was probably due to local irregularities in the strata
+which could not be directly detected.
+
+All the experiments to determine [Delta] by the attraction of natural
+masses are open to the serious objection that we cannot determine the
+distribution of density in the neighbourhood with any approach to
+accuracy. The experiments with artificial masses next to be described
+give much more consistent results, and the experiments with natural
+masses are now only of use in showing the existence of irregularities
+in the earth's superficial strata when they give results deviating
+largely from the accepted value.
+
+
+II. _Determination of the Attraction between two Artificial Masses._
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Cavendish's Apparatus.
+
+h h, torsion rod hung by wire l g,; x, x, attracted balls hung from its
+ends; WW, attracting masses.]
+
+_Cavendish's Experiment_ (_Phil. Trans._, 1798, p. 469).--This
+celebrated experiment was planned by the Rev. John Michell. He completed
+an apparatus for it but did not live to begin work with it. After
+Michell's death the apparatus came into the possession of Henry
+Cavendish, who largely reconstructed it, but still adhered to Michell's
+plan, and in 1797-1798 he carried out the experiment. The essential
+feature of it consisted in the determination of the attraction of a lead
+sphere 12 in. in diameter on another lead sphere 2 in. in diameter, the
+distance between the centres being about 9 in., by means of a torsion
+balance. Fig. 2 shows how the experiment was carried out. A torsion rod
+hh 6 ft. long, tied from its ends to a vertical piece mg, was hung by a
+wire lg. From its ends depended two lead balls xx each 2 in. in
+diameter. The position of the rod was determined by a scale fixed near
+the end of the arm, the arm itself carrying a vernier moving along the
+scale. This was lighted by a lamp and viewed by a telescope T from the
+outside of the room containing the apparatus. The torsion balance was
+enclosed in a case and outside this two lead spheres WW each 12 in. in
+diameter hung from an arm which could turn round an axis Pp in the line
+of gl. Suppose that first the spheres are placed so that one is just in
+front of the right-hand ball x and the other is just behind the
+left-hand ball x. The two will conspire to pull the balls so that the
+right end of the rod moves forward. Now let the big spheres be moved
+round so that one is in front of the left ball and the other behind the
+right ball. The pulls are reversed and the right end moves backward. The
+angle between its two positions is (if we neglect cross attractions of
+right sphere on left ball and left sphere on right ball) four times as
+great as the deflection of the rod due to approach of one sphere to one
+ball.
+
+  The principle of the experiment may be set forth thus. Let 2a be the
+  length of the torsion rod, m the mass of a ball, M the mass of a large
+  sphere, d the distance between the centres, supposed the same on each
+  side. Let [theta] be the angle through which the rod moves round when
+  the spheres WW are moved from the first to the second of the positions
+  described above. Let [mu] be the couple required to twist the rod
+  through 1 radian. Then [mu][theta] = 4GMma/d². But [mu] can be found
+  from the time of vibration of the torsion system when we know its
+  moment of inertia I, and this can be determined. If T is the period
+  [mu] = 4[pi]²I/T², whence G = [pi]²d²I[theta]/T²Mma, or putting the
+  result in terms of the mean density of the earth [Delta] it is easy to
+  show that, if L, the length of the seconds pendulum, is put for
+  g/[pi]², and C for 2[pi]R, the earth's circumference, then
+
+                    L  Mma    T²
+    [Delta] = (3/2) -- --- -------.
+                    C  d²I [theta]
+
+The original account by Cavendish is still well worth studying on
+account of the excellence of his methods. His work was undoubtedly very
+accurate for a pioneer experiment and has only really been improved upon
+within the last generation. Making various corrections of which it is
+not necessary to give a description, the result obtained (after
+correcting a mistake first pointed out by F. Baily) is [Delta] = 5.448.
+In seeking the origin of the disturbed motion of the torsion rod
+Cavendish made a very important observation. He found that when the
+masses were left in one position for a time the attracted balls crept
+now in one direction, now in another, as if the attraction were varying.
+Ultimately he found that this was due to convection currents in the case
+containing the torsion rod, currents produced by temperature
+inequalities. When a large sphere was heated the ball near it tended to
+approach and when it was cooled the ball tended to recede. Convection
+currents constitute the chief disturbance and the chief source of error
+in all attempts to measure small forces in air at ordinary pressure.
+
+_Reich's Experiments_ (_Versuche über die mittlere Dichtigkeit der Erde
+mittelst der Drehwage_, Freiberg, 1838; "Neue Versuche mit der
+Drehwage," _Leipzig Abh. Math. Phys._ i., 1852, p. 383).--In 1838 F.
+Reich published an account of a repetition of the Cavendish experiment
+carried out on the same general lines, though with somewhat smaller
+apparatus. The chief differences consisted in the methods of measuring
+the times of vibration and the deflection, and the changes were hardly
+improvements. His result after revision was [Delta] = 5.49. In 1852 he
+published an account of further work giving as result [Delta]= 5.58. It
+is noteworthy that in his second paper he gives an account of
+experiments suggested by J. D. Forbes in which the deflection was not
+observed directly, but was deduced from observations of the time of
+vibration when the attracting masses were in different positions.
+
+  Let T1 be the time of vibration when the masses are in one of the
+  usual attracting positions. Let d be the distance between the centres
+  of attracting mass and attracted ball, and [delta] the distance
+  through which the ball is pulled. If a is the half length of the
+  torsion rod and [theta] the deflection, [delta] = a[theta]. Now let
+  the attracting masses be put one at each end of the torsion rod with
+  their centres in the line through the centres of the balls and d from
+  them, and let T2 be the time of vibration. Then it is easy to show
+  that
+
+    [delta]/d = a[theta]/d = (T1 - T2)/(T1 + T2).
+
+  This gives a value of [theta] which may be used in the formula. The
+  experiments by this method were not consistent, and the mean result
+  was [Delta] = 6.25.
+
+_Baily's Experiment_ (_Memoirs of the Royal Astron. Soc._ xiv.).--In
+1841-1842 Francis Baily made a long series of determinations by
+Cavendish's method and with apparatus nearly of the same dimensions. The
+attracting masses were 12-in. lead spheres and as attracted balls he
+used various masses, lead, zinc, glass, ivory, platinum, hollow brass,
+and finally the torsion rod alone without balls. The suspension was also
+varied, sometimes consisting of a single wire, sometimes being bifilar.
+There were systematic errors running through Baily's work, which it is
+impossible now wholly to explain. These made the resulting value of
+[Delta] show a variation with the nature of the attracted masses and a
+variation with the temperature. His final result [Delta] = 5.6747 is not
+of value compared with later results.
+
+_Cornu and Baille's Experiment_ (_Comptes rendus_, lxxvi., 1873, p. 954;
+lxxxvi., 1878, pp. 571, 699, 1001; xcvi., 1883, p. 1493).--In 1870 MM.
+A. Cornu and J. Baille commenced an experiment by the Cavendish method
+which was never definitely completed, though valuable studies of the
+behaviour of the torsion apparatus were made. They purposely departed
+from the dimensions previously used. The torsion balls were of copper
+about 100 gm. each, the rod was 50 cm. long, and the suspending wire was
+4 metres long. On each side of each ball was a hollow iron sphere. Two
+of these were filled with mercury weighing 12 kgm., the two spheres of
+mercury constituting the attracting masses. When the position of a mass
+was to be changed the mercury was pumped from the sphere on one side to
+that on the other side of a ball. To avoid counting time a method of
+electric registration on a chronograph was adopted. A provisional result
+was [Delta] = 5.56.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of a Section of Professor Boys's
+Apparatus.]
+
+_Boys's Experiment_ (_Phil. Trans._, A., 1895, pt. i., p. 1).--Professor
+C. V. Boys having found that it is possible to draw quartz fibres of
+practically any degree of fineness, of great strength and true in their
+elasticity, determined to repeat the Cavendish experiment, using his
+newly invented fibres for the suspension of the torsion rod. He began by
+an inquiry as to the best dimensions for the apparatus. He saw that if
+the period of vibration is kept constant, that is, if the moment of
+inertia I is kept proportional to the torsion couple per radian [mu],
+then the deflection remains the same however the linear dimensions are
+altered so long as they are all altered in the same proportion. Hence we
+are driven to conclude that the dimensions should be reduced until
+further reduction would make the linear quantities too small to be
+measured with exactness, for reduction in the apparatus enables
+variations in temperature and the consequent air disturbances to be
+reduced, and the experiment in other ways becomes more manageable.
+Professor Boys took as the exactness to be sought for 1 in 10,000. He
+further saw that reduction in length of the torsion rod with given balls
+is an advantage. For if the rod be halved the moment of inertia is
+one-fourth, and if the suspending fibre is made finer so that the
+torsion couple per radian is also one-fourth the time remains the same.
+But the moment of the attracting force is halved only, so that the
+deflection against one-fourth torsion is doubled. In Cavendish's
+arrangement there would be an early limit to the advantage in reduction
+of rod in that the mass opposite one ball would begin seriously to
+attract the other ball. But Boys avoided this difficulty by suspending
+the balls from the ends of the torsion rod at different levels and by
+placing the attracting masses at these different levels. Fig. 3
+represents diagrammatically a vertical section of the arrangement used
+on a scale of about 1/10. The torsion rod was a small rectangular mirror
+about 2.4 cm. wide hung by a quartz fibre about 43 cm. long. From the
+sides of this mirror the balls were hung by quartz fibres at levels
+differing by 15 cm. The balls were of gold either about 5 mm. in
+diameter and weighing about 1.3 gm. or about 6.5 mm. in diameter and
+weighing 2.65 gm. The attracting masses were lead spheres, about 10 cm.
+in diameter and weighing about 7.4 kgm. each. These were suspended from
+the top of the case which could be rotated round the central tube, and
+they were arranged so that the radius to the centre from the axis of the
+torsion system made 65° with the torsion rod, the position in which the
+moment of the attraction was a maximum. The torsion rod mirror reflected
+a distant scale by which the deflection could be read. The time of
+vibration was recorded on a chronograph. The result of the experiment,
+probably the best yet made, was [Delta] = 5.527; G = 6.658 × 10^-8.
+
+_Braun's Experiment_ (_Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-naturw. Cl._
+64, p. 187, 1896).--In 1896 Dr K. Braun, S.J., gave an account of a very
+careful and excellent repetition of the Cavendish experiment with
+apparatus much smaller than was used in the older experiments, yet much
+larger than that used by Boys. A notable feature of the work consisted
+in the suspension of the torsion apparatus in a receiver exhausted to
+about 4 mm. of mercury, a pressure at which convection currents almost
+disappear while "radiometer" forces have hardly begun. For other
+ingenious arrangements the original paper or a short abstract in
+_Nature_, lvi., 1897, p. 127, may be consulted. The attracted balls
+weighed 54 gm. each and were 25 cm. apart. The attracting masses were
+spheres of mercury each weighing 9 kgm. and brought into position
+outside the receiver. Braun used both the deflection method and the time
+of vibration method suggested to Reich by Forbes. The methods gave
+almost identical results and his final values are to three decimal
+places the same as those obtained by Boys.
+
+_G. K. Burgess's Experiment_ (_Thèses présentées à la faculté des
+sciences de Paris pour obtenir le titre de docteur de l'université de
+Paris_, 1901).--This was a Cavendish experiment in which the torsion
+system was buoyed up by a float in a mercury bath. The attracted masses
+could thus be made large, and yet the suspending wire could be kept
+fine. The torsion beam was 12 cm. long, and the attracted balls were
+lead spheres each 2 kgm. From the centre of the beam depended a vertical
+steel rod with a varnished copper hollow float at its end, entirely
+immersed in mercury. The surface of the mercury was covered with dilute
+sulphuric acid to remove irregularities due to varying surface tension
+acting on the steel rod. The size of the float was adjusted so that the
+torsion fibre of quartz 35 cm. long had only to carry a weight of 5 to
+10 gm. The time of vibration was over one hour. The torsion couple per
+radian was determined by preliminary experiments. The attracting masses
+were each 10 kgm. turning in a circle 18 cm. in diameter. The results
+gave [Delta] = 5.55 and G = 6.64 × 10^-8.
+
+_Eötvos's Experiment_ (_Ann. der Physik und Chemie_, 1896, 59, P.
+354).--In the course of investigations on local variations of gravity by
+means of the torsion balance, R. Eötvos devised a method for determining
+G somewhat like the vibration method used by Reich and Braun. Two
+pillars were built up of lead blocks 30 cm. square in cross section, 60
+cm. high and 30 cm. apart. A torsion rod somewhat less than 30 cm. long
+with small weights at the ends was enclosed in a double-walled brass
+case of as little depth as possible, a device which secured great
+steadiness through freedom from convection currents. The suspension was
+a platinum wire about 150 cm. long. The torsion rod was first set in the
+line joining the centres of the pillars and its time of vibration was
+taken. Then it was set with its length perpendicular to the line joining
+the centres and the time again taken. From these times Eötvos was able
+to deduce G = 6.65 × 10^-8 whence [Delta] = 5.53. This is only a
+provisional value. The experiment was only as it were a by-product in
+the course of exceedingly ingenious work on the local variation in
+gravity for which the original paper should be consulted.
+
+_Wilsing's Experiment_ (_Publ. des astrophysikalischen Observ. zu
+Potsdam_, 1887, No. 22, vol. vi. pt. ii.; pt. iii. p. 133).--We may
+perhaps class with the Cavendish type an experiment made by J. Wilsing,
+in which a vertical "double pendulum" was used in place of a horizontal
+torsion system. Two weights each 540 gm. were fixed at the ends of a rod
+1 metre long. A knife edge was fixed on the rod just above its centre of
+gravity, and this was supported so that the rod could vibrate about a
+vertical position. Two attracting masses, cast-iron cylinders each 325
+kgm., were placed, say, one in front of the top weight on the pendulum
+and the other behind the bottom weight, and the position of the rod was
+observed in the usual mirror and scale way. Then the front attracting
+mass was dropped to the level of the lower weight and the back mass was
+raised to that of the upper weight, and the consequent deflection of the
+rod was observed. By taking the time of vibration of the pendulum first
+as used in the deflection experiment and then when a small weight was
+removed from the upper end a known distance from the knife edge, the
+restoring couple per radian deflection could be found. The final result
+gave [Delta] = 5.579.
+
+_J. Joly's suggested Experiment_ (_Nature_ xli., 1890, p. 256).--Joly
+has suggested that G might be determined by hanging a simple pendulum in
+a vacuum, and vibrating outside the case two massive pendulums each with
+the same time of swing as the simple pendulum. The simple pendulum would
+be set swinging by the varying attraction and from its amplitude after a
+known number of swings of the outside pendulums G could be found.
+
+
+III. _Comparison of the Earth Pull on a body with the Pull of an
+Artificial Mass by Means of the Common Balance._
+
+The principle of the method is as follows:--Suppose a sphere of mass m
+and weight w to be hung by a wire from one arm of a balance. Let the
+mass of the earth be E and its radius be R. Then w = GEm/R². Now
+introduce beneath m a sphere of mass M and let d be the distance of its
+centre from that of m. Its pull increases the apparent weight of m say
+by [delta]w. Then [delta]w = GMm/d². Dividing we obtain [delta]w/w =
+MR²/Ed², whence E = MR²w/d²[delta]w; and since g = GE/R², G can be found
+when E is known.
+
+_Von Jolly's Experiment_ (_Abhand. der k. bayer. Akad. der Wiss._ 2 Cl.
+xiii. Bd. 1 Abt. p. 157, and xiv. Bd. 2 Abt. p. 3).--In the first of
+these papers Ph. von Jolly described an experiment in which he sought to
+determine the decrease in weight with increase of height from the
+earth's surface, an experiment suggested by Bacon (_Nov. Org._ Bk. 2,
+§36), in the form of comparison of rates of two clocks at different
+levels, one driven by a spring, the other by weights. The experiment in
+the form carried out by von Jolly was attempted by H. Power, R. Hooke,
+and others in the early days of the Royal Society (Mackenzie, _The Laws
+of Gravitation_). Von Jolly fixed a balance at the top of his laboratory
+and from each pan depended a wire supporting another pan 5 metres below.
+Two 1-kgm. weights were first balanced in the upper pans and then one
+was moved from an upper to the lower pan on the same side. A gain of 1.5
+mgm. was observed after correction for greater weight of air displaced
+at the lower level. The inverse square law would give a slightly greater
+gain and the deficiency was ascribed to the configuration of the land
+near the laboratory. In the second paper a second experiment was
+described in which a balance was fixed at the top of a tower and
+provided as before with one pair of pans just below the arms and a
+second pair hung from these by wires 21 metres below. Four glass globes
+were prepared equal in weight and volume. Two of these were filled each
+with 5 kgm. of mercury and then all were sealed up. The two heavy globes
+were then placed in the upper pans and the two light ones in the lower.
+The two on one side were now interchanged and a gain in weight of about
+31.7 mgm. was observed. Air corrections were eliminated by the use of
+the globes of equal volume. Then a lead sphere about 1 metre radius was
+built up of blocks under one of the lower pans and the experiment was
+repeated. Through the attraction of the lead sphere on the mass of
+mercury when below the gain was greater by 0.589 mgm. This result gave
+[Delta] = 5.692.
+
+_Experiment of Richarz and Krigar-Menzel_ (_Anhang zu den Abhand. der k.
+preuss. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin_, 1898).--In 1884 A. König and F.
+Richarz proposed a similar experiment which was ultimately carried out
+by Richarz and O. Krigar-Menzel. In this experiment a balance was
+supported somewhat more than 2 metres above the floor and with scale
+pans above and below as in von Jolly's experiment. Weights each 1 kgm.
+were placed, say, in the top right pan and the bottom left pan. Then
+they were shifted to the bottom right and the top left, the result
+being, after corrections for change in density of air displaced through
+pressure and temperature changes, a gain in weight of 1.2453 mgm. on the
+right due to change in level of 2.2628 metres. Then a rectangular column
+of lead 210 cm. square cross section and 200 cm. high was built up under
+the balance between the pairs of pans. The column was perforated with
+two vertical tunnels for the passage of the wires supporting the lower
+pans. On repeating the weighings there was now a decrease on the right
+when a kgm. was moved on that side from top to bottom while another was
+moved on the left from bottom to top. This decrease was 0.1211 mgm.
+showing a total change due to the lead mass of 1.2453 + 0.1211 = 1.3664
+mgm. and this is obviously four times the attraction of the lead mass on
+one kgm. The changes in the positions of the weights were made
+automatically. The results gave [Delta] = 5.05 and G = 6.685 × 10^-8.
+
+_Poynting's Experiment_ (_Phil. Trans._, vol. 182, A, 1891, P. 565).--In
+1878 J. H. Poynting published an account of a preliminary experiment
+which he had made to show that the common balance was available for
+gravitational work. The experiment was on the same lines as that of von
+Jolly but on a much smaller scale. In 1891 he gave an account of the
+full experiment carried out with a larger balance and with much greater
+care. The balance had a 4-ft. beam. The scale pans were removed, and
+from the two arms were hung lead spheres each weighing about 20 kgm. at
+a level about 120 cm. below the beam. The balance was supported in a
+case above a horizontal turn-table with axis vertically below the
+central knife edge, and on this turn-table was a lead sphere weighing
+150 kgm.--the attracting mass. The centre of this sphere was 30 cm.
+below the level of the centres of the hanging weights. The turn-table
+could be rotated between stops so that the attracting mass was first
+immediately below the hanging weight on one side, and then immediately
+under that on the other side. On the same turn-table but at double the
+distance from the centre was a second sphere of half the weight
+introduced merely to balance the larger sphere and keep the centre of
+gravity at the centre of the turn-table. Before the introduction of this
+sphere errors were introduced through the tilting of the floor of the
+balance room when the turn-table was rotated. Corrections of course had
+to be made for the attraction of this second sphere. The removal of the
+large mass from left to right made an increase in weight on that side of
+about 1 mgm. determined by riders in a special way described in the
+paper. To eliminate the attraction on the beam and the rods supporting
+the hanging weights another experiment was made in which these weights
+were moved up the rods through 30 cm. and on now moving the attracting
+sphere from left to right the gain on the right was only about ½ mgm.
+The difference, 4/5 mgm., was due entirely to change in distance of the
+attracted masses. After all corrections the results gave [Delta] = 5.493
+and G = 6.698 × 10^-8.
+
+_Final Remarks._--The earlier methods in which natural masses were used
+have disadvantages, as already pointed out, which render them now quite
+valueless. Of later methods the Cavendish appears to possess advantages
+over the common balance method in that it is more easy to ward off
+temperature variations, and so avoid convection currents, and probably
+more easy to determine the actual value of the attracting force. For the
+present the values determined by Boys and Braun may be accepted as
+having the greatest weight and we therefore take
+
+  _Mean density of the earth_ [Delta] = 5.527
+  _Constant of gravitation_ G = 6.658 × 10^-8.
+
+Probably [Delta] = 5.53 and G = 6.66 × 10^-8 are correct to 1 in 500.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J. H. Poynting, _The Mean Density of the Earth_ (1894),
+  gives an account of all work up to the date of publication with a
+  bibliography; A. Stanley Mackenzie, _The Laws of Gravitation_ (1899),
+  gives annotated extracts from various papers, some historical notes
+  and a bibliography. _A Bibliography of Geodesy, Appendix 8, Report for
+  1902 of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey_ includes a very complete
+  bibliography of gravitational work.     (J. H. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAVY, a word usually confined to the natural juices which come from
+meat during cooking. In early uses (in the _New English Dictionary_ the
+quotations date from the end of the 14th to the beginning of the 16th
+centuries) it meant a sauce of broth flavoured with spices and almonds.
+The more modern usage seems to date from the end of the 16th century.
+The word is obscure in origin. It has been connected with "graves" or
+"greaves," the refuse of tallow in the manufacture of soap or candles.
+The more probable derivation is from the French. In Old French the word
+is almost certainly _grané_, and is derived from _grain_, "something
+used in cooking." The word was early read and spelled with a u or v
+instead of n, and the corruption was adopted in English.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, ASA (1810-1888), American botanist, was born at Paris, Oneida
+county, N.Y., on the 18th of November 1810. He was the son of a farmer,
+and received no formal education except at the Fairfield (N.Y.) academy
+and the Fairfield medical school. From Dr James Hadley, the professor of
+chemistry and _materia medica_ he obtained his first instruction in
+science (1825-1826). In the spring of 1827 he first began to collect and
+identify plants. His formal education, such as it was, ended in February
+1831, when he took the degree of M.D. His first contribution to
+descriptive botany appeared in 1835, and thereafter an uninterrupted
+series of contributions to systematic botany flowed from his pen for
+fifty-three years. In 1836 his first botanical text-book appeared under
+the title _Elements of Botany_, followed in 1839 by his _Botanical
+Text-Book for Colleges, Schools, and Private Students_ which developed
+into his _Structural Botany_. He published later _First Lessons in
+Botany and Vegetable Physiology_ (1857); _How Plants Grow_ (1858);
+_Field, Forest, and Garden_ Botany (1869); _How Plants Behave_ (1872).
+These books served the purpose of developing popular interest in
+botanical studies. His most important work, however, was his _Manual of
+the Botany of the Northern United States_, the first edition of which
+appeared in 1847. This manual has passed through a large number of
+editions, is clear, accurate and compact to an extraordinary degree, and
+within its geographical limits is an indispensable book for the student
+of American botany.
+
+Throughout his life Gray was a diligent writer of reviews of books on
+natural history subjects. Often these reviews were elaborate essays, for
+which the books served merely as texts; often they were clear and just
+summaries of extensive works; sometimes they were sharply critical,
+though never ill-natured or unfair; always they were interesting, lively
+and of literary as well as scientific excellence. The greater part of
+Gray's strictly scientific labour was devoted to a _Flora_ of North
+America, the plan of which originated with his early teacher and
+associate, John Torrey of New York. The second volume of Torrey and
+Gray's _Flora_ was completed in 1843; but for forty years thereafter
+Gray gave up a large part of his time to the preparation of his
+_Synoptical Flora_ (1878). He lived at the period when the flora of
+North America was being discovered, described and systematized; and his
+enthusiastic labours in this fresh field placed him at the head of
+American botanists and on a level with the most famous botanists of the
+world. In 1856 he published a paper on the distribution of plants under
+the title _Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States_; and
+this paper was followed in 1859 by a memoir on the botany of Japan and
+its relations to that of North America, a paper of which Sir J. D.
+Hooker said that "in point of originality and far-reaching results [it]
+was its author's _opus magnum_." It was Gray's study of plant
+distribution which led to his intimate correspondence with Charles
+Darwin during the years in which Darwin was elaborating the doctrines
+that later became known as Darwinism. From 1855 to 1875 Gray was both a
+keen critic and a sympathetic exponent of the Darwinian principles. His
+religious views were those of the Evangelical bodies in the Protestant
+Church; so that, when Darwinism was attacked as equivalent to atheism,
+he was in position to answer effectively the unfounded allegation that
+it was fatal to the doctrine of design. He taught that "the most
+puzzling things of all to the old-school teleologists are the
+_principia_ of the Darwinian." He openly avowed his conviction that the
+present species are not special creations, but rather derived from
+previously existing species; and he made his avowal with frank courage,
+when this truth was scarcely recognized by any naturalists, and when to
+the clerical mind evolution meant atheism.
+
+In 1842 Gray accepted the Fisher professorship of natural history in
+Harvard University. On his accession to this chair the university had no
+herbarium, no botanical library, few plants of any value, and but a
+small garden, which for lack of money had never been well stocked or
+well arranged. He soon brought together, chiefly by widespread
+exchanges, a valuable herbarium and library, and arranged the garden;
+and thereafter the development of these botanical resources was part of
+his regular labours. The herbarium soon became the largest and most
+valuable in America, and on account of the numerous type specimens it
+contains it is likely to remain a collection of national importance.
+Nothing of what Gray did for the botanical department of the university
+has been lost; on the contrary, his labours were so well directed that
+everything he originated and developed has been enlarged, improved and
+placed on stable foundations. He himself made large contributions to the
+establishment by giving it all his own specimens, many books and no
+little money, and by his will he gave it the royalties on his books.
+During his long connexion with the university he brought up two
+generations of botanists and he always took a strong personal interest
+in the researches and the personal prospects of the young men who had
+studied under him. His scientific life was mainly spent in the herbarium
+and garden in Cambridge; but his labours there were relieved by numerous
+journeys to different parts of the United States and to Europe, all of
+which contributed to his work on the Synoptical Flora. He lived to a
+good age--long enough, indeed, to receive from learned societies at home
+and abroad abundant evidence of their profound respect for his
+attainments and services. He died at Cambridge, Mass., on the 30th of
+January 1888.
+
+  His _Letters_ (1893) were edited by his wife; and his _Scientific
+  Papers_ (1888) by C. S. Sargent.     (C. W. E.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861), Scottish poet, the son of a hand-loom weaver,
+was born at Merkland, near Glasgow, on the 29th of January 1838. His
+parents resolved to educate him for the church, and through their
+self-denial and his own exertions as a pupil teacher and private tutor
+he was able to complete a course of four sessions at the university of
+Glasgow. He began to write poetry for _The Glasgow Citizen_ and began
+his idyll on the Luggie, the little stream that ran through Merkland.
+His most intimate companion at this time was Robert Buchanan, the poet;
+and in May 1860 the two agreed to proceed to London, with the idea of
+finding literary employment. Shortly after his arrival in London Gray
+introduced himself to Monckton Milnes, afterwards Lord Houghton, with
+whom he had previously corresponded. Lord Houghton tried to persuade him
+to return to Scotland, but Gray insisted on staying in London. He was
+unsuccessful in his efforts to place Gray's poem, "The Luggie," in _The
+Cornhill Magazine_, but gave him some light literary work. He also
+showed him great kindness when a cold which had seized him assumed the
+serious form of consumption, and sent him to Torquay; but as the disease
+made rapid progress, an irresistible longing seized Gray to return to
+Merkland, where he arrived in January 1861, and died on the 3rd of
+December following, having the day before had the gratification of
+seeing a printed specimen copy of his poem "The Luggie," published
+eventually by the exertions of Sydney Dobell. He was buried in the Auld
+Aisle Churchyard, Kirkintilloch, where in 1865 a monument was erected by
+"friends far and near" to his memory.
+
+"The Luggie," the principal poem of Gray, is a kind of reverie in which
+the scenes and events of his childhood and his early aspirations are
+mingled with the music of the stream which he celebrates. The series of
+sonnets, "In the Shadows," was composed during the latter part of his
+illness. Most of his poems necessarily bear traces of immaturity, and
+lines may frequently be found in them which are mere echoes from
+Thomson, Wordsworth or Tennyson, but they possess, nevertheless,
+distinct individuality, and show a real appreciation of natural beauty.
+
+  _The Luggie and other Poems_, with an introduction by R. Monckton
+  Milnes, and a brief memoir by James Hedderwick, was published in 1862;
+  and a new and enlarged edition of Gray's _Poetical Works_, edited by
+  Henry Glassford Bell, appeared in 1874. See also _David Gray and other
+  Essays_, by Robert Buchanan (1868), and the same writer's poem on
+  David Gray, in _Idyls and Legends of Inverburn_.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901), American electrician, was born in Barnesville,
+Belmont county, Ohio, on the 2nd of August 1835. He worked as a
+carpenter and in a machine shop, reading in physical science at the
+same time, and for five years studied at Oberlin College, where he
+taught for a time. He then investigated the subject of telegraphy, and
+in 1867 patented a telegraphic switch and annunciator. Experimenting in
+the transmittal of electro-tones and of musical tones by wire, he
+utilized in 1874 animal tissues in his receivers, and filed, on the 14th
+of February 1876, a caveat for the invention of a telephone, only a few
+hours after the filing of an application for a patent by Alexander
+Graham Bell. (See TELEPHONE.) The caveat was disregarded; letters patent
+No. 174,465 were granted to Bell, whose priority of invention was upheld
+in 1888 by the United States Supreme Court (see _Molecular Telephone
+Co._ v. _American Bell Telephone Co._, 126 U.S. 1). Gray's experiments
+won for him high praise and the decoration of the Legion of Honour at
+the Paris Exposition of 1878. He was for a time a manufacturer of
+electrical apparatus, particularly of his own inventions; and was chief
+electrical expert of the Western Electric Company of Chicago. At the
+Columbian Exposition of 1893 Gray was chairman of the International
+Congress of Electricians. He died at Newtonville, Massachusetts, on the
+21st of January 1901. Among his later inventions were appliances for
+multiplex telegraphy and the telautograph, a machine for the electric
+transmission of handwriting. He experimented in the submarine use of
+electric bells for signalling.
+
+  Gray wrote, besides scientific addresses and many monographs,
+  _Telegraphy and Telephony_ (1878) and _Electricity and Magnetism_
+  (1900).
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-1877). American portrait and genre painter, was
+born in New York on the 23rd of June 1819. He was a pupil of Daniel
+Huntington there, and subsequently studied in Rome and Florence. Elected
+a member of the National Academy of Design in 1842, he succeeded
+Huntington as president in 1870, holding the position until 1871. The
+later years of his life were devoted to portrait work. He was strongly
+influenced by the old Italian masters, painting in mellow colour with a
+classical tendency. One of his notable canvases was an allegorical
+composition called "The Birth of our Flag" (1875). He died in New York
+City on the 12th of November 1877.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, HORACE (1828-1902), American jurist, was born in Boston,
+Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1828. He graduated at Harvard in
+1845; was admitted to the bar in 1851, and in 1854-1861 was reporter to
+the Supreme Court of Massachusetts. He practised law, first in
+partnership with Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar, and later with Wilder Dwight
+(1823-1862) and Charles F. Blake; was appointed associate justice of the
+state Supreme Court on the 23rd of August 1864, becoming chief-justice
+on the 5th of September 1873; and was associate justice of the Supreme
+Court of the United States from December 1881 to August 1902, resigning
+only a few weeks before his death at Nahant, Mass., on the 15th of
+September 1902. Gray had a fine sense of the dignity of the bench, and a
+taste for historical study. His judgments were unmistakably clear and
+contained the essence of earlier opinions. A great case lawyer, he was a
+much greater judge, the variety of his knowledge and his contributions
+to admiralty and prize law and to testamentary law being particularly
+striking; in constitutional law he was a "loose" rather than a "strict"
+constructionist.
+
+  See Francis C. Lowell, "Horace Gray," in _Proceedings of the American
+  Academy_, vol. 39, pp. 627-637 (Boston, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214), bishop of Norwich, entered Prince John's
+service, and at his accession (1199) was rapidly promoted in the church
+till he became bishop of Norwich in September 1200. King John's attempt
+to force him into the primacy in 1205 started the king's long and fatal
+quarrel with Pope Innocent III. De Gray was a hard-working royal
+official, in finance, in justice, in action, using his position to
+enrich himself and his family. In 1209 he went to Ireland to govern it
+as justiciar. He adopted a forward policy, attempting to extend the
+English frontier northward and westward, and fought a number of
+campaigns on the Shannon and in Fermanagh. But in 1212 he suffered a
+great defeat. He assimilated the coinage of Ireland to that of England,
+and tried to effect a similar reform in Irish law. De Gray was a good
+financier, and could always raise money: this probably explains the
+favour he enjoyed from King John. In 1213 he is found with 500 knights
+at the great muster at Barham Downs, when Philip Augustus was
+threatening to invade England. After John's reconciliation with Innocent
+he was one of those exempted from the general pardon, and was forced to
+go in person to Rome to obtain it. At Rome he so completely gained over
+Innocent that the pope sent him back with papal letters recommending his
+election to the bishopric of Durham (1213); but he died at St Jean
+d'Audely in Poitou on his homeward journey (October 1214).
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800-1875), English naturalist, born at Walsall,
+Staffordshire, in 1800, was the eldest of the three sons of S. F. Gray,
+of that town, druggist and writer on botany, and author of the
+_Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia_, &c., his grandfather being S. F.
+Gray, who translated the _Philosophia Botanica_ of Linnaeus for the
+_Introduction to Botany_ of James Lee (1715-1795). Gray studied at St
+Bartholomew's and other hospitals for the medical profession, but at an
+early age was attracted to the pursuit of botany. He assisted his father
+by collecting notes on botany and comparative anatomy and zoology in Sir
+Joseph Banks's library at the British Museum, aided by Dr W. E. Leach,
+assistant keeper, and the systematic synopsis of the _Natural
+Arrangement of British Plants_, 2 vols., 1821, was prepared by him, his
+father writing the preface and introduction only. In consequence of his
+application for membership of the Linnaean Society being rejected in
+1822, he turned to the study of zoology, writing on zoophytes, shells,
+_Mollusca_ and _Papilionidae_, still aided by Dr Leach at the British
+Museum. In December 1824 he obtained the post of assistant in that
+institution; and from that date to December 1839, when J. G. Children
+retired from the keepership, he had so zealously applied himself to the
+study, classification and improvement of the national collection of
+zoology that he was selected as the fittest person to be entrusted with
+its charge. Immediately on his appointment as keeper, he took in hand
+the revision of the systematic arrangement of the collections;
+scientific catalogues followed in rapid succession; the department was
+raised in importance; its poverty as well as its wealth became known,
+and whilst increased grants, donations and exchanges made good many
+deficiencies, great numbers of students, foreign as well as English,
+availed themselves of its resources to enlarge the knowledge of zoology
+in all its branches. In spite of numerous obstacles, he worked up the
+department, within a few years of his appointment as keeper, to such a
+state of excellence as to make it the rival of the cabinets of Leiden,
+Paris and Berlin; and later on it was raised under his management to the
+dignity of the largest and most complete zoological collection in the
+world. Although seized with paralysis in 1870, he continued to discharge
+the functions of keeper of zoology, and to contribute papers to the
+_Annals of Natural History_, his favourite journal, and to the
+transactions of a few of the learned societies; but at Christmas 1874,
+having completed half a century of official work, he resigned office,
+and died in London on the 7th of March 1875.
+
+Gray was an exceedingly voluminous writer, and his interests were not
+confined to natural history only, for he took an active part in
+questions of public importance of his day, such as slave emancipation,
+prison discipline, abolition of imprisonment for debt, sanitary and
+municipal organizations, the decimal system, public education, extension
+of the opening of museums, &c. He began to publish in 1820, and
+continued till the year of his death.
+
+  The titles of the books, memoirs and miscellaneous papers written by
+  him, accompanied by a few notes, fill a privately printed list of 56
+  octavo pages with 1162 entries.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6TH BARON (d. 1612), was descended from Sir Andrew
+Gray (c. 1390-1469) of Broxmouth and Foulis, who was created a Scottish
+peer as Lord Gray, probably in 1445. Andrew was a leading figure in
+Scottish politics during the reigns of James I. and his two successors,
+and visited England as a hostage, a diplomatist and a pilgrim. The 2nd
+Lord Gray was his grandson Andrew (d. 1514), and the 4th lord was the
+latter's grandson Patrick (d. 1582), a participant in Scottish politics
+during the stormy time of Mary, queen of Scots. Patrick's son, Patrick,
+the 5th lord (d. 1609), married Barbara, daughter of William, 2nd Lord
+Ruthven, and their son Patrick, known as the "Master of Gray," is the
+subject of this article. Educated at Glasgow University and brought up
+as a Protestant, young Patrick was married early in life to Elizabeth
+Lyon, daughter of Lord Glamis, whom he repudiated almost directly; and
+afterwards went to France, where he joined the friends of Mary, queen of
+Scots, became a Roman Catholic, and assisted the French policy of the
+Guises in Scotland. He returned and took up his residence again in
+Scotland in 1583, and immediately began a career of treachery and
+intrigue, gaining James's favour by disclosing to him his mother's
+secrets, and acting in agreement with James Stewart, earl of Arran, in
+order to keep Mary a prisoner in England. In 1584 he was sent as
+ambassador to England, to effect a treaty between James and Elizabeth
+and to exclude Mary. His ambition incited him at the same time to
+promote a plot to secure the downfall of Arran. This was supported by
+Elizabeth, and was finally accomplished by letting loose the lords
+banished from Scotland for their participation in the rebellion called
+the Raid of Ruthven, who, joining Gray, took possession of the king's
+person at Stirling in 1585, the league with England being ratified by
+the parliament in December. Gray now became the intermediary between the
+English government and James on the great question of Mary's execution,
+and in 1587 he was despatched on an embassy to Elizabeth, ostensibly to
+save Mary's life. Gray had, however, previously advised her secret
+assassination and had endeavoured to overcome all James's scruples; and
+though he does not appear to have carried treachery so far as to advise
+her death on this occasion, no representations made by him could have
+had any force or weight. The execution of Mary caused his own downfall
+and loss of political power in Scotland; and after his return he was
+imprisoned on charges of plots against Protestantism, of endeavouring to
+prevent the king's marriage, and of having been bribed to consent to
+Mary's death. He pleaded guilty of sedition and of having obstructed the
+king's marriage, and was declared a traitor; but his life was spared by
+James and he was banished from the country, but permitted to return in
+1589, when he was restored to his office of master of the wardrobe to
+which he had been appointed in 1585. His further career was marked by
+lawlessness and misconduct. In 1592, together with the 5th Lord
+Bothwell, he made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the king at Falkland,
+and the same year earned considerable discredit by bringing groundless
+accusations against the Presbyterian minister, Robert Bruce; while after
+the king's accession to the English throne he was frequently summoned
+before the authorities on account of his conduct. Notwithstanding, he
+never lost James's favour. In 1609 he succeeded his father as 6th Baron
+Gray, and died in 1612.
+
+Gray was an intimate friend of Sir Philip Sidney, but, if one of the
+ablest, handsomest and most fascinating, he was beyond doubt one of the
+most unscrupulous men of his day. He married as his second wife in 1585
+Mary Stewart, daughter of Robert, earl of Orkney, and had by her,
+besides six daughters, a son, Andrew (d. 1663), who succeeded him as 7th
+Baron Gray. Andrew, who served for a long time in the French army, was a
+supporter, although not a very prominent one, of Charles I. and
+afterwards of Charles II. He was succeeded as 8th Lord Gray by Patrick
+(d. 1711), a son of his daughter Anne, and Patrick's successor was his
+kinsman and son-in-law John (d. 1724). On the extinction of John's
+direct line in 1878 the title of Lord Gray, passed to George Stuart,
+earl of Moray. In 1606 Gray had been ranked sixth among the Scottish
+baronies.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in _Dict. of Nat. Biog._, and authorities there
+  quoted; Gray's relation concerning the surprise at Stirling
+  (_Bannatyne Club Publns._ i. 131, 1827); Andrew Lang, _History of
+  Scotland_, vol. ii. (1902); Peter Gray, _The Descent and Kinship of
+  Patrick, Master of Gray_ (1903); _Gray Papers_ (Bannatyne Club, 1835);
+  _Hist. MSS. Comm., Marq. of Salisbury's MSS._
+
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872), first bishop of Cape Town and metropolitan of
+South Africa, was born at Bishop Wearmouth, Durham, and was the son of
+Robert Gray, bishop of Bristol. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and
+took orders in 1833. After holding the livings of Whitworth, Durham,
+1834-1845, and Stockton-on-Tees, 1845-1847, he was consecrated bishop of
+Cape Town in 1847; the bishopric having been endowed through the
+liberality of Miss (afterwards Baroness) Burdett-Coutts. Until 1853 he
+was a suffragan of Canterbury, but in that year he formally resigned his
+see and was reappointed by letters patent metropolitan of South Africa
+in view of the contemplated establishment of the suffragan dioceses of
+Graham's Town and Natal. In that capacity his coercive jurisdiction was
+twice called in question, and in each case the judicial committee of the
+privy council decided against him. The best-known case is that of Bishop
+Colenso, whom Gray deposed and excommunicated in 1863. The spiritual
+validity of the sentence was upheld by the convocation of Canterbury and
+the Pan-Anglican synod of 1867, but legally Colenso remained bishop of
+Natal. The privy council decisions declared, in effect, that the
+Anglican body in South Africa was on the footing of a voluntary
+religious society. Gray, accepting this position, obtained its
+recognition by the mother church as the Church of the Province of South
+Africa, in full communion with the Church of England. The first
+provincial synod was held in 1870. During his episcopate Bishop Gray
+effected a much-needed organization of the South African church, to
+which he added five new bishoprics, all carved out of the original
+diocese of Cape Town. It was also chiefly owing to his suggestions that
+the universities' mission to Central Africa was founded.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369), English chronicler, was a son of Sir
+Thomas Gray, who was taken prisoner by the Scots at Bannockburn and who
+died about 1344. The younger Thomas was present at the battle of
+Neville's Cross in 1346; in 1355, whilst acting as warden of Norham
+Castle, he was made a prisoner, and during his captivity in Edinburgh
+Castle he devoted his time to studying the English chroniclers, Gildas,
+Bede, Ranulf Higdon and others. Released in 1357 he was appointed warden
+of the east marches towards Scotland in 1367, and he died about 1369.
+Gray's work, the _Scalacronica_ (so called, perhaps, from the
+scaling-ladder in the crest of the Grays), is a chronicle of English
+history from the earliest times to about the year 1362. It is, however,
+only valuable for the reigns of Edward I. and Edward II. and part of
+that of Edward III., being especially so for the account of the wars
+between England and Scotland, in which the author's father and the
+author himself took part. Writing in Norman-French, Gray tells of
+Wallace and Bruce, of the fights at Bannockburn, Byland and Dupplin, and
+makes some mention of the troubles in England during the reign of Edward
+II. He also narrates the course of the war in France between 1355 and
+1361; possibly he was present during some of these campaigns.
+
+  The _Scalacronica_ was summarized by John Leland in the 16th century;
+  the part dealing with the period from 1066 to the end, together with
+  the prologue, was edited for the Maitland Club by J. Stevenson (1836);
+  and the part from 1274 to 1362 was translated into English by Sir
+  Herbert Maxwell (Glasgow, 1907). In the extant manuscript, which is in
+  Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, there is a gap extending from about
+  1340 to 1355, and Gray's account of this period is only known from
+  Leland's summary.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771), English poet, the fifth and sole surviving
+child of Philip and Dorothy Gray, was born in London on the 26th of
+December 1716. His mother's maiden name was Antrobus, and in partnership
+with her sister Mary she kept a millinery shop in Cornhill. This and the
+house connected with it were the property of Philip Gray, a
+money-scrivener, who married Dorothy in 1706 and lived with her in the
+house, the sisters renting the shop from him and supporting themselves
+by its profits. Philip Gray had impaired the fortune which he inherited
+from his father, a wealthy London merchant; yet he was sufficiently
+well-to-do, and at the close of his life was building a house upon some
+property of his own at Wanstead. But he was selfish and brutal, and in
+1735 his wife took some abortive steps to obtain a separation from him.
+At this date she had given birth to twelve children, of whom Thomas was
+the only survivor. He owed his life as well as his education to this
+"careful, tender mother," as he calls her. The child was suffocating
+when she opened one of his veins with her own hand. He went at her
+expense to Eton in 1727, and was confided to the care of her brother,
+William Antrobus, one of the assistant-masters, during some part at
+least of his school-life.
+
+At Eton Gray's closest friends were Horace Walpole, Richard West (son of
+the lord chancellor of Ireland and grandson of the famous Bishop
+Burnet), and Thomas Ashton, afterwards fellow of Eton. This little
+coterie was dubbed "the Quadruple Alliance"; its members were studious
+and literary, and took little part in the amusements of their fellows.
+In 1734 Gray matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, of which his uncle,
+Robert Antrobus, had been a fellow. At Cambridge he had once more the
+companionship of Walpole and Ashton who were at King's, but West went to
+Christchurch, Oxford. Gray made at this time the firmest and most
+constant friendship of his life with Thomas Wharton (not the poet
+Warton) of Pembroke College. He was maintained by his mother, and his
+straitened means were eked out by certain small exhibitions from his
+college. His conspicuous abilities and known devotion to study perhaps
+atoned in the eyes of the authorities for his indifference to the
+regular routine of study; for mathematics in particular he had an
+aversion which was the one exception to his almost limitless curiosity
+in other directions. During his first Cambridge period he learnt Italian
+"like any dragon," and made translations from Guarini, Dante and Tasso,
+some of which have been preserved. In September 1738 he is in the agony
+of leaving college, nor can we trace his movements with any certainty
+for a while, though it may be conjectured that he spent much time with
+Horace Walpole, and made in his company some fashionable acquaintances
+in London. On the 29th of March 1739, he started with Walpole for a long
+continental tour, for the expenses of which it is probable that his
+father, for once, came in some measure to his assistance. In Paris, Gray
+visited the great with his friend, studied the picture-galleries, went
+to tragedies, comedies, operas and cultivated there that taste for the
+French classical dramatists, especially Racine, whom he afterwards tried
+to imitate in the fragmentary "Agrippina." It is characteristic of him
+that he travels through France with Caesar constantly in his hands, ever
+noting and transcribing. In the same way, in crossing the Alps and in
+Piedmont, he has "Livy in the chaise with him and Silius Italicus too."
+In Italy he made a long sojourn, principally at Florence, where
+Walpole's lifelong correspondent, Horace Mann, was British envoy, and
+received and treated the travellers most hospitably. But Rome and Naples
+are also described in Gray's letters, sometimes vividly, always
+amusingly, and in his notes are almost catalogued. Herculaneum, an
+object of intense interest to the young poet and antiquary, had been
+discovered the year before. At length in April 1741 Gray and Walpole set
+out northwards for Reggio. Here they quarrelled. Gray, "never a boy,"
+was a student, and at times retiring; Walpole, in his way a student too,
+was at this time a very social being, somewhat too frivolous, and, what
+was worse, too patronizing. He good-humouredly said at a later date,
+"Gray loves to find fault," and this fault-finding was expressed, no
+doubt with exaggeration, in a letter to Ashton, who violated Gray's
+confidence. The rupture followed, and with two friends, John Chute of
+the Vyne, Hampshire, and the young Francis Whithed, Gray went to Venice
+to see the doge wed the Adriatic on Ascension Day. Thence he returned
+home attended only by a _laquais de voyage_, visiting once more the
+Grande Chartreuse where he left in the album of the brotherhood those
+beautiful alcaics, _O Tu severa Religio loci_, which reveal his
+characteristic melancholy (enhanced by solitude and estrangement) and
+that sense of the glory as distinct from the horror of mountain scenery
+to which perhaps he was the first of Englishmen to give adequate
+expression. On the 18th of September 1741 we find him in London,
+astonishing the street boys with his deep ruffles, large bag-wig and
+long sword, and "mortified" under the hands of the English barber. On
+the 6th of November his father died; Philip Gray had, it is evident,
+been less savage and niggardly at last to those who were dependent upon
+him, and his death left his wife and son some measure of assured peace
+and comfort.
+
+London was Gray's headquarters for more than a year, with occasional
+visits to Stoke Poges, to which his mother and Mary Antrobus had retired
+from business to live with their sister, Mrs Rogers. At Stoke he heard
+of the death of West, to whom he had sent the "Ode on Spring," which was
+returned to him unopened. It was an unexpected blow, shocking in all its
+circumstances, especially if we believe the story that his friend's
+frail life was brought to a close by the discovery that the mother whom
+he tenderly loved had been an unfaithful wife, and, as some say,
+poisoned her husband. About this tragedy Gray preserved a mournful
+silence, broken only by the pathetic sonnet, and some Latin lines, in
+which he laments his loss. The year 1742, was, for him, fruitful in
+poetic effort, of which, however, much was incomplete. The "Agrippina,"
+the _De principiis Cogitandi_, the splenetic "Hymn to Ignorance" in
+which he contemplates his return to the university, remain fragments;
+but besides the two poems already mentioned, the "Ode on a Distant
+Prospect of Eton College" and the "Hymn to Adversity," perhaps the most
+faultless of his poems, were written before the close of the summer.
+After hesitating between Trinity Hall and Peterhouse, he returned to the
+latter, probably as a fellow-commoner. He had hitherto neglected to read
+for a degree; he proceeded to that of LL.B. in 1744. In 1745 a
+reconciliation with Walpole, long desired probably on both sides, was
+effected through the kind offices of Chute's sister. In 1746 he spent
+his time between Cambridge, Stoke and London; was much with Walpole;
+graphically describes the trial of the Scottish rebel lords, and studied
+Greek with avidity; but "the muse," which by this time perhaps had
+stimulated him to begin the "Elegy," "has gone, and left him in much
+worse company." In town he finds his friends Chute and Whithed returned
+to England, and "flaunts about" in public places with them. The year
+1747 produced only the ode on Walpole's cat, and we gather that he is
+mainly engaged in reading with a very critical eye, and interesting
+himself more in the troubles of Pembroke College, in which he almost
+seems to live, than in the affairs of Peterhouse. In this year also be
+made the acquaintance of Mason, his future biographer. In 1748 he first
+came before the public, but anonymously, in Dodsley's _Miscellany_, in
+which appeared the Eton ode, the ode on spring, and that on the cat. In
+the same year he sent to Wharton the beginning of the didactic poem,
+"The Alliance of Education and Government," which remains a fragment.
+His aunt, Mary Antrobus, died in 1749.
+
+There is little to break the monotony of his days till 1750, when from
+Stoke he sent Walpole "a thing to which he had at last put an end." The
+"thing" was the "Elegy." It was shown about in manuscript by his
+admiring friend; it was impudently pirated, and Gray had it printed by
+Dodsley in self-defence. Even thus it had "a pinch or two in its
+cradle," of which it long bore the marks. The publication led to the one
+incident in Gray's life which has a touch of romance. At Stokehouse had
+come to live the widowed Lady Cobham, who learnt that the author of the
+"Elegy" was her neighbour. At her instance, Lady Schaub, her visitor,
+and Miss Speed, her protégée, paid him a call; the poet was out, and his
+quiet mother and aunts were somewhat flustered at the apparition of
+these women of fashion, whose acquaintance Gray had already made in
+town. Hence the humorous "Long Story." A platonic affection sprang up
+between Gray and Miss Speed; rumour, upon the death of Lady Cobham, said
+that they were to be married, but the lady escaped this mild destiny to
+become the Baroness de la Peyrière, afterwards Countess Viry, and a
+dangerous political _intriguante_.
+
+In 1753 all Gray's completed poems, except the sonnet on the death of
+West, were published by Dodsley in a handsome volume illustrated by
+Richard Bentley, the son of the celebrated master of Trinity. To these
+designs we owe the verses to the artist which were posthumously
+published from a MS. torn at the end. In the same year Gray's mother
+died and was buried in the churchyard at Stoke Poges, the scene of the
+"Elegy," in the same grave with Mary Antrobus. A visit to his friend Dr
+Wharton at Durham later in the year revives his earlier impressions of
+that bolder scenery which is henceforth to be in the main the framework
+of his muse. Already in 1752 he had almost completed "The Progress of
+Poesy," in which, and in "The Bard," the imagery is largely furnished
+forth by mountain and torrent. The latter poem long held fire; Gray was
+stimulated to finish it by hearing the blind Welsh harper Parry at
+Cambridge. Both odes were the first-fruits of the press which Walpole
+had set up at Strawberry Hill, and were printed together there in 1757.
+They are genuinely Pindaric, that is, with corresponding strophes,
+antistrophes and epodes. As the Greek motto prefixed to them implies,
+they were vocal to the intelligent only; and these at first were few.
+But the odes, if they did not attain the popularity of the "Elegy,"
+marked an epoch in the history of English poetry, and the influence of
+"The Bard" may be traced even in that great but very fruitful imposture,
+the pseudo-Ossian of Macpherson. Gray yields to the impulse of the
+Romantic movement; he has long been an admirer of ballad poetry; before
+he wrote "The Bard" he had begun to study Scandinavian literature, and
+the two "Norse Odes," written in 1761, were in style and metrical form
+strangely anticipative of Coleridge and Scott. Meanwhile his Cambridge
+life had been vexed by the freaks of the fellow-commoners of Peterhouse,
+a peculiarly riotous set. He had suffered great inconvenience for a time
+by the burning of his property in Cornhill, and so nervous was he on the
+subject of fire that he had provided himself with a rope-ladder by which
+he might descend from his college window. Under this window a
+hunting-party of these rude lads raised in the early morning the cry of
+fire; the poet's night-capped head appeared and was at once withdrawn.
+This, or little more than this, was the simple fact out of which arose
+the legend still current at Cambridge. The servile authorities of
+Peterhouse treated Gray's complaints with scant respect, and he migrated
+to Pembroke College. "I left my lodgings," he said, "because the rooms
+were noisy, and the people of the house dirty."
+
+In 1758 died Mrs Rogers, and Gray describes himself as employed at Stoke
+in "dividing nothing" between himself and the surviving aunt, Mrs
+Oliffe, whom he calls "the spawn of Cerberus and the Dragon of Wantley."
+In 1759 he availed himself of the MS. treasures of the British Museum,
+then for the first time open to the public, made a very long sojourn in
+town, and in 1761 witnessed the coronation of George III., of which to
+his friend Brown of Pembroke he wrote a very vivacious account. In his
+last years he revealed a craving for a life less sedentary than
+heretofore. He visited various picturesque districts of Great Britain,
+exploring great houses and ruined abbeys; he was the pioneer of the
+modern tourist, noting and describing in the spirit now of the poet, now
+of the art-critic, now of the antiquary. In 1762 he travelled in
+Yorkshire and Derbyshire; in 1764 in the Lowlands of Scotland, and
+thence went to Southampton and its neighbourhood. In 1765 he revisits
+Scotland; he is the guest of Lord Strathmore at Glamis; and revels in
+"those monstrous creatures of God," the Highland mountains. His most
+notable achievement in this direction was his journey among the English
+lakes, of which he wrote an interesting account to Wharton; and even in
+1770, the year before his death, he visited with his young friend Norton
+Nicholls "five of the most beautiful counties of the kingdom," and
+descended the Wye for 40 m. In all these quests he displays a physical
+energy which surprises and even perplexes us. His true academic status
+was worthily secured in 1768, when the duke of Grafton offered him the
+professorship of modern history which in 1762 he had vainly endeavoured
+to obtain from Bute. He wrote in 1769 the "Installation Ode" upon the
+appointment of Grafton as chancellor of the university. It was almost
+the only instance in which he successfully executed a task, not, in the
+strictest sense, self-imposed; the great founders of the university are
+tactfully memorized and pass before us in a kind of heraldic splendour.
+He bore with indifference the taunts to which, from Junius and others,
+he was exposed for this tribute to his patron. He was contemplating a
+journey to Switzerland to visit his youthful friend de Bonstetten when,
+in the summer of 1771, he was conscious of a great decline in his
+physical powers. He was seized with a sudden illness when dining in his
+college hall, and died of gout in the stomach on the 30th of July 1771.
+His last moments were attended by his cousin Mary Antrobus, postmistress
+through his influence at Cambridge and daughter of his Eton tutor; and
+he was laid beside his beloved mother in the churchyard of Stoke Poges.
+
+Owing to his shyness and reserve he had few intimate friends, but to
+these his loss was irreparable; for to them he revealed himself either
+in boyish levity and banter, or wise and sympathetic counsel and tender
+and yet manly consolation; to them he imparted his quiet but keen
+observation of passing events or the stores of his extensive reading in
+literature ancient, medieval or modern; and with Proteus-like variety he
+writes at one time as a speculative philosopher, at another as a critic
+in art or music, at another as a meteorologist and nature-lover. His
+friendship with the young, after his migration to Pembroke College, is a
+noteworthy trait in his character. With Lord Strathmore and the Lyons
+and with William Palgrave he conversed as an elder brother, and Norton
+Nicholls of Trinity Hall lost in him a second father, who had taught him
+to think and feel. The brilliant young foreigner, de Bonstetten, looked
+back after a long and chequered career with remembrance still vivid to
+the days in which the poet so soon to die taught him to read Shakespeare
+and Milton in the monastic gloom of Cambridge. With the elderly
+"Levites" of the place he was less in sympathy; they dreaded his
+sarcastic vein; they were conscious that he laughed at them, and in the
+polemics of the university he was somewhat of a free lance, fighting for
+his own hand. Lampoons of his were privately circulated with effect, and
+that he could be the fiercest of satirists the "Cambridge Courtship" on
+the candidature of Lord Sandwich for the office of high steward, and the
+verses on Lord Holland's mimic ruins at Westgate, sufficiently prove.
+The faculty which he displayed in humour and satire was denied to his
+more serious muse; there all was the fruit of long delay; of that higher
+inspiration he had a thin but very precious vein, and the sublimity
+which he undoubtedly attained was reached by an effort of which captious
+and even sympathetic criticism can discover the traces. In his own time
+he was regarded as an innovator, for like Collins he revived the poetic
+diction of the past, and the adverse judgments of Johnson and others
+upon his work are in fact a defence of the current literary traditions.
+Few men have published so little to so much effect; few have attained to
+fame with so little ambition. His favourite maxim was "to be employed is
+to be happy," but he was always employed in the first instance for the
+satisfaction of his own soul, and to this end and no other he made
+himself one of the best Greek scholars at Cambridge in the interval
+between Bentley and Porson. His genius was receptive rather than
+creative, and it is to be regretted that he lacked energy to achieve
+that history of English poetry which he once projected, and for which he
+possessed far more knowledge and insight than the poet Thomas Warton, to
+whom he resigned the task. He had a fine taste in music, painting and
+architecture; and his correspondence includes a wide survey of such
+European literature as was accessible to him, with criticisms, sometimes
+indeed a little limited and insular, yet of a singularly fresh and
+modern cast. In person he was below the middle height, but well-made,
+and his face, in which the primness of his features was redeemed by his
+flashing eyes, was the index of his character. There was a touch of
+affectation in his demeanour, and he was sometimes reticent and
+secretive even to his best friends. He was a refined Epicurean in his
+habits, and a deist rather than a Christian in his religious beliefs;
+but his friend, Mrs Bonfoy, had "taught him to pray" and he was keenly
+alive to the dangers of a flippant scepticism. In a beautiful alcaic
+stanza he pronounces the man supremely happy who in the depths of the
+heart is conscious of the "fount of tears," and his characteristic
+melancholy, except in the few hours when it was indeed black, was not a
+pitiable state; rather, it was one secret of the charm both of the man
+and of the poet.
+
+  A very complete bibliography of Gray will be found in Dr. Bradshaw's
+  edition of the poems in the Aldine series. Dodsley published ten of
+  the poems, exclusive of the "Long Story," in 1768. Mason's _Life of
+  Gray_ (1778) included the poems and some hitherto unpublished
+  fragments, with a selection from his letters, much garbled. Mathias in
+  1814 reprinted Mason's edition and added much from Gray's MS.
+  commentaries together with some more of his translations. The most
+  exhaustive edition of Gray's writings was achieved by the Rev. John
+  Mitford, who first did justice to the correspondence with Wharton and
+  Norton Nicholls (5 vols., Pickering, 1836-1843; correspondence of Gray
+  and Mason, Bentley, 1853); see also the edition of the works by Edmund
+  Gosse (4 vols., 1884); the Life by the same in Eng. Men of Letters
+  (2nd ed., 1889); some further relics are given in _Gray and His
+  Friends_ by D. C. Tovey (Cambridge, 1890); and a new edition of the
+  letters copiously annotated by D. C. Tovey is in the Standard Library
+  (1900-1907). Nicholl's _Illustrations_, vol. vi. p. 805, quoted by
+  Professor Kittredge in the _Nation_, Sept. 12th, 1900, gives the true
+  story of Gray's migration to Pembroke College. Matthew Arnold's essay
+  on Gray in Ward's _English Poets_ is one of the minor classics of
+  literary criticism.     (D. C. To.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAY (or GREY), WALTER DE (d. 1255), English prelate and statesman, was
+a nephew of John de Gray, bishop of Norwich, and was educated at Oxford.
+He owed his early and rapid preferment in church and state to the favour
+of King John, becoming the king's chancellor in 1205, and being chosen
+bishop of Lichfield in 1210. He was, however, not allowed to keep this
+bishopric, but he became bishop of Worcester in 1214, resigning his
+office as chancellor in the same year. Gray was with John when the king
+signed Magna Carta in June 1215; soon after this event he left England
+on the king's business, and it was during his absence that he was forced
+into the archbishopric of York, owing his election to the good offices
+of John and of Pope Innocent III. He took a leading part in public
+affairs during the minority of Henry III., and was regarded with much
+favour by this king, who employed him on important errands to foreign
+potentates, and left him as guardian of England when he went to France
+in 1242. Afterwards the archbishop seems to have been less favourably
+disposed towards Henry, and for a time he absented himself from public
+business; however, in 1255, he visited London to attend a meeting of
+parliament, and died at Fulham on the 1st of May 1255. Gray was always
+anxious to assert his archiepiscopal authority over Scotland, and to
+maintain it against the archbishop of Canterbury, but in neither case
+was he very successful. He built the south transept of the minster at
+York and bought for his see the village, afterwards called Bishopthorpe,
+which is still the residence of the archbishop of York. He was also
+generous to the church at Ripon. Gray was regarded by his contemporaries
+as an avaricious, but patriotic man.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Haute-Saône, situated on the declivity of a hill on the
+left bank of the Saône, 36 m. S.W. of Vesoul by the Eastern railway.
+Pop. (1906) 5742. The streets of the town are narrow and steep, but it
+possesses broad and beautiful quays and has a busy port. Three bridges,
+one dating from the 18th century, unite it to suburbs on the right bank
+of the river, on which is the railway-station from which lines branch
+off to Auxonne, Dijon, Besançon and Culmont-Chalindrey. The principal
+buildings are the Gothic church, restored in the style of the
+Renaissance but with a modern portal, and the hôtel de ville, built by
+the Spaniards in 1568. The latter building has a handsome façade
+decorated with columns of red granite. Gray is the seat of a subprefect
+and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of
+commerce, a communal college and a small museum. It has large
+flour-mills; among the other industries is the manufacture of machinery
+and iron goods. There is also a considerable transit traffic in goods
+from the south of France and the colonies, and trade in iron, corn,
+provisions, vegetables, wine, wood, &c., much of which is carried by
+river. Gray was founded in the 7th century. Its fortifications were
+destroyed by Louis XIV. During the Franco-German War General von Werder
+concentrated his army corps in the town and held it for a month, making
+it the _point d'appui_ of movements towards Dijon and Langres, as well
+as towards Besançon.
+
+Gray gave its name to the distinguished English family of de Gray, Gray
+or Grey, Anschitel de Gray being mentioned as an Oxfordshire tenant in
+Domesday.
+
+
+
+
+GRAYLING (_Thymallus_), fishes belonging to the family _Salmonidae_. The
+best known are the "poisson bleu" of the Canadian voyageurs, and the
+European species, _Thymallus vulgaris_ (the _Asch_ or _Äsche_ of
+Germany, _ombre_ of France, and _temola_ of Upper Italy). This latter
+species is esteemed on account of its agreeable colours (especially of
+the dorsal fin), its well-flavoured flesh, and the sport it affords to
+anglers. The grayling differ from the genus _Salmo_ in the smaller mouth
+with comparatively feeble dentition, in the larger scales, and
+especially in the much greater development of the dorsal fin, which
+contains 20 to 24 rays. These beautiful fishes, of which five or six
+species are known, inhabit the fresh waters of Europe, Siberia and the
+northern parts of North America. The European species, _T. vulgaris_ or
+_vexillifer_, attains, though rarely, a length of 2 ft. The colours
+during life are remarkably changeable and iridescent; small dark spots
+are sometimes present on the body; the very high dorsal fin is
+beautifully marked with purplish bands and ocelli. In England and
+Scotland the grayling appears to have had originally a rather irregular
+distribution, but it has now been introduced into a great number of
+rivers; it is not found in Ireland. It is more generally distributed in
+Scandinavia and Russia, and the mountain streams of central Europe
+southwards to the Alpine water of Upper Italy. Specimens attaining to a
+weight of 4 lb. are very scarce.
+
+
+
+
+GRAYS THURROCK, or GRAYS, an urban district in the south-eastern
+parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the Thames, 20 m. E. by S.
+from London by the London, Tilbury & Southend railway. Pop. (1901)
+13,834. The church of St Peter and St Paul, wholly rebuilt, retains some
+Norman work. The town takes its name from a family of Gray who held the
+manor for three centuries from 1149. There are an endowed and two
+training ship schools. Roman remains have been found in the vicinity;
+and the geological formations exhibiting the process of silting up of a
+former river channel are exposed in the quarries, and contain large
+mammalian remains. The town has trade in bricks, lime and cement.
+
+
+
+
+GRAZ [GRATZ], the capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland of Styria,
+140 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 138,370. It is picturesquely
+situated on both banks of the Mur, just where this river enters a broad
+and fertile valley, and the beauty of its position has given rise to the
+punning French description, _La Ville des grâces sur la rivière de
+l'amour_. The main town lies on the left bank of the river at the foot
+of the Schlossberg (1545 ft.) which dominates the town. The beautiful
+valley traversed by the Mur, known as the Grazer Feld and bounded by the
+Wildonerberge, extends to the south; to the S.W. rise the Bacher Gebirge
+and the Koralpen; to the N. the Schöckel (4745 ft.), and to the N.W. the
+Alps of Upper Styria. On the Schlossberg, which can be ascended by a
+cable tramway, beautiful parks have been laid out, and on its top is the
+bell-tower, 60 ft. high, and the quaint clock-tower, 52 ft. high, which
+bears a gigantic clock-dial. At the foot of the Schlossberg is the
+Stadt-Park.
+
+Among the numerous churches of the city the most important is the
+cathedral of St Aegidius, a Gothic building erected by the emperor
+Frederick III. in 1450-1462 on the site of a previous church mentioned
+as early as 1157. It has been several times modified and redecorated,
+more particularly in 1718. The present copper spire dates from 1663. The
+interior is richly adorned with stained-glass windows of modern date,
+costly shrines, paintings and tombs. In the immediate neighbourhood of
+the cathedral is the mausoleum church erected by the emperor Ferdinand
+II. Worthy of mention also are the parish church, a Late Gothic
+building, finished in 1520, and restored in 1875, which possesses an
+altar piece by Tintoretto; the Augustinian church, appropriated to the
+service of the university since 1827; the small Leech Kirche, an
+interesting building in Early Gothic style, dating from the 13th
+century, and the Herz Jesu-Kirche, a building in Early Gothic style,
+finished in 1891, with a tower 360 ft. high. Of the secular buildings
+the most important is the Landhaus, where the local diet holds its
+sittings, erected in the 16th century in the Renaissance style. It
+possesses an interesting portal and a beautiful arcaded court, and
+amongst the curiosities preserved here is the Styrian hat. In its
+neighbourhood is the Zeughaus or arsenal, built in 1644, which contains
+a very rich collection of weapons of the 15th-17th centuries, and which
+is maintained exactly in the same condition as it was 250 years ago. The
+town hall, built in 1807, and rebuilt in 1892 in the German Renaissance
+style, and the imperial castle, dating from the 11th century, now used
+as government offices, are also worth notice.
+
+At the head of the educational institutions is the university founded in
+1586 by the Austrian archduke Charles Francis, and restored in 1817
+after an interruption of 45 years. It is now housed in a magnificent
+building, finished in 1895, and is endowed with numerous scientific
+laboratories and a rich library. It had in 1901 a teaching staff of 161
+professors and lecturers, and 1652 students, including many Italians
+from the Küstenland and Dalmatia. The Joanneum Museum, founded in 1811
+by the archduke John Baptist, has become very rich in many departments,
+and an additional huge building in the rococo style was erected in 1895
+for its accommodation. The technical college, founded in 1814 by the
+archduke John Baptist, had in 1901 about 400 pupils.
+
+An active trade, fostered by abundant railway communications, is
+combined with manufactures of iron and steel wares, paper, chemicals,
+vinegar, physical and optical instruments, besides artistic printing and
+lithography. The extensive workshops of the Southern railway are at
+Graz, and since the opening of the railway to the rich coal-fields of
+Köflach the number of industrial establishments has greatly increased.
+
+Amongst the numerous interesting places in the neighbourhood are: the
+Hilmteich, with the Hilmwarte, about 100 ft. high; and the Rosenberg
+(1570 ft.), whence the ascent of the Platte (2136 ft.) with extensive
+view is made. At the foot of the Rosenberg is Maria Grün, with a large
+sanatorium. All these places are situated to the N. of Graz. On the left
+bank of the Mur is the pilgrimage church of Maria Trost, built in 1714;
+on the right bank is the castle of Eggenberg, built in the 17th century.
+To the S.W. is the Buchkogel (2150 ft.), with a magnificent view, and a
+little farther south is the watering-place of Tobelbad.
+
+_History._--Graz may possibly have been a Roman site, but the first
+mention of it under its present name is in a document of A.D. 881, after
+which it became the residence of the rulers of the surrounding district,
+known later as Styria. Its privileges were confirmed by King Rudolph I.
+in 1281. Surrounded with walls and fosses in 1435, it was able in 1481
+to defend itself against the Hungarians under Matthias Corvinus, and in
+1529 and 1532 the Turks attacked it with as little success. As early as
+1530 the Lutheran doctrine was preached in Graz by Seifried and Jacob
+von Eggenberg, and in 1540 Eggenberg founded the Paradies or Lutheran
+school, in which Kepler afterwards taught. But the archduke Charles
+burned 20,000 Protestant books in the square of the present lunatic
+asylum, and succeeded by his oppressive measures in bringing the city
+again under the authority of Rome. From the earlier part of the 15th
+century Graz was the residence of one branch of the family of Habsburg,
+a branch which succeeded to the imperial throne in 1619 in the person of
+Ferdinand II. New fortifications were constructed in the end of the 16th
+century by Franz von Poppendorf, and in 1644 the town afforded an asylum
+to the family of Ferdinand III. The French were in possession of the
+place in 1797 and again in 1805; and in 1809 Marshal Macdonald having,
+in accordance with the terms of the peace of Vienna, entered the citadel
+which he had vainly besieged, blew it all up with the exception of the
+bell-tower and the citizens' or clock tower. It benefited greatly during
+the 19th century from the care of the archduke John and received
+extended civic privileges in 1860.
+
+  See Ilwof and Peters, _Graz, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt_
+  (Graz, 1875); G. Fels, _Graz und seine Umgebung_ (Graz, 1898); L.
+  Mayer, _Die Stadt der Grazien_ (Graz, 1897), and Hofrichter,
+  _Rückblicke in die Vergangenheit von Graz_ (Graz, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO (1503-1583), Italian author, was born at
+Florence on the 22nd of March 1503, of good family both by his father's
+and mother's side. Of his youth and education all record appears to be
+lost, but he probably began early to practise as an apothecary. In 1540
+he was one of the founders of the Academy of the Humid (degli Umidi)
+afterwards called "della Fiorentina," and later took a prominent part in
+the establishment of the more famous Accademia della Crusca. In both
+societies he was known as _Il Lasca_ or _Leuciscus_, and this pseudonym
+is still frequently substituted for his proper name. His temper was what
+the French happily call a difficult one, and his life was consequently
+enlivened or disturbed by various literary quarrels. His Humid brethren
+went so far as to expel him for a time from the society--the chief
+ground of offence being apparently his ruthless criticism of the
+"Arameans," a party of the academicians who maintained that the
+Florentine or Tuscan tongue was derived from the Hebrew, the Chaldee, or
+some other branch of the Semitic. He was readmitted in 1566, when his
+friend Salviati was "consul" of the academy. His death took place on the
+18th of February 1583. Il Lasca ranks as one of the great masters of
+Tuscan prose. His style is copious and flexible; abundantly idiomatic,
+but without any affectation of being so, it carries with it the force
+and freshness of popular speech, while it lacks not at the same time a
+flavour of academic culture. His principal works are _Le Cene_ (1756), a
+collection of stories in the manner of Boccaccio, and a number of prose
+comedies, _La Gelosia_ (1568), _La Spiritata_ (1561), _I Parentadi_, _La
+Arenga_, _La Sibilla_, _La Pinzochera_, _L' Arzigogolo_. The stories,
+though of no special merit as far as the plots are concerned, are told
+with verve and interest. A number of miscellaneous poems, a few letters
+and _Four Orations to the Cross_ complete the list of Grazzini's extant
+works.
+
+  He also edited the works of Berni, and collected _Tutti i trionfi,
+  larri, mascherate, e canti carnascialaschi, andati per Firenze dal
+  tempo del magnifico Lorenzo de' Medici fino all' anno 1559_. In 1868
+  Adamo Rossi published in his _Ricerche per le biblioteche di Perugia_
+  three "novelle" by Grazzini, from a MS. of the 16th century in the
+  "Comunale" of Perugia: and in 1870 a small collection of those poems
+  which have been left unpublished by previous editors appeared at
+  Poggibonsi, _Alcune Poesie inedite_. See Pietro Fanfani's "Vita del
+  Lasca," prefixed to his edition of the _Opere di A. Grazzini_
+  (Florence, 1857).
+
+
+
+
+GREAT AWAKENING, the name given to a remarkable religious revival
+centring in New England in 1740-1743, but covering all the American
+colonies in 1740-1750. The word "awakening" in this sense was frequently
+(and possibly first) used by Jonathan Edwards at the time of the
+Northampton revival of 1734-1735, which spread through the Connecticut
+Valley and prepared the way for the work in Rhode Island, Massachusetts
+and Connecticut (1740-1741) of George Whitefield, who had previously
+been preaching in the South, especially at Savannah, Georgia. He, his
+immediate follower, Gilbert Tennent (1703-1764), other clergymen, such
+as James Davenport, and many untrained laymen who took up the work,
+agreed in the emotional and dramatic character of their preaching, in
+rousing their hearers to a high pitch of excitement, often amounting to
+frenzy, in the undue stress they put upon "bodily effects" (the physical
+manifestations of an abnormal psychic state) as proofs of conversion,
+and in their unrestrained attacks upon the many clergymen who did not
+join them and whom they called "dead men," unconverted, unregenerate and
+careless of the spiritual condition of their parishes. Jonathan Edwards,
+Benjamin Colman (1675-1747), and Joseph Bellamy, recognized the
+viciousness of so extreme a position. Edwards personally reprimanded
+Whitefield for presuming to say of any one that he was unconverted, and
+in his _Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival of Religion_ devoted
+much space to "showing what things are to be corrected, or avoided, in
+promoting this work." Edwards' famous sermon at Enfield in 1741 so
+affected his audience that they cried and groaned aloud, and he found
+it necessary to bid them be still that he might go on; but Davenport
+and many itinerants provoked and invited shouting and even writhing, and
+other physical manifestations. At its May session in 1742 the General
+Court of Massachusetts forbade itinerant preaching save with full
+consent from the resident pastor; in May 1743 the annual ministerial
+convention, by a small plurality, declared against "several errors in
+doctrine and disorders in practice which have of late obtained in
+various parts of the land," against lay preachers and disorderly revival
+meetings; in the same year Charles Chauncy, who disapproved of the
+revival, published _Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Religion in New
+England_; and in 1744-1745 Whitefield, upon his second tour in New
+England, found that the faculties of Harvard and Yale had officially
+"testified" and "declared" against him and that most pulpits were closed
+to him. Some separatist churches were formed as a result of the
+Awakening; these either died out or became Baptist congregations. To the
+reaction against the gross methods of the revival has been ascribed the
+religious apathy of New England during the last years of the 18th
+century; but the martial and political excitement, beginning with King
+George's War (i.e. the American part of the War of the Austrian
+Succession) and running through the American War of Independence and the
+founding of the American government, must be reckoned at the least as
+contributing causes.
+
+  See Joseph Tracy, _The Great Awakening_ (Boston, 1842); Samuel P.
+  Hayes, "An Historical Study of the Edwardean Revivals," in _The
+  American Journal of Psychology_, vol. 13 (Worcester, Mass., 1902); and
+  Frederick M. Davenport, _Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals_ (New
+  York, 1905), especially chapter viii. pp. 94-131.     (R. We.)
+
+
+
+
+GREAT BARRIER REEF, a vast coral reef extending for 1200 m. along the
+north-east coast of Australia (q.v.). The channel within it is protected
+from heavy seas by the reef, and is a valuable route of communication
+for coasting steamers. The reef itself is also traversed by a number of
+navigable passages.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT BARRINGTON, a township of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
+on the Housatonic river, in the Berkshire hills, about 25 m. S.W. of
+Pittsfield. Pop. (1890) 4612; (1900) 5854, of whom 1187 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 5926. Its area is about 45 sq. m. The
+township is traversed by a branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford
+railroad, and the Berkshire Street railway (controlled by the N.Y., N.H.
+& H.) has its southern terminus here. Within the township are three
+villages--Great Barrington (the most important), Housatonic and Van
+Deusenville; the first two are about 5 m. apart. The village of Great
+Barrington, among the hills, is well known as a summer resort. The
+Congregational church with its magnificent organ (3954 pipes) is worthy
+of mention. There is a public library in the village of Great Barrington
+and another in the village of Housatonic. Monument Mt. (1710 ft.),
+partly in Stockbridge, commands a fine view of the Berkshires and the
+Housatonic Valley. The Sedgwick School (for boys) was removed from
+Hartford, Connecticut, to Great Barrington in 1869. There are various
+manufactures, including cotton-goods (in the village of Housatonic), and
+electric meters, paper, knit goods and counterpanes (in the village of
+Great Barrington); and marble and blue stone are quarried here; but the
+township is primarily given over to farming. The fair of the Housatonic
+Agricultural Society is held here annually during September; and the
+district court of South Berkshire sits here. The township was
+incorporated in 1761, having been, since 1743, the "North Parish of
+Sheffield"; the township of Sheffield, earlier known as the "Lower
+Housatonic Plantation" was incorporated in 1733. Great Barrington was
+named in honour of John Shute (1678-1734), Viscount Barrington of
+Ardglass (the adjective "Great" being added to distinguish it from
+another township of the same name). In 1761-1787 it was the shire-town.
+Great Barrington was a centre of the disaffection during Shays's
+rebellion, and on the 12th of September 1786 a riot here prevented the
+sitting of court. Samuel Hopkins, one of the most eminent of American
+theologians, was pastor here in 1743-1769; General Joseph Dwight
+(1703-1765), a merchant, lawyer and brigadier-general of Massachusetts
+militia, who took part in the Louisburg expedition in 1745 and later in
+the French and Indian War, lived here from 1758 until his death; and
+William Cullen Bryant lived here as a lawyer and town clerk in
+1816-1825.
+
+  See C. J. Taylor, _History of Great Barrington_ (Great Barrington,
+  1882).
+
+
+
+
+GREAT BASIN, an area in the western Cordilleran region of the United
+States of America, about 200,000 sq. m. in extent, characterized by
+wholly interior drainage, a peculiar mountain system and extreme
+aridity. Its form is approximately that of an isosceles triangle, with
+the sharp angle extending into Lower California, W. of the Colorado
+river; the northern edge being formed by the divide of the drainage
+basin of the Columbia river, the eastern by that of the Colorado, the
+western by the central part of the Sierra Nevada crest, and by other
+high mountains. The N. boundary and much of the E. is not conspicuously
+uplifted, being plateau, rather than mountain. The W. half of Utah, the
+S.W. corner of Wyoming, the S.E. corner of Idaho, a large area in S.E.
+Oregon, much of S. California, a strip along the E. border of the
+last-named state, and almost the whole of Nevada are embraced within the
+limits of the Great Basin.
+
+The Great Basin is not, as its name implies, a topographic cup. Its
+surface is of varied character, with many independent closed basins
+draining into lakes or "playas," none of which, however, has outlet to
+the sea. The mountain chains, which from their peculiar geologic
+character are known as of the "Basin Range type" (not exactly
+conterminous in distribution with the Basin), are echeloned in short
+ranges running from N. to S. Many of them are fault block mountains, the
+crust having been broken and the blocks tilted so that there is a steep
+face on one side and a gentle slope on the other. This is the Basin
+Range type of mountain. These mountains are among the most recent in the
+continent, and some of them, at least, are still growing. In numerous
+instances clear evidence of recent movements along the fault planes has
+been discovered; and frequent earthquakes testify with equal force to
+the present uplift of the mountain blocks. The valleys between the
+tilted mountain blocks are smooth and often trough-like, and are often
+the sites of shallow salt lakes or playas. By the rain wash and wind
+action detritus from the mountains is carried to these valley floors,
+raising their level, and often burying low mountain spurs, so as to
+cause neighbouring valleys to coalesce. The plateau "lowlands" in the
+centre of the Basin are approximately 5000 ft. in altitude. Southward
+the altitude falls, Death valley and Coahuila valley being in part below
+the level of the sea. The whole Basin is marked by three features of
+elevation--the Utah basin, the Nevada basin and, between them, the
+Nevada plateau.
+
+Over the lowlands of the Basin, taken generally, there is an average
+precipitation of perhaps 6-7 in., while in the Oregon region it is twice
+as great, and in the southern parts even less. The mountains receive
+somewhat more. The annual evaporation from water surfaces is from 60 to
+150 in. (60 to 80 on the Great Salt Lake). The reason for the arid
+climate differs in different sections. In the north it is due to the
+fact that the winds from the Pacific lose most of their moisture,
+especially in winter, on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada; in the
+south it is due to the fact that the region lies in a zone of calms, and
+light, variable winds. Precipitation is largely confined to local
+showers, often of such violence as to warrant the name "cloud bursts,"
+commonly applied to the heavy down-pours of this desert region. It is
+these heavy rains, of brief duration, when great volumes of water
+rapidly run off from the barren slopes, that cause the deep channels, or
+arroyas, which cross the desert. Permanent streams are rare. Many
+mountains are quite without perennial streams, and some lack even
+springs. Few of the mountain creeks succeed in reaching the arid plains,
+and those that do quickly disappear by evaporation or by seepage into
+the gravels. In the N.W. there are many permanent lakes without outlet
+fed by the mountain streams; others, snow fed, occur among the Sierra
+Nevada; and some in the larger mountain masses of the middle region.
+Almost all are saline. The largest of all, Great Salt Lake, is
+maintained by the waters of the Wasatch and associated plateaus. No
+lakes occur south of Owens in the W. and Sevier in the E. (39°);
+evaporation below these limits is supreme. Most of the small closed
+basins, however, contain "playas," or alkali mud flats, that are
+overflowed when the tributary streams are supplied with storm water.
+
+Save where irrigation has reclaimed small areas, the whole region is a
+vast desert, though locally only some of the interior plains are known
+as "deserts." Such are the Great Salt Lake and Carson deserts in the
+north, the Mohave and Colorado and Amargosa (Death Valley) deserts of
+the south-west. Straggling forests, mainly of conifers, characterize the
+high plateaus of central Utah. The lowlands and the lower mountains,
+especially southward, are generally treeless. Cottonwoods line the
+streams, salt-loving vegetation margins the bare playas, low bushes and
+scattered bunch-grass grow over the lowlands, especially in the north.
+Gray desert plants, notably cactuses and other thorny plants, partly
+replace in the south the bushes of the north. Except on the scattered
+oases, where irrigation from springs and mountain streams has reclaimed
+small patches, the desert is barren and forbidding in the extreme. There
+are broad plains covered with salt and alkali, and others supporting
+only scattered bunch grass, sage bush, cactus and other arid land
+plants. There are stony wastes, or alluvial fans, where mountain streams
+emerge upon the plains, in time of flood, bringing detritus in their
+torrential courses from the mountain canyons and depositing it along the
+mountain base. The barrenness extends into the mountains themselves,
+where there are bare rock cliffs, stony slopes and a general absence of
+vegetation. With increasing altitude vegetation becomes more varied and
+abundant, until the tree limit is reached; then follows a forest belt,
+which in the highest mountains is limited above by cold as it is below
+by aridity.
+
+The successive explorations of B. L. E. Bonneville, J. C. Frémont and
+Howard Stansbury (1806-1863) furnished a general knowledge of the
+hydrographic features and geological lacustrine history of the Great
+Basin, and this knowledge was rounded out by the field work of the U.S.
+Geological Survey from 1879 to 1883, under the direction of Grove Karl
+Gilbert. The mountains are composed in great part of Paleozoic strata,
+often modified by vulcanism and greatly denuded and sculptured by wind
+and water erosion. The climate in late geologic time was very different
+from that which prevails to-day. In the Pleistocene period many large
+lakes were formed within the Great Basin; especially, by the fusion of
+small catchment basins, two great confluent bodies of water--Lake
+Lahontan (in the Nevada basin) and Lake Bonneville (in the Utah basin).
+The latter, the remnants of which are represented to-day by Great Salt,
+Sevier and Utah Lakes, had a drainage basin of some 54,000 sq. m.
+
+  See G. K. Gilbert in Wheeler Survey, _U.S. Geographical Survey West of
+  the Hundredth Meridian_, vol. iii.; Clarence King and others in the
+  _Report of the Fortieth Parallel Survey_ (U.S. Geol. Exploration of
+  the Fortieth Parallel); G. K. Gilbert's _Lake Bonneville_ (U.S.
+  Geological Survey, _Monographs_, No. 1, 1890), also I. C. Russell's
+  _Lake Lahontan_ (Same, No. 11, 1885), with references to other
+  publications of the Survey. For reference to later geological
+  literature, and discussion of the Basin Ranges, see J. E. Spurr,
+  _Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer._ vol. 12, 1901, p. 217; and G. D. Louderback,
+  same, vol. 15, 1904, p. 280; also general bibliographies issued by the
+  U.S. Geol. Survey (e.g. _Bull._ 301, 372 and 409).
+
+
+
+
+GREAT BEAR LAKE, an extensive sheet of fresh water in the north-west of
+Canada, between 65° and 67° N., and 117° and 123° W. It is of very
+irregular shape, has an estimated area of 11,200 sq. m., a depth of 270
+ft., and is upwards of 200 ft. above the sea. It is 175 m. in length,
+and from 25 to 45 in breadth, though the greatest distance between its
+northern and southern arms is about 180 m. The Great Bear river
+discharges its waters into the Mackenzie river. It is full of fish, and
+the neighbouring country, though barren and uncultivated, contains
+quantities of game.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT CIRCLE. The circle in which a sphere is cut by a plane is called a
+"great circle," when the cutting plane passes through the centre of
+sphere. Treating the earth as a sphere, the meridians of longitude are
+all great circles. Of the parallels of latitude, the equator only is a
+great circle. The shortest line joining any two points is an arc of a
+great circle. For "great circle sailing" see NAVIGATION.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Cascade county, Montana,
+U.S.A., 99 m. (by rail) N.E. of Helena, on the S. bank of the Missouri
+river, opposite the mouth of the Sun river, at an altitude of about 3300
+ft. It is 10 m. above the Great Falls of the Missouri, from which it
+derives its name. Pop. (1890) 3979; (1900) 14,930, of whom 4692 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,948. It has an area of about 8 sq. m. It
+is served by the Great Northern and the Billings & Northern (Chicago,
+Burlington & Quincy system) railways. The city has a splendid park
+system of seven parks (about 530 acres) with 15 m. of boulevards.[1]
+Among the principal buildings are a city hall, court house, high school,
+commercial college, Carnegie library, the Columbus Hospital and Training
+School for Nurses (under the supervision of the Sisters of Charity), and
+the Montana Deaconess hospital. There is a Federal land office in the
+city. Great Falls lies in the midst of a region exceptionally rich in
+minerals--copper, gold, silver, lead, iron, gypsum, limestone, sapphires
+and bituminous coal being mined in the neighbourhood. Much grain is
+grown in the vicinity, and the city is an important shipping point for
+wool, live-stock and cereals. Near Great Falls the Missouri river,
+within 7½ m., contracts from a width of about 900 to 300 yds. and falls
+more than 500 ft., the principal falls being the Black Eagle Falls (50
+ft.), from which power is derived for the city's street railway and
+lighting plant, the beautiful Rainbow Falls (48 ft.) and Great Falls (92
+ft.). Giant Spring Fall, about 20 ft. high, is a cascade formed by a
+spring on the bank of the river near Rainbow Falls. The river furnishes
+very valuable water-power, partly utilized by large manufacturing
+establishments, including flour mills, plaster mills, breweries, iron
+works, mining machinery shops, and smelting and reduction works. The
+Boston & Montana copper smelter is one of the largest in the world; it
+has a chimney stack 506 ft. high, and in 1908 employed 1200 men in the
+smelter and 2500 in its mining department. Great Falls ranked second (to
+Anaconda) among the cities of the state in the value of the factory
+product of 1905, which was $13,291,979, showing an increase of 42.4%
+since 1900. The city owns and operates its water-supply system. Great
+Falls was settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in 1888.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Great Falls was a pioneer among the cities of the state in the
+    development of a park system. When the city was first settled its
+    site was a "barren tract of sand, thinly covered with buffalo-grass
+    and patches of sage brush." The first settler, Paris Gibson, of
+    Minneapolis, began the planting of trees, which, though not
+    indigenous, grew well. The city's sidewalks are bordered by strips of
+    lawn, in which there is a row of trees, and the city maintains a
+    large nursery where trees are grown for this purpose. A general state
+    law (1901) placing the parking of cities on a sound financial basis
+    is due very largely to the impulse furnished by Great Falls. See an
+    article, "Great Falls, the Pioneer Park City of Montana," by C. H.
+    Forbes-Lindsay, in the _Craftsman_ for November 1908.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT HARWOOD, an urban district in the Darwen parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, 4½ m. N.E. of Blackburn, on the Lancashire and
+Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 12,015. It is of modern growth, a
+township of cotton operatives, with large collieries in the vicinity. An
+agricultural society is also maintained.
+
+
+
+
+GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY (1844-1896), British engineer, was born at
+Grahamstown, Cape Colony, on the 6th of August 1844. He migrated to
+England in 1859, and in 1864 was a pupil of P. W. Barlow, from whom he
+became acquainted with the shield system of tunnelling with which his
+name is especially associated. Barlow, indeed, had a strong belief in
+the shield, and was the author of a scheme for facilitating the traffic
+of London by the construction of underground railways running in
+cast-iron tubes constructed by its aid. To show what the method could
+do, it was resolved to make a subway under the Thames near the Tower,
+but the troubles encountered by Sir M. I. Brunel in the Thames Tunnel,
+where also a shield was employed, made engineers hesitate to undertake
+the subway, even though it was of very much smaller dimensions (6 ft. 7
+in. internal diameter) than the tunnel. At this juncture Greathead came
+forward and offered to take up the contract; and he successfully carried
+it through in 1869 without finding any necessity to resort to the use of
+compressed air, which Barlow in 1867 had suggested might be employed in
+water-bearing strata. After this he began to practise on his own
+account, and mainly divided his time between railway construction and
+taking out patents for improvements in his shield, and for other
+inventions such as the "Ejector" fire-hydrant. Early in the 'eighties he
+began to work in conjunction with a company whose aim was to introduce
+into London from America the Hallidie system of cable traction, and in
+1884 an act of Parliament was obtained authorizing what is now the City
+& South London Railway--a tube-railway to be worked by cables. This was
+begun in 1886, and the tunnels were driven by means of the Greathead
+shield, compressed air being used at those points where water-bearing
+gravel was encountered. During the progress of the works electrical
+traction became so far developed as to be superior to cables; the idea
+of using the latter was therefore abandoned, and when the railway was
+opened in 1890 it was as an electrical one. Greathead was engaged in two
+other important underground lines in London--the Waterloo & City and the
+Central London. He lived to see the tunnels of the former completed
+under the Thames, but the latter was scarcely begun at the time of his
+death, which happened at Streatham, in the south of London, on the 21st
+of October 1896.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE. The connected string of five
+fresh-water inland seas, Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and
+Ontario, lying in the interior of North America, between the Dominion of
+Canada on the north and the United States of America on the south, and
+forming the head-waters of the St Lawrence river system, are
+collectively and generally known as "The Great Lakes." From the head of
+lake Superior these lakes are navigable to Buffalo, at the foot of lake
+Erie, a distance of 1023 m., for vessels having a draught of 20 ft.;
+from Buffalo to Kingston, 191 m. farther, the draught is limited, by the
+depth in the Welland canal, to 14 ft.; lake Superior, the largest and
+most westerly of the lakes, empties, through the river St Mary, 55 m.
+long, into lake Huron. From Point Iroquois, which may be considered the
+foot of the lake, to Sault Ste Marie, St Mary's Falls, St Mary's Rapids
+or the Soo, as it is variously called, a distance of 14 m., there is a
+single channel, which has been dredged by the United States government,
+at points which required deepening, to give a minimum width of 800 ft.
+and a depth of 23 ft. at mean stage water. Below the Sault, the river,
+on its course to lake Huron, expands into several lakes, and is divided
+by islands into numerous contracted passages. There are two navigated
+channels; the older one, following the international boundary-line by
+way of lake George, has a width of 150 to 300 ft., and a depth of 17
+ft.; it is buoyed but not lighted, and is not capable of navigation by
+modern large freighters; the other, some 12 m. shorter, an artificial
+channel dredged by the United States government in their own territory,
+has a minimum width of 300 ft. and depth of 20 ft. It is elaborately
+lighted throughout its length. A third channel, west of all the islands,
+was designed for steamers bound down, the older channel being reserved
+for upbound boats.
+
+Between lake Superior and lake Huron there is a fall of 20 ft. of which
+the Sault, in a distance of ½ m., absorbs from 18 to 19½ ft., the
+height varying as the lakes change in level. The enormous growth of
+inter-lake freight traffic has justified the construction of three
+separate locks, each overcoming the rapids by a single lift--two side by
+side on the United States and one on the Canadian side of the river.
+These locks, the largest in the world, are all open to Canadian and
+United States vessels alike, and are operated free from all taxes or
+tolls on shipping. The Canadian ship canal, opened to traffic on the 9th
+of September 1895, was constructed through St Mary Island, on the north
+side of the rapids, by the Canadian government, at a cost of $3,684,227,
+to facilitate traffic and to secure to Canadian vessels an entrance to
+lake Superior without entering United States territory. The canal is
+5967 ft. long between the extremities of the entrance piers, has one
+lock 900 ft. long and 60 ft. wide, with a depth on the sills at the
+lowest known water-level of 20½ ft. The approaches to the canal are
+dredged to 18 ft. deep, and are well buoyed and lighted. On the United
+States side of the river the length of the canal is 1-2/3 m., the
+channel outside the locks having a width varying from 108 to 600 ft. and
+depth of 25 ft. The locks of 1855 were closed in 1886, to give place to
+the Poe lock. The Weitzel lock, opened to navigation on the 1st of
+September 1881, was built south of the old locks, the approach being
+through the old canal. Its chamber is 515 ft. long between lock gates,
+and 80 ft. wide, narrowing to 60 ft. at the gates. The length of the
+masonry walls is 717 ft., height 39½ ft., with 17 ft. over mitre sills
+at mean stage of water. The Poe lock, built because the Weitzel lock,
+large and fully equipped as it is, was insufficient for the rapidly
+growing traffic, was opened on the 3rd of August 1896. Its length
+between gates is 800 ft.; width 100 ft.; length of masonry walls 1100
+ft.; height 43½ to 45 ft., with 22 ft. on the mitre sill at mean stage.
+
+The expenditure by the United States government on the canal, with its
+several locks, and on improving the channel through the river,
+aggregated fourteen million dollars up to the end of 1906.[1] Plans were
+prepared in 1907 for a third United States lock with a separate canal
+approach.
+
+The canals are closed every winter, the average date of opening up to
+1893 being the 1st of May, and of closing the 1st of December. The
+pressure of business since that time, aided possibly by some slight
+climatic modification, has extended the season, so that the average date
+of opening is now ten days earlier and of closing twelve days later. The
+earliest opening was in 1902 on the 1st of April, and the latest closing
+in 1904 on the 20th of December.
+
+  The table below gives the average yearly commerce for periods of five
+  years, and serves to show the rapid increase in freight growth.
+
+_Statement of the commerce through the several Sault Ste Marie canals,
+averaged for every five years._[2]
+
+  +------------+--------+------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+---------+------------+---------+------------+
+  |            |  Pass- | Registered | Passen-|   Coal.   |   Flour.  |   Wheat.   |   Other    |  General   |  Salt.  | Iron Ore.  | Lumber. |   Total    |
+  |   Years.   |  ages. |  Tonnage.  |  gers. | Net Tons. |  Barrels. |  Bushels.  |  Grains.   |Merchandise.| Barrels.|  Net Tons. |  M. ft. |  Freight.  |
+  |            |        |            |        |           |           |            |  Bushels.  |  Net Tons. |         |            |   B.M.  |  Net Tons. |
+  +------------+--------+------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+---------+------------+---------+------------+
+  | 1855-1859* |    387 |    192,207 |  6,206 |     4,672 |    19,555 |    None.   |     34,612 |     2,249  |   1,248 |     27,206 |     320 |     55,797 |
+  | 1880-1884  |  4,457 |  2,267,166 | 34,607 |   463,431 |   681,726 |  5,435,601 |    936,346 |    81,966  | 107,225 |    867,999 |  79,144 |  2,184,731 |
+  | 1885-1889  |  7,908 |  4,901,105 | 29,434 | 1,398,441 | 1,838,325 | 18,438,085 |  1,213,815 |    74,447  | 175,725 |  2,497,403 | 197,605 |  5,441,297 |
+  | 1890-1894  | 11,965 |  9,912,589 | 24,609 | 2,678,805 | 5,764,766 | 34,875,971 |  1,738,706 |    87,540  | 231,178 |  4,939,909 | 510,482 | 10,627,349 |
+  | 1895-1899  | 18,352 | 18,451,447 | 40,289 | 3,270,842 | 8,319,699 | 57,227,269 | 23,349,134 |   164,426  | 282,156 | 10,728,075 | 832,968 | 19,354,974 |
+  | 1900-1904  | 19,374 | 26,199,795 | 54,093 | 5,457,019 | 7,021,839 | 56,269,265 | 26,760,533 |   646,277  | 407,263 | 20,020,487 | 999,944 | 31,245,565 |
+  | 1906 alone | 22,155 | 41,098,324 | 63,033 | 8,739,630 | 6,495,350 | 84,271,358 | 54,343,155 | 1,134,851  | 468,162 | 35,357,042 | 900,631 | 51,751,080 |
+  +------------+--------+------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+---------+------------+---------+------------+
+  * The first five years of operation.
+
+Around the canals have grown up two thriving towns, one on the Michigan,
+the other on the Ontario side of the river, with manufactories driven by
+water-power derived from the Sault. The outlet of lake Michigan, the
+only lake of the series lying wholly in United States territory, is at
+the Strait of Mackinac, near the point where the river St Mary reaches
+lake Huron. With lake Michigan are connected the Chicago Sanitary and
+Ship canal, the Illinois and Michigan, and the Illinois and Mississippi
+canals, for which see Illinois. With lake Huron is always included
+Georgian Bay as well as the channel north of Manitoulin Island. As it is
+principally navigated as a connecting waterway between lakes Superior
+and Michigan and lake Erie it has no notable harbours on it. It empties
+into lake Erie through the river St Clair, lake St Clair and the river
+Detroit. On these connecting waters are several important manufacturing
+and shipping towns, and through this chain passes nearly all the traffic
+of the lakes, both that to and from lake Michigan ports, and also that
+of lake Superior. The tonnage of a single short season of navigation
+exceeds in the aggregate 60,000,000 tons. Extensive dredging and
+embankment works have been carried on by the United States government in
+lake St Clair and the river Detroit, and a 20-ft. channel now exists,
+which is being constantly improved. Lake St Clair is nearly circular, 25
+m. in diameter, with the north-east quadrant filled by the delta of the
+river St Clair. It has a very flat bottom with a general depth of only
+21 ft., shoaling very gradually, usually to reed beds that line the low
+swampy shores. To enter the lake from river St Clair two channels have
+been provided, with retaining walls of cribwork, one for upward, the
+other for downward bound vessels. Much dredging has also been necessary
+at the outlet of the lake into river Detroit. A critical point in that
+river is at Limekiln crossing, a cut dredged through limestone rock
+above the Canadian town of Amherstburg. The normal depth here before
+improvement was 12½-15 ft.; by a project of 1902 a channel 600 ft. wide
+and 21 ft. deep was planned; there are separate channels for up- and
+down-bound vessels. To prevent vessels from crowding together in the
+cut, the Canadian government maintains a patrol service here, while the
+United States government maintains a similar patrol in the St Mary
+channel.
+
+The Grand Trunk railway opened in 1891 a single track tunnel under the
+river St Clair, from Sarnia to Port Huron. It is 6026 ft. long, a
+cylinder 20 ft. in diameter, lined with cast iron in flanged sections. A
+second tunnel was undertaken between Detroit and Windsor, under the
+river Detroit.
+
+From Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie, the river Niagara runs
+northwards 36 m. into lake Ontario. To overcome the difference of 327
+ft. in level between lakes Erie and Ontario, the Welland canal,
+accommodating vessels of 255 ft. in length, with a draught of 14 ft.,
+was built, and is maintained by Canada. The Murray canal extends from
+Presqu'ile Bay, on the north shore of lake Ontario, a distance of 6½ m.,
+to the headquarters of the Bay of Quinte. Trent canal is a term applied
+to a series of water stretches in the interior of Ontario which are
+ultimately designed to connect lake Huron and lake Ontario. At Peterboro
+a hydraulic balance-lock with a lift of 65 ft., 140 ft. in length and 33
+ft. clear in width, allowing a draught of 8 ft., has been constructed.
+The ordinary locks are 134 by 33 ft. with a draught of 6 ft. When the
+whole route of 200 m. is completed, there will not be more than 15 m. of
+actual canal, the remaining portion of the waterway being through lakes
+and rivers. For the Erie canal, between that lake and the Hudson river,
+see ERIE and NEW YORK.
+
+The population of the states and provinces bordering on the Great Lakes
+is estimated to be over 35,000,000. In Pennsylvania and Ohio, south of
+lake Erie, there are large coal-fields. Surrounding lake Michigan and
+west of lake Superior are vast grain-growing plains, and the prairies of
+the Canadian north-west are rapidly increasing the area and quantity of
+wheat grown; while both north and south of lake Superior are the most
+extensive iron mines in the world, from which 35 million tons of ore
+were shipped in 1906. The natural highway for the shipment of all these
+products is the Great Lakes, and over them coal is distributed westwards
+and grain and iron ore are concentrated eastwards. The great quantity of
+coarse freights, that could only be profitably carried long distances by
+water, has revolutionized the type of vessel used for its
+transportation, making large steamers imperative, consolidating
+interests and cheapening methods. It is usual for the vessels in the
+grain trade and in the iron-ore trade to make their up trips empty; but
+in consequence of the admirable facilities provided at terminal points,
+they make very fast time, and carry freight very cheaply. The cost of
+freight per ton-mile fell from 23/100 cent in 1887 to 8/100 cent in
+1898; since then the rate has slightly risen, but keeps well below 1/10
+cent per ton-mile.
+
+The traffic on the lakes may be divided into three classes, passenger,
+package freight and bulk freight. Of passenger boats the largest are 380
+ft. long by 44 ft. beam, having a speed of over 20 m. an hour, making
+the round trip between Buffalo and Chicago 1800 m., or Buffalo and
+Duluth 2000 m., every week. They carry no freight. The Canadian Pacific
+railway runs a line of fine Tyne-built passenger and freight steamers
+between Owen Sound and Fort William, and these two lines equal in
+accommodation transatlantic passenger steamers. On lake Michigan many
+fine passenger boats run out of Chicago, and on lake Ontario there are
+several large and fast Canadian steamers on routes radiating from
+Toronto. The package freight business, that is, the transportation of
+goods in enclosed parcels, is principally local; all the through
+business of this description is controlled by lines run by the great
+trunk railways, and is done in boats limited in beam to 50 ft. to admit
+them through bridges over the rivers at Chicago and Buffalo. By far the
+greatest number of vessels on the lakes are bulk freighters, and the
+conditions of the service have developed a special type of vessel.
+Originally sailing vessels were largely used, but these have practically
+disappeared, giving place to steamers, which have grown steadily in size
+with every increase in available draught. In 1894 there was no vessel on
+the lakes with a capacity of over 5000 tons; in 1906 there were 254
+vessels of a greater capacity, 12 of them carrying over 12,000 tons
+each. For a few years following 1890 many large barges were built,
+carrying up to 8000 tons each, intended to be towed by a steamer. It was
+found, however, that the time lost by one boat of the pair having to
+wait for the other made the plan unprofitable and no more were built.
+Following 1888 some 40 whale-back steamers and barges, having oval
+cross-sections without frames or decks, were built, but experience
+failed to demonstrate any advantage in the type, and their construction
+has ceased. The modern bulk freighter is a vessel 600 ft. long, 58 ft.
+beam, capable of carrying 14,000 tons on 20 ft. draught, built with a
+midship section practically rectangular, the coefficient frequently as
+high as .98, with about two-thirds of the entire length absolutely
+straight, giving a block coefficient up to .87. The triple-expansion
+machinery and boilers, designed to drive the boat at a speed of 12 m. an
+hour, are in the extreme stern, and the pilot house and quarters in the
+extreme bow, leaving all the cargo space together. Hatches are spaced at
+multiples of 12 ft. throughout the length and are made as wide as
+possible athwartships to facilitate loading and unloading. The vessels
+are built on girder frames and fitted with double bottoms for strength
+and water ballast. This type of vessel can be loaded in a few minutes,
+and unloaded by self-filling grab buckets up to ten tons capacity,
+worked hydraulically, in six or eight hours. The bulk freight generally
+follows certain well-defined routes; iron ore is shipped east from ports
+on both sides of lake Superior and on the west side of lake Michigan to
+rail shipping points on the south shore of lake Erie. Wheat and other
+grains from Duluth find their way to Buffalo, as do wheat, corn (maize)
+and other grains from Chicago. Wheat from the Canadian north-west is
+distributed from Fort William and Port Arthur to railway terminals on
+Georgian Bay, to Buffalo, and to Port Colborne for trans-shipment to
+canal barges for Montreal, and coal is distributed from lake Erie to all
+western points. The large shipping trade is assisted by both governments
+by a system of aids to navigation that mark every channel and danger.
+There are also life-saving stations at all dangerous points.
+
+The Great Lakes never freeze over completely, but the harbours and often
+the connecting rivers are closed by ice. The navigable season at the
+Sault is about 7½ months; in lake Erie it is somewhat longer. The season
+of navigation has been slightly lengthened since 1905, by using powerful
+tugs as ice-breakers in the spring and autumn, the Canadian government
+undertaking the service at Canadian terminal ports, chiefly at Fort
+William and Port Arthur, the most northerly ports, where the season is
+naturally shortest, and the Lake Carriers' Association, a federation of
+the freighting steamship owners, acting in the river St Mary. Car
+ferries run through the winter across lake Michigan and the Strait of
+Mackinac, across the rivers St Clair and Detroit, and across the middle
+of lakes Erie and Ontario. The largest of these steamers is 350 ft. long
+by 56 ft. wide, draught 14 ft., horse power 3500, speed 13 knots. She
+carries on four tracks 30 freight cars, with 1350 tons of freight.
+Certain passenger steamers run on lake Michigan, from Chicago north, all
+the winter.
+
+The level of the lakes varies gradually, and is affected by the general
+character of the season, and not by individual rainfalls. The variations
+of level of the several lakes do not necessarily synchronize. There is
+an annual fluctuation of about 1 ft. in the upper lakes, and in some
+seasons over 2 ft. in the lower lakes; the lowest point being at the end
+of winter and the highest in midsummer. In lake Michigan the level has
+ranged from a maximum in the years 1859, 1876 and 1886, to a minimum
+nearly 5 ft. lower in 1896. In lake Ontario there is a range of 5½ ft.
+between the maximum of May 1870 and the minimum of November 1895. In
+consequence of the shallowness of lake Erie, its level is seriously
+disturbed by a persistent storm; a westerly gale lowers the water at its
+upper end exceptionally as much as 7 ft., seriously interfering with the
+navigation of the river Detroit, while an easterly gale produces a
+similar effect at Buffalo. (For physiographical details see articles on
+the several lakes, and UNITED STATES.)
+
+There is geological evidence to show that the whole basin of the lakes
+has in recent geological times gradually changed in level, rising to the
+north and subsiding southwards; and it is claimed that the movement is
+still in gradual progress, the rate assigned being .42 ft. per 100 m.
+per century. The maintenance of the level of the Great Lakes is a matter
+of great importance to the large freight boats, which always load to the
+limit of depth at critical points in the dredged channels or in the
+harbours. Fears have been entertained that the water power canals at
+Sault Ste Marie, the drainage canal at Chicago and the dredged channel
+in the river Detroit will permanently lower the levels respectively of
+lake Superior and of the Michigan-Huron-Erie group. An international
+deep-waterway commission exists for the consideration of this question,
+and army engineers appointed by the United States government have worked
+on the problem.[3] Wing dams in the rivers St Mary and Niagara, to
+retard the discharges, have been proposed as remedial measures. The
+Great Lakes are practically tideless, though some observers claim to
+find true tidal pulsations, said to amount to 3½ in. at spring tide at
+Chicago. Secondary undulations of a few minutes in period, ranging from
+1 to 4 in., are well marked.
+
+The Great Lakes are well stocked with fish of commercial value. These
+are largely gathered from the fishermen by steam tenders, and taken
+fresh or in frozen condition to railway distributing points. In lakes
+Superior and Huron salmon-trout (_Salvelinus namaycush_, Walb) are
+commercially most important. They ordinarily range from 10 to 50 lb. in
+weight, and are often larger. In Georgian Bay the catches of whitefish
+(_Coregonus clupeiformis_, Mitchill) are enormous. In lake Erie
+whitefish, lesser whitefish, erroneously called lake-herring (_C.
+artedi_, Le Sueur), and sturgeon (_Acipenser rubicundus_, Le Sueur) are
+the most common. There is good angling at numerous points on the lakes
+and their feeders. The river Nipigon, on the north shore of lake
+Superior, is famous as a stream abounding in speckled trout (_Salvelinus
+fontinalis_, Mitchill) of unusual size. Black bass (_Micropterus_) are
+found from Georgian Bay to Montreal, and the maskinonge (_Esox
+nobilior_, Le Sueur), plentiful in the same waters, is a very game fish
+that often attains a weight of 70 lb.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--E. Channing and M. F. Lansing, _Story of the Great
+  Lakes_ (New York, 1909), for an account of the lakes in history; and
+  for shipping, &c., J. O. Curwood, _The Great Lakes_ (New York, 1909);
+  _U.S. Hydrographic office publication_, No 108, "Sailing directions
+  for the Great Lakes," Navy Department (Washington, 1901, seqq.);
+  _Bulletin No. 17_, "Survey of Northern and North-western Lakes," Corps
+  of Engineers, U.S. War Department, U.S. Lake Survey Office (Detroit,
+  Mich., 1907); _Annual reports of Canadian Department of Marine and
+  Fisheries_ (Ottawa, 1868 seqq.).     (W. P. A.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals. Col.
+    Chas. E. L. B. Davis, U.S.A., engineer in charge, 1907.
+
+  [2] Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals,
+    published annually by the U.S. engineer officer in charge.
+
+  [3] Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, in _Report of War
+    Department, U.S._ 1898, p. 3776.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS, the ancient Oriental-Greek-Roman deity
+commonly known as Cybele (q.v.) in Greek and Latin literature from the
+time of Pindar. She was also known under many other names, some of which
+were derived from famous places of worship: as Dindymene from Mt.
+Dindymon, Mater Idaea from Mt. Ida, Sipylene from Mt. Sipylus, Agdistis
+from Mt. Agdistis or Agdus, Mater Phrygia from the greatest stronghold
+of her cult; while others were reflections of her character as a great
+nature goddess: e.g. Mountain Mother, Great Mother of the Gods, Mother
+of all Gods and all Men. As the great Mother deity whose worship
+extended throughout Asia Minor she was known as Ma or Ammas. Cybele is
+her favourite name in ancient and modern literature, while Great Mother
+of the Gods, or Great Idaean Mother of the Gods (_Mater Deum Magna_,
+_Mater Deum Magna Idaea_), the most frequently recurring epigraphical
+title, was her ordinary official designation.
+
+The legends agree in locating the rise of the worship of the Great
+Mother in Asia Minor, in the region of loosely defined geographical
+limits which comprised the Phrygian empire of prehistoric times, and was
+more extensive than the Roman province of Phrygia (Diod. Sic. iii. 58;
+Paus. vii. 17; Arnob. v. 5; Firm. Mat. _De error._, 3; Ovid, _Fasti_,
+iv. 223 ff.; Sallust. Phil. _De diis et mundo_, 4; Jul. _Or._ v. 165
+ff.). Her best-known early seats of worship were Mt. Ida, Mt. Sipylus,
+Cyzicus, Sardis and Pessinus, the last-named city, in Galatia near the
+borders of Roman Phrygia, finally becoming the strongest centre of the
+cult. She was known to the Romans and Greeks as essentially Phrygian,
+and all Phrygia was spoken of as sacred to her (Schol. Apollon. Rhod.
+_Argonautica_, i. 1126). It is probable, however, that the Phrygian
+race, which invaded Asia Minor from the north in the 9th century B.C.,
+found a great nature goddess already universally worshipped there, and
+blended her with a deity of their own. The Asiatic-Phrygian worship thus
+evolved was further modified by contact with the Syrians and
+Phoenicians, so that it acquired strong Semitic characteristics. The
+Great Mother known to the Greeks and Romans was thus merely the Phrygian
+form of the nature deity of all Asia Minor.
+
+From Asia Minor the cult of the Great Mother spread first to Greek
+territory. It found its way into Thrace at an early date, was known in
+Boeotia by Pindar in the 6th century, and entered Attica near the
+beginning of the 4th century (Grant Showerman, _The Great Mother of the
+Gods_, _Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin_, No. 43, Madison,
+1901). At Peiraeus, where it probably arrived by way of the Aegean
+islands, it existed privately in a fully developed state, that is,
+accompanied by the worship of Attis, at the beginning of the 4th
+century, and publicly two centuries later (D. Comparetti, _Annales_,
+1862, pp. 23 ff.). The Greeks from the first saw in the Great Mother a
+resemblance to their own Rhea, and finally identified the two
+completely, though the Asiatic peculiarities of the cult were never
+universally popular with them (Showerman, p. 294). In her less Asiatic
+aspect, i.e. without Attis, she was sometimes identified with Gaia and
+Demeter. It was in this phase that she was worshipped in the Metroön at
+Athens. In reality, the Mother Goddess appears under three aspects:
+Rhea, the Homeric and Hesiodic goddess of Cretan origin; the Phrygian
+Mother, with Attis; and the Greek Great Mother, a modified form of the
+Phrygian Mother, to be explained as the original goddess of the
+Phrygians of Europe, communicated to the Greek stock before the Phrygian
+invasion of Asia Minor and consequent mingling with Asiatic stocks (cf.
+Showerman, p. 252).
+
+In 204 B.C., in obedience to the Sibylline prophecy which said that
+whenever an enemy from abroad should make war on Italy he could be
+expelled and conquered if the Idaean Mother were brought to Rome from
+Pessinus, the cult of the Great Mother, together with her sacred symbol,
+a small meteoric stone reputed to have fallen from the heavens, was
+transferred to Rome and established in a temple on the Palatine (Livy
+xxix. 10-14). Her identification by the Romans with Maia, Ops, Rhea,
+Tellus and Ceres contributed to the establishment of her worship on a
+firm footing. By the end of the Republic it had attained prominence, and
+under the Empire it became one of the three most important cults in the
+Roman world, the other two being those of Mithras and Isis. Epigraphic
+and numismatic evidence prove it to have penetrated from Rome as a
+centre to the remotest provinces (Showerman, pp. 291-293). During the
+brief revival of paganism under Eugenius in A.D. 394, occurred the last
+appearance of the cult in history. Besides the temple on the Palatine,
+there existed minor shrines of the Great Mother near the present church
+of St Peter, on the Sacra Via on the north slope of the Palatine, near
+the junction of the Almo and the Tiber, south of the city (_ibid._
+311-314).
+
+In all her aspects, Roman, Greek and Oriental, the Great Mother was
+characterized by essentially the same qualities. Most prominent among
+them was her universal motherhood. She was the great parent of gods and
+men, as well as of the lower orders of creation. "The winds, the sea,
+the earth and the snowy seat of Olympus are hers, and when from her
+mountains she ascends into the great heavens, the son of Cronus himself
+gives way before her" (Apollon. Rhod. _Argonautica_, i. 1098). She was
+known as the All-begetter, the All-nourisher, the Mother of all the
+Blest. She was the great, fruitful, kindly earth itself. Especial
+emphasis was placed upon her maternity over wild nature. She was called
+the Mountain Mother; her sanctuaries were almost invariably upon
+mountains, and frequently in caves, the name Cybele itself being by some
+derived from the latter; lions were her faithful companions. Her
+universal power over the natural world finds beautiful expression in
+Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonautica_, i. 1140 ff. She was also a chaste and
+beautiful deity. Her especial affinity with wild nature was manifested
+by the orgiastic character of her worship. Her attendants, the
+Corybantes, were wild, half demonic beings. Her priests, the Galli, were
+eunuchs attired in female garb, with long hair fragrant with ointment.
+Together with priestesses, they celebrated her rites with flutes, horns,
+castanets, cymbals and tambourines, madly yelling and dancing until
+their frenzied excitement found its culmination in self-scourging,
+self-laceration or exhaustion. Self-emasculation sometimes accompanied
+this delirium of worship on the part of candidates for the priesthood
+(Showerman, pp. 234-239). The _Attis_ of Catullus (lxiii.) is a
+brilliant treatment of such an episode.
+
+Though her cult sometimes existed by itself, in its fully developed state
+the worship of the Great Mother was accompanied by that of Attis (q.v.).
+The cult of Attis never existed independently. Like Adonis and Aphrodite,
+Baal and Astarte, &c., the two formed a duality representing the relations
+of Mother Nature to the fruits of the earth. There is no positive evidence
+to prove the existence of the cult publicly in this phase in Greece before
+the 2nd century B.C., nor in Rome before the Empire, though it may have
+existed in private (Showerman, "Was Attis at Rome under the Republic?" in
+_Transactions of the American Philological Association_, vol. 31, 1900,
+pp. 46-59; Cumont, s.v. "Attis," De Ruggiero's _Dizionario epigrafico_ and
+Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_, Supplement; Hepding, _Attis, seine
+Mythen und seine Kult_, Giessen, 1903, p. 142).
+
+The philosophers of the late Roman Empire interpreted the Attis legend
+as symbolizing the relations of Mother Earth to her children the fruits.
+Porphyrius says that Attis signified the flowers of spring time, and was
+cut off in youth because the flower falls before the fruit (Augustine,
+_De civ. Dei_, vii. 25). Maternus (_De error._ 3) interprets the love of
+the Great Mother for Attis as the love of the earth for her fruits; his
+emasculation as the cutting of the fruits; his death as their
+preservation; and his resurrection as the sowing of the seed again.
+
+At Rome the immediate direction of the cult of the Great Mother devolved
+upon the high priest, _Archigallus_, called Attis, a high priestess,
+_Sacerdos Maxima_, and its support was derived, at least in part, from a
+popular contribution, the _stips_. Besides other priests, priestesses
+and minor officials, such as musicians, curator, &c., there were certain
+colleges connected with the administration of the cult, called
+_cannophori_ (reed-bearers) and _dendrophori_ (branch-bearers). The
+Quindecimvirs exercised a general supervision over this cult, as over
+all other authorized cults, and it was, at least originally, under the
+special patronage of a club or sodality (Showerman, pp. 269-276). Roman
+citizens were at first forbidden to take part in its ceremonies, and the
+ban was not removed until the time of the Empire.
+
+The main public event in the worship of the Great Mother was the annual
+festival, which took place originally on the 4th of April, and was
+followed on the 5th by the Megalesia, games instituted in her honour on
+the introduction of the cult. Under the Empire, from Claudius on, the
+Megalesia lasted six days, April 4-10, and the original one day of the
+religious festival became an annual cycle of festivals extending from
+the 15th to the 27th of March, in the following order. (1) The 15th of
+March, _Canna intrat_--the sacrifice of a six-year-old bull in behalf of
+the mountain fields, the high priest, a priestess and the _cannophori_
+officiating, the last named carrying reeds in procession in
+commemoration of the exposure of the infant Attis on the reedy banks of
+the stream Gallus in Phrygia. (This may have been originally a phallic
+procession. Cf. Showerman, _American Journal of Philol._ xxvii. 1;
+_Classical Journal_ i. 4.) (2) The 22nd of March, _Arbor intrat_--the
+bearing in procession of the sacred pine, emblem of Attis'
+self-mutilation, death and immortality, to the temple on the Palatine,
+the symbol of the Mother's cave, by the _dendrophori_, a gild of workmen
+who made the Mother, among other deities, a patron. (3) The 24th of
+March, _Dies sanguinis_--a day of mourning, fasting and abstinence,
+especially sexual, commemorating the sorrow of the Mother for Attis, her
+abstinence from food and her chastity. The frenzied dance and
+self-laceration of the priests in commemoration of Attis' deed, and the
+submission to the act of consecration by candidates for the priesthood,
+was a special feature of the day. The _taurobolium_ (q.v.) was often
+performed on this day, on which probably took place the initiation of
+mystics. (4) The 25th of March, _Hilaria_--one of the great festal days
+of Rome, celebrated by all the people. All mourning was put off, and
+good cheer reigned in token of the return of the sun and spring, which
+was symbolized by the renewal of Attis' life. (5) The 26th of March,
+_Requietio_--a day of rest and quiet. (6) The 27th of March,
+_Lavatio_--the crowning ceremony of the cycle. The silver statue of the
+goddess, with the sacred meteoric stone, the _Acus_, set in its head,
+was borne in gorgeous procession and bathed in the Almo, the remainder
+of the day being given up to rejoicing and entertainment, especially
+dramatic representation of the legend of the deities of the day. Other
+ceremonies, not necessarily connected with the annual festival, were the
+taurobolium (q.v.), the sacrifice of a bull, and the _criobolium_
+(q.v.), the sacrifice of a ram, the latter being the analogue of the
+former, instituted for the purpose of giving Attis special recognition.
+The baptism of blood, which was the feature of these ceremonies, was
+regarded as purifying and regenerating (Showerman, _Great Mother_, pp.
+277-284).
+
+The Great Mother figures in the art of all periods both in Asia and
+Europe, but is especially prominent in the art of the Empire. No work of
+the first class, however, was inspired by her. She appears on coins, in
+painting and in all forms of sculpture, usually with mural crown and
+veil, well draped, seated on a throne, and accompanied by two lions.
+Other attributes which often appear are the patera, tympanum, cymbals,
+sceptre, garlands and fruits. Attis and his attributes, the pine,
+Phrygian cap, pedum, syrinx and torch, also appear. The Cybele of
+Formia, now at Copenhagen, is one of the most famous representations of
+the goddess. The Niobe of Mt. Sipylus is really the Mother. In
+literature she is the subject of frequent mention, but no work of
+importance, with the exception of Catullus lxiii., is due to her
+inspiration. Her importance in the history of religion is very great.
+Together with Isis and Mithras, she was a great enemy, and yet a great
+aid to Christianity. The gorgeous rites of her worship, its mystic
+doctrine of communion with the divine through enthusiasm, its promise of
+regeneration through baptism of blood in the taurobolium, were features
+which attracted the masses of the people and made it a strong rival of
+Christianity; and its resemblance to the new religion, however
+superficial, made it, in spite of the scandalous practices which grew up
+around it, a stepping-stone to Christianity when the tide set in against
+paganism.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Grant Showerman, "The Great Mother of the Gods,"
+  _Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin_, No. 43; _Philology and
+  Literature Series_, vol. i. No. 3 (Madison, 1901); Hugo Hepding,
+  _Attis, seine Mythen und seine Kult_ (Giessen, 1903); Rapp, _Roscher's
+  Ausführliches Lexicon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie s.v._
+  "Kybele"; Drexler, _ibid._ s.v. "Meter." See ROMAN RELIGION, GREEK
+  RELIGION, ATTIS, CORYBANTES; for the great "Hittite" portrayal of the
+  Nature Goddess at Pteria, see PTERIA.     (G. Sn.)
+
+
+
+
+GREAT REBELLION (1642-52), a generic name for the civil wars in England
+and Scotland, which began with the raising of King Charles I.'s standard
+at Nottingham on the 22nd of August 1642, and ended with the surrender
+of Dunottar Castle to the Parliament's troops in May 1652. It is usual
+to classify these wars into the First Civil War of 1642-46, and the
+Second Civil War of 1648-52. During most of this time another civil war
+was raging in Ireland. Its incidents had little or no connexion with
+those of the Great Rebellion, but its results influenced the struggle in
+England to a considerable extent.
+
+1. _First Civil War (1642-46)._--It is impossible rightly to understand
+the events of this most national of all English wars without some
+knowledge of the motive forces on both sides. On the side of the king
+were enlisted the deep-seated loyalty which was the result of two
+centuries of effective royal protection, the pure cavalier spirit
+foreshadowing the courtier era of Charles II., but still strongly tinged
+with the old feudal indiscipline, the militarism of an expert soldier
+nobility, well represented by Prince Rupert, and lastly a widespread
+distrust of extreme Puritanism, which appeared unreasonable to Lord
+Falkland and other philosophic statesmen and intolerable to every other
+class of Royalists. The foot of the Royal armies was animated in the
+main by the first and last of these motives; in the eyes of the sturdy
+rustics who followed their squires to the war the enemy were rebels and
+fanatics. To the cavalry, which was composed largely of the higher
+social orders, the rebels were, in addition, bourgeois, while the
+soldiers of fortune from the German wars felt all the regular's contempt
+for citizen militia. Thus in the first episodes of the First Civil War
+moral superiority tended to be on the side of the king. On the other
+side, the causes of the quarrel were primarily and apparently political,
+ultimately and really religious, and thus the elements of resistance in
+the Parliament and the nation were at first confused, and, later, strong
+and direct. Democracy, moderate republicanism and the simple desire for
+constitutional guarantees could hardly make head of themselves against
+the various forces of royalism, for the most moderate men of either
+party were sufficiently in sympathy to admit compromise. But the
+backbone of resistance was the Puritan element, and this waging war at
+first with the rest on the political issue soon (as the Royalists
+anticipated) brought the religious issue to the front. The Presbyterian
+system, even more rigid than that of Laud and the bishops--whom no man
+on either side supported save Charles himself--was destined to be
+supplanted by the Independents and their ideal of free conscience, but
+for a generation before the war broke out it had disciplined and trained
+the middle classes of the nation (who furnished the bulk of the rebel
+infantry, and later of the cavalry also) to centre their whole
+will-power on the attainment of their ideals. The ideals changed during
+the struggle, but not the capacity for striving for them, and the men
+capable of the effort finally came to the front and imposed their ideals
+on the rest by the force of their trained wills.
+
+Material force was throughout on the side of the Parliamentary party.
+They controlled the navy, the nucleus of an army which was in process of
+being organized for the Irish war, and nearly all the financial
+resources of the country. They had the sympathies of most of the large
+towns, where the trained bands, drilled once a month, provided cadres
+for new regiments. Further, by recognizing the inevitable, they gained a
+start in war preparations which they never lost. The earls of Warwick,
+Essex and Manchester and other nobles and gentry of their party
+possessed great wealth and territorial influence. Charles, on the other
+hand, although he could, by means of the "press" and the
+lords-lieutenant, raise men without authority from Parliament, could not
+raise taxes to support them, and was dependent on the financial support
+of his chief adherents, such as the earls of Newcastle and Derby. Both
+parties raised men when and where they could, each claiming that the law
+was on its side--for England was already a law-abiding nation--and
+acting in virtue of legal instruments. These were, on the side of the
+Parliament, its own recent "Militia Ordinance"; on that of the king, the
+old-fashioned "Commissions of Array." In Cornwall the Royalist leader,
+Sir Ralph Hopton, indicted the enemy before the grand jury of the county
+as disturbers of the peace, and had the _posse comitatus_ called out to
+expel them. The local forces in fact were everywhere employed by
+whichever side could, by producing valid written authority, induce them
+to assemble.
+
+2. _The Royalist and Parliamentarian Armies._--This thread of local
+feeling and respect for the laws runs through the earlier operations of
+both sides almost irrespective of the main principles at stake. Many a
+promising scheme failed because of the reluctance of the militiamen to
+serve beyond the limits of their own county, and, as the offensive lay
+with the king, his cause naturally suffered far more therefrom than that
+of the enemy. But the real spirit of the struggle was very different.
+Anything which tended to prolong the struggle, or seemed like want of
+energy and avoidance of a decision, was bitterly resented by the men of
+both sides, who had their hearts in the quarrel and had not as yet
+learned by the severe lesson of Edgehill that raw armies cannot bring
+wars to a speedy issue. In France and Germany the prolongation of a war
+meant continued employment for the soldiers, but in England "we never
+encamped or entrenched ... or lay fenced with rivers or defiles. Here
+were no leaguers in the field, as at the story of Nuremberg,[1] neither
+had our soldiers any tents or what they call heavy baggage. 'Twas the
+general maxim of the war--Where is the enemy? Let us go and fight them.
+Or ... if the enemy was coming ... Why, what should be done! Draw out
+into the fields and fight them." This passage from the _Memoirs of a
+Cavalier_, ascribed to Defoe, though not contemporary evidence, is an
+admirable summary of the character of the Civil War. Even when in the
+end a regular professional army is evolved--exactly as in the case of
+Napoleon's army--the original decision-compelling spirit permeated the
+whole organization. From the first the professional soldiers of fortune,
+be their advice good or bad, are looked upon with suspicion, and nearly
+all those Englishmen who loved war for its own sake were too closely
+concerned for the welfare of their country to attempt the methods of the
+Thirty Years' War in England. The formal organization of both armies was
+based on the Swedish model, which had become the pattern of Europe after
+the victories of Gustavus Adolphus, and gave better scope for the
+_moral_ of the individual than the old-fashioned Spanish and Dutch
+formations in which the man in the ranks was a highly finished
+automaton.
+
+3. _Campaign of 1642._--When the king raised his standard at Nottingham
+on the 22nd of August 1642, war was already in progress on a small scale
+in many districts, each side endeavouring to secure, or to deny to the
+enemy, fortified country-houses, territory, and above all arms and
+money. Peace negotiations went on in the midst of these minor events
+until there came from the Parliament an ultimatum so aggressive as to
+fix the warlike purpose of the still vacillating court at Nottingham,
+and, in the country at large, to convert many thousands of waverers to
+active Royalism. Ere long Charles--who had hitherto had less than 1500
+men--was at the head of an army which, though very deficient in arms and
+equipment, was not greatly inferior in numbers or enthusiasm to that of
+the Parliament. The latter (20,000 strong exclusive of detachments) was
+organized during July, August and September about London, and moved
+thence to Northampton under the command of Robert, earl of Essex.
+
+At this moment the military situation was as follows. Lord Hertford in
+south Wales, Sir Ralph Hopton in Cornwall, and the young earl of Derby
+in Lancashire, and small parties in almost every county of the west and
+the midlands, were in arms for the king. North of the Tees, the earl of
+Newcastle, a great territorial magnate, was raising troops and supplies
+for the king, while Queen Henrietta Maria was busy in Holland arranging
+for the importation of war material and money. In Yorkshire opinion was
+divided, the royal cause being strongest in York and the North Riding,
+that of the Parliamentary party in the clothing towns of the West Riding
+and also in the important seaport of Hull. The Yorkshire gentry made an
+attempt to neutralize the county, but a local struggle soon began, and
+Newcastle thereupon prepared to invade Yorkshire. The whole of the south
+and east as well as parts of the midlands and the west and the important
+towns of Bristol and Gloucester were on the side of the Parliament. A
+small Royalist force was compelled to evacuate Oxford on the 10th of
+September.
+
+On the 13th of September the main campaign opened. The king--in order to
+find recruits amongst his sympathizers and arms in the armouries of the
+Derbyshire and Staffordshire trained bands, and also to be in touch with
+his disciplined regiments in Ireland by way of Chester--moved westward
+to Shrewsbury, Essex following suit by marching from Northampton to
+Worcester. Near the last-named town a sharp cavalry engagement (Powick
+Bridge) took place on the 23rd between the advanced cavalry of Essex's
+army and a force under Prince Rupert which was engaged in protecting the
+retirement of the Oxford detachment. The result of the fight was the
+instantaneous overthrow of the rebel cavalry, and this gave the Royalist
+troopers a confidence in themselves and in their brilliant leader which
+was not destined to be shaken until they met Cromwell's Ironsides.
+Rupert soon withdrew to Shrewsbury, where he found many Royalist
+officers eager to attack Essex's new position at Worcester. But the road
+to London now lay open and it was decided to take it. The intention was
+not to avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals desired to fight Essex
+before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it
+impossible to postpone the decision; in Clarendon's words, "it was
+considered more counsellable to march towards London, it being morally
+sure that the earl of Essex would put himself in their way," and
+accordingly the army left Shrewsbury on the 12th of October, gaining two
+days' start of the enemy, and moved south-east via Bridgnorth,
+Birmingham and Kenilworth. This had the desired effect. Parliament,
+alarmed for its own safety, sent repeated orders to Essex to find the
+king and bring him to battle. Alarm gave place to determination when it
+was discovered that Charles was enlisting papists and seeking foreign
+aid. The militia of the home counties was called out, a second army
+under the earl of Warwick was formed round the nucleus of the London
+trained bands, and Essex, straining every nerve to regain touch with the
+enemy, reached Kineton, where he was only 7 m. from the king's
+headquarters at Edgecote, on the 22nd.
+
+4. _Battle of Edgehill._--Rupert promptly reported the enemy's presence,
+and his confidence dominated the irresolution of the king and the
+caution of Lord Lindsey, the nominal commander-in-chief. Both sides had
+marched widely dispersed in order to live, and the rapidity with which,
+having the clearer purpose, the Royalists drew together helped
+considerably to neutralize Essex's superior numbers. During the morning
+of the 23rd the Royalists formed in battle order on the brow of Edgehill
+facing towards Kineton. Essex, experienced soldier as he was, had
+distrusted his own raw army too much to force a decision earlier in the
+month, when the king was weak; he now found Charles in a strong position
+with an equal force to his own 14,000, and some of his regiments were
+still some miles distant. But he advanced beyond Kineton, and the enemy
+promptly left their strong position and came down to the foot of the
+hill, for, situated as they were, they had either to fight wherever they
+could induce the enemy to engage, or to starve in the midst of hostile
+garrisons. Rupert was on the right of the king's army with the greater
+part of the horse, Lord Lindsey and Sir Jacob Astley in the centre with
+the foot, Lord Wilmot (with whom rode the earl of Forth, the principal
+military adviser of the king) with a smaller body of cavalry on the
+left. In rear of the centre were the king and a small reserve. Essex's
+order was similar. Rupert charged as soon as his wing was deployed, and
+before the infantry of either side was ready. Taking ground to his right
+front and then wheeling inwards at full speed he instantly rode down the
+Parliamentary horse opposed to him. Some infantry regiments of Essex's
+left centre shared the same fate as their cavalry. On the other wing
+Forth and Wilmot likewise swept away all that they could see of the
+enemy's cavalry, and the undisciplined Royalists of both wings pursued
+the fugitives in wild disorder up to Kineton, where they were severely
+handled by John Hampden's infantry brigade (which was escorting the
+artillery and baggage of Essex's army). Rupert brought back only a few
+rallied squadrons to the battlefield, and in the meantime affairs there
+had gone badly for the king. The right and centre of the Parliamentary
+foot (the left having been brought to a halt by Rupert's charge)
+advanced with great resolution, and being at least as ardent as, and
+much better armed than, Lindsey's men, engaged them fiercely and slowly
+gained ground. Only the best regiments on either side, however,
+maintained their order, and the decision of the infantry battle was
+achieved mainly by a few Parliamentary squadrons. One regiment of
+Essex's right wing only had been the target of Wilmot's charge, the
+other two had been at the moment invisible, and, as every Royalist troop
+on the ground, even the king's guards, had joined in the mad ride to
+Kineton, these, Essex's life-guard, and some troops that had rallied
+from the effect of Rupert's charge--amongst them Captain Oliver
+Cromwell's--were the only cavalry still present. All these joined with
+decisive effect in the attack on the left of the royal infantry. The
+king's line was steadily rolled up from left to right, the Parliamentary
+troopers captured his guns and regiment after regiment broke up. Charles
+himself stood calmly in the thick of the fight, but he had not the skill
+to direct it. The royal standard was taken and retaken, Lindsey and Sir
+Edmund Verney, the standard-bearer, being killed. By the time that
+Rupert returned both sides were incapable of further effort and
+disillusioned as to the prospect of ending the war at a blow.
+
+On the 24th Essex retired, leaving Charles to claim the victory and to
+reap its results. Banbury and Oxford were reoccupied by the Royalists,
+and by the 28th Charles was marching down the Thames valley on London.
+Negotiations were reopened, and a peace party rapidly formed itself in
+London and Westminster. Yet field fortifications sprang up around
+London, and when Rupert stormed and sacked Brentford on the 12th of
+November the trained bands moved out at once and took up a position at
+Turnham Green, barring the king's advance. Hampden, with something of
+the fire and energy of his cousin Cromwell, urged Essex to turn both
+flanks of the Royal army via Acton and Kingston, but experienced
+professional soldiers urged him not to trust the London men to hold
+their ground while the rest manoeuvred. Hampden's advice was undoubtedly
+premature. A Sedan or Worcester was not within the power of the
+Parliamentarians of 1642, for, in Napoleon's words, "one only manoeuvres
+around a fixed point," and the city levies at that time were certainly
+not, _vis-à-vis_ Rupert's cavalry, a fixed point. As a matter of fact,
+after a slight cannonade at Turnham Green on the 13th, Essex's
+two-to-one numerical superiority of itself compelled the king to retire
+to Reading. Turnham Green has justly been called the Valmy of the
+English Civil War. Like Valmy, without being a battle, it was a victory,
+and the tide of invasion came thus far, ebbed, and never returned.
+
+5. _The Winter of 1642-43._--In the winter, while Essex lay inactive at
+Windsor, Charles by degrees consolidated his position in the region of
+Oxford. The city was fortified as a reduit for the whole area, and
+Reading, Wallingford, Abingdon, Brill, Banbury and Marlborough
+constituted a complete defensive ring which was developed by the
+creation of smaller posts from time to time. In the north and west,
+winter campaigns were actively carried on. "It is summer in Yorkshire,
+summer in Devon, and cold winter at Windsor," said one of Essex's
+critics. At the beginning of December Newcastle crossed the Tees,
+defeated Hotham, the Parliamentary commander in the North Riding, then
+joining hands with the hard-pressed Royalists at York, established
+himself between that city and Pontefract. Lord Fairfax and his son Sir
+Thomas, who commanded for the Parliament in Yorkshire, had to retire to
+the district between Hull and Selby, and Newcastle was free to turn his
+attention to the Puritan "clothing towns" of the West Riding--Leeds,
+Halifax and Bradford. The townsmen, however, showed a determined front,
+the younger Fairfax with a picked body of cavalry rode through
+Newcastle's lines into the West Riding to help them, and about the end
+of January 1643 the earl gave up the attempt to reduce the towns. He
+continued his march southward, however, and gained ground for the king
+as far as Newark, so as to be in touch with the Royalists of
+Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Leicestershire (who, especially about
+Newark and Ashby-de-la-Zouch, were strong enough to neutralize the local
+forces of the Parliament), and to prepare the way for the further
+advance of the army of the north when the queen's convoy should arrive
+from over-seas.
+
+In the west Sir Ralph Hopton and his friends, having obtained a true
+bill from the grand jury against the Parliamentary disturbers of the
+peace, placed themselves at the head of the county militia and drove the
+rebels from Cornwall, after which they raised a small force for general
+service and invaded Devonshire (November 1642). Subsequently a
+Parliamentary army under the earl of Stamford was withdrawn from south
+Wales to engage Hopton, who had to retire into Cornwall. There, however,
+the Royalist general was free to employ the militia again, and thus
+reinforced he won a victory over a part of Stamford's forces at Bradock
+Down near Liskeard (January 19, 1643) and resumed the offensive. About
+the same time Hertford, no longer opposed by Stamford, brought over the
+South Wales Royalists to Oxford, and the fortified area around that
+place was widened by the capture of Cirencester on the 2nd of February.
+Gloucester and Bristol were now the only important garrisons of the
+Roundheads in the west. In the midlands, in spite of a Parliamentary
+victory won by Sir William Brereton at Nantwich on the 28th of January,
+the Royalists of Shropshire, Staffordshire and Leicestershire soon
+extended their influence through Ashby-de-la-Zouch into Nottinghamshire
+and joined hands with their friends at Newark. Further, around Chester a
+new Royalist army was being formed under Lord Byron, and all the efforts
+of Brereton and of Sir John Gell, the leading supporter of the
+Parliament in Derbyshire, were required to hold their own, even before
+Newcastle's army was added to the list of their enemies. Lord Brooke,
+who commanded for the Parliament in Warwickshire and Staffordshire and
+was looked on by many as Essex's eventual successor, was killed in
+besieging Lichfield cathedral on the 2nd of March, and, though the
+cathedral soon capitulated, Gell and Brereton were severely handled in
+the indecisive battle of Hopton Heath near Stafford on the 19th of
+March, and Prince Rupert, after an abortive raid on Bristol (March 7),
+marched rapidly northward, storming Birmingham en route, and recaptured
+Lichfield cathedral. He was, however, soon recalled to Oxford to take
+part in the main campaign. The position of affairs for the Parliament
+was perhaps at its worst in January. The Royalist successes of November
+and December, the ever-present dread of foreign intervention, and the
+burden of new taxation which the Parliament now found itself compelled
+to impose, disheartened its supporters. Disorders broke out in London,
+and, while the more determined of the rebels began thus early to think
+of calling in the military assistance of the Scots, the majority were
+for peace on any conditions. But soon the position improved somewhat;
+Stamford in the west and Brereton and Gell in the midlands, though hard
+pressed, were at any rate in arms and undefeated, Newcastle had failed
+to conquer the West Riding, and Sir William Waller, who had cleared
+Hampshire and Wiltshire of "malignants," entered Gloucestershire early
+in March, destroyed a small Royalist force at Highnam (March 24), and
+secured Bristol and Gloucester for the Parliament. Finally, some of
+Charles's own intrigues opportunely coming to light, the waverers,
+seeing the impossibility of plain dealing with the court, rallied again
+to the party of resistance, and the series of negotiations called by the
+name of the Treaty of Oxford closed in April with no more result than
+those which had preceded Edgehill and Turnham Green. About this time
+too, following and improving upon the example of Newcastle in the north,
+Parliament ordered the formation of the celebrated "associations" or
+groups of counties banded together by mutual consent for defence. The
+most powerful and best organized of these was that of the eastern
+counties (headquarters Cambridge), where the danger of attack from the
+north was near enough to induce great energy in the preparations for
+meeting it, and at the same time too distant effectively to interfere
+with these preparations. Above all, the Eastern Association was from the
+first guided and inspired by Colonel Cromwell.
+
+6. _The Plan of Campaign, 1643._--The king's plan of operations for the
+next campaign, which was perhaps inspired from abroad, was more
+elaborate than the simple "point" of 1642. The king's army, based on the
+fortified area around Oxford, was counted sufficient to use up Essex's
+forces. On either hand, therefore, in Yorkshire and in the west, the
+Royalist armies were to fight their way inwards towards London, after
+which all three armies, converging on that place in due season, were to
+cut off its supplies and its sea-borne revenue and to starve the
+rebellion into surrender. The condition of this threefold advance was of
+course that the enemy should not be able to defeat the armies in detail,
+i.e. that he should be fixed and held in the Thames valley; this
+secured, there was no purely military objection against operating in
+separate armies from the circumference towards the centre. It was on the
+rock of local feeling that the king's plan came to grief. Even after the
+arrival of the queen and her convoy, Newcastle had to allow her to
+proceed with a small force, and to remain behind with the main body,
+because of Lancashire and the West Riding, and above all because the
+port of Hull, in the hands of the Fairfaxes, constituted a menace that
+the Royalists of the East Riding refused to ignore. Hopton's advance
+too, undertaken without the Cornish levies, was checked in the action of
+Sourton Down (Dartmoor) on the 25th of April, and on the same day Waller
+captured Hereford. Essex had already left Windsor to undertake the siege
+of Reading, the most important point in the circle of fortresses round
+Oxford, which after a vain attempt at relief surrendered to him on the
+26th of April. Thus the opening operations were unfavourable, not indeed
+so far as to require the scheme to be abandoned, but at least delaying
+the development until the campaigning season was far advanced.
+
+7. _Victories of Hopton._--But affairs improved in May. The queen's
+long-expected convoy arrived at Woodstock on the 13th. The earl of
+Stamford's army, which had again entered Cornwall, was attacked in its
+selected position at Stratton and practically annihilated by Hopton (May
+16). This brilliant victory was due above all to Sir Bevil Grenville and
+the lithe Cornishmen, who, though but 2400 against 5400 and destitute of
+artillery, stormed "Stamford Hill," killed 300 of the enemy, and
+captured 1700 more with all their guns, colours and baggage. Devon was
+at once overrun by the victors. Essex's army, for want of material
+resources, had had to be content with the capture of Reading, and a
+Royalist force under Hertford and Prince Maurice (Rupert's brother)
+moved out as far as Salisbury to hold out a hand to their friends in
+Devonshire, while Waller, the only Parliamentary commander left in the
+field in the west, had to abandon his conquests in the Severn valley to
+oppose the further progress of his intimate friend and present enemy,
+Hopton. Early in June Hertford and Hopton united at Chard and rapidly
+moved, with some cavalry skirmishing, towards Bath, where Waller's army
+lay. Avoiding the barrier of the Mendips, they moved round via Frome to
+the Avon. But Waller, thus cut off from London and threatened with
+investment, acted with great skill, and some days of manoeuvres and
+skirmishing followed, after which Hertford and Hopton found themselves
+on the north side of Bath facing Waller's entrenched position on the top
+of Lansdown Hill. This position the Royalists stormed on the 5th of
+July. The battle of Lansdown was a second Stratton for the Cornishmen,
+but this time the enemy was of different quality and far differently
+led, and they had to mourn the loss of Sir Bevil Grenville and the
+greater part of their whole force. At dusk both sides stood on the flat
+summit of the hill, still firing into one another with such energy as
+was not yet expended, and in the night Waller drew off his men into
+Bath. "We were glad they were gone," wrote a Royalist officer, "for if
+they had not, I know who had within the hour." Next day Hopton was
+severely injured by the explosion of a wagon containing the reserve
+ammunition, and the Royalists, finding their victory profitless, moved
+eastward to Devizes, closely followed by the enemy. On the 10th of July
+Sir William Waller took post on Roundway Down, overlooking Devizes, and
+captured a Royalist ammunition column from Oxford. On the 11th he came
+down and invested Hopton's foot in Devizes itself, while the Royalist
+cavalry, Hertford and Maurice with them, rode away towards Salisbury.
+But although the siege was pressed with such vigour that an assault was
+fixed for the evening of the 13th, the Cornishmen, Hopton directing the
+defence from his bed, held out stubbornly, and on the afternoon of July
+13th Prince Maurice's horsemen appeared on Roundway Down, having ridden
+to Oxford, picked up reinforcements there, and returned at full speed to
+save their comrades. Waller's army tried its best, but some of its
+elements were of doubtful quality and the ground was all in Maurice's
+favour. The battle did not last long. The combined attack of the Oxford
+force from Roundway and of Hopton's men from the town practically
+annihilated Waller's army. Very soon afterwards Rupert came up with
+fresh Royalist forces, and the combined armies moved westward. Bristol,
+the second port of the kingdom, was their objective, and in four days
+from the opening of the siege it was in their hands (July 26), Waller
+with the beaten remnant of his army at Bath being powerless to
+intervene. The effect of this blow was felt even in Dorsetshire. Within
+three weeks of the surrender Prince Maurice with a body of fast-moving
+cavalry overran that county almost unopposed.
+
+8. _Adwalton Moor._--Newcastle meanwhile had resumed operations against
+the clothing towns, this time with success. The Fairfaxes had been
+fighting in the West Riding since January with such troops from the Hull
+region as they had been able to bring across Newcastle's lines. They and
+the townsmen together were too weak for Newcastle's increasing forces,
+and an attempt was made to relieve them by bringing up the Parliament's
+forces in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and the Eastern
+Association. But local interests prevailed again, in spite of Cromwell's
+presence, and after assembling at Nottingham, the midland rebels quietly
+dispersed to their several counties (June 2). The Fairfaxes were left to
+their fate, and about the same time Hull itself narrowly escaped capture
+by the queen's forces through the treachery of Sir John Hotham, the
+governor, and his son, the commander of the Lincolnshire
+Parliamentarians. The latter had been placed under arrest at the
+instance of Cromwell and of Colonel Hutchinson, the governor of
+Nottingham Castle; he escaped to Hull, but both father and son were
+seized by the citizens and afterwards executed. More serious than an
+isolated act of treachery was the far-reaching Royalist plot that had
+been detected in Parliament itself, for complicity in which Lord Conway,
+Edmund Waller the poet, and several members of both Houses were
+arrested. The safety of Hull was of no avail for the West Riding towns,
+and the Fairfaxes underwent a decisive defeat at Adwalton (Atherton)
+Moor near Bradford on the 30th of June. After this, by way of
+Lincolnshire, they escaped to Hull and reorganized the defence of that
+place. The West Riding perforce submitted.
+
+The queen herself with a second convoy and a small army under Henry
+(Lord) Jermyn soon moved via Newark, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Lichfield and
+other Royalist garrisons to Oxford, where she joined her husband on the
+14th of July. But Newcastle (now a marquis) was not yet ready for his
+part in the programme. The Yorkshire troops would not march on London
+while the enemy was master of Hull, and by this time there was a solid
+barrier between the royal army of the north and the capital. Roundway
+Down and Adwalton Moor were not after all destined to be fatal, though
+peace riots in London, dissensions in the Houses, and quarrels amongst
+the generals were their immediate consequences. A new factor had arisen
+in the war--the Eastern Association.
+
+9. _Cromwell and the Eastern Association._--This had already intervened
+to help in the siege of Reading and had sent troops to the abortive
+gathering at Nottingham, besides clearing its own ground of
+"malignants." From the first Cromwell was the dominant influence. Fresh
+from Edgehill, he had told Hampden, "You must get men of a spirit that
+is likely to go as far as gentlemen will go," not "old decayed
+serving-men, tapsters and such kind of fellows to encounter gentlemen
+that have honour and courage and resolution in them," and in January
+1643 he had gone to his own county to "raise such men as had the fear of
+God before them and made some conscience of what they did." These men,
+once found, were willing, for the cause, to submit to a rigorous
+training and an iron discipline such as other troops, fighting for
+honour only or for profit only, could not be brought to endure.[2] The
+result was soon apparent. As early as the 13th of May, Cromwell's
+regiment of horse--recruited from the horse-loving yeomen of the eastern
+counties--demonstrated its superiority in the field in a skirmish near
+Grantham, and in the irregular fighting in Lincolnshire during June and
+July (which was on the whole unfavourable to the Parliament), as
+previously in pacifying the Eastern Association itself, these Puritan
+troopers distinguished themselves by long and rapid marches that may
+bear comparison with almost any in the history of the mounted arm. When
+Cromwell's second opportunity came at Gainsborough on the 28th of July,
+the "Lincolneer" horse who were under his orders were fired by the
+example of Cromwell's own regiment, and Cromwell, directing the whole
+with skill, and above all with energy, utterly routed the Royalist horse
+and killed their general, Charles Cavendish.
+
+In the meantime the army of Essex had been inactive. After the fall of
+Reading a serious epidemic of sickness had reduced it to impotence. On
+the 18th of June the Parliamentary cavalry was routed and John Hampden
+mortally wounded at Chalgrove Field near Chiselhampton, and when at last
+Essex, having obtained the desired reinforcements, moved against Oxford
+from the Aylesbury side, he found his men demoralized by inaction, and
+before the menace of Rupert's cavalry, to which he had nothing to
+oppose, he withdrew to Bedfordshire (July). He made no attempt to
+intercept the march of the queen's convoys, he had permitted the Oxford
+army, which he should have held fast, to intervene effectually in the
+midlands, the west, and the south-west, and Waller might well complain
+that Essex, who still held Reading and the Chilterns, had given him
+neither active nor passive support in the critical days preceding
+Roundway Down. Still only a few voices were raised to demand his
+removal, and he was shortly to have an opportunity of proving his skill
+and devotion in a great campaign and a great battle. The centre and the
+right of the three Royalist armies had for a moment (Roundway to
+Bristol) united to crush Waller, but their concentration was
+short-lived. Plymouth was to Hopton's men what Hull was to
+Newcastle's--they would not march on London until the menace to their
+homes was removed. Further, there were dissensions among the generals
+which Charles was too weak to crush, and consequently the original plan
+reappears--the main Royalist army to operate in the centre, Hopton's
+(now Maurice's) on the right, Newcastle on the left towards London.
+While waiting for the fall of Hull and Plymouth, Charles naturally
+decided to make the best use of his time by reducing Gloucester, the one
+great fortress of the Parliament in the west.
+
+10. _Siege and Relief of Gloucester._--This decision quickly brought on
+a crisis. While the earl of Manchester (with Cromwell as his
+lieutenant-general) was appointed to head the forces of the Eastern
+Association against Newcastle, and Waller was given a new army
+wherewith again to engage Hopton and Maurice, the task of saving
+Gloucester from the king's army fell to Essex, who was heavily
+reinforced and drew his army together for action in the last days of
+August. Resort was had to the press-gang to fill the ranks, recruiting
+for Waller's new army was stopped, and London sent six regiments of
+trained bands to the front, closing the shops so that every man should
+be free to take his part in what was thought to be the supreme trial of
+strength.
+
+On the 26th, all being ready, Essex started. Through Aylesbury and round
+the north side of Oxford to Stow-on-the-Wold the army moved resolutely,
+not deterred by want of food and rest, or by the attacks of Rupert's and
+Wilmot's horse on its flank. On the 5th of September, just as Gloucester
+was at the end of its resources, the siege was suddenly raised and the
+Royalists drew off to Painswick, for Essex had reached Cheltenham and
+the danger was over. Then, the field armies being again face to face and
+free to move, there followed a series of skilful manoeuvres in the
+Severn and Avon valleys, at the end of which the Parliamentary army
+gained a long start on its homeward road via Cricklade, Hungerford and
+Reading. But the Royalist cavalry under Rupert, followed rapidly by
+Charles and the main body from Evesham, strained every nerve to head off
+Essex at Newbury, and after a sharp skirmish on Aldbourne Chase on the
+18th of September succeeded in doing so. On the 19th the whole Royal
+army was drawn up, facing west, with its right on Newbury and its left
+on Enborne Heath. Essex's men knew that evening that they would have to
+break through by force--there was no suggestion of surrender.
+
+11. _First Battle of Newbury, September 20, 1643._--The ground was
+densely intersected by hedges except in front of the Royalists' left
+centre (Newbury Wash) and left (Enborne Heath), and, practically,
+Essex's army was never formed in line of battle, for each unit was
+thrown into the fight as it came up its own road or lane. On the left
+wing, in spite of the Royalist counter-strokes, the attack had the best
+of it, capturing field after field, and thus gradually gaining ground to
+the front. Here Lord Falkland was killed. On the Reading road itself
+Essex did not succeed in deploying on to the open ground on Newbury
+Wash, but victoriously repelled the royal horse when it charged up to
+the lanes and hedges held by his foot. On the extreme right of the
+Parliamentary army, which stood in the open ground of Enborne Heath,
+took place a famous incident. Here two of the London regiments, fresh to
+war as they were, were exposed to a trial as severe as that which broke
+down the veteran Spanish infantry at Rocroi in this same year. Rupert
+and the Royalist horse again and again charged up to the squares of
+pikes, and between each charge his guns tried to disorder the Londoners,
+but it was not until the advance of the royal infantry that the trained
+bands retired, slowly and in magnificent order, to the edge of the
+heath. The result of it all was that Essex's army had fought its hardest
+and failed to break the opposing line. But the Royalists had suffered so
+heavily, and above all the valour displayed by the rebels had so
+profoundly impressed them, that they were glad to give up the disputed
+road and withdraw into Newbury. Essex thereupon pursued his march,
+Reading was reached on the 22nd after a small rearguard skirmish at
+Aldermaston, and so ended one of the most dramatic episodes of English
+history.
+
+12. _Hull and Winceby._--Meanwhile the siege of Hull had commenced. The
+Eastern Association forces under Manchester promptly moved up into
+Lincolnshire, the foot besieging Lynn (which surrendered on the 16th of
+September) while the horse rode into the northern part of the county to
+give a hand to the Fairfaxes. Fortunately the sea communications of Hull
+were open. On the 18th of September part of the cavalry in Hull was
+ferried over to Barton, and the rest under Sir Thomas Fairfax went by
+sea to Saltfleet a few days later, the whole joining Cromwell near
+Spilsby. In return the old Lord Fairfax, who remained in Hull, received
+infantry reinforcements and a quantity of ammunition and stores from the
+Eastern Association. On the 11th of October Cromwell and Fairfax
+together won a brilliant cavalry action at Winceby, driving the
+Royalist horse in confusion before them to Newark, and on the same day
+Newcastle's army around Hull, which had suffered terribly from the
+hardships of continuous siege work, was attacked by the garrison and so
+severely handled that next day the siege was given up. Later, Manchester
+retook Lincoln and Gainsborough, and thus Lincolnshire, which had been
+almost entirely in Newcastle's hands before he was compelled to
+undertake the siege of Hull, was added in fact as well as in name to the
+Eastern Association.
+
+Elsewhere, in the reaction after the crisis of Newbury, the war
+languished. The city regiments went home, leaving Essex too weak to hold
+Reading, which the Royalists reoccupied on the 3rd of October. At this
+the Londoners offered to serve again, and actually took part in a minor
+campaign around Newport Pagnell, which town Rupert attempted to fortify
+as a menace to the Eastern Association and its communications with
+London. Essex was successful in preventing this, but his London
+regiments again went home, and Sir William Waller's new army in
+Hampshire failed lamentably in an attempt on Basing House (November 7),
+the London trained bands deserting _en bloc_. Shortly afterwards Arundel
+surrendered to a force under Sir Ralph, now Lord Hopton (December 9).
+
+13. _The "Irish Cessation" and the Solemn League and
+Covenant._--Politically, these months were the turning-point of the war.
+In Ireland, the king's lieutenant, by order of his master, made a truce
+with the Irish rebels (Sept. 15). Charles's chief object was to set free
+his army to fight in England, but it was believed universally that Irish
+regiments--in plain words, papists in arms--would shortly follow. Under
+these circumstances his act united against him nearly every class in
+Protestant England, above all brought into the English quarrel the armed
+strength of Presbyterian Scotland. Yet Charles, still trusting to
+intrigue and diplomacy to keep Scotland in check, deliberately rejected
+the advice of Montrose, his greatest and most faithful lieutenant, who
+wished to give the Scots employment for their army at home. Only ten
+days after the "Irish cessation," the Parliament at Westminster swore to
+the Solemn League and Covenant, and the die was cast. It is true that
+even a semblance of Presbyterian theocracy put the "Independents" on
+their guard and definitely raised the question of freedom of conscience,
+and that secret negotiations were opened between the Independents and
+Charles on that basis, but they soon discovered that the king was merely
+using them as instruments to bring about the betrayal of Aylesbury and
+other small rebel posts. All parties found it convenient to interpret
+the Covenant liberally for the present, and at the beginning of 1644 the
+Parliamentary party showed so united a front that even Pym's death
+(December 8, 1643) hardly affected its resolution to continue the
+struggle.
+
+The troops from Ireland, thus obtained at the cost of an enormous
+political blunder, proved to be untrustworthy after all. Those serving
+in Hopton's army were "mutinous and shrewdly infected with the
+rebellious humour of England." When Waller's Londoners surprised[3] and
+routed a Royalist detachment at Alton (December 13, 1643), half the
+prisoners took the Covenant. Hopton had to retire, and on the 6th of
+January 1644 Waller recaptured Arundel. Byron's Cheshire army was in no
+better case. Newcastle's retreat from Hull and the loss of Gainsborough
+had completely changed the situation in the midlands, Brereton was
+joined by the younger Fairfax from Lincolnshire, and the Royalists were
+severely defeated for a second time at Nantwich (January 25). As at
+Alton, the majority of the prisoners (amongst them Colonel George Monk)
+took the Covenant and entered the Parliamentary army. In Lancashire, as
+in Cheshire, Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire, the cause
+of the Parliament was in the ascendant. Resistance revived in the West
+Riding towns, Lord Fairfax was again in the field in the East Riding,
+and even Newark was closely besieged by Sir John Meldrum. More important
+news came in from the north. The advanced guard of the Scottish army had
+passed the Tweed on the 19th of January, and the marquis of Newcastle
+with the remnant of his army would soon be attacked in front and rear at
+once.
+
+14. _Newark and Cheriton (March 1644)._--As in 1643, Rupert was soon on
+his way to the north to retrieve the fortunes of his side. Moving by the
+Welsh border, and gathering up garrisons and recruits snowball-wise as
+he marched, he went first to Cheshire to give a hand to Byron, and then,
+with the utmost speed, he made for Newark. On the 20th of March 1644 he
+bivouacked at Bingham, and on the 21st he not only relieved Newark but
+routed the besiegers' cavalry. On the 22nd Meldrum's position was so
+hopeless that he capitulated on terms. But, brilliant soldier as he was,
+the prince was unable to do more than raid a few Parliamentary posts
+around Lincoln, after which he had to return his borrowed forces to
+their various garrisons and go back to Wales--laden indeed with captured
+pikes and muskets--to raise a permanent field army. But Rupert could not
+be in all places at once. Newcastle was clamorous for aid. In
+Lancashire, only the countess of Derby, in Lathom House, held out for
+the king, and her husband pressed Rupert to go to her relief. Once, too,
+the prince was ordered back to Oxford to furnish a travelling escort for
+the queen, who shortly after this gave birth to her youngest child and
+returned to France. The order was countermanded within a few hours, it
+is true, but Charles had good reason for avoiding detachments from his
+own army. On the 29th of March, Hopton had undergone a severe defeat at
+Cheriton near New Alresford. In the preliminary manoeuvres and in the
+opening stages of the battle the advantage lay with the Royalists, and
+the earl of Forth, who was present, was satisfied with what had been
+achieved and tried to break off the action. But Royalist indiscipline
+ruined everything. A young cavalry colonel charged in defiance of
+orders, a fresh engagement opened, and at the last moment Waller
+snatched a victory out of defeat. Worse than this was the news from
+Yorkshire and Scotland. Charles had at last assented to Montrose's plan
+and promised him the title of marquis, but the first attempt to raise
+the Royalist standard in Scotland gave no omen of its later triumphs. In
+Yorkshire Sir Thomas Fairfax, advancing from Lancashire through the West
+Riding, joined his father. Selby was stormed on the 11th of April, and
+thereupon Newcastle, who had been manoeuvring against the Scots in
+Durham, hastily drew back, sent his cavalry away, and shut himself up
+with his foot in York. Two days later the Scottish general, Alexander
+Leslie, Lord Leven, joined the Fairfaxes and prepared to invest that
+city.
+
+15. _Plans of Campaign for 1644._--The original plan of the
+Parliamentary "Committee of Both Kingdoms," which directed the military
+and civil policy of the allies after the fashion of a modern cabinet,
+was to combine Essex's and Manchester's armies in an attack upon the
+king's army, Aylesbury being appointed as the place of concentration.
+Waller's troops were to continue to drive back Hopton and to reconquer
+the west, Fairfax and the Scots to invest Newcastle's army, while in the
+midlands Brereton and the Lincolnshire rebels could be counted upon to
+neutralize, the one Byron, the others the Newark Royalists. But Waller,
+once more deserted by his trained bands, was unable to profit by his
+victory of Cheriton, and retired to Farnham. Manchester, too, was
+delayed because the Eastern Association was still suffering from the
+effects of Rupert's Newark exploit--Lincoln, abandoned by the rebels on
+that occasion, was not reoccupied till the 6th of May. Moreover, Essex
+found himself compelled to defend his conduct and motives to the
+Committee of Both Kingdoms, and as usual was straitened for men and
+money. But though there were grave elements of weakness on the other
+side, the Royalists considered their own position to be hopeless. Prince
+Maurice was engaged in the fruitless siege of Lyme Regis, Gloucester was
+again a centre of activity and counterbalanced Newark, and the situation
+in the north was practically desperate. Rupert himself came to Oxford
+(April 25) to urge that his new army should be kept free to march to aid
+Newcastle, who was now threatened--owing to the abandonment of the
+enemy's original plan--by Manchester as well as Fairfax and Leven. There
+was no further talk of the concentric advance of three armies on London.
+The fiery prince and the methodical earl of Brentford (Forth) were at
+one at least in recommending that the Oxford area with its own garrison
+and a mobile force in addition should be the pivot of the field armies'
+operations. Rupert, needing above all adequate time for the development
+of the northern offensive, was not in favour of abandoning any of the
+barriers to Essex's advance. Brentford, on the other hand, thought it
+advisable to contract the lines of defence, and Charles, as usual
+undecided, agreed to Rupert's scheme and executed Brentford's. Reading,
+therefore, was dismantled early in May, and Abingdon given up shortly
+afterwards.
+
+16. _Cropredy Bridge._--It was now possible for the enemy to approach
+Oxford, and Abingdon was no sooner evacuated than (May 26) Waller's and
+Essex's armies united there--still, unfortunately for their cause, under
+separate commanders. From Abingdon Essex moved direct on Oxford, Waller
+towards Wantage, where he could give a hand to Massey, the energetic
+governor of Gloucester. Affairs seemed so bad in the west (Maurice with
+a whole army was still vainly besieging the single line of low
+breastworks that constituted the fortress of Lyme) that the king
+despatched Hopton to take charge of Bristol. Nor were things much better
+at Oxford; the barriers of time and space and the supply area had been
+deliberately given up to the enemy, and Charles was practically forced
+to undertake extensive field operations with no hope of success save in
+consequence of the enemy's mistakes. The enemy, as it happened, did not
+disappoint him. The king, probably advised by Brentford, conducted a
+skilful war of manoeuvre in the area defined by Stourbridge, Gloucester,
+Abingdon and Northampton, at the end of which Essex, leaving Waller to
+the secondary work, as he conceived it, of keeping the king away from
+Oxford and reducing that fortress, marched off into the west with most
+of the general service troops to repeat at Lyme Regis his Gloucester
+exploit of 1643. At one moment, indeed, Charles (then in Bewdley) rose
+to the idea of marching north to join Rupert and Newcastle, but he soon
+made up his mind to return to Oxford. From Bewdley, therefore, he moved
+to Buckingham--the distant threat on London producing another evanescent
+citizen army drawn from six counties under Major-General Browne--and
+Waller followed him closely. When the king turned upon Browne's motley
+host, Waller appeared in time to avert disaster, and the two armies
+worked away to the upper Cherwell. Brentford and Waller were excellent
+strategists of the 17th century type, and neither would fight a pitched
+battle without every chance in his favour. Eventually on the 29th of
+June the Royalists were successful in a series of minor fights about
+Cropredy Bridge, and the result was, in accordance with continental
+custom, admitted to be an important victory, though Waller's main army
+drew off unharmed. In the meantime, Essex had relieved Lyme (June 15)
+and occupied Weymouth, and was preparing to go farther. The two rebel
+armies were now indeed separate. Waller had been left to do as best he
+could, and a worse fate was soon to overtake the cautious earl.
+
+17. _Campaign of Marston Moor._--During these manoeuvres the northern
+campaign had been fought to an issue. Rupert's courage and energy were
+more likely to command success in the English Civil War than all the
+conscientious caution of an Essex or a Brentford. On the 16th of May he
+left Shrewsbury to fight his way through hostile country to Lancashire,
+where he hoped to re-establish the Derby influence and raise new forces.
+Stockport was plundered on the 25th, the besiegers of Lathom House
+utterly defeated at Bolton on the 28th. Soon afterwards he received a
+large reinforcement under General Goring, which included 5000 of
+Newcastle's cavalry. The capture of the almost defenceless town of
+Liverpool--undertaken as usual to allay local fears--did not delay
+Rupert more than three or four days, and he then turned towards the
+Yorkshire border with greatly augmented forces. On the 14th of June he
+received a despatch from the king, the gist of which was that there was
+a time-limit imposed on the northern enterprise. If York were lost or
+did not need his help, Rupert was to make all haste southward via
+Worcester. "If York be relieved and you beat the rebels' armies of both
+kingdoms, then, but otherways not, I may possibly make a shift upon the
+defensive to spin out time until you come to assist me."
+
+Charles did manage to "spin out time." But it was of capital importance
+that Rupert had to do his work upon York and the allied army in the
+shortest possible time, and that, according to the despatch, there were
+only two ways of saving the royal cause, "having relieved York by
+beating the Scots," or marching with all speed to Worcester. Rupert's
+duty, interpreted through the medium of his temperament, was clear
+enough. Newcastle still held out, his men having been encouraged by a
+small success on the 17th of June, and Rupert reached Knaresborough on
+the 30th. At once Leven, Fairfax and Manchester broke up the siege of
+York and moved out to meet him. But the prince, moving still at high
+speed, rode round their right flank via Boroughbridge and Thornton
+Bridge and entered York on the north side. Newcastle tried to dissuade
+Rupert from fighting, but his record as a general was scarcely
+convincing as to the value of his advice. Rupert curtly replied that he
+had orders to fight, and the Royalists moved out towards Marston Moor
+(q.v.) on the morning of July 2, 1644. The Parliamentary commanders,
+fearing a fresh manoeuvre, had already begun to retire towards
+Tadcaster, but as soon as it became evident that a battle was impending
+they turned back. The battle of Marston Moor began about four in the
+afternoon. It was the first real trial of strength between the best
+elements on either side, and it ended before night with the complete
+victory of the Parliamentary armies. The Royalist cause in the north
+collapsed once for all, Newcastle fled to the continent, and only
+Rupert, resolute as ever, extricated 6000 cavalry from the _débâcle_ and
+rode away whence he had come, still the dominant figure of the war.
+
+18. _Independency._--The victory gave the Parliament entire control of
+the north, but it did not lead to the definitive solution of the
+political problem, and in fact, on the question of Charles's place in a
+new Constitution, the victorious generals quarrelled even before York
+had surrendered. Within three weeks of the battle the great army was
+broken up. The Yorkshire troops proceeded to conquer the isolated
+Royalist posts in their county, the Scots marched off to besiege
+Newcastle-on-Tyne and to hold in check a nascent Royalist army in
+Westmorland. Rupert in Lancashire they neglected entirely. Manchester
+and Cromwell, already estranged, marched away into the Eastern
+Association. There, for want of an enemy to fight, their army was forced
+to be idle, and Cromwell and the ever-growing Independent element
+quickly came to suspect their commander of lukewarmness in the cause.
+Waller's army, too, was spiritless and immobile. On the 2nd of July,
+despairing of the existing military system, he made to the Committee of
+Both Kingdoms the first suggestion of the New Model,--"My lords," he
+wrote, "till you have an army merely your own, that you may command, it
+is ... impossible to do anything of importance." Browne's trained band
+army was perhaps the most ill-behaved of all--once the soldiers
+attempted to murder their own general. Parliament in alarm set about the
+formation of a new general service force (July 12), but meantime both
+Waller's and Browne's armies (at Abingdon and Reading respectively)
+ignominiously collapsed by mutiny and desertion. It was evident that the
+people at large, with their respect for the law and their anxiety for
+their own homes, were tired of the war. Only those men--such as
+Cromwell--who has set their hearts on fighting out the quarrel of
+conscience, kept steadfastly to their purpose. Cromwell himself had
+already decided that the king himself must be deprived of his authority,
+and his supporters were equally convinced. But they were relatively few.
+Even the Eastern Association trained bands had joined in the
+disaffection in Waller's army, and that unfortunate general's suggestion
+of a professional army, with all its dangers, indicated the only means
+of enforcing a peace such as Cromwell and his friends desired. There
+was this important difference, however, between Waller's idea and
+Cromwell's achievement--that the professional soldiers of the New Model
+were disciplined, led, and in all things inspired by "godly" officers.
+Godliness, devotion to the cause, and efficiency were indeed the only
+criteria Cromwell applied in choosing officers. Long before this he had
+warned the Scottish major-general Lawrence Crawford that the precise
+colour of a man's religious opinions mattered nothing compared with his
+devotion to them, and had told the committee of Suffolk, "I had rather
+have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what he fights for and
+loves what he knows than that which you call a 'gentleman' and is
+nothing else. I honour a gentleman that is so indeed ... but seeing it
+was necessary the work must go on, better plain men than none." If "men
+of honour and birth" possessed the essentials of godliness, devotion,
+and capacity, Cromwell preferred them, and as a fact only seven out of
+thirty-seven of the superior officers of the original New Model were not
+of gentle birth.
+
+19. _Lostwithiel._--But all this was as yet in the future. Essex's
+military promenade in the west of England was the subject of immediate
+interest. At first successful, this general penetrated to Plymouth,
+whence, securely based as he thought, he could overrun Devon.
+Unfortunately for him he was persuaded to overrun Cornwall as well. At
+once the Cornishmen rose, as they had risen under Hopton, and the king
+was soon on the march from the Oxford region, disregarding the armed
+mobs under Waller and Browne. Their state reflected the general
+languishing of the war spirit on both sides, not on one only, as Charles
+discovered when he learned that Lord Wilmot, the lieutenant-general of
+his horse, was in correspondence with Essex. Wilmot was of course placed
+under arrest, and was replaced by the dissolute General Goring. But it
+was unpleasantly evident that even gay cavaliers of the type of Wilmot
+had lost the ideals for which they fought, and had come to believe that
+the realm would never be at peace while Charles was king. Henceforward
+it will be found that the Royalist foot, now a thoroughly professional
+force, is superior in quality to the once superb cavalry, and that not
+merely because its opportunities for plunder, &c., are more limited.
+Materially, however, the immediate victory was undeniably with the
+Royalists. After a brief period of manoeuvre, the Parliamentary army,
+now far from Plymouth found itself surrounded and starving at
+Lostwithiel, on the Fowey river, without hope of assistance. The horse
+cut its way out through the investing circle of posts, Essex himself
+escaped by sea, but Major-General Skippon, his second in command, had to
+surrender with the whole of the foot on the 2nd of September. The
+officers and men were allowed to go free to Portsmouth, but their arms,
+guns and munitions were the spoil of the victors. There was now no
+trustworthy field force in arms for the Parliament south of the Humber,
+for even the Eastern Association army was distracted by its religious
+differences, which had now at last come definitely to the front and
+absorbed the political dispute in a wider issue. Cromwell already
+proposed to abolish the peerage, the members of which were inclined to
+make a hollow peace, and had ceased to pay the least respect to his
+general, Manchester, whose scheme for the solution of the quarrel was an
+impossible combination of Charles and Presbyterianism. Manchester for
+his part sank into a state of mere obstinacy, refusing to move against
+Rupert, even to besiege Newark, and actually threatened to hang Colonel
+Lilburne for capturing a Royalist castle without orders.
+
+20. _Operations of Essex's, Waller's and Manchester's Armies._--After
+the success of Lostwithiel there was little to detain Charles's main
+army in the extreme west, and meanwhile Banbury, a most important point
+in the Oxford circle, and Basing House (near Basingstoke) were in danger
+of capture. Waller, who had organized a small force of reliable troops,
+had already sent cavalry into Dorsetshire with the idea of assisting
+Essex, and he now came himself with reinforcements to prevent, so far as
+lay in his power, the king's return to the Thames valley. Charles was
+accompanied of course only by his permanent forces and by parts of
+Prince Maurice's and Hopton's armies--the Cornish levies had as usual
+scattered as soon as the war receded from their borders. Manchester
+slowly advanced to Reading, Essex gradually reorganized his broken army
+at Portsmouth, while Waller, far out to the west at Shaftesbury,
+endeavored to gain the necessary time and space for a general
+concentration in Wiltshire, where Charles would be far from Oxford and
+Basing and, in addition, outnumbered by two to one. But the work of
+rearming Essex's troops proceeded slowly for want of money, and
+Manchester peevishly refused to be hurried either by his more vigorous
+subordinates or by the Committee of Both Kingdoms, saying that the army
+of the Eastern Association was for the guard of its own employers and
+not for general service. He pleaded the renewed activity of the Newark
+Royalists as his excuse, forgetting that Newark would have been in his
+hands ere this had he chosen to move thither instead of lying idle for
+two months. As to the higher command, things had come to such a pass
+that, when the three armies at last united, a council of war, consisting
+of three army commanders, several senior officers, and two civilian
+delegates from the Committee, was constituted. When the vote of the
+majority had determined what was to be done, Essex, as lord general of
+the Parliament's first army, was to issue the necessary orders for the
+whole. Under such conditions it was not likely that Waller's hopes of a
+great battle at Shaftesbury would be realized. On the 8th of October he
+fell back, the royal army following him step by step and finally
+reaching Whitchurch on the 20th of October. Manchester arrived at
+Basingstoke on the 17th, Waller on the 19th, and Essex on the 21st.
+Charles had found that he could not relieve Basing (a mile or two from
+Basingstoke) without risking a battle with the enemy between himself and
+Oxford;[4] he therefore took the Newbury road and relieved Donnington
+Castle near Newbury on the 22nd. Three days later Banbury too was
+relieved by a force which could now be spared from the Oxford garrison.
+But for once the council of war on the other side was for fighting a
+battle, and the Parliamentary armies, their spirits revived by the
+prospect of action and by the news of the fall of Newcastle and the
+defeat of a sally from Newark, marched briskly. On the 26th they
+appeared north of Newbury on the Oxford road. Like Essex in 1643,
+Charles found himself headed off from the shelter of friendly
+fortresses, but beyond this fact there is little similarity between the
+two battles of Newbury, for the Royalists in the first case merely drew
+a barrier across Essex's path. On the present occasion the eager
+Parliamentarians made no attempt to force the king to attack them; they
+were well content to attack him in his chosen position themselves,
+especially as he was better off for supplies and quarters than they.
+
+21. _Second Newbury._--The second battle of Newbury is remarkable as
+being the first great manoeuvre-battle (as distinct from "pitched"
+battle) of the Civil War. A preliminary reconnaissance by the
+Parliamentary leaders (Essex was not present, owing to illness)
+established the fact that the king's infantry held a strong line of
+defence behind the Lambourn brook from Shaw (inclusive) to Donnington
+(exclusive), Shaw House and adjacent buildings being held as an advanced
+post. In rear of the centre, in open ground just north of Newbury, lay
+the bulk of the royal cavalry. In the left rear of the main line, and
+separated from it by more than a thousand yards, lay Prince Maurice's
+corps at Speen, advanced troops on the high ground west of that village,
+but Donnington Castle, under its energetic governor Sir John Boys,
+formed a strong post covering this gap with artillery fire. The
+Parliamentary leaders had no intention of flinging their men away in a
+frontal attack on the line of the Lambourn, and a flank attack from the
+east side could hardly succeed owing to the obstacle presented by the
+confluence of the Lambourn and the Kennet, hence they decided on a wide
+turning movement via Chieveley, Winterbourne and Wickham Heath, against
+Prince Maurice's position--a decision which, daring and energetic as it
+was, led only to a modified success, for reasons which will appear. The
+flank march, out of range of the castle, was conducted with punctuality
+and precision. The troops composing it were drawn from all three armies
+and led by the best fighting generals, Waller, Cromwell, and Essex's
+subordinates Balfour and Skippon. Manchester at Clay Hill was to stand
+fast until the turning movement had developed, and to make a vigorous
+holding attack on Shaw House as soon as Waller's guns were heard at
+Speen. But there was no commander-in-chief to co-ordinate the movements
+of the two widely separated corps, and consequently no co-operation.
+Waller's attack was not unexpected, and Prince Maurice had made ready to
+meet him. Yet the first rush of the rebels carried the entrenchments of
+Speen Hill, and Speen itself, though stoutly defended, fell into their
+hands within an hour, Essex's infantry recapturing here some of the guns
+they had had to surrender at Lostwithiel. But meantime Manchester, in
+spite of the entreaties of his staff, had not stirred from Clay Hill. He
+had made one false attack already early in the morning, and been
+severely handled, and he was aware of his own deficiencies as a general.
+A year before this he would have asked for and acted upon the advice of
+a capable soldier, such as Cromwell or Crawford, but now his mind was
+warped by a desire for peace on any terms, and he sought only to avoid
+defeat pending a happy solution of the quarrel. Those who sought to gain
+peace through victory were meanwhile driving Maurice back from hedge to
+hedge towards the open ground at Newbury, but every attempt to emerge
+from the lanes and fields was repulsed by the royal cavalry, and indeed
+by every available man and horse, for Charles's officers had gauged
+Manchester's intentions, and almost stripped the front of its defenders
+to stop Waller's advance. Nightfall put an end to the struggle around
+Newbury, and then--too late--Manchester ordered the attack on Shaw
+House. It failed completely in spite of the gallantry of his men, and
+darkness being then complete it was not renewed. In its general course
+the battle closely resembled that of Freiburg (q.v.), fought the same
+year on the Rhine. But, if Waller's part in the battle corresponded in a
+measure to Turenne's, Manchester was unequal to playing the part of
+Condé, and consequently the results, in the case of the French won by
+three days' hard fighting, and even then comparatively small, were in
+the case of the English practically nil. During the night the royal army
+quietly marched away through the gap between Waller's and Manchester's
+troops. The heavy artillery and stores were left in Donnington Castle,
+Charles himself with a small escort rode off to the north-west to meet
+Rupert, and the main body gained Wallingford unmolested. An attempt at
+pursuit was made by Waller and Cromwell with all the cavalry they could
+lay hands on, but it was unsupported, for the council of war had decided
+to content itself with besieging Donnington Castle. A little later,
+after a brief and half-hearted attempt to move towards Oxford, it
+referred to the Committee for further instructions. Within the month
+Charles, having joined Rupert at Oxford and made him general of the
+Royalist forces vice Brentford, reappeared in the neighbourhood of
+Newbury. Donnington Castle was again relieved (November 9) under the
+eyes of the Parliamentary army, which was in such a miserable condition
+that even Cromwell was against fighting, and some manoeuvres followed,
+in the course of which Charles relieved Basing House and the
+Parliamentary armies fell back, not in the best order, to Reading. The
+season for field warfare was now far spent, and the royal army retired
+to enjoy good quarters and plentiful supplies around Oxford.
+
+22. _The Self-denying Ordinance._--On the other side, the dissensions
+between the generals had become flagrant and public, and it was no
+longer possible for the Houses of Parliament to ignore the fact that the
+army must be radically reformed. Cromwell and Waller from their places
+in parliament attacked Manchester's conduct, and their attack ultimately
+became, so far as Cromwell was concerned, an attack on the Lords, most
+of whom held the same views as Manchester, and on the Scots, who
+attempted to bring Cromwell to trial as an "incendiary." At the crisis
+of their bitter controversy Cromwell suddenly proposed to stifle all
+animosities by the resignation of all officers who were members of
+either House, a proposal which affected himself not less than Essex and
+Manchester. The first "self-denying ordinance" was moved on the 9th of
+December, and provided that "no member of either house shall have or
+execute any office or command ...," &c. This was not accepted by the
+Lords, and in the end a second "self-denying ordinance" was agreed to
+(April 3, 1645), whereby all the persons concerned were to resign, but
+without prejudice to their reappointment. Simultaneously with this, the
+formation of the New Model was at last definitely taken into
+consideration. The last exploit of Sir William Waller, who was not
+re-employed after the passing of the ordinance, was the relief of
+Taunton, then besieged by General Goring's army. Cromwell served as his
+lieutenant-general on this occasion, and we have Waller's own testimony
+that he was in all things a wise, capable and respectful subordinate.
+Under a leader of the stamp of Waller, Cromwell was well satisfied to
+obey, knowing the cause to be in good hands.
+
+23. _Decline of the Royalist Cause._--A raid of Goring's horse from the
+west into Surrey and an unsuccessful attack on General Browne at
+Abingdon were the chief enterprises undertaken on the side of the
+Royalists during the early winter. It was no longer "summer in Devon,
+summer in Yorkshire" as in January 1643. An ever-growing section of
+Royalists, amongst whom Rupert himself was soon to be numbered, were for
+peace; many scores of loyalist gentlemen, impoverished by the loss of
+three years' rents of their estates and hopeless of ultimate victory,
+were making their way to Westminster to give in their submission to the
+Parliament and to pay their fines. In such circumstances the old
+decision-seeking strategy was impossible. The new plan, suggested
+probably by Rupert, had already been tried with strategical success in
+the summer campaign of 1644. As we have seen, it consisted essentially
+in using Oxford as the centre of a circle and striking out radially at
+any favourable target--"manoeuvring about a fixed point," as Napoleon
+called it. It was significant of the decline of the Royalist cause that
+the "fixed point" had been in 1643 the king's field army, based indeed
+on its great entrenched camp, Banbury-Cirencester-Reading-Oxford, but
+free to move and to hold the enemy wherever met, while now it was the
+entrenched camp itself, weakened by the loss or abandonment of its outer
+posts, and without the power of binding the enemy if they chose to
+ignore its existence, that conditioned the scope and duration of the
+single remaining field army's enterprises.
+
+24. _The New Model Ordinance._--For the present, however, Charles's
+cause was crumbling more from internal weakness than from the blows of
+the enemy. Fresh negotiations for peace which opened on the 29th of
+January at Uxbridge (by the name of which place they are known to
+history) occupied the attention of the Scots and their Presbyterian
+friends, the rise of Independency and of Cromwell was a further
+distraction, and over the new army and the Self-denying Ordinance the
+Lords and Commons were seriously at variance. But in February a fresh
+mutiny in Waller's command struck alarm into the hearts of the
+disputants. The "treaty" of Uxbridge came to the same end as the treaty
+of Oxford in 1643, and a settlement as to army reform was achieved on
+the 15th of February. Though it was only on the 25th of March that the
+second and modified form of the ordinance was agreed to by both Houses,
+Sir Thomas Fairfax and Philip Skippon (who were not members of
+parliament) had been approved as lord general and major-general (of the
+infantry) respectively of the new army as early as the 21st of January.
+The post of lieutenant-general and cavalry commander was for the moment
+left vacant, but there was little doubt as to who would eventually
+occupy it.
+
+25. _Victories of Montrose._--In Scotland, meanwhile, Montrose was
+winning victories which amazed the people of the two kingdoms.
+Montrose's royalism differed from that of Englishmen of the 17th century
+less than from that of their forefathers under Henry VIII. and
+Elizabeth. To him the king was the protector of his people against
+Presbyterian theocracy, scarcely less offensive to him than the
+Inquisition itself, and the feudal oppression of the great nobles.
+Little as this ideal corresponded to the Charles of reality, it inspired
+in Montrose not merely romantic heroism but a force of leadership which
+was sufficient to carry to victory the nobles and gentry, the wild
+Highlanders and the experienced professional soldiers who at various
+times and places constituted his little armies. His first unsuccessful
+enterprise has been mentioned above. It seemed, in the early stages of
+his second attempt (August 1644), as if failure were again inevitable,
+for the gentry of the northern Lowlands were overawed by the prevailing
+party and resented the leadership of a lesser noble, even though he were
+the king's lieutenant over all Scotland. Disappointed of support where
+he most expected it, Montrose then turned to the Highlands. At Blair
+Athol he gathered his first army of Royalist clansmen, and good fortune
+gave him also a nucleus of trained troops. A force of disciplined
+experienced soldiers (chiefly Irish Macdonalds and commanded by Alastair
+of that name) had been sent over from Ireland earlier in the year, and,
+after ravaging the glens of their hereditary enemies the Campbells, had
+attempted without success, now here, now there, to gather the other
+clans in the king's name. Their hand was against every man's, and when
+he finally arrived in Badenoch, Alastair Macdonald was glad to protect
+himself by submitting to the authority of the king's lieutenant.
+
+There were three hostile armies to be dealt with,
+besides--ultimately--the main covenanting army far away in England. The
+duke of Argyll, the head of the Campbells, had an army of his own clan
+and of Lowland Covenanter levies, Lord Elcho with another Lowland army
+lay near Perth, and Lord Balfour of Burleigh was collecting a third
+(also composed of Lowlanders) at Aberdeen. Montrose turned upon Elcho
+first, and found him at Tippermuir near Perth on the 1st of September
+1644. The Royalists were about 3000 strong and entirely foot, only
+Montrose himself and two others being mounted, while Elcho had about
+7000 of all arms. But Elcho's townsmen found that pike and musket were
+clumsy weapons in inexperienced hands, and, like Mackay's regulars at
+Killiecrankie fifty years later, they wholly failed to stop the rush of
+the Highland swordsmen. Many hundreds were killed in the pursuit, and
+Montrose slept in Perth that night, having thus accounted for one of his
+enemies. Balfour of Burleigh was to be his next victim, and he started
+for Aberdeen on the 4th. As he marched, his Highlanders slipped away to
+place their booty in security. But the Macdonald regulars remained with
+him, and as he passed along the coast some of the gentry came in, though
+the great western clan of the Gordons was at present too far divided in
+sentiment to take his part. Lord Lewis Gordon and some Gordon horse were
+even in Balfour's army. On the other hand, the earl of Airlie brought in
+forty-four horsemen, and Montrose was thus able to constitute two wings
+of cavalry on the day of battle. The Covenanters were about 2500 strong
+and drawn up on a slope above the How Burn[5] just outside Aberdeen
+(September 13, 1644). Montrose, after clearing away the enemy's
+skirmishers, drew up his army in front of the opposing line, the foot in
+the centre, the forty-four mounted men, with musketeers to support them,
+on either flank. The hostile left-wing cavalry charged piecemeal, and
+some bodies of troops did not engage at all. On the other wing, however,
+Montrose was for a moment hard pressed by a force of the enemy that
+attempted to work round to his rear. But he brought over the small band
+of mounted men that constituted his right wing cavalry, and also some
+musketeers from the centre, and destroyed the assailants, and when the
+ill-led left wing of the Covenanters charged again, during the absence
+of the cavalry, they were mown down by the close-range volleys of
+Macdonald's musketeers. Shortly afterwards the centre of Balfour's army
+yielded to pressure and fled in disorder. Aberdeen was sacked by order
+of Montrose, whose drummer had been murdered while delivering a message
+under a flag of truce to the magistrates.
+
+26. _Inverlochy._--Only Argyll now remained to be dealt with. The
+Campbells were fighting men from birth, like Montrose's own men, and had
+few townsmen serving with them. Still there were enough of the latter
+and of the impedimenta of regular warfare with him to prevent Argyll
+from overtaking his agile enemy, and ultimately after a "hide-and-seek"
+in the districts of Rothiemurchus, Blair Athol, Banchory and
+Strathbogie, Montrose stood to fight at Fyvie Castle, repulsed Argyll's
+attack on that place and slipped away again to Rothiemurchus. There he
+was joined by Camerons and Macdonalds from all quarters for a grand raid
+on the Campbell country; he himself wished to march into the Lowlands,
+well knowing that he could not achieve the decision in the Grampians,
+but he had to bow, not for the first time nor the last, to local
+importunity. The raid was duly executed, and the Campbells' boast, "It's
+a far cry to Loch Awe," availed them little. In December and January the
+Campbell lands were thoroughly and mercilessly devastated, and Montrose
+then retired slowly to Loch Ness, where the bulk of his army as usual
+dispersed to store away its plunder. Argyll, with such Highland and
+Lowland forces as he could collect after the disaster, followed Montrose
+towards Lochaber, while the Seaforths and other northern clans marched
+to Loch Ness. Caught between them, Montrose attacked the nearest. The
+Royalists crossed the hills into Glen Roy, worked thence along the
+northern face of Ben Nevis, and descended like an avalanche upon
+Argyll's forces at Inverlochy (February 2, 1645). As usual, the Lowland
+regiments gave way at once--Montrose had managed in all this to keep
+with him a few cavalry--and it was then the turn of the Campbells.
+Argyll escaped in a boat, but his clan, as a fighting force, was
+practically annihilated, and Montrose, having won four victories in
+these six winter months, rested his men and exultingly promised Charles
+that he would come to his assistance with a brave army before the end of
+the summer.
+
+27. _Organization of the New Model Army._--To return to the New Model.
+Its first necessity was regular pay; its first duty to serve wherever it
+might be sent. Of the three armies that had fought at Newbury only one,
+Essex's, was in a true sense a general service force, and only one,
+Manchester's, was paid with any regularity. Waller's army was no better
+paid than Essex's and no more free from local ties than Manchester's. It
+was therefore broken up early in April, and only 600 of its infantry
+passed into the New Model. Essex's men, on the other hand, wanted but
+regular pay and strict officers to make them excellent soldiers, and
+their own major-general, Skippon, managed by tact and his personal
+popularity to persuade the bulk of the men to rejoin. Manchester's army,
+in which Cromwell had been the guiding influence from first to last, was
+naturally the backbone of the New Model. Early in April Essex,
+Manchester, and Waller resigned their commissions, and such of their
+forces as were not embodied in the new army were sent to do local
+duties, for minor armies were still maintained, General Poyntz's in the
+north midlands, General Massey's in the Severn valley, a large force in
+the Eastern Association, General Browne's in Buckinghamshire, &c.,
+besides the Scots in the north.
+
+The New Model originally consisted of 14,400 foot and 7700 horse and
+dragoons. Of the infantry only 6000 came from the combined armies, the
+rest being new recruits furnished by the press.[6] Thus there was
+considerable trouble during the first months of Fairfax's command, and
+discipline had to be enforced with unusual sternness. As for the enemy,
+Oxford was openly contemptuous of "the rebels' new brutish general" and
+his men, who seemed hardly likely to succeed where Essex and Waller had
+failed. But the effect of the Parliament's having "an army all its own"
+was soon to be apparent.
+
+28. _First Operations of 1645._--On the Royalist side the campaign of
+1645 opened in the west, whither the young prince of Wales (Charles II.)
+was sent with Hyde (later earl of Clarendon), Hopton and others as his
+advisers. General (Lord) Goring, however, now in command of the Royalist
+field forces in this quarter, was truculent, insubordinate and
+dissolute, though on the rare occasions when he did his duty he
+displayed a certain degree of skill and leadership, and the influence of
+the prince's counsellors was but small. As usual, operations began with
+the sieges necessary to conciliate local feeling. Plymouth and Lyme were
+blocked up, and Taunton again invested. The reinforcement thrown into
+the last place by Waller and Cromwell was dismissed by Blake (then a
+colonel in command of the fortress and afterwards the great admiral of
+the Commonwealth), and after many adventures rejoined Waller and
+Cromwell. The latter generals, who had not yet laid down their
+commissions, then engaged Goring for some weeks, but neither side having
+infantry or artillery, and both finding subsistence difficult in
+February and March and in country that had been fought over for two
+years past, no results were to be expected. Taunton still remained
+unrelieved, and Goring's horse still rode all over Dorsetshire when the
+New Model at last took the field.
+
+29. _Rupert's Northern March._--In the midlands and Lancashire the
+Royalist horse, as ill-behaved even as Goring's men, were directly
+responsible for the ignominious failure with which the king's main army
+began its year's work. Prince Maurice was joined at Ludlow by Rupert and
+part of his Oxford army early in March, and the brothers drove off
+Brereton from the siege of Beeston Castle and relieved the pressure on
+Lord Byron in Cheshire. So great was the danger of Rupert's again
+invading Lancashire and Yorkshire that all available forces in the
+north, English and Scots, were ordered to march against him. But at this
+moment the prince was called back to clear his line of retreat on
+Oxford. The Herefordshire and Worcestershire peasantry, weary of
+military exactions, were in arms, and though they would not join the
+Parliament, and for the most part dispersed after stating their
+grievances, the main enterprise was wrecked. This was but one of many
+ill-armed crowds--"Clubmen" as they were called--that assembled to
+enforce peace on both parties. A few regular soldiers were sufficient to
+disperse them in all cases, but their attempt to establish a third party
+in England was morally as significant as it was materially futile. The
+Royalists were now fighting with the courage of despair, those who still
+fought against Charles did so with the full determination to ensure the
+triumph of their cause, and with the conviction that the only possible
+way was the annihilation of the enemy's armed forces, but the majority
+were so weary of the war that the earl of Manchester's Presbyterian
+royalism--which had contributed so materially to the prolongation of the
+struggle--would probably have been accepted by four-fifths of all
+England as the basis of a peace. It was, in fact, in the face of almost
+universal opposition that Fairfax and Cromwell and their friends at
+Westminster guided the cause of their weaker comrades to complete
+victory.
+
+30. _Cromwell's Raid._--Having without difficulty rid himself of the
+Clubmen, Rupert was eager to resume his march into the north. It is
+unlikely that he wished to join Montrose, though Charles himself
+favoured that plan, but he certainly intended to fight the Scottish
+army, more especially as after Inverlochy it had been called upon to
+detach a large force to deal with Montrose. But this time there was no
+Royalist army in the north to provide infantry and guns for a pitched
+battle, and Rupert had perforce to wait near Hereford till the main
+body, and in particular the artillery train, could come from Oxford and
+join him. It was on the march of the artillery train to Hereford that
+the first operations of the New Model centred. The infantry was not yet
+ready to move, in spite of all Fairfax's and Skippon's efforts, and it
+became necessary to send the cavalry by itself to prevent Rupert from
+gaining a start. Cromwell, then under Waller's command, had come to
+Windsor to resign his commission as required by the Self-denying
+Ordinance. Instead, he was placed at the head of a brigade of his own
+old soldiers, with orders to stop the march of the artillery train. On
+the 23rd of April he started from Watlington north-westward. At dawn on
+the 24th he routed a detachment of Royalist horse at Islip. On the same
+day, though he had no guns and only a few firearms in the whole force,
+he terrified the governor of Bletchingdon House into surrender. Riding
+thence to Witney, Cromwell won another cavalry fight at
+Bampton-in-the-Bush on the 27th, and attacked Faringdon House, though
+without success, on the 29th. Thence he marched at leisure to Newbury.
+He had done his work thoroughly. He had demoralized the Royalist
+cavalry, and, above all, had carried off every horse on the countryside.
+To all Rupert's entreaties Charles could only reply that the guns could
+not be moved till the 7th of May, and he even summoned Goring's cavalry
+from the west to make good his losses.
+
+31. _Civilian Strategy._--Cromwell's success thus forced the king to
+concentrate his various armies in the neighbourhood of Oxford, and the
+New Model had, so Fairfax and Cromwell hoped, found its target. But the
+Committee of Both Kingdoms on the one side, and Charles, Rupert and
+Goring on the other, held different views. On the 1st of May Fairfax,
+having been ordered to relieve Taunton, set out from Windsor for the
+long march to that place; meeting Cromwell at Newbury on the 2nd, he
+directed the lieutenant-general to watch the movements of the king's
+army, and himself marched on to Blandford, which he reached on the 7th
+of May. Thus Fairfax and the main army of the Parliament were marching
+away in the west while Cromwell's detachment was left, as Waller had
+been left the previous year, to hold the king as best he could. On the
+very evening that Cromwell's raid ended, the leading troops of Goring's
+command destroyed part of Cromwell's own regiment near Faringdon, and on
+the 3rd Rupert and Maurice appeared with a force of all arms at Burford.
+Yet the Committee of Both Kingdoms, though aware on the 29th of Goring's
+move, only made up its mind to stop Fairfax on the 3rd, and did not send
+off orders till the 5th. These orders were to the effect that a
+detachment was to be sent to the relief of Taunton, and that the main
+army was to return. Fairfax gladly obeyed, even though a siege of Oxford
+and not the enemy's field army was the objective assigned him. But long
+before he came up to the Thames valley the situation was again changed.
+Rupert, now in possession of the guns and their teams, urged upon his
+uncle the resumption of the northern enterprise, calculating that with
+Fairfax in Somersetshire, Oxford was safe. Charles accordingly marched
+out of Oxford on the 7th towards Stow-on-the-Wold, on the very day, as
+it chanced, that Fairfax began his return march from Blandford. But
+Goring and most of the other generals were for a march into the west, in
+the hope of dealing with Fairfax as they had dealt with Essex in 1644.
+The armies therefore parted as Essex and Waller had parted at the same
+place in 1644, Rupert and the king to march northward, Goring to return
+to his independent command in the west. Rupert, not unnaturally wishing
+to keep his influence with the king and his authority as general of the
+king's army unimpaired by Goring's notorious indiscipline, made no
+attempt to prevent the separation, which in the event proved wholly
+unprofitable. The flying column from Blandford relieved Taunton long
+before Goring's return to the west, and Colonel Weldon and Colonel
+Graves, its commanders, set him at defiance even in the open country. As
+for Fairfax, he was out of Goring's reach preparing for the siege of
+Oxford.
+
+32. _Charles in the Midlands._--On the other side also the generals were
+working by data that had ceased to have any value. Fairfax's siege of
+Oxford, ordered by the Committee on the 10th of May, and persisted in
+after it was known that the king was on the move, was the second great
+blunder of the year and was hardly redeemed, as a military measure, by
+the visionary scheme of assembling the Scots, the Yorkshiremen, and the
+midland forces to oppose the king. It is hard to understand how, having
+created a new model army "all its own" for general service, the
+Parliament at once tied it down to a local enterprise, and trusted an
+improvised army of local troops to fight the enemy's main army. In
+reality the Committee seems to have been misled by false information to
+the effect that Goring and the governor of Oxford were about to declare
+for the Parliament, but had they not despatched Fairfax to the relief of
+Taunton in the first instance the necessity for such intrigues would not
+have arisen. However, Fairfax obeyed orders, invested Oxford, and, so
+far as he was able without a proper siege train, besieged it for two
+weeks, while Charles and Rupert ranged the midlands unopposed. At the
+end of that time came news so alarming that the Committee hastily
+abdicated their control over military operations and gave Fairfax a
+free hand. "Black Tom" gladly and instantly abandoned the siege and
+marched northward to give battle to the king.
+
+Meanwhile Charles and Rupert were moving northward. On the 11th of May
+they reached Droitwich, whence after two days' rest they marched against
+Brereton. The latter hurriedly raised the sieges he had on hand, and
+called upon Yorkshire and the Scottish army there for aid. But only the
+old Lord Fairfax and the Yorkshiremen responded. Leven had just heard of
+new victories won by Montrose, and could do no more than draw his army
+and his guns over the Pennine chain into Westmorland in the hope of
+being in time to bar the king's march on Scotland via Carlisle.
+
+33. _Dundee._--After the destruction of the Campbells at Inverlochy,
+Montrose had cleared away the rest of his enemies without difficulty. He
+now gained a respectable force of cavalry by the adhesion of Lord Gordon
+and many of his clan, and this reinforcement was the more necessary as
+detachments from Leven's army under Baillie and Hurry--disciplined
+infantry and cavalry--were on the march to meet him. The Royalists
+marched by Elgin and through the Gordon country to Aberdeen, and thence
+across the Esk to Coupar-Angus, where Baillie and Hurry were encountered.
+A war of manoeuvre followed, in which they thwarted every effort of the
+Royalists to break through into the Lowlands, but in the end retired into
+Fife. Montrose thereupon marched into the hills with the intention of
+reaching the upper Forth and thence the Lowlands, for he did not disguise
+from himself the fact that there, and not in the Highlands, would the
+quarrel be decided, and was sanguine--over-sanguine, as the event
+proved--as to the support he would obtain from those who hated the kirk
+and its system. But he had called to his aid the semi-barbarous
+Highlanders, and however much the Lowlands resented a Presbyterian
+inquisition, they hated and feared the Highland clans beyond all else. He
+was equally disappointed in his own army. For a war of positions the
+Highlanders had neither aptitude nor inclination, and at Dunkeld the
+greater part of them went home. If the small remnant was to be kept to
+its duty, plunder must be found, and the best objective was the town of
+Dundee. With a small force of 750 foot and horse Montrose brilliantly
+surprised that place on the 4th of April, but Baillie and Hurry were not
+far distant, and before Montrose's men had time to plunder the prize they
+were collected to face the enemy. His retreat from Dundee was considered
+a model operation by foreign students of the art of war (then almost as
+numerous as now), and what surprised them most was that Montrose could
+rally his men after a sack had begun. The retreat itself was remarkable
+enough. Baillie moved parallel to Montrose on his left flank towards
+Arbroath, constantly heading him off from the hills and attempting to pin
+him against the sea. Montrose, however, halted in the dark so as to let
+Baillie get ahead of him and then turned sharply back, crossed Baillie's
+track, and made for the hills. Baillie soon realized what had happened
+and turned back also, but an hour too late. By the 6th the Royalists were
+again safe in the broken country of the Esk valley. But Montrose
+cherished no illusions as to joining the king at once; all he could do,
+he now wrote, was to neutralize as many of the enemy's forces as
+possible.
+
+34. _Auldearn._--For a time he wandered in the Highlands seeking
+recruits. But soon he learned that Baillie and Hurry had divided their
+forces, the former remaining about Perth and Stirling to observe him,
+the latter going north to suppress the Gordons. Strategy and policy
+combined to make Hurry the objective of the next expedition. But the
+soldier of fortune who commanded the Covenanters at Aberdeen was no mean
+antagonist. Marching at once with a large army (formed on the nucleus of
+his own trained troops and for the rest composed of clansmen and
+volunteers) Hurry advanced to Elgin, took contact with Montrose there,
+and, gradually and skilfully retiring, drew him into the hostile country
+round Inverness. Montrose fell into the trap, and Hurry took his
+measures to surprise him at Auldearn so successfully that (May 9)
+Montrose, even though the indiscipline of some of Hurry's young
+soldiers during the night march gave him the alarm, had barely time to
+form up before the enemy was upon him. But the best strategy is of no
+avail when the battle it produces goes against the strategist, and
+Montrose's tactical skill was never more conspicuous than at Auldearn.
+Alastair Macdonald with most of the Royalist infantry and the Royal
+standard was posted to the right (north) of the village to draw upon
+himself the weight of Hurry's attack; only enough men were posted in the
+village itself to show that it was occupied, and on the south side, out
+of sight, was Montrose himself with a body of foot and all the Gordon
+horse. It was the prototype, on a small scale, of Austerlitz. Macdonald
+resisted sturdily while Montrose edged away from the scene of action,
+and at the right moment and not before, though Macdonald had been driven
+back on the village and was fighting for life amongst the gardens and
+enclosures, Montrose let loose Lord Gordon's cavalry. These, abandoning
+for once the pistol tactics of their time, charged home with the sword.
+The enemy's right wing cavalry was scattered in an instant, the nearest
+infantry was promptly ridden down, and soon Hurry's army had ceased to
+exist.
+
+35. _Campaign of Naseby._--If the news of Auldearn brought Leven to the
+region of Carlisle, it had little effect on his English allies. Fairfax
+was not yet released from the siege of Oxford, in spite of the protests
+of the Scottish representatives in London. Massey, the active and
+successful governor of Gloucester, was placed in command of a field
+force on the 25th of May, but he was to lead it against, not the king,
+but Goring. At that moment the military situation once more changed
+abruptly. Charles, instead of continuing his march on to Lancashire,
+turned due eastward towards Derbyshire. The alarm at Westminster when
+this new development was reported was such that Cromwell, in spite of
+the Self-Denying Ordinance, was sent to raise an army for the defence of
+the Eastern Association. Yet the Royalists had no intentions in that
+direction. Conflicting reports as to the condition of Oxford reached the
+royal headquarters in the last week of May, and the eastward march was
+made chiefly to "spin out time" until it could be known whether it would
+be necessary to return to Oxford, or whether it was still possible to
+fight Leven in Yorkshire--his move into Westmorland was not yet
+known--and invade Scotland by the easy east coast route.
+
+Goring's return to the west had already been countermanded and he had
+been directed to march to Harborough, while the South Wales Royalists
+were also called in towards Leicester. Later orders (May 26) directed
+him to Newbury, whence he was to feel the strength of the enemy's
+positions around Oxford. It is hardly necessary to say that Goring found
+good military reasons for continuing his independent operations, and
+marched off towards Taunton regardless of the order. He redressed the
+balance there for the moment by overawing Massey's weak force, and his
+purse profited considerably by fresh opportunities for extortion, but he
+and his men were not at Naseby. Meanwhile the king, at the geographical
+centre of England, found an important and wealthy town at his mercy.
+Rupert, always for action, took the opportunity, and Leicester was
+stormed and thoroughly pillaged on the night of the 30th-31st of May.
+There was the usual panic at Westminster, but, unfortunately for
+Charles, it resulted in Fairfax being directed to abandon the siege of
+Oxford and given _carte blanche_ to bring the Royal army to battle
+wherever it was met. On his side the king had, after the capture of
+Leicester, accepted the advice of those who feared for the safety of
+Oxford--Rupert, though commander-in-chief, was unable to insist on the
+northern enterprise--and had marched to Daventry, where he halted to
+throw supplies into Oxford. Thus Fairfax in his turn was free to move,
+thanks to the insubordination of Goring, who would neither relieve
+Oxford nor join the king for an attack on the New Model. The
+Parliamentary general moved from Oxford towards Northampton so as to
+cover the Eastern Association. On the 12th of June the two armies were
+only a few miles apart, Fairfax at Kislingbury, Charles at Daventry,
+and, though the Royalists turned northward again on the 13th to resume
+the Yorkshire project under the very eyes of the enemy, Fairfax followed
+close. On the night of the 13th Charles slept at Lubenham, Fairfax at
+Guilsborough. Cromwell, just appointed lieutenant-general of the New
+Model, had ridden into camp on the morning of the 13th with fresh
+cavalry from the eastern counties, Colonel Rossiter came up with more
+from Lincolnshire on the morning of the battle, and it was with an
+incontestable superiority of numbers and an overwhelming moral advantage
+that Fairfax fought at Naseby (q.v.) on the 14th of June. The result of
+the battle, this time a decisive battle, was the annihilation of the
+Royal army. Part of the cavalry escaped, a small fraction of it in
+tolerable order, but the guns and the baggage train were taken, and,
+above all, the splendid Royal infantry were killed or taken prisoners to
+a man.
+
+36. _Effects of Naseby._--After Naseby, though the war dragged on for
+another year, the king never succeeded in raising an army as good as, or
+even more numerous than, that which Fairfax's army had so heavily
+outnumbered on the 14th of June. That the fruits of the victory could
+not be gathered in a few weeks was due to a variety of hindrances rather
+than to direct opposition--to the absence of rapid means of
+communication, the paucity of the forces engaged on both sides
+relatively to the total numbers under arms, and from time to time to the
+political exigencies of the growing quarrel between Presbyterians and
+Independents. As to the latter, within a few days of Naseby, the Scots
+rejoiced that the "back of the malignants was broken," and demanded
+reinforcements as a precaution against "the insolence of others," i.e.
+Cromwell and the Independents--"to whom alone the Lord has given the
+victory of that day." Leven had by now returned to Yorkshire, and a
+fortnight after Naseby, after a long and honourable defence by Sir
+Thomas Glemham, Carlisle fell to David Leslie's besieging corps.
+Leicester was reoccupied by Fairfax on the 18th, and on the 20th Leven's
+army, moving slowly southward, reached Mansfield. This move was
+undertaken largely for political reasons, i.e. to restore the
+Presbyterian balance as against the victorious New Model. Fairfax's army
+was intended by its founders to be a specifically English army, and
+Cromwell for one would have employed it against the Scots almost as
+readily as against malignants. But for the moment the advance of the
+northern army was of the highest military importance, for Fairfax was
+thereby set free from the necessity of undertaking sieges. Moreover, the
+publication of the king's papers taken at Naseby gave Fairfax's troops a
+measure of official and popular support which a month before they could
+not have been said to possess, for it was now obvious that they
+represented the armed force of England against the Irish, Danes, French,
+Lorrainers, &c., whom Charles had for three years been endeavouring to
+let loose on English soil. Even the Presbyterians abandoned for the time
+any attempt to negotiate with the king, and advocated a vigorous
+prosecution of the war.
+
+37. _Fairfax's Western Campaign._--This, in the hands of Fairfax and
+Cromwell, was likely to be effective. While the king and Rupert, with
+the remnant of their cavalry, hurried into South Wales to join Sir
+Charles Gerard's troops and to raise fresh infantry, Fairfax decided
+that Goring's was the most important Royalist army in the field, and
+turned to the west, reaching Lechlade on the 26th, less than a fortnight
+after the battle of Naseby. One last attempt was made to dictate the
+plan of campaign from Westminster, but the Committee refused to pass on
+the directions of the Houses, and he remained free to deal with Goring
+as he desired. Time pressed; Charles in Monmouthshire and Rupert at
+Bristol were well placed for a junction with Goring, which would have
+given them a united army 15,000 strong. Taunton, in spite of Massey's
+efforts to keep the field, was again besieged, and in Wilts and Dorset
+numerous bands of Clubmen were on foot which the king's officers were
+doing their best to turn into troops for their master. But the process
+of collecting a fresh royal army was slow, and Goring and his
+subordinate, Sir Richard Grenville, were alienating the king's most
+devoted adherents by their rapacity, cruelty and debauchery. Moreover,
+Goring had no desire to lose the independent command he had extorted at
+Stow-on-the-Wold in May. Still, it was clear that he must be disposed
+of as quickly as possible, and Fairfax requested the Houses to take
+other measures against the king (June 26). This they did by paying up
+the arrears due to Leven's army and bringing it to the Severn valley. On
+the 8th of July Leven reached Alcester, bringing with him a
+Parliamentarian force from Derbyshire under Sir John Gell. The design
+was to besiege Hereford.
+
+38. _Langport._--By that time Fairfax and Goring were at close quarters.
+The Royalist general's line of defence faced west along the Yeo and the
+Parrett between Yeovil and Bridgwater, and thus barred the direct route
+to Taunton. Fairfax, however, marched from Lechlade via Marlborough and
+Blandford--hindered only by Clubmen--to the friendly posts of Dorchester
+and Lyme, and with these as his centre of operations he was able to turn
+the headwaters of Goring's river-line via Beaminster and Crewkerne. The
+Royalists at once abandoned the south and west side of the rivers--the
+siege of Taunton had already been given up--and passed over to the north
+and east bank. Bridgwater was the right of this second line as it had
+been the left of the first; the new left was at Ilchester. Goring could
+thus remain in touch with Charles in south Wales through Bristol, and
+the siege of Taunton having been given up there was no longer any
+incentive for remaining on the wrong side of the water-line. But his
+army was thoroughly demoralized by its own licence and indiscipline, and
+the swift, handy and resolute regiments of the New Model made short work
+of its strong positions. On the 7th of July, demonstrating against the
+points of passage between Ilchester and Langport, Fairfax secretly
+occupied Yeovil. The post at that place, which had been the right of
+Goring's first position, had, perhaps rightly, been withdrawn to
+Ilchester when the second position was taken up, and Fairfax repaired
+the bridge without interruption. Goring showed himself unequal to the
+new situation. He might, if sober, make a good plan when the enemy was
+not present to disturb him, and he certainly led cavalry charges with
+boldness and skill. But of strategy in front of the enemy he was
+incapable. On the news from Yeovil he abandoned the line of the Yeo as
+far as Langport without striking a blow, and Fairfax, having nothing to
+gain by continuing his détour through Yeovil, came back and quietly
+crossed at Long Sutton, west of Ilchester (July 9). Goring had by now
+formed a new plan. A strong rearguard was posted at Langport and on high
+ground east and north-east of it to hold Fairfax, and he himself with
+the cavalry rode off early on the 8th to try and surprise Taunton. This
+place was no longer protected by Massey's little army, which Fairfax had
+called up to assist his own. But Fairfax, who was not yet across Long
+Sutton bridge, heard of Goring's raid in good time, and sent Massey
+after him with a body of horse. Massey surprised a large party of the
+Royalists at Ilminster on the 9th, wounded Goring himself, and pursued
+the fugitives up to the south-eastern edge of Langport. On the 10th
+Fairfax's advanced guard, led by Major Bethel of Cromwell's own
+regiment, brilliantly stormed the position of Goring's rearguard east of
+Langport, and the cavalry of the New Model, led by Cromwell himself,
+swept in pursuit right up to the gates of Bridgwater, where Goring's
+army, dismayed and on the point of collapse, was more or less rallied.
+Thence Goring himself retired to Barnstaple. His army, under the
+regimental officers, defended itself in Bridgwater resolutely till the
+23rd of July, when it capitulated. The fall of Bridgwater gave Fairfax
+complete control of Somerset and Dorset from Lyme to the Bristol
+channel. Even in the unlikely event of Goring's raising a fresh army, he
+would now have to break through towards Bristol by open force, and a
+battle between Goring and Fairfax could only have one result. Thus
+Charles had perforce to give up his intention of joining Goring--his
+recruiting operations in south Wales had not been so successful as he
+hoped, owing to the apathy of the people and the vigour of the local
+Parliamentary leaders--and to resume the northern enterprise begun in
+the spring.
+
+39. _Schemes of Lord Digby._--This time Rupert would not be with him.
+The prince, now despairing of success and hoping only for a peace on the
+best terms procurable, listlessly returned to his governorship of
+Bristol and prepared to meet Fairfax's impending attack. The influence
+of Rupert was supplanted by that of Lord Digby. As sanguine as Charles
+and far more energetic, he was for the rest of the campaign the guiding
+spirit of the Royalists, but being a civilian he proved incapable of
+judging the military factors in the situation from a military
+standpoint, and not only did he offend the officers by constituting
+himself a sort of confidential military secretary to the king, but he
+was distrusted by all sections of Royalists for his reckless optimism.
+The resumption of the northern enterprise, opposed by Rupert and
+directly inspired by Digby, led to nothing. Charles marched by
+Bridgnorth, Lichfield and Ashbourne to Doncaster, where on the 18th of
+August he was met by great numbers of Yorkshire gentlemen with promises
+of fresh recruits. For a moment the outlook was bright, for the
+Derbyshire men with Gell were far away at Worcester with Leven, the
+Yorkshire Parliamentarians engaged in besieging Scarborough Castle,
+Pontefract and other posts. But two days later he heard that David
+Leslie with the cavalry of Leven's army was coming up behind him, and
+that, the Yorkshire sieges being now ended, Major-General Poyntz's force
+lay in his front. It was now impossible to wait for the new levies, and
+reluctantly the king turned back to Oxford, raiding Huntingdonshire and
+other parts of the hated Eastern Association _en route_.
+
+40. _Montrose's Last Victories._--David Leslie did not pursue him.
+Montrose, though the king did not yet know it, had won two more battles,
+and was practically master of all Scotland. After Auldearn he had turned
+to meet Baillie's army in Strathspey, and by superior mobility and skill
+forced that commander to keep at a respectful distance. He then turned
+upon a new army which Lindsay, titular earl of Crawford, was forming in
+Forfarshire, but that commander betook himself to a safe distance, and
+Montrose withdrew into the Highlands to find recruits (June). The
+victors of Auldearn had mostly dispersed on the usual errand, and he was
+now deserted by most of the Gordons, who were recalled by the chief of
+their clan, the marquess of Huntly, in spite of the indignant
+remonstrances of Huntly's heir, Lord Gordon, who was Montrose's warmest
+admirer. Baillie now approached again, but he was weakened by having to
+find trained troops to stiffen Lindsay's levies, and a strong force of
+the Gordons had now been persuaded to rejoin Montrose. The two armies
+met in battle near Alford on the Don; little can be said of the
+engagement save that Montrose had to fight cautiously and tentatively as
+at Aberdeen, not in the decision-forcing spirit of Auldearn, and that in
+the end Baillie's cavalry gave way and his infantry was cut down as it
+stood. Lord Gordon was amongst the Royalist dead (July 2). The plunder
+was put away in the glens before any attempt was made to go forward, and
+thus the Covenanters had leisure to form a numerous, if not very
+coherent, army on the nucleus of Lindsay's troops. Baillie, much against
+his will, was continued in the command, with a council of war (chiefly
+of nobles whom Montrose had already defeated, such as Argyll, Elcho and
+Balfour) to direct his every movement. Montrose, when rejoined by the
+Highlanders, moved to meet him, and in the last week of July and the
+early part of August there were manoeuvres and minor engagements round
+Perth. About the 7th of August Montrose suddenly slipped away into the
+Lowlands, heading for Glasgow. Thereupon another Covenanting army began
+to assemble in Clydesdale. But it was clear that Montrose could beat
+mere levies, and Baillie, though without authority and despairing of
+success, hurried after him. Montrose then, having drawn Baillie's
+Fifeshire militia far enough from home to ensure their being
+discontented, turned upon them on the 14th of August near Kilsyth.
+Baillie protested against fighting, but his aristocratic masters of the
+council of war decided to cut off Montrose from the hills by turning his
+left wing. The Royalist general seized the opportunity, and his advance
+caught them in the very act of making a flank march (August 15). The
+head of the Covenanters' column was met and stopped by the furious
+attack of the Gordon infantry, and Alastair Macdonald led the men of his
+own name and the Macleans against its flank. A breach was made in the
+centre of Baillie's army at the first rush, and then Montrose sent in
+the Gordon and Ogilvy horse. The leading half of the column was
+surrounded, broken up and annihilated. The rear half, seeing the fate of
+its comrades, took to flight, but in vain, for the Highlanders pursued
+_à outrance_. Only about one hundred Covenanting infantry out of six
+thousand escaped. Montrose was now indeed the king's lieutenant in all
+Scotland.
+
+41. _Fall of Bristol._--But Charles was in no case to resume his
+northern march. Fairfax and the New Model, after reducing Bridgwater,
+had turned back to clear away the Dorsetshire Clubmen and to besiege
+Sherborne Castle. On the completion of this task, it had been decided to
+besiege Bristol, and on the 23rd of August--while the king's army was
+still in Huntingdon, and Goring was trying to raise a new army to
+replace the one he had lost at Langport and Bridgwater--the city was
+invested. In these urgent circumstances Charles left Oxford for the west
+only a day or two after he had come in from the Eastern Association
+raid. Calculating that Rupert could hold out longest, he first moved to
+the relief of Worcester, around which place Leven's Scots, no longer
+having Leslie's cavalry with them to find supplies, were more occupied
+with plundering their immediate neighbourhood for food than with the
+siege works. Worcester was relieved on the 1st of September by the king.
+David Leslie with all his cavalry was already on the march to meet
+Montrose, and Leven had no alternative but to draw off his infantry
+without fighting. Charles entered Worcester on the 8th, but he found
+that he could no longer expect recruits from South Wales. Worse was to
+come. A few hours later, on the night of the 9th-10th, Fairfax's army
+stormed Bristol. Rupert had long realized the hopelessness of further
+fighting--the very summons to surrender sent in by Fairfax placed the
+fate of Bristol on the political issue,--the lines of defence around the
+place were too extensive for his small force, and on the 11th he
+surrendered on terms. He was escorted to Oxford with his men, conversing
+as he rode with the officers of the escort about peace and the future of
+his adopted country. Charles, almost stunned by the suddenness of the
+catastrophe, dismissed his nephew from all his offices and ordered him
+to leave England, and for almost the last time called upon Goring to
+rejoin the main army--if a tiny force of raw infantry and disheartened
+cavalry can be so called--in the neighbourhood of Raglan. But before
+Goring could be brought to withdraw his objections Charles had again
+turned northward towards Montrose. A weary march through the Welsh hills
+brought the Royal army on the 22nd of September to the neighbourhood of
+Chester. Charles himself with one body entered the city, which was
+partially invested by the Parliamentarian colonel Michael Jones, and the
+rest under Sir Marmaduke Langdale was sent to take Jones's lines in
+reverse. But at the opportune moment Poyntz's forces, which had followed
+the king's movements since he left Doncaster in the middle of August,
+appeared in rear of Langdale, and defeated him in the battle of Rowton
+Heath (September 24), while at the same time a sortie of the king's
+troops from Chester was repulsed by Jones. Thereupon the Royal army
+withdrew to Denbigh, and Chester, the only important seaport remaining
+to connect Charles with Ireland, was again besieged.
+
+42. _Philiphaugh._--Nor was Montrose's position, even after Kilsyth,
+encouraging, in spite of the persistent rumours of fighting in
+Westmorland that reached Charles and Digby. Glasgow and Edinburgh were
+indeed occupied, and a parliament summoned in the king's name. But
+Montrose had now to choose between Highlanders and Lowlanders. The
+former, strictly kept away from all that was worth plundering, rapidly
+vanished, even Alastair Macdonald going with the rest. Without the
+Macdonalds and the Gordons, Montrose's military and political
+resettlement of Scotland could only be shadowy, and when he demanded
+support from the sturdy middle classes of the Lowlands, it was not
+forgotten that he had led Highlanders to the sack of Lowland towns. Thus
+his new supporters could only come from amongst the discontented and
+undisciplined Border lords and gentry, and long before these moved to
+join him the romantic conquest of Scotland was over. On the 6th of
+September David Leslie had recrossed the frontier with his cavalry and
+some infantry he had picked up on the way through northern England.
+Early on the morning of the 13th he surprised Montrose at Philiphaugh
+near Selkirk. The king's lieutenant had only 650 men against 4000, and
+the battle did not last long. Montrose escaped with a few of his
+principal adherents, but his little army was annihilated. Of the veteran
+Macdonald infantry, 500 strong that morning, 250 were killed in the
+battle and the remainder put to death after accepting quarter. The
+Irish, even when they bore a Scottish name, were, by Scotsmen even more
+than Englishmen, regarded as beasts to be knocked on the head. After
+Naseby the Irishwomen found in the king's camp were branded by order of
+Fairfax; after Philiphaugh more than 300 women, wives or followers of
+Macdonald's men, were butchered. Montrose's Highlanders at their worst
+were no more cruel than the sober soldiers of the kirk.
+
+43. _Digby's Northern Expedition._--Charles received the news of
+Philiphaugh on the 28th of September, and gave orders that the west
+should be abandoned, the prince of Wales should be sent to France, and
+Goring should bring up what forces he could to the Oxford region. On the
+4th of October Charles himself reached Newark (whither he had marched
+from Denbigh after revictualling Chester and suffering the defeat of
+Rowton Heath). The intention to go to Montrose was of course given up,
+at any rate for the present, and he was merely waiting for Goring and
+the Royalist militia of the west--each in its own way a broken reed to
+lean upon. A hollow reconciliation was patched up between Charles and
+Rupert, and the court remained at Newark for over a month. Before it set
+out to return to Oxford another Royalist force had been destroyed. On
+the 14th of October, receiving information that Montrose had raised a
+new army, the king permitted Langdale's northern troops to make a fresh
+attempt to reach Scotland. At Langdale's request Digby was appointed to
+command in this enterprise, and, civilian though he was, and disastrous
+though his influence had been to the discipline of the army, he led it
+boldly and skilfully. His immediate opponent was Poyntz, who had
+followed the king step by step from Doncaster to Chester and back to
+Welbeck, and he succeeded on the 15th in surprising Poyntz's entire
+force of foot at Sherburn. Poyntz's cavalry were soon after this
+reported approaching from the south, and Digby hoped to trap them also.
+At first all went well and body after body of the rebels was routed. But
+by a singular mischance the Royalist main body mistook the Parliamentary
+squadrons in flight through Sherburn for friends, and believing all was
+lost took to flight also. Thus Digby's cavalry fled as fast as Poyntz's
+and in the same direction, and the latter, coming to their senses first,
+drove the Royalist horse in wild confusion as far as Skipton. Lord Digby
+was still sanguine, and from Skipton he actually penetrated as far as
+Dumfries. But whether Montrose's new army was or was not in the
+Lowlands, it was certain that Leven and Leslie were on the Border, and
+the mad adventure soon came to an end. Digby, with the mere handful of
+men remaining to him, was driven back into Cumberland, and on the 24th
+of October, his army having entirely disappeared, he took ship with his
+officers for the Isle of Man. Poyntz had not followed him beyond
+Skipton, and was now watching the king from Nottingham, while Rossiter
+with the Lincoln troops was posted at Grantham. The king's chances of
+escaping from Newark were becoming smaller day by day, and they were not
+improved by a violent dispute between him and Rupert, Maurice, Lord
+Gerard and Sir Richard Willis, at the end of which these officers and
+many others rode away to ask the Parliament for leave to go over-seas.
+The pretext of the quarrel mattered little, the distinction between the
+views of Charles and Digby on the one hand and Rupert and his friends on
+the other was fundamental--to the latter peace had become a political as
+well as a military necessity. Meanwhile south Wales, with the single
+exception of Raglan Castle, had been overrun by the Parliamentarians.
+Everywhere the Royalist posts were falling. The New Model, no longer
+fearing Goring, had divided, Fairfax reducing the garrisons of Dorset
+and Devon, Cromwell those of Hampshire. Amongst the latter was the
+famous Basing House, which was stormed at dawn on the 14th of October
+and burnt to the ground. Cromwell, his work finished, returned to
+headquarters, and the army wintered in the neighbourhood of Crediton.
+
+44. _End of the First War._--The military events of 1646 call for no
+comment. The only field army remaining to the king was Goring's, and
+though Hopton, who sorrowfully accepted the command after Goring's
+departure, tried at the last moment to revive the memories and the local
+patriotism of 1643, it was of no use to fight against the New Model with
+the armed rabble that Goring turned over to him. Dartmouth surrendered
+on January 18, Hopton was defeated at Torrington on February 16, and
+surrendered the remnant of his worthless army on March 14. Exeter fell
+on April 13. Elsewhere, Hereford was taken on December 17, 1645, and the
+last battle of the war was fought and lost at Stow-on-the-Wold by Lord
+Astley on March 21, 1646. Newark and Oxford fell respectively on May 6
+and June 24. On August 31 Montrose escaped from the Highlands. On the
+19th of the same month Raglan Castle surrendered, and the last Royalist
+post of all, Harlech Castle, maintained the useless struggle until March
+13, 1647. Charles himself, after leaving Newark in November 1645, had
+spent the winter in and around Oxford, whence, after an adventurous
+journey, he came to the camp of the Scottish army at Southwell on May 5,
+1646.
+
+45. _Second Civil War (1648-52)._--The close of the First Civil War left
+England and Scotland in the hands potentially of any one of the four
+parties or any combination of two or more that should prove strong enough
+to dominate the rest. Armed political Royalism was indeed at an end, but
+Charles, though practically a prisoner, considered himself and was, almost
+to the last, considered by the rest as necessary to ensure the success of
+whichever amongst the other three parties could come to terms with him.
+Thus he passed successively into the hands of the Scots, the Parliament
+and the New Model, trying to reverse the verdict of arms by coquetting
+with each in turn. The Presbyterians and the Scots, after Cornet Joyce of
+Fairfax's horse seized upon the person of the king for the army (June 3,
+1647), began at once to prepare for a fresh civil war, this time against
+Independency, as embodied in the New Model--henceforward called the
+Army--and after making use of its sword, its opponents attempted to
+disband it, to send it on foreign service, to cut off its arrears of pay,
+with the result that it was exasperated beyond control, and, remembering
+not merely its grievances but also the principle for which it had fought,
+soon became the most powerful political party in the realm. From 1646 to
+1648 the breach between army and parliament widened day by day until
+finally the Presbyterian party, combined with the Scots and the remaining
+Royalists, felt itself strong enough to begin a second civil war.
+
+46. _The English War._--In February 1648 Colonel Poyer, the
+Parliamentary governor of Pembroke Castle, refused to hand over his
+command to one of Fairfax's officers, and he was soon joined by some
+hundreds of officers and men, who mutinied, ostensibly for arrears of
+pay, but really with political objects. At the end of March, encouraged
+by minor successes, Poyer openly declared for the king. Disbanded
+soldiers continued to join him in April, all South Wales revolted, and
+eventually he was joined by Major-General Laugharne, his district
+commander, and Colonel Powel. In April also news came that the Scots
+were arming and that Berwick and Carlisle had been seized by the English
+Royalists. Cromwell was at once sent off at the head of a strong
+detachment to deal with Laugharne and Poyer. But before he arrived
+Laugharne had been severely defeated by Colonel Horton at St Fagans (May
+8). The English Presbyterians found it difficult to reconcile their
+principles with their allies when it appeared that the prisoners taken
+at St Fagans bore "We long to see our King" on their hats; very soon in
+fact the English war became almost purely a Royalist revolt, and the war
+in the north an attempt to enforce a mixture of Royalism and
+Presbyterianism on Englishmen by means of a Scottish army. The former
+were disturbers of the peace and no more. Nearly all the Royalists who
+had fought in the First Civil War had given their parole not to bear
+arms against the Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, foremost
+amongst them the old Lord Astley, who had fought the last battle for the
+king in 1646, refused to break their word by taking any part in the
+second war. Those who did so, and by implication those who abetted them
+in doing so, were likely to be treated with the utmost rigour if
+captured, for the army was in a less placable mood in 1648 than in 1645,
+and had already determined to "call Charles Stuart, that man of blood,
+to an account for the blood he had shed." On the 21st of May Kent rose
+in revolt in the king's name. A few days later a most serious blow to
+the Independents was struck by the defection of the navy, from command
+of which they had removed Vice-Admiral Batten, as being a Presbyterian.
+Though a former lord high admiral, the earl of Warwick, also a
+Presbyterian, was brought back to the service, it was not long before
+the navy made a purely Royalist declaration and placed itself under the
+command of the prince of Wales. But Fairfax had a clearer view and a
+clearer purpose than the distracted Parliament. He moved quickly into
+Kent, and on the evening of June 1 stormed Maidstone by open force,
+after which the local levies dispersed to their homes, and the more
+determined Royalists, after a futile attempt to induce the City of
+London to declare for them, fled into Essex. In Cornwall,
+Northamptonshire, North Wales and Lincolnshire the revolt collapsed as
+easily. Only in South Wales, Essex and the north of England was there
+serious fighting. In the first of these districts Cromwell rapidly
+reduced all the fortresses except Pembroke, where Laugharne, Poyer and
+Powel held out with the desperate courage of deserters. In the north,
+Pontefract was surprised by the Royalists, and shortly afterwards
+Scarborough Castle declared for the king. Fairfax, after his success at
+Maidstone and the pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce
+Essex, where, under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir
+Charles Lucas, the Royalists were in arms in great numbers. He soon
+drove the enemy into Colchester, but the first attack on the town was
+repulsed and he had to settle down to a long and wearisome siege _en
+règle_. A Surrey rising, remembered only for the death of the young and
+gallant Lord Francis Villiers in a skirmish at Kingston (July 7),
+collapsed almost as soon as it had gathered force, and its leaders, the
+duke of Buckingham and the earl of Holland, escaped, after another
+attempt to induce London to declare for them, to St Albans and St Neots,
+where Holland was taken prisoner. Buckingham escaped over-seas.
+
+47. _Lambert in the North._--By the 10th of July therefore the military
+situation was well defined. Cromwell held Pembroke, Fairfax Colchester,
+Lambert Pontefract under siege; elsewhere all serious local risings had
+collapsed, and the Scottish army had crossed the Border. It is on the
+adventures of the latter that the interest of the war centres. It was by
+no means the veteran army of Leven, which had long been disbanded. For
+the most part it consisted of raw levies, and as the kirk had refused to
+sanction the enterprise of the Scottish parliament, David Leslie and
+thousands of experienced officers and men declined to serve. The duke of
+Hamilton proved to be a poor substitute for Leslie; his army, too, was
+so ill provided that as soon as England was invaded it began to plunder
+the countryside for the bare means of sustenance. Major-General Lambert,
+a brilliant young general of twenty-nine, was more than equal to the
+situation. He had already left the sieges of Pontefract and Scarborough
+to Colonel Rossiter, and hurried into Cumberland to deal with the
+English Royalists under Sir Marmaduke Langdale. With his cavalry he got
+into touch with the enemy about Carlisle and slowly fell back, fighting
+small rearguard actions to annoy the enemy and gain time, to Bowes and
+Barnard Castle. Langdale did not follow him into the mountains, but
+occupied himself in gathering recruits and supplies of material and food
+for the Scots. Lambert, reinforced from the midlands, reappeared early
+in June and drove him back to Carlisle with his work half finished.
+About the same time the local horse of Durham and Northumberland were
+put into the field by Sir A. Hesilrige, governor of Newcastle, and under
+the command of Colonel Robert Lilburne won a considerable success (June
+30) at the river Coquet. This reverse, coupled with the existence of
+Langdale's force on the Cumberland side, practically compelled Hamilton
+to choose the west coast route for his advance, and his army began
+slowly to move down the long _couloir_ between the mountains and the
+sea. The campaign which followed is one of the most brilliant in English
+history.
+
+48. _Campaign of Preston._--On the 8th of July the Scots, with Langdale
+as advanced guard, were about Carlisle, and reinforcements from Ulster
+were expected daily. Lambert's horse were at Penrith, Hexham and
+Newcastle, too weak to fight and having only skilful leading and
+rapidity of movement to enable them to gain time. Far away to the south
+Cromwell was still tied down before Pembroke, Fairfax before Colchester.
+Elsewhere the rebellion, which had been put down by rapidity of action
+rather than sheer weight of numbers, smouldered, and Prince Charles and
+the fleet cruised along the Essex coast. Cromwell and Lambert, however,
+understood each other perfectly, while the Scottish commanders
+quarrelled with Langdale and each other. Appleby Castle surrendered to
+the Scots on the 31st of July, whereat Lambert, who was still hanging on
+to the flank of the Scottish advance, fell back from Barnard Castle to
+Richmond so as to close Wensleydale against any attempt of the invaders
+to march on Pontefract. All the restless energy of Langdale's horse was
+unable to dislodge him from the passes or to find out what was behind
+that impenetrable cavalry screen. The crisis was now at hand. Cromwell
+had received the surrender of Pembroke on the 11th, and had marched off,
+with his men unpaid, ragged and shoeless, at full speed through the
+midlands. Rains and storms delayed his march, but he knew that Hamilton
+in the broken ground of Westmorland was still worse off. Shoes from
+Northampton and stockings from Coventry met him at Nottingham, and,
+gathering up the local levies as he went, he made for Doncaster, where
+he arrived on the 8th of August, having gained six days in advance of
+the time he had allowed himself for the march. He then called up
+artillery from Hull, exchanged his local levies for the regulars who
+were besieging Pontefract, and set off to meet Lambert. On the 12th he
+was at Wetherby, Lambert with horse and foot at Otley, Langdale at
+Skipton and Gargrave, Hamilton at Lancaster, and Sir George Monro with
+the Scots from Ulster and the Carlisle Royalists (organized as a
+separate command owing to friction between Monro and the generals of the
+main army) at Hornby. On the 13th, while Cromwell was marching to join
+Lambert at Otley, the Scottish leaders were still disputing as to
+whether they should make for Pontefract or continue through Lancashire
+so as to join Lord Byron and the Cheshire Royalists.
+
+49. _Preston Fight._--On the 14th Cromwell and Lambert were at Skipton,
+on the 15th at Gisburn, and on the 16th they marched down the valley of
+the Ribble towards Preston with full knowledge of the enemy's
+dispositions and full determination to attack him. They had with them
+horse and foot not only of the army, but also of the militia of
+Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland and Lancashire, and withal were heavily
+outnumbered, having only 8600 men against perhaps 20,000 of Hamilton's
+command. But the latter were scattered for convenience of supply along
+the road from Lancaster, through Preston, towards Wigan, Langdale's corps
+having thus become the left flank guard instead of the advanced guard.
+Langdale called in his advanced parties, perhaps with a view to resuming
+the duties of advanced guard, on the night of the 13th, and collected
+them near Longridge. It is not clear whether he reported Cromwell's
+advance, but, if he did, Hamilton ignored the report, for on the 17th
+Monro was half a day's march to the north, Langdale east of Preston, and
+the main army strung out on the Wigan road, Major-General Baillie with a
+body of foot, the rear of the column, being still in Preston. Hamilton,
+yielding to the importunity of his lieutenant-general, the earl of
+Callendar, sent Baillie across the Ribble to follow the main body just as
+Langdale, with 3000 foot and 500 horse only, met the first shock of
+Cromwell's attack on Preston Moor. Hamilton, like Charles at Edgehill,
+passively shared in, without directing, the battle, and, though
+Langdale's men fought magnificently, they were after four hours' struggle
+driven to the Ribble. Baillie attempted to cover the Ribble and Darwen
+bridges on the Wigan road, but Cromwell had forced his way across both
+before nightfall. Pursuit was at once undertaken, and not relaxed until
+Hamilton had been driven through Wigan and Winwick to Uttoxeter and
+Ashbourne. There, pressed furiously in rear by Cromwell's horse and held
+up in front by the militia of the midlands, the remnant of the Scottish
+army laid down its arms on the 25th of August. Various attempts were made
+to raise the Royalist standard in Wales and elsewhere, but Preston was
+the death-blow. On the 28th of August, starving and hopeless of relief,
+the Colchester Royalists surrendered to Lord Fairfax. The victors in the
+Second Civil War were not merciful to those who had brought war into the
+land again. On the evening of the surrender of Colchester, Sir Charles
+Lucas and Sir George Lisle were shot. Laugharne, Poyer and Powel were
+sentenced to death, but Poyer alone was executed on the 25th of April
+1649, being the victim selected by lot. Of five prominent Royalist peers
+who had fallen into the hands of the Parliament, three, the duke of
+Hamilton, the earl of Holland, and Lord Capel, one of the Colchester
+prisoners and a man of high character, were beheaded at Westminster on
+the 9th of March. Above all, after long hesitations, even after renewal
+of negotiations, the army and the Independents "purged" the House of
+their ill-wishers, and created a court for the trial and sentence of the
+king. The more resolute of the judges nerved the rest to sign the
+death-warrant, and Charles was beheaded at Whitehall on the 30th of
+January.
+
+50. _Cromwell in Ireland._--The campaign of Preston was undertaken under
+the direction of the Scottish parliament, not the kirk, and it needed
+the execution of the king to bring about a union of all Scottish parties
+against the English Independents. Even so, Charles II. in exile had to
+submit to long negotiations and hard conditions before he was allowed to
+put himself at the head of the Scottish armies. The marquis of Huntly
+was executed for taking up arms for the king on the 22nd of March 1649.
+Montrose, under Charles's directions, made a last attempt to rally the
+Scottish Royalists early in 1650. But Charles merely used Montrose as a
+threat to obtain better conditions for himself from the Covenanters, and
+when the noblest of all the Royalists was defeated (Carbisdale, April
+27), delivered up to his pursuers (May 4), and executed (May 21, 1650),
+he was not ashamed to give way to the demands of the Covenanters, and to
+place himself at the head of Montrose's executioners. His father,
+whatever his faults, had at least chosen to die for an ideal, the Church
+of England. Charles II. now proposed to regain the throne by allowing
+Scotland to impose Presbyterianism on England, and dismissed all the
+faithful Cavaliers who had followed him to exile. Meanwhile, Ireland, in
+which a fresh war, with openly anti-English and anti-Protestant objects,
+had broken out in 1648, was thoroughly reduced to order by Cromwell, who
+beat down all resistance by his skill, and even more by his ruthless
+severity, in a brief campaign of nine months (battle of Rathmines near
+Dublin, won by Colonel Michael Jones, August 2, 1649; storming of
+Drogheda, September 11, and of Wexford, October 11, by Cromwell; capture
+of Kilkenny, March 28, 1650, and of Clonmel, May 10). Cromwell returned
+to England at the end of May 1650, and on June 26 Fairfax, who had been
+anxious and uneasy since the execution of the king, resigned the
+command-in-chief of the army to his lieutenant-general. The pretext,
+rather than the reason, of Fairfax's resignation was his unwillingness
+to lead an English army to reduce Scotland.
+
+51. _The Invasion of Scotland._--This important step had been resolved
+upon as soon as it was clear that Charles II. would come to terms with
+the Covenanters. From this point the Second Civil War becomes a war of
+England against Scotland. Here at least the Independents carried the
+whole of England with them. No Englishman cared to accept a settlement
+at the hands of a victorious foreign army, and on the 28th of June, five
+days after Charles II. had sworn to the Covenant, the new lord-general
+was on his way to the Border to take command of the English army. About
+the same time a new militia act was passed that was destined to give
+full and decisive effect to the national spirit of England in the great
+final campaign of the war. Meanwhile the motto _frappez fort, frappez
+vite_ was carried out at once by the regular forces. On the 19th of July
+1650 Cromwell made the final arrangements at Berwick-on-Tweed.
+Major-General Harrison, a gallant soldier and an extreme Independent,
+was to command the regular and auxiliary forces left in England, and to
+secure the Commonwealth against Royalists and Presbyterians. Cromwell
+took with him Fleetwood as lieutenant-general and Lambert as
+major-general, and his forces numbered about 10,000 foot and 5000 horse.
+His opponent David Leslie (his comrade of Marston Moor) had a much
+larger force, but its degree of training was inferior, it was more than
+tainted by the political dissensions of the people at large, and it was,
+in great part at any rate, raised by forced enlistment. On the 22nd of
+July Cromwell crossed the Tweed. He marched on Edinburgh by the sea
+coast, through Dunbar, Haddington and Musselburgh, living almost
+entirely on supplies landed by the fleet which accompanied him--for the
+country itself was incapable of supporting even a small army--and on the
+29th he found Leslie's army drawn up and entrenched in a position
+extending from Leith to Edinburgh.
+
+52. _Operations around Edinburgh._--The same day a sharp but indecisive
+fight took place on the lower slopes of Arthur's Seat, after which
+Cromwell, having felt the strength of Leslie's line, drew back to
+Musselburgh. Leslie's horse followed him up sharply, and another action
+was fought, after which the Scots assaulted Musselburgh without success.
+Militarily Leslie had the best of it in these affairs, but it was
+precisely this moment that the kirk party chose to institute a searching
+three days' examination of the political and religious sentiments of his
+army. The result was that the army was "purged" of 80 officers and 3000
+soldiers as it lay within musket shot of the enemy. Cromwell was more
+concerned, however, with the supply question than with the distracted
+army of the Scots. On the 6th of August he had to fall back as far as
+Dunbar to enable the fleet to land supplies in safety, the port of
+Musselburgh being unsafe in the violent and stormy weather which
+prevailed. He soon returned to Musselburgh and prepared to force Leslie
+to battle. In preparation for an extended manoeuvre three days' rations
+were served out. Tents were also issued, perhaps for the first time in
+the civil wars, for it was a regular professional army, which had to be
+cared for, made comfortable and economized, that was now carrying on the
+work of the volunteers of the first war. Even after Cromwell started on
+his manoeuvre, the Scottish army was still in the midst of its political
+troubles, and, certain though he was that nothing but victory in the
+field would give an assured peace, he was obliged to intervene in the
+confused negotiations of the various Scottish parties. At last, however,
+Charles II. made a show of agreeing to the demands of his strange
+supporters, and Leslie was free to move. Cromwell had now entered the
+hill country, with a view to occupying Queensferry and thus blocking up
+Edinburgh. Leslie had the shorter road and barred the way at
+Corstorphine Hill (August 21). Cromwell, though now far from his base,
+manoeuvred again to his right, Leslie meeting him once more at Gogar
+(August 27). The Scottish lines at that point were strong enough to
+dismay even Cromwell, and the manoeuvre on Queensferry was at last given
+up. It had cost the English army severe losses in sick, and much
+suffering in the autumn nights on the bleak hillsides.
+
+53. _Dunbar._--On the 28th Cromwell fell back on Musselburgh, and on the
+31st, after embarking his non-effective men, to Dunbar. Leslie followed
+him up, and wished to fight a battle at Dunbar on Sunday, the 1st of
+September. But again the kirk intervened, this time to forbid Leslie to
+break the Sabbath, and the unfortunate Scottish commander could only
+establish himself on Doon Hill (see DUNBAR) and send a force to
+Cockburnspath to bar the Berwick road. He had now 23,000 men to
+Cromwell's 11,000, and proposed, _faute de mieux_, to starve Cromwell
+into surrender. But the English army was composed of "ragged soldiers
+with bright muskets," and had a great captain of undisputed authority at
+their head. Leslie's, on the other hand, had lost such discipline as it
+had ever possessed, and was now, under outside influences, thoroughly
+disintegrated. Cromwell wrote home, indeed, that he was "upon an
+engagement very difficult," but, desperate as his position seemed, he
+felt the pulse of his opponent and steadily refused to take his army
+away by sea. He had not to wait long. It was now the turn of Leslie's
+men on the hillside to endure patiently privation and exposure, and
+after one night's bivouac, Leslie, too readily inferring that the enemy
+was about to escape by sea, came down to fight. The battle of Dunbar
+(q.v.) opened in the early morning of the 3rd of September. It was the
+most brilliant of all Oliver's victories. Before the sun was high in the
+heavens the Scottish army had ceased to exist.
+
+54. _Royalism in Scotland._--After Dunbar it was easy for the victorious
+army to overrun southern Scotland, more especially as the dissensions of
+the enemy were embittered by the defeat of which they had been the prime
+cause. The kirk indeed put Dunbar to the account of its own remissness
+in not purging their army more thoroughly, but, as Cromwell wrote on the
+4th of September, the kirk had "done its do." "I believe their king will
+set up on his own score," he continued, and indeed, now that the army of
+the kirk was destroyed and they themselves were secure behind the Forth
+and based on the friendly Highlands, Charles and the Cavaliers were in a
+position not only to defy Cromwell, but also to force the Scottish
+national spirit of resistance to the invader into a purely Royalist
+channel. Cromwell had only received a few drafts and reinforcements from
+England, and for the present he could but block up Edinburgh Castle
+(which surrendered on Christmas eve), and try to bring up adequate
+forces and material for the siege of Stirling--an attempt which was
+frustrated by the badness of the roads and the violence of the weather.
+The rest of the early winter of 1650 was thus occupied in semi-military,
+semi-political operations between detachments of the English army and
+certain armed forces of the kirk party which still maintained a
+precarious existence in the western Lowlands, and in police work against
+the moss-troopers of the Border counties. Early in February 1651, still
+in the midst of terrible weather, Cromwell made another resolute but
+futile attempt to reach Stirling. This time he himself fell sick, and
+his losses had to be made good by drafts of recruits from England, many
+of whom came most unwillingly to serve in the cold wet bivouacs that the
+newspapers had graphically reported.[7]
+
+55. _The English Militia._--About this time there occurred in England
+two events which had a most important bearing on the campaign. The first
+was the detection of a widespread Royalist-Presbyterian conspiracy--how
+widespread no one knew, for those of its promoters who were captured and
+executed certainly formed but a small fraction of the whole number.
+Harrison was ordered to Lancashire in April to watch the north Welsh,
+Isle of Man and Border Royalists, and military precautions were taken in
+various parts of England. The second was the revival of the militia.
+Since 1644 there had been no general employment of local forces, the
+quarrel having fallen into the hands of the regular armies by force of
+circumstances. The New Model, though a national army, resembled
+Wellington's Peninsular army more than the soldiers of the French
+Revolution and the American Civil War. It was now engaged in prosecuting
+a war of aggression against the hereditary foe over the Border--strictly
+the task of a professional army with a national basis. The militia was
+indeed raw and untrained. Some of the Essex men "fell flat on their
+faces on the sound of a cannon." In the north of England Harrison
+complained to Cromwell of the "badness" of his men, and the lord general
+sympathized, having "had much such stuff" sent him to make good the
+losses in trained men. Even he for a moment lost touch with the spirit
+of the people. His recruits were unwilling drafts for foreign service,
+but in England the new levies were trusted to defend their homes, and
+the militia was soon triumphantly to justify its existence on the day of
+Worcester.
+
+56. _Inverkeithing._--While David Leslie organized and drilled the
+king's new army beyond the Forth, Cromwell was, slowly and with frequent
+relapses, recovering from his illness. The English army marched to
+Glasgow in April, then returned to Edinburgh. The motives of the march
+and that of the return are alike obscure, but it may be conjectured
+that, the forces in England under Harrison having now assembled in
+Lancashire, the Edinburgh-Newcastle-York road had to be covered by the
+main army. Be this as it may, Cromwell's health again broke down and his
+life was despaired of. Only late in June were operations actively
+resumed between Stirling and Linlithgow. At first Cromwell sought
+without success to bring Leslie to battle, but he stormed Callendar
+House near Falkirk on July 13, and on the 16th of July he began the
+execution of a brilliant and successful manoeuvre. A force from
+Queensferry, covered by the English fleet, was thrown across the Firth
+of Forth to Northferry. Lambert followed with reinforcements, and
+defeated a detachment of Leslie's army at Inverkeithing on the 20th.
+Leslie drew back at once, but managed to find a fresh strong position in
+front of Stirling, whence he defied Cromwell again. At this juncture
+Cromwell prepared to pass his whole army across the firth. His
+contemplated manoeuvre of course gave up to the enemy all the roads into
+England, and before undertaking it the lord general held a consultation
+with Harrison, as the result of which that officer took over the direct
+defence of the whole Border. But his mind was made up even before this,
+for on the day he met Harrison at Linlithgow three-quarters of his whole
+army had already crossed into Fife. Burntisland, surrendered to Lambert
+on the 29th, gave Cromwell a good harbour upon which to base his
+subsequent movements. On the 30th of July the English marched upon
+Perth, and the investment of this place, the key to Leslie's supply
+area, forced the crisis at once. Whether Leslie would have preferred to
+manoeuvre Cromwell from his vantage-ground or not is immaterial; the
+young king and the now predominant Royalist element at headquarters
+seized the long-awaited opportunity at once, and on the 31st, leaving
+Cromwell to his own devices, the Royal army marched southward to raise
+the Royal standard in England.
+
+57. _The Third Scottish Invasion of England._--Then began the last and
+most thrilling campaign of the Great Rebellion. Charles II. expected
+complete success. In Scotland, _vis-à-vis_ the extreme Covenanters, he
+was a king on conditions, and he was glad enough to find himself in
+England with some thirty solidly organized regiments under Royalist
+officers and with no regular army in front of him. He hoped, too, to
+rally not merely the old faithful Royalists, but also the overwhelming
+numerical strength of the English Presbyterians to his standard. His
+army was kept well in hand, no excesses were allowed, and in a week the
+Royalists covered 150 m.--in marked contrast to the duke of Hamilton's
+ill-fated expedition of 1648. On the 8th of August the troops were given
+a well-earned rest between Penrith and Kendal.
+
+But the Royalists were mistaken in supposing that the enemy was taken
+aback by their new move. Everything had been foreseen both by Cromwell
+and by the Council of State in Westminster. The latter had called out
+the greater part of the militia on the 7th. Lieutenant-General Fleetwood
+began to draw together the midland contingents at Banbury, the London
+trained bands turned out for field service no fewer than 14,000 strong.
+Every suspected Royalist was closely watched, and the magazines of arms
+in the country-houses of the gentry were for the most part removed into
+the strong places. On his part Cromwell had quietly made his
+preparations. Perth passed into his hands on the 2nd of August, and he
+brought back his army to Leith by the 5th. Thence he despatched Lambert
+with a cavalry corps to harass the invaders. Harrison was already at
+Newcastle picking the best of the county mounted troops to add to his
+own regulars. On the 9th Charles was at Kendal, Lambert hovering in his
+rear, and Harrison marching swiftly to bar his way at the Mersey.
+Fairfax emerged for a moment from his retirement to organize the
+Yorkshire levies, and the best of these as well as of the Lancashire,
+Cheshire and Staffordshire militias were directed upon Warrington, which
+point Harrison reached on the 15th, a few hours in front of Charles's
+advanced guard. Lambert too, slipping round the left flank of the enemy,
+joined Harrison, and the English fell back (16th), slowly and without
+letting themselves be drawn into a fight, along the London road.
+
+58. _Campaign of Worcester._--Cromwell meanwhile, leaving Monk with the
+least efficient regiments to carry on the war in Scotland, had reached
+the Tyne in seven days, and thence, marching 20 m. a day in extreme
+heat--with the country people carrying their arms and equipment--the
+regulars entered Ferrybridge on the 19th, at which date Lambert,
+Harrison and the north-western militia were about Congleton.[8] It
+seemed probable that a great battle would take place between Lichfield
+and Coventry about the 25th or 26th of August, and that Cromwell,
+Harrison, Lambert and Fleetwood would all take part in it. But the scene
+and the date of the _denouement_ were changed by the enemy's movements.
+Shortly after leaving Warrington the young king had resolved to abandon
+the direct march on London and to make for the Severn valley, where his
+father had found the most constant and the most numerous adherents in
+the first war, and which had been the centre of gravity of the English
+Royalist movement of 1648. Sir Edward Massey, formerly the Parliamentary
+governor of Gloucester, was now with Charles, and it was hoped that he
+would induce his fellow-Presbyterians to take arms. The military quality
+of the Welsh border Royalists was well proved, that of the
+Gloucestershire Presbyterians not less so, and, based on Gloucester and
+Worcester as his father had been based on Oxford, Charles II. hoped, not
+unnaturally, to deal with an Independent minority more effectually than
+Charles I. had done with a Parliamentary majority of the people of
+England. But even the pure Royalism which now ruled in the invading army
+could not alter the fact that it was a Scottish army, and it was not an
+Independent faction but all England that took arms against it. Charles
+arrived at Worcester on the 22nd of August, and spent five days in
+resting the troops, preparing for further operations, and gathering and
+arming the few recruits who came in. It is unnecessary to argue that the
+delay was fatal; it was a necessity of the case foreseen and accepted
+when the march to Worcester had been decided upon, and had the other
+course, that of marching on London via Lichfield, been taken the battle
+would have been fought three days earlier with the same result. As
+affairs turned out Cromwell merely shifted the area of his concentration
+two marches to the south-west, to Evesham. Early on the 28th Lambert
+surprised the passage of the Severn at Upton, 6 m. below Worcester, and
+in the action which followed Massey was severely wounded. Fleetwood
+followed Lambert. The enemy was now only 16,000 strong and disheartened
+by the apathy with which they had been received in districts formerly
+all their own. Cromwell, for the first and last time in his military
+career, had a two-to-one numerical superiority.
+
+59. _The "Crowning Mercy."_--He took his measures deliberately. Lilburne
+from Lancashire and Major Mercer with the Worcestershire horse were to
+secure Bewdley Bridge on the enemy's line of retreat. Lambert and
+Fleetwood were to force their way across the Teme (a little river on
+which Rupert had won his first victory in 1642) and attack St John's,
+the western suburb of Worcester. Cromwell himself and the main army were
+to attack the town itself. On the 3rd of September, the anniversary of
+Dunbar, the programme was carried out exactly. Fleetwood forced the
+passage of the Teme, and the bridging train (which had been carefully
+organized for the purpose) bridged both the Teme and the Severn. Then
+Cromwell on the left bank and Fleetwood on the right swept in a
+semicircle 4 m. long up to Worcester. Every hedgerow was contested by
+the stubborn Royalists, but Fleetwood's men would not be denied, and
+Cromwell's extreme right on the eastern side of the town repelled, after
+three hours' hard fighting, the last desperate attempt of the Royalists
+to break out. It was indeed, as a German critic[9] has pointed out, the
+prototype of Sedan. Everywhere the defences were stormed as darkness
+came on, regulars and militia fighting with equal gallantry, and the few
+thousands of the Royalists who escaped during the night were easily
+captured by Lilburne and Mercer, or by the militia which watched every
+road in Yorkshire and Lancashire. Even the country people brought in
+scores of prisoners, for officers and men alike, stunned by the
+suddenness of the disaster, offered no resistance. Charles escaped after
+many adventures, but he was one of the few men in his army who regained
+a place of safety. The Parliamentary militia were sent home within a
+week. Cromwell, who had ridiculed "such stuff" six months ago, knew them
+better now. "Your new raised forces," he wrote to the House, "did
+perform singular good service, for which they deserve a very high
+estimation and acknowledgment." Worcester resembled Sedan in much more
+than outward form. Both were fought by "nations in arms," by citizen
+soldiers who had their hearts in the struggle, and could be trusted not
+only to fight their hardest but to march their best. Only with such
+troops would a general dare to place a deep river between the two halves
+of his army or to send away detachments beforehand to reap the fruits of
+victory, in certain anticipation of winning the victory with the
+remainder. The sense of duty, which the raw militia possessed in so high
+a degree, ensured the arrival and the action of every column at the
+appointed time and place. The result was, in brief, one of those rare
+victories in which a pursuit is superfluous--a "crowning mercy," as
+Cromwell called it. There is little of note in the closing operations.
+Monk had completed his task by May 1652; and Scotland, which had twice
+attempted to impose its will on England, found itself reduced to the
+position of an English province under martial law. The details of its
+subjection are uninteresting after the tremendous climax of Worcester.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Earl of Clarendon, _The History of the Rebellion_
+  (Oxford, 1702-1704, ed. W. D. Macray, Oxford, 1888); R. Baillie,
+  _Letters and Journals_ (Bannatyne Society, 1841); T. Carlyle,
+  _Cromwell's Letters and Speeches_ (new edition, S. C. Lomas, London,
+  1904); _Fairfax Correspondence_ (ed. R. Bell, London, 1849); E.
+  Borlace, _History of the Irish Rebellion_ (London, 1675); R. Bellings,
+  _Fragmentum historicum, or the ... War in Ireland_ (London, 1772); J.
+  Heath, _Chronicle of the late Intestine War_ (London, 1676); _Military
+  Memoir of Colonel Birch_ (Camden Society, new series, vol. vii.,
+  1873); _Autobiography of Captain John Hodgson_ (edition of 1882);
+  Papers on the earl of Manchester, Camden Society, vol. viii., and
+  _English Historical Review_, vol. iii.; J. Ricraft, _Survey of
+  England's Champions_ (1647, reprinted, London, 1818); ed. E.
+  Warburton, _Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers_ (London,
+  1849); J. Vicars, _Jehovah-Jireh_ (1644), and _England's Worthies_
+  (1647), the latter reprinted in 1845: Anthony à Wood, _History and
+  Antiquities of the University of Oxford_ (ed. J. Gutch, Oxford,
+  1792-1795); Margaret, duchess of Newcastle, Life of _William
+  Cavendish, duke of Newcastle_ (ed. C. H. Firth, London, 1886); Lucy
+  Hutchinson, _Memoir of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson_ (ed. C. H.
+  Firth, Oxford, 1896); _Memoirs of Edward Ludlow_ (ed. C. H. Firth,
+  Oxford, 1892); S. Ashe and W. Goode, _The Services of the Earl of
+  Manchester's Army_ (London, 1644); H. Cary, _Memorials of the Great
+  Civil War_ (London, 1842); Patrick Gordon, _Passages from the Diary of
+  Patrick Gordon_ (Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1859); J. Gwynne, _Military
+  Memoirs of the Civil War_ (ed. Sir W. Scott, Edinburgh, 1822);
+  _Narratives of Hamilton's Expedition_, 1648 (C. H. Firth, Scottish
+  Historical Society, Edinburgh, 1904); Lord Hopton, _Bellum Civile_
+  (Somerset Record Society, London, 1902); _Irish War of 1641_ (Camden
+  Society, old series, vol. xiv., 1841); _Iter Carolinum, Marches of
+  Charles I. 1641-1649_ (London, 1660); Hugh Peters, _Reports from the
+  Armies of Fairfax and Cromwell_ (London, 1645-1646); "Journal of the
+  Marches of Prince Rupert" (ed. C. H. Firth, _Engl. Historical Review_,
+  1898); J. Sprigge, _Anglia Rediviva_ (London, 1847, reprinted Oxford,
+  1854); R. Symonds, _Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army, 1644-1645_
+  (ed. C. E. Long, Camden Society, old series, 1859); J. Corbet, _The
+  Military Government of Gloucester_ (London, 1645); M. Carter,
+  _Expeditions of Kent, Essex and Colchester_ (London, 1650); _Tracts
+  relating to the Civil War in Lancashire_ (ed. G. Ormerod, Chetham
+  Society, London, 1844); _Discourse of the War in Lancashire_ (ed. W.
+  Beament, Chetham Society, London, 1864); Sir M. Langdale, _The late
+  Fight at Preston_ (London, 1648); _Journal of the Siege of Lathom
+  House_ (London, 1823); J. Rushworth, _The Storming of Bristol_
+  (London, 1645); S. R. Gardiner _History of the Great Civil War_
+  (London, 1886); and _History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_
+  (London, 1903); C. H. Firth, _Oliver Cromwell_ (New York and London,
+  1900); _Cromwell's Army_ (London, 1902); "The Raising of the
+  Ironsides," _Transactions R. Hist. Society_, 1899 and 1901; papers in
+  _English Historical Review_, and memoirs of the leading personages of
+  the period in _Dictionary of National Biography_; T. S. Baldock,
+  _Cromwell as a Soldier_ (London, 1899); F. Hoenig, _Oliver Cromwell_
+  (Berlin, 1887-1889); Sir J. Maclean, _Memoirs of the Family of Poyntz_
+  (Exeter, 1886); Sir C. Markham, _Life of Fairfax_ (London, 1870); M.
+  Napier, _Life and Times of Montrose_ (Edinburgh, 1840); W. B.
+  Devereux, _Lives of the Earls of Essex_ (London, 1853); W. G. Ross,
+  _Mil. Engineering in the Civil War_ (R. E. Professional Papers, 1887);
+  "The Battle of Naseby," _English Historical Review_, 1888; _Oliver
+  Cromwell and his Ironsides_ (Chatham, 1869); F. N. Maude, _Cavalry,
+  its Past and Future_ (London, 1903); E. Scott, _Rupert, Prince
+  Palatine_ (London, 1899); M. Stace, _Cromwelliana_ (London, 1870); C.
+  S. Terry, _Life and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven_
+  (London, 1899); Madame H. de Witt, _The Lady of Lathom_ (London,
+  1869); F. Maseres, _Tracts relating to the Civil War_ (London, 1815);
+  P. A. Charrier, _Cromwell_ (London, 1905), also paper in _Royal United
+  Service Institution Journal_, 1906; T. Arnold and W. G. Ross,
+  "Edgehill," _English Historical Review_, 1887; _The History of Basing
+  House_ (Basingstoke, 1869); E. Broxap, "The Sieges of Hull," _English
+  Historical Review_, 1905; J. Willis Bund, _The Civil War in
+  Worcestershire_ (Birmingham, 1905); C. Coates, _History of Reading_
+  (London, 1802); F. Drake, _Eboracum: History of the City of York_
+  (London, 1736); N. Drake, _Siege of Pontefract Castle_ (Surtees
+  Society Miscellanea, London, 1861); G. N. Godwin, _The Civil War in
+  Hampshire_ (2nd ed., London, 1904); J. F. Hollings, _Leicester during
+  the Civil War_ (Leicester, 1840); R. Holmes, _Sieges of Pontefract
+  Castle_ (Pontefract, 1887); A. Kingston, _East Anglia and the Civil
+  War_ (London, 1897); H. E. Maiden, "Maidstone, 1648," _English Hist.
+  Review_, 1892; W. Money, _Battles of Newbury_ (Newbury, 1884); J. R.
+  Phillips, _The Civil War in Wales and the Marches_ (London, 1874); G.
+  Rigaud, _Lines round Oxford_ (1880); G. Roberts, _History of Lyme_
+  (London, 1834); [R. Robinson] _Sieges of Bristol_ (Bristol, 1868); [J.
+  H. Round] _History of Colchester Castle_ (Colchester, 1882) and "The
+  Case of Lucas and Lisle," _Transactions of R. Historical Society_,
+  1894; R. R. Sharpe, _London and the Kingdom_ (London, 1894); I.
+  Tullie, _Siege of Carlisle_ (1840); E. A. Walford, "Edgehill,"
+  _English Hist. Review_, 1905; J. Washbourne, _Bibliotheca
+  Gloucestrensis_ (Gloucester, 1825); J. Webb, _Civil War in
+  Herefordshire_(London, 1879).     (C. F. A.)
+
+  FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Gustavus Adolphus before the battle of the Alte Veste (see THIRTY
+    YEARS' WAR).
+
+  [2] "Making not money but that which they took to be the public
+    felicity to be their end they were the more engaged to be valiant"
+    (Baxter).
+
+  [3] For the third time within the year the London trained bands
+    turned out in force. It was characteristic of the early years of the
+    war that imminent danger alone called forth the devotion of the
+    citizen soldier. If he was employed in ordinary times (e.g. at Basing
+    House) he would neither fight nor march with spirit.
+
+  [4] Charles's policy was still, as before Marston Moor, to "spin out
+    time" until Rupert came back from the north.
+
+  [5] The ground has been entirely built over for many years.
+
+  [6] The Puritans had by now disappeared almost entirely from the
+    ranks of the infantry. _Per contra_ the officers and sergeants and
+    the troopers of the horse were the sternest Puritans of all, the
+    survivors of three years of a disheartening war.
+
+  [7] The tents were evidently issued for regular marches, not for
+    cross-country manoeuvres against the enemy. These manoeuvres, as we
+    have seen, often took several days. The _bon général ordinaire_ of
+    the 17th and 18th centuries framed his manoeuvres on a smaller scale
+    so as not to expose his expensive and highly trained soldiers to
+    discomfort and the consequent temptation to desert.
+
+  [8] The lord general had during his march thrown out successively two
+    flying columns under Colonel Lilburne to deal with the Lancashire
+    Royalists under the earl of Derby. Lilburne entirely routed the enemy
+    at Wigan on the 25th of August.
+
+  [9] Fritz Hoenig, _Cromwell_.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT SALT LAKE, a shallow body of highly concentrated brine in the N.W.
+part of Utah, U.S.A., lying between 118.8° and 113.2° W. long, and
+between 40.7° and 41.8° lat. Great Salt Lake is 4218 ft. above
+sea-level. It has no outlet, and is fed chiefly by the Jordan, the Weber
+and the Bear rivers, all draining the mountainous country to the E. and
+S.E. The irregular outline of the lake has been compared to the roughly
+drawn hand, palm at the S., thumb (exaggerated in breadth) pointing
+N.E., and the fingers (crowded together and drawn too small) reaching N.
+
+No bathymetric survey of the lake has been made, but the maximum depth
+is 60 ft. and the mean depth less than 20 ft., possibly as little as 13
+ft. The lake in 1906 was approximately 75 m. long., from N.W. to S.E.,
+and had a maximum width of 50 m. and an area of 1750 sq. m. This area is
+not constant, as the water is very shallow at the margins, and the
+relation between supply from precipitation, &c., and loss by evaporation
+is variable, there being an annual difference in the height of the water
+of 15-18 in. between June (highest) and November (lowest), and besides a
+difference running through longer cycles: in 1850 the water was lower
+and the lake smaller than by any previous observations (the area and
+general outline were nearly the same again in 1906); then the water rose
+until 1873; and between 1886 and 1902 the fall in level was 11.6 ft. The
+range of rise and fall from 1845 to 1886 was 13 ft., this being the rise
+in 1865-1886. With the fall of water there is an increase in the
+specific gravity, which in 1850 was 1.17, and in September 1901 was
+1.179; in 1850 the proportion of solids by weight was 22.282%, in
+September 1901 it was 25.221; at the earlier of these dates the solids
+in a litre of water weighed 260.69 grams, at the latter date 302.122
+grams. The exact cause of this cyclic variation is unknown: the low
+level of 1906 is usually regarded as the result of extensive irrigation
+and ploughing in the surrounding country, which have robbed the lake, in
+part, of its normal supply of water. It is also to be noted that the
+rise and fall of the lake level have been coincident, respectively, with
+continued wet and dry cycles. That the lake will soon dry up entirely
+seems unlikely, as there is a central trough, 25 to 30 m. wide, about 40
+ft. deep, running N.W. and S.E. The area and shore-line of the lake are
+evidently affected by a slight surface tilt, for during the same
+generation that has seen the recent fall of the lake level the
+shore-line is in many cases 2 m. from the old, and fences may be seen a
+mile or more out in the lake. The lake bed is for the most part clear
+sand along the margin, and in deeper water is largely coated with crusts
+of salt, soda and gypsum.
+
+The lake is a novel and popular bathing resort, the specific gravity of
+the water being so great that one cannot sink or entirely submerge
+oneself. There are well-equipped bathing pavilions at Garfield and
+Saltair on the S. shore of the lake about 20 m. from Salt Lake City. The
+bathing is invigorating; it must be followed by a freshwater bath
+because of the incrustation of the body from the briny water. The large
+amount of salt in the water makes both fauna and flora of the lake
+scanty; there are a few algae, the larvae of an _Ephydra_ and of a
+_Tipula_ fly, specimens of what seems to be _Corixa decolor_, and in
+great quantities, so as to tint the surface of the water, the brine
+shrimp, _Artemia salina_ (or _gracilis_ or _fertilis_), notable
+biologically for the rarity of males, for the high degree of
+parthenogenesis and for apparent interchangeableness with the
+_Branchipus_.
+
+The lake is of interest for its generally mountainous surroundings, save
+to the N.W., where it skirts the Great Salt Lake Desert, for the
+mountainous peninsula, the Promontory, lying between thumb and fingers
+of the hand, shaped like and resembling in geological structure the two
+islands S. of it, Fremont and Antelope,[1] and the Oquirrh range S. of
+the lake. The physiography of the surrounding country shows clearly that
+the basin occupied by Great Salt Lake is one of many left by the drying
+up of a large Pleistocene lake, which has been called lake Bonneville.
+Well-defined wave-cut cliffs and terraces show two distinct shore-lines
+of this early lake, one the "Bonneville Shore-line," about 1000 ft.
+above Great Salt Lake, and the other, the "Provo Shoreline," about 625
+ft. higher than the present lake. These shorelines and the presence of
+two alluvial deposits, the lower and the larger of yellow clay 90 ft.
+deep, and, separated from it by a plane of erosion, the other, a deposit
+of white marl, 10-20 ft. deep, clearly prove the main facts as to lake
+Bonneville: a dry basin was first occupied by the shallow waters of a
+small lake; then, during a long period of excessive moisture (or cold),
+the waters rose and spread over an area nearly as large as lake Huron
+with a maximum depth of 1000 ft.; a period of great dryness followed, in
+which the lake disappeared; then came a second, shorter, but more
+intense period of moisture, and in this time the lake rose, covered a
+larger area than before, including W. Utah and a little of S. Idaho and
+of E. Nevada, about 19,750 sq. m., had a very much broken shore-line of
+2550 m. and a maximum depth of 1050 ft. and a mean depth of 800 ft.,
+overflowed the basin at the N., and by a tributary stream through Red
+Rock Pass at the N. end of the Cache valley poured its waters into the
+Columbia river system. The great lake was then gradually reduced by
+evaporation, leaving only shallow bodies of salt water, of which Great
+Salt Lake is the largest. The cause of the climatic variations which
+brought about this complex history of the Salt Lake region is not known;
+but it is worthy of note that the periods of highest water levels were
+coincident with a great expansion of local valley glaciers, some of
+which terminated in the waters of lake Bonneville.
+
+Industrially Great Salt Lake is of a certain importance. In early days
+it was the source of the salt supply of the surrounding country; and the
+manufacture of salt is now an important industry. The brine is pumped
+into conduits, carried to large ponds and there evaporated by the sun;
+during late years the salt has been refined here, being purified of the
+sulphates and magnesium compounds which formerly rendered it
+efflorescent and of a low commercial grade. Mirabilite, or Glauber's
+salt, is commercially valuable, occurring in such quantities in parts of
+the lake that one may wade knee-deep in it; it separates from the brine
+at a temperature between 30° and 20° F. The lake is crossed E. and W. by
+the Southern Pacific railway's so-called "Lucin Cut-off," which runs
+from Ogden to Lucin on a trestle with more than 20 m. of "fill"; the
+former route around the N. end of the lake was 43 m. long.
+
+Great Salt Lake was first described in 1689 by Baron La Hontan, who had
+merely heard of it from the Indians. "Jim" Bridger, a famous mountaineer
+and scout, saw the lake in 1824, apparently before any other white man.
+Captain Bonneville described the lake and named it after himself, but
+the name was transferred to the great Pleistocene lake. John C. Frémont
+gave the first description of any accuracy in his _Report_ of 1845. But
+comparatively little was known of it before the Mormon settlement in
+1847. In 1850 Captain Howard Stansbury completed a survey, whose results
+were published in 1852. The most extensive and important studies of the
+region, however, are those by Grove Karl Gilbert of the United States
+Geological Survey, who in 1879-1890 studied especially the earlier and
+greater lake.
+
+  See J. E. Talmage, _The Great Salt Lake, Present and Past_ (Salt Lake
+  City, 1900); and Grove Karl Gilbert, _Lake Bonneville_, monograph 1 of
+  United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1890), containing (pp.
+  12-19) references to the earlier literature.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Besides these islands there are a few small islands farther N.,
+    and W. of Antelope, Stansbury Island, which, like Antelope and
+    Fremont Islands, is connected with the mainland by a bar sometimes
+    uncovered, and rarely in more than a foot of water.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT SLAVE LAKE (ATHAPUSCOW), a lake of Mackenzie district, Canada. It
+is situated between 60° 50' and 62° 55' N. and 108° 40' and 117° W., at
+an altitude of 391 ft. above the sea. It is 325 m. long, from 15 to 50
+m. wide, and includes an area of 9770 sq. m. The water is very clear and
+deep. Its coast line is irregular and deeply indented by large bays, and
+its north-eastern shores are rugged and mountainous. The western shores
+are well wooded, chiefly with spruce, but the northern and eastern are
+dreary and barren. It is navigable from about the 1st of July to the end
+of October. The Yellow-knife, Hoarfrost, Lockhart (discharging the
+waters of Aylmer, Clinton-Colden and Artillery Lakes), Tchzudezeth, Du
+Rocher, Hay (400 m. in length), and Slave rivers empty into Great Slave
+Lake. The bulk of its water empties by the Mackenzie river into the
+Arctic Ocean, but a small portion finds its way by the Ark-i-linik river
+into Hudson's Bay. It was discovered in 1771 by Samuel Hearne.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN, the name given to the belt of water which extends
+almost continuously round the globe between the parallel of 40° S. and
+the Antarctic Circle (66½° S.). The fact that the southern extremity of
+South America is the only land extending into this belt gives it special
+physical importance in relation to tides and currents, and its position
+with reference to the Antarctic Ocean and continent makes it convenient
+to regard it as a separate ocean from which the Atlantic, Pacific and
+Indian Oceans may be said to radiate. (See OCEAN.)
+
+
+
+
+GREAVES, JOHN (1602-1652), English mathematician and antiquary, was the
+eldest son of John Greaves, rector of Colemore, near Alresford in
+Hampshire. He was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and in 1630 was
+chosen professor of geometry in Gresham College, London. After
+travelling in Europe, he visited the East in 1637, where he collected a
+considerable number of Arabic, Persian and Greek manuscripts, and made a
+more accurate survey of the pyramids of Egypt than any traveller who had
+preceded him. On his return to Europe he visited a second time several
+parts of Italy, and during his stay at Rome instituted inquiries into
+the ancient weights and measures. In 1643 he was appointed to the
+Savilian professorship of astronomy at Oxford, but he was deprived of
+his Gresham professorship for having neglected its duties. In 1645 he
+essayed a reformation of the calendar, but his plan was not adopted. In
+1648 he lost both his fellowship and his Savilian chair on account of
+his adherence to the royalist party. But his private fortune more than
+sufficed for all his wants till his death on the 8th of October 1652.
+
+  Besides his papers in the _Philosophical Transactions_, the principal
+  works of Greaves are _Pyramidographia, or a Description of the
+  Pyramids in Egypt_ (1646); _A Discourse on the Roman Foot and_
+  _Denarius_ (1649); and _Elementa linguae Persicae_ (1649). His
+  miscellaneous works were published in 1737 by Dr Thomas Birch, with a
+  biographical notice of the author. See also Smith's _Vita quorundam
+  erudit. virorum_ and Ward's _Gresham Professors_.
+
+
+
+
+GREBE (Fr. _grèbe_), the generally accepted name for all the birds of
+the family _Podicipedidae_,[1] belonging to the group _Pygopodes_ of
+Illiger, members of which inhabit almost all parts of the world. Some
+systematic writers have distributed them into several so-called genera,
+but, with one exception, these seem to be insufficiently defined, and
+here it will be enough to allow but two--Latham's _Podiceps_ and the
+_Centropelma_ of Sclater and Salvin. Grebes are at once distinguishable
+from all other water-birds by their rudimentary tail and the peculiar
+structure of their feet, which are not only placed far behind, but have
+the tarsi flattened and elongated toes furnished with broad lobes of
+skin and flat blunt nails.
+
+[Illustration: Great Crested Grebe.]
+
+In Europe are five well-marked species of _Podiceps_, the commonest and
+smallest of which is the very well-known dab-chick of English ponds, _P.
+fluviatilis_ or _minor_, the little grebe of ornithologists, found
+throughout the British Islands, and with a wide range in the old world.
+Next in size are two species known as the eared and horned grebes, the
+former of which, _P. nigricollis_, is a visitor from the south, only
+occasionally showing itself in Britain and very rarely breeding, while
+the latter, _P. auritus_, has a more northern range, breeding
+plentifully in Iceland, and is a not uncommon winter-visitant. Then
+there is the larger red-necked grebe, _P. griseigena_, also a northern
+bird, and a native of the subarctic parts of both Europe and America,
+while lastly the great crested grebe, _P. cristatus_ or gaunt--known as
+the loon on the meres and broads of East Anglia and some other parts of
+England, is also widely spread over the old world. North America is
+credited with seven species of grebes, of which two (_P. griseigena_ and
+_P. auritus_) are admitted to be specifically inseparable from those
+already named, and two (_P. occidentalis_ and _P. californicus_) appear
+to be but local forms; the remaining two (_P. dominicus_ and _P.
+ludovicianus_) may, however, be accounted good species, and the last
+differs so much from other grebes that many systematists make it the
+type of a distinct genus, _Podilymbus_. South America seems to possess
+four or five more species, one of which, the _P. micropterus_ of Gould
+(_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1858, p. 220), has been deservedly separated
+from the genus _Podiceps_ under the name _Centropelma_ by Sclater and
+Salvin (_Exot. Ornithology_, p. 189, pl. xcv.), owing to the form of its
+bill, and the small size of its wings, which renders it absolutely
+flightless. Lake Titicaca in Bolivia is, so far as is known at present,
+its only habitat. Grebes in general, though averse from taking wing,
+have much greater power of flight than would seem possible on
+examination of their alar organs, and are capable of prolonged aerial
+journeys. Their plumage is short and close. Above it is commonly of some
+shade of brown, but beneath it is usually white, and so glossy as to be
+in much request for muffs and the trimming of ladies' dresses. Some
+species are remarkable for the crests or tippets, generally of a
+golden-chestnut colour, they assume in the breeding season. _P. auritus_
+is particularly remarkable in this respect, and when in its full nuptial
+attire presents an extraordinary aspect, the head (being surrounded, as
+it were, by a _nimbus_ or aureole, such as that with which painters
+adorn saintly characters), reflecting the rays of light, glitters with a
+glory that passes description. All the species seem to have similar
+habits of nidification. Water-weeds are pulled from the bottom of the
+pool, and piled on a convenient foundation, often a seminatant growth of
+bogbean (_Menyanthes_), till they form a large mass, in the centre of
+which a shallow cup is formed, and the eggs, with a chalky white shell
+almost equally pointed at each end, are laid--the parent covering them,
+whenever she has time to do so, before leaving the nest. Young grebes
+are beautiful objects, clothed with black, white and brown down,
+disposed in streaks and their bill often brilliantly tinted. When taken
+from the nest and placed on dry ground, it is curious to observe the way
+in which they progress--using the wings almost as fore-feet, and
+suggesting the notion that they must be quadrupeds instead of birds.
+     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Often, but erroneously, written _Podicipidae_. The word
+    _Podiceps_ being a contracted form of _Podicipes_ (cf. Gloger,
+    _Journal für Ornithologie_, 1854, p. 430, note), a combination of
+    _podex_, _podicis_ and _pes_, _pedis_, its further compounds must be
+    in accordance with its derivation.
+
+
+
+
+GRECO, EL, the name commonly given to Dominico Theotocopuli (d. 1614),
+Cretan painter, architect and sculptor. He was born in Crete, between
+1545 and 1550, and announces his Cretan origin by his signature in Greek
+letters on his most important pictures, especially on the "St Maurice"
+in the Escorial. He appears to have studied art first of all in Venice,
+and on arriving in Rome in 1570 is described as having been a pupil of
+Titian, in a letter written by the miniaturist, Giulio Clovio, addressed
+to Cardinal Alessandro Farnesi, dated the 15th of November 1570.
+
+Although a student under Titian, he was at no time an exponent of his
+master's spirit, and his early historical pictures were attributed to
+many other artists, but never to Titian. Of his early works, two
+pictures of "The Healing of the Blind Man" at Dresden and Palma, and the
+four of "Christ driving the money-changers out of the Temple" in the
+Yarborough collection, the Cork collection, the National Gallery, and
+the Beruete collection at Madrid, are the chief. His first authentic
+portrait is that of his fellow-countryman, Giulio Clovio. It was painted
+between 1570 and 1578, is signed in Greek characters, and preserved at
+Naples, and the last portrait he painted under the influence of the
+Italian school appears to be that of a cardinal now in the National
+Gallery, of which four replicas painted in Spain are known. He appears
+to have come to Spain in 1577, but, on being questioned two years later
+in connexion with a judicial suit, as to when he arrived in the country,
+and for what purpose he came, declined to give any information. He was
+probably attracted by the prospect of participating in the decoration of
+the Escorial, and he appears to have settled down in Toledo, where his
+first works were the paintings for the high altar of Santo Domingo, and
+his famous picture of "The Disrobing of Christ" in the sacristy of the
+cathedral. It was in connexion with this last-named work that he proved
+refractory, and the records of a law-suit respecting the price to be
+paid to him give us the earliest information of the artist's sojourn in
+Spain. In 1590, he painted the "History of St Maurice" for Philip II.,
+and in 1578, his masterpiece, entitled "The Burial of the Count Orgaz."
+This magnificent picture, one of the finest in Spain, is at last being
+appreciated, and can only be put a little below the masterpieces of
+Velazquez. It is a strangely individual work, representing Spanish
+character even more truthfully than did any Spanish artist, and it
+gathers up all the fugitive moods, the grace and charm, the devices and
+defects of a single race, and gives them complete stability in their
+wavering expressions.
+
+Between 1595 and 1600, El Greco executed two groups of paintings in the
+church of San José at Toledo, and in the hospital of La Caridad, at
+Illescas. Besides these, he is known to have painted thirty-two
+portraits, several manuscripts, and many paintings for altar-pieces in
+Toledo and the neighbourhood. As an architect he was responsible for
+more than one of the churches of Toledo, and as a sculptor for carvings
+both in wood and in marble, and he can only be properly understood in
+all his varied excellences after a visit to the city where most of his
+work was executed.
+
+He died on the 7th of April 1614, and the date of his death is one of
+the very few certain facts which we have respecting him. The record
+informs us that he made no will, that he received the sacraments, and
+was buried in the church of Santo Domingo. The popular legend of his
+having gone mad towards the latter part of his career has no foundation
+in fact, but his painting became more and more eccentric as his life
+went on, and his natural perversity and love of strange, cold colouring,
+increased towards the end of his life. As has been well said, "Light
+with him was only used for emotional appeal, and was focussed or
+scattered at will." He was haughtily certain of the value of his own
+art, and was determined to paint in cold, ashen colouring, with livid,
+startling effect, the gaunt and extraordinary figures that he beheld
+with his eccentric genius. His pictures have wonderful visionary
+quality, admirable invention, and are full of passionate fervency. They
+may be considered extravagant, but are never commonplace, and are
+exceedingly attractive in their intense emotion, marvellous sincerity,
+and strange, chilly colour.
+
+El Greco's work is typically modern, and from it the portrait-painter,
+J. S. Sargent, claims to have learnt more than from that of any other
+artist. It immortalizes the character of the people amongst whom he
+dwelt, and he may be considered as the initiator of truth and realism in
+art, a precursor and inspirer of Velazquez.
+
+In his own time he was exceedingly popular, and held in great repute.
+Sonnets were written in his honour, and he is himself said to have
+written several treatises, but these have not come down to our time. For
+more than a generation his work was hardly known, but it is now gaining
+rapidly in importance, and its true position is more and more
+recognized. Some examples of the artist's own handwriting have been
+discovered in Toledo, and Señor Don Manuel Cossia of Madrid has spent
+many years collecting information for a work dealing with the artist.
+    (G. C. W.)
+
+
+
+
+GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897. This war between Greece and Turkey (see GREECE:
+_Modern History_) involved two practically distinct campaigns, in
+Thessaly and in Epirus. Upon the Thessalian frontier the Turks, early in
+March, had concentrated six divisions (about 58,000 men), 1500 sabres
+and 156 guns, under Edhem Pasha. A seventh division was rendered
+available a little later. The Greeks numbered about 45,000 infantry, 800
+cavalry and 96 guns, under the crown prince. On both sides there was a
+considerable dispersion of forces along the frontier. The Turkish navy,
+an important factor in the war of 1877-78, had become paralytic ten
+years later, and the Greek squadron held complete command of the sea.
+Expeditionary forces directed against the Turkish line of communications
+might have influenced the course of the campaign; but for such work the
+Greeks were quite unprepared, and beyond bombarding one or two
+insignificant ports on the coast-line, and aiding the transport of
+troops from Athens to Volo, the navy practically accomplished nothing.
+On the 9th and 10th April Greek irregulars crossed the frontier, either
+with a view to provoke hostilities or in the hope of fomenting a rising
+in Macedonia. On the 16th and 17th some fighting occurred, in which
+Greek regulars took part; and on the 18th Edhem Pasha, whose
+headquarters had for some time been established at Elassona, ordered a
+general advance. The Turkish plan was to turn the Greek left and to
+bring on a decisive action, but this was not carried out. In the centre
+the Turks occupied the Meluna Pass on the 19th, and the way was
+practically open to Larissa. The Turkish right wing, however, moving on
+Damani and the Reveni Pass, encountered resistance, and the left wing
+was temporarily checked by the Greeks among the mountains near Nezeros.
+At Mati, covering the road to Tyrnavo, the Greeks entrenched themselves.
+Here sharp fighting occurred on the 21st and 22nd, during which the
+Greeks sought to turn the right flank of the superior Turkish central
+column. On the 23rd fighting was renewed, and the advance guard of the
+Turkish left column, which had been reinforced, and had pressed back the
+Greeks, reached Deliler. The Turkish forces had now drawn together, and
+the Greeks were threatened on both flanks. In the evening a general
+retreat was ordered, and the loose discipline of the Greek army was at
+once manifested. Rumours of disaster spread among the ranks, and wild
+panic supervened. There was nothing to prevent an orderly retirement
+upon Larissa, which had been fortified and provisioned, and which
+offered a good defensive position. The general _débâcle_ could not,
+however, be arrested, and in great disorder the mass of the Greek army
+fled southwards to Pharsala. There was no pursuit, and the Turkish
+commander-in-chief did not reach Larissa till the 27th. Thus ended the
+first phase of the war, in which the Greeks showed tenacity in defence,
+which proved fruitless by reason of initially bad strategic dispositions
+entailing far too great dispersion, and also because there was no plan
+of action beyond a general desire to avoid risking a defeat which might
+prevent the expected risings in Macedonia and elsewhere. The handling of
+the Turkish army showed little skill or enterprise; but on both sides
+political considerations tended to prevent the application of sound
+military principles.
+
+Larissa being abandoned by the Greeks, Velestino, the junction of the
+Thessalian railways, where there was a strong position covering Volo,
+seemed to be the natural rallying point for the Greek army. Here the
+support of the fleet would have been secured, and a Turkish advance
+across the Othrys range upon Athens could not have taken place until the
+flanking position had been captured. Whether by direction or by natural
+impulse, however, the mass of the Greek troops made for Pharsala, where
+some order was re-established, and preparations were made to resist
+attack. The importance of Velestino was recognized by sending a brigade
+thither by railway from Pharsala, and the inferior Greek army was thus
+split into two portions, separated by nearly 40 m. On 27th April a
+Turkish reconnaissance on Velestino was repulsed, and further fighting
+occurred on the 29th and 30th, in which the Greeks under Colonel
+Smolenski held their own. Meanwhile the Turks made preparations to
+attack Pharsala, and on 5th May the Greeks were driven from their
+positions in front of the town by three divisions. Further fighting
+followed on the 6th, and in the evening the Greek army retired in fair
+order upon Domokos. It was intended to turn the Greek left with the
+first division under Hairi Pasha, but the flanking force did not arrive
+in time to bring about a decisive result. The abandonment of Pharsala
+involved that of Velestino, where the Turks had obtained no advantage,
+and on the evening of the 5th Colonel Smolenski began a retirement upon
+Halmyros. Again delaying, Edhem Pasha did not attack Domokos till the
+17th, giving the Greeks time to entrench their positions. The attack was
+delivered in three columns, of which the right was checked and the
+centre failed to take the Greek trenches and suffered much loss. The
+left column, however, menaced the line of retreat, and the Greek army
+abandoned the whole position during the night. No effective stand was
+made at the Furka Pass, which was evacuated on the following night.
+Colonel Smolenski, who arrived on the 18th from Halmyros, was directed
+to hold the pass of Thermopylae. The Greek forces being much
+demoralized, the intervention of the tsar was invoked by telegraph; and
+the latter sent a personal appeal to the Sultan, who directed a
+suspension of hostilities. On the 20th an armistice was arranged.
+
+In Epirus at the outbreak of war about 15,000 Greeks, including a
+cavalry regiment and five batteries, the whole under Colonel Manos,
+occupied a line of defence from Arta to Peta. The Turks, about 28,000
+strong, with forty-eight guns, under Achmet Hifsi Pasha, were
+distributed mainly at Iannina, Pentepagadia, and in front of Arta. On
+18th April the Turks commenced a three days' bombardment of Arta; but
+successive attempts to take the bridge were repulsed, and during the
+night of the 21st they retired on Philippiada, 26 m. distant, which was
+attacked and occupied by Colonel Manos on the 23rd. The Greeks then
+advanced to Pentepagadia, meeting with little resistance. Their
+difficulties now began. After some skirmishing on the 27th, the position
+held by their advanced force near Homopulos was attacked on the 28th.
+The attack was renewed on the 29th, and no Greek reinforcements were
+forthcoming when needed. The Euzones made a good defence, but were
+driven back by superior force, and a retreat was ordered, which quickly
+degenerated into panic-stricken flight to and across the Arta.
+Reinforcements, including 2500 Epirote volunteers, were sent to Arta
+from Athens, and on 12th May another incursion into Turkish territory
+began, the apparent object being to occupy a portion of the country in
+view of the breakdown in Thessaly and the probability that hostilities
+would shortly end. The advance was made in three columns, while the
+Epirote volunteers were landed near the mouth of the Luro river with the
+idea of cutting off the Turkish garrison of Prevesa. The centre column,
+consisting of a brigade, three squadrons and two batteries, which were
+intended to take up and hold a defensive position, attacked the Turks
+near Strevina on the 13th. The Greeks fought well, and being reinforced
+by a battalion from the left column, resumed the offensive on the
+following day, and fairly held their own. On the night of the 15th a
+retreat was ordered and well carried out. The volunteers landed at the
+mouth of the Luro, were attacked and routed with heavy loss.
+
+The campaign in Epirus thus failed as completely as that in Thessaly.
+Under the terms of the treaty of peace, signed on 20th September, and
+arranged by the European powers, Turkey obtained an indemnity of
+£T4,000,000, and a rectification of the Thessalian frontier, carrying
+with it some strategic advantage. History records few more unjustifiable
+wars than that which Greece gratuitously provoked. The Greek troops on
+several occasions showed tenacity and endurance, but discipline and
+cohesion were manifestly wanting. Many of the officers were incapable;
+the campaign was gravely mismanaged; and politics, which led to the war,
+impeded its operations. On the other hand, the fruits of the German
+tuition, which began in 1880, and received a powerful stimulus by the
+appointment of General von der Goltz in 1883, were shown in the Turkish
+army. The mobilization was on the whole smoothly carried out, and the
+newly completed railways greatly facilitated the concentration on the
+frontier. The young school of officers trained by General von der Goltz
+displayed ability, and the artillery at Pharsala and Domokos was well
+handled. The superior leading was, however, not conspicuously
+successful; and while the rank and file again showed excellent military
+qualities, political conditions and the Oriental predilection for
+half-measures and for denying full responsibility and full powers to
+commanders in the field enfeebled the conduct of the campaign. On
+account of the total want of careful and systematic peace training on
+both sides, a war which presented several interesting strategic problems
+provided warnings in place of military lessons.     (G. S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GREECE,[1] an ancient geographical area, and a modern kingdom more or
+less corresponding thereto, situated at the south-eastern extremity of
+Europe and forming the most southerly portion of the Balkan Peninsula.
+The modern kingdom is bounded on the N. by European Turkey and on the
+E., S. and W. by the Aegean, Mediterranean and Ionian seas. The name
+_Graecia_, which was more or less vaguely given to the ancient country
+by the Romans, seems not to have been employed by any native writer
+before Aristotle; it was apparently derived by the Romans from the
+Illyrians, who applied the name of an Epirote tribe ([Greek: Graikoi],
+Graeci) to all their southern neighbours. The names Hellas, Hellenes
+([Greek: Hellas, Hellênes]), by which the ancient Greeks called their
+country and their race, and which are still employed by the modern
+Greeks, originally designated a small district in Phthiotis in Thessaly
+and its inhabitants, who gradually spread over the lands south of the
+Cambunian mountains. The name Hellenes was not universally applied to
+the Greek race until the post-Homeric epoch (Thucyd. i. 3).
+
+[Illustration: Map of Greece.]
+
+
+1. GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS
+
+  Extent of ancient Greece.
+
+The ancient Greeks had a somewhat vague conception of the northern
+limits of Hellas. Thessaly was generally included and Epirus excluded;
+some writers included some of the southern cantons of Epirus, while
+others excluded not only all that country but Aetolia and Acarnania.
+Generally speaking, the confines of Hellas in the age of its greatest
+distinction were represented by a line drawn from the northern shore of
+the Ambracian Gulf on the W. to the mouth of the Peneus on the E.
+Macedonia and Thrace were regarded as outside the pale of Hellenic
+civilization till 386 B.C., when after his conquest of Thessaly and
+Phocis, Philip of Macedon obtained a seat in the Amphictyonic Council.
+In another sense, however, the name Hellas expressed an ethnological
+rather than a geographical unity; it denoted every country inhabited by
+Hellenes. It thus embraced all the Greek settlements on the coasts and
+islands of the Mediterranean, on the shores of the Hellespont, the
+Bosporus and the Black Sea. Nevertheless, the Greek peninsula within the
+limits described above, together with the adjacent islands, was always
+regarded as Hellas _par excellence_. The continental area of Hellas
+proper was no greater than that of the modern Greek kingdom, which
+comprises but a small portion of the territories actually occupied by
+the Greek race. The Greeks have always been a maritime people, and the
+real centre of the national life is now, as in antiquity, the Aegean Sea
+or Archipelago. Thickly studded with islands and bordered by deeply
+indented coasts with sheltered creeks and harbours, the Aegean in the
+earliest days of navigation invited the enterprise of the mariner; its
+shores, both European and Asiatic, became covered with Greek settlements
+and its islands, together with Crete and Cyprus, became Greek. True to
+their maritime instincts, the Greeks rarely advanced inland to any
+distance from the sea; the coasts of Macedonia, Thrace and Asia Minor
+are still mainly Greek, but, except for some isolated colonies, the
+_hinterland_ in each case lies outside the limits of the race.
+Continental Greece is divided by its mountain ranges into a number of
+natural cantons; the existence of physical barriers tended in the
+earliest times to the growth of isolated political communities, and in
+the epoch of its ancient independence the country was occupied by
+seventeen separate states, none of them larger than an ordinary English
+county. These states, which are noticed separately, were: Thessaly, in
+northern Greece; Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris, Doris, Phocis, Megaris,
+Boeotia and Attica in central Greece; and Corinthia, Sicyonia, Achaea,
+Elis, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis and Arcadia in the Peloponnesus.
+
+
+  Extent of modern Greece.
+
+Modern Greece, which (including the adjacent islands) extends from 35°
+50' to 39° 54' N. and from 19° 20' to 26° 15' E., comprises all the area
+formerly occupied by these states. Under the arrangement concluded at
+Constantinople on the 21st of July 1832 between Great Britain, France,
+Russia and Turkey, the northern boundary of Greece was drawn from the
+Gulf of Arta (Sinus Ambracius) to the Gulf of Volo (S. Pagasaeus), the
+line keeping to the crest of the Othrys range. Thessaly and part of
+Acarnania were thus left to Turkey. The island of Euboea, the Cyclades
+and the northern Sporades were added to the new kingdom. In 1864 the
+Ionian Islands (q.v.) were ceded by Great Britain to Greece. In 1880 the
+Conference of Berlin proposed a new frontier, which transferred to
+Greece not only Thessaly but a considerable portion of southern Epirus,
+extending to the river Kalamas. This, however, was rejected by Turkey,
+and the existing boundary was traced in 1881. Starting from the Aegean
+coast at a point near Platamona, between Mount Olympus and the mouth of
+the Salambria (Peneus), the line passes over the heights of Kritiri and
+Zygos (Pindus) and descends the course of the river Arta to its mouth.
+After the war of 1897 Greece restored to Turkey some strategical points
+on the frontier possessing no geographical importance. The greatest
+length of Greece is about 250 m., the greatest breadth 180 m. The
+country is generally divided into five parts, which are indicated by its
+natural features:--(i.) Northern Greece, which extends northwards from
+Mount Othrys and the gulfs of Zeitun (Lamia) and Arta to the Cambunian
+Mountains, and comprises Thessaly and a small portion of Epirus; (ii.)
+Central Greece, extending from the southern limits of Northern Greece to
+the gulfs of Corinth and Aegina; (iii.) the peninsula of the
+Peloponnesus or Morea, attached to the mainland by the Isthmus of
+Corinth; (iv.) the Ionian Islands on the west coasts of Epirus and
+Greece; (v.) The islands of the Aegean Sea, including Euboea, the
+Cyclades and the northern Sporades.
+
+
+    Physical features.
+
+  In the complexity of its contour and the variety of its natural
+  features Greece surpasses every country in Europe, as Europe surpasses
+  every continent in the world. The broken character of its coast-line
+  is unique; except a few districts in Thessaly no part of the country
+  is more than 50 m. from the sea. Although the area of Greece is
+  considerably smaller than that of Portugal, its coast-line is greater
+  than that of Spain and Portugal together. The mainland is penetrated
+  by numerous gulfs and inlets, and the adjoining seas are studded with
+  islands. Another characteristic is the number and complexity of the
+  mountain chains, which traverse every part of the country and which,
+  together with their ramifications, cover four-fifths of its surface.
+  The mountain-chains interlace, the interstices forming small enclosed
+  basins, such as the plain of Boeotia and the plateau of Arcadia; the
+  only plain of any extent is that of Thessaly. The mountains project
+  into the sea, forming peninsulas, and sometimes reappearing in rows or
+  groups of islands; they descend abruptly to the coast or are separated
+  from it by small alluvial plains. The portions of the country suitable
+  for human colonization were thus isolated one from the other, but as a
+  rule possessed easy access to the sea. The earliest settlements were
+  generally situated on or around some rocky elevation, which dominated
+  the surrounding plain and was suitable for fortification as a citadel
+  or acropolis; owing to the danger of piratical attacks they were
+  usually at some little distance from the sea, but in the vicinity of a
+  natural harbour. The physical features of the country played an
+  important part in moulding the character of its inhabitants. Protected
+  against foreign invasion by the mountain barriers and to a great
+  extent cut off from mutual intercourse except by sea, the ancient
+  Greek communities developed a marked individuality and a strong
+  sentiment of local patriotism; their inhabitants were both
+  mountaineers and mariners; they possessed the love of country, the
+  vigour and the courage which are always found in highlanders, together
+  with the spirit of adventure, the versatility and the passion for
+  freedom characteristic of a seafaring people. The great variety of
+  natural products as well as the facility of maritime communication
+  tended to the early growth of commercial enterprise, while the
+  peculiar beauty of the scenery, though little dwelt upon in ancient
+  literature, undoubtedly quickened the poetic and artistic instincts of
+  the race. The effects of physical environment are no less noticeable
+  among the modern Greeks. The rural populations of Attica and Boeotia,
+  though descended from Albanian colonists in the middle ages, display
+  the same contrast in character which marked the inhabitants of those
+  regions in ancient times.
+
+  In its general aspect the country presents a series of striking and
+  interesting contrasts. Fertile tracts covered with vineyards, olive
+  groves, corn-fields or forests display themselves in close proximity
+  with rugged heights and rocky precipices; the landscape is never,
+  monotonous; its outlines are graceful, and its colouring, owing to the
+  clearness of the air, is at once brilliant and delicate, while the
+  sea, in most instances, adds a picturesque feature, enhancing the
+  charm and variety of the scenery.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  The ruling feature in the mountain system of northern Greece is the
+  great chain of Pindus, which, extending southwards from the lofty Shar
+  Dagh (Skardos) near Uskub, forms the backbone of the Balkan peninsula.
+  Reaching the frontier of Greece a little S. of lat. 40°, the Pindus
+  range is intersected by the Cambunian Mountains running E. and W.; the
+  eastern branch, which forms the northern boundary of Thessaly, extends
+  to the Gulf of Salonica and culminates in Mount Olympus (9754 ft.) a
+  little to the N. of the Greek frontier; then bending to the S.E. it
+  follows the coast-line, forming a rampart between the Thessalian plain
+  and the sea; the barrier is severed at one point only where the river
+  Salambria (anc. _Peneus_) finds an exit through the narrow defile of
+  Tempe. South of Tempe the mountain ridge, known as the Mavro Vouno,
+  connects the pyramidal Kissovo (anc. _Ossa_, 6400 ft.) with Plessidi
+  (anc. _Pelion_, 5310 ft.); it is prolonged in the Magnesian peninsula,
+  which separates the Gulf of Volo from the Aegean, and is continued by
+  the mountains of Euboea (highest summits, Dirphys, 5725 ft., and Ocha,
+  4830 ft.) and by the islands of Andros and Tenos. West of Pindus, the
+  Cambunian Mountains are continued by several ridges which traverse
+  Epirus from north to south, enclosing the plain and lake of Iannina;
+  the most westerly of these, projecting into the Adriatic, forms the
+  Acroceraunian promontory terminating in Cape Glossa. The principal
+  pass through the Cambunian Mountains is that of Meluna, through which
+  runs the carriage-road connecting the town of Elassona in Macedonia
+  with Larissa, the capital of Thessaly; there are horse-paths at Reveni
+  and elsewhere. The central chain of Pindus at the point where it is
+  intersected by the Cambunian Mountains forms the mass of Zygos (anc.
+  _Lacmon_, 7113 ft.) through which a horse-path connects the town of
+  Metzovo with Kalabaka in Thessaly; on the declivity immediately N. of
+  Kalabaka are a series of rocky pinnacles on which a number of
+  monasteries are perched. Trending to the S., the Pindus chain
+  terminates in the conical Mount Velouchi (anc. _Tymphrestus_, 7609
+  ft.) in the heart of the mountainous region of northern Greece. From
+  this centre-point a number of mountains radiate in all directions. To
+  the E. runs the chain of Helloro (anc. _Othrys_; highest summit,
+  Hagios Elias, 5558 ft.) separating the plain of Thessaly from the
+  valley of the Spercheios and traversed by the Phourka pass (2789 ft.);
+  to the S.E. is Mount Katávothra (anc. _Oeta_, 7080 ft.) extending to
+  the southern shore of the Gulf of Lamia at Thermopylae; to the S.E.,
+  S. and S.W. are the mountains of Aetolia and Acarnania. The Aetolian
+  group, which may be regarded as the direct continuation of the Pindus
+  range, includes Kiona (8240 ft.), the highest mountain in Greece, and
+  Vardusi (anc. _Korax_, 8190 ft.). The mountains of Acarnania with
+  [Greek: Hupsêlê koruphê] (5215 ft.) rise to the W. of the valley of
+  the Aspropotamo (anc. _Achelous_). The Aetolian Mountains are
+  prolonged to the S.E. by the double-crested Liakoura (anc.
+  _Parnassus_; 8064 ft.) in Phocis; by Palaeo Vouno (anc. _Helicon_,
+  5738 ft.) and Elateas (anc. _Cithaeron_, 4626 ft.) respectively W. and
+  S. of the Boeotian plain; and by the mountains of Attica,--Ozea (anc.
+  _Parnes_, 4626 ft.), Mendeli (anc. _Pentelicus_ or _Brilessos_, 3639
+  ft.), Trellovouno (anc. _Hymettus_, 3369 ft.), and Keratia (2136
+  ft.)--terminating in the promontory of Sunium, but reappearing in the
+  islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos and Siphnos. South of Cithaeron are
+  Patera in Megaris (3583 ft.) and Makri Plagi (anc. _Geraneia_, 4495
+  ft.) overlooking the Isthmus of Corinth.
+
+  The mountains of the Morea, grouped around the elevated central
+  plateau of Arcadia, form an independent system with ramifications
+  extending through the Argolid peninsula on the E. and the three
+  southern promontories of Malea, Taenaron and Acritas. At the eastern
+  end of the northern chain, separating Arcadia from the Gulf of
+  Corinth, is Ziria (anc. _Cyllene_, 7789 ft.); it forms a counterpart
+  to Parnassus on the opposite side of the gulf. A little to the W. is
+  Chelmos (anc. _Aroania_, 7725 ft.); farther W., Olonos (anc.
+  _Erymanthus_, 7297 ft.) and Voïdia (anc. _Panachaïcon_, 6322 ft.)
+  overlooking the Gulf of Patras. The highest summit in the Argolid
+  peninsula is Hagios Elias (anc. _Arachnaeon_, 3930 ft.). The series of
+  heights forming the eastern rampart of Arcadia, including Artemision
+  (5814 ft.) and Ktenia (5246 ft.) is continued to the S. by the Malevo
+  range (anc. _Parnon_, highest summit 6365 ft.) which extends into the
+  peninsula of Malea and reappears in the island of Cerigo. Separated
+  from Parnon by the Eurotas valley to the W., the chain of Taygetus
+  (mod. _Pentedaktylon_; highest summit Hagios Elias, 7874 ft., the
+  culminating point of the Morea) forms a barrier between the plains of
+  Laconia and Messenia; it is traversed by the Langáda pass leading from
+  Sparta to Kalamata. The range is prolonged to the S. through the arid
+  district of Maina and terminates in Cape Matapan (anc. _Taenarum_).
+  The mountains of western Arcadia are less lofty and of a less marked
+  type; they include Hagios Petros (4777 ft.) and Palaeócastro (anc.
+  _Pholoë_, 2257 ft.) N. of the Alpheus valley, Diaphorti (anc.
+  _Lycaeus_, 4660 ft.), the haunt of Pan, and Nomia (4554 ft.) W. of the
+  plain of Megalopolis. Farther south, the mountains of western Messenia
+  form a detached group (Varvara, 4003 ft.; Mathia, 3140 ft.) extending
+  to Cape Gallo (anc. _Acritas_) and the Oenussae Islands. In central
+  Arcadia are Apanokrapa (anc. _Maenalus_, also sacred to Pan) and
+  Roudia (5072 ft.); the Taygetus chain forms the southern continuation
+  of these mountains.
+
+  The more noteworthy fortified heights of ancient Greece were the
+  Acrocorinthus, the citadel of Corinth (1885 ft.); Ithome (2631 ft.) at
+  Messene; Larissa (950 ft.) at Argos; the Acropolis of Mycenae (910
+  ft.); Tiryns (60 ft.) near Nauplia, which also possessed its own
+  citadel, the Palamidhi or Acro-nauplia (705 ft.); the Acropolis of
+  Athens (300 ft. above the mean level of the city and 512 ft. above the
+  sea), and the Cadmea of Thebes (715 ft.).
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  Greece has few rivers; most of these are small, rapid and turbid, as
+  might be expected from the mountainous configuration of the country.
+  They are either perennial rivers or torrents, the white beds of the
+  latter being dry in summer, and only filled with water after the
+  autumn rains. The chief rivers (none of which is navigable) are the
+  Salambria (_Peneus_) in Thessaly, the Mavropotamo (_Cephisus_) in
+  Phocis, the Hellada (_Spercheios_) in Phthiotis, the Aspropotamo
+  (_Achelous_) in Aetolia, and the Ruphia (_Alpheus_) and Vasiliko
+  (_Eurotas_) in the Morea. Of the famous rivers of Athens, the one, the
+  Ilissus, is only a chain of pools all summer, and the other, the
+  Cephisus, though never absolutely dry, does not reach the sea, being
+  drawn off in numerous artificial channels to irrigate the neighbouring
+  olive groves. A frequent peculiarity of the Greek rivers is their
+  sudden disappearance in subterranean chasms and reappearance on the
+  surface again, such as gave rise to the fabled course of the Alpheus
+  under the sea, and its emergence in the fountain of Arethusa in
+  Syracuse. Some of these chasms--"Katavothras"--are merely sieves with
+  herbage and gravel in the bottom, but others are large caverns through
+  which the course of the river may sometimes be followed. Floods are
+  frequent, especially in autumn, and natural fountains abound and gush
+  out even from the tops of the hills. Aganippe rises high up among the
+  peaks of Helicon, and Peirene flows from the summit of Acrocorinthus.
+  The only noteworthy cascade, however, is that of the Styx in Arcadia,
+  which has a fall of 500 ft. During part of the year it is lost in
+  snow, and it is at all times almost inaccessible. Lakes are numerous,
+  but few are of considerable size, and many merely marshes in summer.
+  The largest are Karla (_Boebeïs_) in Thessaly, Trichonis in Aetolia,
+  Copaïs in Boeotia, Pheneus and Stymphalus in Arcadia.
+
+
+    Plains.
+
+  The valleys are generally narrow, and the plains small in extent, deep
+  basins walled in among the hills or more free at the mouths of the
+  rivers. The principal plains are those of Thessaly, Boeotia, Messenia,
+  Argos, Elis and Marathon. The bottom of these plains consists of an
+  alluvial soil, the most fertile in Greece. In some of the mountainous
+  regions, especially in the Morea, are extensive table-lands. The plain
+  of Mantinea is 2000 ft. high, and the upland district of Sciritis,
+  between Sparta and Tegea, is in some parts 3000 ft.
+
+
+    Coast.
+
+  Strabo said that the guiding thing in the geography of Greece was the
+  sea, which presses in upon it at all parts with a thousand arms. From
+  the Gulf of Arta on the one side to the Gulf of Volo on the other the
+  coast is indented with a succession of natural bays and gulfs. The
+  most important are the Gulfs of Aegina (_Saronicus_) and Lepanto
+  (_Corinthiacus_), which separate the Morea from the northern mainland
+  of Greece,--the first an inlet of the Aegean, the second of the Ionian
+  Sea,--and are now connected by a canal cut through the high land of
+  the narrow Isthmus of Corinth (3½ m. wide). The outer portion of the
+  Gulf of Lepanto is called the Gulf of Patras, and the inner part the
+  Bay of Corinth; a narrow inlet on the north side of the same gulf,
+  called the Bay of Salona or Itea, penetrates northwards into Phocis so
+  far that it is within 24 geographical miles of the Gulf of Zeitun on
+  the north-east coast. The width of the entrance to the gulf of Lepanto
+  is subject to singular changes, which are ascribed to the formation of
+  alluvial deposits by certain marine currents, and their removal again
+  by others. At the time of the Peloponnesian war this channel was 1200
+  yds. broad; in the time of Strabo it was only 850; and in our own day
+  it has again increased to 2200. On the coast of the Morea there are
+  several large gulfs, that of Arcadia (_Cyparissius_) on the west,
+  Kalamata (_Messeniacus_) and Kolokythia (_Laconicus_) on the south and
+  Nauplia (_Argolicus_) on the east. Between Euboea and the mainland lie
+  the channels of Trikeri, Talanti (_Euboicum Mare_) and Egripo; the
+  latter two are connected by the strait of Egripo (_Euripus_). This
+  strait, which is spanned by a swing-bridge, is about 180 ft. wide, and
+  is remarkable for the unexplained eccentricity of its tide, which has
+  puzzled ancients and moderns alike. The current runs at the average
+  speed of 5 m. an hour, but continues only for a short time in one
+  direction, changing its course, it is said, ten or twelve times in a
+  day; it is sometimes very violent.
+
+
+    Volcanic action.
+
+  There are no volcanoes on the mainland of Greece, but everywhere
+  traces of volcanic action and frequently visitations of earthquakes,
+  for it lies near a centre of volcanic: agency, the island of Santorin,
+  which has been within recent years in a state of eruption. There is an
+  extinct crater at Mount Laphystium (_Granitsa_) in Boeotia. The
+  mountain of Methane, on the coast of Argolis, was produced by a
+  volcanic eruption in 282 B.C. Earthquakes laid Thebes in ruins in
+  1853, destroyed every house in Corinth in 1858, filled up the
+  Castalian spring in 1870, devastated Zante in 1893 and the district of
+  Atalanta in 1894. There are hot springs at Thermopylae and other
+  places, which are used for sanitary purposes. Various parts of the
+  coast exhibit indications of upheaval within historical times. On the
+  coast of Elis four rocky islets are now joined to the land, which were
+  separate from it in the days of ancient Greece. There are traces of
+  earlier sea-beaches at Corinth, and on the coast of the Morea, and at
+  the mouth of the Hellada. The land has gained so much that the pass of
+  Thermopylae which was extremely narrow in the time of Leonidas and his
+  three hundred, is now wide enough for the motions of a whole army.
+       (J. D. B.)
+
+
+    Geology.
+
+  Structurally, Greece may be divided into two regions, an eastern and a
+  western. The former includes Thessaly, Boeotia, the island of Euboea,
+  the isthmus of Corinth, and the peninsula of Argolis, and, throughout,
+  the strike of the beds is nearly from west to east. The western region
+  includes the Pindus and all the parallel ranges, and the whole of the
+  Peloponnesus excepting Argolis. Here the folds which affect the
+  Mesozoic and early Tertiary strata run approximately from N.N.W. to
+  S.S.E.
+
+  Up to the close of the 19th century the greater part of Greece was
+  believed to be formed of Cretaceous rocks, but later researches have
+  shown that the supposed Cretaceous beds include a variety of
+  geological horizons. The geological sequence begins with crystalline
+  schists and limestones, followed by Palaeozoic, Triassic and Liassic
+  rocks. The oldest beds which hitherto have yielded fossils belong to
+  the Carboniferous System (_Fusulina_ limestone of Euboea). Following
+  upon these older beds are the great limestone masses which cover most
+  of the eastern region, and which are now known to include Jurassic,
+  Tithonian, Lower and Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds. In the Pindus
+  and the Peloponnesus these beds are overlaid by a series of shales and
+  platy limestones (Olonos Limestone of the Peloponnesus), which were
+  formerly supposed to be of Tertiary age. It has now been shown,
+  however, that the upper series of limestones has been brought upon the
+  top of the lower by a great overthrust. Triassic fossils have been
+  found in the Olonos Limestone and it is almost certain that other
+  Mesozoic horizons are represented.
+
+  The earth movements which produced the mountain chains of western
+  Greece have folded the Eocene beds and must therefore be of
+  post-Eocene date. The Neogene beds, on the other hand, are not
+  affected by the folds, although by faulting without folding they have
+  in some places been raised to a height of nearly 6000 ft. They lie,
+  however, chiefly along the coast and in the valleys, and consist of
+  marls, conglomerates and sands, sometimes with seams of lignite. The
+  Pikermi deposits, of late Miocene age, are famous for their rich
+  mammalian fauna.
+
+  Although the folding which formed the mountain chains appears to have
+  ceased, Greece is still continually shaken by earthquakes, and these
+  earthquakes are closely connected with the great lines of fracture to
+  which the country owes its outline. Around the narrow gulf which
+  separates the Peloponnesus from the mainland, earthquakes are
+  particularly frequent, and another region which is often shaken is the
+  south-western corner of Greece, the peninsula of Messene.[2] (P. La.)
+
+
+    Flora.
+
+  The vegetation of Greece in general resembles that of southern Italy
+  while presenting many types common to that of Asia Minor. Owing to the
+  geographical configuration of the peninsula and its mountainous
+  surface the characteristic flora of the Mediterranean regions is often
+  found in juxtaposition with that of central Europe. In respect to its
+  vegetation the country may be regarded as divided into four zones. In
+  the first, extending from the sea-level to the height of 1500 ft.,
+  oranges, olives, dates, almonds, pomegranates, figs and vines
+  flourish, and cotton and tobacco are grown. In the neighbourhood of
+  streams are found the laurel, myrtle, oleander and lentisk, together
+  with the plane and white poplar; the cypress is often a picturesque
+  feature in the landscape, and there is a variety of aromatic plants.
+  The second zone, from 1500 to 3500 ft., is the region of the oak,
+  chestnut and other British trees. In the third, from 3500 to 5500 ft.,
+  the beech is the characteristic forest tree; the _Abies cephalonica_
+  and _Pinus pinea_ now take the place of the _Pinus halepensis_, which
+  grows everywhere in the lower regions. Above 5500 ft. is the Alpine
+  region, marked by small plants, lichens and mosses. During the short
+  period of spring anemones and other wild flowers enrich the hillsides
+  with magnificent colouring; in June all verdure disappears except in
+  the watered districts and elevated plateaus. The asphodel grows
+  abundantly in the dry rocky soil; aloes, planted in rows, form
+  impenetrable hedges. Medicinal plants are numerous, such as the _Inula
+  Helenium_, the _Mandragora Officinarum_, the _Colchicum napolitanum_
+  and the _Helleborus orientalis_, which still grows abundantly near
+  Aspraspitia, the ancient Anticyra, at the foot of Parnassus.
+
+
+    Fauna.
+
+  The fauna is similar to that of the other Mediterranean peninsulas,
+  and includes some species found in Asia Minor but not elsewhere in
+  Europe. The lion existed in northern Greece in the time of Aristotle
+  and at an earlier period in the Morea. The bear is still found in the
+  Pindus range. Wolves are common in all the mountainous regions and
+  jackals are numerous in the Morea. Foxes are abundant in all parts of
+  the country; the polecat is found in the woods of Attica and the
+  Morea; the lynx is now rare. The wild boar is common in the mountains
+  of northern Greece, but is almost extinct in the Peloponnesus. The
+  badger, the marten and the weasel are found on the mainland and in the
+  islands. The red deer, the fallow deer and the roe exist in northern
+  Greece, but are becoming scarce. The otter is rare. Hares and rabbits
+  are abundant in many parts of the country, especially in the Cyclades;
+  the two species never occupy the same district, and in the Cyclades
+  some islands (Naxos, Melos, Tenos, &c.) form the exclusive domain of
+  the hares, others (Seriphos, Kimolos, Mykonos, &c.) of the rabbits. In
+  Andros alone a demarcation has been arrived at, the hares retaining
+  the northern and the rabbits the southern portion of the island. The
+  chamois is found in the higher mountains, such as Pindus, Parnassus
+  and Tymphrestus. The Cretan _agrimi_, or wild goat (_Capra nubiana_,
+  _C. aegagrus_), found in Antimelos and said to exist in Taygetus, the
+  jackal, the stellion, and the chameleon are among the Asiatic species
+  not found westward of Greece. There is a great variety of birds; of
+  358 species catalogued two-thirds are migratory. Among the birds of
+  prey, which are very numerous, are the golden and imperial eagle, the
+  yellow vulture, the _Gypaëtus barbatus_, and several species of
+  falcons. The celebrated owl of Athena (_Athene noctua_) is becoming
+  rare at Athens, but still haunts the Acropolis and the royal garden;
+  it is a small species, found everywhere in Greece. The wild goose and
+  duck, the bustard, partridge, woodcock, snipe, wood-pigeon and
+  turtle-dove are numerous. Immense flocks of quails visit the southern
+  coast of the Morea, where they are captured in great numbers and
+  exported alive. The stork, which was common in the Turkish epoch, has
+  now become scarce. There is a great variety of reptiles, of which
+  sixty-one species have been catalogued. The saurians are all harmless;
+  among them the stellion (_Stellio vulgaris_), commonly called [Greek:
+  krokodeilos] in Mykonos and Crete, is believed by Heldreich to have
+  furnished a name to the crocodile of the Nile (Herod. ii. 69). There
+  are five species of tortoise and nine of Amphibia. Of the serpents,
+  which are numerous, there are only two dangerous species, the _Vipera
+  ammodytes_ and the _Vipera aspis_; the first-named is common. Among
+  the marine fauna are the dolphins, familiar in the legends and
+  sculpture of antiquity; in the clear water of the Aegean they often
+  afford a beautiful spectacle as they play round ships; porpoises and
+  whales are sometimes seen. Sea-fish, of which 246 species have been
+  ascertained, are very abundant.
+
+
+    Climate.
+
+  The climate of Greece, like that of the other countries of the Balkan
+  peninsula, is liable to greater extremes of heat and cold than prevail
+  in Spain and Italy; the difference is due to the general contour of
+  the peninsula, which assimilates its climatic conditions to those of
+  the European mainland. Another distinctive feature is the great
+  variety of local contrasts; the rapid transitions are the natural
+  effect of diversity in the geographical configuration of the country.
+  Within a few hours it is possible to pass from winter to spring and
+  from spring to summer. The spring is short; the sun is already
+  powerful in March, but the increasing warmth is often checked by cold
+  northerly winds; in many places the corn harvest is cut in May, when
+  southerly winds prevail and the temperature rises rapidly. The great
+  heat of summer is tempered throughout the whole region of the
+  archipelago by the Etesian winds, which blow regularly from the N.E.
+  for forty to fifty days in July and August. This current of cool dry
+  air from the north is due to the vacuum resulting from intense heat in
+  the region of the Sahara. The healthy Etesian winds are generally
+  replaced towards the end of summer by the southerly Libas or sirocco,
+  which, when blowing strongly, resembles the blast from a furnace and
+  is most injurious to health. The sirocco affects, though in a less
+  degree, the other countries of the Balkan peninsula and even Rumania.
+  The mean summer temperature is about 79° Fahr. The autumn is the least
+  healthy season of the year owing to the great increase of humidity,
+  especially in October and November. At the end of October snow
+  reappears on the higher mountains, remaining on the summits till June.
+  The winter is mild, and even in January there are, as a rule, many
+  warm clear days; but the recurrence of biting northerly winds and cold
+  blasts from the mountains, as well as the rapid transitions from heat
+  to cold and the difference in the temperature of sunshine and shade,
+  render the climate somewhat treacherous and unsuitable for invalids.
+  Snow seldom falls in the maritime and lowland districts and frost is
+  rare. The mean winter temperature is from 48° to 55° Fahr. The
+  rainfall varies greatly according to localities; it is greatest in the
+  Ionian Islands (53.34 ins. at Corfu), in Arcadia and in the other
+  mountainous districts, and least on the Aegean littoral and in the
+  Cyclades; in Attica, the driest region in Greece, it is 16.1 ins. The
+  wettest months are November, December and January; the driest July and
+  August, when, except for a few thunder-storms, there is practically no
+  rainfall. The rain generally accompanies southerly or south-westerly
+  winds. In all the maritime districts the sea breeze greatly modifies
+  the temperature; it begins about 9 A.M., attains its maximum force
+  soon after noon, and ceases about an hour after sunset. Greece is
+  renowned for the clearness of its climate; fogs and mists are almost
+  unknown. In most years, however, only four or five days are recorded
+  in which the sky is perfectly cloudless. The natural healthiness of
+  the climate is counteracted in the towns, especially in Athens, by
+  deficient sanitation and by stifling clouds of dust, which propagate
+  infection and are peculiarly hurtful in cases of ophthalmia and
+  pulmonary disease. Malarial fever is endemic in the marshy districts,
+  especially in the autumn.
+
+
+  Area and population.
+
+The area of the country was 18,341 sq. m. before the acquisition of the
+Ionian Islands in 1864, 19,381 sq. m. prior to the annexation of
+Thessaly and part of Epirus in 1881, and 24,552 sq. m. at the census in
+1896. If we deduct 152 sq. m., the extent of territory ceded to Turkey
+after the war of 1897, the area of Greece in 1908 would be 24,400 sq. m.
+Other authorities give 25,164 and 25,136 sq. m. as the area prior to
+the rectification of the frontier in 1898.[3] The population in 1896 was
+2,433,806, or 99.1 to the sq. m., the population of the territories
+annexed in 1881 being approximately 350,000; and 2,631,952 in 1907, or
+107.8 to the sq. m. (according to the official estimate of the area),
+showing an increase of 198,146 or 0.81% per annum, as compared with
+1.61% during the period between 1896 and 1889; the diminished increase
+is mainly due to emigration. The population by sex in 1907 is given as
+1,324,942 males and 1,307,010 females (or 50.3% males to 49.6 females).
+The preponderance of males, which was 52% to 48% females in 1896, has
+also been reduced by emigration; it is most marked in the northern
+departments, especially in Larissa. Only in the departments of Arcadia,
+Eurytania, Corinth, Cephalonia, Lacedaemon, Laconia, Phocis, Argolis and
+in the Cyclades, is the female population in excess of the male.
+
+  Neither the census of 1896 nor that of 1889 gave any classification by
+  professions, religion or language. The following figures, which are
+  only approximate, were derived from unofficial sources in
+  1901:--agricultural and pastoral employments 444,000; industries
+  64,200; traders and their employés 118,000; labourers and servants
+  31,300; various professions 15,700; officials 12,000; clergy about
+  6000; lawyers 4000; physicians 2500. In 1879, 1,635,698 of the
+  population were returned as Orthodox Christians, 14,677 as Catholics
+  and Protestants, 2652 as Jews, and 740 as of other religions. The
+  annexation of Thessaly and part of Epirus is stated to have added
+  24,165 Mahommedan subjects to the Hellenic kingdom. A considerable
+  portion of these, however, emigrated immediately after the annexation,
+  and, although a certain number subsequently returned, the total
+  Mahommedan population in Greece was estimated to be under 5000 in
+  1908. A number of the Christian inhabitants of these regions,
+  estimated at about 50,000, retained Turkish nationality with the
+  object of escaping military service. The Albanian population,
+  estimated at 200,000 by Finlay in 1851, still probably exceeds
+  120,000. It is gradually being absorbed in the Hellenic population. In
+  1870, 37,598 persons (an obviously untrustworthy figure) were returned
+  as speaking Albanian only. In 1879 the number is given as 58,858. The
+  Vlach population, which has been increased by the annexation of
+  Thessaly, numbers about 60,000. The number of foreign residents is
+  unknown. The Italians are the most numerous, numbering about 11,000.
+  Some 1500 persons, mostly Maltese, possess British nationality.
+
+  By a law of 27 November 1899, Greece, which had hitherto been divided
+  into sixteen departments ([Greek: nomoi]) was redivided into
+  twenty-six departments, as follows:--
+
+      _Departments._          _Pop._     _Departments._         _Pop._
+
+     1 Attica                341,247    14 Corinth              71,229
+     2 Boeotia                65,816    15 Arcadia             162,324
+     3 Phthiotis             112,328    16 Achaea              150,918
+     4 Phocis                 62,246    17 Elis                103,810
+     5 Aetolia and Acarnania 141,405    18 Triphylia            90,523
+     6 Eurytania              47,192    19 Messenia            127,991
+     7 Arta                   41,280    20 Laconia              61,522
+     8 Trikkala               90,548    21 Lacedaemon           87,106
+     9 Karditsa               92,941    22 Corfu                99,571
+    10 Larissa                95,066    23 Cephalonia           71,235
+    11 Magnesia              102,742    24 Leucas (with Ithaca) 41,186
+    12 Euboea                116,903    25 Zante                42,502
+    13 Argolis                81,943    26 Cyclades            130,378
+
+  The population is densest in the Ionian Islands, exceeding 307 per sq.
+  m. The departments of Acarnania, Phocis and Euboea are the most thinly
+  inhabited (about 58, 61 and 66 per sq. m. respectively).
+
+  Very little information is obtainable with regard to the movement of
+  the population; no register of births, deaths and marriages is kept in
+  Greece. The only official statistics are found in the periodical
+  returns of the mortality in the twelve principal towns, according to
+  which the yearly average of deaths in these towns for the five years
+  1903-1907 was approximately 10,253, or 23.8 per 1000; of these more
+  than a quarter are ascribed to pulmonary consumption, due in the main
+  to defective sanitation. Both the birth-rate and death-rate are low,
+  being 27.6 and 20.7 per 1000 respectively. Infant mortality is slight,
+  and in point of longevity Greece compares favourably with most other
+  European countries. The number of illegitimate births is 12.25 per
+  1000; these are almost exclusively in the towns.
+
+  Of the total population 28.5% are stated to live in towns. The
+  population of the principal towns is:--
+
+                         1896.      1907.
+
+    Athens             111,486    167,479
+    Peiraeus            43,848     73,579
+    Patras              37,985     37,724
+    Trikkala            21,149     17,809
+    Hermopolis (Syra)   18,760     18,132
+    Corfu               18,581     28,254*
+    Volo                16,788     23,563
+    Larissa             15,373     18,001
+    Zante               14,906     13,580
+    Kalamata            14,298     15,397
+    Pyrgos              12,708     13,690
+    Tripolis            10,465     10,789
+    Chalcis              8,661     10,958
+    Laurium              7,926     10,007
+
+    * Including suburbs.
+
+  No trustworthy information is obtainable with regard to immigration
+  and emigration, of which no statistics have ever been kept.
+  Emigration, which was formerly in the main to Egypt and Rumania, is
+  now almost exclusively to the United States of America. The principal
+  exodus is from Arcadia, Laconia and Maina; the emigrants from these
+  districts, estimated at about 14,000 annually, are for the most part
+  young men approaching the age of military service. According to
+  American statistics 12,431 Greeks arrived in the United States from
+  Greece during the period 1869-1898 and 130,154 in 1899-1907; a
+  considerable number, however, have returned to Greece, and those
+  remaining in the United States at the end of 1907 were estimated at
+  between 136,000 and 138,000; this number was considerably reduced in
+  1908 by remigration. Since 1896 the tendency to emigration has
+  received a notable and somewhat alarming impulse. There is an
+  increasing immigration into the towns from the rural districts, which
+  are gradually becoming depopulated. Both movements are due in part to
+  the preference of the Greeks for a town life and in part to distaste
+  for military service, but in the main to the poverty of the peasant
+  population, whose condition and interests have been neglected by the
+  government.
+
+
+  Ethnology.
+
+Greece is inhabited by three races--the Greeks, the Albanians and the
+Vlachs. The Greeks who are by far the most numerous, have to a large
+extent absorbed the other races; the process of assimilation has been
+especially rapid since the foundation of the Greek kingdom. Like most
+European nations, the modern Greeks are a mixed race. The question of
+their origin has been the subject of much learned controversy; their
+presumed descent from the Greeks of the classical epoch has proved a
+national asset of great value; during the period of their struggle for
+independence it won them the devoted zeal of the Philhellenes, it
+inspired the enthusiasm of Byron, Victor Hugo, and a host of minor
+poets, and it has furnished a pleasing illusion to generations of
+scholarly tourists who delight to discover in the present inhabitants of
+the country the mental and physical characteristics with which they have
+been familiarized by the literature and art of antiquity. This amiable
+tendency is encouraged by the modern Greeks, who possess an implicit
+faith in their illustrious ancestry. The discussion of the question
+entered a very acrimonious stage with the appearance in 1830 of
+Fallmerayer's _History of the Morea during the Middle Ages_. Fallmerayer
+maintained that after the great Slavonic immigration at the close of the
+8th century the original population of northern Greece and the Morea,
+which had already been much reduced during the Roman period, was
+practically supplanted by the Slavonic element and that the Greeks of
+modern times are in fact Byzantinized Slavs. This theory was subjected
+to exhaustive criticism by Ross, Hopf, Finlay and other scholars, and
+although many of Fallmerayer's conclusions remain unshaken, the view is
+now generally held that the base of the population both in the mainland
+and the Morea is Hellenic, not Slavonic. During the 5th and 6th
+centuries Greece had been subjected to Slavonic incursions which
+resulted in no permanent settlements. After the great plague of 746-747,
+however, large tracts of depopulated country were colonized by Slavonic
+immigrants; the towns remained in the hands of the Greeks, many of whom
+emigrated to Constantinople. In the Morea the Slavs established
+themselves principally in Arcadia and the region of Taygetus, extending
+their settlements into Achaia, Elis, Laconia and the promontory of
+Taenaron; on the mainland they occupied portions of Acarnania, Aetolia,
+Doris and Phocis. Slavonic place-names occurring in all these districts
+confirm the evidence of history with regard to this immigration. The
+Slavs, who were not a maritime race, did not colonize the Aegean
+Islands, but a few Slavonic place-names in Crete seem to indicate that
+some of the invaders reached that island. The Slavonic settlements in
+the Morea proved more permanent than those in northern Greece, which
+were attacked by the armies of the Byzantine emperors. But even in the
+Morea the Greeks, or "Romans" as they called themselves ([Greek:
+Rhômaioi]), who had been left undisturbed on the eastern side of the
+peninsula, eventually absorbed the alien element, which disappeared
+after the 15th century. In addition to the place-names the only
+remaining traces of the Slav immigration are the Slavonic type of
+features, which occasionally recurs, especially among the Arcadian
+peasants, and a few customs and traditions. Even when allowance is made
+for the remarkable power of assimilation which the Greeks possessed in
+virtue of their superior civilization, it is difficult to resist the
+conclusion that the Hellenic element must always have been the most
+numerous in order to effect so complete an absorption. This element has
+apparently undergone no essential change since the epoch of Roman
+domination. The destructive invasions of the Goths in A.D. 267 and 395
+introduced no new ethnic feature; the various races which during the
+middle ages obtained partial or complete mastery in Greece--the Franks,
+the Venetians, the Turks--contributed no appreciable ingredient to the
+mass of the population. The modern Greeks may therefore be regarded as
+in the main the descendants of the population which inhabited Greece in
+the earlier centuries of Byzantine rule. Owing to the operation of
+various causes, historical, social and economic, that population was
+composed of many heterogeneous elements and represented in a very
+limited degree the race which repulsed the Persians and built the
+Parthenon. The internecine conflicts of the Greek communities, wars with
+foreign powers and the deadly struggles of factions in the various
+cities, had to a large extent obliterated the old race of free citizens
+by the beginning of the Roman period. The extermination of the Plataeans
+by the Spartans and of the Melians by the Athenians during the
+Peloponnesian war, the proscription of Athenian citizens after the war,
+the massacre of the Corcyraean oligarchs by the democratic party, the
+slaughter of the Thebans by Alexander and of the Corinthians by Mummius,
+are among the more familiar instances of the catastrophes which overtook
+the civic element in the Greek cities; the void can only have been
+filled from the ranks of the metics or resident aliens and of the
+descendants of the far more numerous slave population. Of the latter a
+portion was of Hellenic origin; when a city was taken the males of
+military age were frequently put to the sword, but the women and
+children were sold as slaves; in Laconia and Thessaly there was a serf
+population of indigenous descent. In the classical period four-fifths of
+the population of Attica were slaves and of the remainder half were
+metics. In the Roman period the number of slaves enormously increased,
+the supply being maintained from the regions on the borders of the
+empire; the same influences which in Italy extinguished the small landed
+proprietors and created the _latifundia_ prevailed also in Greece. The
+purely Hellenic population, now greatly diminished, congregated in the
+towns; the large estates which replaced the small freeholds were
+cultivated by slaves and managed or farmed by slaves or freedmen, and
+wide tracts of country were wholly depopulated. How greatly the free
+citizen element had diminished by the close of the 1st century A.D. may
+be judged from the estimate of Plutarch that all Greece could not
+furnish more than 3000 hoplites. The composite population which replaced
+the ancient Hellenic stock became completely Hellenized. According to
+craniologists the modern Greeks are brachycephalous while the ancient
+race is stated to have been dolichocephalous, but it seems doubtful
+whether any such generalization with regard to the ancients can be
+conclusively established. The Aegean islanders are more brachycephalous
+than the inhabitants of the mainland, though apparently of purer Greek
+descent. No general conception of the facial type of the ancient race
+can be derived from the highly-idealized statues of deities, heroes and
+athletes; so far as can be judged from portrait statues it was very
+varied. Among the modern Greeks the same variety of features prevails;
+the face is usually oval, the nose generally long and somewhat
+aquiline, the teeth regular, and the eyes remarkably bright and full of
+animation. The country-folk are, as a rule, tall and well-made, though
+slightly built and rather meagre; their form is graceful and supple in
+movement. The urban population, as elsewhere, is physically very
+inferior. The women often display a refined and delicate beauty which
+disappears at an early age. The best physical types of the race are
+found in Arcadia, in the Aegean Islands and in Crete.
+
+The Albanian population extends over all Attica and Megaris (except the
+towns of Athens, Peiraeus and Megara), the greater part of Boeotia, the
+eastern districts of Locris, the southern half of Euboea and the
+northern side of Andros, the whole of the islands of Salamis, Hydra,
+Spetsae and Poros, and part of Aegina, the whole of Corinthia and
+Argolis, the northern districts of Arcadia and the eastern portion of
+Achaea. There are also small Albanian groups in Laconia and Messenia
+(see ALBANIA). The Albanians, who call themselves _Shkyipetar_, and are
+called by the Greeks _Arvanitae_ ([Greek: Arbanitai]), belong to the
+Tosk or southern branch of the race; their immigration took place in the
+latter half of the 14th century. Their first settlements in the Morea
+were made in 1347-1355. The Albanian colonization was first checked by
+the Turks; in 1454 an Albanian insurrection in the Morea against
+Byzantine rule was crushed by the Turkish general Tura Khan, whose aid
+had been invoked by the Palaeologi. With a few exceptions, the Albanians
+in Greece retained their Christian faith after the Turkish conquest. The
+failure of the insurrection of 1770 was followed by a settlement of
+Moslem Albanians, who had been employed by the Turks to suppress the
+revolt. The Christian Albanians have long lived on good terms with the
+Greeks while retaining their own customs and language and rarely
+intermarrying with their neighbours. They played a brilliant part during
+the War of Independence, and furnished the Greeks with many of their
+most distinguished leaders. The process of their Hellenization, which
+scarcely began till after the establishment of the kingdom, has been
+somewhat slow; most of the men can now speak Greek, but Albanian is
+still the language of the household. The Albanians, who are mainly
+occupied with agriculture, are less quick-witted, less versatile, and
+less addicted to politics than the Greeks, who regard them as
+intellectually their inferiors. A vigorous and manly race, they furnish
+the best soldiers in the Greek army, and also make excellent sailors.
+
+The Vlachs, who call themselves _Aromâni_, i.e. Romans, form another
+important foreign element in the population of Greece. They are found
+principally in Pindus (the Agrapha district), the mountainous parts of
+Thessaly, Othrys, Oeta, the mountains of Boeotia, Aetolia and Acarnania;
+they have a few settlements in Euboea. They are for the most part either
+nomad shepherds and herdsmen or carriers (_kiradjis_). They apparently
+descend from the Latinized provincials of the Roman epoch who took
+refuge in the higher mountains from the incursions of the barbarians and
+Slavs (see VLACHS and MACEDONIA). In the 13th century the Vlach
+principality of "Great Walachia" ([Greek: Megalê Blachia]) included
+Thessaly and southern Macedonia as far as Castoria; its capital was at
+Hypati near Lamia. Acarnania and Aetolia were known as "Lesser
+Walachia." The urban element among the Vlachs has been almost completely
+Hellenized; it has always displayed great aptitude for commerce, and
+Athens owes many of its handsomest buildings to the benefactions of
+wealthy Vlach merchants. The nomad population in the mountains has
+retained its distinctive nationality and customs together with its Latin
+language, though most of the men can speak Greek. Like the Albanians,
+the pastoral Vlachs seldom intermarry with the Greeks; they occasionally
+take Greek wives, but never give their daughters to Greeks; many of them
+are illiterate, and their children rarely attend the schools. Owing to
+their deficient intellectual culture they are regarded with disdain by
+the Greeks, who employ the term [Greek: blachos] to denote not only a
+shepherd but an ignorant rustic.
+
+A considerable Italian element was introduced into the Ionian Islands
+during the middle ages owing to their prolonged subjection to Latin
+princes and subsequently (till 1797) to the Venetian republic. The
+Italians intermarried with the Greeks; Italian became the language of
+the upper classes, and Roman Catholicism was declared the state
+religion. The peasantry, however, retained the Greek language and
+remained faithful to the Eastern Church; during the past century the
+Italian element was completely absorbed by the Greek population.
+
+The Turkish population in Greece, which numbered about 70,000 before the
+war of liberation, disappeared in the course of the struggle or
+emigrated at its conclusion. The Turks in Thessaly are mainly descended
+either from colonists established in the country by the Byzantine
+emperors or from immigrants from Asia Minor, who arrived at the end of
+the 14th century; they derive their name Konariots from Iconium (Konia).
+Many of the beys or land-owning class are the lineal representatives of
+the Seljuk nobles who obtained fiefs under the feudal system introduced
+here and in Macedonia by the Sultan Bayezid I.
+
+
+  National character.
+
+Notwithstanding their composite origin, their wide geographical
+distribution and their cosmopolitan instincts, the modern Greeks are a
+remarkably homogeneous people, differing markedly in character from
+neighbouring races, united by a common enthusiasm in the pursuit of
+their national aims, and profoundly convinced of their superiority to
+other nations. Their distinctive character, combined with their
+traditional tendency to regard non-Hellenic peoples as barbarous, has,
+indeed, to some extent counteracted the results of their great energy
+and zeal in the assimilation of other races; the advantageous position
+which they attained at an early period under Turkish rule owing to their
+superior civilization, their versatility, their wealth, and their
+monopoly of the ecclesiastical power would probably have enabled them to
+Hellenize permanently the greater part of the Balkan peninsula had their
+attitude towards other Christian races been more sympathetic. Always the
+most civilized race in the East, they have successively influenced their
+Macedonian, Roman and Turkish conquerors, and their remarkable
+intellectual endowments bid fair to secure them a brilliant position in
+the future. The intense patriotic zeal of the Greeks may be compared
+with that of the Hungarians; it is liable to degenerate into arrogance
+and intolerance; it sometimes blinds their judgment and involves them in
+ill-considered enterprises, but it nevertheless offers the best
+guarantee for the ultimate attainment of their national aims. All
+Greeks, in whatever country they may reside, work together for the
+realization of the Great Idea ([Greek: hê Megalê Idea])--the supremacy
+of Hellenism in the East--and to this object they freely devote their
+time, their wealth and their talents; the large fortunes which they
+amass abroad are often bequeathed for the foundation of various
+institutions in Greece or Turkey, for the increase of the national fleet
+and army, or for the spread of Hellenic influence in the Levant. This
+patriotic sentiment is unfortunately much exploited by self-seeking
+demagogues and publicists, who rival each other in exaggerating the
+national pretensions and in pandering to the national vanity. In no
+other country is the passion for politics so intense; "keen political
+discussions are constantly going on at the cafés; the newspapers, which
+are extraordinarily numerous and generally of little value, are
+literally devoured, and every measure of the government is violently
+criticized and ascribed to interested motives." The influence of the
+journals is enormous; even the waiters in the cafés and domestic
+servants have their favourite newspaper, and discourse fluently on the
+political problems of the day. Much of the national energy is wasted by
+this continued political fever; it is diverted from practical aims, and
+may be said to evaporate in words. The practice of independent criticism
+tends to indiscipline in the organized public services; it has been
+remarked that every Greek soldier is a general and every sailor an
+admiral. During the war of 1897 a young naval lieutenant telegraphed to
+the minister of war condemning the measures taken by his admiral, and
+his action was applauded by several journals. There is also little
+discipline in the ranks of political parties, which are held together,
+not by any definite principle, but by the personal influence of the
+leaders; defections are frequent, and as a rule each deputy in the
+Chamber makes his terms with his chief. On the other hand, the
+independent character of the Greeks is favourably illustrated by the
+circumstance that Greece is the only country in the Balkan peninsula in
+which the government cannot count on securing a majority by official
+pressure at the elections. Few scruples are observed in political
+warfare, but attacks on private life are rare. The love of free
+discussion is inherent in the strongly-rooted democratic instinct of the
+Greeks. They are in spirit the most democratic of European peoples; no
+trace of Latin feudalism survives, and aristocratic pretensions are
+ridiculed. In social life there is no artificial distinction of classes;
+all titles of nobility are forbidden; a few families descended from the
+chiefs in the War of Independence enjoy a certain pre-eminence, but
+wealth and, still more, political or literary notoriety constitute the
+principal claim to social consideration. The Greeks display great
+intellectual vivacity; they are clever, inquisitive, quick-witted and
+ingenious, but not profound; sustained mental industry and careful
+accuracy are distasteful to them, and their aversion to manual labour is
+still more marked. Even the agricultural class is but moderately
+industrious; abundant opportunities for relaxation are provided by the
+numerous church festivals. The desire for instruction is intense even in
+the lowest ranks of the community; rhetorical and literary
+accomplishments possess a greater attraction for the majority than the
+fields of modern science. The number of persons who seek to qualify for
+the learned professions is excessive; they form a superfluous element in
+the community, an educated proletariat, attaching themselves to the
+various political parties in the hope of obtaining state employment and
+spending an idle existence in the cafés and the streets when their party
+is out of power. In disposition the Greeks are lively, cheerful,
+plausible, tactful, sympathetic; very affable with strangers,
+hospitable, kind to their servants and dependants, remarkably temperate
+and frugal in their habits, amiable and united in family life.
+Drunkenness is almost unknown, thrift is universally practised; the
+standard of sexual morality is high, especially in the rural districts,
+where illegitimacy is extremely rare. The faults of the Greeks must in a
+large degree be attributed to their prolonged subjection to alien races;
+their cleverness often degenerates into cunning, their ready invention
+into mendacity, their thrift into avarice, their fertility of resource
+into trickery and fraud. Dishonesty is not a national vice, but many who
+would scorn to steal will not hesitate to compass illicit gains by
+duplicity and misrepresentation; deceit, indeed, is often practised
+gratuitously for the mere intellectual satisfaction which it affords. In
+the astuteness of their monetary dealings the Greeks proverbially
+surpass the Jews, but fall short of the Armenians; their remarkable
+aptitude for business is sometimes marred by a certain short-sightedness
+which pursues immediate profits at the cost of ulterior advantages.
+Their vanity and egoism, which are admitted by even the most favourable
+observers, render them jealous, exacting, and peculiarly susceptible to
+flattery. In common with other southern European peoples the Greeks are
+extremely excitable; their passionate disposition is prone to take
+offence at slight provocation, and trivial quarrels not infrequently
+result in homicide. They are religious, but by no means fanatical,
+except in regard to politico-religious questions affecting their
+national aims. In general the Greeks may be described as a clever,
+ambitious and versatile people, capable of great effort and sacrifice,
+but deficient in some of the more solid qualities which make for
+national greatness.
+
+
+  Customs.
+
+The customs and habits of the Greek peasantry, in which the observances
+of the classical age may often be traced, together with their legends
+and traditions, have furnished an interesting subject of investigation
+to many writers (see _Bibliography_ below). In the towns the more
+cosmopolitan population has largely adopted the "European" mode of life,
+and the upper classes show a marked preference for French manners and
+usages. In both town and country, however, the influence of oriental
+ideas is still apparent, due in part to the long period of Turkish
+domination, in part to the contact of the Greeks with Asiatic races at
+all epochs of their history. In the rural districts, especially, the
+women lead a somewhat secluded life and occupy a subject position; they
+wait at table, and only partake of the meal when the men of the family
+have been served. In most parts of continental Greece the women work in
+the fields, but in the Aegean Islands and Crete they rarely leave the
+house. Like the Turks, the Greeks have a great partiality for coffee,
+which can always be procured even in the remotest hamlets; the Turkish
+practice of carrying a string of beads or rosary (_comboloio_), which
+provides an occupation for the hands, is very common. Many of the
+observances in connexion with births, christenings, weddings and
+funerals are very interesting and in some cases are evidently derived
+from remote antiquity. Nuptial ceremonies are elaborate and protracted;
+in some of the islands of the archipelago they continue for three weeks.
+In the preliminary negotiations for a marriage the question of the
+bride's dowry plays a very important part; a girl without a dowry often
+remains unmarried, notwithstanding the considerable excess of the male
+over the female population. Immediately after the christening of a
+female child her parents begin to lay up her portion, and young men
+often refrain from marrying until their sisters have been settled in
+life. The dead are carried to the tomb in an open coffin; in the country
+districts professional mourners are engaged to chant dirges; the body is
+washed with wine and crowned with a wreath of flowers. A valedictory
+oration is pronounced at the grave. Many superstitions still prevail
+among the peasantry; the belief in the vampire and the evil eye is
+almost universal. At Athens and in the larger towns many handsome
+dwelling-houses may be seen, but the upper classes have no predilection
+for rural life, and their country houses are usually mere farmsteads,
+which they rarely visit. In the more fertile districts two-storeyed
+houses of the modern type are common, but in the mountainous regions the
+habitations of the country-folk are extremely primitive; the small
+stone-built hut, almost destitute of furniture, shelters not only the
+family but its cattle and domestic animals. In Attica the peasants'
+houses are usually built of cob. In Maina the villagers live in
+fortified towers of three or more storeys; the animals occupy the ground
+floor, the family the topmost storey; the intermediate space serves as a
+granary or hay-loft. The walls are loop-holed for purposes of defence in
+view of the traditional vendetta and feuds, which in some instances have
+been handed down from remote generations and are maintained by
+occasional sharp-shooting from these primitive fortresses. In general
+cleanliness and sanitation are much neglected; the traveller in the
+country districts is doomed to sleepless nights unless he has provided
+himself with bedding and a hammock. Even Athens, though enriched by many
+munificent benefactions, is still without a drainage system or an
+adequate water supply; the sewers of many houses open into the streets,
+in which rubbish is allowed to accumulate. The effects of insanitary
+conditions are, however, counteracted in some degree by the excellent
+climate. The Aegean islanders contrast favourably with the continentals
+in point of personal cleanliness and the neatness of their dwellings;
+their houses are generally covered with the flat roof, familiar in Asia,
+on which the family sleep in summer. The habits and customs of the
+islanders afford an interesting study. Propitiatory rites are still
+practised by the mariners and fishermen, and thank-offerings for
+preservation at sea are hung up in the churches. Among the popular
+amusements of the Greeks dancing holds a prominent place; the dance is
+of various kinds; the most usual is the somewhat inanimate round dance
+([Greek: syrto] or [Greek: trata]), in which a number of persons,
+usually of the same sex, take part holding hands; it seems indentical
+with the Slavonic _kolo_ ("circle"). The more lively Albanian fling is
+generally danced by three or four persons, one of whom executes a series
+of leaps and pirouettes. The national music is primitive and monotonous.
+All classes are passionately addicted to card-playing, which is
+forbidden by law in places of public resort. The picturesque national
+costume, which is derived from the Albanian Tosks, has unfortunately
+been abandoned by the upper classes and the urban population since the
+abdication of King Otho, who always wore it; it is maintained as the
+uniform of the _euzones_ (highland regiments). It consists of a red cap
+with dark blue tassel, a white shirt with wide sleeves, a vest and
+jacket, sometimes of velvet, handsomely adorned with gold or black
+braid, a belt in which various weapons are carried, a white kilt or
+_fustanella_ of many folds, white hose tied with garters, and red
+leather shoes with pointed ends, from which a tassel depends. Over all
+is worn the shaggy white _capote_. The islanders wear a dark blue
+costume with a crimson waistband, loose trousers descending to the knee,
+stockings and pumps or long boots. The women's costume is very varied;
+the loose red fez is sometimes worn and a short velvet jacket with rich
+gold embroidery. The more elderly women are generally attired in black.
+In the Megara district and elsewhere peasant girls wear on festive
+occasions a headdress composed of strings of coins which formerly
+represented the dowry.
+
+  Government.
+
+Greece is a constitutional monarchy; hereditary in the male line, or, in
+case of its extinction, in the female. The sovereign, by decision of the
+conference of London (August 1863), is styled "king of the Hellenes";
+the title "king of Greece" was borne by King Otho. The heir apparent is
+styled [Greek: ho diadochos], "the successor"; the title "duke of
+Sparta," which has been accorded to the crown prince, is not generally
+employed in Greece. The king and the heir apparent must belong to the
+Orthodox Greek Church; a special exception has been made for King
+George, who is a Lutheran. The king attains his majority on completing
+his eighteenth year; before ascending the throne he must take the oath
+to the constitution in presence of the principal ecclesiastical and lay
+dignitaries of the kingdom, and must convoke the Chamber within two
+months after his accession. The civil list amounts to 1,125,000 dr., in
+addition to which it was provided that King George should receive £4000
+annually as a personal allowance from each of the three protecting
+powers, Great Britain, France and Russia. The heir apparent receives
+from the state an annuity of 200,000 dr. The king has a palace at Athens
+and other residences at Corfu, Tatoi (on the slopes of Mt Parnes) and
+Larissa. The present constitution dates from the 29th of October 1864.
+The legislative power is shared by the king with a single chamber
+([Greek: boulê]) elected by manhood suffrage for a period of four years.
+The election is by ballot; candidates must have completed their
+thirtieth year and electors their twenty-first. The deputies ([Greek:
+bouleutai]), according to the constitution, receive only their
+travelling expenses, but they vote themselves a payment of 1800 dr. each
+for the session and a further allowance in case of an extraordinary
+session. The Chamber sits for a term of not less than three or more than
+six months. No law can be passed except by an absolute majority of the
+house, and one-half of the members must be present to form a quorum;
+these arrangements have greatly facilitated the practice of obstruction,
+and often enable individual deputies to impose terms on the government
+for their attendance. In 1898 the number of deputies was 234. Some years
+previously a law diminishing the national representation and enlarging
+the constituencies was passed by Trikoupis with the object of checking
+the local influence of electors upon deputies, but the measure was
+subsequently repealed. The number of deputies, however, who had hitherto
+been elected in the proportion of one to twelve thousand of the
+population, was reduced in 1905, when the proportion of one to sixteen
+thousand was substituted; the Chamber of 1906, elected under the new
+system, consisted of 177 deputies. In 1906 the electoral districts were
+diminished in number and enlarged so as to coincide with the twenty-six
+administrative departments ([Greek: nomoi]); the reduction of these
+departments to their former number of sixteen, which is in
+contemplation, will bring about some further diminution in parliamentary
+representation. It is hoped that recent legislation will tend to check
+the pernicious practice of bartering personal favours, known as [Greek:
+synallagê], which still prevails to the great detriment of public
+morality, paralysing all branches of the administration and wasting the
+resources of the state. Political parties are formed not for the
+furtherance of any principle or cause, but with the object of obtaining
+the spoils of office, and the various groups, possessing no party
+watchword or programme, frankly designate themselves by the names of
+their leaders. Even the strongest government is compelled to bargain
+with its supporters in regard to the distribution of patronage and other
+favours. The consequent instability of successive ministries has
+retarded useful legislation and seriously checked the national progress.
+In 1906 a law was passed disqualifying junior officers of the army and
+navy for membership of the Chamber; great numbers of these had hitherto
+been candidates at every election. This much-needed measure had
+previously been passed by Trikoupis, but had been repealed by his rival
+Delyannes. The executive is vested in the king, who is personally
+irresponsible, and governs through ministers chosen by himself and
+responsible to the Chamber, of which they are _ex-officio_ members. He
+appoints all public officials, sanctions and proclaims laws, convokes,
+prorogues and dissolves the Chamber, grants pardon or amnesty, coins
+money and confers decorations. There are seven ministries which
+respectively control the departments of foreign affairs, the interior,
+justice, finance, education and worship, the army and the navy.
+
+
+  Local Administration.
+
+The 26 departments or [Greek: nomoi], into which the country is divided
+for administrative purposes, are each under a prefect or nomarch
+([Greek: nomarchos]); they are subdivided into 69 districts or
+eparchies, and into 445 communes or demes ([Greek: dêmoi]) under mayors
+or demarchs ([Greek: dêmarchoi]). The prefects and sub-prefects are
+nominated by the government; the mayors are elected by the communes for
+a period of four years. The prefects are assisted by a departmental
+council, elected by the population, which manages local business and
+assesses rates; there are also communal councils under the presidency of
+the mayors. There are altogether some 12,000 state-paid officials in the
+country, most of them inadequately remunerated and liable to removal or
+transferral upon a change of government. A host of office-seekers has
+thus been created, and large numbers of educated persons spend many
+years in idleness or in political agitation. A law passed in 1905
+secures tenure of office to civil servants of fifteen years' standing,
+and some restrictions have been placed on the dismissal and transferral
+of schoolmasters.
+
+
+  Justice.
+
+Under the Turks the Greeks retained, together with their ecclesiastical
+institutions, a certain measure of local self-government and judicial
+independence. The Byzantine code, based on the Roman, as embodied in the
+[Greek: Hexabiblos] of Armenopoulos (1345), was sanctioned by royal
+decree in 1835 with some modifications as the civil law of Greece.
+Further modifications and new enactments were subsequently introduced,
+derived from the old French and Bavarian systems. The penal code is
+Bavarian, the commercial French. Liberty of person and domicile is
+inviolate; no arrest can be made, no house entered, and no letter opened
+without a judicial warrant. Trial by jury is established for criminal,
+political and press offences. A new civil code, based on Saxon and
+Italian law, has been drawn up by a commission of jurists, but it has
+not yet been considered by the Chamber. A separate civil code, partly
+French, partly Italian, is in force in the Ionian Islands. The law is
+administered by 1 court of cassation (styled the "Areopagus"), 5 courts
+of appeal, 26 courts of first instance, 233 justices of the peace and 19
+correctional tribunals.
+
+The judges, who are appointed by the Crown, are liable to removal by the
+minister of justice, whose exercise of this right is often invoked by
+political partisans. The administration of justice suffers in
+consequence, more especially in the country districts, where the judges
+must reckon with the influential politicians and their adherents. The
+pardon or release of a convicted criminal is not infrequently due to
+pressure on the part of some powerful patron. The lamentable effects of
+this system have long been recognized, and in 1906 a law was introduced
+securing tenure of office for two or four years to judges of the courts
+of first instance and of the inferior tribunals. In the circumstances
+crime is less rife than might be expected; the temperate habits of the
+Greeks have conduced to this result. A serious feature is the great
+prevalence of homicide, due in part to the passionate character of the
+people, but still more to the almost universal practice of carrying
+weapons. The traditions of the vendetta are almost extinct in the Ionian
+Islands, but still linger in Maina, where family feuds are transmitted
+from generation to generation. The brigand of the old-fashioned type
+([Greek: lêstês, klephtês]) has almost disappeared, except in the
+remoter country districts, and piracy, once so prevalent in the Aegean,
+has been practically suppressed, but numbers of outlaws or absconding
+criminals ([Greek: phygodikoi]) still haunt the mountains, and the
+efforts of the police to bring them to justice are far from successful.
+Their ranks were considerably increased after the war of 1897, when many
+deserters from the army and adventurers who came to Greece as volunteers
+betook themselves to a predatory life. On the other hand, there is no
+habitually criminal class in Greece, such as exists in the large centres
+of civilization, and professional mendicancy is still rare.
+
+Police duties, for which officers and, in some cases, soldiers of the
+regular army were formerly employed, are since 1906 carried out by a
+reorganized gendarmerie force of 194 officers and 6344 non-commissioned
+officers and men, distributed in the twenty-six departments and
+commanded by an inspector-general resident at Athens, who is aided by a
+consultative commission. There are male and female prisons at all the
+departmental centres; the number of prisoners in 1906 was 5705. Except
+in the Ionian Islands, the general condition of the prisons is
+deplorable; discipline and sanitation are very deficient, and conflicts
+among the prisoners are sometimes reported in which knives and even
+revolvers are employed. A good prison has been built near Athens by
+Andreas Syngros, and a reformatory for juvenile offenders ([Greek:
+ephêbeion]) has been founded by George Averoff, another national
+benefactor. Capital sentences are usually commuted to penal servitude
+for life; executions, for which the guillotine is employed, are for the
+most part carried out on the island of Bourzi near Nauplia; they are
+often postponed for months or even for years. There is no enactment
+resembling the Habeas Corpus Act, and accused persons may be detained
+indefinitely before trial. The Greeks, like the other nations liberated
+from Turkish rule, are somewhat litigious, and numbers of lawyers find
+occupation even in the smaller country towns.
+
+
+  Education.
+
+The Greeks, an intelligent people, have always shown a remarkable zeal
+for learning, and popular education has made great strides. So eager is
+the desire for instruction that schools are often founded in the rural
+districts on the initiative of the villagers, and the sons of peasants,
+artisans and small shopkeepers come in numbers to Athens, where they
+support themselves by domestic service or other humble occupations in
+order to study at the university during their spare hours. Almost
+immediately after the accession of King Otho steps were taken to
+establish elementary schools in all the communes, and education was made
+obligatory. The law is not very rigorously applied in the remoter
+districts, but its enforcement is scarcely necessary. In 1898 there were
+2914 "demotic" or primary schools, with 3465 teachers, attended by
+129,210 boys (5.38% of the population) and 29,119 girls (1.19% of the
+population). By a law passed in 1905 the primary schools, which had
+reached the number of 3359 in that year, were reduced to 2604. The
+expenditure on primary schools is nominally sustained by the communes,
+but in reality by the government in the form of advances to the
+communes, which are not repaid; it was reduced in 1905 from upwards of
+7,000,000 dr. to under 6,000,000 dr. In 1905 there were 306 "Hellenic"
+or secondary schools, with 819 teachers and 21,575 pupils (boys only)
+maintained by the state at a cost of 1,720,096 dr.; and 39 higher
+schools, or gymnasia, with 261 masters and 6485 pupils, partly
+maintained by the state (expenditure 615,600 dr.) and partly by
+benefactions and other means. Besides these public schools there are
+several private educational institutions, of which there are eight at
+Athens with 650 pupils. The Polytechnic Institute of Athens affords
+technical instruction in the departments of art and science to 221
+students. Scientific agricultural instruction has been much neglected;
+there is an agricultural school at Aïdinion in Thessaly with 40 pupils;
+there are eight agricultural stations ([Greek: stathmoi]) in various
+parts of the country. There are two theological seminaries--the Rizari
+School at Athens (120 pupils) and a preparatory school at Arta; three
+other seminaries have been suppressed. The Commercial and Industrial
+Academy at Athens (about 225 pupils), a private institution, has proved
+highly useful to the country; there are four commercial schools, each in
+one of the country towns. A large school for females at Athens, the
+Arsakíon, is attended by 1500 girls. There are several military and
+naval schools, including the military college of the Euelpides at Athens
+and the school of naval cadets ([Greek: tôn dokimôn]). The university of
+Athens in 1905 numbered 57 professors and 2598 students, of whom 557
+were from abroad. Of the six faculties, theology numbered 79 students,
+law 1467, medicine 567, arts 206, physics and mathematics 192, and
+pharmacy 87. The university receives a subvention from the state, which
+in 1905 amounted to 563,960 dr.; it possesses a library of over 150,000
+volumes and geological, zoological and botanical museums. A small tax on
+university education was imposed in 1903; the total cost to the student
+for the four years' course at the university is about £25. Higher
+education is practically gratuitous in Greece, and there is a somewhat
+ominous increase in the number of educated persons who disdain
+agricultural pursuits and manual labour. The intellectual culture
+acquired is too often of a superficial character owing to the tendency
+to sacrifice scientific thoroughness and accuracy, to neglect the more
+useful branches of knowledge, and to aim at a showy dialectic and
+literary proficiency. (For the native and foreign archaeological
+institutions see ATHENS.)
+
+
+  Religion.
+
+The Greek branch of the Orthodox Eastern Church is practically
+independent, like those of Servia, Montenegro and Rumania, though
+nominally subject to the patriarchate of Constantinople. The
+jurisdiction of the patriarch was in fact repudiated in 1833, when the
+king was declared the supreme head of the church, and the severance was
+completed in 1850. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of the
+Ministry of Education. Church government is vested in the Holy Synod, a
+council of five ecclesiastics under the presidency of the metropolitan
+of Athens; its sittings are attended by a royal commissioner. The church
+can invoke the aid of the civil authorities for the punishment of heresy
+and the suppression of unorthodox literature, pictures, &c. There were
+formerly 21 archbishoprics and 29 bishoprics in Greece, but a law passed
+in 1899 suppressed the archbishoprics (except the metropolitan see of
+Athens) on the death of the existing prelates, and fixed the total
+number of sees at 32. The prelates derive their incomes partly from the
+state and partly from the church lands. There are about 5500 priests,
+who belong for the most part to the poorest classes. The parochial
+clergy have no fixed stipends, and often resort to agriculture or small
+trading in order to supplement the scanty fees earned by their
+ministrations. Owing to their lack of education their personal influence
+over their parishioners is seldom considerable. In addition to the
+parochial clergy there are 19 preachers ([Greek: hierokêrukes]) salaried
+by the state. There are 170 monasteries and 4 nunneries in Greece, with
+about 1600 monks and 250 nuns. In regard to their constitution the
+monasteries are either "idiorrhythmic" or "coenobian" (see ATHOS); the
+monks ([Greek: kalogeroi]) are in some cases assisted by lay brothers
+([Greek: kosmikoi]). More than 300 of the smaller monasteries were
+suppressed in 1829 and their revenues secularized. Among the more
+important and interesting monasteries are those of Megaspelaeon and
+Lavra (where the standard of insurrection, unfurled in 1821, is
+preserved) near Kalavryta, St Luke of Stiris near Arachova, Daphne and
+Penteli near Athens, and the Meteora group in northern Thessaly. The
+bishops, who must be unmarried, are as a rule selected from the monastic
+order and are nominated by the king; the parish priests are allowed to
+marry, but the remarriage of widowers is forbidden. The bulk of the
+population, about 2,000,000, belongs to the Orthodox Church; other
+Christian confessions number about 15,000, the great majority being
+Roman Catholics. The Roman Catholics (principally in Naxos and the
+Cyclades) have three archbisboprics (Athens, Naxos and Corfu), five
+bishoprics and about 60 churches. The Jews, who are regarded with much
+hostility, have almost disappeared from the Greek mainland; they now
+number about 5000, and are found principally at Corfu. The Mahommedans
+are confined to Thessaly except a few at Chalcis. National sentiment is
+a more powerful factor than personal religious conviction in the
+attachment of the Greeks to the Orthodox Church; a Greek without the
+pale of the church is more or less an alien. The Catholic Greeks of
+Syros sided with the Turks at the time of the revolution; the
+Mahommedans of Crete, though of pure Greek descent, have always been
+hostile to their Christian fellow-countrymen and are commonly called
+Turks. On the other hand, that portion of the Macedonian population
+which acknowledges the patriarch of Constantinople is regarded as Greek,
+while that which adheres to the Bulgarian exarchate, though differing in
+no point of doctrine, has been declared schismatic. The constitution of
+1864 guarantees toleration to all creeds in Greece and imposes no civil
+disabilities on account of religion.
+
+
+  Agriculture.
+
+Greece is essentially an agricultural country; its prosperity depends on
+its agricultural products, and more than half the population is occupied
+in the cultivation of the soil and kindred pursuits. The land in the
+plains and valleys is exceedingly rich, and, wherever there is a
+sufficiency of water, produces magnificent crops. Cereals nevertheless
+furnish the principal figure in the list of imports, the annual value
+being about 30,000,000 fr. The country, especially since the acquisition
+of the fertile province of Thessaly, might under a well-developed
+agricultural system provide a food-supply for all its inhabitants and an
+abundant surplus for exportation. Thessaly alone, indeed, could furnish
+cereals for the whole of Greece. Unfortunately, however, agriculture is
+still in a primitive state, and the condition of the rural population
+has received very inadequate attention from successive governments. The
+wooden plough of the Hesiodic type is still in use, especially in
+Thessaly; modern implements, however, are being gradually introduced.
+The employment of manure and the rotation of crops are almost unknown;
+the fields are generally allowed to lie fallow in alternate years. As a
+rule, countries dependent on agriculture are liable to sudden
+fluctuations in prosperity, but in Greece the diversity of products is
+so great that a failure in one class of crops is usually compensated by
+exceptional abundance in another. Among the causes which have hitherto
+retarded agricultural progress are the ignorance and conservatism of the
+peasantry, antiquated methods of cultivation, want of capital, absentee
+proprietorship, sparsity of population, bad roads, the prevalence of
+usury, the uncertainty of boundaries and the land tax, which, in the
+absence of a survey, is levied on ploughing oxen; to these may be added
+the insecurity hitherto prevailing in many of the country districts and
+the growing distaste for rural life which has accompanied the spread of
+education. Large estates are managed under the metayer system; the
+cultivator paying the proprietor from one-third to half of the gross
+produce; the landlords, who prefer to live in the larger towns, see
+little of their tenants, and rarely interest themselves in their
+welfare. A great proportion of the best arable land in Thessaly is owned
+by persons who reside permanently out of the country. The great estates
+in this province extend over some 1,500,000 acres, of which about
+500,000 are cultivated. In the Peloponnesus peasant proprietorship is
+almost universal; elsewhere it is gradually supplanting the metayer
+system; the small properties vary from 2 or 3 to 50 acres. The extensive
+state lands, about one-third of the area of Greece, were formerly the
+property of Mahommedan religious communities (_vakoufs_); they are for
+the most part farmed out annually by auction. They have been much
+encroached upon by neighbouring owners; a considerable portion has also
+been sold to the peasants. The rich plain of Thessaly suffers from
+alternate droughts and inundations, and from the ravages of field mice;
+with improved cultivation, drainage and irrigation it might be rendered
+enormously productive. A commission has been occupied for some years in
+preparing a scheme of hydraulic works. Usury is, perhaps, a greater
+scourge to the rural population than any visitation of nature; the
+institution of agricultural banks, lending money at a fair rate of
+interest on the security of their land, would do much to rescue the
+peasants from the clutches of local Shylocks. There is a difficulty,
+however, in establishing any system of land credit owing to the lack of
+a survey. Since 1897 a law passed in 1882 limiting the rate of interest
+to 8% (to 9% in the case of commercial debts) has to some extent been
+enforced by the tribunals. In the Ionian Islands the rate of 10% still
+prevails.
+
+  The following figures give approximately the acreage in 1906 and the
+  average annual yield of agricultural produce, no official statistics
+  being available:--
+
+                                        Acres.
+    Fields sown or lying fallow       3,000,000
+    Vineyards                           337,500
+    Currant plantations                 175,000
+    Olives (10,000,000 trees)           250,000
+    Fruit trees (fig, mulberry, &c.)    125,000
+    Meadows and pastures              7,500,000
+    Forests                           2,000,000
+    Waste lands                       2,875,000
+                                     ----------
+                                     16,262,500
+
+  The average annual yield is as follows:--
+
+    Wheat                       350,000,000 kilograms
+    Maize                       100,000,000     "
+    Rye                          20,000,000     "
+    Barley                       70,000,000     "
+    Oats                         75,000,000     "
+    Beans, lentils, &c           25,000,000     "
+    Currants                    350,000,000 Venetian lb.
+    Sultanina                     4,000,000     "
+    Wine                          3,000,000 hectolitres
+    Olive oil                       300,000     "
+    Olives (preserved)          100,000,000 kilograms
+    Figs (exported only)         12,000,000     "
+    Seed cotton                   6,500,000     "
+    Tobacco                       8,000,000     "
+    Vegetables and fresh fruits  20,000,000     "
+    Cocoons                       1,000,000     "
+    Hesperidiums (exported only)  4,000,000     "
+    Carobs (exported only)       10,000,000     "
+    Resin                         5,000,000     "
+    Beet                         12,000,000     "
+
+  Rice is grown in the marshy plains of Elis, Boeotia, Marathon and
+  Missolonghi; beet in Thessaly. The cultivation of vegetables is
+  increasing; beans, peas and lentils are the most common. Potatoes are
+  grown in the upland districts, but are not a general article of diet.
+  Of late years market-gardening has been taken up as a new industry in
+  the neighbourhood of Athens. There is a great variety of fruits. Olive
+  plantations are found everywhere; in 1860 they occupied about 90,000
+  acres; in 1887, 433,701 acres. The trees are sometimes of immense age
+  and form a picturesque feature in the landscape. In latter years the
+  groves in many parts of the western Morea and Zante have been cut down
+  to make room for currant plantations; the destruction has been
+  deplorable in its consequences, for, as the tree requires twenty years
+  to come into full bearing, replanting is seldom resorted to. Preserved
+  olives, eaten with bread, are a common article of food. Excellent
+  olive oil is produced in Attica and elsewhere. The value of the oil
+  and fruit exported varies from five to ten million francs. Figs are
+  also abundant, especially in Messenia and in the Cyclades. Mulberry
+  trees are planted for the purposes of sericulture; they have been cut
+  down in great numbers in the currant-growing districts. Other fruit
+  trees are the orange, citron, lemon, pomegranate and almond. Peaches,
+  apricots, pears, cherries, &c., abound, but are seldom scientifically
+  cultivated; the fruit is generally gathered while unripe. Cotton in
+  1906 occupied about 12,500 acres, chiefly in the neighbourhood of
+  Livadia. Tobacco plantations in 1893 covered 16,320 acres, yielding
+  about 3,500,000 kilograms; the yield in 1906 was 9,000,000 kilograms.
+  About 40% of the produce is exported, principally to Egypt and Turkey.
+  More important are the vineyards, which occupied in 1887 an area of
+  306,421 acres. The best wine is made at Patras, on the royal estate at
+  Decelea, and on other estates in Attica; a peculiar flavour is
+  imparted to the wine of the country by the addition of resin. The wine
+  of Santorin, the modern representative of the famous "malmsey," is
+  mainly exported to Russia. The foreign demand for Greek wines is
+  rapidly increasing; 3,770,257 gallons were exported in 1890, 4,974,196
+  gallons in 1894, There is also a growing demand for Greek cognac. The
+  export of wine in 1905 was 20,850,941 okes, value 5,848,544 fr.; of
+  cognac, 363,720 okes, value 1,091,160 fr.
+
+
+    Currants.
+
+  The currant, by far the most important of Greek exports, is cultivated
+  in a limited area extending along the southern shore of the Gulf of
+  Corinth and the seaboard of the Western Peloponnesus, in Zante,
+  Cephalonia and Leucas, and in certain districts of Acarnania and
+  Aetolia; attempts to cultivate it elsewhere have generally proved
+  unsuccessful. The history of the currant industry has been a record of
+  extraordinary vicissitudes. Previously to 1877 the currant was
+  exported solely for eating purposes, the amounts for the years 1872 to
+  1877 being 70,766 tons, 71,222 tons, 76,210 tons, 72,916 tons, 86,947
+  tons, and 82,181 tons respectively. In 1877, however, the French
+  vineyards began to suffer seriously from the phylloxera, and French
+  wine producers were obliged to have recourse to dried currants, which
+  make an excellent wine for blending purposes. The importation of
+  currants into France at once rose from 881 tons in 1877 to 20,999 tons
+  in 1880, and to 70,401 tons in 1889, or about 20,000 tons more than
+  were imported into England in that year. Meanwhile the total amount of
+  currants produced in Greece had nearly doubled in these thirteen
+  years. The country was seized with a mania for currant planting; every
+  other industry was neglected, and olive, orange and lemon groves were
+  cut down to make room for the more lucrative growth. The currant
+  growers, in order to increase their production as rapidly as possible,
+  had recourse to loans at a high rate of interest, and the great
+  profits which they made were devoted to further planting, while the
+  loans remained unpaid. A crisis followed rapidly. By 1891 the French
+  vineyards had to a great extent recovered from the disease, and wine
+  producers in France began to clamour against the competition of
+  foreign wines and wine-producing raisins and currants. The import duty
+  on these was thereupon raised from 6 francs to 15 francs per 100
+  kilos, and was further increased in 1894 to 25 francs. The currant
+  trade with France was thus extinguished; of a crop averaging 160,000
+  tons, only some 110,000 now found a market. Although a fresh opening
+  for exportation was found in Russia, the value of the fruit dropped
+  from £15 to £5 per ton, a price scarcely covering the cost of
+  cultivation. In July 1895 the government introduced a measure, since
+  known as the Retention ([Greek: parakratêsis]) Law, by which it was
+  enacted that every shipper should deliver into depots provided by the
+  government a weight of currants equivalent to 15% of the amount which
+  he intended to export. A later law fixed the quantity to be retained
+  by the state at 10%, which might be increased to 20%, should a
+  representative committee, meeting every summer at Athens, so advise
+  the government. The currants thus taken over by the government cannot
+  be exported unless they are reduced to pulp, syrup or otherwise
+  rendered unsuitable for eating purposes; they may be sold locally for
+  wine-making or distilling, due precautions being taken that they are
+  not used in any other way. The price of exported currants is thus
+  maintained at an artificial figure. The Retention Law, which after
+  1895 was voted annually, was passed for a period of ten years in 1899.
+  This pernicious measure, which is in defiance of all economic laws,
+  perpetuates a superfluous production, retards the development of other
+  branches of agriculture and burdens the government with vast
+  accumulations of an unmarketable commodity. It might excusably be
+  adopted as a temporary expedient to meet a pressing crisis, but as a
+  permanent system it can only prove detrimental to the country and the
+  currant growers themselves.
+
+  In 1899 a "Bank of Viticulture" was established at Patras for the
+  purpose of assisting the growers, to whom it was bound to make
+  advances at a low rate of interest; it undertook the storage and the
+  sale of the retained fruit, from which its capital was derived. The
+  bank soon found itself burdened with an enormous unsaleable stock,
+  while its loans for the most part remained unpaid; meantime
+  over-production, the cause of the trouble, continued to increase, and
+  prices further diminished. In 1903 a syndicate of English and other
+  foreign capitalists made proposals for a monopoly of the export,
+  guaranteeing fixed prices to the growers. The scheme, which conflicted
+  with Anglo-Greek commercial conventions, was rejected by the Theotokis
+  ministry; serious disturbances followed in the currant-growing
+  districts, and M. Theotokis resigned. His successor, M. Rallis, in
+  order to appease the cultivators, arranged that the Currant Bank
+  should offer them fixed minimum prices for the various growths, and
+  guaranteed it a loan of 6,000,000 dr. The resources of the bank,
+  however, gave out before the end of the season, and prices pursued
+  their downward course. Another experiment was then tried; the export
+  duty (15%) was made payable in kind, the retention quota being thus
+  practically raised from 20 to 35%. The only result of this measure was
+  a diminution of the export; in the spring of 1905 prices fell very low
+  and the growers began to despair. A syndicate of banks and capitalists
+  then came forward, which introduced the system now in operation. A
+  privileged company was formed which obtained a charter from the
+  government for twenty years, during which period the retention and
+  export duties are maintained at the fixed rates of 20 and 15%
+  respectively. The company aims at keeping up the prices of the
+  marketable qualities by employing profitably for industrial purposes
+  the unexported surplus and retained inferior qualities; it pays to the
+  state 4,000,000 dr. annually under the head of export duty; offers all
+  growers at the beginning of each agricultural year a fixed price of
+  115 dr. per 1000 Venetian lb. irrespective of quality, and pays a
+  price varying from 115 dr. to 145 dr. according to quality at the end
+  of the year for the unexported surplus. In return for these advantages
+  to the growers the company is entitled to receive 7 dr. on every 1000
+  lb. of currants produced and to dispose of the whole retained amount.
+  A special company has been formed for the conversion of the
+  superfluous product into spirit, wine, &c. The system may perhaps
+  prove commercially remunerative, but it penalizes the producers of the
+  better growths in order to provide a livelihood for the growers of
+  inferior and unmarketable kinds and protracts an abnormal situation.
+  The following table gives the annual currant crop from 1877 to 1905:--
+
+    +------+----------+------------+-----------+
+    | Year.|Total crop| Exported to|Exported to|
+    |      | (tons).  |Gt. Britain.|  France.  |
+    +------+----------+------------+-----------+
+    | 1877 |   82,181 |     ..     |      881  |
+    | 1878 |  100,004 |     ..     |    9,086  |
+    | 1879 |   92,311 |     ..     |   19,087  |
+    | 1880 |   92,337 |     ..     |   20,999  |
+    | 1881 |  121,994 |     ..     |   30,315  |
+    | 1882 |  109,403 |   51,933   |   26,282  |
+    | 1883 |  114,980 |   52,099   |   24,815  |
+    | 1884 |  129,268 |   59,629   |   39,198  |
+    | 1885 |  113,287 |   55,765   |   37,730  |
+    | 1886 |  127,570 |   48,892   |   45,000  |
+    | 1887 |  127,160 |   55,549   |   37,438  |
+    | 1888 |  158,728 |   63,714   |   40,735  |
+    | 1889 |  142,308 |   52,251   |   69,555  |
+    | 1890 |  146,749 |   67,502   |   37,816  |
+    | 1891 |  161,545 |   70,762   |   39,712  |
+    | 1892 |  116,944 |   60,418   |   21,721  |
+    | 1893 |  119,886 |   73,000   |    6,800  |
+    | 1894 |  135,500 |   64,500   |   15,000  |
+    | 1895 |  167,695 |   60,500   |   26,500  |
+    | 1896 |  153,514 |   65,000   |    6,500  |
+    | 1897 |  115,730 |   63,000   |    2,000  |
+    | 1898 |  153,514 |   69,500   |    6,000  |
+    | 1899 |  144,071 |   65,600   |    3,800  |
+    | 1900 |   47,236 |   36,000   |      300  |
+    | 1901 |  139,820 |   58,000   |    1,216  |
+    | 1902 |  152,580 |   58,400   |    4,782  |
+    | 1903 |  179,499 |   54,800   |    4,470  |
+    | 1904 |  146,500 |   58,850   |      820  |
+    | 1905 |  162,957 |   61,700   |    1,042  |
+    +------+----------+------------+-----------+
+
+  The "peronospora," a species of white blight, first caused
+  considerable damage in the Greek vineyards in 1892, recurring in 1897
+  and 1900.
+
+
+    Stock-farming.
+
+  More than half the cultivable area of Greece is devoted to pasturage.
+  Cattle-rearing, as a rule, is a distinct occupation from agricultural
+  farming; the herds are sent to pasture on the mountains in the summer,
+  and return to the plains at the beginning of winter. The larger cattle
+  are comparatively rare, being kept almost exclusively for agricultural
+  labour; the smaller are very abundant. Beef is scarcely eaten in
+  Greece, the milk of cows is rarely drunk and butter is almost unknown.
+  Cheese, a staple article of diet, is made from the milk of sheep and
+  goats. The number of larger cattle has declined in recent years; that
+  of the smaller has increased. The native breed of oxen is small;
+  buffaloes are seldom seen except in north-western Thessaly; a few
+  camels are used in the neighbourhood of Parnassus. The Thessalian
+  breed of horses, small but sturdy and enduring, can hardly be taken to
+  represent the celebrated chargers of antiquity. Mules are much
+  employed in the mountainous districts; the best type of these animals
+  is found in the islands. The flocks of long-horned sheep and goats add
+  a picturesque feature to Greek rural scenery. The goats are more
+  numerous in proportion to the population than in any other European
+  country (137 per 100 inhabitants). The shepherds' dogs rival those of
+  Bulgaria in ferocity. According to an unofficial estimate published in
+  1905 the numbers of the various domestic animals in 1899 were as
+  follows: Oxen and buffaloes, 408,744; horses, 157,068; mules, 88,869;
+  donkeys, 141,174; camels, 51; sheep, 4,568,151; goats, 3,339,439;
+  pigs, 79,716. During the four years 1899-1902 the annual average value
+  of imported cattle was 4,218,015 dr., of exported cattle 209,321 dr.
+
+
+    Forests.
+
+  The forest area (about 2,500,000 acres or one-fifth of the surface of
+  the mainland) is for the most part state property. The value of the
+  forests has been estimated at 200,000,000 fr.; the most productive are
+  in the district extending from the Pindus range to the Gulf of
+  Corinth. The principal trees are the oak (about 30 varieties), the
+  various coniferae, the chestnut, maple, elm, beech, alder, cornel and
+  arbutus. In Greece, as in other lands formerly subject to Turkish
+  rule, the forests are not only neglected, but often deliberately
+  destroyed; this great source of national wealth is thus continually
+  diminishing. Every year immense forest fires may be seen raging in the
+  mountains, and many of the most picturesque districts in the country
+  are converted into desolate wildernesses. These conflagrations are
+  mainly the work of shepherds eager to provide increased pasturage for
+  their flocks; they are sometimes, however, due to the carelessness of
+  smokers, and occasionally, it is said, to spontaneous ignition in hot
+  weather. Great damage is also done by the goats, which browse on the
+  young saplings; the pine trees are much injured by the practice of
+  scoring their bark for resin. With the disappearance of the trees the
+  soil of the mountain slopes, deprived of its natural protection, is
+  soon washed away by the rain; the rapid descent of the water causes
+  inundations in the plains, while the uplands become sterile and lose
+  their vegetation. The climate has been affected by the change; rain
+  falls less frequently but with greater violence, and the process of
+  denudation is accelerated. The government has from time to time made
+  efforts for the protection of the forests, but with little success
+  till recently. A staff of inspectors and forest guards was first
+  organized in 1877. The administration of the forests has since 1893
+  been entrusted to a department of the Ministry of Finance, which
+  controls a staff of 4 inspectors ([Greek: epitheôrêtai]), 31
+  superintendents ([Greek: dasarchoi]), 52 head foresters ([Greek:
+  archiphylakes]) and 298 foresters ([Greek: dasyphylakes]). The
+  foresters are aided during the summer months, when fires are most
+  frequent, by about 500 soldiers and gendarmes. About a third of these
+  functionaries have received instruction in the school of forestry at
+  Vythine in the Morea, open since 1898. Owing to the measures now
+  taken, which include excommunication by the parish priests of
+  incendiaries and their accomplices, the conflagrations have
+  considerably diminished. The total annual value of the products of the
+  Greek forests averages 15,000,000 drachmae. The revenue accruing to
+  the government in 1905 was 1,418,158 dr., as compared with 583,991 dr.
+  in 1883. The increase is mainly due to improved administration. The
+  supply of timber for house-construction, ship-building,
+  furniture-making, railway sleepers, &c., is insufficient, and is
+  supplemented by importation (annual value about 12,000,000 francs);
+  transport is rendered difficult by the lack of roads and navigable
+  streams. The principal secondary products are valonea (annual
+  exportation about 1,250,000 fr.) and resin, which is locally employed
+  as a preservative ingredient in the fabrication of wine. The
+  administration of the forests is still defective, and measures for the
+  augmentation and better instruction of the staff of foresters have
+  been designed by the government. In 1900 a society for the
+  re-afforesting of the country districts and environs of the large
+  towns was founded at Athens under the patronage of the crown princess.
+
+    +------------------------------+---------+-----------+
+    |                              |  Tons.  |  Francs.  |
+    +------------------------------+---------+-----------+
+    | Chrome                       |   8,900 |   337,952 |
+    | Emery                        |   6,972 |   742,486 |
+    | Gypsum                       |     185 |     7,995 |
+    | Iron ore                     | 465,622 | 3,387,467 |
+    | Ferromanganese               |  89,687 | 1,182,652 |
+    | Lead (argentiferous pig) ore |  13,729 | 6,811,792 |
+    | Lignite                      |  11,757 |   143,814 |
+    | Magnesite                    |  43,498 |   864,982 |
+    | Manganese ore                |   8,171 |   122,565 |
+    | Mill stones                  | 12,628  |    34,660 |
+    | Salt                         |  25,201 | 1,638,065 |
+    | Sulphur                      |   1,126 |   121,000 |
+    | Zinc ore                     |  22,562 | 2,852,355 |
+    +------------------------------+---------+-----------+
+
+
+    Mines.
+
+  The chief minerals are silver, lead, zinc, copper manganese, magnesia,
+  iron, sulphur and coal. Emery, salt, millstone and gypsum, which are
+  found in considerable quantities, are worked by the government. The
+  important mines at Laurium, a source of great wealth to ancient
+  Athens, were reopened in 1864 by a Franco-Italian company, but were
+  declared to be state property in 1871; they are now worked by a Greek
+  and a French company. The output of marketable ore in 1899 amounted to
+  486,760 tons, besides 289,292 tons of dressed lead ore. In 1905 the
+  output was as follows: Raw and roasted manganese iron ore, 113,636
+  tons; hematite iron ore, 94,734 tons; calamine or zinc ore, 22,612
+  tons; arsenic and argentiferous lead, 1875 tons; zinc blende and
+  galena, 443 tons; total, 233,300 tons, together with 164,857 tons of
+  dressed lead, producing 13,822 tons of silver pig lead containing 1657
+  to 1910 grams of silver per ton. It has been found profitable to
+  resmelt the scoriae of the ancient workings. The total value of the
+  exports from the Laurium mines, which in 1875 amounted to only
+  £150,513, had in 1899 increased to £827,209, but fell in 1905 to
+  £499,882. The revenue accruing to the government from all mines and
+  quarries, including those worked by the state, was estimated in the
+  budget for 1906 at 1,332,000 dr. The emery of Naxos, which is a state
+  monopoly, is excellent in quality and very abundant. Mines of iron ore
+  have latterly been opened at Larimna in Locris. Magnesite mines are
+  worked by an Anglo-Greek company in Euboea. There are sulphur and
+  manganese mines in the island of Melos, and the volcanic island of
+  Santorin produces pozzolana, a kind of cement, which is exported in
+  considerable quantities. The great abundance of marble in Greece has
+  latterly attracted the attention of foreign capitalists. New quarries
+  have been opened since 1897 by an English company on the north slope
+  of Mount Pentelicus, and are now connected by rail with Athens and the
+  Peiraeus. The marble on this side of the mountain is harder than that
+  on the south, which alone was worked by the ancients. The output in
+  1905 was 1573 tons. Mount Pentelicus furnished material for most of
+  the celebrated buildings of ancient Athens; the marble, which is
+  white, blue-veined, and somewhat transparent, assumes a rich yellow
+  hue after long exposure to the air. The famous Parian quarries are
+  still worked; white marble is also found at Scyros, Tenos and Naxos;
+  grey at Stoura and Karystos; variegated at Valaxa and Karystos; green
+  on Taygetus and in Thessaly; black at Tenos; and red (porphyry) in
+  Maina.
+
+  The official statistics of the output and value of minerals produced
+  in 1905 were as in the preceding table.
+
+  The number of persons employed in mining operations in 1905 was 9934.
+
+
+  Commerce and industry.
+
+Owing to the natural aptitude of the Greeks for commerce and their
+predilection for a seafaring life a great portion of the trade of the
+Levant has fallen into their hands. Important Greek mercantile colonies
+exist in all the larger ports of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea,
+and many of them possess great wealth. In some of the islands of the
+archipelago almost every householder is the owner or joint owner of a
+ship. The Greek mercantile marine, which in 1888 consisted of 1352
+vessels (70 steamers) with a total tonnage of 219,415 tons, numbered in
+1906, according to official returns, 1364 vessels (275 steamers) with a
+total tonnage of 427,291 tons. This figure is apparently too low, as the
+ship-owners are prone to understate the tonnage in order to diminish the
+payment of dues. Almost the whole corn trade of Turkey is in Greek
+hands. A large number of the sailing ships, especially the smaller
+vessels engaged in the coasting trade, belong to the islanders. A
+considerable portion of the shipping on the Danube and Pruth is owned by
+the inhabitants of Ithaca and Cephalonia; a certain number of their
+_sleps_ ([Greek: slepia]) have latterly been acquired by Rumanian Jews,
+but the Greek flag is still predominant. There are seven principal Greek
+steamship companies owning 40 liners with a total tonnage of 21,972
+tons. In 1847 there was but one lighthouse in Greek waters; in 1906
+there were 70 lighthouses and 68 port lanterns. Hermoupolis (Syra) is
+the chief seat of the carrying trade, but as a commercial port it yields
+to Peiraeus, which is the principal centre of distribution for imports.
+Other important ports are Patras, Volo, Corfu, Kalamata and Laurium.
+
+  The following table gives the total value (in francs) of special Greek
+  commerce for the given years:--
+
+    +---------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+    |         |    1887.    |    1892.    |    1897.    |    1902.    |
+    +---------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+    | Imports | 131,849,325 | 119,306,007 | 116,363,348 | 137,229,364 |
+    | Exports | 102,652,487 |  82,261,464 |  81,708,626 |  79,663,473 |
+    +---------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+  The marked fluctuations in the returns are mainly attributable to
+  variations in the price and quantity of imported cereals and in the
+  sale of currants. The great excess of imports, caused by the large
+  importation of food-stuffs and manufactured articles, is due to the
+  neglect of agriculture and the undeveloped condition of local
+  industries.
+
+  The imports and exports for 1905 were distributed as follows:--
+
+    +--------------------+--------------+-------------+
+    |                    | Imports from.| Exports to. |
+    +--------------------+--------------+-------------+
+    |                    |     Frs.     |    Frs.     |
+    | Russia             |  27,725,218  |    810,925  |
+    | Great Britain      |  27,516,928  | 24,436,707  |
+    | Austria-Hungary    |  19,444,415  |  7,876,806  |
+    | Turkey             |  15,538,370  |  4,516,403  |
+    | Germany            |  13,896,687  |  7,514,474  |
+    | France             |  10,101,070  |  7,078,321  |
+    | Italy              |   6,190,253  |  4,266,210  |
+    | Bulgaria           |   5,135,718  |    133,106  |
+    | Rumania            |   3,814,641  |  1,152,207  |
+    | America            |   2,656,501  |  6,440,648  |
+    | Belgium            |   2,276,393  |  2,068,138  |
+    | Netherlands        |   1,921,762  |  7,180,301  |
+    | Egypt              |    634,035   |  5,928,555  |
+    | Switzerland        |     348,281  |     ..      |
+    | Other countries    |   4,555,781  |  4,288,365  |
+    |                    | -----------  | ----------  |
+    | Total              | 141,756,053  | 83,691,166  |
+    +--------------------+--------------+-------------+
+
+  An enumeration of the chief articles of importation and exportation,
+  together with their value, will be found in tabular form overleaf.
+
+  Greece does not possess any manufacturing industries on a large scale;
+  the absence of a native coal supply is an obstacle to their
+  development. In 1889 there were 145 establishments employing steam of
+  5568 indicated horse-power; in 1892 the total horse-power employed was
+  estimated at 10,000. In addition to the smelting-works at Laurium, at
+  which some 5000 hands are employed by Greek and French companies and
+  local proprietors, there are flour mills, cloth, cotton and silk
+  spinning mills, ship-building and engineering works, oil-presses,
+  tanneries, powder and dynamite mills, soap mills (about 40), and
+  some manufactures of paper, glass, matches, turpentine, white lead,
+  hats, gloves, candles, &c. About 100 factories are established in the
+  neighbourhood of Athens and Peiraeus. The wine industry (10 factories)
+  is of considerable importance, and the manufacture of cognac has
+  latterly made great progress; there are 10 large and numerous small
+  cognac distilleries. Ship-building is carried on actively at all the
+  ports on the mainland and islands; about 200 ships, mostly of low
+  tonnage, are launched annually.
+
+    _Principal Articles of Importation._
+
+    +-----------------------------+--------------------------+--------------------------+
+    |                             |           1904.          |          1905.           |
+    |                             +------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+    |          Articles.          |Total value |Imported from|Total value |Imported from|
+    |                             | in francs. | the United  | in francs. | the United  |
+    |                             |            |  Kingdom.   |            |  Kingdom.   |
+    +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+    | Cereals                     | 27,735,808 |    none     | 32,511,784 |    none     |
+    | Textiles                    | 17,999,344 | 10,762,464  | 13,460,620 |  5,497,172  |
+    | Raw minerals                | 13,341,191 |  7,630,633  |     ..     |     ..      |
+    | Forest products             | 10,146,500 |      9,769  | 12,254,190 |     61,309  |
+    | Wrought metals              |  7,757,444 |  2,162,250  |     ..     |     ..      |
+    | Coals and pit-coal          |  6,522,086 |  6,087,068  |  5,073,841 |  4,308,357  |
+    | Yarn and tissues            |  4,739,819 |  2,504,667  |  8,021,523 |  6,838,079  |
+    | Fish                        |  4,992,615 |  2,394,224  |  1,014,164 |    186,072  |
+    | Raw hides                   |  4,558,101 |    478,965  |  3,909,657 |    215,745  |
+    | Various animals             |  4,271,151 |    none     |  3,373,523 |      1,268  |
+    | Horses                      |  3,011,450 |    none     |  2,070,250 |    none     |
+    | Paper, books, &c.           |  3,327,144 |    157,017  |  3,319,700 |     76,454  |
+    | Coffee                      |  2,957,601 |    293,610  |  3,060,904 |    107,296  |
+    | Sugar                       |  2,606,696 |    none     |  2,887,854 |         70  |
+    | Rice                        |  1,977,894 |     63,882  |  1,901,486 |    236,027  |
+    | Colours                     |  1,750,858 |    341,839  |  2,146,509 |    281,433  |
+    +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+--------------------------+
+
+    _Chief Articles of Exportation._
+
+    +-----------------------------+--------------------------+--------------------------+
+    |                             |           1904.          |          1905.           |
+    |                             +--------------------------+------------+-------------+
+    |          Articles.          |Total value | Exported to |Total value | Exported to |
+    |                             | in francs. | the United  | in francs. | the United  |
+    |                             |            |  Kingdom.   |            |  Kingdom.   |
+    +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+    | Currants                    | 28,841,678 | 14,569,137  | 34,299,780 | 17,008,929  |
+    | Minerals and raw metals     | 19,134,185 |  5,161,898  | 15,125,072 |  5,438,698  |
+    | Wines                       | 10,084,960 |    429,143  |  5,832,139 |    881,696  |
+    | Tobacco                     |  7,285,385 |     39,512  |  6,157,092 |    147,565  |
+    | Olive oil                   |  4,163,262 |    212,081  |  2,150,285 |     64,310  |
+    | Figs                        |  3,583,428 |     62,304  |  3,309,432 |    338,196  |
+    | Minerals and metals (worked)|  2,754,245 |      7,750  |  2,607,580 |        900  |
+    | Olives                      |  1,793,362 |      9,833  |  1,138,116 |     18,800  |
+    | Valonea                     |  1,558,678 |    200,849  |  1,917,014 |    146,927  |
+    | Cognac                      |  1,027,224 |     12,099  |  1,091,160 |      2,283  |
+    +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+
+  _Public Works._--The important drainage-works at Lake Copais were
+  taken over by an English company in 1890. The lake covered an area of
+  58,080 acres, the greater part of which is now rendered fit for
+  cultivation. The drainage works consist of a canal, 28 kilometres in
+  length, and a tunnel of 600 metres descending through the mountain to
+  a lower lake, which is connected by a second tunnel with the sea. The
+  reclaimed land is highly fertile. The area under crops amounted in
+  1906 to 27,414 acres, of which 20,744 were let to tenants and the
+  remainder farmed by the company. The uncultivated portion affords
+  excellent grazing. The canal through the Isthmus of Corinth was opened
+  to navigation in November 1893. The total cost of the works, which
+  were begun by a company in 1882, was 70,000,000 francs. The narrowness
+  of the canal, which is only 24.60 metres broad at the surface, and the
+  strength of the current which passes through it, seriously detract
+  from its utility. The high charges imposed on foreign vessels have
+  proved almost prohibitive. There are reduced rates for ships sailing
+  in Greek waters. Up to the 31st of July 1906, 37,214 vessels, with a
+  tonnage of 4,971,922, had passed through the canal. The receipts up to
+  that date were 3,207,835 drachmae (mainly from Greek ships) and
+  415,976 francs (mainly from foreign ships). In 1905, 2930 vessels
+  (2735 Greek) passed through, the receipts being 281,935 drachmae and
+  34,142 francs. The total liabilities of the company in 1906 were about
+  40,000,000 fr. The canal would be more frequented by foreign shipping
+  if the harbours at its entrances were improved, and its sides, which
+  are of masonry, lined with beams; efforts are being made to raise
+  funds for these purposes. The widening of the Euripus Channel at
+  Chalcis to the extent of 21.56 metres was accomplished in 1894. The
+  operations involved the destruction of the picturesque Venetian tower
+  which guarded the strait. A canal was completed in 1903 rendering
+  navigable the shallow channel between Leucas (Santa Maura) and the
+  mainland (breadth 15 metres, depth 5 metres). Large careening docks
+  were undertaken in 1909 at Peiraeus at an estimated cost of 4,750,000
+  drachmae.
+
+  _Communications._--Internal communication by roads is improving,
+  though much remains to be done, especially as regards the quality of
+  the roads. A considerable impetus was given to road-making under the
+  Trikoupis administration. In 1878 there were only 555 m. of roads; in
+  1898 there were 2398 m.; in 1906, 3275 m. Electric trams have been
+  introduced at Patras. Railways were open to traffic in 1900 for a
+  length of 598 m.; in 1906 for a length of 867 m. The circuit of the
+  Morea railways (462 m.) was completed in 1902; from Diakophto, on the
+  north coast, a cogwheel railway, finished in 1894, ascends to
+  Kalavryta. A very important undertaking is the completion of a line
+  from Peiraeus to the frontier, the contract for which was signed in
+  1900 between the Greek government and the Eastern Railway Extension
+  Syndicate (subsequently converted into the _Société des Chemins de Fer
+  helléniques_). A line Connecting Peiraeus with Larissa was begun in
+  1890, but in 1894 the English company which had undertaken the
+  contract went into liquidation. Under the contract of 1900 the line
+  was drawn through Demerli, in the south of Thessaly, to Larissa, a
+  distance of 217 m., and continued through the vale of Tempe to the
+  Turkish frontier (about 246 m. in all). Branch lines have been
+  constructed to Lamia and Chalcis. The establishment of a connexion
+  with the continental railway system, by a junction with the line from
+  Belgrade to Salonica, would be of immense advantage to Greece, and the
+  Peiraeus would become an important place of embarkation for Egypt,
+  India and the Far East.
+
+
+    Posts and telegraphs.
+
+  In 1905 the number of post offices was 640. Of these 320 were also
+  telegraph and 89 telephone stations, with 664 clerks; the remaining
+  post offices possess no special staff, but are served by persons who
+  also pursue other occupations. The number of postmen and other
+  employees was 889. During the year there passed through the post
+  6,897,899 ordinary letters for the interior, 2,980,958 for foreign
+  destinations, 2,788,477 from abroad; 540,411 registered letters or
+  parcels for the interior, 309,907 for foreign countries, and 300,150
+  from abroad; 880,673 post-cards for the interior, 504,785 from abroad,
+  and 187,975 sent abroad; 100,680 samples; 7,068,125 printed papers for
+  the interior, 5,278,405 to or from foreign countries. Telegraph lines
+  in 1905 extended over 4222 m. with 6836 m. of wires; 841,913 inland
+  telegrams, 221,188 service telegrams and 129,036 telegrams to foreign
+  destinations were despatched, and 169,519 received from abroad.
+  Receipts amounted to 4,589,601 drachmae (postal service 2,744,212,
+  telegraph and telephone services 1,845,389 drachmae) and expenditure
+  to 3,954,742 drachmae.
+
+
+  Army.
+
+The Greek army has recently been in a state of transition. Its condition
+has never been satisfactory, partly owing to the absence of systematic
+effort in the work of organization, partly owing to the pernicious
+influence of political parties, and in times of national emergency it
+has never been in a condition of readiness. The experience of the war of
+1897 proved the need of far-reaching administrative changes and
+disciplinary reforms. A scheme of complete reorganization was
+subsequently elaborated under the auspices of the crown prince
+Constantine, the commander-in-chief, and received the assent of the
+Chamber in June 1904. During the war of 1897 about 65,000 infantry, 1000
+cavalry, and 24 batteries were put into the field, and after great
+efforts another 15,000 men were mobilized. Under the new scheme it is
+proposed to maintain on a peace footing 1887 officers, 25,140
+non-commissioned officers and men, and 4059 horses and mules; in time of
+war the active army will consist of at least 120,000 men and the
+territorial army of at least 60,000 men. The heavy expenditure entailed
+by the project has been an obstacle to its immediate realization. In
+order to meet this expenditure a special fund has been instituted in
+addition to the ordinary military budget, and certain revenues have been
+assigned to it amounting to about 5,500,000 drachmae annually. In 1906,
+however, it was decided to suspend partially for five years the
+operation of the law of 1904 and to devote the resources thus
+economized together with other funds to the immediate purchase of new
+armaments and equipment. Under this temporary arrangement the peace
+strength of the army in 1908 consisted of 1939 officers and civilians,
+19,416 non-commissioned officers and men and 2661 horses and mules; it
+is calculated that the reserves will furnish about 77,000 men and the
+territorial army about 37,000 men in time of war.
+
+Military service is obligatory, and liability to serve begins from the
+twenty-first year. The term of service comprises two years in the active
+army, ten years in the active army reserve (for cavalry eight years),
+eight years in the territorial army (for cavalry ten years) and ten
+years for all branches in the territorial army reserve. As a rule,
+however, the period of service in the active army has hitherto been
+considerably shortened; with a view to economy, the men, under the law
+of 1904, receive furlough after eighteen months with the colours.
+Exemptions from military service, which were previously very numerous,
+are also restricted considerably by the law of 1904, which will secure a
+yearly contingent of about 13,000 men in time of peace. The conscripts
+in excess of the yearly contingent are withdrawn by lot; they are
+required to receive six months' training in the ranks as supernumeraries
+before passing into the reserve, in which they form a special category
+of "liability" men. Under the temporary system of 1906 the contingent is
+reduced to about 10,000 men by postponing the abrogation of several
+exemptions, and the period of service is fixed at fourteen months for
+all the conscripts alike. The field army as constituted by the law of
+1904 consists of 3 divisions, each division comprising 2 brigades of
+infantry, each of 2 regiments of 3 battalions and other units. There are
+thus 36 battalions of infantry (of which 12 are cadres); also 6
+battalions of _evzones_ (highlanders), 18 squadrons of cavalry (6
+cadres), 33 batteries of artillery (6 cadres), 3 battalions of engineers
+and telegraphists, 3 companies of ambulance, 3 of train, &c. The
+artillery is composed of 24 field batteries, 3 heavy and 6 mountain
+batteries; it is mainly provided with Krupp 7.5 cm. guns dating from
+1870 or earlier. After a series of trials in 1907 it was decided to
+order 36 field batteries of 7.5 cm. quick-firing guns and 6 mountain
+batteries, in all 168 guns, with 1500 projectiles for each battery from
+the Creuzot factory. The infantry, which was hitherto armed with the
+obsolete Gras rifle (.433 in.), was furnished in 1907 with the
+Mannlicher-Schönauer (model 1903) of which 100,000 had been delivered in
+May 1908. Hitherto the gendarmerie, which replaced the police, have
+formed a corps drawn from the army, which in 1908 consisted of 194
+officers and 6344 non-commissioned officers and men, but a law passed in
+1907 provided for these forces being thenceforth recruited separately by
+voluntary enlistment in annual contingents of 700 men. The participation
+of the officers in politics, which has proved very injurious to
+discipline, has been checked by a law forbidding officers below the rank
+of colonel to stand for the Chamber. In the elections of 1905 115
+officers were candidates. The three divisional headquarters are at
+Larissa, Athens and Missolonghi; the six headquarters of brigades are at
+Trikkala, Larissa, Athens, Chalcis, Missolonghi and Nauplia. In 1907
+annual manoeuvres were instituted.
+
+
+  Navy.
+
+The Greek fleet consisted in 1907 of 3 armoured barbette ships of 4885
+tons (built in France in 1890, reconstructed 1899), carrying each three
+10.8-in. guns, five 6-in., thirteen quick-firing and smaller guns, and
+three torpedo tubes; 1 cruiser of 1770 tons (built in 1879), with two
+6.7-in. and six light quick-firing guns; 1 armoured central battery ship
+of 1774 tons (built 1867, reconstructed 1897) with two 8.4 in. and nine
+small quick-firing guns; 2 coast-defence gunboats with one 10.6-in. gun
+each; 4 corvettes; 1 torpedo depôt ship; 8 destroyers, each with six
+guns (ordered in 1905); 3 transport steamers; 7 small gunboats; 3 mining
+boats; 5 torpedo boats; 1 royal yacht; 2 school ships and various minor
+vessels. The personnel of the navy was composed in 1907 of 437 officers,
+26 cadets, 1118 petty officers, 2372 seamen and stokers, 60 boys and 99
+civilians, together with 386 artisans employed at the arsenal. The navy
+is manned chiefly by conscription; the period of service is two years,
+with four years in the reserve. The headquarters of the fleet and
+arsenal are in the island of Salamis, where there is a dockyard with
+naval stores, a floating dock and a torpedo school. Most of the vessels
+of the Greek fleet were in 1907 obsolete; in 1904 a commission under the
+presidency of Prince George proposed the rearmament of the existing
+ironclads and the purchase of three new ironclads and other vessels. A
+different scheme of reorganization, providing almost exclusively for
+submarines and scout vessels, was suggested to the government by the
+French admiral Fournier in 1908, but was opposed by the Greek naval
+officers. With a view to the augmentation and better equipment of the
+fleet a special fund was instituted in 1900 to which certain revenues
+have been assigned; it has been increased by various donations and
+bequests and by the proceeds of a state lottery. The fleet is not
+exercised methodically either in navigation or gunnery practice; a long
+voyage, however, was undertaken by the ironclad vessels in 1904. The
+Greeks, especially the islanders of the Aegean, make better sailors than
+soldiers; the personnel of the navy, if trained by foreign officers,
+might be brought to a high state of efficiency.
+
+
+    Finance.
+
+  The financial history of Greece has been unsatisfactory from the
+  outset. Excessive military and naval expenditure (mainly due to
+  repeated and hasty mobilizations), a lax and improvident system of
+  administration, the corruption of political parties and the
+  instability of the government, which has rendered impossible the
+  continuous application of any scheme of fiscal reform--all alike have
+  contributed to the economic ruin of the country. For a long series of
+  years preceding the declaration of national insolvency in 1893
+  successive budgets presented a deficit, which in years of political
+  excitement and military activity assumed enormous proportions: the
+  shortcomings of the budget were supplied by the proceeds of foreign
+  loans, or by means of advances obtained in the country at a high rate
+  of interest. The two loans which had been contracted during the war of
+  independence were extinguished by means of a conversion in 1889. Of
+  the existing foreign loans the earliest is that of 60,000,000 frs.,
+  guaranteed by the three protecting powers in 1832; owing to the
+  payment of interest and amortization by the powers, the capital
+  amounted in 1871 to 100,392,833 fr.; on this Greece pays an annual sum
+  of 900,000 fr., of which 300,000 have been granted by the powers as a
+  yearly subvention to King George. The only other existing foreign
+  obligation of early date is the debt to the heirs of King Otho
+  (4,500,000 dr.) contracted in 1868. A large amount of internal debt
+  was incurred between 1848 and 1880, but a considerable proportion of
+  this was redeemed with the proceeds of the foreign loans negotiated
+  after this period. At the end of 1880 the entire national debt,
+  external and internal, stood at 252,652,481 dr. In 1881 the era of
+  great foreign loans began. In that year a 5% loan of 120,000,000 fr.
+  was raised to defray the expenses of the mobilization of 1880. This
+  was followed in 1884 by a 5% loan of 170,000,000 fr., of which
+  100,000,000 was actually issued. The service of these loans was
+  guaranteed by various State revenues. A "patriotic loan" of 30,000,000
+  dr. without interest, issued during the war excitement of 1885, proved
+  a failure, only 2,723,860 dr. being subscribed. In 1888 a 4% loan of
+  135,000,000 fr. was contracted, secured on the receipts of the five
+  State monopolies, the management of which was entrusted to a
+  privileged company. In the following year (1889) two 4% loans of
+  30,000,000 fr. and 125,000,000 fr. respectively were issued without
+  guarantee or sinking fund; Greek credit had now apparently attained an
+  established position in the foreign money market, but a decline of
+  public confidence soon became evident. In 1890, of a 5% loan of
+  80,000,000 fr. effective, authorized for the construction of the
+  Peiraeus-Larissa railway, only 40,050,000 fr. was taken up abroad and
+  12,900,000 fr. at home; large portions of the proceeds were devoted to
+  other purposes. In 1892 the government was compelled to make large
+  additions to the internal floating debt, and to borrow 16,500,000 fr.
+  from the National Bank on onerous terms. In 1893 an effort to obtain a
+  foreign loan for the reduction of the forced currency proved
+  unsuccessful. (For the events leading up to the declaration of
+  national bankruptcy in that year see under _Recent History_.) A
+  funding convention was concluded in the summer, under which the
+  creditors accepted scrip instead of cash payments of interest. A few
+  months later this arrangement was reversed by the Chamber, and on the
+  13th December a law was passed assigning provisionally to all the
+  foreign loans alike 30% of the stipulated interest; the reduced
+  coupons were made payable in paper instead of gold, the sinking funds
+  were suspended, and the sums encashed by the monopoly company were
+  confiscated. The causes of the financial catastrophe may be briefly
+  summarized as follows: (1) The military preparations of 1885-1886,
+  with the attendant disorganization of the country; the extraordinary
+  expenditure of these years amounted to 130,987,772 dr. (2) Excessive
+  borrowing abroad, involving a charge for the service of foreign loans
+  altogether disproportionate to the revenue. (3) Remissness in the
+  collection of taxation: the total loss through arrears in a period of
+  ten years (1882-1891) was 36,549,202 dr., being in the main
+  attributable to non-payment of direct taxes. (4) The adverse balance
+  of trade, largely due to the neglected condition of agriculture; in
+  the five years preceding the crisis (1888-1892) the exports were
+  stated to amount to £19,578,973, while the imports reached
+  £24,890,146; foreign live stock and cereals being imported to the
+  amount of £6,193,579. The proximate cause of the crisis was the rise
+  in the exchange owing to the excessive amount of paper money in
+  circulation. Forced currency was first introduced in 1868, when
+  15,000,000 dr. in paper money was issued; it was abolished in the
+  following year, but reintroduced in 1877 with a paper issue of
+  44,000,000 dr. It was abolished a second time in 1884, but again put
+  into circulation in 1885, when paper loans to the amount of 45,000,000
+  dr. were authorized. In 1893 the total authorized forced currency was
+  146,000,000 dr., of which 88,000,000 (including 14,000,000 dr. in
+  small notes) was on account of the government. The gold and silver
+  coinage had practically disappeared from circulation. The rate of
+  exchange, as a rule, varies directly with the amount of paper money in
+  circulation, but, owing to speculation, it is liable to violent
+  fluctuations whenever there is an exceptional demand for gold in the
+  market. In 1893 the gold franc stood at the ratio of 1.60 to the paper
+  drachma; the service of the foreign loans required upwards of
+  31,000,000 dr. in gold, and any attempt to realize this sum in the
+  market would have involved an outlay equivalent to at least half the
+  budget. With the failure of the projected loan for the withdrawal of
+  the forced currency repudiation became inevitable. The law of the 13th
+  of December was not recognized by the national creditors: prolonged
+  negotiations followed, but no arrangement was arrived at till 1897,
+  when the intervention of the powers after the war with Turkey
+  furnished the opportunity for a definite settlement. It was stipulated
+  that Turkey should receive an indemnity of £T4,000,000 contingent on
+  the evacuation of Thessaly; in order to secure the payment of this sum
+  by Greece without prejudice to the interests of her creditors, and to
+  enable the country to recover from the economic consequences of the
+  war, Great Britain, France and Russia undertook to guarantee a 2½%
+  loan of 170,000,000 fr., of which 150,000,000 fr. has been issued. By
+  the preliminary treaty of peace (18th of September 1897) an
+  International Financial Commission, composed of six representatives of
+  the powers, was charged with the payment of the indemnity to Turkey,
+  and with "absolute control" over the collection and employment of
+  revenues sufficient for the service of the foreign debt. A law
+  defining the powers of the Commission was passed by the Chamber, 26th
+  of February 1898 (o.s.). The revenues assigned to its supervision were
+  the five government monopolies, the tobacco and stamp duties, and the
+  import duties of Peiraeus (total annual value estimated at 39,600,000
+  dr.): the collection was entrusted to a Greek society, which is under
+  the absolute control of the Commission. The returns of Peiraeus
+  customs (estimated at 10,700,000 dr.) are regarded as an extra
+  guarantee, and are handed over to the Greek government; when the
+  produce of the other revenues exceeds 28,900,000 dr. the "plus value"
+  or surplus is divided in the proportion of 50.8% to the Greek
+  government and 49.2% to the creditors. The plus values amounted to
+  3,301,481 dr. in 1898, 3,533,755 dr. in 1899, and 3,442,713 dr. in
+  1900. Simultaneously with the establishment of the control the
+  interest for the Monopoly Loan was fixed at 43%, for the Funding Loan
+  at 40%, and for the other loans at 32% of the original interest. With
+  the revenues at its disposal the International Commission has already
+  been enabled to make certain augmentations in the service of the
+  foreign debt; since 1900 it has begun to take measures for the
+  reduction of the forced currency, of which 2,000,000 dr. will be
+  annually bought up and destroyed till the amount in circulation is
+  reduced to 40,000,000 dr. On the 1st of January 1901 the authorized
+  paper issue was 164,000,000 dr., of which 92,000,000 (including
+  18,000,000 in fractional currency) was on account of the government;
+  the amount in actual circulation was 148,619,618 dr. On the 31st of
+  July 1906 the paper issue had been reduced to 152,775,975 dr., and the
+  amount in circulation was 124,668,057 dr. The financial commission
+  retains its powers until the extinction of all the foreign loans
+  contracted since 1881. Though its activity is mainly limited to the
+  administration of the assigned revenues, it has exercised a beneficial
+  influence over the whole domain of Greek finance; the effect may be
+  observed in the greatly enhanced value of Greek securities since its
+  institution, averaging 25.76% in 1906. No change can be made in its
+  composition or working without the consent of the six powers, and none
+  of the officials employed in the collection of the revenues subject to
+  its control can be dismissed or transferred without its consent. It
+  thus constitutes an element of stability and order which cannot fail
+  to react on the general administration. It is unable, however, to
+  control the expenditure or to assert any direct influence over the
+  government, with which the responsibility still rests for an improved
+  system of collection, a more efficient staff of functionaries and the
+  repression of smuggling. The country has shown a remarkable vitality
+  in recovering from the disasters of 1897, and should it in future
+  obtain a respite from paroxysms of military and political excitement,
+  its financial regeneration will be assured.
+
+  The following table gives the actual expenditure and receipts for the
+  period 1889-1906 inclusive:
+
+    +---------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+    |  Year.  |   Actual    |    Actual    |  Surplus or  |
+    |         |  Receipts.  | Expenditure. |   Deficit.   |
+    +---------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+    |         |  Drachmae.  |   Drachmae.  |  Drachmae.   |
+    | 1889    |  83,731,591 |  110,772,327 |  -27,040,736 |
+    | 1890    |  79,931,795 |  125,932,579 |  -46,000,784 |
+    | 1891    |  90,321,872 |  122,836,385 |  -32,514,513 |
+    | 1892    |  95,465,569 |  107,283,498 |  -11,817,929 |
+    | 1893*   |  96,723,418 |   92,133,565 |  + 4,589,853 |
+    | 1894    | 102,885,643 |   85,135,752 |  +17,749,891 |
+    | 1895    |  94,657,065 |   91,641,967 |  + 3,015,098 |
+    | 1896    |  96,931,726 |   90,890,607 |  + 6,041,119 |
+    | 1897**  |  92,485,825 |  137,043,929 |  -44,558,104 |
+    | 1898*** | 104,949,718 |  110,341,431 |  - 5,391,713 |
+    | 1899    | 111,318,273 |  104,586,504 |  + 6,731,769 |
+    | 1900    | 112,206,849 |  112,049,279 |  +   157,570 |
+    | 1901    | 115,734,159 |  113,646,301 |  + 2,087,858 |
+    | 1902    | 123,949,931 |  121,885,707 |  + 2,064,224 |
+    | 1903    | 120,194,362 |  117,436,549 |  + 2,757,813 |
+    | 1904    | 121,186,246 |  120,200,247 |  +   985,999 |
+    | 1905    | 126,472,580 |  118,699,761 |  + 7,772,819 |
+    | 1906    | 125,753,358 |  124,461,577 |  + 1,291,781 |
+    +---------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+      * Reduction of interest on foreign debt by 70%.
+     ** War with Turkey.
+    *** International Financial Commission instituted.
+
+  The steady increase of receipts since 1898 attests the growing
+  prosperity of the country, but expenditure has been allowed to
+  outstrip revenue, and, notwithstanding the official figures which
+  represent a series of surpluses, the accumulated deficit in 1905
+  amounted to about 14,000,000, dr. in addition to treasury bonds for
+  8,000,000 dr. A remarkable feature has been the rapid fall in the
+  exchange since 1903; the gold franc, which stood at 1.63 dr. in 1902,
+  had fallen to 1.08 in October 1906. The decline, a favourable symptom
+  if resulting from normal economic factors, is apparently due to a
+  combination of exceptional circumstances, and consequently may not be
+  maintained; it has imposed a considerable strain on the financial and
+  commercial situation. The purchasing power of the drachma remains
+  almost stationary and the price of imported commodities continues
+  high; import dues, which since 1904 are payable in drachmae at the
+  fixed rate of 1.45 to the franc, have been practically increased by
+  more than 30%. In April 1900 a 4% loan of 43,750,000 francs for the
+  completion of the railway from Peiraeus to the Turkish frontier, and
+  another loan of 11,750,000 drachmae for the construction of a line
+  from Pyrgos to Meligala, linking up the Morea railway system, were
+  sanctioned by the Chamber; the first-named, the "Greek Railways Loan,"
+  was taken up at 80 by the syndicate contracting for the works and was
+  placed on the market in 1902. The service of both loans is provided by
+  the International Commission from the surplus funds of the assigned
+  revenues. On the 1st of January 1906 the external debt amounted to
+  725,939,500 francs and the internal (including the paper circulation)
+  to 171,629,436 drachmae.
+
+  The budget estimates for 1906 were as follows: Civil list, 1,325,000
+  dr.; pensions, payment of deputies, &c., 7,706,676 dr.; public debt,
+  34,253,471 dr.; foreign affairs, 3,563,994 dr.; justice, 6,240,271
+  dr.; interior, 13,890,927 dr.; religion and education, 7,143,924 dr.;
+  army, 20,618,563 dr.; navy, 7,583,369 dr.; finance, 2,362,143 dr.;
+  collection of revenue, 10,650,487 dr.; various expenditure, 9,122,752
+  dr.; total, 124,461,577 dr.
+
+  The two privileged banks in Greece are the National Bank, founded in
+  1841; capital 20,000,000 drachmae in 20,000 shares of 1000 dr. each,
+  fully paid up; reserve fund 13,500,000 dr.; notes in circulation
+  (September 1906) 126,721,887 dr., of which 76,360,905 dr. on account
+  of the government; and the Ionian Bank, incorporated in 1839; capital
+  paid up £315,500 in 63,102 shares, of £5 each; notes in circulation,
+  10,200,000 drachmae, of which 3,500,000 (in fractional notes of 1 and
+  2 dr.) on account of the government. The notes issued by these two
+  banks constitute the forced paper currency circulating throughout the
+  kingdom. In the case of the Ionian Bank the privilege of issuing
+  notes, originally limited to the Ionian Islands, will expire in 1920.
+  The National Bank is a private institution under supervision of the
+  government, which is represented by a royal commissioner on the board
+  of administration; the central establishment is at Athens with
+  forty-two branches throughout the country. The headquarters of the
+  Ionian Bank, which is a British institution, are in London; the bank
+  has a central office at Athens and five branches in Greece. The
+  privileged Epiro-Thessalian Bank ceased to exist from the 4th of
+  January 1900, when it was amalgamated with the National Bank. There
+  are several other banking companies, as well as private banks, at
+  Athens. The most important is the Bank of Athens (capital 40,000,000
+  dr.), founded in 1893; it possesses five branches in Greece and six
+  abroad.
+
+
+    Currency, weights and measures.
+
+  Greece entered the Latin Monetary Union in 1868. The monetary unit is
+  the new drachma, equivalent to the franc, and divided into 100 lepta
+  or centimes. There are nickel coins of 20, 10 and 5 lepta, copper
+  coins of 10 and 5 lepta. Gold and silver coins were minted in Paris
+  between 1868 and 1884, but have since practically disappeared from the
+  country. The paper currency consists of notes for 1000 dr., 500 dr.,
+  100 dr., 25 dr., 10 dr. and 5 dr., and of fractional notes for 2 dr.
+  and 1 dr. The decimal system of weights and measures was adopted in
+  1876, but some of the old Turkish standards are still in general use.
+  The dram = 1/10 oz. avoirdupois approximately; the oke = 400 drams or
+  2.8 lb.; the kilo = 22 okes or 0.114 of an imperial quarter; the
+  cantar or quintal = 44 okes or 123.2 lb. Liquids are measured by
+  weight. The punta = 1-5/8 in.; the ruppa, 3½ in.; the pik, 26 in.; the
+  stadion = 1 kilometre or 1093½ yds. The stremma (square measure) is
+  nearly one-third of an acre.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--W. Leake, _Researches in Greece_ (1814), _Travels in the
+  Morea_ (3 vols., 1830), _Travels in Northern Greece_ (4 vols., 1834),
+  _Peloponnesiaca_ (1846); Bursian, _Geographie von Griechenland_ (2
+  vols., Leipzig, 1862-1873); Lolling, "Hellenische Landeskunde und
+  Topographie" in Ivan Müller's _Handbuch der klassischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_; C. Wordsworth, _Greece; Pictorial, Descriptive
+  and Historical_ (new ed., revised by H. F. Tozer, London, 1882); K.
+  Stephanos, _La Grèce_ (Paris, 1884); C. Neumann and J. Partsch,
+  _Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland_ (Breslau, 1885); K.
+  Krumbacher, _Griechische Reise_ (Berlin, 1886); J. P. Mahaffy,
+  _Rambles and Studies in Greece_ (London, 1887); R. A. H.
+  Bickford-Smith, _Greece under King George_ (London, 1893); Ch. Diehl,
+  _Excursions archéologiques en Grèce_ (Paris, 1893); Perrot and
+  Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art_, tome vi., "La Grèce primitive" (Paris,
+  1894); tome vii., "La Grèce archaïque" (Paris, 1898); A. Philippson,
+  _Griechenland und seine Stellung im Orient_ (Leipzig, 1897); L.
+  Sergeant, _Greece in the Nineteenth Century_ (London, 1897); J. G.
+  Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_ (6 vols., London, 1898);
+  _Pausanias and other Greek Sketches_ (London, 1900); _Greco-Turkish
+  War of 1897_, from official sources, by a German staff officer (Eng.
+  trans., London, 1898); J. A. Symonds, _Studies_, and _Sketches in
+  Italy and Greece_ (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1898); V. Bérard, _La
+  Turquie et l'hellénisme contemporaine_ (Paris, 1900).
+
+  For the climate: D. Aeginetes, [Greek: To klima tês Hellados] (Athens,
+  1908).
+
+  For the fauna: Th. de Heldreich, _La Fauna de la Grèce_ (Athens,
+  1878).
+
+  For special topography: A. Meliarakes, [Greek: Kukladika êtoi
+  geographia kai historia tôn Kukladikôn nêsôn] (Athens, 1874); [Greek:
+  'Tpomnêmata perigraphika tôn Kukladôn nêsôn Androu kai Keô] (Athens,
+  1880); [Greek: Geographia politikê nea kai archaia tou nomou Argolidos
+  kai Korinthias] (Athens, 1886); [Greek: Geographia politikê nea kai
+  archaia tou nomou Kephallênias]. (Athens, 1890); Th. Bent, _The
+  Cyclades_ (London, 1885); A. Bötticher, _Olympia_ (2nd ed., Berlin,
+  1886); J. Partsch, _Die Insel Corfu: eine geographische Monographie_
+  (Gotha, 1887); _Die Insel Leukas_ (Gotha, 1889); _Kephallenia und
+  Ithaka_ (Gotha, 1890); _Die Insel Zante_ (Gotha, 1891); A. Philippson,
+  _Der Peloponnes_. (_Versuch einer Landeskunde auf geologischer
+  Grundlage._) (Berlin, 1892); "Thessalien und Epirus" (_Reisen und
+  Forschungen im nördlichen Griechenland_) (Berlin, 1897); _Die
+  griechischen Inseln des ägäischen Meeres_ (Berlin, 1897); W. J.
+  Woodhouse, _Aetolia_ (Oxford, 1897); Schultz and Barnsley, _The
+  Monastery of St Luke of Stiris_ (London, 1901); M. Lamprinides,
+  [Greek: He Nauplia] (Athens, 1898); _Monuments de l'art byzantin_,
+  publiés par le Ministère de l'Instruction, tome i.; G. Millet, "Le
+  Monastère de Daphni" (Paris, 1900). For the life, customs and habits
+  of the modern Greeks: C. Wachsmuth, _Das alte Griechenland im neuen_
+  (Bonn, 1864); C. K. Tuckerman, _The Greeks of to-day_ (London, 1873);
+  B. Schmidt, _Volksleben der Neugriechen und das hellenische Altertum_
+  (Leipzig, 1871); Estournelle de Constant, _La Vie de province en
+  Grèce_ (Paris, 1878); E. About, _La Grèce contemporaine_ (Paris, 1855;
+  8th ed., 1883); J. T. Bent, _Modern Life and Thought among the Greeks_
+  (London, 1891); J. Rennell Rodd, The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece
+  (London, 1892). Guide-books, Baedeker's _Greece_ (3rd ed., Leipzig,
+  1905); Murray's _Handbook for Greece_ (7th ed., London, 1905);
+  Macmillan's _Guide to the Eastern Mediterranean_ (London, 1901).
+       (J. D. B.)
+
+
+2. HISTORY
+
+a. _Ancient; to 146_ B.C.
+
+1. _Introductory._--It is necessary to indicate at the outset the scope
+and object of the present article. The reader must not expect to find in
+it a compendious summary of the chief events in the history of ancient
+Greece. It is not intended to supply an "Outlines of Greek History." It
+may be questioned whether such a sketch of the history, within the
+limits of space which are necessarily imposed in a work of reference,
+would be of utility to any class of readers. At any rate, the plan of
+the present work, in which the subject of Greek history is treated of in
+a large number of separate articles, allows of the narrative of events
+being given in a more satisfactory form under the more general of the
+headings (e.g. ATHENS, SPARTA, PELOPONNESIAN WAR). The character of the
+history itself suggests a further reason why a general article upon
+Greek history should not be confined to, or even attempt, a narrative of
+events. A sketch of Greek history is not possible in the sense in which
+a sketch of Roman history, or even of English history, is possible.
+Greek history is not the history of a single state. When Aristotle
+composed his work upon the constitutions of the Greek states, he found
+it necessary to extend his survey to no less that 158 states. Greek
+history is thus concerned with more than 150 separate and independent
+political communities. Nor is it even the history of a single country.
+The area occupied by the Greek race extended from the Pyrenees to the
+Caucasus, and from southern Russia to northern Africa. It is inevitable,
+therefore, that the impression conveyed by a sketch of Greek history
+should be a misleading one. A mere narrative can hardly fail to give a
+false perspective. Experience shows that such a sketch is apt to resolve
+itself into the history of a few great movements and of a few leading
+states. What is still worse, it is apt to confine itself, at any rate
+for the greater part of the period dealt with, to the history of Greece
+in the narrower sense, i.e. of the Greek peninsula. For the
+identification of Greece with Greece proper there may be some degree of
+excuse when we come to the 5th and 4th centuries. In the period that
+lies behind the year 500 B.C. Greece proper forms but a small part of
+the Greek world. In the 7th and 6th centuries it is outside Greece
+itself that we must look for the most active life of the Greek people
+and the most brilliant manifestations of the Greek spirit. The present
+article, therefore, will be concerned with the causes and conditions of
+events, rather than with the events themselves; it will attempt analysis
+rather than narrative. Its object will be to indicate problems and to
+criticize views; to suggest lessons and parallels, and to estimate the
+importance of the Hellenic factor in the development of civilization.
+
+2. _The Minoan and Mycenaean Ages._--When does Greek history begin?
+Whatever may be the answer that is given to this question, it will be
+widely different from any that could have been proposed a generation
+ago. Then the question was, How late does Greek history begin? To-day
+the question is, How early does it begin? The suggestion made by Grote
+that the first Olympiad (776 B.C.) should be taken as the starting-point
+of the history of Greece, in the proper sense of the term "history,"
+seemed likely, not so many years ago, to win general acceptance. At the
+present moment the tendency would seem to be to go back as far as the
+3rd or 4th millennium B.C. in order to reach a starting-point. It is to
+the results of archaeological research during the last thirty years that
+we must attribute so startling a change in the attitude of historical
+science towards this problem. In the days when Grote published the first
+volumes of his _History of Greece_ archaeology was in its infancy. Its
+results, so far as they affected the earlier periods of Greek history,
+were scanty; its methods were unscientific. The methods have been
+gradually perfected by numerous workers in the field; but the results,
+which have so profoundly modified our conceptions of the early history
+of the Aegean area, are principally due to the discoveries of two men,
+Heinrich Schliemann and A. J. Evans. A full account of these discoveries
+will be found elsewhere (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION and CRETE). It will be
+sufficient to mention here that Schliemann's labours began with the
+excavations on the site of Troy in the years 1870-1873; that he passed
+on to the excavations at Mycenae in 1876 and to those at Tiryns in 1884.
+It was the discoveries of these years that revealed to us the Mycenaean
+age, and carried back the history to the middle of the 2nd millennium.
+The discoveries of Dr A. J. Evans in the island of Crete belong to a
+later period. The work of excavation was begun in 1900, and was carried
+on in subsequent years. It has revealed to us the Minoan age, and
+enabled us to trace back the development and origins of the civilization
+for a further period of 1000 or 1500 years. The dates assigned by
+archaeologists to the different periods of Mycenaean and Minoan art must
+be regarded as merely approximate. Even the relation of the two
+civilizations is still, to some extent, a matter of conjecture. The
+general chronological scheme, however, in the sense of the relative
+order of the various periods and the approximate intervals between them,
+is too firmly established, both by internal evidence, such as the
+development of the styles of pottery, and of the art in general, and by
+external evidence, such as the points of contact with Egyptian art and
+history, to admit of its being any longer seriously called in question.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Greece (ancient).]
+
+If, then, by "Greek history" is to be understood the history of the
+lands occupied in later times by the Greek race (i.e. the Greek
+peninsula and the Aegean basin), the beginnings of the history must be
+carried back some 2000 years before Grote's proposed starting-point. If,
+however, "Greek history" is taken to mean the history of the Greek
+people, the determination of the starting-point is far from easy. For
+the question to which archaeology does not as yet supply any certain
+answer is the question of race. Were the creators of the Minoan and
+Mycenaean civilization Greeks or were they not? In some degree the
+Minoan evidence has modified the answer suggested by the Mycenaean.
+Although wide differences of opinion as to the origin of the Mycenaean
+civilization existed among scholars when the results of Schliemann's
+labours were first given to the world, a general agreement had gradually
+been arrived at in favour of the view which would identify Mycenaean
+with Achaean or Homeric. In presence of the Cretan evidence it is no
+longer possible to maintain this view with the same confidence. The two
+chief difficulties in the way of attributing either the Minoan or the
+Mycenaean civilization to an Hellenic people are connected respectively
+with the script and the religion. The excavations at Cnossus have
+yielded thousands of tablets written in the linear script. There is
+evidence that this script was in use among the Mycenaeans as well. If
+Greek was the language spoken at Cnossus and Mycenae, how is it that all
+attempts to decipher the script have hitherto failed? The Cretan
+excavations, again, have taught us a great deal as to the religion of
+the Minoan age; they have, at the same time, thrown a new light upon the
+evidence supplied by Mycenaean sites. It is no longer possible to ignore
+the contrast between the cults of the Minoan and Mycenaean ages, and the
+religious conceptions which they imply, and the cults and religious
+conceptions prevalent in the historical period. On the other hand, it
+may safely be asserted that the argument derived from the Mycenaean art,
+in which we seem to trace a freedom of treatment which is akin to the
+spirit of the later Greek art, and is in complete contrast to the spirit
+of Oriental art, has received striking confirmation from the remains of
+Minoan art. The decipherment of the script would at once solve the
+problem. We should at least know whether the dominant race in Crete in
+the Minoan age spoke an Hellenic or a non-Hellenic dialect. And what
+could be inferred with regard to Crete in the Minoan age could almost
+certainly be inferred with regard to the mainland in the Mycenaean age.
+In the meanwhile, possibly until the tablets are read, at any rate until
+further evidence is forthcoming, any answer that can be given to the
+question must necessarily be tentative and provisional. (See AEGEAN
+CIVILIZATION.)
+
+It has already been implied that this period of the history of Greece
+may be subdivided into a Minoan and a Mycenaean age. Whether these terms
+are appropriate is a question of comparatively little importance. They
+at least serve to remind us of the part played by the discoveries at
+Mycenae and Cnossus in the reconstruction of the history. The term
+"Mycenaean," it is true, has other associations than those of locality.
+It may seem to imply that the civilization disclosed in the excavations
+at Mycenae is Achaean in character, and that it is to be connected with
+the Pelopid dynasty to which Agamemnon belonged. In its scientific use,
+the term must be cleared of all such associations. Further, as opposed
+to "Minoan" it must be understood in a more definite sense than that in
+which it has often been employed. It has come to be generally recognized
+that two different periods are to be distinguished in Schliemann's
+discoveries at Mycenae itself. There is an earlier period, to which
+belong the objects found in the shaft-graves, and there is a later
+period, to which belong the beehive tombs and the remains of the
+palaces. It is the latter period which is "Mycenaean" in the strict
+sense; i.e. it is "Mycenaean" as opposed to "Minoan." To this period
+belong also the palace at Tiryns, the beehive-tombs discovered elsewhere
+on the mainland of Greece and one of the cities on the site of Troy
+(Schliemann's sixth). The pottery of this period is as characteristic of
+it, both in its forms (e.g. the "stirrup" or "false-necked" form of
+vase) and in its peculiar glaze, as is the architecture of the palaces
+and the beehive-tombs. Although the chief remains have been found on the
+mainland of Greece itself, the art of this period is found to have
+extended as far north as Troy and as far east as Cyprus. On the other
+hand, hardly any traces of it have been discovered on the west coast of
+Asia Minor, south of the Troad. The Mycenaean age, in this sense, may be
+regarded as extending from 1600 to 1200 B.C. The Minoan age is of far
+wider extent. Its latest period includes both the earlier and the later
+periods of the remains found at Mycenae. This is the period called by Dr
+Evans "Late Minoan." To this period belong the Great Palace at Cnossus
+and the linear system of writing. The "Middle Minoan" period, to which
+the earlier palace belongs, is characterized by the pictographic system
+of writing and by polychrome pottery of a peculiarly beautiful kind. Dr
+Evans proposes to carry back this period as far as 2500 B.C. Even behind
+it there are traces of a still earlier civilization. Thus the Minoan
+age, even if limited to the middle and later periods, will cover at
+least a thousand years. Perhaps the most surprising result of the
+excavations in Crete is the discovery that Minoan art is on a higher
+level than Mycenaean art. To the scholars of a generation ago it seemed
+a thing incredible that the art of the shaft-graves, and the
+architecture of the beehive-tombs and the palaces, could belong to the
+age before the Dorian invasion. The most recent discoveries seem to
+indicate that the art of Mycenae is a decadent art; they certainly prove
+that an art, hardly inferior in its way to the art of the classical
+period, and a civilization which implies the command of great material
+resources, were flourishing in the Aegean perhaps a thousand years
+before the siege of Troy.
+
+
+  Oriental influence.
+
+To the question, "What is the origin of this civilization? Is it of
+foreign derivation or of native growth?" it is not possible to give a
+direct answer. It is clear, on the one hand that it was developed, by a
+gradual process of differentiation, from a culture which was common to
+the whole Aegean basin and extended as far to the west as Sicily. It is
+equally clear, on the other hand, that foreign influences contributed
+largely to the process of development. Egyptian influences, in
+particular, can be traced throughout the "Minoan" and "Mycenaean"
+periods. The developed art, however, both in Crete and on the mainland,
+displays characteristics which are the very opposite of those which are
+commonly associated with the term "oriental." Egyptian work, even of the
+best period, is stiff and conventional; in the best Cretan work, and, in
+a less degree, in Mycenaean work, we find an originality and a freedom
+of treatment which remind one of the spirit of the Greek artists. The
+civilization is, in many respects, of an advanced type. The Cretan
+architects could design on a grand scale, and could carry out their
+designs with no small degree of mechanical skill. At Cnossus we find a
+system of drainage in use, which is far in advance of anything known in
+the modern world before the 19th century. If the art of the Minoan age
+falls short of the art of the Periclean age, it is hardly inferior to
+that of the age of Peisistratus. It is a civilization, too, which has
+long been familiar with the art of writing. But it is one that belongs
+entirely to the Bronze Age. Iron is not found until the very end of the
+Mycenaean period, and then only in small quantities. Nor is this the
+only point of contrast between the culture of the earliest age and that
+of the historical period in Greece. The chief seats of the early culture
+are to be found either in the island of Crete, or, on the mainland, at
+Tiryns and Mycenae. In the later history Crete plays no part, and Tiryns
+and Mycenae are obscure. With the great names of a later age, Argos,
+Sparta and Athens, no great discoveries are connected. In northern
+Greece, Orchomenos rather than Thebes is the centre of influence.
+Further points of contrast readily suggest themselves. The so-called
+Phoenician alphabet, in use amongst the later Greeks, is unknown in the
+earliest age. Its systems of writing, both the earlier and the later
+one, are syllabic in character, and analogous to those in vogue in Asia
+Minor and Cyprus. In the art of war, the chariot is of more importance
+than the foot-soldier, and the latter, unlike the Greek hoplite, is
+lightly clad, and trusts to a shield large enough to cover the whole
+body, rather than to the metal helmet, breastplate and greaves of later
+times (see Arms and Armour: Greek). The political system appears to have
+been a despotic monarchy, and the realm of the monarch to have extended
+to far wider limits than those of the "city-states" of historical
+Greece. It is, perhaps, in the religious practices of the age, and in
+the ideas implied in them, that the contrast is most apparent. Neither
+in Crete nor on the mainland is there any trace of the worship of the
+"Olympian" deities. The cults in vogue remind us rather of Asia than of
+Greece. The worship of pillars and of trees carries us back to Canaan,
+while the double-headed axe, so prominent in the ritual of Cnossus,
+survives in later times as the symbol of the national deity of the
+Carians. The beehive-tombs, found on many sites on the mainland besides
+Mycenae, are evidence both of a method of sepulture and of ideas of the
+future state, which are alien to the practice and the thought of the
+Greeks of history. It is only in one region--in the island of
+Cyprus--that the culture of the Mycenaean age is found surviving into
+the historical period. As late as the beginning of the 5th century B.C.
+Cyprus is still ruled by kings, the alphabet has not yet displaced a
+syllabary, the characteristic forms of Mycenaean vases still linger on,
+and the chief deity of the island is the goddess with attendant doves
+whose images are among the common objects of Mycenaean finds.
+
+3. _The Homeric Age._--Alike in Crete and on the mainland the
+civilization disclosed by excavation comes abruptly to an end. In Crete
+we can trace it back from c. 1200 B.C. to the Neolithic period. From the
+Stone Age to the end of the Minoan Age the development is continuous and
+uninterrupted.[4] But between the culture of the Early Age and the
+culture of the Dorians, who occupied the island in historical times, no
+connexion whatever can be established. Between the two there is a great
+gulf fixed. It would be difficult to imagine a greater contrast than
+that presented by the rude life of the Dorian communities in Crete when
+it is compared with the political power, the material resources and the
+extensive commerce of the earlier period. The same gap between the
+archaeological age and the historical exists on the mainland also. It is
+true that the solution of continuity is here less complete. Mycenaean
+art continues, here and there, in a debased form down to the 9th
+century, a date to which we can trace back the beginnings of the later
+Greek art. On one or two lines (e.g. architecture) it is even possible
+to establish some sort of connexion between them. But Greek art as a
+whole cannot be evolved from Mycenaean art. We cannot bridge over the
+interval that separates the latter art, even in its decline, from the
+former. It is sufficient to compare the "dipylon" ware (with which the
+process of development begins, which culminates in the pottery of the
+Great Age) with the Mycenaean vases, to satisfy oneself that the gulf
+exists. What then is the relation of the Heroic or Homeric Age (i.e. the
+age whose life is portrayed for us in the poems of Homer) to the
+Earliest Age? It too presents many contrasts to the later periods. On
+the other hand, it presents contrasts to the Minoan Age, which, in their
+way, are not less striking. Is it then to be identified with the
+Mycenaean Age? Schliemann, the discoverer of the Mycenaean culture,
+unhesitatingly identified Mycenaean with Homeric. He even identified the
+shaft-graves of Mycenae with the tombs of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra.
+Later inquirers, while refusing to discover so literal a correspondence
+between things Homeric and things Mycenaean, have not hesitated to
+accept a general correspondence between the Homeric Age and the
+Mycenaean. Where it is a case of comparing literary evidence with
+archaeological, an exact coincidence is not of course to be demanded.
+The most that can be asked is that a general correspondence should be
+established. It may be conceded that the case for such a correspondence
+appears prima facie a strong one. There is much in Homer that seems to
+find confirmation or explanation in Schliemann's finds. Mycenae is
+Agamemnon's city; the plan of the Homeric house agrees fairly well with
+the palaces at Tiryns and Mycenae; the forms and the technique of
+Mycenaean art serve to illustrate passages in the poems; such are only a
+few of the arguments that have been urged. It is the great merit of
+Professor Ridgeway's work (_The Early Age of Greece_) that it has
+demonstrated, once and for all, that Mycenaean is not Homeric pure and
+simple. He insists upon differences as great as the resemblances. Iron
+is in common use in Homer; it is practically unknown to the Mycenaeans.
+In place of the round shield and the metal armour of the Homeric
+soldier, we find at Mycenae that the warrior is lightly clad in linen,
+and that he fights behind an oblong shield, which covers the whole body;
+nor are the chariots the same in form. The Homeric dead are cremated;
+the Mycenaean are buried. The gods of Homer are the deities of Olympus,
+of whose cult no traces are to be found in the Mycenaean Age. The
+novelty of Professor Ridgeway's theory is that for the accepted
+equation, Homeric = Achaean = Mycenaean, he proposes to substitute the
+equations, Homeric = Achaean = post-Mycenaean, and Mycenaean =
+pre-Achaean = Pelasgian. The Mycenaean civilization he attributes to the
+Pelasgians, whom he regards as the indigenous population of Greece, the
+ancestors of the later Greeks, and themselves Greek both in speech and
+blood. The Homeric heroes are Achaeans, a fair-haired Celtic race, whose
+home was in the Danube valley, where they had learned the use of iron.
+In Greece they are newcomers, a conquering class comparable to the
+Norman invaders of England or Ireland, and like them they have acquired
+the language of their subjects in the course of a few generations. The
+Homeric civilization is thus Achaean, i.e. it is Pelasgian (Mycenaean)
+civilization, appropriated by a ruder race; but the Homeric culture is
+far inferior to the Mycenaean. Here, at any rate, the Norman analogy
+breaks down. Norman art in England is far in advance of Saxon. Even in
+Normandy (as in Sicily), where the Norman appropriated rather than
+introduced, he not only assimilated but developed. In Greece the process
+must have been reversed.
+
+The theory thus outlined is probably stronger on its destructive side
+than on its constructive. To treat the Achaeans as an immigrant race is
+to run counter to the tradition of the Greeks themselves, by whom the
+Achaeans were regarded as indigenous (cf. Herod. viii. 73). Nor is the
+Pelasgian part of the theory easy to reconcile with the Homeric
+evidence. If the Achaeans were a conquering class ruling over a
+Pelasgian population, we should expect to find this difference of race a
+prominent feature in Homeric society. We should, at least, expect to
+find a Pelasgian background to the Homeric picture. As a matter of fact,
+we find nothing of the sort. There is no consciousness in the Homeric
+poems of a distinction of race between the governing and the subject
+classes. There are, indeed, Pelasgians in Homer, but the references
+either to the people or the name are extraordinarily few. They appear as
+a people, presumably in Asia Minor, in alliance with the Trojans; they
+appear also, in a single passage, as one of the tribes inhabiting Crete.
+The name survives in "Pelasgicon Argos," which is probably to be
+identified with the valley of the Spercheius,[5] and as an epithet of
+Zeus of Dodona. The population, however, of Pelasgicon Argos and of
+Dodona is no longer Pelasgian. Thus, in the age of Homer, the Pelasgians
+belong, so far as Greece proper is concerned, to a past that is already
+remote. It is inadmissible to appeal to Herodotus against Homer. For the
+conditions of the Homeric age Homer is the sole authoritative witness.
+If, however, Professor Ridgeway has failed to prove that "Mycenaean"
+equals "Pelasgian," he has certainly proved that much that is Homeric is
+post-Mycenaean. It is possible that different strata are to be
+distinguished in the Homeric poems. There are passages which seem to
+assume the conditions of the Mycenaean age; there are others which
+presuppose the conditions of a later age. It may be that the latter
+passages reflect the circumstances of the poet's own times, while the
+former ones reproduce those of an earlier period. If so, the
+substitution of iron for bronze must have been effected in the interval
+between the earlier and the later periods.
+
+
+  The Homeric state.
+
+It has already been pointed out that the question whether the makers of
+the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were Greeks must still be
+regarded as an open one. No such question can be raised as to the
+Homeric Age. The Achaeans may or may not have been Greek in blood. What
+is certain is that the Achaean Age forms an integral part of Greek
+history. Alike on the linguistic, the religious and the political sides,
+Homer is the starting-point of subsequent developments. In the Greek
+dialects the great distinction is that between the Doric and the rest.
+Of the non-Doric dialects the two main groups are the Aeolic and Ionic,
+both of which have been developed, by a gradual process of
+differentiation, from the language of the Homeric poems. With regard to
+religion it is sufficient to refer to the judgment of Herodotus, that it
+was Homer and Hesiod who were the authors of the Greek theogony (ii. 53
+[Greek: houtoi eisi hoi poiêsantes theogoniên Hellêsi]). It is a
+commonplace that Homer was the Bible of the Greeks. On the political
+side, Greek constitutional development would be unintelligible without
+Homer. When Greek history, in the proper sense, begins, oligarchy is
+almost universal. Everywhere, however, an antecedent stage of monarchy
+has to be presupposed. In the Homeric system monarchy is the sole form
+of government; but it is monarchy already well on the way to being
+transformed into oligarchy. In the person of the king are united the
+functions of priest, of judge and of leader in war. He belongs to a
+family which claims divine descent and his office is hereditary. He is,
+however, no despotic monarch. He is compelled by custom to consult the
+council (_boule_) of the elders, or chiefs. He must ask their opinion,
+and, if he fails to obtain their consent, he has no power to enforce his
+will. Even when he has obtained the consent of the council, the proposal
+still awaits the approval of the assembly (_agora_), of the people.
+
+
+  Homeric society.
+
+Thus in the Homeric state we find the germs not only of the oligarchy
+and democracy of later Greece, but also of all the various forms of
+constitution known to the Western world. And a monarchy such as is
+depicted in the Homeric poems is clearly ripe for transmutation into
+oligarchy. The chiefs are addressed as kings ([Greek: basilêes]), and
+claim, equally with the monarch, descent from the gods. In Homer, again,
+we can trace the later organization into tribe ([Greek: phylê]), clan
+([Greek: genos]), and phratry, which is characteristic of Greek society
+in the historical period, and meets us in analogous forms in other Aryan
+societies. The [Greek: genos] corresponds to the Roman _gens_, the
+[Greek: phylê] to the Roman tribe, and the phratry to the _curia_. The
+importance of the _phratry_ in Homeric society is illustrated by the
+well-known passage (_Iliad_ ix. 63) in which the outcast is described as
+"one who belongs to no phratry" ([Greek: aphrêtôr]). It is a society
+that is, of course, based upon slavery, but it is slavery in its least
+repulsive aspect. The treatment which Eumaeus and Eurycleia receive at
+the hands of the poet of the _Odyssey_ is highly creditable to the
+humanity of the age. A society which regarded the slave as a mere
+chattel would have been impatient of the interest shown in a swineherd
+and a nurse. It is a society, too, that exhibits many of the
+distinguishing traits of later Greek life. Feasting and quarrels, it is
+true, are of more moment to the heroes than to the contemporaries of
+Pericles or Plato; but "music" and "gymnastic" (though the terms must be
+understood in a more restricted sense) are as distinctive of the age of
+Homer as of that of Pindar. In one respect there is retrogression in the
+historical period. Woman in Homeric society enjoys a greater freedom,
+and receives greater respect, than in the Athens of Sophocles and
+Pericles.
+
+4. _The Growth of the Greek States._--The Greek world at the beginning
+of the 6th century B.C. presents a picture in many respects different
+from that of the Homeric Age. The Greek race is no longer confined to
+the Greek peninsula. It occupies the islands of the Aegean, the western
+seaboard of Asia Minor, the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, of southern
+Italy and Sicily. Scattered settlements are found as far apart as the
+mouth of the Rhone, the north of Africa, the Crimea and the eastern end
+of the Black Sea. The Greeks are called by a national name, _Hellenes_,
+the symbol of a fully-developed national self-consciousness. They are
+divided into three great branches, the Dorian, the Ionian and the
+Aeolian, names almost, or entirely, unknown to Homer. The heroic
+monarchy has nearly everywhere disappeared. In Greece proper, south of
+Thermopylae, it survives, but in a peculiar form, in the Spartan state
+alone. What is the significance and the explanation of contrasts so
+profound?
+
+
+  Dorian invasion.
+
+It is probable that the explanation is to be found, directly or
+indirectly, in a single cause, the Dorian invasion. In Homer the Dorians
+are mentioned in one passage only (_Odyssey_ xix. 177). They there
+appear as one of the races which inhabit Crete. In the historical period
+the whole Peloponnese, with the exception of Arcadia, Elis and Achaea,
+is Dorian. In northern Greece the Dorians occupy the little state of
+Doris, and in the Aegean they form the population of Crete, Rhodes and
+some smaller islands. Thus the chief centres of Minoan and Mycenaean
+culture have passed into Dorian hands, and the chief seats of Achaean
+power are included in Dorian states. Greek tradition explained the
+overthrow of the Achaean system by an invasion of the Peloponnese by the
+Dorians, a northern tribe, which had found a temporary home in Doris.
+The story ran that, after an unsuccessful attempt to force an entrance
+by the Isthmus of Corinth, they had crossed from Naupactus, at the mouth
+of the Corinthian Gulf, landed on the opposite shore, and made their way
+into the heart of the Peloponnese, where a single victory gave them
+possession of the Achaean states. Their conquests were divided among the
+invaders into three shares, for which lots were cast, and thus the three
+states of Argos, Sparta and Messenia were created. There is much in this
+tradition that is impossible or improbable. It is impossible, e.g. for
+the tiny state of Doris, with its three or four "small, sad villages"
+([Greek: poleis mikrai kai lyprochôroi], Strabo, p. 427), to have
+furnished a force of invaders sufficient to conquer and re-people the
+greater part of the Peloponnese. It is improbable that the conquest
+should have been either as sudden, or as complete, as the legend
+represents. On the contrary, there are indications that the conquest was
+gradual, and that the displacement of the older population was
+incomplete. The improbability of the details affords, however, no ground
+for questioning the reality of the invasion.[6] The tradition can be
+traced back at Sparta to the 7th century B.C. (Tyrtaeus, quoted by
+Strabo, p. 362), and there is abundant evidence, other than that of
+legend, to corroborate it. There is the Dorian name, to begin with. If,
+as Beloch supposes, it originated on the coast of Asia Minor, where it
+served to distinguish the settlers in Rhodes and the neighbouring
+islands from the Ionians and Aeolians to the north of them, how came the
+great and famous states of the Peloponnese to adopt a name in use among
+the petty colonies planted by their kinsmen across the sea? Or, if
+Dorian is simply Old Peloponnesian, how are we to account for the Doric
+dialect or the Dorian pride of race?
+
+It is true that there are great differences between the literary Doric,
+the dialect of Corinth and Argos, and the dialects of Laconia and Crete,
+and that there are affinities between the dialect of Laconia and the
+non-Dorian dialects of Arcadia and Elis. It is equally true, however,
+and of far more consequence, that all the Doric dialects are
+distinguished from all other Greek dialects by certain common
+characteristics. Perhaps the strongest sentiment in the Dorian nature is
+the pride of race. Indeed, it looks as if the Dorians claimed to be the
+sole genuine Hellenes. How can we account for an indigenous population,
+first imagining itself to be immigrant, and then developing a contempt
+for the rest of the race, equally indigenous with itself, on account of
+a fictitious difference in origin? Finally, there is the archaeological
+evidence. The older civilization comes to an abrupt end, and it does so,
+on the mainland at least, at the very period to which tradition assigns
+the Dorian migration. Its development is greatest, and its overthrow
+most complete, precisely in the regions occupied by the Dorians and the
+other tribes, whose migrations were traditionally connected with theirs.
+It is hardly too much to say that the archaeologist would have been
+compelled to postulate an inroad into central and southern Greece of
+tribes from the north, at a lower level of culture, in the course of the
+12th and 11th centuries B.C., if the historian had not been able to
+direct him to the traditions of the great migrations ([Greek:
+metanastaseis]), of which the Dorian invasion was the chief. With the
+Dorian migration Greek tradition connected the expansion of the Greek
+race eastwards across the Aegean. In the historical period the Greek
+settlements on the western coast of Asia Minor fall into three clearly
+defined groups. To the north is the Aeolic group, consisting of the
+island of Lesbos and twelve towns, mostly insignificant, on the opposite
+mainland. To the south is the Dorian _hexapolis_, consisting of Cnidus
+and Halicarnassus on the mainland, and the islands of Rhodes and Cos. In
+the centre comes the Ionian _dodecapolis_, a group consisting of ten
+towns on the mainland, together with the islands of Samos and Chios. Of
+these three groups, the Ionian is incomparably the most important. The
+Ionians also occupy Euboea and the Cyclades. Although it would appear
+that Cyprus (and possibly Pamphylia) had been occupied by settlers from
+Greece in the Mycenaean age, Greek tradition is probably correct in
+putting the colonization of Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean
+after the Dorian migration. Both the Homeric and the archaeological
+evidence seem to point to the same conclusion. Between Rhodes on the
+south and the Troad on the north scarcely any Mycenaean remains have
+been found. Homer is ignorant of any Greeks east of Euboea. If the poems
+are earlier than the Dorian Invasion, his silence is conclusive. If the
+poems are some centuries later than the Invasion, they at least prove
+that, within a few generations of that event, it was the belief of the
+Greeks of Asia Minor that their ancestors had crossed the seas after the
+close of the Heroic Age. It is probable, too, that the names Ionian and
+Aeolian, the former of which is found once in Homer, and the latter not
+at all, originated among the colonists in Asia Minor, and served to
+designate, in the first instance, the members of the Ionic and Aeolic
+_dodecapoleis_. As Curtius[7] pointed out, the only Ionia known to
+history is in Asia Minor. It does not follow that Ionia is the original
+home of the Ionian race, as Curtius argued. It almost certainly follows,
+however, that it is the original home of the Ionian name.
+
+
+  Government.
+
+It is less easy to account for the name _Hellenes_. The Greeks were
+profoundly conscious of their common nationality, and of the gulf that
+separated them from the rest of mankind. They themselves recognized a
+common race and language, and a common type of religion and culture, as
+the chief factors in this sentiment of nationality (see Herod. viii. 144
+[Greek: to Hellênikon eon homaimon te kai homoglôsson kai theôn
+hidrymata te koina kai thusiai êthea te homotropa]). "Hellenes" was the
+name of their common race, and "Hellas" of their common country. In
+Homer there is no distinct consciousness of a common nationality, and
+consequently no antithesis of Greek and Barbarian (see Thuc. i. 3). Nor
+is there a true collective name. There are indeed Hellenes (though the
+name occurs in one passage only, _Iliad_ ii. 684), and there is a
+Hellas; but his Hellas, whatever its precise signification may be, is,
+at any rate, not equivalent either to Greece proper or to the land of
+the Greeks, and his Hellenes are the inhabitants of a small district to
+the south of Thessaly. It is possible that the diffusion of the Hellenic
+name was due to the Dorian invaders. Its use can be traced back to the
+first half of the 7th century. Not less obscure are the causes of the
+fall of monarchy. It cannot have been the immediate effect of the
+Dorian conquest, for the states founded by the Dorians were at first
+monarchically governed. It may, however, have been an indirect effect of
+it. We have already seen that the power of the Homeric king is more
+limited than that of the rulers of Cnossus, Tiryns or Mycenae. In other
+words, monarchy is already in decay at the epoch of the Invasion. The
+Invasion, in its effects on wealth, commerce and civilization, is almost
+comparable to the irruption of the barbarians into the Roman empire. The
+monarch of the Minoan and Mycenaean age has extensive revenues at his
+command; the monarch of the early Dorian states is little better than a
+petty chief. Thus the interval, once a wide one, that separates him from
+the nobles tends to disappear. The decay of monarchy was gradual; much
+more gradual than is generally recognized. There were parts of the Greek
+world in which it still survived in the 6th century, e.g. Sparta,
+Cyrene, Cyprus, and possibly Argos and Tarentum. Both Herodotus and
+Thucydides apply the title "king" ([Greek: basileus]) to the rulers of
+Thessaly in the 5th century. The date at which monarchy gave place to a
+republican form of government must have differed, and differed widely,
+in different cases. The traditions relating to the foundation of Cyrene
+assume the existence of monarchy in Thera and in Crete in the middle of
+the 7th century (Herodotus iv. 150 and 154), and the reign of
+Amphicrates at Samos (Herod, iii. 59) can hardly be placed more than a
+generation earlier. In view of our general ignorance of the history of
+the 7th and 8th centuries, it is hazardous to pronounce these instances
+exceptional. On the other hand, the change from monarchy to oligarchy
+was completed at Athens before the end of the 8th century, and at a
+still earlier date in some of the other states. The process, again, by
+which the change was effected was, in all probability, less uniform than
+is generally assumed. There are extremely few cases in which we have any
+trustworthy evidence, and the instances about which we are informed
+refuse to be reduced to any common type. In Greece proper our
+information is fullest in the case of Athens and Argos. In the former
+case, the king is gradually stripped of his powers by a process of
+devolution. An hereditary king, ruling for life, is replaced by three
+annual and elective magistrates, between whom are divided the executive,
+military and religious functions of the monarch (see ARCHON). At Argos
+the fall of the monarchy is preceded by an aggrandisement of the royal
+prerogatives. There is nothing in common between these two cases, and
+there is no reason to suppose that the process elsewhere was analogous
+to that at Athens. Everywhere, however, oligarchy is the form of
+government which succeeds to monarchy. Political power is monopolized by
+a class of nobles, whose claim to govern is based upon birth and the
+possession of land, the most valuable form of property in an early
+society. Sometimes power is confined to a single clan (e.g. the
+Bacchiadae at Corinth); more commonly, as at Athens, all houses that are
+noble are equally privileged. In every case there is found, as the
+adviser of the executive, a Boule, or council, representative of the
+privileged class. Without such a council a Greek oligarchy is
+inconceivable. The relations of the executive to the council doubtless
+varied. At Athens it is clear that the real authority was exercised by
+the archons;[8] in many states the magistrates were probably subordinate
+to the council (cf. the relation of the consuls to the senate at Rome).
+And it is clear that the way in which the oligarchies used their power
+varied also. The cases in which the power was abused are naturally the
+ones of which we hear; for an abuse of power gave rise to discontent and
+was the ultimate cause of revolution. We hear little or nothing of the
+cases in which power was exercised wisely. Happy is the constitution
+which has no annals! We know, however, that oligarchy held its ground
+for generations, or even for centuries, in a large proportion of the
+Greek states; and a government which, like the oligarchies of Elis,
+Thebes or Aegina, could maintain itself for three or four centuries
+cannot have been merely oppressive.
+
+
+  Trade.
+
+The period of the transition from monarchy to oligarchy is the period in
+which commerce begins to develop, and trade-routes to be organized.
+Greece had been the centre of an active trade in the Minoan and
+Mycenaean epochs. The products of Crete and of the Peloponnese had found
+their way to Egypt and Asia Minor. The overthrow of the older
+civilization put an end to commerce. The seas became insecure and
+intercourse with the East was interrupted. Our earliest glimpses of the
+Aegean after the period of the migrations disclose the raids of the
+pirate and the activity of the Phoenician trader. It is not till the 8th
+century has dawned that trade begins to revive, and the Phoenician has
+to retire before his Greek competitor. For some time to come, however,
+no clear distinction is drawn between the trader and the pirate. The
+pioneers of Greek trade in the West are the pirates of Cumae (Thucyd.
+vi. 4). The expansion of Greek commerce, unlike that of the commerce of
+the modern world, was not connected with any great scientific
+discoveries. There is nothing in the history of ancient navigation that
+is analogous to the invention of the mariner's compass or of the
+steam-engine. In spite of this, the development of Greek commerce in the
+7th and 6th centuries was rapid. It must have been assisted by the great
+discovery of the early part of the former century, the invention of
+coined money. To the Lydians, rather than the Greeks, belongs the credit
+of the discovery; but it was the genius of the latter race that divined
+the importance of the invention and spread its use. The coinage of the
+Ionian towns goes back to the reign of Gyges (c. 675 B.C.). And it is in
+Ionia that commercial development is earliest and greatest. In the most
+distant regions the Ionian is first in the field. Egypt and the Black
+Sea are both opened up to Greek trade by Miletus, the Adriatic and the
+Western Mediterranean by Phocaea and Samos. It is significant that of
+the twelve states engaged in the Egyptian trade in the 6th century all,
+with the exception of Aegina, are from the eastern side of the Aegean
+(Herod. ii. 178). On the western side the chief centres of trade during
+these centuries were the islands of Euboea and Aegina and the town of
+Corinth. The Aeginetan are the earliest coins of Greece proper (c. 650
+B.C.); and the two rival scales of weights and measures, in use amongst
+the Greeks of every age, are the Aeginetan and the Euboic. Commerce
+naturally gave rise to commercial leagues, and commercial relations
+tended to bring about political alliances. Foreign policy even at this
+early epoch seems to have been largely determined by considerations of
+commerce. Two leagues, the members of which were connected by political
+as well as commercial ties, can be recognized. At the head of each stood
+one of the two rival powers in the island of Euboea, Chalcis and
+Eretria. Their primary object was doubtless protection from the pirate
+and the foreigner. Competing routes were organized at an early date
+under their influence, and their trading connexions can be traced from
+the heart of Asia Minor to the north of Italy. Miletus, Sybaris and
+Etruria were members of the Eretrian league; Samos, Corinth, Rhegium and
+Zancle (commanding the Straits of Messina), and Cumae, on the Bay of
+Naples, of the Chalcidian. The wool of the Phrygian uplands, woven in
+the looms of Miletus, reached the Etruscan markets by way of Sybaris;
+through Cumae, Rome and the rest of Latium obtained the elements of
+Greek culture. Greek trade, however, was confined to the Mediterranean
+area. The Phoenician and the Carthaginian navigators penetrated to
+Britain; they discovered the passage round the Cape two thousand years
+before Vasco da Gama's time. The Greek sailor dared not adventure
+himself outside the Black Sea, the Adriatic and the Mediterranean. Greek
+trade, too, was essentially maritime. Ports visited by Greek vessels
+were often the starting points of trade-routes into the interior; the
+traffic along those routes was left in the hands of the natives (see
+e.g. Herod. iv. 24). One service, the importance of which can hardly be
+overestimated, was rendered to civilization by the Greek traders--the
+invention of geography. The science of geography is the invention of the
+Greeks. The first maps were made by them (in the 6th century); and it
+was the discoveries and surveys of their sailors that made map-making
+possible.
+
+
+  Colonization.
+
+Closely connected with the history of Greek trade is the history of
+Greek colonization. The period of colonization, in its narrower sense,
+extends from the middle of the 8th to the middle of the 6th century.
+Greek colonization is, however, merely a continuation of the process
+which at an earlier epoch had led to the settlement, first of Cyprus,
+and then of the islands and coasts of the Aegean. From the earlier
+settlements the colonization of the historical period is distinguished
+by three characteristics. The later colony acknowledges a definite
+_metropolis_ ("mother-city"); it is planted by a definite _oecist_
+([Greek: oikistês]); it has a definite date assigned to its
+foundation.[9] It would be a mistake to regard Greek colonization as
+commercial in origin, in the sense that the colonies were in all cases
+established as trading-posts. This was the case with the Phoenician and
+Carthaginian settlements, most of which remained mere factories; and
+some of the Greek colonies (e.g. many of those planted by Miletus on the
+shores of the Black Sea) bore this character. The typical Greek colony,
+however, was neither in origin nor in development a mere trading-post.
+It was, or it became, a _polis_, a city-state, in which was reproduced
+the life of the parent state. Nor was Greek colonization, like the
+emigration from Europe to America and Australia in the 19th century,
+simply the result of over-population. The causes were as various as
+those which can be traced in the history of modern colonization. Those
+which were established for the purposes of trade may be compared to the
+factories of the Portuguese and Dutch in Africa and the Far East. Others
+were the result of political discontent, in some form or shape; these
+may be compared to the Puritan settlements in New England. Others again
+were due to ambition or the mere love of adventure (see Herod. v. 42
+ff., the career of Dorieus). But however various the causes, two
+conditions must always be presupposed--an expansion of commerce and a
+growth of population. Within the narrow limits of the city-state there
+was a constant tendency for population to become redundant, until, as in
+the later centuries of Greek life, its growth was artificially
+restricted. Alike from the Roman colonies, and from those founded by the
+European nations in the course of the last few centuries, the Greek
+colonies are distinguished by a fundamental contrast. It is significant
+that the contrast is a political one. The Roman colony was in a position
+of entire subordination to the Roman state, of which it formed a part.
+The modern colony was, in varying degrees, in political subjection to
+the home government. The Greek colony was completely independent; and it
+was independent from the first. The ties that united a colony to its
+metropolis were those of sentiment and interest; the political tie did
+not exist. There were, it is true, exceptions. The colonies established
+by imperial Athens closely resembled the colonies of imperial Rome. The
+cleruchy (q.v.) formed part of the Athenian state; the cleruchs kept
+their status as citizens of Athens and acted as a military garrison. And
+if the political tie, in the proper sense, was wanting, it was
+inevitable that political relations should spring out of commercial or
+sentimental ones. Thus we find Corinth interfering twice to save her
+colony Syracuse from destruction, and Megara bringing about the revolt
+of Byzantium, her colony, from Athens. Sometimes it is not easy to
+distinguish political relations from a political tie (e.g. the relations
+of Corinth, both in the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars, to Ambracia and
+the neighbouring group of colonies). When we compare the development of
+the Greek and the modern colonies we shall find that the development of
+the former was even more rapid than that of the latter. In at least
+three respects the Greek settler was at an advantage as compared with
+the colonist of modern times. The differences of race, of colour and of
+climate, with which the chief problems of modern colonization are
+connected, played no part in the history of the Greek settlements. The
+races amongst whom the Greeks planted themselves were in some cases on
+a similar level of culture. Where the natives were still backward or
+barbarous, they came of a stock either closely related to the Greek, or
+at least separated from it by no great physical differences. We need
+only contrast the Carian, the Sicel, the Thracian or even the Scythian,
+with the native Australian, the Hottentot, the Red Indian or the Maori,
+to apprehend the advantage of the Greek. Amalgamation with the native
+races was easy, and it involved neither physical nor intellectual
+degeneracy as its consequence. Of the races with which the Greeks came
+in contact the Thracian was far from the highest in the scale of
+culture; yet three of the greatest names in the Great Age of Athens are
+those of men who had Thracian blood in their veins, viz. Themistocles,
+Cimon and the historian Thucydides. In the absence of any distinction of
+colour, no insuperable barrier existed between the Greek and the
+hellenized native. The _demos_ of the colonial cities was largely
+recruited from the native population,[10] nor was there anything in the
+Greek world analogous to the "mean whites" or the "black belt." Of
+hardly less importance were the climatic conditions. In this respect the
+Mediterranean area is unique. There is no other region of the world of
+equal extent in which these conditions are at once so uniform and so
+favourable. Nowhere had the Greek settler to encounter a climate which
+was either unsuited to his labour or subversive of his vigour. That in
+spite of these advantages so little, comparatively speaking, was
+effected in the work of Hellenization before the epoch of Alexander and
+the Diadochi, was the effect of a single counteracting cause. The Greek
+colonist, like the Greek trader, clung to the shore. He penetrated no
+farther inland than the sea-breeze. Hence it was only in islands, such
+as Sicily or Cyprus, that the process of Hellenization was complete.
+Elsewhere the Greek settlements formed a mere fringe along the coast.
+
+
+  The tyrants.
+
+To the 7th century there belongs another movement of high importance in
+its bearing upon the economic, religious and literary development of
+Greece, as well as upon its constitutional history. This movement is the
+rise of the _tyrannis_. In the political writers of a later age the word
+possesses a clear-cut connotation. From other forms of monarchy it is
+distinguished by a twofold differentiation. The _tyrannus_ is an
+unconstitutional ruler, and his authority is exercised over unwilling
+subjects. In the 7th and 6th centuries the line was not drawn so
+distinctly between the tyrant and the legitimate monarch. Even Herodotus
+uses the words "tyrant" and "king" interchangeably (e.g. the princes of
+Cyprus are called "kings" in v. 110 and "tyrants" in v. 109), so that it
+is sometimes difficult to decide whether a legitimate monarch or a
+tyrant is meant (e.g. Aristophilides of Tarentum, iii. 136, or Telys of
+Sybaris, v. 44). But the distinction between the tyrant and the king of
+the Heroic Age is a valid one. It is not true that his rule was always
+exercised over unwilling subjects; it is true that his position was
+always unconstitutional. The Homeric king is a legitimate monarch; his
+authority is invested with the sanctions of religion and immemorial
+custom. The tyrant is an illegitimate ruler; his authority is not
+recognized, either by customary usage or by express enactment. But the
+word "tyrant" was originally a neutral team; it did not necessarily
+imply a misuse of power. The origin of the _tyrannis_ is obscure. The
+word _tyrannus_ has been thought, with some reason, to be a Lydian one.
+Probably both the name and the thing originated in the Greek colonies of
+Asia Minor, though the earliest tyrants of whom we hear in Asia Minor
+(at Ephesus and Miletus) are a generation later than the earliest in
+Greece itself, where, both at Sicyon and at Corinth, tyranny appears to
+date back to the second quarter of the 7th century. It is not unusual to
+regard tyranny as a universal stage in the constitutional development of
+the Greek states, and as a stage that occurs everywhere at one and the
+same period. In reality, tyranny is confined to certain regions, and it
+is a phenomenon that is peculiar to no one age or century. In Greece
+proper, before the 4th century B.C., it is confined to a small group of
+states round the Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs. The greater part of the
+Peloponnese was exempt from it, and there is no good evidence for its
+existence north of the Isthmus, except at Megara and Athens. It plays no
+part in the history of the Greek cities in Chalcidice and Thrace. It
+appears to have been rare in the Cyclades. The regions in which it finds
+a congenial soil are two, Asia Minor and Sicily. Thus it is incorrect to
+say that most Greek states passed through this stage. It is still wider
+of the mark to assume that they passed through it at the same time.
+There is no "Age of the Tyrants." Tyranny began in the Peloponnese a
+hundred years before it appears in Sicily, and it has disappeared in the
+Peloponnese almost before it begins in Sicily. In the latter the great
+age of tyranny comes at the beginning of the 5th century; in the former
+it is at the end of the 7th and the beginning of the 6th. At Athens the
+history of tyranny begins after it has ended both at Sicyon and Corinth.
+There is, indeed, a period in which tyranny is non-existent in the Greek
+states; roughly speaking, the last sixty years of the 5th century. But
+with this exception, there is no period in which the tyrant is not to be
+found. The greatest of all the tyrannies, that of Dionysius at Syracuse,
+belongs to the 4th century. Nor must it be assumed that tyranny always
+comes at the same stage in the history of a constitution; that it is
+always a stage between oligarchy and democracy. At Corinth it is
+followed, not by democracy but by oligarchy, and it is an oligarchy that
+lasts, with a brief interruption, for two hundred and fifty years. At
+Athens it is not immediately preceded by oligarchy. Between the Eupatrid
+oligarchy and the rule of Peisistratus there comes the timocracy of
+Solon. These exceptions do not stand alone. The cause of tyranny is, in
+one sense, uniform. In the earlier centuries, at any rate, tyranny is
+always the expression of discontent; the tyrant is always the champion
+of a cause. But it would be a mistake to suppose that the discontent is
+necessarily political, or that the cause which he champions is always a
+constitutional one. At Sicyon it is a racial one; Cleisthenes is the
+champion of the older population against their Dorian oppressors (see
+Herod. v. 67, 68). At Athens the discontent is economic rather than
+political; Peisistratus is the champion of the Diacrii, the inhabitants
+of the poorest region of Attica. The party-strifes of which we hear in
+the early history of Miletus, which doubtless gave the tyrant his
+opportunity, are concerned with the claims of rival industrial classes.
+In Sicily the tyrant is the ally of the rich and the foe of the _demos_,
+and the cause which he champions, both in the 5th century and the 4th,
+is a national one, that of the Greek against the Carthaginian. We may
+suspect that in Greece itself the tyrannies of the 7th century are the
+expression of an anti-Dorian reaction. It can hardly be an accident that
+the states in which the tyrannis is found at this epoch, Corinth,
+Megara, Sicyon, Epidaurus, are all of them states in which a Dorian
+upper class ruled over a subject population. In Asia Minor the
+_tyrannis_ assumes a peculiar character after the Persian conquest. The
+tyrant rules as the deputy of the Persian satrap. Thus in the East the
+tyrant is the enemy of the national cause; in the West, in Sicily, he is
+its champion.
+
+Tyranny is not a phenomenon peculiar to Greek history. It is possible to
+find analogies to it in Roman history, in the power of Caesar, or of the
+Caesars; in the despotisms of medieval Italy; or even in the Napoleonic
+empire. Between the tyrant and the Italian despot there is indeed a real
+analogy; but between the Roman principate and the Greek _tyrannis_ there
+are two essential differences. In the first place, the principate was
+expressed in constitutional forms, or veiled under constitutional
+fictions; the tyrant stood altogether outside the constitution. And,
+secondly, at Rome both Julius and Augustus owed their position to the
+power of the sword. The power of the sword, it is true, plays a large
+part in the history of the later tyrants (e.g. Dionysius of Syracuse);
+the earlier ones, however, had no mercenary armies at their command. We
+can hardly compare the bodyguard of Peisistratus to the legions of the
+first or the second Caesar.
+
+The view taken of the _tyrannis_ in Greek literature is almost uniformly
+unfavourable. In this respect there is no difference between Plato and
+Aristotle, or between Herodotus and the later historians.[11] His policy
+is represented as purely selfish, and his rule as oppressive. Herodotus
+is influenced partly by the traditions current among the oligarchs, who
+had been the chief sufferers, and partly by the odious associations
+which had gathered round tyranny in Asia Minor. The philosophers write
+under their impressions of the later _tyrannis_, and their account is
+largely an a priori one. It is seldom that we find any attempt, either
+in the philosophers or the historians, to do justice to the real
+services rendered by the tyrants.[12] Their first service was a
+constitutional one. They helped to break down the power of the old
+aristocratic houses, and thus to create the social and political
+conditions indispensable to democracy. The _tyrannis_ involved the
+sacrifice of liberty in the cause of equality. When tyranny falls, it is
+never succeeded by the aristocracies which it had overthrown. It is
+frequently succeeded by an oligarchy, but it is an oligarchy in which
+the claim to exclusive power is based, not upon mere birth, but upon
+wealth, or the possession of land. It would be unfair to treat this
+service as one that was rendered unconsciously and unwillingly. Where
+the tyrant asserted the claims of an oppressed class, he consciously
+aimed at the destruction of privilege and the effacement of class
+distinctions. Hence it is unjust to treat his power as resting upon mere
+force. A government which can last eighty or a hundred years, as was the
+case with the tyrannies at Corinth and Sicyon, must have a moral force
+behind it. It must rest upon the consent of its subjects. The second
+service which the tyrants rendered to Greece was a political one. Their
+policy tended to break down the barriers which isolated each petty state
+from its neighbours. In their history we can trace a system of
+widespread alliances, which are often cemented by matrimonial
+connexions. The Cypselid tyrants of Corinth appear to have been allied
+with the royal families of Egypt, Lydia and Phrygia, as well as with the
+tyrants of Miletus and Epidaurus, and with some of the great Athenian
+families. In Sicily we find a league of the northern tyrants opposed to
+a league of the southern; and in each ease there is a corresponding
+matrimonial alliance. Anaxilaus of Rhegium is the son-in-law and ally of
+Terillus of Himera; Gelo of Syracuse stands in the same relation to
+Theron of Agrigentum. Royal marriages have played a great part in the
+politics of Europe. In the comparison of Greek and modern history it has
+been too often forgotten how great a difference it makes, and how great
+a disadvantage it involves, to a republic that it has neither sons nor
+daughters to give in marriage. In commerce and colonization the tyrants
+were only continuing the work of the oligarchies to which they
+succeeded. Greek trade owed its expansion to the intelligent efforts of
+the oligarchs who ruled at Miletus and Corinth, in Samos, Aegina and
+Euboea; but in particular cases, such as Miletus, Corinth, Sicyon and
+Athens, there was a further development, and a still more rapid growth,
+under the tyrants. In the same way, the foundation of the colonies was
+in most cases due to the policy of the oligarchical governments. They
+can claim credit for the colonies of Chalcis and Eretria, of Megara,
+Phocaea and Samos, as well as for the great Achaean settlements in
+southern Italy. The Cypselids at Corinth, and Thrasybulus at Miletus,
+are instances of tyrants who colonized on a great scale.
+
+
+  Religion under the "tyrants."
+
+In their religious policy the tyrants went far to democratize Greek
+religion. The functions of monarchy had been largely religious; but,
+while the king was necessarily a priest, he was not the only priest in
+the community. There were special priesthoods, hereditary in particular
+families, even in the monarchical period; and upon the fall of the
+monarchy, while the priestly functions of the kings passed to republican
+magistrates, the priesthoods which were in the exclusive possession of
+the great families tended to become the important ones. Thus, before the
+rise of tyranny, Greek religion is aristocratic. The cults recognized
+by the state are the _sacra_ of noble clans. The religious prerogatives
+of the nobles helped to confirm their political ones, and, as long as
+religion retained its aristocratic character, it was impossible for
+democracy to take root. The policy of the tyrants aimed at fostering
+popular cults which had no associations with the old families, and at
+establishing new festivals. The cult of the wine-god, Dionysus, was thus
+fostered at Sicyon by Cleisthenes, and at Corinth by the Cypselids;
+while at Athens a new festival of this deity, which so completely
+overshadowed the older festival that it became known as the Great
+Dionysia, probably owed its institution to Peisistratus. Another
+festival, the Panathenaea, which had been instituted only a few years
+before his rise to power, became under his rule, and thanks to his
+policy, the chief national festival of the Athenian state. Everywhere,
+again, we find the tyrants the patrons of literature. Pindar and
+Bacchylides, Aeschylus and Simonides found a welcome at the court of
+Hiero. Polycrates was the patron of Anacreon, Periander of Arion. To
+Peisistratus has been attributed, possibly not without reason, the first
+critical edition of the text of Homer, a work as important in the
+literary history of Greece as was the issue of the Authorized Version of
+the Bible in English history. If we would judge fairly of tyranny, and
+of what it contributed to the development of Greece, we must remember
+how many states there were in whose history the period of greatest power
+coincides with the rule of a tyrant. This is unquestionably true of
+Corinth and Sicyon, as well as of Syracuse in the 5th, and again in the
+4th century; it is probably true of Samos and Miletus. In the case of
+Athens it is only the splendour of the Great Age that blinds us to the
+greatness of the results achieved by the policy of the Peisistratids.
+
+
+  The arts.
+
+With the overthrow of this dynasty tyranny disappears from Greece proper
+for more than a century. During the century and a half which had elapsed
+since its first appearance the whole aspect of Greek life, and of the
+Greek world, had changed. The development was as yet incomplete, but the
+lines on which it was to proceed had been clearly marked out. Political
+power was no longer the monopoly of a class. The struggle between the
+"few" and the "many" had begun; in one state at least (Athens) the
+victory of the "many" was assured. The first chapter in the history of
+democracy was already written. In the art of war the two innovations
+which were ultimately to establish the military supremacy of Greece,
+hoplite tactics and the trireme, had already been introduced. Greek
+literature was no longer synonymous with epic poetry. Some of its most
+distinctive forms had not yet been evolved; indeed, it is only quite at
+the end of the period that prose-writing begins; but both lyric and
+elegiac poetry had been brought to perfection. In art, statuary was
+still comparatively stiff and crude; but in other branches, in
+architecture, in vase-painting and in coin-types, the aesthetic genius
+of the race had asserted its pre-eminence. Philosophy, the supreme gift
+of Greece to the modern world, had become a living power. Some of her
+most original thinkers belong to the 6th century. Criticism had been
+applied to everything in turn: to the gods, to conduct, and to the
+conception of the universe. Before the Great Age begins, the claims of
+intellectual as well as of political freedom had been vindicated. It was
+not, however, in Greece proper that progress had been greatest. In the
+next century the centre of gravity of Greek civilization shifts to the
+western side of the Aegean; in the 6th century it must be looked for at
+Miletus, rather than at Athens. In order to estimate how far the
+development of Greece had advanced, or to appreciate the distinctive
+features of Greek life at this period, we must study Ionia, rather than
+Attica or the Peloponnese. Almost all that is greatest and most
+characteristic is to be found on the eastern side of the Aegean. The
+great names in the history of science and philosophy before the
+beginning of the 5th century--Thales, Pythagoras, Xenophanes,
+Heraclitus, Parmenides, Anaximander, Hecataeus; names which are
+representative of mathematics, astronomy, geography and metaphysics, are
+all, without exception, Ionian. In poetry, too, the most famous names,
+if not so exclusively Ionian, are connected either with the Asiatic
+coast or with the Cyclades. Against Archilochus and Anacreon, Sappho
+and Alcaeus, Greece has nothing better to set, after the age of Hesiod,
+than Tyrtaeus and Theognis. Reference has already been made to the
+greatness of the Ionians as navigators, as colonizers and as traders. In
+wealth and in population, Miletus, at the epoch of the Persian conquest,
+must have been far ahead of any city of European Greece. Sybaris, in
+Magna Graecia, can have been its only rival outside Ionia. There were
+two respects, however, in which the comparison was in favour of the
+mother-country. In warfare, the superiority of the Spartan infantry was
+unquestioned; in politics, the Greek states showed a greater power of
+combination than the Ionian.
+
+
+  External relations.
+
+  Persian wars.
+
+Finally, Ionia was the scene of the first conflicts with the Persian.
+Here were decided the first stages of a struggle which was to determine
+the place of Greece in the history of the world. The rise of Persia
+under Cyrus was, as Herodotus saw, the turning-point of Greek history.
+Hitherto the Greek had proved himself indispensable to the oriental
+monarchies with which he had been brought into contact. In Egypt the
+power of the Saite kings rested upon the support of their Greek
+mercenaries. Amasis (569-525 B.C.), who is raised to the throne as the
+leader of a reaction against the influence of the foreign garrison, ends
+by showing greater favour to the Greek soldiery and the Greek traders
+than all that were before him. With Lydia the relations were originally
+hostile; the conquest of the Greek fringe is the constant aim of Lydian
+policy. Greek influences, however, seem to have quickly permeated Lydia,
+and to have penetrated to the court. Alyattes (610-560 B.C.) marries an
+Ionian wife, and the succession is disputed between the son of this
+marriage and Croesus, whose mother was a Carian. Croesus (560-546 B.C.)
+secures the throne, only to become the lavish patron of Greek
+sanctuaries and the ally of a Greek state. The history of Hellenism had
+begun. It was the rise of Cyrus that closed the East to Greek enterprise
+and Greek influences. In Persia we find the antithesis of all that is
+characteristic of Greece--autocracy as opposed to liberty; a military
+society organized on an aristocratic basis, to an industrial society,
+animated by a democratic spirit; an army, whose strength lay in its
+cavalry, to an army, in which the foot-soldier alone counted; a
+morality, which assigned the chief place to veracity, to a morality
+which subordinated it to other virtues; a religion, which ranks among
+the great religions of the world, to a religion, which appeared to the
+most spiritual minds among the Greeks themselves both immoral and
+absurd. Between two such races there could be neither sympathy nor
+mutual understanding. In the Great Age the Greek had learned to despise
+the Persian, and the Persian to fear the Greek. In the 6th century it
+was the Persian who despised, and the Greek who feared. The history of
+the conflicts between the Ionian Greeks and the Persian empire affords a
+striking example of the combination of intellectual strength and
+political weakness in the character of a people. The causes of the
+failure of the Ionians to offer a successful resistance to Persia, both
+at the time of the conquest by Harpagus (546-545 B.C.) and in the Ionic
+revolt (499-494 B.C.), are not far to seek. The centrifugal forces
+always tended to prove the stronger in the Greek system, and nowhere
+were they stronger than in Ionia. The tie of their tribal union proved
+weaker, every time it was put to the test, than the political and
+commercial interests of the individual states. A league of jealous
+commercial rivals is certain not to stand the strain of a protracted
+struggle against great odds. Against the advancing power of Lydia a
+common resistance had not so much as been attempted. Miletus, the
+greatest of the Ionian towns, had received aid from Chios alone. Against
+Persia a common resistance was attempted. The Panionium, the centre of a
+religious amphictyony, became for the moment the centre of a political
+league. At the time of the Persian conquest Miletus held aloof. She
+secured favourable terms for herself, and left the rest of Ionia to its
+fate. In the later conflict, on the contrary, Miletus is the leader in
+the revolt. The issue was determined, not as Herodotus represents it, by
+the inherent indolence of the Ionian nature, but by the selfish policy
+of the leading states. In the sea-fight at Lade (494 B.C.) the decisive
+battle of the war, the Milesians and Chians fought with desperate
+courage. The day was lost thanks to the treachery of the Samian and
+Lesbian contingents.
+
+The causes of the successful resistance of the Greeks to the invasions
+of their country, first by Datis and Artaphernes (490 B.C.), in the
+reign of Darius, and then by Xerxes in person (480-479 B.C.), are more
+complex. Their success was partly due to a moral cause. And this was
+realized by the Greeks themselves. They felt (see Herod. vii. 104) that
+the subjects of a despot are no match for the citizens of a free state,
+who yield obedience to a law which is self-imposed. But the cause was
+not solely a moral one. Nor was the result due to the numbers and
+efficiency of the Athenian fleet, in the degree that the Athenians
+claimed (see Herod. vii. 139). The truth is that the conditions, both
+political and military, were far more favourable to the Greek defence in
+Europe than they had been in Asia. At this crisis the centripetal forces
+proved stronger than the centrifugal. The moral ascendancy of Sparta was
+the determining factor. In Sparta the Greeks had a leader whom all were
+ready to obey (Herod. viii. 2). But for her influence the forces of
+disintegration would have made themselves felt as quickly as in Ionia.
+Sparta was confronted with immense difficulties in conducting the
+defence against Xerxes. The two chief naval powers, Athens and Aegina,
+had to be reconciled after a long and exasperating warfare (see AEGINA).
+After Thermopylae, the whole of northern Greece, with the exception of
+Athens and a few minor states, was lost to the Greek cause. The supposed
+interests of the Peloponnesians, who formed the greater part of the
+national forces, conflicted with the supposed interests of the
+Athenians. A more impartial view than was possible to the generation for
+which Herodotus wrote suggests that Sparta performed her task with
+intelligence and patriotism. The claims of Athens and Sparta were about
+equally balanced. And in spite of her great superiority in numbers,[13]
+the military conditions were far from favourable to Persia. A land so
+mountainous as Greece is was unsuited to the operations of cavalry, the
+most efficient arm of the service in the Persian Army, as in most
+oriental ones. Ignorance of local conditions, combined with the
+dangerous nature of the Greek coast, exposed their ships to the risk of
+destruction; while the composite character of the fleet, and the
+jealousies of its various contingents, tended to neutralize the
+advantage of numbers. In courage and discipline, the flower of the
+Persian infantry was probably little inferior to the Greek; in
+equipment, they were no match for the Greek panoply. Lastly, Xerxes
+laboured under a disadvantage, which may be illustrated by the
+experience of the British army in the South African War--distance from
+his base.
+
+
+  Systems of government.
+
+5. _The Great Age (480-338 B.C.)._--The effects of the repulse of Persia
+were momentous in their influence upon Greece. The effects upon
+Elizabethan England of the defeat of the Spanish armada would afford
+quite an inadequate parallel. It gave the Greeks a heightened sense,
+both of their own national unity and of their superiority to the
+barbarian, while at the same time it helped to create the material
+conditions requisite alike for the artistic and political development of
+the 5th century. Other cities besides Athens were adorned with the
+proceeds of the spoils won from Persia, and Greek trade benefited both
+from the reunion of Ionia with Greece, and from the suppression of
+piracy in the Aegean and the Hellespont. Do these developments justify
+us in giving to the period, which begins with the repulse of Xerxes, and
+ends with the victory of Philip, the title of "the Great Age"? If the
+title is justified in the case of the 5th century, should the 4th
+century be excluded from the period? At first sight, the difference
+between the 4th century and the 5th may seem greater than that which
+exists between the 5th and the 6th. On the political side, the 5th
+century is an age of growth, the 4th an age of decay; on the literary
+side, the former is an age of poetry, the latter an age of prose. In
+spite of these contrasts, there is a real unity in the period which
+begins with the repulse of Xerxes and ends with the death of Alexander,
+as compared with any preceding one. It is an age of maturity in
+politics, in literature, and in art; and this is true of no earlier age.
+Nor can we say that the 5th century is, in all these aspects of Greek
+life, immature as compared with the 4th, or, on the other hand, that the
+4th is decadent as compared with the 5th. On the political side,
+maturity is, in one sense, reached in the earlier century. There is
+nothing in the later century so great as the Athenian empire. In another
+sense, maturity is not reached till the 4th century. It is only in the
+later century that the tendency of the Greek constitutions to conform to
+a common type, democracy, is (at least approximately) realized, and it
+is only in this century that the principles upon which democracy is
+based are carried to their logical conclusion. In literature, if we
+confine our attention to poetry, we must pronounce the 5th century the
+age of completed development; but in prose the case is different. The
+style even of Thucydides is immature, as compared with that of Isocrates
+and Plato. In philosophy, however high may be the estimate that is
+formed of the genius of the earlier thinkers, it cannot be disputed that
+in Plato and Aristotle we find a more mature stage of thought. In art,
+architecture may perhaps be said to reach its zenith in the 5th,
+sculpture in the 4th century. In its political aspect, the history of
+the Great Age resolves itself into the history of two movements, the
+imperial and the democratic. Hitherto Greece had meant, politically, an
+aggregate of independent states, very numerous, and, as a rule, very
+small. The principle of autonomy was to the Greek the most sacred of all
+political principles; the passion for autonomy the most potent of
+political factors. In the latter half of the 6th century Sparta had
+succeeded in combining the majority of the Peloponnesian states into a
+loose federal union; so loose, however, that it appears to have been
+dormant in the intervals of peace. In the crisis of the Persian invasion
+the Peloponnesian League was extended so as to include all the states
+which had espoused the national cause. It looked on the morrow of
+Plataea and Mycale (the two victories, won simultaneously, in 479 B.C.,
+by Spartan commanders, by which the danger from Persia was finally
+averted) as if a permanent basis for union might be found in the
+hegemony of Sparta. The sense of a common peril and a common triumph
+brought with it the need of a common union; it was Athens, however,
+instead of Sparta, by whom the first conscious effort was made to
+transcend the isolation of the Greek political system and to bring the
+units into combination. The league thus founded (the Delian League,
+established in 477 B.C.) was under the presidency of Athens, but it
+included hardly any other state besides those that had conducted the
+defence of Greece. It was formed, almost entirely, of the states which
+had been liberated from Persian rule by the great victories of the war.
+The Delian League, even in the form in which it was first established,
+as a confederation of autonomous allies, marks an advance in political
+conceptions upon the Peloponnesian League. Provision is made for an
+annual revenue, for periodical meetings of the council, and for a
+permanent executive. It is a real federation, though an imperfect one.
+There were defects in its constitution which rendered it inevitable that
+it should be transformed into an empire. Athens was from the first "the
+predominant partner." The fleet was mainly Athenian, the commanders
+entirely so; the assessment of the tribute was in Athenian hands; there
+was no federal court appointed to determine questions at issue between
+Athens and the other members; and, worst omission of all, the right of
+secession was left undecided. By the middle of the century the Delian
+League has become the Athenian empire. Henceforward the imperial idea,
+in one form or another, dominates Greek politics. Athens failed to
+extend her authority over the whole of Greece. Her empire was
+overthrown; but the triumph of autonomy proved the triumph of
+imperialism. The Spartan empire succeeds to the Athenian, and, when it
+is finally shattered at Leuctra (371 B.C.), the hegemony of Thebes,
+which is established on its ruins, is an empire in all but name. The
+decay of Theban power paves the way for the rise of Macedon.
+
+Thus throughout this period we can trace two forces contending for
+mastery in the Greek political system. Two causes divide the allegiance
+of the Greek world, the cause of empire and the cause of autonomy. The
+formation of the confederacy of Delos did not involve the dissolution of
+the alliance between Athens and Sparta. For seventeen years more Athens
+retained her place in the league, "which had been established against
+the Mede" under the presidency of Sparta in 480 B.C. (Thuc. i. 102). The
+ascendancy of Cimon and the Philolaconian party at Athens was favourable
+to a good understanding between the two states, and at Sparta in normal
+times the balance inclined in favour of the party whose policy is best
+described by the motto "quieta non movere."
+
+
+  The Peloponnesian Wars.
+
+In the end, however, the opposition of the two contending forces proved
+too strong for Spartan neutrality. The fall of Cimon (461 B.C.) was
+followed by the so-called "First Peloponnesian War," a conflict between
+Athens and her maritime rivals, Corinth and Aegina, into which Sparta
+was ultimately drawn. Thucydides regards the hostilities of these years
+(460-454 B.C.), which were resumed for a few months in 446 B.C., on the
+expiration of the Five Years' Truce, as preliminary to those of the
+great Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.). The real question at issue was
+in both cases the same. The tie that united the opponents of Athens was
+found in a common hostility to the imperial idea. It is a complete
+misapprehension to regard the Peloponnesian War as a mere duel between
+two rival claimants for empire. The ultimatum presented by Sparta on the
+eve of the war demanded the restoration of autonomy to the subjects of
+Athens. There is no reason for doubting her sincerity in presenting it
+in this form. It would, however, be an equal misapprehension to regard
+the war as merely a struggle between the cause of empire and the cause
+of autonomy. Corresponding to this fundamental contrast there are other
+contrasts, constitutional, racial and military. The military interest of
+the war is largely due to the fact that Athens was a sea power and
+Sparta a land one. As the war went on, the constitutional aspect tended
+to become more marked. At first there were democracies on the side of
+Sparta, and oligarchies on the side of Athens. In the last stage of the
+war, when Lysander's influence was supreme, we see the forces of
+oligarchy everywhere united and organized for the destruction of
+democracy. In its origin the war was certainly not due to the rivalry of
+Dorian and Ionian. This racial, or tribal, contrast counted for more in
+the politics of Sicily than of Greece; and, though the two great
+branches of the Greek race were represented respectively by the leaders
+of the two sides, the allies on neither side belonged exclusively to the
+one branch or the other. Still, it remains true that the Dorian states
+were, as a rule, on the Spartan side, and the Ionian states, as a rule,
+on the Athenian--a division of sentiment which must have helped to widen
+the breach, and to intensify the animosities.
+
+
+  The Athenian empire.
+
+As a political experiment the Athenian empire possesses a unique
+interest. It represents the first attempt to fuse the principles of
+imperialism and democracy. It is at once the first empire in history
+possessed and administered by a sovereign people, and the first which
+sought to establish a common system of democratic institutions amongst
+its subjects.[14] It was an experiment that failed, partly owing to the
+inherent strength of the oligarchic cause, partly owing to the exclusive
+character of ancient citizenship. The Athenians themselves recognized
+that their empire depended for its existence upon the solidarity of
+democratic interests (see Thuc. iii. 47; Pseudo-Xenophon, _de Rep. Ath._
+i. 14, iii. 10). An understanding existed between the democratic leaders
+in the subject-states and the democratic party at Athens. Charges were
+easily trumped up against obnoxious oligarchs, and conviction as easily
+obtained in the Athenian courts of law. Such a system forced the
+oligarchs into an attitude of opposition. How much this opposition
+counted for was realized when the Sicilian disaster (413 B.C.) gave the
+subjects their chance to revolt. The organization of the oligarchical
+party throughout the empire, which was effected by Lysander in the last
+stage of the war, contributed to the overthrow of Athenian ascendancy
+hardly less than the subsidies of Persia. Had Athens aimed at
+establishing a community of interest between herself and her subjects,
+based upon a common citizenship, her empire might have endured. It would
+have been a policy akin to that which secured the permanence of the
+Roman empire. And it was a policy which found advocates when the day for
+it was past (see Aristophanes, _Lysistrata_, 574 ff.; cf. the grant of
+citizenship to the Samians after Aegospotami, _C.I.A._ iv. 2, 1b). But
+the policy pursued by Athens in the plenitude of her power was the
+reverse of the policy pursued by Rome in her treatment of the franchise.
+It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the fate of the empire was
+sealed by the law of Pericles (451 B.C.), by which the franchise was
+restricted to those who could establish Athenian descent on both sides.
+It was not merely that the process of amalgamation through intermarriage
+was abruptly checked; what was more serious was that a hard and fast
+line was drawn, once and for all, between the small body of privileged
+rulers and the great mass of unprivileged subjects. Maine (_Early
+Institutions_, lecture 13) has classed the Athenian empire with those of
+the familiar Oriental type, which attempt nothing beyond the raising of
+taxes and the levying of troops. The Athenian empire cannot, indeed, be
+classed with the Roman, or with the British rule in India; it does not,
+therefore, deserve to be classed with the empires of Cyrus or of Jenghiz
+Khan. Though the basis of its organization, like that of the Persian
+empire under Darius, was financial, it attempted, and secured, objects
+beyond the mere payment of tribute and the supply of ships. If Athens
+did not introduce a common religion, or a common system of education, or
+a common citizenship, she did introduce a common type of political
+institutions, and a common jurisdiction.[15] She went some way, too, in
+the direction of establishing a common system of coins, and of weights
+and measures. A common language was there already. In a word, the
+Athenian empire marks a definite stage of political evolution.
+
+
+  The mature democracy.
+
+The other great political movement of the age was the progress of
+democracy. Before the Persian invasion democracy was a rare phenomenon
+in Greek politics. Where it was found it existed in an undeveloped form,
+and its tenure of power was precarious. By the beginning of the
+Peloponnesian War it had become the prevalent form of government. The
+great majority of Greek states had adopted democratic constitutions.
+Both in the Athenian sphere of influence and in the colonial world
+outside that sphere, democracy was all but the only form of constitution
+known. It was only in Greece proper that oligarchy held its own. In the
+Peloponnese it could count a majority of the states; in northern Greece
+at least a half of them. The spread of democratic institutions was
+arrested by the victory of Sparta in the East, and the rise of Dionysius
+in the West. There was a moment at the end of the 5th century when it
+looked as if democracy was a lost cause. Even Athens was for a brief
+period under the rule of the Thirty (404-403 B.C.). In the regions which
+had formed the empire of Athens the decarchies set up by Lysander were
+soon overthrown, and democracies restored in most cases, but oligarchy
+continued to be the prevalent form in Greece proper until Leuctra (371
+B.C.), and in Sicily tyranny had a still longer tenure of power. By the
+end of the Great Age oligarchy has almost disappeared from the Greek
+world, except in the sphere of Persian influence. The Spartan monarchy
+still survives; a few Peloponnesian states still maintain the rule of
+the few; here and there in Greece itself we meet with a revival of the
+_tyrannis_; but, with these exceptions, democracy is everywhere the only
+type of constitution. And democracy has developed as well as spread. At
+the end of the 5th century the constitution of Cleisthenes, which was a
+democracy in the view of his contemporaries, had come to be regarded as
+an aristocracy (Aristot. _Ath. Pol._ 29. 3). We can trace a similar
+change of sentiment in Sicily. As compared with the extreme form of
+constitution adopted at Syracuse after the defeat of the Athenian
+expedition, the democracies established two generations earlier, on the
+fall of the _tyrannis_, appeared oligarchical. The changes by which the
+character of the Greek democracies was revolutionized were four in
+number: the substitution of sortition for election, the abolition of a
+property qualification, the payment of officials and the rise of a class
+of professional politicians. In the democracy of Cleisthenes no payment
+was given for service, whether as a magistrate, a juror or a member of
+the Boule. The higher magistracies were filled by election, and they
+were held almost exclusively by the members of the great Athenian
+families. For the highest office of all, the archonship, none but
+_Pentacosiomedimni_ (the first of the four Solonian classes) were
+eligible. The introduction of pay and the removal of the property
+qualification formed part of the reforms of Pericles. Sortition had been
+instituted for election a generation earlier (487 B.C.).[16] What is
+perhaps the most important of all these changes, the rise of the
+demagogues, belongs to the era of the Peloponnesian War. From the time
+of Cleisthenes to the outbreak of the war every statesman of note at
+Athens, with the exception of Themistocles (and, perhaps, of Ephialtes),
+is of aristocratic birth. Down to the fall of Cimon the course of
+Athenian politics is to a great extent determined by the alliances and
+antipathies of the great clans. With the Peloponnesian War a new epoch
+begins. The chief office, the _strategia_, is still, as a rule, held by
+men of rank. But leadership in the Ecclesia has passed to men of a
+different class. The demagogues were not necessarily poor men. Cleon was
+a wealthy man; Eucrates, Lysicles and Hyperbolus were, at any rate,
+tradesmen rather than artisans. The first "labour member" proper is
+Cleophon (411-404 B.C.), a lyre-maker. They belonged, however, not to
+the land-owning, but to the industrial classes; they were distinguished
+from the older race of party-leaders by a vulgar accent, and by a
+violence of gesture in public speaking, and they found their supporters
+among the population of the city and its port, the Peiraeus, rather than
+among the farmers of the country districts. In the 4th century the
+demagogues, though under another name, that of orators, have acquired
+entire control of the Ecclesia. It is an age of professionalism, and the
+professional soldier has his counterpart in the professional politician.
+Down to the death of Pericles the party-leader had always held office as
+Strategus. His rival, Thucydides, son of Melesias, forms a solitary
+exception to this statement. In the 4th century the divorce between the
+general and the statesman is complete. The generals are professional
+soldiers, who aspire to no political influence in the state, and the
+statesmen devote themselves exclusively to politics, a career for which
+they have prepared themselves by a professional training in oratory or
+administrative work. The ruin of agriculture during the war had reduced
+the old families to insignificance. Birth counts for less than nothing
+as a political asset in the age of Demosthenes.
+
+
+  The city-state.
+
+But great as are the contrasts which have been pointed out between the
+earlier and the later democracy, those that distinguish the ancient
+conception of democracy from the modern are of a still more essential
+nature. The differences that distinguish the democracies of ancient
+Greece from those of the modern world have their origin, to a great
+extent, in the difference between a city-state and a nation-state. Many
+of the most famous Greek states had an area of a few square miles; the
+largest of them was no larger than an English county. Political theory
+put the limit of the citizen-body at 10,000. Though this number was
+exceeded in a few cases, it is doubtful if any state, except Athens,
+ever counted more than 20,000 citizens. In the nation-states of modern
+times, democratic government is possible only under the form of a
+representative system; in the city-state representative government was
+unnecessary, and therefore unknown. In the ancient type of democracy a
+popular chamber has no existence. The Ecclesia is not a chamber in any
+sense of the term; it is an assembly of the whole people, which every
+citizen is entitled to attend, and in which every one is equally
+entitled to vote and speak. The question raised in modern political
+science, as to whether sovereignty resides in the electors or their
+representatives, has thus neither place nor meaning in ancient theory.
+In the same way, one of the most familiar results of modern analysis,
+the distinction between the executive and the legislative, finds no
+recognition in the Greek writers. In a direct system of government there
+can be no executive in the proper sense. Executive functions are
+discharged by the ecclesia, to whose decision the details of
+administration may be referred. The position of the strategi, the chief
+officials in the Athenian democracy of the 5th century, was in no sense
+comparable to that of a modern cabinet. Hence the individual citizen in
+an ancient democracy was concerned in, and responsible for, the actual
+work of government to a degree that is inconceivable in a modern state.
+Thus participation in the administrative and judicial business of the
+state is made by Aristotle the differentia of the citizen ([Greek:
+politês estin ho metechôn kriseôs kai archês], Aristot. _Politics_, p.
+1275 a 20). A large proportion of the citizens of Athens, in addition to
+frequent service in the courts of law, must in the course of their lives
+have held a magistracy, great or small, or have acted for a year or two
+as members of the Boule.[17] It must be remembered that there was
+nothing corresponding to a permanent civil service in the ancient state.
+Much of the work of a government office would have been transacted by
+the Athenian Boule. It must be remembered, too, that political and
+administrative questions of great importance came before the popular
+courts of law. Hence it follows that the ordinary citizen of an ancient
+democracy, in the course of his service in the Boule or the law-courts,
+acquired an interest in political questions, and a grasp of
+administrative work, which none but a select few can hope to acquire
+under the conditions of the modern system. Where there existed neither a
+popular chamber nor a distinct executive, there was no opportunity for
+the growth of a party-system. There were, of course, political parties
+at Athens and elsewhere--oligarchs and democrats, conservatives and
+radicals, a peace-party and a war-party, according to the burning
+question of the day. There was, however, nothing equivalent to a general
+election, to a cabinet (or to that collective responsibility which is of
+the essence of a cabinet), or to the government and the opposition.
+Party organization, therefore, and a party system, in the proper sense,
+were never developed. Whatever may have been the evils incident to the
+ancient form of democracy, the "boss," the caucus and the spoils-system
+were not among them.
+
+
+  Position of women.
+
+Besides these differences, which, directly or indirectly, result from
+the difference of scale, there are others, hardly less profound, which
+are not connected with the size of the city-state. Perhaps the most
+striking contrast between the democracies of ancient and of modern times
+is to be found in their attitude towards privilege. Ancient democracy
+implies privilege; modern democracy implies its destruction. In the more
+fully developed democracies of the modern world (e.g. in the United
+States, or in Australia), the privilege of class is unknown; in some of
+them (e.g. New Zealand, Australia, Norway) even the privilege of sex has
+been abolished. Ancient democracy was bound up with privilege as much as
+oligarchy was. The transition from the latter to the former was effected
+by enlarging the area of privilege and by altering its basis. In an
+oligarchical state citizenship might be confined to 10% of the free
+population; under a democracy 50% might enjoy it. In the former case the
+qualification might be wealth or land; in the latter case it might be,
+as it was at Athens, birth, i.e. descent, on both sides, from a citizen
+family. But, in both cases alike, the distinction between a privileged
+and an unprivileged body of free-born residents is fundamental. To the
+unprivileged class belonged, not only foreigners temporarily resident
+([Greek: xenoi]) and aliens permanently domiciled ([Greek: metoikoi]),
+but also those native-born inhabitants of the state who were of foreign
+extraction, on one side or the other.[18] The privileges attaching to
+citizenship included, in addition to eligibility for office and a vote
+in the assembly, such private rights as that of owning land or a house,
+or of contracting a marriage with one of citizen status. The citizen,
+too, was alone the recipient of all the various forms of pay (e.g. for
+attendance in the assembly, for service in the Boule or the law-courts,
+or for the celebration of the great festivals) which are so conspicuous
+a feature in the developed democracy of the 4th century. The _metoeci_
+could not even plead in a court of law in person, but only through a
+patron ([Greek: prostatês]). It is intelligible that privileges so great
+should be jealously guarded. In the democracies of the modern world
+naturalization is easy; in those of ancient Greece admission to the
+franchise was rarely accorded. In modern times, again, we are accustomed
+to connect democracy with the emancipation of women. It is true that
+only a few democratic constitutions grant them the suffrage; but though,
+as a rule, they are denied public rights, the growth of popular
+government has been almost everywhere accompanied by an extension of
+their private rights, and by the removal of the restrictions imposed by
+law, custom or public opinion upon their freedom of action. In ancient
+Greece the democracies were as illiberal in their policy as the
+oligarchies. Women of the respectable class were condemned to
+comparative seclusion. They enjoyed far less freedom in 4th-century
+Athens than in the Homeric Age. It is not in any of the democracies, but
+in conservative Sparta, that they possess privilege and exercise
+influence.
+
+
+  Slavery.
+
+The most fundamental of all the contrasts between democracy in its
+ancient and in its modern form remains to be stated. The ancient state
+was inseparable from slavery. In this respect there was no difference
+between democracy and the other forms of government. No inconsistency
+was felt, therefore, between this institution and the democratic
+principle. Modern political theory has been profoundly affected by the
+conception of the dignity of labour; ancient political theory tended to
+regard labour as a disqualification for the exercise of political
+rights. Where slavery exists, the taint of it will inevitably cling to
+all labour that can be performed by the slave. In ancient Athens (which
+may be taken as typical of the Greek democracies) unskilled labour was
+almost entirely slave-labour, and skilled labour was largely so. The
+arts and crafts were, to some extent, exercised by citizens, but to a
+less extent in the 4th than in the 6th century. They were, however,
+chiefly left to aliens or slaves. The citizen-body of Athens in the age
+of Demosthenes has been stigmatized as consisting in great measure of
+salaried paupers. There is, doubtless, an exaggeration in this. It is,
+however, true, both that the system of state-pay went a long way towards
+supplying the simple wants of a southern population, and that a large
+proportion of the citizens had time to spare for the service of the
+state. Had the life of the lower class of citizens been absorbed in a
+round of mechanical labours, as fully as is the life of our industrial
+classes, the working of an ancient democracy would have been impossible.
+In justice to the ancient democracies it must be conceded that, while
+popular government carried with it neither the enfranchisement of the
+alien nor the emancipation of the slave, the rights secured to both
+classes were more considerable in the democratic states than elsewhere.
+The lot of the slave, as well as that of the alien, was a peculiarly
+favourable one at Athens. The pseudo-Xenophon in the 5th century (_De
+rep. Ath._ 1. 10-12) and Plato in the 4th (_Republic_, p. 563 B), prove
+that the spirit of liberty, with which Athenian life was permeated, was
+not without its influence upon the position of these classes. When we
+read that critics complained of the opulence of slaves, and of the
+liberties they took, and when we are told that the slave could not be
+distinguished from the poorer class of citizens either by his dress or
+his look, we begin to realize the difference between the slavery of
+ancient Athens and the system as it was worked on the Roman _latifundia_
+or the plantations of the New World.
+
+
+  The Spartan empire.
+
+It had been anticipated that the fall of Athens would mean the triumph
+of the principle of autonomy. If Athens had surrendered within a year or
+so of the Sicilian catastrophe, this anticipation would probably have
+been fulfilled. It was the last phase of the struggle (412-404 B.C.)
+that rendered a Spartan empire inevitable. The oligarchical governments
+established by Lysander recognized that their tenure of power was
+dependent upon Spartan support, while Lysander himself, to whose genius,
+as a political organizer not less than as a commander, the triumph of
+Sparta was due, was unwilling to see his work undone. The Athenian
+empire had never included the greater part of Greece proper; since the
+Thirty Years' Peace its possessions on the mainland, outside the
+boundaries of Attica, were limited to Naupactus and Plataea. Sparta, on
+the other hand, attempted the control of the entire Greek world east of
+the Adriatic. Athens had been compelled to acknowledge a dual system;
+Sparta sought to establish uniformity. The attempt failed from the
+first. Within a year of the surrender of Athens, Thebes and Corinth had
+drifted into an attitude of opposition, while Argos remained hostile. It
+was not long before the policy of Lysander succeeded in uniting against
+Sparta the very forces upon which she had relied when she entered on the
+Peloponnesian War. The Corinthian War (394-387 B.C.) was brought about
+by the alliance of all the second-class powers--Thebes, Athens, Corinth,
+Argos--against the one first-class power, Sparta. Though Sparta emerged
+successful from the war, it was with the loss of her maritime empire,
+and at the cost of recognizing the principle of autonomy as the basis of
+the Greek political system. It was already evident, thus early in the
+century, that the centrifugal forces were to prove stronger than the
+centripetal. Two further causes may be indicated which help to explain
+the failure of the Spartan empire. In the first place Spartan sea-power
+was an artificial creation. History seems to show that it is idle for a
+state to aspire to naval supremacy unless it possesses a great
+commercial marine. Athens had possessed such a marine; her naval
+supremacy was due not to the mere size of her fleet, but to the numbers
+and skill of her seafaring population. Sparta had no commerce. She could
+build fleets more easily than she could man them. A single defeat (at
+Cnidus, 391 B.C.) sufficed for the ruin of her sea-power. The second
+cause is to be found in the financial weakness of the Spartan state. The
+Spartan treasury had been temporarily enriched by the spoils of the
+Peloponnesian War, but neither during that war, nor afterwards, did
+Sparta succeed in developing any scientific financial system. Athens was
+the only state which either possessed a large annual revenue or
+accumulated a considerable reserve. Under the conditions of Greek
+warfare, fleets were more expensive than armies. Not only was money
+needed for the building and maintenance of the ships, but the sailor
+must be paid, while the soldier served for nothing. Hence the power with
+the longest purse could both build the largest fleet and attract the
+most skilful seamen.
+
+
+  Theban hegemony.
+
+The battle of Leuctra transferred the hegemony from Sparta to Thebes,
+but the attempt to unite Greece under the leadership of Thebes was from
+the first doomed to failure. The conditions were less favourable to
+Thebes than they had been to Athens or Sparta. Thebes was even more
+exclusively a land-power than Sparta. She had no revenue comparable to
+that of Athens in the preceding century. Unlike Athens and Sparta, she
+had not the advantage of being identified with a political cause. As the
+enemy of Athens in the 5th century, she was on the side of oligarchy; as
+the rival of Sparta in the 4th, she was on the side of democracy; but in
+her bid for primacy she could not appeal, as Athens and Sparta could,
+to a great political tradition, nor had she behind her, as they had, the
+moral force of a great political principle. Her position, too, in
+Boeotia itself was insecure. The rise of Athens was in great measure the
+result of the _synoecism_ ([Greek: sunoikismos)] of Attica. All
+inhabitants of Attica were Athenians. But "Boeotian" and "Theban" were
+not synonymous terms. The Boeotian league was an imperfect form of
+union, as compared with the Athenian state, and the claim of Thebes to
+the presidency of the league was, at best, sullenly acquiesced in by the
+other towns. The destruction of some of the most famous of the Boeotian
+cities, however necessary it may have been in order to unite the
+country, was a measure which at once impaired the resources of Thebes
+and outraged Greek sentiment. It has been often held that the failure of
+Theban policy was due to the death of Epaminondas (at the battle of
+Mantinea, 362 B.C.). For this view there is no justification. His policy
+had proved a failure before his death. Where it harmonized with the
+spirit of the age, the spirit of dissidence, it succeeded; where it
+attempted to run counter to it, it failed. It succeeded in destroying
+the supremacy of Sparta in the Peloponnese; it failed to unite the
+Peloponnese on a new basis. It failed still more significantly to unite
+Greece north of the Isthmus. It left Greece weaker and more divided than
+it found it (see the concluding words of Xenophon's _Hellenics_). It
+would be difficult to overestimate the importance of his policy as a
+destructive force; as a constructive force it effected nothing.[19] The
+Peloponnesian system which Epaminondas overthrew had lasted two hundred
+years. Under Spartan leadership the Peloponnese had enjoyed almost
+complete immunity from invasion and comparative immunity from _stasis_
+(faction). The claim that Isocrates makes for Sparta is probably
+well-founded (_Archidamus_, 64-69; during the period of Spartan
+ascendency the Peloponnesians were [Greek: eudaimonestatoi tôn
+Hellênôn]). Peloponnesian sentiment had been one of the chief factors in
+Greek politics; to it, indeed, in no small degree was due the victory
+over Persia. The Theban victory at Leuctra destroyed the unity, and with
+it the peace and the prosperity, of the Peloponnese. It inaugurated a
+period of misery, the natural result of _stasis_ and invasion, to which
+no parallel can be found in the earlier history (See Isocrates,
+_Archidamus_, 65, 66; the Peloponnesians were [Greek: ômalismenoi tais
+sumphopais]). It destroyed, too, the Peloponnesian sentiment of
+hostility to the invader. The bulk of the army that defeated Mardonius
+at Plataea came from the Peloponnese; at Chaeronea no Peloponnesian
+state was represented.
+
+
+  The rise of Macedon.
+
+The question remains, Why did the city-state fail to save Greece from
+conquest by Macedon? Was this result due to the inherent weakness either
+of the city-state itself, or of one particular form of it, democracy? It
+is clear, in any case, that the triumph of Macedon was the effect of
+causes which had long been at work. If neither Philip nor Alexander had
+appeared on the scene, Greece might have maintained her independence for
+another generation or two; but, when invasion came, it would have found
+her weaker and more distracted, and the conquerors might easily have
+been less imbued with the Greek spirit, and less sympathetic towards
+Greek ideals, than the great Macedonian and his son. These causes are to
+be found in the tendencies of the age, political, economic and moral. Of
+the two movements which characterized the Great Age in its political
+aspect, the imperial and the democratic, the one failed and the other
+succeeded. The failure and the success were equally fatal to the chances
+of Greece in the conflict with Macedon. By the middle of the 4th century
+Greek politics had come to be dominated by the theory of the balance of
+power. This theory, enunciated in its coarsest form by Demosthenes (_Pro
+Megalopolit._ 4 [Greek: sumpherei tê polei kai Lakedaimonious astheneis
+einai kai Thêbaious]; cf. _in Aristocrat._ 102, 103), had shaped the
+foreign policy of Athens since the end of the Peloponnesian War. As long
+as Sparta was the stronger, Athens inclined to a Theban alliance; after
+Leuctra she tended in the direction of a Spartan one. At the epoch of
+Philip's accession the forces were everywhere nicely balanced. The
+Peloponnese was fairly equally divided between the Theban and the
+Spartan interests, and central Greece was similarly divided between the
+Theban and the Athenian. Farther north we get an Athenian party opposed
+to an Olynthian in Chalcidice, and a republican party, dependent upon
+the support of Thebes, opposed to that of the tyrants in Thessaly. It is
+easy to see that the political conditions of Greece, both in the north
+and in the south, invited interference from without. And the triumph of
+democracy in its extreme form was ruinous to the military efficiency of
+Greece. On the one side there was a monarchical state, in which all
+powers, civil as well as military, were concentrated in the hands of a
+single ruler; on the other, a constitutional system, in which a complete
+separation had been effected between the responsibility of the statesman
+and that of the commander.[20]
+
+It could not be doubtful with which side victory would rest. Meanwhile,
+the economic conditions were steadily growing worse. The cause which
+Aristotle assigns for the decay of the Spartan state--a declining
+population (see _Politics_, p. 1270 a [Greek: apôleto ê pólis tôn
+Lakedaimoniôn dià tên oliganthrôpian])--might be extended to the Greek
+world generally. The loss of population was partly the result of war and
+_stasis_--Isocrates speaks of the number of political exiles from the
+various states as enormous[21]--but it was also due to a declining
+birth-rate, and to the exposure of infants. Aristotle, while condemning
+exposure, sanctions the procuring of abortion (_Politics_, 1335 b). It
+is probable that both ante-natal and post-natal infanticide were rife
+everywhere, except among the more backward communities. A people which
+has condemned itself to racial suicide can have little chance when
+pitted against a nation in which healthier instincts prevail. The
+materials for forming a trustworthy estimate of the population of Greece
+at any given epoch are not available; there is enough evidence, however,
+to prove that the military population of the leading Greek states at the
+era of the battle of Chaeronea (338 B.C.) fell far short of what it had
+been at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. The decline in
+population had been accompanied by a decline in wealth, both public and
+private; and while revenues had shrunk, expenditure had grown. It was a
+century of warfare; and warfare had become enormously more expensive,
+partly through the increased employment of mercenaries, partly through
+the enhanced cost of material. The power of the purse had made itself
+felt even in the 5th century; Persian gold had helped to decide the
+issue of the great war. In the politics of the 4th century the power of
+the purse becomes the determining factor. The public finance of the
+ancient world was singularly simple in character, and the expedients for
+raising a revenue were comparatively few. The distinction between direct
+and indirect taxation was recognized in practice, but states as a rule
+were reluctant to submit to the former system. The revenue of Athens in
+the 5th century was mainly derived from the tribute paid by her
+subjects; it was only in time of war that a direct tax was levied upon
+the citizen-body.[22] In the age of Demosthenes the revenue derived from
+the Athenian Confederacy was insignificant. The whole burden of the
+expenses of a war fell upon the 1200 richest citizens, who were subject
+to direct taxation in the dual form of the _Trierarchy_ and the
+_Eisphora_ (property-tax). The revenue thus raised was wholly
+insufficient for an effort on a great scale; yet the revenues of Athens
+at this period must have exceeded those of any other state.
+
+It is to moral causes, however, rather than to political or economic
+ones, that the failure of Greece in the conflict with Macedon is
+attributed by the most famous Greek statesmen of that age. Demosthenes
+is never weary of insisting upon the decay of patriotism among the
+citizens and upon the decay of probity among their leaders. Venality had
+always been the besetting sin of Greek statesmen. Pericles' boast as to
+his own incorruptibility (Thuc. ii. 60) is significant as to the
+reputation of his contemporaries. In the age of Demosthenes the level of
+public life in this respect had sunk at least as low as that which
+prevails in many states of the modern world (see Demosth. _On the
+Crown_, 61 [Greek: para tois Hellêsin, oì tisin all' apasin omoíos phørà
+proòton kai dorodókon sunébê]; cf. §§ 295, 296). Corruption was
+certainly not confined to the Macedonian party. The best that can be
+said in defence of the patriots, as well as of their opponents, is that
+they honestly believed that the policy which they were bribed to
+advocate was the best for their country's interests. The evidence for
+the general decay of patriotism among the mass of the citizens is less
+conclusive. The battle of Megalopolis (331 B.C.), in which the Spartan
+soldiery "went down in a blaze of glory," proves that the spirit of the
+Lacedemonian state remained unchanged. But at Athens it seemed to
+contemporary observers--to Isocrates equally with Demosthenes--that the
+spirit of the great days was extinct (see Isocr. _On the Peace_, 47,
+48). It cannot, of course, be denied that public opinion was obstinately
+opposed to the diversion of the Theoric Fund to the purposes of the war
+with Philip. It was not till the year before Chaeronea that Demosthenes
+succeeded in persuading the assembly to devote the entire surplus to the
+expenses of the war.[23] Nor can it be denied that mercenaries were far
+more largely employed in the 4th century than in the 5th. In justice,
+however, to the Athenians of the Demosthenic era, it should be
+remembered that the burden of direct taxation was rarely imposed, and
+was reluctantly endured, in the previous century. It must also be
+remembered that, even in the 4th century, the Athenian citizen was ready
+to take the field, provided that it was not a question of a distant
+expedition or of prolonged service.[24] For distant expeditions, or for
+prolonged service, a citizen-militia is unsuited. The substitution of a
+professional force for an unprofessional one is to be explained, partly
+by the change in the character of Greek warfare, and partly by the
+operation of the laws of supply and demand. There had been a time when
+warfare meant a brief campaign in the summer months against a
+neighbouring state. It had come to mean prolonged operations against a
+distant enemy.[25] Athens was at war, e.g. with Philip, for eleven years
+continuously (357-346 B.C.). If winter campaigns in Thrace were
+unpopular at this epoch, they had been hardly less unpopular in the
+epoch of the Peloponnesian War. In the days of her greatness, too,
+Athens had freely employed mercenaries, but it was in the navy rather
+than the army. In the age of Pericles the supply of mercenary rowers was
+abundant, the supply of mercenary troops inconsiderable. In the age of
+Demosthenes incessant warfare and ceaseless revolution had filled Greece
+with crowds of homeless adventurers. The supply helped to create the
+demand. The mercenary was as cheap as the citizen-soldier, and much more
+effective. On the whole, then, it may be inferred that it is a mistake
+to regard the prevalence of the mercenary system as the expression of a
+declining patriotism. It would be nearer the mark to treat the
+transition from the voluntary to the professional system as cause rather
+than effect: as one among the causes which contributed to the decay of
+public spirit in the Greek world.
+
+
+  Federal government.
+
+6. _From Alexander to the Roman Conquest (336-146 B.C.)._--In the
+history of Greece proper during this period the interest is mainly
+constitutional. It may be called the age of federation. Federation,
+indeed, was no novelty in Greece. Federal unions had existed in
+Thessaly, in Boeotia and elsewhere, and the Boeotian league can be
+traced back at least to the 6th century. Two newly-founded federations,
+the Chalcidian and the Arcadian, play no inconsiderable part in the
+politics of the 4th century. But it is not till the 3rd century that
+federation attains to its full development in Greece, and becomes the
+normal type of polity. The two great leagues of this period are the
+Aetolian and the Achaean. Both had existed in the 4th century, but the
+latter, which had been dissolved shortly before the beginning of the 3rd
+century, becomes important only after its restoration in 280 B.C., about
+which date the former, too, first begins to attract notice. The interest
+of federalism lies in the fact that it marks an advance beyond the
+conception of the city-state. It is an attempt to solve the problem
+which the Athenian empire failed to solve, the reconciliation of the
+claims of local autonomy with those of national union. The federal
+leagues of the 3rd century possess a further interest for the modern
+world, in that there can be traced in their constitutions a nearer
+approach to a representative system than is found elsewhere in Greek
+experience. A genuine representative system, it is true, was never
+developed in any Greek polity. What we find in the leagues is a sort of
+compromise between the principle of a primary assembly and the principle
+of a representative chamber. In both leagues the nominal sovereign was a
+primary assembly, in which every individual citizen had the right to
+vote. In both of them, however, the real power lay with a council
+([Greek: Boulê]) composed of members representative of each of the
+component states.[26]
+
+
+  Alexander's empire.
+
+The real interest of this period, however, is to be looked for elsewhere
+than in Greece itself. Alexander's career is one of the turning-points
+in history. He is one of the few to whom it has been given to modify the
+whole future of the human race. He originated two forces which have
+profoundly affected the development of civilization. He created
+Hellenism, and he created for the western world the monarchical ideal.
+Greece had produced personal rulers of ability, or even of genius; but
+to the greatest of these, to Peisistratus, to Dionysius, even to Jason
+of Pherae, there clung the fatal taint of illegitimacy. As yet no ruler
+had succeeded in making the person of the monarch respectable. Alexander
+made it sacred. From him is derived, for the West, that "divinity that
+doth hedge a king." And in creating Hellenism he created, for the first
+time, a common type of civilization, with a common language, literature
+and art, as well as a common form of political organization. In Asia
+Minor he was content to reinforce the existing Hellenic elements (cf.
+the case of Side, Arrian, _Anabasis_, i. 26. 4). In the rest of the East
+his instrument of hellenization was the _polis_. He is said to have
+founded no less than seventy cities, destined to become centres of Greek
+influence; and the great majority of these were in lands in which
+city-life was almost unknown. In this respect his example was emulated
+by his successors. The eastern provinces were soon lost, though Greek
+influences lingered on even in Bactria and across the Indus. It was only
+the regions lying to the west of the Euphrates that were effectively
+hellenized, and the permanence of this result was largely due to the
+policy of Rome. But after all deductions have been made, the great fact
+remains that for many centuries after Alexander's death Greek was the
+language of literature and religion, of commerce and of administration
+throughout the Nearer East. Alexander had created a universal empire as
+well as a universal culture. His empire perished at his death, but its
+central idea survived--that of the municipal freedom of the Greek
+_polis_ within the framework of an imperial system. Hellenistic
+civilization may appear degenerate when compared with Hellenic; when
+compared with the civilizations which it superseded in non-Hellenic
+lands, it marks an unquestionable advance. (For the history of Greek
+civilization in the East, see HELLENISM.) Greece left her mark upon the
+civilization of the West as well as upon that of the East, but the
+process by which her influence was diffused was essentially different.
+In the East Hellenism came in the train of the conqueror, and Rome was
+content to build upon the foundations laid by Alexander. In the West
+Greek influences were diffused by the Roman conquest of Greece. It was
+through the ascendancy which Greek literature, philosophy and art
+acquired over the Roman mind that Greek culture penetrated to the
+nations of western Europe. The civilization of the East remained Greek.
+The civilization of the West became and remained Latin, but it was a
+Latin civilization that was saturated with Greek influences. The
+ultimate division, both of the empire and the church, into two halves,
+finds its explanation in this original difference of culture.
+
+ANCIENT AUTHORITIES.--(I.) For the earliest periods of Greek history,
+the so-called Minoan and Mycenaean, the evidence is purely
+archaeological. It is sufficient here to refer to the article AEGEAN
+CIVILIZATION. For the next period, the Heroic or Homeric Age, the
+evidence is derived from the poems of Homer. In any estimate of the
+value of these poems as historical evidence, much will depend upon the
+view taken of the authorship, age and unity of the poems. For a full
+discussion of these questions see HOMER. It cannot be questioned that
+the poems are evidence for the existence of a period in the history of
+the Greek race, which differed from later periods in political and
+social, military and economic conditions. But here agreement ends. If,
+as is generally held by German critics, the poems are not earlier than
+the 9th century, if they contain large interpolations of considerably
+later date and if they are Ionian in origin, the authority of the poems
+becomes comparatively slight. The existence of different strata in the
+poems will imply the existence of inconsistencies and contradictions in
+the evidence; nor will the evidence be that of a contemporary. It will
+also follow that the picture of the heroic age contained in the poems is
+an idealized one. The more extreme critics, e.g. Beloch, deny that the
+poems are evidence even for the existence of a pre-Dorian epoch. If, on
+the other hand, the poems are assigned to the 11th or 12th century, to a
+Peloponnesian writer, and to a period anterior to the Dorian Invasion
+and the colonization of Asia Minor (this is the view of the late Dr D.
+B. Munro), the evidence becomes that of a contemporary, and the
+authority of the poems for the distribution of races and tribes in the
+Heroic Age, as well as for the social and political conditions of the
+poet's time, would be conclusive. Homer recognizes no Dorians in Greece,
+except in Crete (see _Odyssey_, xix. 177), and no Greek colonies in Asia
+Minor. Only two explanations are possible. Either there is deliberate
+archaism in the poems, or else they are earlier in date than the Dorian
+Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor.
+
+
+  Herodotus.
+
+II. For the period that extends from the end of the Heroic Age to the
+end of the Peloponnesian War[27] the two principal authorities are
+Herodotus and Thucydides. Not only have the other historical works which
+treated of this period perished (those at least whose date is earlier
+than the Christian era), but their authority was secondary and their
+material chiefly derived from these two writers. In one respect then
+this period of Greek history stands alone. Indeed, it might be said,
+with hardly an exaggeration, that there is nothing like it elsewhere in
+history. Almost our sole authorities are two writers of unique genius,
+and they are writers whose works have come down to us intact. For the
+period which ends with the repulse of the Persian invasion our authority
+is Herodotus. For the period which extends from 478 to 411 we are
+dependent upon Thucydides'. In each case, however, a distinction must be
+drawn. The Persian Wars form the proper subject of Herodotus's work; the
+Peloponnesian War is the subject of Thucydides. The interval between the
+two wars is merely sketched by Thucydides; while of the period anterior
+to the conflicts of the Greek with the Persian, Herodotus does not
+attempt either a complete or a continuous narrative. His references to
+it are episodical and accidental. Hence our knowledge of the Persian
+Wars and of the Peloponnesian War is widely different in character from
+our knowledge of the rest of this period. In the history of these wars
+the _lacunae_ are few; in the rest of the history they are alike
+frequent and serious. In the history, therefore, of the Persian and
+Peloponnesian Wars little is to be learnt from the secondary sources.
+Elsewhere, especially in the interval between the two wars, they become
+relatively important.
+
+In estimating the authority of Herodotus (q.v.) we must be careful to
+distinguish between the invasion of Xerxes and all that is earlier.
+Herodotus's work was published soon after 430 B.C., i.e. about half a
+century after the invasion. Much of his information was gathered in the
+course of the preceding twenty years. Although his evidence is not that
+of an eye-witness, he had had opportunities of meeting those who had
+themselves played a part in the war, on one side or the other (e.g.
+Thersander of Orchomenos, ix. 16). In any case, we are dealing with a
+tradition which is little more than a generation old, and the events to
+which the tradition relates, the incidents of the struggle against
+Xerxes, were of a nature to impress themselves indelibly upon the minds
+of contemporaries. Where, on the other hand, he is treating of the
+period anterior to the invasion of Xerxes, he is dependent upon a
+tradition which is never less than two generations old, and is sometimes
+centuries old. His informants were, at best, the sons or grandsons of
+the actors in the wars (e.g. Archias the Spartan, iii. 55). Moreover,
+the invasion of Xerxes, entailing, as it did, the destruction of cities
+and sanctuaries, especially of Athens and its temples, marks a dividing
+line in Greek history. It was not merely that evidence perished and
+records were destroyed. What in reference to tradition is even more
+important, a new consciousness of power was awakened, new interests were
+aroused, and new questions and problems came to the front. The former
+things had passed away; all things were become new. A generation that is
+occupied with making history on a great scale is not likely to busy
+itself with the history of the past. Consequently, the earlier
+traditions became faint and obscured, and the history difficult to
+reconstruct. As we trace back the conflict between Greece and Persia to
+its beginnings and antecedents, we are conscious that the tradition
+becomes less trustworthy as we pass back from one stage to another. The
+tradition of the expedition of Datis and Artaphernes is less credible in
+its details than that of the expedition of Xerxes, but it is at once
+fuller and more credible than the tradition of the Ionian revolt. When
+we get back to the Scythian expedition, we can discover but few grains
+of historical truth.
+
+Much recent criticism of Herodotus has been directed against his
+veracity as a traveller. With this we are not here concerned. The
+criticism of him as an historian begins with Thucydides. Among the
+references of the latter writer to his predecessor are the following
+passages: i. 21; i. 22 _ad fin._; i. 20 _ad fin._ (cf. Herod. ix. 53,
+and vi. 57 _ad fin._); iii. 62 § 4 (cf. Herod. ix. 87); ii. 2 §§ 1 and 3
+(cf. Herod. vii. 233); ii. 8 § 3 (cf. Herod. vi. 98). Perhaps the two
+clearest examples of this criticism are to be found in Thucydides'
+correction of Herodotus's account of the Cylonian conspiracy (Thuc. i.
+126, cf. Herod. v. 71) and in his appreciation of the character of
+Themistocles--a veiled protest against the slanderous tales accepted by
+Herodotus (i. 138). In Plutarch's tract "On the Malignity of Herodotus"
+there is much that is suggestive, although his general standpoint, viz.
+that Herodotus was in duty bound to suppress all that was discreditable
+to the valour or patriotism of the Greeks, is not that of the modern
+critic. It must be conceded to Plutarch that he makes good his charge of
+bias in Herodotus's attitude towards certain of the Greek states. The
+question, however, may fairly be asked, how far this bias is personal to
+the author, or how far it is due to the character of the sources from
+which his information was derived. He cannot, indeed, altogether be
+acquitted of personal bias. His work is, to some extent, intended as an
+_apologia_ for the Athenian empire. In answer to the charge that Athens
+was guilty of robbing other Greek states of their freedom, Herodotus
+seeks to show, firstly, that it was to Athens that the Greek world, as a
+whole, owed its freedom from Persia, and secondly, that the subjects of
+Athens, the Ionian Greeks, were unworthy to be free. This leads him to
+be unjust both to the services of Sparta and to the qualities of the
+Ionian race. For his estimate of the debt due to Athens see vii. 139.
+For bias against the Ionians see especially iv. 142 (cf. Thuc. vi. 77);
+cf. also i. 143 and 146, vi. 12-14 (Ladë), vi. 112 _ad fin._ A striking
+example of his prejudice in favour of Athens is furnished by vi. 91. At
+a moment when Greece rang with the crime of Athens in expelling the
+Aeginetans from their Island, he ventures to trace in their expulsion
+the vengeance of heaven for an act of sacrilege nearly sixty years
+earlier (see AEGINA). As a rule, however, the bias apparent in his
+narrative is due to the sources from which it is derived. Writing at
+Athens, in the first years of the Peloponnesian War, he can hardly help
+seeing the past through an Athenian medium. It was inevitable that much
+of what he heard should come to him from Athenian informants, and should
+be coloured by Athenian prejudices. We may thus explain the leniency
+which he shows towards Argos and Thessaly, the old allies of Athens, in
+marked contrast to his treatment of Thebes, Corinth and Aegina, her
+deadliest foes. For Argos cf. vii. 152; Thessaly, vii. 172-174; Thebes,
+vii. 132, vii. 233, ix. 87; Corinth (especially the Corinthian general
+Adeimantus, whose son Aristeus was the most active enemy of Athens at
+the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War), vii. 5, vii. 21, viii. 29 and
+61, vii. 94; Aegina, ix. 78-80 and 85. In his intimacy with members of
+the great Alcmaeonid house we probably have the explanation of his
+depreciation of the services of Themistocles, as well as of his defence
+of the family from the charges brought against it in connexion with
+Cylon and with the incident of the shield shown on Pentelicus at the
+time of Marathon (v. 71, vi. 121-124). His failure to do justice to the
+Cypselid tyrants of Corinth (v. 92), and to the Spartan king Cleomenes,
+is to be accounted for by the nature of his sources--in the former case,
+the tradition of the Corinthian oligarchy; in the latter, accounts,
+partly derived from the family of the exiled king Demaratus and partly
+representative of the view of the ephorate. Much of the earlier history
+is cast in a religious mould, e.g. the story of the Mermnad kings of
+Lydia in book i., or of the fortunes of the colony of Cyrene (iv.
+145-167). In such cases we cannot fail to recognize the influence of the
+Delphic priesthood. Grote has pointed out that the moralizing tendency
+observable in Herodotus is partly to be explained by the fact that much
+of his information was gathered from priests and at temples, and that it
+was given in explanation of votive offerings, or of the fulfilment of
+oracles. Hence the determination of the sources of his narrative has
+become one of the principal tasks of Herodotean criticism. In addition
+to the current tradition of Athens, the family tradition of the
+Alcmaeonidae, and the stories to be heard at Delphi and other
+sanctuaries, there may be indicated the Spartan tradition, in the form
+in which it existed in the middle of the 5th century; that of his native
+Halicarnassus, to which is due the prominence of its queen Artemisia;
+the traditions of the Ionian cities, especially of Samos and Miletus
+(important both for the history of the Mermnadae and for the Ionian
+Revolt); and those current in Sicily and Magna Graecia, which were
+learned during his residence at Thurii (Sybaris and Croton, v. 44, 45;
+Syracuse and Gela, vii. 153-167). Among his more special sources we can
+point to the descendants of Demaratus, who still held, at the beginning
+of the 4th century, the principality in the Troad which had been granted
+to their ancestor by Darius (Xen. _Hell._ iii. i. 6), and to the family
+of the Persian general Artabazus, in which the satrapy of Dascylium
+(Phrygia) was hereditary in the 5th century.[28] His use of written
+material is more difficult to determine. It is generally agreed that the
+list of Persian satrapies, with their respective assessments of tribute
+(iii. 89-97), the description of the royal road from Sardis to Susa (v.
+52-54), and of the march of Xerxes, together with the list of the
+contingents that took part in the expedition (vii. 26-131), are all
+derived from documentary and authoritative sources. From previous
+writers (e.g. Dionysius of Miletus, Hecataeus, Charon of Lampsacus and
+Xanthus the Lydian) it is probable that he has borrowed little, though
+the fragments are too scanty to permit of adequate comparison. His
+references to monuments, dedicatory offerings, inscriptions and oracles
+are frequent.
+
+The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure to grasp the principles
+of historical criticism, to understand the nature of military
+operations, and to appreciate the importance of chronology. In place of
+historical criticism we find a crude rationalism (e.g. ii. 45, vii. 129,
+viii. 8). Having no conception of the distinction between occasion and
+cause, he is content to find the explanation of great historical
+movements in trivial incidents or personal motives. An example of this
+is furnished by his account of the Ionian revolt, in which he fails to
+discover the real causes either of the movement or of its result.
+Indeed, it is clear that he regarded criticism as no part of his task as
+an historian. In vii. 152 he states the principles which have guided
+him--[Greek: egô de opheilô legein ta legomena, peithesthai ge men ou
+pantapasi opheilô, kai moi touto to epos echeto es panta logon]. In
+obedience to this principle he again and again gives two or more
+versions of a story. We are thus frequently enabled to arrive at the
+truth by a comparison of the discrepant traditions. It would have been
+fortunate if all ancient writers who lacked the critical genius of
+Thucydides had been content to adopt the practice of Herodotus. His
+accounts of battles are always unsatisfactory. The great battles,
+Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis and Plataea, present a series of
+problems. This result is partly due to the character of the traditions
+which he follows--traditions which were to some extent inconsistent or
+contradictory, and were derived from different sources; it is, however,
+in great measure due to his inability to think out a strategical
+combination or a tactical movement. It is not too much to say that the
+battle of Plataea, as described by Herodotus, is wholly unintelligible.
+Most serious of all his deficiencies is his careless chronology. Even in
+the case of the 5th century, the data which he affords are inadequate or
+ambiguous. The interval between the Scythian expedition and the Ionian
+revolt is described by so vague an expression as [Greek: meta de ou
+pollon chronon anesis kakôn ên] (v. 28). In the history of the revolt
+itself, though he gives us the interval between its outbreak and the
+fall of Miletus ([Greek: ektô etei], vi. 18), he does not give us the
+interval between this and the battle of Lade, nor does he indicate with
+sufficient precision the years to which the successive phases of the
+movement belong. Throughout the work professed synchronisms too often
+prove to be mere literary devices for facilitating a transition from one
+subject to another (cf. e.g. v. 81 with 89, 90; or vi. 51 with 87 and
+94). In the 6th century, as Grote pointed out, a whole generation, or
+more, disappears in his historical perspective (cf. i. 30, vi. 125, v.
+94, iii. 47, 48, v. 113 contrasted with v. 104 and iv. 162). The
+attempts to reconstruct the chronology of this century upon the basis of
+the data afforded by Herodotus (e.g. by Beloch, _Rheinisches Museum_,
+xlv., 1890, pp. 465-473) have completely failed.
+
+In spite of all such defects Herodotus is an author, not only of
+unrivalled literary charm, but of the utmost value to the historian. If
+much remains uncertain or obscure, even in the history of the Persian
+Wars, it is chiefly to motives or policy, to topography or strategy, to
+dates or numbers, that uncertainty attaches. It is to these that a sober
+criticism will confine itself.
+
+
+  Thucydides.
+
+Thucydides is at once the father of contemporary history and the father
+of historical criticism. From a comparison of i. 1, i. 22 and v. 26, we
+may gather both the principles to which he adhered in the composition of
+his work and the conditions under which it was composed. It is seldom
+that the circumstances of an historical writer have been so favourable
+for the accomplishment of his task. Thucydides was a contemporary of the
+Twenty-Seven Years' War in the fullest sense of the term. He had reached
+manhood at its outbreak, and he survived its close by at least
+half-a-dozen years. And he was more than a mere contemporary. As a man
+of high birth, a member of the Periclean circle, and the holder of the
+chief political office in the Athenian state, the _strategia_, he was
+not only familiar with the business of administration and the conduct of
+military operations, but he possessed in addition a personal knowledge
+of those who played the principal part in the political life of the age.
+His exile in the year 424 afforded him opportunities of visiting the
+scenes of distant operations (e.g. Sicily) and of coming in contact with
+the actors on the other side. He himself tells us that he spared no
+pains to obtain the best information available in each case. He also
+tells us that he began collecting materials for his work from the very
+beginning of the war. Indeed, it is probable that much of books i.-v. 24
+was written soon after the Peace of Nicias (421), just as it is possible
+that the history of the Sicilian Expedition (books vi. and vii.) was
+originally intended to form a separate work. To the view, however, which
+has obtained wide support in recent years, that books i.-v. 22 and books
+vi. and vii. were separately published, the rest of book v. and book
+viii. being little more than a rough draught, composed after the author
+had adopted the theory of a single war of twenty-seven years' duration,
+of which the Sicilian Expedition and the operations of the years 431-421
+formed integral parts, there seem to the present writer to be
+insuperable objections. The work, as a whole, appears to have been
+composed in the first years of the 4th century, after his return from
+exile in 404, when the material already in existence must have been
+revised and largely recast. There are exceedingly few passages, such as
+iv. 48. 5, which appear to have been overlooked in the process of
+revision. It can hardly be questioned that the impression left upon the
+reader's mind is that the point of view of the author, in all the books
+alike, is that of one writing after the fall of Athens.
+
+The task of historical criticism in the case of the Peloponnesian War is
+widely different from its task in the case of the Persian Wars. It has
+to deal, not with facts as they appear in the traditions of an
+imaginative race, but with facts as they appeared to a scientific
+observer. Facts, indeed, are seldom in dispute. The question is rather
+whether facts of importance are omitted, whether the explanation of
+causes is correct, or whether the judgment of men and measures is just.
+Such inaccuracies as have been brought home to Thucydides on the
+strength, e.g. of epigraphic evidence, are, as a rule, trivial. His most
+serious errors relate to topographical details, in cases where he was
+dependent on the information of others. Sphacteria (see Pylos) (see G.
+B. Grundy, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xvi., 1896, p. 1) is a case in
+point. Nor have the difficulties connected with the siege of Plataea
+been cleared up either by Grundy or by others (see Grundy, _Topography
+of the Battle of Plataea_, &c., 1894). Where, on the contrary, he is
+writing at first hand his descriptions of sites are surprisingly
+correct. The most serious charge as yet brought against his authority as
+to matters of fact relates to his account of the Revolution of the Four
+Hundred, which appears, at first sight, to be inconsistent with the
+documentary evidence supplied by Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_
+(q.v.). It may be questioned, however, whether the documents have been
+correctly interpreted by Aristotle. On the whole, it is probable that
+the general course of events was such as Thucydides describes (see E.
+Meyer, _Forschungen_, ii. 406-436), though he failed to appreciate the
+position of Theramenes and the Moderate party, and was clearly
+misinformed on some important points of detail. With regard to the
+omission of facts, it is unquestionable that much is omitted that would
+not be omitted by a modern writer. Such omissions are generally due to
+the author's conception of his task. Thus the internal history of Athens
+is passed over as forming no part of the history of the war. It is only
+where the course of the war is directly affected by the course of
+political events (e.g. by the Revolution of the Four Hundred) that the
+internal history is referred to. However much it may be regretted that
+the relations of political parties are not more fully described,
+especially in book v., it cannot be denied that from his standpoint
+there is logical justification even for the omission of the ostracism of
+Hyperbolus. There are omissions, however, which are not so easily
+explained. Perhaps the most notable instance is that of the raising of
+the tribute in 425 B.C. (see DELIAN LEAGUE).
+
+Nowhere is the contrast between the historical methods of Herodotus and
+Thucydides more apparent than in the treatment of the causes of events.
+The distinction between the occasion and the cause is constantly present
+to the mind of Thucydides, and it is his tendency to make too little
+rather than too much of the personal factor. Sometimes, however, it may
+be doubted whether his explanation of the causes of an event is adequate
+or correct. In tracing the causes of the Peloponnesian War itself,
+modern writers are disposed to allow more weight to the commercial
+rivalry of Corinth; while in the case of the Sicilian expedition, they
+would actually reverse his judgment (ii. 65 [Greek: ho es Sikelian plous
+hos ou tosoutov gnômês hamartêma ên pros hous epêesan]). To us it seems
+that the very idea of the expedition implied a gigantic miscalculation
+of the resources of Athens and of the difficulty of the task. His
+judgments of men and of measures have been criticized by writers of
+different schools and from different points of view. Grote criticized
+his verdict upon Cleon, while he accepted his estimate of the policy of
+Pericles. More recent writers, on the other hand, have accepted his view
+of Cleon, while they have selected for attack his appreciation alike of
+the policy and the strategy of Pericles. He has been charged, too, with
+failure to do justice to the statesmanship of Alcibiades.[29] There are
+cases, undoubtedly, in which the balance of recent opinion will be
+adverse to the view of Thucydides. There are many more in which the
+result of criticism has been to establish his view. That he should
+occasionally have been mistaken in his judgment and his views is
+certainly no detraction from his claim to greatness.
+
+On the whole, it may be said that while the criticism of Herodotus,
+since Grote wrote, has tended seriously to modify our view of the
+Persian Wars, as well as of the earlier history, the criticism of
+Thucydides, in spite of its imposing bulk, has affected but slightly our
+view of the course of the Peloponnesian War. The labours of recent
+workers in this field have borne most fruit where they have been
+directed to subjects neglected by Thucydides, such as the history of
+political parties, or the organization of the empire (G. Gilbert's
+_Innere Geschichte Athens im Zeitalter des pel. Krieges_ is a good
+example of such work).
+
+In regard to Thucydides' treatment of the period between the Persian and
+Peloponnesian Wars (the so-called _Pentecontaëteris_) it should be
+remembered that he does not profess to give, even in outline, the
+history of this period as a whole. The period is regarded simply as a
+prelude to the Peloponnesian War. There is no attempt to sketch the
+history of the Greek world or of Greece proper during this period. There
+is, indeed, no attempt to give a complete sketch of Athenian history.
+His object is to trace the growth of the Athenian Empire, and the causes
+that made the war inevitable. Much is therefore omitted not only in the
+history of the other Greek states, especially the Peloponnesian, but
+even in the history of Athens. Nor does Thucydides attempt an exact
+chronology. He gives us a few dates (e.g. surrender of Ithome, in the
+tenth year, i. 103; of Thasos, in the third year, i. 101; duration of
+the Egyptian expedition six years, i. 110; interval between Tanagra and
+Oenophyta 61 days, i. 108; revolt of Samos, in the sixth year after the
+Thirty Years' Truce, i. 115), but from these data alone it would be
+impossible to reconstruct the chronology of the period. In spite of all
+that can be gleaned from our other authorities, our knowledge of this,
+the true period of Athenian greatness, must remain slight and imperfect
+as compared with our knowledge of the next thirty years.
+
+
+  Diodorus.
+
+  Plutarch.
+
+  The constitutions.
+
+Of the secondary authorities for this period the two principal ones are
+Diodorus (xi. 38 to xii. 37) and Plutarch. Diodorus is of value chiefly
+in relation to Sicilian affairs, to which he devotes about a third of
+this section of his work and for which he is almost our sole authority.
+His source for Sicilian history is the Sicilian writer Timaeus (q.v.),
+an author of the 3rd century B.C. For the history of Greece Proper
+during the Pentecontaetia Diodorus contributes comparatively little of
+importance. Isolated notices of particular events (e.g. the _Synoecism_
+of Elis, 471 B.C., or the foundation of Amphipolis, 437 B.C.), which
+appear to be derived from a chronological writer, may generally be
+trusted. The greater part of his narrative is, however, derived from
+Ephorus, who appears to have had before him little authentic information
+for this period of Greek history other than that afforded by Thucydides'
+work. Four of Plutarch's _Lives_ are concerned with this period, viz.
+_Themistocles_, _Aristides_, _Cimon_ and _Pericles_. From the
+_Aristides_ little can be gained. Plutarch, in this biography, appears
+to be mainly dependent upon Idomeneus of Lampsacus, an excessively
+untrustworthy writer of the 3rd century B.C., who is probably to be
+credited with the invention of the oligarchical conspiracy at the time
+of the battle of Plataea (ch. 13), and of the decree of Aristides,
+rendering all four classes of citizens eligible for the archonship (ch.
+22). The _Cimon_, on the other hand, contains much that is valuable;
+such as, e.g. the account of the battle of the Eurymedon (chs. 12 and
+13). To the _Pericles_ we owe several quotations from the Old Comedy.
+Two other of the _Lives_, _Lycurgus_ and _Solon_, are amongst our most
+important sources for the early history of Sparta and Athens
+respectively. Of the two (besides _Pericles_) which relate to the
+Peloponnesian War, _Alcibiades_ adds little to what can be gained from
+Thucydides and Xenophon; the _Nicias_, on the other hand, supplements
+Thucydides' narrative of the Sicilian expedition with many valuable
+details, which, it may safely be assumed, are derived from the
+contemporary historian, Philistus of Syracuse. Amongst the most valuable
+material afforded by Plutarch are the quotations, which occur in almost
+all the _Lives_, from the collection of Athenian decrees ([Greek:
+psêphismatôn sunagôgê]) formed by the Macedonian writer Craterus, in the
+3rd century B.C. Two other works may be mentioned in connexion with the
+history of Athens. For the history of the Athenian Constitution down to
+the end of the 5th century B.C. Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_
+(q.v.) is our chief authority. The other _Constitution of Athens_,
+erroneously attributed to Xenophon, a tract of singular interest both on
+literary and historical grounds, throws a good deal of light on the
+internal condition of Athens, and on the system of government, both of
+the state and of the empire, in the age of the Peloponnesian War, during
+the earlier years of which it was composed.
+
+
+  Inscriptions.
+
+To the literary sources for the history of Greece, especially of Athens,
+in the 5th century B.C. must be added the epigraphic. Few inscriptions
+have been discovered which date back beyond the Persian Wars. For the
+latter half of the 5th century they are both numerous and important. Of
+especial value are the series of Quota-lists, from which can be
+calculated the amount of tribute paid by the subject-allies of Athens
+from the year 454 B.C. onwards. The great majority of the inscriptions
+of this period are of Athenian origin. Their value is enhanced by the
+fact that they relate, as a rule, to questions of organization, finance
+and administration, as to which little information is to be gained from
+the literary sources.
+
+For the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars Busolt,
+_Griechische Geschichte_, iii. 1, is indispensable. Hill's _Sources of
+Greek History, B.C. 478-431_ (Oxford, 1897) is excellent. It gives the
+most important inscriptions in a convenient form.
+
+
+  Xenophon.
+
+III. _The 4th Century to the Death of Alexander._--Of the historians who
+flourished in the 4th century the sole writer whose works have come down
+to us is Xenophon. It is a singular accident of fortune that neither of
+the two authors, who at once were most representative of their age and
+did most to determine the views of Greek history current in subsequent
+generations, Ephorus (q.v.) and Theopompus (q.v.), should be extant. It
+was from them, rather than from Herodotus, Thucydides or Xenophon that
+the Roman world obtained its knowledge of the history of Greece in the
+past, and its conception of its significance. Both were pupils of
+Isocrates, and both, therefore, bred up in an atmosphere of rhetoric.
+Hence their popularity and their influence. The scientific spirit of
+Thucydides was alien to the temper of the 4th century, and hardly more
+congenial to the age of Cicero or Tacitus. To the rhetorical spirit,
+which is common to both, each added defects peculiar to himself.
+Theopompus is a strong partisan, a sworn foe to Athens and to Democracy.
+Ephorus, though a military historian, is ignorant of the art of war. He
+is also incredibly careless and uncritical. It is enough to point to his
+description of the battle of the Eurymedon (Diodorus xi. 60-62), in
+which, misled by an epigram, which he supposed to relate to this
+engagement (it really refers to the Athenian victory off Salamis in
+Cyprus, 449 B.C.), he makes the coast of Cyprus the scene of Cimon's
+naval victory, and finds no difficulty in putting it on the same day as
+the victory on shore on the banks of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia. Only a
+few fragments remain of either writer, but Theopompus (q.v.) was largely
+used by Plutarch in several of the _Lives_, while Ephorus continues to
+be the main source of Diodorus' history, as far as the outbreak of the
+Sacred War (Fragments of Ephorus in Müller's _Fragmenta historicorum
+Graecorum_, vol.i.; of Theopompus in _Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, cum
+Theopompi et Cratippi fragmentis_, ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt,
+1909).
+
+It may be at least claimed for Xenophon (q.v.) that he is free from all
+taint of the rhetorical spirit. It may also be claimed for him that, as
+a witness, he is both honest and well-informed. But, if there is no
+justification for the charge of deliberate falsification, it cannot be
+denied that he had strong political prejudices, and that his narrative
+has suffered from them. His historical writings are the _Anabasis_, an
+account of the expedition of the Ten Thousand, the _Hellenica_ and the
+_Agesilaus_, a eulogy of the Spartan king. Of these the _Hellenica_ is
+far the most important for the student of history. It consists of two
+distinct parts (though there is no ground for the theory that the two
+parts were separately written and published), books i. and ii., and
+books iii. to vii. The first two books are intended as a continuation of
+Thucydides' work. They begin, quite abruptly, in the middle of the Attic
+year 411/10, and they carry the history down to the fall of the Thirty,
+in 403. Books iii. to vii., the _Hellenica_ proper, cover the period
+from 401 to 362, and give the histories of the Spartan and Theban
+hegemonies down to the death of Epaminondas. There is thus a gap of two
+years between the point at which the first part ends and that at which
+the second part begins. The two parts differ widely, both in their aim
+and in the arrangement of the material. In the first part Xenophon
+attempts, though not with complete success, to follow the chronological
+method of Thucydides, and to make each successive spring, when military
+and naval operations were resumed after the winter's interruption, the
+starting-point of a fresh section. The resemblance between the two
+writers ends, however, with the outward form of the narrative. All that
+is characteristic of Thucydides is absent in Xenophon. The latter writer
+shows neither skill in portraiture, nor insight into motives. He is
+deficient in the sense of proportion and of the distinction between
+occasion and cause. Perhaps his worst fault is a lack of imagination. To
+make a story intelligible it is necessary sometimes to put oneself in
+the reader's place, and to appreciate his ignorance of circumstances and
+events which would be perfectly familiar to the actors in the scene or
+to contemporaries. It was not given to Xenophon, as it was to
+Thucydides, to discriminate between the circumstances that are essential
+and those that are not essential to the comprehension of the story. In
+spite, therefore, of its wealth of detail, his narrative is frequently
+obscure. It is quite clear that in the trial of the generals, e.g.,
+something is omitted. It may be supplied as Diodorus has supplied it
+(xiii. 101), or it may be supplied otherwise. It is probable that, when
+under cross-examination before the council, the generals, or some of
+them, disclosed the commission given to Theramenes and Thrasybulus. The
+important point is that Xenophon himself has omitted to supply it. As it
+stands his narrative is unintelligible. In the first two books, though
+there are omissions (e.g. the loss of Nisaea, 409 B.C.), they are not so
+serious as in the last five, nor is the bias so evident. It is true that
+if the account of the rule of the Thirty given in Aristotle's
+_Constitution of Athens_ be accepted, Xenophon must have deliberately
+misrepresented the course of events to the prejudice of Theramenes. But
+it is at least doubtful whether Aristotle's version can be sustained
+against Xenophon's, though it may be admitted, not only that there are
+mistakes as to details in the latter writer's narrative, but that less
+than justice is done to the policy and motives of the "Buskin." The
+_Hellenica_ was written, it should be remembered, at Corinth, after 362.
+More than forty years had thus elapsed since the events recorded in the
+first two books, and after so long an interval accuracy of detail, even
+where the detail is of importance, is not always to be expected.[30] In
+the second part the chronological method is abandoned. A subject once
+begun is followed out to its natural ending, so that sections of the
+narrative which are consecutive in order are frequently parallel in
+point of date. A good example of this will be found in book iv. In
+chapters 2 to 7 the history of the Corinthian war is carried down to the
+end of 390, so far as the operations on land are concerned, while
+chapter 8 contains an account of the naval operations from 394 to 388.
+In this second part of the _Hellenica_ the author's disqualifications
+for his task are more apparent than in the first two books. The more he
+is acquitted of bias in his selection of events and in his omissions,
+the more clearly does he stand convicted of lacking all sense of the
+proportion of things. Down to Leuctra (371 B.C.) Sparta is the centre of
+interest, and it is of the Spartan state alone that a complete or
+continuous history is given. After Leuctra, if the point of view is no
+longer exclusively Spartan, the narrative of events is hardly less
+incomplete. Throughout the second part of the _Hellenica_ omissions
+abound which it is difficult either to explain or justify. The formation
+of the Second Athenian Confederacy of 377 B.C., the foundation of
+Megalopolis and the restoration of the Messenian state are all left
+unrecorded. Yet the writer who passes them over without mention thinks
+it worth while to devote more than one-sixth of an entire book to a
+chronicle of the unimportant feats of the citizens of the petty state of
+Phlius. Nor is any attempt made to appraise the policy of the great
+Theban leaders, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The former, indeed, is
+mentioned only in a single passage, relating to the embassy to Susa in
+368; the latter does not appear on the scene till a year later, and
+receives mention but twice before the battle of Mantinea. An author who
+omits from his narrative some of the most important events of his
+period, and elaborates the portraiture of an Agesilaus while not
+attempting the bare outline of an Epaminondas, may be honest; he may
+even write without a consciousness of bias; he certainly cannot rank
+among the great writers of history.[31]
+
+
+  Diodorus.
+
+For the history of the 4th century Diodorus assumes a higher degree of
+importance than belongs to him in the earlier periods. This is partly to
+be explained by the deficiencies of Xenophon's _Hellenica_, partly by
+the fact that for the interval between the death of Epaminondas and the
+accession of Alexander we have in Diodorus alone a continuous narrative
+of events. Books xiv. and xv. of his history include the period covered
+by the _Hellenica_. More than half of book xiv. is devoted to the
+history of Sicily and the reign of Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse.
+For this period of Sicilian history he is, practically, our sole
+authority. In the rest of the book, as well as in book xv., there is
+much of value, especially in the notices of Macedonian history. Thanks
+to Diodorus we are enabled to supply many of the omissions of the
+_Hellenica_. Diodorus is, e.g., our sole literary authority for the
+Athenian naval confederation of 377. Book xvi. must rank, with the
+_Hellenica_ and Arrian's _Anabasis_, as one of the three principal
+authorities for this century, so far, at least, as works of an
+historical character are concerned. It is our authority for the Social
+and the Sacred Wars, as well as for the reign of Philip. It is a curious
+irony of fate that, for what is perhaps the most momentous epoch in the
+history of Greece, we should have to turn to a writer of such inferior
+capacity. For this period his material is better and his importance
+greater: his intelligence is as limited as ever. Who but Diodorus would
+be capable of narrating the siege and capture of Methone twice over,
+once under the year 354, and again under the year 352 (xvi. 31 and 34;
+cf. xii. 35 and 42; Archidamus (q.v.) dies in 434, commands
+Peloponnesian army in 431); or of giving three different numbers of
+years (eleven, ten and nine) in three different passages (chs. 14, 23
+and 59) for the length of the Sacred War; or of asserting the
+conclusion of peace between Athens and Philip in 340, after the failure
+of his attack on Perinthus and Byzantium? Amongst the subjects which are
+omitted is the Peace of Philocrates. For the earlier chapters, which
+bring the narrative down to the outbreak of the Sacred War, Ephorus, as
+in the previous book, is Diodorus' main source. His source for the rest
+of the book, i.e. for the greater part of Philip's reign, cannot be
+determined. It is generally agreed that it is not the _Philippica_ of
+Theopompus.
+
+
+  Historians of Alexander's reign.
+
+For the reign of Alexander our earliest extant authority is Diodorus,
+who belongs to the age of Augustus. Of the others, Q. Curtius Rufus, who
+wrote in Latin, lived in the reign of the emperor Claudius, Arrian and
+Plutarch in the 2nd century A.D. Yet Alexander's reign is one of the
+best known periods of ancient history. The Peloponnesian War and the
+twenty years of Roman history which begin with 63 B.C. are the only two
+periods which we can be said to know more fully or for which we have
+more trustworthy evidence. For there is no period of ancient history
+which was recorded by a larger number of contemporary writers, or for
+which better or more abundant materials were available. Of the writers
+actually contemporary with Alexander there were five of
+importance--Ptolemy, Aristobulus, Callisthenes, Onesicritus and
+Nearchus; and all of them occupied positions which afforded exceptional
+opportunities of ascertaining the facts. Four of them were officers in
+Alexander's service. Ptolemy, the future king of Egypt, was one of the
+_somatophylaces_ (we may, perhaps, regard them as corresponding to
+Napoleon's marshals); Aristobulus was also an officer of high rank (see
+Arrian, _Anab._ vi. 29. 10); Nearchus was admiral of the fleet which
+surveyed the Indus and the Persian Gulf, and Onesicritus was one of his
+subordinates. The fifth, Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied
+Alexander on his march down to his death in 327 and was admitted to the
+circle of his intimate friends. A sixth historian, Cleitarchus, was
+possibly also a contemporary; at any rate he is not more than a
+generation later. These writers had at their command a mass of official
+documents, such as the [Greek: basileioi ephêmerides]--the _Gazette_ and
+_Court Circular_ combined--edited and published after Alexander's death
+by his secretary, Eumenes of Cardia; the [Greek: stathmoi], or records
+of the marches of the armies, which were carefully measured at the time;
+and the official reports on the conquered provinces. That these
+documents were made use of by the historians is proved by the references
+to them which are to be found in Arrian, Plutarch and Strabo; e.g.
+Arrian, _Anab._ vii. 25 and 26, and Plutarch, _Alexander 76_ (quotation
+from the [Greek: basileioi ephêmerides]); Strabo xv. 723 (reference to
+the [Greek: stathmoi]), ii. 69 (reports drawn up on the various
+provinces). We have, in addition, in Plutarch numerous quotations from
+Alexander's correspondence with his mother, Olympias, and with his
+officers. The contemporary historians may be roughly divided into two
+groups. On the one hand there are Ptolemy and Aristobulus, who, except
+in a single instance, are free from all suspicion of deliberate
+invention. On the other hand, there are Callisthenes, Onesicritus and
+Cleitarchus, whose tendency is rhetorical. Nearchus appears to have
+allowed full scope to his imagination in dealing with the wonders of
+India, but to have been otherwise veracious. Of the extant writers
+Arrian (q.v.) is incomparably the most valuable. His merits are twofold.
+As the commander of Roman legions and the author of a work on tactics,
+he combined a practical with a theoretical knowledge of the military
+art, while the writers whom he follows in the _Anabasis_ are the two
+most worthy of credit, Ptolemy and Aristobulus. We may well hesitate to
+call in question the authority of writers who exhibit an agreement which
+it would be difficult to parallel elsewhere in the case of two
+independent historians. It may be inferred from Arrian's references to
+them that there were only eleven cases in all in which he found
+discrepancies between them. The most serious drawback which can be
+alleged against them is an inevitable bias in Alexander's favour. It
+would be only natural that they should pass over in silence the worst
+blots on their great commander's fame. Next in value to the _Anabasis_
+comes Plutarch's _Life of Alexander_, the merits of which, however, are
+not to be gauged by the influence which it has exercised upon
+literature. The _Life_ is a valuable supplement to the _Anabasis_,
+partly because Plutarch, as he is writing biography rather than history
+(for his conception of the difference between the two see the famous
+preface, _Life of Alexander_, ch. i.), is concerned to record all that
+will throw light upon Alexander's character (e.g. his epigrammatic
+sayings and quotations from his letters); partly because he tells us
+much about his early life, before he became king, while Arrian tells us
+nothing. It is unfortunate that Plutarch writes in an uncritical spirit;
+it is hardly less unfortunate that he should have formed no clear
+conception and drawn no consistent picture of Alexander's character.
+Book xvii. of Diodorus and the _Historiae Alexandri_ of Curtius Rufus
+are thoroughly rhetorical in spirit. It is probable that in both cases
+the ultimate source is the work of Clitarchus.
+
+
+  The orators.
+
+  Isocrates.
+
+It is towards the end of the 5th century that a fresh source of
+information becomes available in the speeches of the orators, the
+earliest of whom is Antiphon (d. 411 B.C.). Lysias is of great
+importance for the history of the Thirty (see the speeches against
+Eratosthenes and Agoratus), and a good deal may be gathered from
+Andocides with regard to the last years of the 5th and the opening years
+of the next century. At the other end of this period Lycurgus, Hyperides
+and Dinarchus throw light upon the time of Philip and Alexander. The
+three, however, who are of most importance to the historian are
+Isocrates, Aeschines and Demosthenes. Isocrates (q.v.), whose long life
+(436-338) more than spans the interval between the outbreak of the
+Peloponnesian War and the triumph of Macedon at Chaeronea, is one of the
+most characteristic figures in the Greek world of his day. To comprehend
+that world the study of Isocrates is indispensable; for in an age
+dominated by rhetoric he is the prince of rhetoricians. It is difficult
+for a modern reader to do him justice, so alien is his spirit and the
+spirit of his age from ours. It must be allowed that he is frequently
+monotonous and prolix; at the same time it must not be forgotten that,
+as the most famous representative of rhetoric, he was read from one end
+of the Greek world to the other. He was the friend of Evagoras and
+Archidamus, of Dionysius and Philip; he was the master of Aeschines and
+Lycurgus amongst orators and of Ephorus and Theopompus amongst
+historians. No other contemporary writer has left so indelible a stamp
+upon the style and the sentiment of his generation. It is a commonplace
+that Isocrates is the apostle of Panhellenism. It is not so generally
+recognized that he is the prophet of Hellenism. A passage in the
+Panegyricus (§ 50 [Greek: hôste to tôn Hellênon onoma mêketi tou genous
+alla tês dianoias dokein einai kai mallon Hellênas kaleisthai tous tês
+paideuseôs tês hêmeteras ê tous tês koinês physeôs metechontas]) is the
+key to the history of the next three centuries. Doubtless he had no
+conception of the extent to which the East was to be hellenized. He was,
+however, the first to recognize that it would be hellenized by the
+diffusion of Greek culture rather than of Greek blood. His Panhellenism
+was the outcome of his recognition of the new forces and tendencies
+which were at work in the midst of a new generation. When Greek culture
+was becoming more and more international, the exaggeration of the
+principle of autonomy in the Greek political system was becoming more
+and more absurd. He had sufficient insight to be aware that the price
+paid for this autonomy was the domination of Persia; a domination which
+meant the servitude of the Greek states across the Aegean and the
+demoralization of Greek political life at home. His Panhellenism led him
+to a more liberal view of the distinction between what was Greek and
+what was not than was possible to the intenser patriotism of a
+Demosthenes. In his later orations he has the courage not only to
+pronounce that the day of Athens as a first-rate power is past, but to
+see in Philip the needful leader in the crusade against Persia. The
+earliest and greatest of his political orations is the _Panegyricus_,
+published in 380 B.C., midway between the peace of Antalcidas and
+Leuctra. It is his _apologia_ for Panhellenism. To the period of the
+Social War belong the _De pace_ (355 B.C.) and the _Areopagiticus_ (354
+B.C.), both of great value as evidence for the internal conditions of
+Athens at the beginning of the struggle with Macedon. The _Plataicus_
+(373 B.C.) and the _Archidamus_ (366 B.C.) throw light upon the politics
+of Boeotia and the Peloponnese respectively. The _Panathenaicus_ (339
+B.C.), the child of his old age, contains little that may not be found
+in the earlier orations. The _Philippus_ (346 B.C.) is of peculiar
+interest, as giving the views of the Macedonian party.
+
+
+  Demosthenes.
+
+Not the least remarkable feature in recent historical criticism is the
+reaction against the view which was at one time almost universally
+accepted of the character, statesmanship and authority of the orator
+Demosthenes (q.v.). During the last quarter of a century his character
+and statesmanship have been attacked, and his authority impugned, by a
+series of writers of whom Holm and Beloch are the best known. With the
+estimate of his character and statesmanship we are not here concerned.
+With regard to his value as an authority for the history of the period,
+it is to his speeches, and to those of his contemporaries, Aeschines,
+Hypereides, Dinarchus and Lycurgus, that we owe our intimate knowledge,
+both of the working of the constitutional and legal systems, and of the
+life of the people, at this period of Athenian history. From this point
+of view his value can hardly be overestimated. As a witness, however, to
+matters of fact, his authority can no longer be rated as highly as it
+once was, e.g. by Schaefer and by Grote. The orator's attitude towards
+events, both in the past and in the present, is inevitably a different
+one from the historian's. The object of a Thucydides is to ascertain a
+fact, or to exhibit it in its true relations. The object of a
+Demosthenes is to make a point, or to win his case. In their dealings
+with the past the orators exhibit a levity which is almost inconceivable
+to a modern reader. Andocides, in a passage of his speech _On the
+Mysteries_ (§ 107), speaks of Marathon as the crowning victory of
+Xerxes' campaign; in his speech _On the Peace_ (§ 3) he confuses
+Miltiades with Cimon, and the Five Years' Peace with the Thirty Years'
+Truce. Though the latter passage is a mass of absurdities and
+confusions, it was so generally admired that it was incorporated by
+Aeschines in his speech _On the Embassy_ (§§ 172-176). If such was their
+attitude towards the past; if, in order to make a point, they do not
+hesitate to pervert history, is it likely that they would conform to a
+higher standard of veracity in their statements as to the present--as to
+their contemporaries, their rivals or their own actions? When we compare
+different speeches of Demosthenes, separated by an interval of years, we
+cannot fail to observe a marked difference in his statements. The
+farther he is from the events, the bolder are his mis-statements. It is
+only necessary to compare the speech _On the Crown_ with that _On the
+Embassy_, and this latter speech with the _Philippics_ and _Olynthiacs_,
+to find illustrations. It has come to be recognized that no statement as
+to a matter of fact is to be accepted, unless it receives independent
+corroboration, or unless it is admitted by both sides. The speeches of
+Demosthenes may be conveniently divided into four classes according to
+their dates. To the pre-Philippic period belong the speeches _On the
+Symmories_ (354 B.C.), _On Megalopolis_ (352 B.C.), _Against
+Aristocrates_ (351 B.C.), and, perhaps, the speech _On Rhodes_ (? 351
+B.C.). These speeches betray no consciousness of the danger threatened
+by Philip's ambition. The policy recommended is one based upon the
+principle of the balance of power. To the succeeding period, which ends
+with the peace of Philocrates (346 B.C.), belong the _First Philippic_
+and the three _Olynthiacs_. To the period between the peace of
+Philocrates and Chaeronea belong the speech _On the Peace_ (346 B.C.),
+the _Second Philippic_ (344 B.C.), the speeches _On the Embassy_ (344
+B.C.) and _On the Chersonese_ (341 B.C.), and the _Third Philippic_. The
+masterpiece of his genius, the speech On the Crown, was delivered in 330
+B.C., in the reign of Alexander. Of the three extant speeches of
+Aeschines (q.v.) that _On the Embassy_ is of great value, as enabling us
+to correct the mis-statements of Demosthenes. For the period from the
+death of Alexander to the fall of Corinth (323-146 B.C.) our literary
+authorities are singularly defective. For the Diadochi Diodorus (books
+xviii.-xx.) is our chief source. These books form the most valuable
+part of Diodorus' work. They are mainly based upon the work of
+Hieronymus of Cardia, a writer who combined exceptional opportunities
+for ascertaining the truth (he was in the service first of Eumenes, and
+then of Antigonus) with an exceptional sense of its importance.
+Hieronymus ended his history at the death of Pyrrhus (272 B.C.), but,
+unfortunately, book xx. of Diodorus' work carries us no farther than 303
+B.C., and of the later books we have but scanty fragments. The narrative
+of Diodorus may be supplemented by the fragments of Arrian's _History of
+the events after Alexander's death_ (which reach, however, only to 321
+B.C.), and by Plutarch's _Lives of Eumenes_ and of _Demetrius_. For the
+rest of the 3rd century and the first half of the 2nd we have his _Lives
+of Pyrrhus_, of _Aratus_, of _Philopoemen_, and of _Agis and Cleomenes_.
+For the period from 220 B.C. onwards Polybius (q.v.) is our chief
+authority (see ROME: _Ancient History_, section "Authorities"). In a
+period in which the literary sources are so scanty great weight attaches
+to the epigraphic and numismatic evidence.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature which deals with the history of Greece,
+  in its various periods, departments and aspects, is of so vast a bulk
+  that all that can be attempted here is to indicate the most important
+  and most accessible works.
+
+  _General Histories of Greece._--Down to the middle of the 19th century
+  the only histories of Greece deserving of mention were the products of
+  English scholarship. The two earliest of these were published about
+  the same date, towards the end of the 18th century, nearly
+  three-quarters of a century before any history of Greece, other than a
+  mere compendium, appeared on the Continent. John Gillies' _History of
+  Greece_ was published in 1786, Mitford's in 1784. Both works were
+  composed with a political bias and a political object. Gillies was a
+  Whig. In the dedication (to George III.) he expresses the view that
+  "the History of Greece exposes the dangerous turbulence of Democracy,
+  and arraigns the despotism of Tyrants, while it evinces the
+  inestimable benefits, resulting to Liberty itself, from the steady
+  operation of well-regulated monarchy." Mitford was a Tory, who thought
+  to demonstrate the evils of democracy from the example of the Athenian
+  state. His _History_, in spite of its bias, was a work of real value.
+  More than fifty years elapsed between Mitford's work and Thirlwall's.
+  Connop Thirlwall, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, afterwards
+  bishop of St David's, brought a sound judgment to the aid of ripe
+  scholarship. His _History of Greece_, published in 1835-1838 (8
+  vols.), is entirely free from the controversial tone of Mitford's
+  volumes. Ten years later (1846) George Grote published the first
+  volumes of his history, which was not completed (in 12 vols.) till
+  1856. Grote, like Mitford, was a politician--an ardent Radical, with
+  republican sympathies. It was in order to refute the slanders of the
+  Tory partisan that he was impelled to write a history of Greece, which
+  should do justice to the greatest democracy of the ancient world, the
+  Athenian state. Thus, in the case of three of these four writers, the
+  interest in their subject was mainly political. Incomparably the
+  greatest of these works is Grote's. Grote had his faults and his
+  limitations. His prejudices are strong, and his scholarship is weak;
+  he had never visited Greece, and he knew little or nothing of Greek
+  art; and, at the time he wrote, the importance of coins and
+  inscriptions was imperfectly apprehended. In spite of every defect,
+  however, his work is the greatest history of Greece that has yet been
+  written. It is not too much to say that nobody knows Greek history
+  till he has mastered Grote. No history of Greece has since appeared in
+  England on a scale at all comparable to that of Grote's work. The most
+  important of the more recent ones is that by J. B. Bury (1 vol.,
+  1900), formerly fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, afterwards Regius
+  Professor of Modern History at Cambridge. Mitford and Bury end with
+  the death of Alexander; Gillies and Grote carry on the narrative a
+  generation farther; while Thirlwall's work extends to the absorption
+  of Greece in the Roman Empire (146 B.C.).
+
+  While in France the _Histoire des Grecs_ (ending at 146 B.C.) of
+  Victor Duruy (new edition, 2 vols., 1883), Minister of Public
+  Instruction under Napoleon III., is the only one that need be
+  mentioned, in Germany there has been a succession of histories of
+  Greece since the middle of the 19th century. Kortüm's _Geschichte
+  Griechenlands_ (3 vols., 1854), a work of little merit, was followed
+  by Max Duncker's _Geschichte der Griechen_ (vols. 1 and 2 published in
+  1856; vols. 1 and 2, Neue Folge, which bring the narrative down to the
+  death of Pericles, in 1884; the two former volumes form vols. 5, 6 and
+  7 of his _Geschichte des Altertums_), and by the _Griechische
+  Geschichte_ of Ernst Curtius (3 vols., 1857-1867). An English
+  translation of Duncker, by S. F. Alleyne, appeared in 1883 (2 vols.,
+  Bentley), and of Curtius, by A. W. Ward (5 vols., Bentley, 1868-1873).
+  Among more recent works may be mentioned the _Griechische Geschichte_
+  of Adolf Holm (4 vols., Berlin, 1886-1894; English translation by F.
+  Clarke, 4 vols., Macmillan, 1894-1898), and histories with the same
+  title by Julius Beloch (3 vols., Strassburg, 1893-1904) and Georg
+  Busolt (2nd ed., 3 vols., Gotha, 1893-1904). Holm carries on the
+  narrative to 30 B.C., Beloch to 217 B.C., Busolt to Chaeronea (338
+  B.C.).[32] Busolt's work is entirely different in character from any
+  other history of Greece. The writer's object is to refer in the notes
+  (which constitute five-sixths of the book) to the views of every
+  writer in any language upon every controverted question. It is
+  absolutely indispensable, as a work of reference, for any serious
+  study of Greek history. The ablest work since Grote's is Eduard
+  Meyer's _Geschichte des Altertums_, of which 5 vols. (Stuttgart and
+  Berlin, 1884-1902) have appeared, carrying the narrative down to the
+  death of Epaminondas (362 B.C.). Vols. 2-5 are principally concerned
+  with Greek history. It must be remembered that, partly owing to the
+  literary finds and the archaeological discoveries of the last thirty
+  years, and partly owing to the advance made in the study of epigraphy
+  and numismatics, all the histories published before those of Busolt,
+  Beloch, Meyer and Bury are out of date.
+
+  _Works bearing on the History of Greece._--Earlier works and editions
+  are omitted, except in the case of a work which has not been
+  superseded.
+
+  _Introductions._--C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in das Studium der alten
+  Geschichte_ (1 vol., Leipzig, 1895); E. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten
+  Geschichte_ (2 parts, Halle, 1892-1899; quite indispensable); J. B.
+  Bury, _The Ancient Greek Historians_ (London, 1909).
+
+  _Constitutional History and Institutions._--G. F. Schömann,
+  _Griechische Altertümer_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1855-1859; vol. i., tr. by
+  E. G. Hardy and J. S. Mann, Rivingtons, 1880); G. Gilbert,
+  _Griechische Staatsaltertümer_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Leipzig, 1893; vol.
+  i. tr. by E. J. Brooks and T. Nicklin, Swan Sonnenschein, 1895); K. F.
+  Hermann, _Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten_ (6th ed., 4 vols.,
+  Freiburg, 1882-1895); Iwan Müller, _Handbuch der klassischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_ (9 vols., Nördlingen, 1886, in progress;
+  several of the volumes are concerned with Greek history); J. H.
+  Lipsius, _Das attische Recht und Rechtsverfahren_ (Leipzig, 1905, in
+  progress); A. H. J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Constitutional
+  History_ (1 vol., Macmillan, 1896); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyklopädie
+  der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (Stuttgart, 1894 foll.).
+
+  _Geography._--E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography amongst the
+  Greeks and Romans_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Murray, 1883), W. M. Leake,
+  _Travels in the Morea_ (3 vols., 1830), and _Travels in Northern
+  Greece_ (4 vols., 1834); H. F. Tozer, _Lectures on the Geography of
+  Greece_ (1 vol., Murray, 1873), and _History of Ancient Geography_ (1
+  vol., Cambridge, 1897); J. P. Mahaffy, _Rambles and Studies in Greece_
+  (3rd ed., 1 vol., Macmillan, 1887, an admirable book); C. Bursian,
+  _Geographie von Griechenland_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1872); H. Berger,
+  _Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen_ (4 parts,
+  Leipzig, 1887-1893); Ernst Curtius, _Peloponnesos_ (2 vols., Gotha,
+  1850-1851).
+
+  _Epigraphy and Numismatics._--_Corpus inscriptionum Atticarum_
+  (Berlin, 1875, in progress), _Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum_ (Berlin,
+  1892, in progress). The following selections of Greek inscriptions may
+  be mentioned: E. F. Hicks and G. F. Hill, _Manual of Greek Historical
+  Inscriptions_ (new ed., 1 vol., Oxford, 1901): W. Dittenberger,
+  _Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1898); C.
+  Michel, _Recueil d'inscriptions grecques_ (Paris, 1900). Among works
+  on numismatics the English reader may refer to B. V. Head, _Historia
+  numorum_ (1 vol., Oxford, 1887); G. F. Hill, _Handbook of Greek and
+  Roman Coins_ (1 vol., Macmillan, 1899), as well as to the _British
+  Museum Catalogue of Greek Coins_. In French the most important general
+  work is the _Monnaies grecques_ of F. Imhoof-Blumer (Paris, 1883).
+
+  _Chronology, Trade, War, Social Life, &c._--H. F. Clinton, _Fasti
+  Hellenici_ (3rd ed., 3 vols., Oxford, 1841, a work of which English
+  scholarship may well be proud; it is still invaluable for the study of
+  Greek chronology); B. Büchsenschütz, _Besitz und Erwerb im
+  griechischen Altertume_ (1 vol., Halle, 1869; this is still the best
+  book on Greek commerce); J. Beloch, _Die Bevölkerung der
+  griechisch-römischen Welt_ (1 vol., Leipzig, 1886); W. Rüstow and H.
+  Köchly, _Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens_ (1 vol., Aarau,
+  1852); J. P. Mahaffy, _Social Life in Greece_ (2nd ed., 1 vol., 1875).
+       (E. M. W.)
+
+
+b. _Post-Classical: 146 B.C.-A.D. 1800_
+
+I. THE PERIOD OF ROMAN RULE.--(i.) _Greece under the Republic_ (146-27
+B.C.). After the collapse of the Achaean League (q.v.) the Senate
+appointed a commission to reorganize Greece as a Roman dependency.
+Corinth, the chief centre of resistance, was destroyed and its
+inhabitants sold into slavery. In addition to this act of exemplary
+punishment, which may perhaps have been inspired in part by the desire
+to crush a commercial competitor, steps were taken to obviate future
+insurrections. The national and cantonal federations were dissolved,
+commercial intercourse between cities was restricted, and the government
+transferred from the democracies to the propertied classes, whose
+interests were bound up with Roman supremacy. In other respects few
+changes were made in existing institutions. Some favoured states like
+Athens and Sparta retained their full sovereign rights as _civitates
+liberae_, the other cities continued to enjoy local self-government.
+The ownership of the land was not greatly disturbed by confiscations,
+and though a tribute upon it was levied, this impost may not have been
+universal. General powers of supervision were entrusted to the governor
+of Macedonia, who could reserve cases of high treason for his decision,
+and in case of need send troops into the country. But although Greece
+was in the _provincia_ of the Macedonian proconsul, in the sense of
+belonging to his sphere of command, its status was in fact more
+favourable than that of other provincial dependencies.
+
+This settlement was acquiesced in by the Greek people, who had come to
+realize the hopelessness of further resistance. The internal disorder
+which was arising from the numerous disputes about property rights
+consequent upon the political revolutions was checked by the good
+offices of the historian Polybius, whom the Senate deputed to mediate
+between the litigants. The pacification of the country eventually became
+so complete that the Romans withdrew the former restrictions upon
+intercourse and allowed some of the leagues to revive. But its quiet was
+seriously disturbed during the first Mithradatic War (88-84 B.C.), when
+numerous Greek states sided with Mithradates (q.v.). The success which
+the invader experienced in detaching the Greeks from Rome is partly to
+be explained by the skilful way in which his agents incited the
+imperialistic ambitions of prominent cities like Athens, partly perhaps
+by his promises of support to the democratic parties. The result of the
+war was disastrous to Greece. Apart from the confiscations and exactions
+by which the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla punished the disloyal
+communities, the extensive and protracted campaigns left Central Greece
+in a ruinous condition. During the last decades of the Roman republic
+European Greece was scarcely affected by contemporary wars nor yet
+exploited by Roman magistrates in the same systematic manner as most
+other provinces. Yet oppression by officials who traversed Greece from
+time to time and demanded lavish entertainments and presentations in the
+guise of _viaticum_ or _aurum coronarium_ was not unknown. Still greater
+was the suffering produced by the rapacity of Roman traders and
+capitalists: it is recorded that Sicyon was reduced to sell its most
+cherished art treasures in order to satisfy its creditors. A more
+indirect but none the less far-reaching drawback to Greek prosperity was
+the diversion of trade which followed upon the establishment of direct
+communication between Italy and the Levant. The most lucrative source of
+wealth which remained to the European Greeks was pasturage in large
+domains, an industry which almost exclusively profited the richer
+citizens and so tended to widen the breach between capitalists and the
+poorer classes, and still further to pauperize the latter. The coast
+districts and islands also suffered considerably from swarms of pirates
+who, in the absence of any strong fleet in Greek waters, were able to
+obtain a firm footing in Crete and freely plundered the chief trading
+places and sanctuaries; the most notable of such visitations was
+experienced in 69 B.C. by the island of Delos. This evil came to an end
+with the general suppression of piracy in the Mediterranean by Pompey
+(67 B.C.), but the depopulation which it had caused in some regions is
+attested by the fact that the victorious admiral settled some of his
+captives on the desolated coast strip of Achaea.
+
+In the conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Greeks provided the
+latter with a large part of his excellent fleet. In 48 B.C. the decisive
+campaign of the war was fought on Greek soil, and the resources of the
+land were severely taxed by the requisitions of both armies. As a result
+of Caesar's victory at Pharsalus, the whole country fell into his power;
+the treatment which it received was on the whole lenient, though
+individual cities were punished severely. After the murder of Caesar the
+Greeks supported the cause of Brutus (42 B.C.), but were too weak to
+render any considerable service. In 39 B.C. the Peloponnese for a short
+time was made over to Sextus Pompeius. During the subsequent period
+Greece remained in the hands of M. Antonius (Mark Antony), who imposed
+further exactions in order to defray the cost of his wars. The extensive
+levies which he made in 31 B.C. for his campaign against Octavian, and
+the contributions which his gigantic army required, exhausted the
+country's resources so completely that a general famine was prevented
+only by Octavian's prompt action after the battle of Actium in
+distributing supplies of grain and evacuating the land with all haste.
+The depopulation which resulted from the civil wars was partly remedied
+by the settlement of Italian colonists at Corinth and Patrae by Julius
+Caesar and Octavian; on the other hand, the foundation of Nicopolis
+(q.v.) by the latter merely had the effect of transferring the people
+from the country to the city.
+
+(ii.) _The Early Roman Empire_ (27 B.C.-A.D. 323).--Under the emperor
+Augustus Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia; the rest of Greece
+was converted into the province of Achaea, under the control of a
+senatorial proconsul resident at Corinth. Many states, including Athens
+and Sparta, retained their rights as free and nominally independent
+cities. The provincials were encouraged to send delegates to a communal
+synod ([Greek: koinon tôn Achaiôn]) which met at Argos to consider the
+general interests of the country and to uphold national Hellenic
+sentiment; the Delphic amphictyony was revived and extended so as to
+represent in a similar fashion northern and central Greece.
+
+
+  Social conditions.
+
+Economic conditions did not greatly improve under the empire. Although
+new industries sprang up to meet the needs of Roman luxury, and Greek
+marble, textiles and table delicacies were in great demand, the only
+cities which regained a really flourishing trade were the Italian
+communities of Corinth and Patrae. Commerce languished in general, and
+the soil was mainly abandoned to pasturage. Though certain districts
+retained a measure of prosperity, e.g. Thessaly, Phocis, Elis, Argos and
+Laconia, huge tracts stood depopulated and many notable cities had sunk
+into ruins; Aetolia, Acarnania and Epirus never recovered from the
+effects of former wars and from the withdrawal of their surviving
+inhabitants into Nicopolis. Such wealth as remained was amassed in the
+hands of a few great landowners and capitalists; the middle class
+continued to dwindle, and large numbers of the people were reduced to
+earning a precarious subsistence, supplemented by frequent doles and
+largesses.
+
+The social aspect of Greek life henceforward becomes its most attractive
+feature. After a long period of storm and stress, the European Hellenes
+had relapsed into a quiet and resigned frame of mind which stands in
+sharp contrast on the one hand with the energy and ability, and on the
+other with the vulgar intriguing of their Asiatic kinsmen. Seeing no
+future before them, the inhabitants were content to dwell in
+contemplation amid the glories of the past. National pride was fostered
+by the undisguised respect with which the leading Romans of the age
+treated Hellenic culture. And although this sentiment could degenerate
+into antiquarian pedantry and vanity, such as finds its climax in the
+diatribes of Apollonius of Tyana against the "barbarians," it prevented
+the nation from sinking into some of the worst vices of the age. A
+healthy social tone repressed extravagant luxury and the ostentatious
+display of wealth, and good taste long checked the spread of
+gladiatorial contests beyond the Italian community of Corinth. The most
+widespread abuse of that period, the adulation and adoration of
+emperors, was indeed introduced into European Greece and formed an
+essential feature of the proceedings at the Delphic amphictyony, but it
+never absorbed the energies of the people in the same way as it did in
+Asia. In order to perpetuate their old culture, the Greeks continued to
+set great store by classical education, and in Athens they possessed an
+academic centre which gradually became the chief university of the Roman
+empire. The highest representatives of this type of old-world refinement
+are to be found in Dio Chrysostom and especially in Plutarch of
+Chaeroneia (q.v.).
+
+The relations between European Greece and Rome were practically confined
+to the sphere of scholarship. The Hellenes had so far lost their warlike
+qualities that they supplied scarcely any recruits to the army. They
+retained too much local patriotism to crowd into the official careers of
+senators or imperial servants. Although in the 1st century A.D. the
+astute Greek man of affairs and the _Graeculus esuriens_ of Juvenal
+abounded in Rome, both these classes were mainly derived from the less
+pure-blooded population beyond the Aegean.
+
+The influx of Greek rhetoricians and professors into Italy during the
+2nd and 3rd centuries was balanced by the large number of travellers who
+came to Greece to frequent its sanatoria, and especially to admire its
+works of art; the abundance in which these latter were preserved is
+strikingly attested in the extant record of Pausanias (about A.D. 170).
+
+
+  Roman administration.
+
+The experience of the Greeks under their earliest governors seems to
+have been unfortunate, for in A.D. 15 they petitioned Tiberius to
+transfer the administration to an imperial legate. This new arrangement
+was sanctioned, but only lasted till A.D. 44, when Claudius restored the
+province to the senate. The proconsuls of the later 1st and 2nd
+centuries were sometimes ill qualified for their posts, but cases of
+oppression are seldom recorded against them. The years 66 and 67 were
+marked by a visit of the emperor Nero, who made a prolonged tour through
+Greece in order to display his artistic accomplishments at the various
+national festivals. In return for the flattering reception accorded to
+him he bestowed freedom and exemption from tribute upon the country. But
+this favour was almost neutralized by the wholesale depredations which
+he committed among the chief collections of art. A scheme for cutting
+through the Corinthian isthmus and so reviving the Greek carrying trade
+was inaugurated in his presence, but soon abandoned.
+
+As Nero's grant of self-government brought about a recrudescence of
+misplaced ambition and party strife, Vespasian revoked the gift and
+turned Achaea again into a province, at the same time burdening it with
+increased taxes. In the 2nd century a succession of genuinely
+phil-Hellenic emperors made serious attempts to revive the nation's
+prosperity. Important material benefits were conferred by Hadrian, who
+made a lengthy visit to Greece. Besides erecting useful public works in
+many cities, he relieved Achaea of its arrears of tribute and exempted
+it from various imposts. In order to check extravagance on the part of
+the free cities, he greatly extended the practice of placing them under
+the supervision of imperial functionaries known as _correctores_.
+Hadrian fostered national sentiment by establishing a new pan-Hellenic
+congress at Athens, while he gave recognition to the increasing
+ascendancy of Hellenic culture at Rome by his institution of the
+Athenaeum.
+
+In the 3rd century the only political event of importance was the edict
+of Caracalla which threw open the Roman citizenship to large numbers of
+provincials. Its chief effect in Greece was to diminish the
+preponderance of the wealthy classes, who formerly had used their riches
+to purchase the franchise and so to secure exemption from taxation. The
+chief feature of this period is the renewal of the danger from foreign
+invasions. Already in 175 a tribe named Costoboci had penetrated into
+central Greece, but was there broken up by the local militia. In 253 a
+threatened attack was averted by the stubborn resistance of
+Thessalonica. In 267-268 the province was overrun by Gothic bands, which
+captured Athens and some other towns, but were finally repulsed by the
+Attic levies and exterminated with the help of a Roman fleet.
+
+(iii.) _The Late Roman Empire._--After the reorganization of the empire
+by Diocletian, Achaea occupied a prominent position in the "diocese" of
+Macedonia. Under Constantine I. it was included in the "prefecture" of
+Illyricum. It was subdivided into the "eparchies" of Hellas,
+Peloponnesus, Nicopolis and the islands, with headquarters at Thebes,
+Corinth, Nicopolis and Samos. Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia.
+A complex hierarchy of imperial officials was now introduced and the
+system of taxation elaborated so as to yield a steady revenue to the
+central power. The levying of the land-tax was imposed upon the [Greek:
+dekaprôtoi] or "ten leading men," who, like the Latin _decuriones_, were
+entrusted henceforth with the administration in most cities. The
+tendency to reduce all constitutions to the Roman municipal pattern
+became prevalent under the rulers of this period, and the greater number
+of them was stereotyped by the general regulations of the Codex
+Theodosianus (438). Although the elevation of Constantinople to the rank
+of capital was prejudicial to Greece, which felt the competition of the
+new centre of culture and learning and had to part with numerous works
+of art destined to embellish its privileged neighbour, the general level
+of prosperity in the 4th century was rising. Commercial stagnation was
+checked by a renewed expansion of trade consequent upon the diversion of
+the trade routes to the east from Egypt to the Euxine and Aegean Seas.
+Agriculture remained in a depressed condition, and many small
+proprietors were reduced to serfdom; but the fiscal interests of the
+government called for the good treatment of this class, whose growth at
+the expense of the slaves was an important step in the gradual
+equalization of the entire population under the central despotism which
+restored solidarity to the Greek nation.
+
+This prosperity received a sharp set-back by a series of unusually
+severe earthquakes in 375 and by the irruption of a host of Visigoths
+under Alaric (395-396), whom the imperial officers allowed to overrun
+the whole land unmolested and the local levies were unable to check.
+Though ultimately hunted down in Arcadia and induced to leave the
+province, Alaric had time to execute systematic devastations which
+crippled Greece for several decades. The arrears of taxation which
+accumulated in consequence were remitted by Theodosius II. in 428.
+
+The emperors of the 4th century made several attempts to stamp out by
+edict the old pagan religion, which, with its accompaniment of
+festivals, oracles and mysteries, still maintained an outward appearance
+of vigour, and, along with the philosophy in which the intellectual
+classes found comfort, retained the affection of the Greeks. Except for
+the decree of Theodosius I. by which the Olympian games were interdicted
+(394), these measures had no great effect, and indeed were not
+rigorously enforced. Paganism survived in Greece till about 600, but the
+interchange of ideas and practices which the long-continued contact with
+Christianity had effected considerably modified its character. Hence the
+Christian religion, though slow in making its way, eventually gained a
+sure footing among a nation which accepted it spontaneously. The hold of
+the Church upon the Greeks was strengthened by the judicious manner in
+which the clergy, unsupported by official patronage and often out of
+sympathy with the Arian emperors, identified itself with the interests
+of the people. Though in the days when the orthodox Church found favour
+at court corruption spread among its higher branches, the clergy as a
+whole rendered conspicuous service in opposing the arbitrary
+interferences of the central government and in upholding the use of the
+Hellenic tongue, together with some rudiments of Hellenic culture.
+
+The separation of the eastern and western provinces of the empire
+ultimately had an important effect in restoring the language and customs
+of Greece to their predominant position in the Levant. This result,
+however, was long retarded by the romanizing policy of Constantine and
+his successors. The emperors of the 5th and 6th centuries had no regard
+for Greek culture, and Justinian I. actively counteracted Hellenism by
+propagating Roman law in Greece, by impairing the powers of the
+self-governing cities, and by closing the philosophical schools at
+Athens (529). In course of time the inhabitants had so far forgotten
+their ancient culture that they abandoned the name of Hellenes for that
+of Romans (_Rhomaioi_). For a long time Greece continued to be an
+obscure and neglected province, with no interests beyond its church and
+its commercial operations, and its culture declined rapidly. Its history
+for some centuries dwindles into a record of barbarian invasions which,
+in addition to occasional plagues and earthquakes, seem to have been the
+only events found worthy of record by the contemporary chroniclers.
+
+In the 5th century Greece was only subjected to brief raids by Vandal
+pirates (466-474) and Ostrogoths (482). In Justinian's reign irruptions
+by Huns and Avars took place, but led to no far-reaching results. The
+emperor had endeavoured to strengthen the country's defences by
+repairing the fortifications of cities and frontier posts (530), but his
+policy of supplanting the local guards by imperial troops and so
+rendering the natives incapable of self-defence was ill-advised;
+fortunately it was never carried out with energy, and so the Greek
+militias were occasionally able to render good service against invaders.
+
+
+  Slavonic immigrations.
+
+Towards the end of the century mention is made for the first time of an
+incursion by Slavonic tribes (581). These invaders are to be regarded as
+merely the forerunners of a steady movement of immigration by which a
+considerable part of Greece passed for a time into foreign hands. It is
+doubtful how far the newcomers won their territory by force of arms; in
+view of the desolation of many rural tracts, which had long been in
+progress as a result of economic changes, it seems probable that
+numerous settlements were made on unoccupied land and did not challenge
+serious opposition. At any rate the effect upon the Greek population was
+merely to accelerate its emigration from the interior to the coastland
+and the cities. The foreigners, consisting mainly of Slovenes and Wends,
+occupied the mountainous inland, where they mostly led a pastoral life;
+the natives retained some strips of plain and dwelt secure in their
+walled towns, among which the newly-built fortresses of Monemvasia,
+Corone and Calamata soon rose to prosperity. The Slavonic element, to
+judge by the geographical names in that tongue which survive in Greece,
+is specially marked in N.W. Greece and Peloponnesus; central Greece
+appears to have been protected against them by the fortress-square of
+Chalcis, Thebes, Corinth and Athens. For a long time the two nations
+dwelt side by side without either displacing the other. The Slavs were
+too rude and poor, and too much distracted with cantonal feuds, to make
+any further headway; the Greeks, unused to arms and engrossed in
+commerce, were content to adopt a passive attitude. The central
+government took no steps to dislodge the invaders, until in 783 the
+empress Irene sent an expedition which reduced most of the tribes to pay
+tribute. In 810 a desperate attempt by the Slavs to capture Patrae was
+foiled; henceforth their power steadily decreased and their submission
+to the emperor was made complete by 850. A powerful factor in their
+subjugation was the Greek clergy, who by the 10th century had
+christianized and largely hellenized all the foreigners save a remnant
+in the peninsula of Maina.
+
+II. THE BYZANTINE PERIOD.--In the 7th century the Greek language made
+its way into the imperial army and civil service, but European Greece
+continued to have little voice in the administration. The land was
+divided into four "themes" under a yearly appointed civil and military
+governor. Imperial troops were stationed at the chief strategic points,
+while the natives contributed ships for naval defence. During the
+dispute about images the Greeks were the backbone of the
+image-worshipping party, and the iconoclastic edicts of Leo III. led to
+a revolt in 727 which, however, was easily crushed by the imperial
+fleet; a similar movement in 823, when the Greeks sent 350 ships to aid
+a pretender, met with the same fate. The firm government of the Isaurian
+dynasty seems to have benefited Greece, whose commerce and industry
+again became flourishing. In spite of occasional set-backs due to the
+depredations of pirates, notably the Arab corsairs who visited the
+Aegean from the 7th century onwards, the Greeks remained the chief
+carriers in the Levant until the rise of the Italian republics,
+supplying all Europe with its silk fabrics.
+
+In the 10th century Greece experienced a renewal of raids from the
+Balkan tribes. The Bulgarians made incursions after 929 and sometimes
+penetrated to the Isthmus; but they mostly failed to capture the cities,
+and in 995 their strength was broken by a crushing defeat on the
+Spercheius at the hands of the Byzantine army. Yet their devastations
+greatly thinned the population of northern Greece, and after 1084
+Thessaly was occupied without resistance by nomad tribes of Vlachs. In
+1084 also Greece was subjected to the first attack from the new nations
+of the west, when the Sicilian Normans gained a footing in the Ionian
+islands. The same people made a notable raid upon the seaboard of Greece
+in 1145-1146, and sacked the cities of Thebes and Corinth. The Venetians
+also appear as rivals of the Greeks, and after 1122 their encroachments
+in the Aegean Sea never ceased.
+
+In spite of these attacks, the country on the whole maintained its
+prosperity. The travellers Idrisi of Palermo (1153) and Benjamin of
+Tudela (1161) testify to the briskness of commerce, which induced many
+foreign merchants to take up their residence in Greece. But this
+prosperity revived an aristocracy of wealth which used its riches and
+power for purely selfish ends, and under the increasing laxity of
+imperial control the _archontes_ or municipal rulers often combined with
+the clergy in oppressing the poorer classes. Least of all were these
+nobles prepared to become the champions of Greece against foreign
+invaders at a time when they alone could have organized an effectual
+resistance.
+
+III. _The Latin Occupation and Turkish Conquest._--The capture of
+Constantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine empire by the Latins
+(1204) brought in its train an invasion of Greece by Frankish barons
+eager for new territory. The natives, who had long forgotten the use of
+arms and dreaded no worse oppression from their new masters, submitted
+almost without resistance, and only the N.W. corner of Greece, where
+Michael Angelus, a Byzantine prince, founded the "despotat" of Epirus,
+was saved from foreign occupation. The rest of the country was divided
+up between a number of Frankish barons, chief among whom were the dukes
+of Achaea (or Peloponnese) and "grand signors" of Thebes and Athens, the
+Venetians, who held naval stations at different points and the island of
+Crete, and various Italian adventurers who mainly settled in the
+Cyclades. The conquerors transplanted their own language, customs and
+religion to their new possessions, and endeavoured to institute the
+feudal system of land-tenure. Yet recognizing the superiority of Greek
+civil institutions they allowed the natives to retain their law and
+internal administration and confirmed proprietors in possession of their
+land on payment of a rent; the Greek church was subordinated to the
+Roman archbishops, but upheld its former control over the people. The
+commerce and industry of the Greek cities was hardly affected by the
+change of government.
+
+Greek history during the Latin occupation loses its unity and has to be
+followed in several threads. In the north the "despots" of Epirus
+extended their rule to Thessaly and Macedonia, but eventually were
+repulsed by the Asiatic Greeks of Nicaea, and after a decisive defeat at
+Pelagonia (1259) reduced to a small dominion round Iannina. Thessaly
+continued to change masters rapidly. Till 1308 it was governed by a
+branch line of the Epirote dynasty. When this family died out it fell to
+the Grand Catalan Company; in 1350 it was conquered along with Epirus by
+Stephen Dushan, king of Servia. About 1397 it was annexed by the Ottoman
+Turks, who after 1431 also gradually wrested Epirus from its latest
+possessors, the Beneventine family of Tocco (1390-1469).
+
+The leading power in central Greece was the Burgundian house de la
+Roche, which established a mild and judicious government in Boeotia and
+Attica and in 1261 was raised to ducal rank by the French king Louis IX.
+A conflict with the Grand Catalan Company resulted in a disastrous
+defeat of the Franks on the Boeotian Cephissus (1311) and the occupation
+of central Greece by the Spanish mercenaries, who seized for themselves
+the barons' fiefs and installed princes from the Sicilian house of
+Aragon as "dukes of Athens and Neopatras" (Thessaly). After seventy-five
+years of oppressive rule and constant wars with their neighbours the
+Catalans were expelled by the Peloponnesian baron Nerio Acciaiuoli. The
+new dynasty, whose peaceful government revived its subjects' industry,
+became tributary to the Turks about 1415, but was deposed by Sultan
+Mahommed II., who annexed central Greece in 1456.
+
+The conquest of the Peloponnese was effected by two French knights,
+William Champlitte and Geoffrey Villehardouin, the latter of whom
+founded a dynasty of "princes of all Achaea." The rulers of this line
+were men of ability, who controlled their barons and spiritual vassals
+with a firm hand and established good order throughout their province.
+The Franks of the Morea maintained as high a standard of culture as
+their compatriots at home, while the natives grew rich enough from
+their industry to pay considerable taxes without discontent. The climax
+of the Villehardouins' power was attained under Prince William, who
+subdued the last independent cities of the coast and the mountaineers of
+Maina (1246-1248). In 1259, however, the same ruler was involved in the
+war between the rulers of Epirus and Nicaea, and being captured at the
+battle of Pelagonia, could only ransom himself by the cession of Laconia
+to the restored Byzantine empire. This new dependency after 1349 was
+treated with great care by the Byzantine monarchs, who sought to repress
+the violence of the local aristocracies by sending their kinsmen to
+govern under the title of "despots." On the other hand, with the
+extinction of the Villehardouin dynasty the Frankish province fell more
+and more into anarchy; at the same time the numbers of the foreigners
+were constantly dwindling through war, and as they disdained to recruit
+them by intermarriage, the preponderance of the native element in the
+Morea eventually became complete. Thus by 1400 the Byzantines were
+enabled to recover control over almost the whole peninsula and apportion
+it among several "despots." But the mutual quarrels of these princes
+soon proved fatal to their rule. Already in the 14th century they had
+employed Albanians and the Turkish pirates who harried their coasts as
+auxiliaries in their wars. The Albanians largely remained as settlers,
+and the connexion with the Turks could no longer be shaken off. In spite
+of attempts to fortify the Isthmus (1415) an Ottoman army penetrated
+into Morea and deported many inhabitants in 1423. An invasion of central
+Greece by the despot Constantine was punished by renewed raids in 1446
+and 1450. In 1457 the despot Thomas withheld the tribute which he had
+recently stipulated to pay, but was reduced to obedience by an
+expedition under Mahommed II. (1458). A renewed revolt in 1459 was
+punished by an invasion attended with executions and deportations on a
+large scale, and by the annexation of the Morea to Turkey (1460).
+
+IV. _The Turkish Dominion till 1800._--Under the Ottoman government
+Greece was split up into six _sanjaks_ or military divisions: (1) Morea,
+(2) Epirus, (3) Thessaly, (4) Euboea, Boeotia and Attica, (5) Aetolia
+and Acarnania, (6) the rest of central Greece, with capitals at Nauplia,
+Jannina, Trikkala, Negropont (Chalkis), Karlili and Lepanto; further
+divisions were subsequently composed of Crete and the islands. In each
+_sanjak_ a number of fiefs was apportioned to Turkish settlers, who were
+bound in return to furnish some mounted men for the sultan's army, the
+total force thus held in readiness being over 7000. The local government
+was left in the hands of the archontes or primates in each community,
+who also undertook the farming of the taxes and the policing of their
+districts. Law was usually administered by the Greek clergy. The natives
+were not burdened with large imposts, but the levying of the land-tithes
+was effected in an inconvenient fashion, and the capitation-tax, to
+which all Christians were subjected was felt as a humiliation. A further
+grievance lay in the requisitions of forced labour which the pashas were
+entitled to call for; but the most galling exaction was the tribute of
+children for the recruiting of the Janissaries (q.v.), which was often
+levied with great ruthlessness. The habitual weakness of the central
+government also left the Greeks exposed to frequent oppression by the
+Turkish residents and by their own magistrates and clergy. But the new
+rulers met with singularly little opposition. The dangerous elements of
+the population had been cleared away by Mahommed's executions; the rest
+were content to absorb their energies in agriculture and commerce, which
+in spite of preferential duties and capitulations to foreign powers
+largely fell again into the hands of Greeks. Another important
+instrument by which the people were kept down was their own clergy, whom
+the Turkish rulers treated with marked favour and so induced to
+acquiesce in their dominion.
+
+In the following centuries Greece was often the theatre of war in which
+the Greeks played but a passive part. Several wars with Venice (1463-79,
+1498-1504) put the Turks in possession of the last Italian strongholds
+on the mainland. But the issue was mainly fought out on sea; the
+conflicts which had never ceased in the Aegean since the coming of the
+Italians now grew fiercer than ever; Greek ships and sailors were
+frequently requisitioned for the Turkish fleets, and the damage done to
+the Greek seaboard by the belligerents and by fleets of adventurers and
+corsairs brought about the depopulation of many islands and
+coast-strips. The conquest of the Aegean by the Ottomans was completed
+by 1570; but Venice retained Crete till 1669 and never lost Corfu until
+its cession to France in 1797.
+
+In 1684 the Venetians took advantage of the preoccupation of Turkey on
+the Danube to attack the Morea. A small mercenary army under Francesco
+Morosini captured the strong places with remarkable ease, and by 1687
+had conquered almost the whole peninsula. In 1687 the invaders also
+captured Athens and Lepanto; but the former town had soon to be
+abandoned, and with their failure to capture Negropont (1688) the
+Venetians were brought to a standstill. By the peace of Karlowitz (1699)
+the Morea became a possession of Venice. The new rulers, in spite of the
+commercial restrictions which they imposed in favour of their own
+traders, checked the impoverishment and decrease of population (from
+300,000 to 86,000) which the war had caused. By their attempts to
+cooperate with the native magistrates and the mildness of their
+administration they improved the spirit of their subjects. But they
+failed to make their government popular, and when in 1715 the Ottomans
+with a large and well-disciplined army set themselves to recover the
+Morea, the Venetians were left without support from the Greeks. The
+peninsula was rapidly recaptured and by the peace of Passarowitz (1718)
+again became a Turkish dependency. The gaps left about this time in the
+Greek population were largely made up by an immigration from Albania.
+
+The condition of the Greeks in the 18th century showed a great
+improvement which gave rise to yet greater hopes. Already in the 17th
+century the personal services of the subjects had been commuted into
+money contributions, and since 1676 the tribute of children fell into
+abeyance. The increasing use of Greek officials in the Turkish civil
+service, coupled with the privileges accorded to the Greek clergy
+throughout the Balkan countries, tended to recall the consciousness of
+former days of predominance in the Levant. Lastly, the education of the
+Greeks, which had always remained on a comparatively high level, was
+rapidly improved by the foundation of new schools and academies.
+
+The long neglect which Greece had experienced at the hands of the
+European Powers was broken in 1764, when Russian agents appeared in the
+country with promises of a speedy deliverance from the Turks. A small
+expedition under Feodor and Alexis Orloff actually landed in the Morea
+in 1769, but failed to rouse national sentiment. Although the Russian
+fleet gained a notable victory off Chesme near Chios, a heavy defeat
+near Tripolitza ruined the prospects of the army. The Albanian troops in
+the Turkish army subsequently ravaged the country far and wide, until in
+1779 they were exterminated by a force of Turkish regulars. In 1774 a
+concession, embodied in the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, by which Greek
+traders were allowed to sail under the protection of the Russian flag,
+marked an important step in the rehabilitation of the country as an
+independent power. Greek commerce henceforth spread swiftly over the
+Mediterranean, and increased intercourse developed a new sense of
+Hellenic unity. Among the pioneers who fostered this movement should be
+mentioned Constantine Rhigas, the "modern Tyrtaeus," and Adamantios
+Coraës (q.v.), the reformer of the Greek tongue. The revived memories of
+ancient Hellas and the impression created by the French revolution
+combined to give the final impulse which made the Greeks strike for
+freedom. By 1800 the population of Greece had increased to 1,000,000,
+and although 200,000 of these were Albanians, the common aversion to the
+Moslem united the two races. The military resources of the country alone
+remained deficient, for the _armatoli_ or local militias, which had
+never been quite disbanded since Byzantine times, were at last
+suppressed by Ali Pasha of Iannina and found but a poor substitute in
+the klephts who henceforth spring into prominence. But at the first sign
+of weakness in the Turkish dominion the Greek nation was ready to rise,
+and the actual outbreak of revolt had become merely a question of time.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--General: G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed. Tozer,
+  Oxford, 1877), especially vols. i., iv., v.; K. Paparrhigopoulos,
+  [Greek: Historia tou Hellênikou ethnous] (4th ed., Athens, 1903),
+  vols. ii.-v.; _Histoire de la civilisation hellénique_ (Paris, 1878);
+  R. v. Scala, _Das Griechentum seit Alexander dem Grossen_ (Leipzig and
+  Vienna, 1904); and specially W. Miller, _The Latins in the Levant_
+  (1908).
+
+  Special--(a) The Roman period: Strabo, bks. viii.-x.; Pausanias,
+  _Descriptio Graeciae_; G. F. Hertzberg, _Die Geschichte Griechenlands
+  unter der Herrschaft der Römer_ (Halle, 1866-1875); Sp. Lampros,
+  [Greek: Historia tês Hellados] (Athens, 1888 sqq.), vol. iii.; A.
+  Holm, _History of Greece_ (Eng. trans., London, 1894-1898). vol. iv.,
+  chs. 19, 24, 26, 28 seq.; Th. Mommsen, _The Provinces of the Roman
+  Empire_ (Eng. trans., London, 1886, ch. 7); J. P. Mahaffy, _The Greek
+  World under Roman Sway, from Polybius to Plutarch_ (London, 1890); W.
+  Miller, "The Romans in Greece" (_Westminster Review_, August 1903, pp.
+  186-210); L. Friedländer, "Griechenland unter den Römern" (_Deutsche
+  Rundschau_, 1899, pp. 251-274, 402-430). (b) The Byzantine and Latin
+  periods: G. F. Hertzberg, _Geschichte Griechenlands seit dem Absterben
+  des antiken Lebens_ (Gotha, 1876-1879), vols. i., ii.; C. Hopf,
+  _Geschichte Griechenlands im Mittelalter_ (Leipzig, 1868); J. A.
+  Buchon, _Histoire des conquêtes et de l'établissement des Français
+  dans les États de l'ancienne Grèce_ (Paris, 1846); G. Schmitt, _The
+  Chronicle of Morea_ (London, 1904); W. Miller, "The Princes of the
+  Peloponnese" (_Quarterly Review_, July 1905, pp. 109-135); D. Bikelas,
+  _Seven Essays on Christian Greece_ (Paisley and London, 1890); _La
+  Grèce byzantine et moderne_ (Paris, 1893), pp. 1-193. (c) The Turkish
+  and Venetian periods: Hertzberg, _op. cit._, vol. iii.; K. M.
+  Bartholdy, _Geschichte Griechenlands von der Eroberung
+  Konstantinopels_ (Leipzig, 1870), bks. i. and ii., pp. 1-155; K. N.
+  Sathas, [Greek: Tourkokratoumenê Hellas] (Athens, 1869); W. Miller,
+  "Greece under the Turks" (_Westminster Review_, August and September
+  1904, pp. 195-210, 304-320; _English Historical Review_, 1904, pp.
+  646-668); L. Ranke, "Die Venetianer in Morea" (_Historisch-politische
+  Zeitschrift_, ii. 405-502). (d) Special subjects: Religion. E. Hatch,
+  _The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church_
+  (London, 1890). Ethnology. J. P. Fallmerayer, _Geschichte der
+  Halbinsel Morea während des Mittelalters_ (Stuttgart and Tübingen,
+  1830); S. Zampelios, [Greek: Peri pêgôn neoellênikês ethnotêtos]
+  (Athens, 1857); A. Philippson, "Zur Ethnographie des Peloponnes"
+  [_Petermann's Mitteilungen_ 36 (1890), pp. 1-11, 33-41]; A. Vasiljev,
+  "Die Slaven in Griechenland" [_Vizantijsky Vremennik_, St Petersburg,
+  5 (1898), pp. 404-438, 626-670].
+
+  See also ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER; ATHENS.     (M. O. B. C.)
+
+
+c. _Modern History: 1800-1908._
+
+  The decadence of Turkey.
+
+At the beginning of the 19th century Greece was still under Turkish
+domination, but the dawn of freedom was already breaking, and a variety
+of forces were at work which prepared the way for the acquisition of
+national independence. The decadence of the Ottoman empire, which began
+with the retreat of the Turks from Vienna in 1683, was indicated in the
+18th century by the weakening of the central power, the spread of
+anarchy in the provinces, the ravages of the janissaries, and the
+establishment of practically independent sovereignties or fiefs, such as
+those of Mehemet of Bushat at Skodra and of Ali Pasha of Tepelen at
+Iannina; the 19th century witnessed the first uprisings of the Christian
+populations and the detachment of the outlying portions of European
+Turkey. Up to the end of the 18th century none of the subject races had
+risen in spontaneous revolt against the Turks, though in some instances
+they rendered aid to the sultan's enemies; the spirit of the conquered
+nations had been broken by ages of oppression. In some of the remoter
+and more mountainous districts, however, the authority of the Turks had
+never been completely established; in Montenegro a small fragment of the
+Serb race maintained its independence; among the Greeks, the Mainotes in
+the extreme south of the Morea and the Sphakiote mountaineers in Crete
+had never been completely subdued. Resistance to Ottoman rule was
+maintained sporadically in the mountainous districts by the Greek
+_klephts_ or brigands, the counterpart of the Slavonic _haiduks_, and by
+the pirates of the Aegean; the _armatoles_ or bodies of Christian
+warriors, recognized by the Turks as a local police, often differed
+little in their proceedings from the brigands whom they were appointed
+to pursue.
+
+
+  Russian influence.
+
+Of the series of insurrections which took place in the 19th century, the
+first in order of time was the Servian, which broke out in 1804; the
+second was the Greek, which began in 1821. In both these movements the
+influence of Russia played a considerable part. In the case of the
+Servians Russian aid was mainly diplomatic, in that of the Greeks it
+eventually took a more material form. Since the days of Peter the Great,
+the eyes of Russia had been fixed on Constantinople, the great
+metropolis of the Orthodox faith. The policy of inciting the Greek
+Christians to revolt against their oppressors, which was first adopted
+in the reign of the empress Anna, was put into practical operation by
+the empress Catharine II., whose favourite, Orlov, appeared in the
+Aegean with a fleet in 1769 and landed in the Morea, where he organized
+a revolt. The attempt proved a failure; Orlov re-embarked, leaving the
+Greeks at the mercy of the Turks, and terrible massacres took place at
+Tripolitza, Lemnos and elsewhere. By the treaty of Kutchuk-Kainarji
+(July 21, 1774) Russia obtained a vaguely-defined protectorate over the
+Orthodox Greek subjects of Turkey, and in 1781 she arrived at an
+arrangement with Austria, known as the "Greek project," for a partition
+of Turkish territory and the restoration of the Byzantine empire under
+Constantine, the son of Catharine II. The outbreak of the French
+Revolution distracted the attention of the two empires, but Russia never
+ceased to intrigue among the Christian subjects of Turkey. A revolt of
+the inhabitants of Suli in 1790 took place with her connivance, and in
+the two first decades of the 19th century her agents were active and
+ubiquitous.
+
+
+  Greek revolutionary activity.
+
+The influence of the French Revolution, which pervaded all Europe,
+extended to the shores of the Aegean. The Greeks, who had hitherto been
+drawn together mainly by a common religion, were now animated by the
+sentiment of nationality and by an ardent desire for political freedom.
+The national awakening, as in the case of the other subject Christian
+nations, was preceded by a literary revival. Literary and patriotic
+societies, the Philhellenes, the Philomousi, came into existence; Greek
+schools were founded everywhere; the philological labours of Coraës,
+which created the modern written language, furnished the nation with a
+mode of literary expression; the songs of Rhigas of Velestino fired the
+enthusiasm of the people. In 1815 was founded the celebrated _Philiké
+Hetaerea_, or friendly society, a revolutionary organization with
+centres at Moscow, Bucharest, Triest, and in all the cities of the
+Levant; it collected subscriptions, issued manifestos, distributed arms
+and made preparations for the coming insurrection. The revolt of Ali
+Pasha of Iannina against the authority of the sultan in 1820 formed the
+prelude to the Greek uprising; this despot, who had massacred the Greeks
+by hundreds, now declared himself their friend, and became a member of
+the Hetaerea. In March 1821 Alexander Ypsilanti, a former aide-de-camp
+of the tsar Alexander I., and president of the Hetaerea, entered
+Moldavia from Russian territory at the head of a small force; in the
+same month Archbishop Germanos of Patras unfurled the standard of revolt
+at Kalavryta in the Morea.
+
+
+  Independence of Greece.
+
+For the history of the prolonged struggle which followed see GREEK WAR
+OF INDEPENDENCE. The warfare was practically brought to a close by the
+annihilation of the Egyptian fleet at Navarino by the fleets of Great
+Britain, France and Russia on the 20th of October 1827. Nine months
+previously, Count John Capo d'Istria (q.v.), formerly minister of
+foreign affairs of the tsar Alexander, had been elected president of the
+Greek republic for seven years beginning on January 18, 1828. By the
+protocol of London (March 22, 1829) the Greek mainland south of a line
+drawn from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Volo, the Morea and the
+Cyclades were declared a principality tributary to the sultan under a
+Christian prince. The limits drawn by the protocol of London were
+confirmed by the treaty of Adrianople (September 14, 1829), by which
+Greece was constituted an independent monarchy. The governments of
+Russia, France and England were far from sharing the enthusiasm which
+the gallant resistance of the Greeks had excited among the peoples of
+Europe, and which inspired the devotion of Byron, Cochrane, Sir Richard
+Church, Fabvier and other distinguished Philhellenes; jealousies
+prevailed among the three protecting powers, and the newly-liberated
+nation was treated in a niggardly spirit; its narrow limits were reduced
+by a new protocol (February 3, 1830), which drew the boundary line at
+the Aspropotamo, the Spercheios and the Gulf of Lamia. Capo d'Istria,
+whose Russian proclivities and arbitrary government gave great offence
+to the Greeks, was assassinated by two members of the Mavromichalis
+family (October 9, 1831), and a state of anarchy followed. Before his
+death the throne of Greece had been offered to Prince Leopold of
+Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians, who declined it,
+basing his refusal on the inadequacy of the limits assigned to the new
+kingdom and especially the exclusion of Crete.
+
+
+  King Otto.
+
+By the convention of London (May 7, 1832) Greece was declared an
+independent kingdom under the protection of Great Britain, France and
+Russia with Prince Otto, son of King Louis I. of Bavaria, as king. The
+frontier line, now traced from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Lamia,
+was fixed by the arrangement of Constantinople (July 21, 1832). King
+Otto, who had been brought up in a despotic court, ruled absolutely for
+the first eleven years of his reign; he surrounded himself with Bavarian
+advisers and Bavarian troops, and his rule was never popular. The Greek
+chiefs and politicians, who found themselves excluded from all influence
+and advancement, were divided into three factions which attached
+themselves respectively to the three protecting powers. On the 15th of
+September 1843 a military revolt broke out which compelled the king to
+dismiss the Bavarians and to accept a constitution. A responsible
+ministry, a senate nominated by the king, and a chamber elected by
+universal suffrage were now instituted. Mavrocordatos, the leader of the
+English party, became the first prime minister, but his government was
+overthrown at the ensuing elections, and a coalition of the French and
+Russian parties under Kolettes and Metaxas succeeded to power. The
+warfare of factions was aggravated by the rivalry between the British
+and French ministers, Sir Edmond Lyons and M. Piscatory; King Otto
+supported the French party, and trouble arose with the British
+government, which in 1847 despatched warships to enforce the payment of
+interest on the loan contracted after the War of Independence. A British
+fleet subsequently blockaded the Peiraeus in order to obtain
+satisfaction for the claims of Pacifico, a Portuguese Jew under British
+protection, whose house had been plundered during a riot. On the
+outbreak of hostilities between Russia and Turkey in 1853 the Greeks
+displayed sympathy with Russia; armed bands were sent into Thessaly, and
+an insurrection was fomented in Epirus in the hope of securing an
+accession of territory. In order to prevent further hostile action on
+the part of Greece, British and French fleets made a demonstration
+against the Peiraeus, which was occupied by a French force during the
+Crimean War. The disappointment of the national hopes increased the
+unpopularity of King Otto, who had never acquiesced in constitutional
+rule. In 1862 a military revolt broke out, and a national assembly
+pronounced his deposition. The vacant throne was offered by the assembly
+to Duke Nicholas of Leuchtenberg, a cousin of the tsar, but the mass of
+the people desired a constitutional monarchy of the British type; a
+plebiscite was taken, and Prince Alfred of England was elected by an
+almost unanimous vote. The three protecting powers, however, had bound
+themselves to the exclusion of any member of their ruling houses. In the
+following year Prince William George of
+Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, whom the British government
+had designated as a suitable candidate, was elected by the National
+Assembly with the title "George I., king of the Hellenes." Under the
+treaty of London (July 13, 1863) the change of dynasty was sanctioned by
+the three protecting powers, Great Britain undertaking to cede to Greece
+the seven Ionian Islands, which since 1815 had formed a commonwealth
+under British protection.
+
+
+  Accession of George I.
+
+On the 29th of October 1863 the new sovereign arrived in Athens, and in
+the following June the British authorities handed over the Ionian
+Islands to a Greek commissioner. King George thus began his reign under
+the most favourable auspices, the patriotic sentiments of the Greeks
+being flattered by the acquisition of new territory. He was, however,
+soon confronted with constitutional difficulties; party spirit ran riot
+at Athens, the ministries which he appointed proved short-lived, his
+counsellor, Count Sponneck, became the object of violent attacks, and at
+the end of 1864 he was compelled to accept an ultra-democratic
+constitution, drawn up by the National Assembly. This, the sixth
+constitution voted since the establishment of the kingdom, is that which
+is still in force. In the following year Count Sponneck left Greece, and
+the attention of the nation was concentrated on the affairs of Crete.
+The revolution which broke out in that island received moral and
+material support from the Greek government, with the tacit approval of
+Russia; military preparations were pressed forward at Athens, and
+cruisers were purchased, but the king, aware of the inability of Greece
+to attain her ends by warlike means, discouraged a provocative attitude
+towards Turkey, and eventually dismissed the bellicose cabinet of
+Koumoundouros. The removal of a powerful minister commanding a large
+parliamentary majority constituted an important precedent in the
+exercise of the royal prerogative; the king adopted a similar course
+with regard to Delyannes in 1892 and 1897. The relations with the porte,
+however, continued to grow worse, and Hobart Pasha, with a Turkish
+fleet, made a demonstration off Syra. The Cretan insurrection was
+finally crushed in the spring of 1869, and a conference of the powers,
+which assembled that year at Paris, imposed a settlement of the Turkish
+dispute on Greece, but took no steps on behalf of the Cretans. In 1870
+the murder of several Englishmen by brigands in the neighbourhood of
+Athens produced an unfavourable impression in Europe; in the following
+year the confiscation of the Laurion mines, which had been ceded to a
+Franco-Italian company, provoked energetic action on the part of France
+and Italy. In 1875, after an acute constitutional crisis, Charilaos
+Trikoupes, who but ten months previously had been imprisoned for
+denouncing the crown in a newspaper article, was summoned to form a
+cabinet. This remarkable man, the only great statesman whom modern
+Greece has produced, exercised an extraordinary influence over his
+countrymen for the next twenty years; had he been able to maintain
+himself uninterruptedly in power during that period, Greece might have
+escaped a long succession of misfortunes. His principal opponent,
+Theodore Delyannes, succeeded in rallying a strong body of adherents,
+and political parties, hitherto divided into numerous factions, centred
+around these two prominent figures.
+
+
+  New frontier, 1881.
+
+In 1877 the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War produced a fever of
+excitement in Greece; it was felt that the quarrels of the party leaders
+compromised the interests of the country, and the populace of Athens
+insisted on the formation of a coalition cabinet. The "great" or
+"oecumenical" ministry, as it was called, now came into existence under
+the presidency of the veteran Kanares; in reality, however, it was
+controlled by Trikoupes, who, recognizing the unpreparedness of the
+country, resolved on a pacific policy. The capture of Plevna by the
+Russians brought about the fall of the "oecumenical" ministry, and
+Koumoundouros and Delyannes, who succeeded to power, ordered the
+invasion of Thessaly. Their warlike energies, however, were soon checked
+by the signing of the San Stefano Treaty, in which the claims of Greece
+to an extension of frontier were altogether ignored. At the Berlin
+congress two Greek delegates obtained a hearing on the proposal of Lord
+Salisbury. The congress decided that the rectification of the frontier
+should be left to Turkey and Greece, the mediation of the powers being
+proposed in case of non-agreement; it was suggested, however, that the
+rectified frontier should extend from the valley of the Peneus on the
+east to the mouth of the Kalamas, opposite the southern extremity of
+Corfu, on the west. In 1879 a Greco-Turkish commission for the
+delimitation met first at Prevesa, and subsequently at Constantinople,
+but its conferences were without result, the Turkish commissioners
+declining the boundary suggested at Berlin. Greece then invoked the
+arbitration of the powers, and the settlement of the question was
+undertaken by a conference of ambassadors at Berlin (1880). The line
+approved by the conference was practically that suggested by the
+congress; Turkey, however, refused to accept it, and the Greek army was
+once more mobilized. It was evident, however, that nothing could be
+gained by an appeal to arms, the powers not being prepared to apply
+coercion to Turkey. By a convention signed at Constantinople in July
+1881, the demarcation was entrusted to a commission representing the six
+powers and the two interested parties. The line drawn ran westwards from
+a point between the mouth of the Peneus and Platamona to the summits of
+Mounts Kritiri and Zygos, thence following the course of the river Arta
+to its mouth. An area of 13,395 square kilometres, with a population of
+300,000 souls, was thus added to the kingdom, while Turkey was left in
+possession of Iannina, Metzovo and most of Epirus. The ceded territory
+was occupied by Greek troops before the close of the year.
+
+
+  Trikoupes and Delyannes.
+
+In 1882 Trikoupes came into power at the head of a strong party, over
+which he exercised an influence and authority hitherto unknown in Greek
+political life. With the exception of three brief intervals (May 1885 to
+May 1886, October 1890 to February 1892, and a few months in 1893), he
+continued in office for the next twelve years. The reforms which he
+introduced during this period were generally of an unpopular character,
+and were loudly denounced by his democratic rivals; most of them were
+cancelled during the intervals when his opponent Delyannes occupied the
+premiership. The same want of continuity proved fatal to the somewhat
+ambitious financial programme which he now inaugurated. While pursuing a
+cautious foreign policy, and keeping in control the rash impetuosity of
+his fellow-countrymen, he shared to the full the national desire for
+expansion, but he looked to the development of the material resources of
+the country as a necessary preliminary to the realization of the dreams
+of Hellenism. With this view he endeavoured to attract foreign capital
+to the country, and the confidence which he inspired in financial
+circles abroad enabled him to contract a number of loans and to better
+the financial situation by a series of conversions. Under a stable,
+wise, and economical administration this far-reaching programme might
+perhaps have been carried out with success, but the vicissitudes of
+party politics and the periodical outbursts of national sentiment
+rendered its realization impossible. In April 1885 Trikoupes fell from
+power, and a few months later the indignation excited in Greece by the
+revolution of Philippopolis placed Delyannes once more at the head of a
+warlike movement. The army and fleet were again mobilized with a view to
+exacting territorial compensation for the aggrandizement of Bulgaria,
+and several conflicts with the Turkish troops took place on the
+frontier. The powers, after repeatedly inviting the Delyannes cabinet to
+disarm, established a blockade of Peiraeus and other Greek ports (8th
+May 1886), France alone declining to cooperate in this measure.
+Delyannes resigned (11th May) and Trikoupes, who succeeded to power,
+issued a decree of disarmament (25th May). Hostilities, however,
+continued on the frontier, and the blockade was not raised till 7th
+June. Trikoupes had now to face the serious financial situation brought
+about by the military activity of his predecessor. He imposed heavy
+taxation, which the people, for the time at least, bore without
+murmuring, and he continued to inspire such confidence abroad that Greek
+securities maintained their price in the foreign market. It was ominous,
+however, that a loan which he issued in 1890 was only partially covered.
+Meanwhile the Cretan difficulty had become once more a source of trouble
+to Greece. In 1889 Trikoupes was grossly deceived by the Turkish
+government, which, after inducing him to dissuade the Cretans from
+opposing the occupation of certain fortified posts, issued a firman
+annulling many important provisions in the constitution of the island.
+The indignation in Greece was intense, and popular discontent was
+increased by the success of the Bulgarians in obtaining the _exequatur_
+of the sultan for a number of bishops in Macedonia. In the autumn of
+1890 Trikoupes was beaten at the elections, and Delyannes, who had
+promised the people a radical reform of the taxation, succeeded to
+power. He proved unequal, however, to cope with the financial
+difficulty, which now became urgent; and the king, perceiving that a
+crisis was imminent, dismissed him and recalled Trikoupes. The hope of
+averting national bankruptcy depended on the possibility of raising a
+loan by which the rapid depreciation of the paper currency might be
+arrested, but foreign financiers demanded guarantees which seemed likely
+to prove hurtful to Greek susceptibilities; an agitation was raised at
+Athens, and Trikoupes suddenly resigned (May 1893). His conduct at this
+juncture appears to have been due to some misunderstandings which had
+arisen between him and the king. The Sotiropoulos-Rhalles ministry which
+followed effected a temporary settlement with the national creditors,
+but Trikoupes, returning to power in the autumn, at once annulled the
+arrangement. He now proceeded to a series of arbitrary measures which
+provoked the severest criticism throughout Europe and exposed Greece to
+the determined hostility of Germany. A law was hastily passed which
+deprived the creditors of 70% of their interest, and the proceeds of the
+revenues conceded to the monopoly bondholders were seized (December
+1893). Long negotiations followed, resulting in an arrangement which was
+subsequently reversed by the German bondholders. In January 1895
+Trikoupes resigned office, in consequence of a disagreement with the
+crown prince on a question of military discipline. His popularity had
+vanished, his health was shattered, and he determined to abandon his
+political career. His death at Cannes (11th April 1896), on the eve of a
+great national convulsion, deprived Greece of his masterly guidance and
+sober judgment at a critical moment in her history.
+
+
+  Nationalist agitation, 1896.
+
+His funeral took place at Athens on 23rd April, while the city was still
+decorated with flags and garlands after the celebration of the Olympic
+games. The revival of the ancient festival, which drew together
+multitudes of Greeks from abroad, led to a lively awakening of the
+national sentiment, hitherto depressed by the economic misfortunes of
+the kingdom, and a secret patriotic society, known as the _Ethniké
+Hetaerea_, began to develop prodigious activity, enrolling members from
+every rank of life and establishing branches in all parts of the
+Hellenic world. The society had been founded in 1894, by a handful of
+young officers who considered that the military organization of the
+country was neglected by the government; its principal aim was the
+preparation of an insurrectionary movement in Macedonia, which, owing to
+the activity of the Bulgarians and the reconciliation of Prince
+Ferdinand with Russia, seemed likely to be withdrawn for ever from the
+domain of Greek irredentism. The outbreak of another insurrection in
+Crete supplied the means of creating a diversion for Turkey while the
+movement in Macedonia was being matured; arms and volunteers were
+shipped to the island, but the society was as yet unable to force the
+hand of the government, and Delyannes, who had succeeded Trikoupes in
+1895, loyally aided the powers in the restoration of order by advising
+the Cretans to accept the constitution of 1896. The appearance of strong
+insurgent bands in Macedonia in the summer of that year testified to the
+activity of the society and provoked the remonstrances of the powers,
+while the spread of its propaganda in the army led to the issue of a
+royal rescript announcing grand military manoeuvres, the formation of a
+standing camp, and the rearmament of the troops with a new weapon (6th
+December). The objects of the society were effectually furthered by the
+evident determination of the porte to evade the application of the
+stipulated reforms in Crete; the Cretan Christians lost patience, and
+indignation was widespread in Greece. Emissaries of the society were
+despatched to the island, and affairs were brought to a climax by an
+outbreak at Canea on 4th February 1897. The Turkish troops fired on the
+Christians, thousands of whom took refuge on the warships of the powers,
+and a portion of the town was consumed by fire.
+
+
+  Cretan crisis, 1897.
+
+Delyannes now announced that the government had abandoned the policy of
+abstention. On the 6th two warships were despatched to Canea, and on the
+10th a torpedo flotilla, commanded by Prince George, left Peiraeus amid
+tumultuous demonstrations. The ostensible object of these measures was
+the protection of Greek subjects in Crete, and Delyannes was still
+anxious to avoid a definite rupture with Turkey, but the Ethniké
+Hetaerea had found means to influence several members of the ministry
+and to alarm the king. Prince George, who had received orders to prevent
+the landing of Turkish reinforcements on the island, soon withdrew from
+Cretan waters owing to the decisive attitude adopted by the commanders
+of the international squadron. A note was now addressed by the
+government to the powers, declaring that Greece could no longer remain a
+passive spectator of events in Crete, and on the 13th of February a
+force of 1500 men, under Colonel Vassos, embarked at Peiraeus. On the
+same day a Greek warship fired on a Turkish steam yacht which was
+conveying troops from Candia to Sitia. Landing near Canea on the night
+of the 14th, Colonel Vassos issued a proclamation announcing the
+occupation of Crete in the name of King George. He had received orders
+to expel the Turkish garrisons from the fortresses, but his advance on
+Canea was arrested by the international occupation of that town, and
+after a few engagements with the Turkish troops and irregulars he
+withdrew into the interior of the island. Proposals for the coercion of
+Greece were now put forward by Germany, but Great Britain declined to
+take action until an understanding had been arrived at with regard to
+the future government of Crete. Eventually (2nd March) collective notes
+were addressed to the Greek and Turkish governments announcing the
+decision of the powers that (1) Crete could in no case in present
+circumstances be annexed to Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by
+Turkey in the application of the reforms, Crete should be endowed with
+an effective autonomous administration, calculated to ensure it a
+separate government, under the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at
+the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet within the space of
+six days, and Turkey was warned that its troops must for the present be
+concentrated in the fortified towns and ultimately withdrawn from the
+island. The action of the powers produced the utmost exasperation at
+Athens; the populace demanded war with Turkey and the annexation of
+Crete, and the government drew up a reply to the powers in which, while
+expressing the conviction that autonomy would prove a failure, it
+indicated its readiness to withdraw some of the ships, but declined to
+recall the army. A suggestion that the troops might receive a European
+mandate for the preservation of order in the island proved unacceptable
+to the powers, owing to the aggressive action of Colonel Vassos after
+his arrival. Meanwhile troops, volunteers and munitions of war were
+hurriedly despatched to the Turkish frontier in anticipation of an
+international blockade of the Greek ports, but the powers contented
+themselves with a pacific blockade of Crete, and military preparations
+went on unimpeded.
+
+
+  War with Turkey.
+
+While the powers dallied, the danger of war increased; on 29th March the
+crown prince assumed command of the Greek troops in Thessaly, and a few
+days later hostilities were precipitated by the irregular forces of the
+Ethniké Hetaerea, which attacked several Turkish outposts near Grevena.
+According to a report of its proceedings, subsequently published by the
+society, this invasion received the previous sanction of the prime
+minister. On 17th April Turkey declared war. The disastrous campaign
+which followed was of short duration, and it was evident from the outset
+that the Greeks had greatly underrated the military strength of their
+opponents (see GRECO-TURKISH WAR). After the evacuation of Larissa on
+the 24th, great discontent prevailed at Athens; Delyannes was invited by
+the king to resign, but refusing to do so was dismissed (29th April).
+His successor, Rhalles, after recalling the army from Crete (9th May)
+invoked the mediation of the powers, and an armistice was concluded on
+the 19th of that month. Thus ended an unfortunate enterprise, which was
+undertaken in the hope that discord among the powers would lead to a
+European war and the dismemberment of Turkey. Greek interference in
+Crete had at least the result of compelling Europe to withdraw the
+island for ever from Turkish rule. The conditions of peace put forward
+by Turkey included a war indemnity of £10,000,000 and the retention of
+Thessaly; the latter demand, however, was resolutely opposed by Great
+Britain, and the indemnity was subsequently reduced to £4,000,000. The
+terms agreed to by the powers were rejected by Rhalles; the chamber,
+however, refused him a vote of confidence and King George summoned
+Zaimes to power (October 3). The definitive treaty of peace, which was
+signed at Constantinople on the 6th of December, contained a provision
+for a slight modification of the frontier, designed to afford Turkey
+certain strategical advantages; the delimitation was carried out by a
+commission composed of military delegates of the powers and
+representatives of the interested parties. The evacuation of Thessaly by
+the Turkish troops was completed in June 1898. An immediate result of
+the war was the institution of an international financial commission at
+Athens, charged with the control of certain revenues assigned to the
+service of the national debt. The state of the country after the
+conclusion of hostilities was deplorable; the towns of northern Greece
+and the islands were crowded with destitute refugees from Thessaly;
+violent recriminations prevailed at Athens, and the position of the
+dynasty seemed endangered. A reaction, however, set in, in consequence
+of an attempt to assassinate King George (28th February 1898), whose
+great services to the nation in obtaining favourable terms from the
+powers began to receive general recognition. In the following summer the
+king made a tour through the country, and was everywhere received with
+enthusiasm. In the autumn the powers, on the initiative of Russia,
+decided to entrust Prince George of Greece with the government of Crete;
+on 26th November an intimation that the prince had been appointed high
+commissioner in the island was formally conveyed to the court of Athens,
+and on 21st December he landed in Crete amid enthusiastic demonstrations
+(see CRETE).
+
+
+  Macedonian troubles.
+
+In April 1899 Zaimes gave way to Theotokes, the chief of the Trikoupist
+party, who introduced various improvements in the administration of
+justice and other reforms including a measure transferring the
+administration of the army from the minister of war to the crown prince.
+In May 1901 a meeting took place at Abbazia, under the auspices of the
+Austro-Hungarian government, between King George and King Charles of
+Rumania with a view to the conclusion of a Graeco-Rumanian understanding
+directed against the growth of Slavonic, and especially Bulgarian,
+influence in Macedonia. The compact, however, was destined to be
+short-lived owing to the prosecution of a Rumanian propaganda among the
+semi-Hellenized Vlachs of Macedonia. In November riots took place at
+Athens, the patriotic indignation of the university students and the
+populace being excited by the issue of a translation of the Gospels into
+modern Greek at the suggestion of the queen. The publication was
+attributed to Panslavist intrigues against Greek supremacy over the
+Orthodox populations of the East, and the archbishop of Athens was
+compelled to resign. Theotokes, whose life was attempted, retired from
+power, and Zaimes formed a cabinet. In 1902 the progress of the
+Bulgarian movement in Macedonia once more caused great irritation in
+Greece. Zaimes, having been defeated at the elections in December,
+resigned, and was succeeded by Delyannes, whose popularity had not been
+permanently impaired by the misfortunes of the war. Delyannes now
+undertook to carry out extensive economic reforms, and introduced a
+measure restoring the control of the army to the ministry of war. He
+failed, however, to carry out his programme, and, being deserted by a
+section of his followers, resigned in June 1903, when Theotokes again
+became prime minister. The new cabinet resigned within a month owing to
+the outbreak of disturbances in the currant-growing districts, and
+Rhalles took office for the second time (July 8). The Bulgarian
+insurrection in Macedonia during the autumn caused great excitement in
+Athens, and Rhalles adopted a policy of friendship with Turkey (see
+MACEDONIA). The co-operation of the Greek party in Macedonia with the
+Turkish authorities exposed it to the vengeance of the insurgents, and
+in the following year a number of Greek bands were sent into that
+country. The campaign of retaliation was continued in subsequent years.
+
+
+  Murder of Delyannes.
+
+In December Rhalles, who had lost the support of the Delyannist party,
+was replaced by Theotokes, who promulgated a scheme of army
+reorganization, introduced various economies and imposed fresh taxation.
+In December the government was defeated on a vote of confidence and
+Delyannes once more became prime minister, obtaining a considerable
+majority in the elections which followed (March 1905), but on the 13th
+of June he was assassinated. He was succeeded by Rhalles, who effected a
+settlement of the currant question and cultivated friendly relations
+with Turkey in regard to Macedonia.
+
+In the autumn anti-Greek demonstrations in Rumania led to a rupture of
+relations with that country. In December the ministry resigned owing to
+an adverse vote of the chamber, and Theotokes formed a cabinet. The new
+government, as a preliminary to military and naval reorganization,
+introduced a law directed against the candidature of military officers
+for parliament. Owing to obstruction practised by the military members
+of the chamber a dissolution took place, and at the subsequent elections
+(April 1906) Theotokes secured a large majority. In the autumn various
+excesses committed against the Greeks in Bulgaria in reprisal for the
+depredations of the Greek bands in Macedonia caused great indignation in
+Greece, but diplomatic relations between the two countries were not
+suspended. On the 26th of September Prince George, who had resigned the
+high commissionership of Crete, returned to Athens; the designation of
+his successors was accorded by the protecting powers to King George as a
+satisfaction to Greek national sentiment (see CRETE). The great increase
+in the activity of the Greek bands in Macedonia during the following
+spring and summer led to the delivery of a Turkish note at Athens (July
+1907), which was supported by representations of the powers.
+
+In October 1908 the proclamation by the Cretan assembly of union with
+Greece threatened fresh complications, the cautious attitude of the
+Greek government leading to an agitation in the army, which came to a
+head in 1909. On the 18th of July a popular demonstration against his
+Cretan policy led to the resignation of Theotokes, whose successor,
+Rhalles, announced a programme of military and economical reform. The
+army, however, took matters into its own hands, and on the 23rd of
+August Rhalles was replaced by Mavromichales, the nominee of the
+"Military League." For the next six months constitutional government was
+practically superseded by that of the League, and for a while the crown
+itself seemed to be in danger. The influence of the League, however,
+rapidly declined; army and navy quarrelled; and a fresh _coup d'état_ at
+the beginning of 1910 failed of its effect, owing to the firmness of the
+king. On the 7th of February Mavromichales resigned, and his successor,
+Dragoumis, accepting the Cretan leader Venezelo's suggestion of a
+national assembly, succeeded in persuading the League to dissolve (March
+29) on receiving the king's assurance that such an assembly would be
+convened. On the 31st, accordingly, King George formally proclaimed the
+convocation of a national assembly to deal with the questions at issue.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Finlay, _History of Greece_ (Oxford, 1877); K. N.
+  Sathas, [Greek: Mesaiônikê Bibliothêkê] (7 vols., Venice, 1872-1894);
+  and [Greek: Mnêmeia Hellênikês historias]. _Documents inédits relatifs
+  à l'histoire du moyen âge_ (9 vols., Paris, 1880-1890); Sp. Trikoupes,
+  [Greek: Historia tês Hellênikês epanastaseôs] (4 vols., 3rd ed.,
+  Athens, 1888); K. Paparrhegopoulos, [Greek: Historia tou Hellênikou
+  ethnous] (5 vols., 4th ed., Athens, 1903); J. Philemon, [Greek:
+  Dokimion historikon peri tês Hellênikês epanastaseôs] (Athens,
+  1859-1861); P. Kontoyannes, [Greek: Oi Hellênes kata ton prôton epi
+  Aikaterinês 'Rhôssotourkikon polemon] (Athens, 1903); D. G.
+  Kampouroglos, [Greek: Historia tôn Athênaiôn, Tourkokratia,] 1458-1687
+  (2 vols., Athens, 1889-1890); and [Greek: Mnêmeia tês historias tôn
+  Athênaiôn], (3 vols., Athens, 1889-1892); G. E. Mavrogiannes, [Greek:
+  Historia tôn Ioniôn nêsôn,] 1797-1815 (2 vols., Athens, 1889); P.
+  Karolides, [Greek: Historia tou ith aiônos], 1814-1892 (Athens,
+  1891-1893); E. Kyriakides, [Greek: Historia tou sugchronou
+  Hellênismou] 1832-1892 (2 vols., Athens, 1892); G. Konstantinides,
+  [Greek: Historia tôn Hathênôn apo Xristou gennêseôs mechri tou] 1821
+  (2nd ed., Athens, 1894); D. Bikelas, _La Grèce byzantine et moderne_
+  (Paris, 1893).     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See also GREEK ART, GREEK LANGUAGE, GREEK LAW, GREEK LITERATURE,
+    GREEK RELIGION.
+
+  [2] For the Geology of Greece see: M. Neumayr, &c., _Denks. k. Akad.
+    Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. Cl._ vol. xl. (1880); A. Philippson, _Der
+    Peloponnes_ (Berlin, 1892) and "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der
+    griechischen Inselwelt," _Peterm. Mitt._, Ergänz.-heft No. 134
+    (1901); R. Lepsius, _Geologie von Attika_ (Berlin, 1893); L. Cayeux,
+    "Phénomènes de charriage dans la Méditerranée orientale," _C. R.
+    Acad. Sci. Paris_, vol. cxxxvi. (1903) pp. 474-476; J. Deprat, "Note
+    préliminaire sur la géologie de l'île d'Eubée," _Bull. Soc. Géol.
+    France_, ser. 4, vol. iii. (1903) pp. 229-243, p. vii. and "Note sur
+    la géologie du massif du Pélion et sur l'influence exercée par les
+    massifs archéens sur la tectonique de l'Égéide," _ib._ vol. iv.
+    (1904), pp. 299-338.
+
+  [3] No state survey of Greece was available in 1908, though a survey
+    had been undertaken by the ministry of war.
+
+  [4] It would be more accurate to say to the year 1500 B.C. At Cnossus
+    the palace is sacked soon after this date, and the art, both in Crete
+    and in the whole Aegean area, becomes lifeless and decadent.
+
+  [5] See T. W. Allen in the _Classical Review_, vol. xx. (1906), No. 4
+    (May).
+
+  [6] It has been impugned by J. Beloch, _Griechische Geschichte_, i.
+    149 ff.
+
+  [7] _History of Greece_ (Eng. trans., i. 32 ff.); cf. the same
+    writer's _Ioner vor der ionischen Wanderung_.
+
+  [8] If the account of early Athenian constitutional history given in
+    the _Athenaion Politeia_ were accepted, it would follow that the
+    archons were inferior in authority to the Eupatrid Boule, the
+    Areopagus.
+
+  [9] The dates before the middle of the 7th century are in most cases
+    artificial, e.g. those given by Thucydides (book vi.) for the earlier
+    Sicilian settlements. See J. P. Mahaffy, _Journal of Hellenic
+    Studies_, ii. 164 ff.
+
+  [10] At Syracuse the _demos_ makes common cause with the Sicel
+    serf-population against the nobles (Herod. vii. 155).
+
+  [11] An exception should perhaps be made in the case of Thucydides.
+
+  [12] The Peisistratidae come off better, however.
+
+  [13] The numbers given by Herodotus (upwards of 5,000,000) are
+    enormously exaggerated. We must divide by ten or fifteen to arrive at
+    a probable estimate of the forces that actually crossed the
+    Hellespont.
+
+  [14] It has been denied by some writers (e.g. by A. H. J. Greenidge)
+    that Athens interfered with the constitutions of the subject-states.
+    For the view put forward in the text, the following passages may be
+    quoted: Aristotle, _Politics_ 1307 b 20; Isocrates, _Panegyricus_,
+    105, 106, _Panathenaicus_, 54 and 68; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iii. 4.
+    7; Ps.-Xen. _Athen. Constit._ i. 14, iii. 10.
+
+  [15] The evidence seems to indicate that all the more important
+    criminal cases throughout the empire were tried in the Athenian
+    courts. In civil cases Athens secured to the citizens of the
+    subject-states the right of suing Athenian citizens, as well as
+    citizens of other subject-states.
+
+  [16] After this date, and partly in consequence of the change, the
+    archonship, to which sortition was applied, loses its importance. The
+    _strategi_ (generals) become the chief executive officials. As
+    election was never replaced by the lot in their case, the change had
+    less practical meaning than might appear at first sight. (See ARCHON;
+    STRATEGUS.)
+
+  [17] For an estimate of the numbers annually engaged in the service
+    of Athens, see Aristot. _Ath. Pol._ 24. 3.
+
+  [18] Foreign is not used here as equivalent to non-Hellenic. It means
+    "belonging to another state, whether Greek or barbarian."
+
+  [19] It failed even to create a united Arcadia or a strong Messenia.
+
+  [20] See Demosthenes, _On the Crown_, 235. Philip was [Greek:
+    autokratôr, despotês, êgemôn, kurios panton.]
+
+  [21] See _Archidamus_, 68; Philippus, 96, [Greek: ôste raon eínai
+    sustêsai stratopedon meizon kai kreltton ek ton planômênôn e ek ton
+    politeuomenon.]
+
+  [22] The _Liturgies_ (e.g. the trierarchy) had much the same effect
+    as a direct tax levied upon the wealthiest citizens.
+
+  [23] His extreme caution in approaching the question at an earlier
+    date is to be noticed. See, e.g., _Olynthiacs_, i. 19, 20.
+
+  [24] e.g. the two expeditions sent to Euboea, the cavalry force that
+    took part in the battle of Mantinea, and the army that fought at
+    Chaeronea. The troops in all these cases were citizens.
+
+  [25] For the altered character of warfare see Demosthenes,
+    _Philippics_, iii. 48, 49.
+
+  [26] It is known that the councillors were appointed by the states in
+    the Aetolian league; it is only surmised in the case of the Achaean.
+
+  [27] Strictly speaking, to 411 B.C. For the last seven years of the
+    war our principal authority is Xenophon, _Hellenica_, i., ii.
+
+  [28] Possibly some of his information about Persian affairs may have
+    been derived, at first or second hand, from Zopyrus, son of
+    Megabyzus, whose flight to Athens is mentioned in iii. 160.
+
+  [29] For a defence of Thucydides' judgment on all three statesmen,
+    see E. Meyer, _Forschungen_, ii. 296-379.
+
+  [30] On the discrepancies between Xenophon's account of the Thirty,
+    and Aristotle's, see G. Busolt, _Hermes_ (1898), pp. 71-86.
+
+  [31] The fragment of the New Historian (_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol.
+    v.) affords exceedingly important material for the criticism of
+    Xenophon's narrative. (See THEOPOMPUS.)
+
+  [32] Vol. iii. goes down to the end of the Peloponnesian War.
+
+
+
+
+GREEK ART. It is proposed in the present article to give a brief account
+of the history of Greek art and of the principles embodied in that
+history. In any broad view of history, the products of the various arts
+practised by a people constitute an objective and most important record
+of the spirit of that people. But all nations have not excelled in the
+same way: some have found their best expression in architecture, some in
+music, some in poetry. The Greeks most fully embodied their ideas in two
+ways, first in their splendid literature, both prose and verse, and
+secondly, in their plastic and pictorial art, in which matter they have
+remained to our days among the greatest instructors of mankind. The
+three arts of architecture, sculpture and painting were brought by them
+into a focus; and by their aid they produced a visible splendour of
+public life such as has perhaps been nowhere else attained.
+
+The volume of the remains of Greek civilization is so vast, and the
+learning with which these have been discussed is so ample, that it is
+hopeless to attempt to give in a work like the present any complete
+account of either. Rather we shall be frankly eclectic, choosing for
+consideration such results of Greek art as are most noteworthy and most
+characteristic. In some cases it will be possible to give a reference to
+a more detailed treatment of particular monuments in these volumes under
+the heading of the places to which they belong. Architectural detail is
+relegated to ARCHITECTURE and allied architectural articles. Coins (see
+NUMISMATICS) and gems (see GEMS) are treated apart, as are vases
+(CERAMICS), and in the bibliography which closes this article an effort
+is made to direct those who wish for further information in any
+particular branch of our subject.
+
+1. _The Rediscovery of Greek Art._--The visible works of Greek
+architect, sculptor and painter, accumulated in the cities of Greece and
+Asia Minor until the Roman conquest. And in spite of the ravages of
+conquering Roman generals, and the more systematic despoilings of the
+emperors, we know that when Pausanias visited Greece, in the age of the
+Antonines, it was from coast to coast a museum of works of art of all
+ages. But the tide soon turned. Works of originality were no longer
+produced, and a succession of disasters gradually obliterated those of
+previous ages. In the course of the Teutonic and Slavonic invasions from
+the north, or in consequence of earthquakes, very frequent in Greece,
+the splendid cities and temples fell into ruins; and with the taking of
+Constantinople by the Franks in 1204 the last great collection of works
+of Greek sculpture disappeared. But while paintings decayed, and works
+in metal were melted down, many marble buildings and statues survived,
+at least in a mutilated condition, while terra-cotta is almost proof
+against decay.
+
+With the Renaissance attention was directed to the extant remains of
+Greek and Roman art; as early as the 15th century collections of ancient
+sculpture, coins and gems began to be formed in Italy; and in the 16th
+the enthusiasm spread to Germany and France. The earl of Arundel, in the
+reign of James I., was the first Englishman to collect antiques from
+Italy and Asia Minor: his marbles are now in the Ashmolean Museum at
+Oxford. Systematic travel in Greece for the discovery of buildings and
+works of art was begun by Spon and Wheler (1675-1676); and the discovery
+of Pompeii in 1748 opened a new chapter in the history of ancient art.
+
+But though kings delighted to form galleries of ancient statues, and the
+great Italian artists of the Renaissance drew from them inspiration for
+their paintings and bronzes, the first really critical appreciation of
+Greek art belongs to Winckelmann (_Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums_,
+1764). The monuments accessible to Winckelmann were but a very small
+proportion of those we now possess, and in fact mostly works of inferior
+merit: but he was the first to introduce the historical method into the
+treatment of ancient art, and to show how it embodied the ideas of the
+great peoples of the ancient world. He was succeeded by Lessing, and the
+waves of thought and feeling set in motion by these two affected the
+cultivated class in all nations,--they inspired in particular Goethe in
+Germany and Lord Byron in England.
+
+The second stage in the recovery of Greek art begins with the permission
+accorded by the Porte to Lord Elgin in 1800 to remove to England the
+sculptural decoration of the Parthenon and other buildings of Athens.
+These splendid works, after various vicissitudes, became the property of
+the English nation, and are now the chief treasures of the British
+Museum. The sight of them was a revelation to critics and artists,
+accustomed only to the base copies which fill the Italian galleries, and
+a new epoch in the appreciation of Greek art began. English and German
+savants, among whom Cockerell and Stackelberg were conspicuous,
+recovered the glories of the temples of Aegina and Bassae. Leake and
+Ross, and later Curtius, journeyed through the length and breadth of
+Greece, identifying ancient sites and studying the monuments which were
+above ground. Ross reconstructed the temple of Athena Nike on the
+Acropolis of Athens from fragments rescued from a Turkish bastion.
+
+Meantime more methodical exploration brought to light the remains of
+remarkable civilizations in Asia, not only in the valley of the
+Euphrates, but in Lycia, whence Sir Charles Fellows brought to London
+the remains of noteworthy tombs, among which the so-called Harpy
+Monument and Nereid Monument take the first place. Still more important
+were the accessions derived from the excavations of Sir Charles Newton,
+who in the years 1852-1859 resided as consul in Asia Minor, and explored
+the sites of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the shrine of Demeter at
+Cnidus. Pullan at Priene, and Wood at Ephesus also made fruitful
+excavations.
+
+The next landmark is set by the German excavations at Olympia (1876 and
+foll.), which not only were conducted with a scientific completeness
+before unknown, and at great cost, but also established the principle
+that in future all the results of excavations in Greece must remain in
+the country, the right of first publication only remaining with the
+explorers. The discovery of the Hermes of Praxiteles, almost the only
+certain original of a great Greek sculptor which we possess, has
+furnished a new and invaluable fulcrum for the study of ancient art. In
+emulation of the achievements of the Germans at Olympia, the Greek
+archaeological society methodically excavated the Athenian acropolis,
+and were rewarded by finding numerous statues and fragments of pediments
+belonging to the age of Peisistratus, an age when the promise of art was
+in full bud. More recently French explorers have made a very thorough
+examination of the site of Delphi, and have succeeded in recovering
+almost complete two small treasuries, those of the people of Athens and
+of Cnidus or Siphnos, the latter of 6th-century Ionian work, and adorned
+with extremely important sculpture.
+
+No other site of the same importance as Athens, Olympia and Delphi
+remains for excavation in Greece proper. But in all parts of the
+country, at Tegea, Corinth, Sparta and on a number of other ancient
+sites, striking and important monuments have come to light. And at the
+same time monuments already known in Italy and Sicily, such as the
+temples of Paestum, Selinus and Agrigentum have been re-examined with
+fuller knowledge and better system. Only Asia Minor, under the influence
+of Turkish rule, has remained a country where systematic exploration is
+difficult. Something, however, has been accomplished at Ephesus, Priene,
+Assos and Miletus, and great works of sculpture such as the reliefs of
+the great altar at Pergamum, now at Berlin, and the splendid sarcophagi
+from Sidon, now at Constantinople, show what might be expected from
+methodic investigation of the wealthy Greek cities of Asia.
+
+From further excavations at Herculaneum we may expect a rich harvest of
+works of art of the highest class, such as have already been found in
+the excavations on that site in the past; and the building operations at
+Rome are constantly bringing to light fine statues brought from Greece
+in the time of the Empire, which are now placed in the collections of
+the Capitol and the Baths of Diocletian.
+
+The work of explorers on Greek sites requires as its complement and
+corrective much labour in the great museums of Europe. As museum work
+apart from exploration tends to dilettantism and pedantry, so
+exploration by itself does not produce reasoned knowledge. When a new
+building, a great original statue, a series of vases is discovered,
+these have to be fitted in to the existing frame of our knowledge; and
+it is by such fitting in that the edifice of knowledge is enlarged. In
+all the museums and universities of Europe the fresh examination of new
+monuments, the study of style and subject, and attempts to work out
+points in the history of ancient art, are incessantly going on. Such
+archaeological work is an important element in the gradual education of
+the world, and is fruitful, quite apart from the particular results
+attained, because it encourages a method of thought. Archaeology,
+dealing with things which can be seen and handled, yet being a species
+of historic study, lies on the borderland between the province of
+natural science and that of historic science, and furnishes a bridge
+whereby the methods of investigation proper to physical and biological
+study may pass into the human field.
+
+  These investigations and studies are recorded, partly in books, but
+  more particularly in papers in learned journals (see bibliography),
+  such as the _Mitteilungen_ of the German Institute, and the English
+  _Journal of Hellenic Studies_.
+
+An example or two may serve to give the reader a clearer notion of the
+recent progress in the knowledge of Greek art.
+
+To begin with architecture. Each of the palmary sites of which we have
+spoken has rendered up examples of early Greek temples. At Olympia there
+is the Heraeum, earliest of known temples of Greece proper, which
+clearly shows the process whereby stone gradually superseded wood as a
+constructive material. At Delphi the explorers have been so fortunate as
+to be able to put together the treasuries of the Cnidians (or Siphnians)
+and of the Athenians. The former (see fig. 17) is a gem of early Ionic
+art, with two Caryatid figures in front in the place of columns, and
+adorned with the most delicate tracery and fine reliefs. On the Athenian
+acropolis very considerable remains have been found of temples which
+were destroyed by the Persians when they temporarily occupied the site
+in 480 B.C. And recently the ever-renewed study of the Erechtheum has
+resulted in a restoration of its original form more valuable and
+trustworthy than any previously made.
+
+In the field of sculpture recent discoveries have been too many and too
+important to be mentioned at any length. One instance may serve to mark
+the rapidity of our advance. When the remains of the Mausoleum were
+brought to London from the excavations begun by Sir Charles Newton in
+1856 we knew from Pliny that four great sculptors, Scopas, Bryaxis,
+Leochares and Timotheus, had worked on the sculpture; but we knew of
+these artists little more than the names. At present we possess many
+fragments of two pediments at Tegea executed under the direction of
+Scopas, we have a basis with reliefs signed by Bryaxis, we have
+identified a group in the Vatican museum as a copy of the Ganymede of
+Leochares, and we have pedimental remains from Epidaurus which we know
+from inscriptional evidence to be either the works of Timotheus or made
+from his models. Any one can judge how enormously our power of
+criticizing the Mausoleum sculptures, and of comparing them with
+contemporary monuments, has increased.
+
+In regard to ancient painting we can of course expect no such fresh
+illumination. Many important wail-paintings of the Roman age have been
+found at Rome and Pompeii: but we have no certain or even probable work
+of any great Greek painter. We have to content ourselves with studying
+the colouring of reliefs, such as those of the sarcophagi at
+Constantinople, and the drawings on vases, in order to get some notion
+of the composition and drawing of painted scenes in the great age of
+Greece. As to the portraits of the Roman age painted on wood which have
+come in considerable quantities from Egypt, they stand at a far lower
+level than even the paintings of Pompeii. The number of our
+vase-paintings, however, increases steadily, and whole classes, such as
+the early vases of Ionia, are being marked off from the crowd, and so
+becoming available for use in illustrating the history of Hellenic
+civilization.
+
+The study of Greek art is thus one which is eminently progressive. It
+has over the study of Greek literature the immense advantage that its
+materials increase far more rapidly. And it is becoming more and more
+evident that a sound and methodic study of Greek art is quite as
+indispensable as a foundation for an artistic and archaeological
+education as the study of Greek poets and orators is as a basis of
+literary education. The extreme simplicity and thorough rationality of
+Greek art make it an unrivalled field for the training and exercise of
+the faculties which go to the making of the art-critic and art
+historian.
+
+2. _The General Principles of Greek Art._--Before proceeding to sketch
+the history of the rise and decline of Greek art, it is desirable
+briefly to set forth the principles which underlie it (see also P.
+Gardner's _Grammar of Greek Art_).
+
+As the literature of Greece is composed in a particular language, the
+grammar and the syntax of which have to be studied before the works in
+poetry and prose can be read, so Greek works of art are composed in what
+may be called an artistic language. To the accidence of a grammar may be
+compared the mere technique of sculpture and painting: to the syntax of
+a grammar correspond the principles of composition and grouping of
+individual figures into a relief or picture. By means of the rules of
+this grammar the Greek artist threw into form the ideas which belonged
+to him as a personal or a racial possession.
+
+We may mention first some of the more external conditions of Greek art;
+next, some of those which the Greek spirit posited for itself.
+
+No nation is in its works wholly free from the domination of climate and
+geographical position; least of all a people so keenly alive to the
+influence of the outer world as the Greeks. They lived in a land where
+the soil was dry and rocky, far less hospitable to vegetation than that
+of western Europe, while on all sides the horizon of the land was
+bounded by hard and jagged lines of mountain. The sky was extremely
+clear and bright, sunshine for a great part of the year almost
+perpetual, and storms, which are more than passing gales, rare. It was
+in accordance with these natural features that temples and other
+buildings should be simple in form and bounded by clear lines. Such
+forms as the cube, the oblong, the cylinder, the triangle, the pyramid
+abound in their constructions. Just as in Switzerland the gables of the
+chalets match the pine-clad slopes and lofty summits of the mountains,
+so in Greece, amid barer hills of less elevation, the Greek temple looks
+thoroughly in place. But its construction is related not only to the
+surface of the land, but also to the character of the race. M. Émile
+Boutmy, in his interesting _Philosophie de l'architecture en Grèce_, has
+shown how the temple is a triumph of the senses and the intellect, not
+primarily emotional, but showing in every part definite purpose and
+design. It also exhibits in a remarkable degree the love of balance, of
+symmetry, of a mathematical proportion of parts and correctness of
+curvature which belong to the Greek artist.
+
+The purposes of a Greek temple may be readily judged from its plan.
+Primarily it was the abode of the deity, whose statue dwelt in it as men
+dwell in their own houses. Hence the cella or _naos_ is the central
+feature of the building. Here was placed the image to which worship was
+brought, while the treasures belonging to the god were disposed partly
+in the cella itself, partly in a kind of treasury which often existed,
+as in the Parthenon, behind the cella. There was in large temples a
+porch of approach, the _pronaos_, and another behind, the
+_opisthodomos_. Temples were not meant for, nor accommodated to, regular
+services or a throng of worshippers. Processions and festivals took
+place in the open air, in the streets and fields, and men entered the
+abodes of the gods at most in groups and families, commonly alone. Thus
+when a place had been found for the statue, which stood for the presence
+of the god, for the small altar of incense, for the implements of cult
+and the gifts of votaries, little space remained free, and great spaces
+or subsidiary chapels such as are usual in Christian cathedrals did not
+exist (see TEMPLE).
+
+Here our concern is not with the purposes or arrangements of a temple,
+but with its appearance and construction, regarded as a work of art, and
+as an embodiment of Greek ideas. A few simple and striking principles
+may be formulated, which are characteristic of all Greek buildings:--
+
+(i.) Each member of the building has one function, and only one, and
+this function controls even the decoration of that member. The pillar of
+a temple is made to support the architrave and is for that purpose only.
+The flutings of the pillar, being perpendicular, emphasize this fact.
+The line of support which runs up through the pillar is continued in the
+triglyph, which also shows perpendicular grooves. On the other hand, the
+wall of a temple is primarily meant to divide or space off; thus it may
+well at the top be decorated by a horizontal band of relief, which
+belongs to it as a border belongs to a curtain. The base of a column, if
+moulded, is moulded in such a way as to suggest support of a great
+weight; the capital of a column is so carved as to form a transition
+between the column and the cornice which it supports.
+
+(ii.) Greek architects took the utmost pains with the proportions, the
+symmetry as they called it, of the parts of their buildings. This was a
+thing in which the keen and methodical eyes of the Greeks delighted, to
+a degree which a modern finds it hard to understand. Simple and natural
+relations, 1:2, 1:3, 2:3 and the like, prevailed between various members
+of a construction. All curves were planned with great care, to please
+the eye with their flow; and the alternations and correspondences of
+features is visible at a glance. For example, the temple must have two
+pediments and two porches, and on its sides and fronts triglyph and
+metope must alternate with unvarying regularity.
+
+(iii.) Rigidity in the simple lines of a temple is avoided by the device
+that scarcely any outline is actually straight. All are carefully
+planned and adapted to the eye of the spectator. In the Parthenon the
+line of the floor is curved, the profiles of the columns are curved, the
+corner columns slope inward from their bases, the columns are not even
+equidistant. This elaborate adaptation, called entasis, was expounded by
+F. C. Penrose in his work on Athenian architecture, and has since been
+observed in several of the great temples of Greece.
+
+(iv.) Elaborate decoration is reserved for those parts of the temple
+which have, or at least appear to have, no strain laid upon them. It is
+true that in the archaic age experiments were made in carving reliefs on
+the lower drums of columns (as at Ephesus) and on the line of the
+architrave (as at Assus). But such examples were not followed. Nearly
+always the spaces reserved for mythological reliefs or groups are the
+tops of walls, the spaces between the triglyphs, and particularly the
+pediments surmounting the two fronts, which might be left hollow without
+danger to the stability of the edifice. Detached figures in the round
+are in fact found only in the pediments, or standing upon the tops of
+the pediments. And metopes are sculptured in higher relief than friezes.
+
+  "When we examine in detail even the simplest architectural decoration,
+  we discover a combination of care, sense of proportion, and reason.
+  The flutings of an Ionic column are not in section mere arcs of a
+  circle, but made up of a combination of curves which produce a
+  beautiful optical effect; the lines of decoration, as may be best seen
+  in the case of the Erechtheum, are cut with a marvellous delicacy.
+  Instead of trying to invent new schemes, the mason contents himself
+  with improving the regular patterns until they approach perfection,
+  and he takes everything into consideration. Mouldings on the outside
+  of a temple, in the full light of the sun, are differently planned
+  from those in the diffused light of the interior. Mouldings executed
+  in soft stone are less fine than those in marble. The mason thinks
+  before he works, and while he works, and thinks in entire
+  correspondence with his surroundings."[1]
+
+Greek architecture, however, is treated elsewhere (see ARCHITECTURE); we
+will therefore proceed to speak briefly of the principles exemplified in
+sculpture. Existing works of Greek sculpture fall easily into two
+classes. The first class comprises what may be called works of
+substantive art, statues or groups made for their own sake and to be
+judged by themselves. Such are cult-statues of gods and goddesses from
+temple and shrine, honorary portraits of rulers or of athletes,
+dedicated groups and the like. The second class comprises decorative
+sculptures, such as were made, usually in relief, for the decoration of
+temples and tombs and other buildings, and were intended to be
+subordinate to architectural effect.
+
+Speaking broadly, it may be said that the works of substantive sculpture
+in our museums are in the great majority of cases copies of doubtful
+exactness and very various merit. The Hermes of Praxiteles is almost the
+only marble statue which can be assigned positively to one of the great
+sculptors; we have to work back towards the productions of the peers of
+Praxiteles through works of poor execution, often so much restored in
+modern times as to be scarcely recognizable. Decorative works, on the
+other hand, are very commonly originals, and their date can often be
+accurately fixed, as they belong to known buildings. They are thus
+infinitely more trustworthy and more easy to deal with than the copies
+of statues of which the museums of Europe, and more especially those of
+Italy, are full. They are also more commonly unrestored. But yet there
+are certain disadvantages attaching to them. Decorative works, even when
+carried out under the supervision of a great sculptor, were but seldom
+executed by him. Usually they were the productions of his pupils or
+masons. Thus they are not on the same level of art as substantive
+sculpture. And they vary in merit to an extraordinary extent, according
+to the capacity of the man who happened to have them in hand, and who
+was probably but little controlled. Every one knows how noble are the
+pedimental sculptures of the Parthenon. But we know no reason why they
+should be so vastly superior to the frieze from Phigalia; nor why the
+heads from the temple at Tegea should be so fine, while those from the
+contemporary temple at Epidaurus should be comparatively insignificant.
+From the records of payments made to the sculptors who worked on the
+Erechtheum at Athens it appears that they were ordinary masons, some of
+them not even citizens, and paid at the rate of 60 drachms (about 60
+francs) for each figure, whether of man or horse, which they produced.
+Such piece-work would not, in our days, produce a very satisfactory
+result.
+
+Works of substantive sculpture may be divided into two classes, the
+statues of human beings and those of the gods. The line between the two
+is not, however, very easy to draw, or very definite. For in
+representing men the Greek sculptor had an irresistible inclination to
+idealize, to represent what was generic and typical rather than what was
+individual, and the essential rather than the accidental. And in
+representing deities he so fully anthropomorphized them that they became
+men and women, only raised above the level of everyday life and endowed
+with a superhuman stateliness. Moreover, there was a class of heroes
+represented largely in art who covered the transition from men to gods.
+For example, if one regards Heracles as a deity and Achilles as a man of
+the heroic age and of heroic mould, the line between the two will be
+found to be very narrow.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  _Photo, Brogi._
+  FIG. 50. HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON. (NAT. MUS. NAPLES.)
+
+  _Photo, Brogi._
+  FIG. 51. FARNESE BULL. (NAPLES.)
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 52. LAOCOON GROUP. (VATICAN.)
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 53. GANYMEDE OF LEOCHARES. (VATICAN.)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 54.--FLYING OF MARSYAS. (VILLA ALBANI, ROME.)
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 55.--APOLLO OF THE BELVIDERE. (VATICAN.)]
+
+  FIG. 56.--HEAD OF YOUNG ALEXANDER. (BRIT. MUS.)
+
+  _Photo, Seebah._
+  FIG. 57.--HERMES OF ALCAMENES. (CONSTANTINOPLE.)
+
+  FIG. 58.--THESEUS AND AMAZON (ERETRIA).
+
+  _Photo, Mansell._
+  FIG. 59.--DRUM OF COLUMN FROM EPHESUS. (BRIT. MUS.)
+
+  _Photo, Baldwin Coolidge._
+  FIG. 60.--YOUNG HERMES. (MUS. OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON.)]
+
+Nevertheless one may for convenience speak first of human and afterwards
+of divine figures. It was the custom from the 6th century onwards to
+honour those who had done any great achievement by setting up their
+statues in conspicuous positions. One of the earliest examples is that
+of the tyrannicides, Harmodius and Aristogiton, a group, a copy of which
+has come down to us (Plate I. fig. 50[2]). Again, people who had not won
+any distinction were in the habit of dedicating to the deities portraits
+of themselves or of a priest or priestess, thus bringing themselves, as
+it were, constantly under the notice of a divine patron. The rows of
+statues before the temples at Miletus, Athens and elsewhere came thus
+into being. But from the point of view of art, by far the most important
+class of portraits consisted of athletes who had won victories at some
+of the great games of Greece, at Olympia, Delphi or elsewhere. Early in
+the 6th century the custom arose of setting up portraits of athletic
+victors in the great sacred places. We have records of numberless such
+statues executed by all the greatest sculptors. When Pausanias visited
+Greece he found them everywhere far too numerous for complete mention.
+
+It is the custom of studying and copying the forms of the finest of the
+young athletes, combined with the Greek habit of complete nudity during
+the sports, which lies at the basis of Greek excellence in sculpture.
+Every sculptor had unlimited opportunities for observing young vigorous
+bodies in every pose and in every variety of strain. The natural sense
+of beauty which was an endowment of the Greek race impelled him to copy
+and preserve what was excellent, and to omit what was ungainly or poor.
+Thus there existed, and in fact there was constantly accumulating, a
+vast series of types of male beauty, and the public taste was cultivated
+to an extreme delicacy. And of course this taste, though it took its
+start from athletic customs, and was mainly nurtured by them, spread to
+all branches of portraiture, so that elderly men, women, and at last
+even children, were represented in art with a mixture of ideality and
+fidelity to nature such as has not been reached by the sculpture of any
+other people.
+
+The statues of the gods began either with stiff and ungainly figures
+roughly cut out of the trunk of a tree, or with the monstrous and
+symbolical representations of Oriental art. In the Greece of late times
+there were still standing rude pillars, with the tops sometimes cut into
+a rough likeness to the human form. And in early decoration of vases and
+vessels one may find Greek deities represented with wings, carrying in
+their hands lions or griffins, bearing on their heads lofty crowns. But
+as Greek art progressed it grew out of this crude symbolism. In the
+language of Brunn, the Greek artists borrowed from Oriental or Mycenaean
+sources the letters used in their works, but with these letters they
+spelled out the ideas of their own nation. What the artists of Babylon
+and Egypt express in the character of the gods by added attribute or
+symbol, swiftness by wings, control of storms by the thunderbolt, traits
+of character by animal heads, the artists of Greece work more and more
+fully into the sculptural type; modifying the human subject by the
+constant addition of something which is above the ordinary level of
+humanity, until we reach the Zeus of Pheidias or the Demeter of Cnidus.
+When the decay of the high ethical art of Greece sets in, the gods
+become more and more warped to the merely human level. They lose their
+dignity, but they never lose their charm.
+
+The decorative sculpture of Greece consists not of single figures, but
+of groups; and in the arrangement of these groups the strict Greek laws
+of symmetry, of rhythm, and of balance, come in. We will take the three
+most usual forms, the pediment, the metope and the frieze, all of which
+belong properly to the temple, but are characteristic of all decoration,
+whether of tomb, trophy or other monument.
+
+The form of the pediment is triangular; the height of the triangle in
+proportion to its length being about 1:8. The conditions of space are
+here strict and dominant; to comply with them requires some ingenuity.
+To a modern sculptor the problem thus presented is almost insoluble; but
+it was allowable in ancient art to represent figures in a single
+composition as of various sizes, in correspondence not to actual
+physical measurement but to importance. As the more important figures
+naturally occupy the midmost place in a pediment, their greater size
+comes in conveniently. And by placing some of the persons of the group
+in a standing, some in a seated, some in a reclining position, it can be
+so contrived that their heads are equidistant from the upper line of the
+pediment.
+
+The statues in a Greek pediment, which are after quite an early period
+usually executed in the round, fall into three, five or seven groups,
+according to the size of the whole. As examples to illustrate this
+exposition we take the two pediments of the temple at Olympia, the most
+complete which have come down to us, which are represented in figs. 33
+and 34. The east pediment represents the preparation for the chariot
+race between Pelops and Oenomaus. The central group consists of five
+figures, Zeus standing between the two pairs of competitors and their
+wives. In the corners recline the two river-gods Alpheus and Cladeus,
+who mark the locality; and the two sides are filled up with the closely
+corresponding groups of the chariots of Oenomaus and Pelops with their
+grooms and attendants. Every figure to the left of Zeus balances a
+corresponding figure on his right, and all the lines of the composition
+slope towards a point above the apex of the pediment.
+
+In the opposite or western pediment is represented the battle between
+Lapiths and Centaurs which broke out at the marriage of Peirithous in
+Thessaly. Here we have no less than nine groups. In the midst is Apollo.
+On each side of him is a group of three, a centaur trying to carry off a
+woman and a Lapith striking at him. Beyond these on each side is a
+struggling pair, next once more a trio of two combatants and a woman,
+and finally in each corner two reclining female figures, the outermost
+apparently nymphs to mark locality. A careful examination of these
+compositions will show the reader more clearly than detailed description
+how clearly in this kind of group Greek artists adhered to the rules of
+rhythm and of balance.
+
+The metopes were the long series of square spaces which ran along the
+outer walls of temples between the upright triglyphs and the cornice.
+Originally they may have been left open and served as windows; but the
+custom came in as early as the 7th century, first of filling them in
+with painted boards or slabs of stone, and next of adorning them with
+sculpture. The metopes of the Treasury of Sicyon at Delphi (Plate IV.
+fig. 66) are as early as the first half of the 6th century. This
+recurrence of a long series of square fields for occupation well suited
+the genius and the habits of the sculptor. As subjects he took the
+successive exploits of some hero such as Heracles or Theseus, or the
+contemporary groups of a battle. His number of figures was limited to
+two or three, and these figures had to be worked into a group or scheme,
+the main features of which were determined by artistic tradition, but
+which could be varied in a hundred ways so as to produce a pleasing and
+in some degree novel result.
+
+With metopes, as regards shape, we may compare the reliefs of Greek
+tombs, which also usually occupy a space roughly square, and which also
+comprise but a few figures arranged in a scheme generally traditional. A
+figure standing giving his hand to one seated, two men standing hand in
+hand, or a single figure in some vigorous pose is sufficient to satisfy
+the simple but severe taste of the Greeks.
+
+In regard to friezes, which are long reliefs containing figures ranged
+between parallel lines, there is more variety of custom. In temples the
+height of the relief from the background varies according to the light
+in which it was to stand, whether direct or diffused. Almost all Greek
+friezes, however, are of great simplicity in arrangement and
+perspective. Locality is at most hinted at by a few stones or trees,
+never actually portrayed. There is seldom more than one line of figures,
+in combat or procession, their heads all equidistant from the top line
+of the frieze. They are often broken up into groups; and when this is
+the case, figure will often balance figure on either side of a central
+point almost as rigidly as in a pediment. An example of this will be
+found in the section of the Mausoleum frieze shown in fig. 70, Plate IV.
+Some of the friezes executed by Greek artists for semi-Greek peoples,
+such as those adorning the tomb at Trysa in Lycia, have two planes, the
+figures in the background being at a higher level.
+
+The rules of balance and symmetry in composition which are followed in
+Greek decorative art are still more to be discerned in the paintings of
+vases, which must serve, in the absence of more dignified compositions,
+to enlighten us as to the methods of Greek painters. Great painters
+would not, of course, be bound by architectonic rule in the same degree
+as the mere workmen who painted vases. Nevertheless we must never forget
+that Greek painting of the earlier ages was of extreme simplicity. It
+did not represent localities, save by some slight hint; it had next to
+no perspective; the colours used were but very few even down to the days
+of Apelles. Most of the great pictures of which we hear consisted of but
+one or two figures; and when several figures were introduced they were
+kept apart and separately treated, though, of course, not without
+relation to one another. Idealism and ethical purpose must have
+predominated in painting as in sculpture and in the drama and in the
+writing of history.
+
+We will take from vases a few simple groups to illustrate the laws of
+Greek drawing; colouring we cannot illustrate.
+
+[Illustration: (_Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Vases_, iii, Pl. vi. 2).
+
+FIG. 1.--Kylix by Epictetus]
+
+The fields offered to the draughtsman on Greek vases naturally follow
+the form of the vase; but they may be set down as approximately round,
+square or oblong. To each of these spaces the artist carefully adapts
+his designs. In fig. 1 we have a characteristic adaptation to circular
+form by the vase painter Epictetus.
+
+In the early period of painting all the space not occupied by the
+figures is filled with patterns or accessories, or even animals which
+have no connexion with the subject (fig. 9). In later and more developed
+art, as in this example, the outlines are so figured as to fill the
+space.
+
+When the space is square we have much the same problem as is presented
+by the metope spaces of a temple. In the case of both square and oblong
+fields the laws of balance are carefully observed. Thus if there is an
+even number of figures in the scheme, two of them will form a sort of
+centre-piece, those on either side balancing one another. If the number
+of figures is uneven, either there will be a group of three in the
+midst, or the midmost figure will be so contrived that he belongs wholly
+to neither side, but is the balance between them. These remarks will be
+made clear by figs. 2 and 3, which repeat the two sides of an amphora,
+one of which bears a design of three figures, the other of four.
+
+[Illustration: From _Wiener Vorlegeblätter_, 1890, Pl. viii., by
+permission of the Director of the _K. K. Österr. Archäol. Institut._
+
+FIG. 2.
+
+FIG. 3.
+
+Vase Drawings.]
+
+The Greek artist not only adhered to the architectonic laws of balance
+and symmetry, but he thought in schemes. Certain group arrangements had
+a recognized signification. There are schemes for warriors fighting on
+equal terms, and schemes which represent the defeat of one of these by
+the other; the vanquished has commonly fallen on his knees, but still
+defends himself. There is a scheme for the leading away of a captive
+woman; the captor leads her by the hand looking back at her, while a
+friend walks behind to ward off pursuit. Such schemes, are constantly
+varied in detail, and often very skilfully varied; but the Greek artist
+uses schemes as a sort of shorthand, to show as clearly as possible what
+he meant. They serve the same purpose as the mask in the acting of a
+play, the first glance at which will tell the spectators what they have
+to look for.
+
+No doubt the great painters of Greece were not so much under the
+dominion of these schemes as the very inferior painters of vases. They
+used the schemes for their own purposes instead of being used by them.
+But as great poets do not revolt against the restrictions of the sonnet
+or of rhyme, so great artists in Greece probably found recognized
+conventions more helpful than hurtful.
+
+Students of Greek sculpture and vases must be warned not to suppose that
+Greek reliefs and drawings can be taken as direct illustrations of Homer
+or the dramatists. Book illustration in the modern sense did not exist
+in Greece. The poet and the painter pursued courses which were parallel,
+but never in actual contact. Each moved by the traditions of his own
+craft. The poet took the accepted tale and enshrined it in a setting of
+feeling and imagination. The painter took the traditional schemes which
+were current, and altered or enlarged them, adding new figures and new
+motives, but not attempting to set aside the general scheme. But
+varieties suitable to poetry were not likely to be suitable in painting.
+Thus it is but seldom that a vase-painter seems to have had in his mind,
+as he drew, passages of the Homeric poems, though these might well be
+familiar to him. And almost never does a vase-painting of the 5th
+century show any sign of the influence of the dramatists, who were
+bringing before the Athenian public on the stage many of the tales and
+incidents popular with the vase-painter. Only on vases of lower Italy of
+the 4th century and later we can occasionally discern something of
+Aeschylean and Euripidean influence in the treatment of a myth; and even
+in a few cases we may discern that the vase-painter has taken
+suggestions direct from the actors in the theatre.
+
+3. _Historic Sketch._--We propose next to trace in brief outline the
+history of Greek art from its rise to its decay. We begin with the rise
+of a national art, after the destruction of the Minoan and Mycenaean
+civilizations of early Greece by the irruption of tribes from the north,
+that is to say, about 800 B.C., and we stop with the Roman age of
+Greece, after which Greek art works in the service of the conquerors
+(see ROMAN ART). The period 800-50 B.C. we divide into four sections:
+(1) the period down to the Persian Wars, 800-480 B.C.; (2) the period of
+the early schools of art, 480-400 B.C.; (3) the period of the later
+great schools, 400-300 B.C.; (4) the period of Hellenistic art, 300-50
+B.C. In dealing with these successive periods we confine our sketch to
+the three greater branches of representative art, architecture,
+sculpture and painting, which in Greece are closely connected. The
+lesser arts, of pottery, gem-engraving, coin-stamping and the like, are
+treated of under the heads of CERAMICS, GEM, NUMISMATICS, &c., while the
+more technical treatment of architectural construction are dealt with
+under ARCHITECTURE and allied architectural articles. Further, for brief
+accounts of the chief artists the reader is referred to biographical
+articles, under such heads as PHEIDIAS, PRAXITELES, APELLES. We treat
+here only of the main course of art in its historic evolution.
+
+
+  Northern invasion.
+
+_Period I. 800-480_ B.C.--The fact is now generally allowed that the
+Mycenaean, or as it is now termed Aegean, civilization was for the most
+part destroyed by an invasion from the north. This invasion appears to
+have been gradual; its racial character is much in dispute.
+Archaeological evidence abundantly proves that it was the conquest of a
+more by a less rich and civilized race. In the graves of the period
+(900-600 B.C.) we find none of the wealthy spoil which has made
+celebrated the tombs of Mycenae and Vaphio (q.v.). The character of the
+pottery and the bronze-work which is found in these later graves reminds
+us of the art of the necropolis of Hallstatt in Austria, and other sites
+belonging to what is called the bronze age of North Europe. Its
+predominant characteristic is the use of geometrical forms, the lozenge,
+the triangle, the maeander, the circle with tangents, in place of the
+elaborate spirals and plant-forms which mark Mycenaean ware. For this
+reason the period from the 9th to the 7th century in Greece passes by
+the name of "the Geometric Age." It is commonly held that in the remains
+of the Geometric Age we may trace the influence of the Dorians, who,
+coming in as a hardy but uncultivated race, probably of purer Aryan
+blood than the previous inhabitants of Greece, not only brought to an
+end the wealth and the luxury which marked the Mycenaean age, but also
+replaced an art which was in character essentially southern by one which
+belonged rather to the north and the west. The great difficulty inherent
+in this view, a difficulty which has yet to be met, lies in the fact
+that some of the most abundant and characteristic remains of the
+geometric age which we possess come, not from Peloponnesus, but from
+Athens and Boeotia, which were never conquered by the Dorians.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Geometric Vase from Rhodes. (Ashmolean Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: _Mon. d. Inst._ ix. 39.
+
+FIG. 5.--Corpse with Mourners.]
+
+
+  Geometric ware.
+
+The geometric ware is for the most part adorned with painted patterns
+only. Fig. 4 is a characteristic example, a small two-handled vase from
+Rhodes in the Ashmolean Museum, the adornment of which consists in
+zigzags, circles with tangents, and lines of water birds, perhaps swans.
+Sometimes, however, especially in the case of large vases from the
+cemetery at Athens, which adjoins the Dipylon gate, scenes from Greek
+life are depicted, from daily life, not from legend or divine myth.
+Especially scenes from the lying-in-state and the burial of the dead are
+prevalent. An excerpt from a Dipylon vase (fig. 5) shows a dead man on
+his couch surrounded by mourners, male and female. Both sexes are
+apparently represented naked, and are distinguished very simply; some of
+them hold branches to sprinkle the corpse or to keep away flies. It will
+be seen how primitive and conventional is the drawing of this age,
+presenting a wonderful contrast to the free drawing and modelling of the
+Mycenaean age. In the same graves with the pottery are sometimes found
+plaques of gold or bronze, and towards the end of the geometric age
+these sometimes bear scenes from mythology, treated with the greatest
+simplicity. For example, in the museum of Berlin are the contents of a
+tomb found at Corinth, consisting mainly of gold work of geometric
+decoration. But in the same tomb were also found gold plates or plaques
+of repoussé work bearing subjects from Greek legend. Two of these are
+shown in fig. 6. On one Theseus is slaying the Minotaur, while Ariadne
+stands by and encourages the hero. The tale could not have been told in
+a simpler or more straightforward way. On the other we have an armed
+warrior with his charioteer in a chariot drawn by two horses. The
+treatment of the human body is here more advanced than on the vases of
+the Dipylon. On the site of Olympia, where Mycenaean remains are not
+found, but the earliest monuments show the geometric style, a quantity
+of dedications in bronze have been found, the decoration of which
+belongs to this style. Fig. 7 shows the handle of a tripod from Olympia,
+which is adorned with geometric patterns and surmounted by the figure of
+a horse.
+
+[Illustration: _Arch. Zeit._ 1884, 8.
+
+FIG. 6.--Gold Plaques: Corinth.]
+
+[Illustration: _Olympia_ iv. 33.
+
+FIG. 7.--Handle of Tripod.]
+
+It was about the 6th century that the genius of the Greeks, almost
+suddenly, as it seems to us, emancipated itself from the thraldom of
+tradition, and passed beyond the limits with which the nations of the
+east and west had hitherto been content, in a free and bold effort
+towards the ideal. Thus the 6th century marks the stage in art in which
+it may be said to have become definitely Hellenic. The Greeks still
+borrowed many of their decorative forms, either from the prehistoric
+remains in their own country or, through Phoenician agency, from the
+old-world empires of Egypt and Babylon, but they used those forms freely
+to express their own meaning. And gradually, in the course of the
+century, we see both in the painting of vases and in sculpture a
+national spirit and a national style forming under the influence of
+Greek religion and mythology, Greek athletic training, Greek worship of
+beauty. We must here lay emphasis on the fact, which is sometimes
+overlooked in an age which is greatly given to the Darwinian search
+after origins, that it is one thing to trace back to its original
+sources the nascent art of Greece, and quite another thing to follow and
+to understand its gradual embodiment of Hellenic ideas and civilization.
+The immense success with which the veil has in late years been lifted
+from the prehistoric age of Greece, and the clearness with which we can
+discern the various strands woven into the web of Greek art, have tended
+to fix our attention rather on what Greece possessed in common with all
+other peoples at the same early stage of civilization than on what
+Greece added for herself to this common stock. In many respects the art
+of Greece is incomparable--one of the great inspirations which have
+redeemed the world from mediocrity and vulgarity. And it is the
+searching out and appreciation of this unique and ideal beauty in all
+its phases, in idea and composition and execution, which is the true
+task of Greek archaeological science.
+
+[Illustration: _Mus. Napoléon_, 57.
+
+FIG. 8.--Jug from Rhodes.]
+
+
+  Ionian vases.
+
+In very recent years it has been possible, for the first time, to trace
+the influence of Ionian painting, as represented by vases, on the rise
+of art. The discoveries at Naucratis and Daphnae in Egypt, due to the
+keenness and pertinacity of W. M. Flinders Petrie, threw new light on
+this matter. It became evident that when those cities were first
+inhabited by Ionian Greeks, in the 7th century, they used pottery of
+several distinct but allied styles, the most notable feature of which
+was the use of the lotus in decoration, the presence of continuous
+friezes of animals and of monsters, and the filling up of the background
+with rosettes, lozenges and other forms. Fig. 8 shows a vase found in
+Rhodes which illustrates this Ionian decoration. The sphinx, the deer
+and the swan are prominent on it, the last-named serving as a link
+between the geometric ware and the more brilliant and varied ware of the
+Ionian cities. The assignment of the many species of early Ionic ware to
+various Greek localities, Miletus, Samos, Phocaea and other cities, is a
+work of great difficulty, which now closely occupies the attention of
+archaeologists. For the results of their studies the reader is referred
+to two recent German works, Böhlau's _Aus ionischen und italischen
+Nekropolen_, and Endt's _Beiträge zur ionischen Vasenmalerei_. The
+feature which is most interesting in this pottery from our present point
+of view is the way in which representations of Greek myth and legend
+gradually make their way, and relegate the mere decoration of the vases
+to borders and neck. One of the earliest examples of representation of a
+really Greek subject is the contest of Menelaus and Euphorbus on a plate
+found in Rhodes. On the vases of Melos, of the 7th century, which are,
+however, not Ionian, but rather Dorian in character, we have a certain
+number of mythological scenes, battles of Homeric heroes and the like.
+One of these is shown in fig. 9. It represents Apollo in a chariot drawn
+by winged horses, playing on the lyre, and accompanied by a pair of
+Muses, meeting his sister Artemis. It is notable that Apollo is bearded,
+and that Artemis holds her stag by the horns, much in the manner of the
+deities on Babylonian cylinders; in the other hand she carries an arrow;
+above is a line of water birds.
+
+[Illustration: Conze. _Mel. Tongefässe_, 4.
+
+FIG. 9.--Vase Painting: Melos.]
+
+Some sites in Asia Minor and the islands adjoining, such cities as
+Samos, Camirus in Rhodes, and the Ionian colonies on the Black Sea, have
+furnished us with a mass of ware of the Ionian class, but it seldom
+bears interesting subjects; it is essentially decorative. For Ionian
+ware which has closer relation to Greek mythology and history we must
+turn elsewhere. The cemeteries of the great Etruscan cities, Caere in
+particular, have preserved for us a large number of vases, which are now
+generally recognized as Ionian in design and drawing, though they may in
+some cases be only Italian imitations of Ionian imported ware. Thus has
+been filled up what was a blank page in the history of early Greek art.
+The Ionian painting is unrestrained in character, characterized by a
+licence not foreign to the nature of the race, and wants the
+self-control and moderation which belong to Doric art, and to Attic art
+after the first.
+
+Some of the most interesting examples of early Ionic painting are found
+on the sarcophagi of Clazomenae. In that city in archaic times an
+exceptional custom prevailed of burying the dead in great coffins of
+terra-cotta adorned with painted scenes from chariot-racing, war and the
+chase. The British Museum possesses some remarkable specimens, which are
+published in A. S. Murray's _Terra-Cotta Sarcophagi of the British
+Museum_. On one of them he sees depicted a battle between Cimmerian
+invaders and Greeks, the former accompanied to the field by their great
+war-dogs. In some of the representations of hunting on these sarcophagi
+the hunters ride in chariots, a way of hunting quite foreign to the
+Greeks, but familiar to us from Assyrian wall-sculptures. We know that
+the life of the Ionians before the Persian conquest was refined and not
+untinged with luxury, and they borrowed many of the stately ways of the
+satraps of the kings of Assyria and Persia.
+
+[Illustration: Furtwängler, _Goldfund v. Vettersfelde_.
+
+FIG. 10.--Fish of gold.]
+
+Fig. 10 shows a curious product of the Ionian workshops, a fish of solid
+gold, adorned with reliefs which represent a flying eagle, lions pulling
+down their prey, and a monstrous sea-god among his fishes. This relic is
+the more valuable on account of the spot where it was found--Vettersfelde
+in Brandenburg. It furnishes a proof that the influence and perhaps the
+commerce of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea spread far to the north
+through the countries of the Scythians and other barbarians. The fish
+dates from the 6th century B.C.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.
+
+  _Photo, Giraudon._
+  FIG. 61.--WINGED VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE. (LOUVRE.)
+
+  _Photo, Giraudon._
+  FIG. 62.--WINGED VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE. (LOUVRE.)
+
+  FIG. 63. HEAD OF WARRIOR, RESTORED, FROM TEGEA.
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 64.--MARSYAS OF MYRON. (LATERAN MUS.)
+
+  _Photo, Mansell._
+  FIG. 65.--EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON; LEFT AND RIGHT ENDS. (BRIT.
+  MUS.)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.
+
+  FIG. 66.--METOPE OF THE TREASURY OF SICYON AT DELPHI.
+  (From _Fouilles de Delphes_, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)
+
+  FIG. 67.--GREEK PAINTING OF WOMAN'S HEAD.
+  (From _Comptes Rendus_ of St. Petersburg, 1865. Pl. I.)
+
+  _Photo, F. Bruckmann._
+  FIG. 68.--DISCOBOLUS OF MYRON, RESTORED BY PROF. FURTWÄNGLER.
+
+  _Photo, Giraudon._
+  FIG. 69.--FIGHTER OF AGASIAS. (LOUVRE.)
+
+  _Photo, Mansell._
+  FIG. 70.--PORTION OF FRIEZE OF MAUSOLEUM. (BRIT. MUS.)]
+
+[Illustration: Brit. Mus.
+
+FIG. 11.--Gold Ornaments from Camirus.]
+
+We may compare some of the gold ornaments from Camirus in Rhodes, which
+show an Ionian tendency, perhaps combined with Phoenician elements. On
+one of them (fig. 11) we see a centaur with human forelegs holding up a
+fawn, on the other the oriental goddess whom the Greeks identified with
+their Artemis, winged, and flanked by lions. This form was given to
+Artemis on the Corinthian chest of Cypselus, a work of art preserved at
+Olympia, and carefully described for us by Pausanias.
+
+[Illustration: _Mon. d. Inst._ i. 51.
+
+FIG. 12.--Fight over the Body of Achilles.]
+
+From Ionia the style of vase-painting which has been called by various
+names, but may best be termed the "orientalizing," spread to Greece
+proper. Its main home here was in Corinth; and small Corinthian
+unguent-vases bearing figures of swans, lions, monsters and human
+beings, the intervals between which are filled by rosettes, are found
+wherever Corinthian trade penetrated, notably in the cemeteries of
+Sicily. For the larger Corinthian vases, which bore more elaborate
+scenes from mythology, we must again turn to the graves of the cities of
+Etruria. Here, besides the Ionian ware, of which mention has already
+been made, we find pottery of three Greek cities clearly defined, that
+of Corinth, that of Chalcis in Euboea, and that of Athens. Corinthian
+and Chalcidian ware is most readily distinguished by means of the
+alphabets used in the inscriptions which have distinctive forms easily
+to be identified. Whether in the style of the paintings coming from the
+various cities any distinct differences may be traced is a far more
+difficult question, into which we cannot now enter. The subjects are
+mostly from heroic legend, and are treated with great simplicity and
+directness. There is a manly vigour about them which distinguishes them
+at a glance from the laxer works of Ionian style. Fig. 12 shows a group
+from a Chalcidian vase, which represents the conflict over the dead body
+of Achilles. The corpse of the hero lies in the midst, the arrow in his
+heel. The Trojan Glaucus tries to draw away the body by means of a rope
+tied round the ankle, but in doing so is transfixed by the spear of
+Ajax, who charges under the protection of the goddess Athena. Paris on
+the Trojan side shoots an arrow at Ajax.
+
+In fig. 13, from a Corinthian vase, Ajax falls on his sword in the
+presence of his colleagues, Odysseus and Diomedes. The short stature of
+Odysseus is a well-known Homeric feature. These vases are black-figured;
+the heroes are painted in silhouette on the red ground of the vases.
+Their names are appended in archaic Greek letters.
+
+[Illustration: _Mus. Napoléon_, 66.
+
+FIG. 13.--Suicide of Ajax.]
+
+[Illustration: _Arch. Zeit._ 1882, 9.
+
+FIG. 14. Harpies: Attic Vase.]
+
+
+  Athens.
+
+The early history of vase-painting at Athens is complicated. It was only
+by degrees that the geometric style gave way to, or developed into, what
+is known as the black-figured style. It would seem that until the age of
+Peisistratus Athens was not notable in the world of art, and nothing
+could be ruder than some of the vases of Athens in the 7th century, for
+example that here figured, on one side of which are represented the
+winged Harpies (fig. 14) and on the other Perseus accompanied by Athena
+flying from the pursuit of the Gorgons. This vase retains in its
+decoration some features of geometric style; but the lotus and rosette,
+the lion and sphinx which appear on it, belong to the wave of Ionian
+influence. Although it involves a departure from strict chronological
+order, it will be well here to follow the course of development in
+pottery at Athens until the end of our period. Neighbouring cities, and
+especially Corinth, seem to have exercised a strong influence at Athens
+about the 7th century. We have even a class of vases called by
+archaeologists Corintho-Attic. But in the course of the 6th century
+there is formed at Athens a distinct and marked black-figured style. The
+most-remarkable example of this ware is the so-called François vase at
+Munich, by Clitias and Ergotimus, which contains, in most careful and
+precise rendering, a number of scenes from Greek myth. One of these
+vases is dated, since it bears the name and the figure of Callias in his
+chariot (_Mon. dell' Inst._ iii. 45), and this Callias won a victory at
+Olympia in 564 B.C. Fig. 15 shows the reverse of a somewhat later
+black-figured vase of the Panathenaic class, given at Athens as a prize
+to the winner of a foot-race at the Panathenaea, with the foot-race
+(_stadion_) represented on it. A large number of Athenian vases of the
+6th century have reached us, which bear the signatures of the potters
+who made, or the artists who painted them; lists of these will be found
+in the useful work of Klein, _Griechische Vasen mit Meistersignaturen_.
+The recent excavations on the Acropolis have proved the erroneousness
+of the view, strongly maintained by Brunn, that the mass of the
+black-figured vases were of a late and imitative fabric. We now know
+that, with a few exceptions, vases of this class are not later than the
+early part of the 5th century. The same excavations have also proved
+that red-figured vase-painting, that is, vase-painting in which the
+background was blocked out with black, and the figures left in the
+natural colour of the vase originated at Athens in the last quarter of
+the 6th century. We cannot here give a detailed account of the beautiful
+series of Athenian vases of this fabric. Many of the finest of them are
+in the British Museum. As an example, fig. 16 presents a group by the
+painter Pamphaeus, representing Heracles wrestling with the
+river-monster Achelous, which belongs to the age of the Persian Wars.
+The clear precision of the figures, the vigour of the grouping, the
+correctness of the anatomy and the delicacy of the lines are all marks
+of distinction. The student of art will perhaps find the nearest
+parallel to these vase-pictures in Japanese drawings. The Japanese
+artists are very inferior to the Greek in their love and understanding
+of the human body, but equal them in freshness and vigour of design. At
+the same time began the beautiful series of white vases made at Athens
+for the purpose of burial with the dead, and found in great quantities
+in the cemeteries of Athens, of Eretria, of Gela in Sicily, and of some
+other cities. They are well represented in the British Museum and that
+of Oxford.
+
+[Illustration: _Mon. d. Inst._ x. 48 m.
+
+FIG. 15.--Foot-race: Panathenaic Vase.]
+
+[Illustration: _Wiener Vorlegeblätter_, D. 6.
+
+FIG. 16.--Heracles and Achelous.]
+
+
+  Delphi.
+
+We now return to the early years of the 6th century, and proceed to
+trace, by the aid of recent discoveries, the rise of architecture and
+sculpture. The Greek temple in its character and form gives the clue to
+the whole character of Greek art. It is the abode of the deity, who is
+represented by his sacred image; and the flat surfaces of the temple
+offer a great field to the sculptor for the depicting of sacred legend.
+The process of discovery has emphasized the line which divides Ionian
+from Dorian architecture and art. We will speak first of the temples and
+the sculpture of Ionia. The Ionians were a people far more susceptible
+than were the Dorians to oriental influences. The dress, the art, the
+luxury of western Asia attracted them with irresistible force. We may
+suspect, as Brunn has suggested, that Ionian artists worked in the great
+Assyrian and Persian palaces, and that the reliefs which adorn the walls
+of those palaces were in part their handiwork. Some of the great temples
+of Ionia have been excavated in recent years, notably those of Apollo at
+Miletus, of Hera at Samos, and of Artemis at Ephesus. Very little,
+however, of the architecture of the 6th-century temples of those sites
+has been recovered. Quite recently, however, the French excavators at
+Delphi have successfully restored the treasury of the people of Cnidus,
+which is quite a gem of Ionic style, the entablature being supported in
+front not by pillars but by two maidens or Corae, and a frieze running
+all round the building above. But though this building is of Ionic type,
+it is scarcely in the technical sense of Ionic style, since the columns
+have not Ionic capitals, but are carved with curious reliefs. The Ionic
+capital proper is developed in Asia by degrees (see ARCHITECTURE and
+CAPITAL; also Perrot and Chipiez, _Hist. de l'art_, vii. ch. 4).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Restoration of the Treasury of Cnidus.]
+
+The Doric temple is not wholly of European origin. One of the earliest
+examples is the old temple of Assus in Troas. Yet it was developed
+mainly in Hellas and the west. The most ancient example is the Heraeum
+at Olympia, next to which come the fragmentary temples of Corinth and of
+Selinus in Sicily. With the early Doric temple we are familiar from
+examples which have survived in fair preservation to our own days at
+Agrigentum in Sicily, Paestum in Italy, and other sites.
+
+Of the decorative sculpture which adorned these early temples we have
+more extensive remains than we have of actual construction. It will be
+best to speak of them under their districts. On the coast of Asia Minor,
+the most extensive series of archaic decorative sculptures which has
+come down to us is that which adorned the temple of Assus (fig. 18).
+These were placed in a unique position on the temple, a long frieze
+running along the entablature, with representations of wild animals, of
+centaurs, of Hercules seizing Achelous, and of men feasting, scene
+succeeding scene without much order or method. The only figures from
+Miletus which can be considered as belonging to the original temple
+destroyed by Darius, are the dedicated seated statues, some of which,
+brought away by Sir Charles Newton, are now preserved at the British
+Museum. At Ephesus Mr Wood has been more successful, and has recovered
+considerable fragments of the temple of Artemis, to which, as Herodotus
+tells us, Croesus presented many columns. The lower part of one of these
+columns, bearing figures in relief of early Ionian style, has been put
+together at the British Museum; and remains of inscriptions recording
+the presentation by Croesus are still to be traced. Reliefs from a
+cornice of somewhat later date are also to be found at the British
+Museum. Among the Aegean Islands, Delos has furnished us with the most
+important remains of early art. French excavators have there found a
+very early statue of a woman dedicated by one Nicandra to Artemis, a
+figure which may be instructively compared with another from Samus,
+dedicated to Hera by Cheramues. The Delian statue is in shape like a
+flat beam; the Samian, which is headless, is like a round tree. The arms
+of the Delian figure are rigid to the sides; the Samian lady has one arm
+clasped to her breast. A great improvement on these helpless and
+inexpressive figures is marked by another figure found at Delos, and
+connected, though perhaps incorrectly, with a basis recording the
+execution of a statue by Archermus and Micciades, two sculptors who
+stood, in the middle of the 6th century, at the head of a sculptural
+school at Chios. The representation (fig. 19) is of a running or flying
+figure, having six wings, like the seraphim in the vision of Isaiah, and
+clad in long drapery. It may be a statue of Nike or Victory, who is said
+to have been represented in winged form by Archermus. The figure, with
+its neatness and precision of work, its expressive face and strong
+outlines, certainly marks great progress in the art of sculpture. When
+we examine the early sculpture of Athens, we find reason to think that
+the Chian school had great influence in that city in the days of
+Peisistratus.
+
+[Illustration: From Perrot and Chipiez, vii. pl. 35, by permission of
+Chapman and Hall, Ltd., and Hachette & Co.
+
+FIG. 18.--Restoration of the Temple at Assus.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Nike of Delos, restored.]
+
+[Illustration: _Athen. Mitteil._ x. 237.
+
+FIG. 20.--Athenian Pediment: Heracles and Hydra.]
+
+[Illustration: _Athen. Mitteil._ xxii. 3.
+
+FIG. 21.--Pediment: Athena and Giant.]
+
+
+  Athenian sculpture.
+
+At Athens, in the age 650-480, we may trace two quite distinct periods
+of architecture and sculpture. In the earlier of the two periods, a
+rough limestone was used alike for the walls and the sculptural
+decoration of temples; in the later period it was superseded by marble,
+whether native or imported. Every visitor to the museum of the Athenian
+acropolis stands astonished at the recently recovered groups which
+decorated the pediments of Athenian temples before the age of
+Peisistratus--groups of large size, rudely cut in soft stone, of
+primitive workmanship, and painted with bright red, blue and green, in a
+fashion which makes no attempt to follow nature, but only to produce a
+vivid result. The two largest in scale of these groups seem to have
+belonged to the pediments of the early 6th-century temple of Athena. On
+other smaller pediments, perhaps belonging to shrines of Heracles and
+Dionysus, we have conflicts of Heracles with Triton or with other
+monstrous foes. It is notable how fond the Athenian artists of this
+early time are of exaggerated muscles and of monstrous forms, which
+combine the limbs of men and of animals; the measure and moderation
+which mark developed Greek art are as completely absent as are skill in
+execution or power of grouping. Fig. 20 shows a small pediment in which
+appears in relief the slaying of the Lernaean hydra by Heracles. The
+hero strikes at the many-headed water-snake, somewhat inappropriately,
+with his club. Iolaus, his usual companion, holds the reins of the
+chariot which awaits Heracles after his victory. On the extreme left a
+huge crab comes to the aid of the hydra.
+
+There can be little doubt that Athens owed its great start in art to the
+influence of the court of Peisistratus, at which artists of all kinds
+were welcome. We can trace a gradual transformation in sculpture, in
+which the influence of the Chian and other progressive schools of
+sculpture is visible, not only in the substitution of island marble for
+native stone, but in increased grace and truth to nature, in the toning
+down of glaring colour, and the appearance of taste in composition. A
+transition between the older and the newer is furnished by the
+well-known statue of the calf-bearer, an Athenian preparing to sacrifice
+a calf to the deities, which is made of marble of Hymettus, and in
+robust clumsiness of forms is not far removed from the limestone
+pediments. The sacrificer has been commonly spoken of as Hermes or
+Theseus, but he seems rather to be an ordinary human votary.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Figure by Antenor, restored.]
+
+In the time of Peisistratus or his sons a peristyle of columns was added
+to the old temple of Athena; and this necessitated the preparation of
+fresh pediments. These were of marble. In one of them was represented
+the battle between gods and giants; in the midst Athena herself striking
+at a prostrate foe (fig. 21). In these figures no eye can fail to trace
+remarkable progress. On about the same level of art are the charming
+statues dedicated to Athena, which were set up in the latter half of the
+6th century in the Acropolis, whose graceful though conventional forms
+and delicate colouring make them one of the great attractions of the
+Acropolis Museum. We show a figure (fig. 22) which, if it be rightly
+connected with the basis on which it stands, is the work of the sculptor
+Antenor, who was also author of a celebrated group representing the
+tyrant-slayers, Harmodius and Aristogiton. To the same age belong many
+other votive reliefs of the Acropolis, representing horsemen, scribes
+and other votaries of Athena.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Bust from Crete.]
+
+
+  Dorian sculpture.
+
+From Athens we pass to the seats of Dorian art. And in doing so we find
+a complete change of character. In place of Dorian draped goddesses and
+female figures, we find nude male forms. In place of Ionian softness and
+elegance, we find hard, rigid outlines, strong muscular development, a
+greater love of and faithfulness to the actual human form--the influence
+of the palaestra rather than of the harem. To the known series of
+archaic male figures, recent years have added many examples. We may
+especially mention a series of figures from the temple of Apollo Ptoos
+in Boeotia, probably representing the god himself. Still more noteworthy
+are two colossal nude figures of Apollo, remarkable both for force and
+for rudeness, found at Delphi, the inscriptions of which prove them to
+be the work of an Argive sculptor. (Plate V. fig. 76.) From Crete we
+have acquired the upper part of a draped figure (fig. 23), whether male
+or female is not certain, which should be an example of the early
+Daedalid school, whence the art of Peloponnesus was derived; but we can
+scarcely venture to treat it as a characteristic product of that school;
+rather the likeness to the dedication of Nicandra is striking.
+
+Another remarkable piece of Athenian sculpture, of the time of the
+Persian Wars, is the group of the tyrannicides Harmodius and
+Aristogiton, set up by the people of Athens, and made by the sculptors
+Critius and Nesiotes. These figures were hard and rigid in outline, but
+showing some progress in the treatment of the nude. Copies are preserved
+in the museum of Naples (Plate I. fig. 50). It should be observed that
+one of the heads does not belong.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Head of Hera: Olympia.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Spartan Tombstone: Berlin.]
+
+
+  Olympia, Sparta, Selinus.
+
+Next in importance to Athens, as a find-spot for works of early Greek
+art, ranks Olympia. Olympia, however, did not suffer like Athens from
+sudden violence, and the explorations there have brought to light a
+continuous series of remains, beginning with the bronze tripods of the
+geometric age already mentioned and ending at the barbarian invasions of
+the 4th century A.D. Notable among the 6th-century stone-sculpture of
+Olympia are the pediment of the treasury of the people of Megara, in
+which is represented a battle of gods and giants, and a huge rude head
+of Hera (fig. 24), which seems to be part of the image worshipped in the
+Heraeum. Its flatness and want of style are noteworthy. Among the
+temples of Greece proper the Heraeum of Olympia stands almost alone for
+antiquity and interest, its chief rival, besides the temples of Athens,
+being the other temple of Hera at Argos. It appears to have been
+originally constructed of wood, for which stone was by slow degrees,
+part by part, substituted. In the time of Pausanias one of the pillars
+was still of oak, and at the present day the varying diameter of the
+columns and other structural irregularities bear witness to the process
+of constant renewal which must have taken place. The early small bronzes
+of Olympia form an important series, figures of deities standing or
+striding, warriors in their armour, athletes with exaggerated muscles,
+and women draped in the Ionian fashion, which did not become unpopular
+in Greece until after the Persian Wars. Excavations at Sparta have
+revealed interesting monuments belonging to the worship of ancestors,
+which seems in the conservative Dorian states of Greece to have been
+more strongly developed than elsewhere. On some of these stones, which
+doubtless belonged to the family cults of Sparta, we see the ancestor
+seated holding a wine-cup, accompanied by his faithful horse or dog; on
+some we see the ancestor and ancestress seated side by side (fig. 25),
+ready to receive the gifts of their descendants, who appear in the
+corner of the relief on a much smaller scale. The male figure holds a
+wine-cup, in allusion to the libations of wine made at the tomb. The
+female figure holds her veil and the pomegranate, the recognized food of
+the dead. A huge serpent stands erect behind the pair. The style of
+these sculptures is as striking as the subjects; we see lean, rigid
+forms with severe outline carved in a very low relief, the surface of
+which is not rounded but flat. The name of Selinus in Sicily, an early
+Megarian colony, has long been associated with some of the most curious
+of early sculptures, the metopes of ancient temples, representing the
+exploits of Heracles and of Perseus. Even more archaic metopes have in
+recent years been brought to light, one representing a seated sphinx,
+one the journey of Europa over the sea on the back of the amorous bull
+(fig. 26), a pair of dolphins swimming beside her. In simplicity and in
+rudeness of work these reliefs remind us of the limestone pediments of
+Athens (fig. 20), but yet they are of another and a severer style; the
+Ionian laxity is wanting.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE V.
+
+  _From a Cast._
+  FIG. 71.--APHRODITE OF CNIDUS. (VATICAN.)
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 72.--BRONZE BOXER OF TERME. (ROME.)
+
+  FIG. 73.--BRONZE OF CERIGOTTO. (ATHENS.)
+  Found in the sea near Cythera.
+
+  FIG. 74.--AGIAS AT DELPHI.
+  (From _Fouilles de Delphes_, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)
+
+  FIG. 75.--CORA (KORÉ) OF ERECHTHEUM. (ATHENS.)
+
+  FIG. 76.--APOLLO AT DELPHI.
+  (From _Fouilles de Delphes_, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.
+
+  _Photo, Giraudon._
+  FIG. 77.--APHRODITE PF MELOS. (LOUVRE.)
+
+  _Photo, Alinari._
+  FIG. 78.--NIOBE AND HER YOUNGEST DAUGHTER. (FLORENCE.)
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 79.--APOXYOMENUS. (VATICAN.)
+
+  _Photo, Brogi._
+  FIG. 80.--DORYPHORUS OF POLYCLITUS. (NAT. MUS., NAPLES.)
+
+  _Photo, Alinari._
+  FIG. 81.--ANTIOCH SEATED ON A ROCK. (VATICAN.)
+
+  _Photo, English Photographic Co._
+  FIG. 82.--HERMES OF TELES. (OLYMPIA.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Metope: Europa on Bull: Palermo.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Restoration of West Pediment, Aegina.]
+
+
+  Delphi.
+
+The recent French excavations at Delphi add a new and important chapter
+to the history of 6th-century art. Of three treasure-houses, those of
+Sicyon, Cnidus and Athens, the sculptural adornments have been in great
+part recovered. These sculptures form a series almost covering the
+century 570-470 B.C., and include representations of some myths of which
+we have hitherto had no example. We may say here a few words as to the
+sculpture which has been discovered, leaving to the article DELPHI an
+account of the topography and the buildings of the sacred site. Of the
+archaic temple of Apollo, built as Herodotus tells us by the
+Alcmaeonidae of Athens, the only sculptural remains which have come down
+to us are some fragments of the pedimental figures. Of the treasuries
+which contained the offerings of the pious at Delphi, the most archaic
+of which there are remains is that belonging to the people of Sicyon. To
+it appertain a set of exceedingly primitive metopes. One represents Idas
+and Dioscuri driving off cattle (Plate IV. fig. 66); another, the ship
+Argo; another, Europa on the bull, others merely animals, a ram or a
+boar. The treasury of the people of Cnidus (or perhaps Siphnos) is in
+style some half a century later (see fig. 17). To it belongs a long
+frieze representing a variety of curious subjects: a battle, perhaps
+between Greeks and Trojans, with gods and goddesses looking on; a
+gigantomachy in which the figures of Poseidon, Athena, Hera, Apollo,
+Artemis and Cybele can be made out, with their opponents, who are armed
+like Greek hoplites; Athena and Heracles in a chariot; the carrying off
+of the daughters of Leucippus by Castor and Pollux; Aeolus holding the
+winds in sacks. The Treasury of the Athenians, erected at the time of
+the Persian Wars, was adorned with metopes of singularly clear-cut and
+beautiful style, but very fragmentary, representing the deeds of
+Heracles and Theseus.
+
+
+  Aegina.
+
+We have yet to speak of the most interesting and important of all Greek
+archaic sculptures, the pediments of the temple at Aegina (q.v.). These
+groups of nude athletes fighting over the corpses of their comrades are
+preserved at Munich, and are familiar to artists and students. But the
+very fruitful excavations of Professor Furtwängler have put them in
+quite a new light. Furtwängler (_Aegina: Heiligtum der Aphaia_) has
+entirely rearranged these pediments, in a way which removes the extreme
+simplicity and rigour of the composition, and introduces far greater
+variety of attitudes and motive. We repeat here these new arrangements
+(figs. 27 and 28), the reasons for which must be sought in Furtwängler's
+great publication. The individual figures are not much altered, as the
+restorations of Thorwaldsen, even when incorrect, have now a
+prescriptive right of which it is not easy to deprive them. Besides the
+pediments of Aegina must be set the remains of the pediments of the
+temple of Apollo at Eretria in Euboea, the chief group of which (Plate
+II. fig. 58), Theseus carrying off an Amazon, is one of the most finely
+executed works of early Greek art.
+
+_Period II. 480-400 B.C._--The most marvellous phenomenon in the whole
+history of art is the rapid progress made by Greece in painting and
+sculpture during the 5th century B.C. As in literature the 5th century
+takes us from the rude peasant plays of Thespis to the drama of
+Sophocles and Euripides; as in philosophy it takes us from Pythagoras to
+Socrates; so in sculpture it covers the space from the primitive works
+made for the Peisistratidae to some of the most perfect productions of
+the chisel.
+
+
+  Architecture.
+
+In architecture the 5th century is ennobled by the Theseum, the
+Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the temples of Zeus at Olympia, of Apollo
+at Phigalia, and many other central shrines, as well as by the Hall of
+the Mystae at Eleusis and the Propylaea of the Acropolis. Some of the
+most important of the Greek temples of Italy and Sicily, such as those
+of Segesta and Selinus, date from the same age. It is, however, only of
+their sculptural decorations, carried out by the greatest masters in
+Greece, that we need here treat in any detail.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Restoration of East Pediment, Aegina.]
+
+
+  Painting.
+
+It is the rule in the history of art that innovations and technical
+progress are shown earlier in the case of painting than in that of
+sculpture, a fact easily explained by the greater ease and rapidity of
+the brush compared with the chisel. That this was the order of
+development in Greek art cannot be doubted. But our means for judging of
+the painting of the 5th century are very slight. The noble paintings of
+such masters as Polygnotus, Micon and Panaenus, which once adorned the
+walls of the great porticoes of Athens and Delphi, have disappeared.
+There remain only the designs drawn rather than painted on the beautiful
+vases of the age, which in some degree help us to realize, not the
+colouring or the charm of contemporary paintings, but the principle of
+their composition and the accuracy of their drawing.
+
+Polygnotus of Thasos was regarded by his compatriots as a great ethical
+painter. His colouring and composition were alike very simple, his
+figures quiet and statuesque, his drawing careful and precise. He won
+his fame largely by incorporating in his works the best current ideas as
+to mythology, religion and morals. In particular his painting of Hades
+with its rewards and punishments, which was on the walls of the building
+of the people of Cnidus at Delphi, might be considered as a great
+religious work, parallel to the paintings of the Campo Santo at Pisa or
+to the painted windows of such churches as that at Fairford. But he also
+introduced improvements in perspective and greater freedom in grouping.
+
+[Illustration: _From monumenti dell' Instituto di Correspondenza
+archeologica_, xi. 40.
+
+FIG. 29.--Vase of Orvieto. (The Children of Niobe.)]
+
+It is fortunate for us that the Greek traveller Pausanias has left us
+very careful and detailed descriptions of some of the most important of
+the frescoes of Polygnotus, notably of the Taking of Troy and the Visit
+to Hades, which were at Delphi. A comparison of these descriptions with
+vase paintings of the middle of the 5th century has enabled us to
+discern with great probability the principles of Polygnotan drawing and
+perspective. Professor Robert has even ventured to restore the paintings
+on the evidence of vases. We here represent one of the scenes depicted
+on a vase found at Orvieto (fig. 29), which is certainly Polygnotan in
+character. It represents the slaying of the children of Niobe by Apollo
+and Artemis. Here we may observe a remarkable perspective. The different
+heights of the rocky background are represented by lines traversing the
+picture on which the figures stand; but the more distant figures are no
+smaller than the nearer. The forests of Mount Sipylus are represented by
+a single conventional tree. The figures are beautifully drawn, and full
+of charm; but there is a want of energy in the action.
+
+[Illustration: _Arch. Zeit._ 1878, pl. 22.
+
+FIG. 30.--Vase Drawing.]
+
+There can be little doubt that the school of Polygnotus exercised great
+influence on contemporary sculpture. Panaenus, brother of Pheidias,
+worked with Polygnotus, and many of the groupings found in the
+sculptures of the Parthenon remind us of those usual with the Thasian
+master. At this simple and early stage of art there was no essential
+difference between fresco-painting and coloured relief, light and shade
+and aerial perspective being unknown. We reproduce two vase-paintings,
+one (fig. 30) a group of man and horse which closely resembles figures
+in the Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon (fig. 31); the other (fig.
+32) representing Victory pouring water for a sacrificial ox to drink,
+which reminds us of the balustrade of the shrine of Wingless Victory at
+Athens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Part of Frieze of the Parthenon.]
+
+Most writers on Greek painting have supposed that after the middle of
+the 5th century the technique of painting rapidly improved. This may
+well have been the case; but we have little means of testing the
+question. Such improvements would soon raise such a barrier between
+fresco-painting and vase-painting,--which by its very nature must be
+simple and architectonic,--that vases can no longer be used with
+confidence as evidence for contemporary painting. The stories told us by
+Pliny of the lives of Greek painters are mostly of a trivial and
+untrustworthy character. Some of them are mentioned in this
+_Encyclopaedia_ under the names of individual artists. We can only
+discern a few general facts. Of Agatharchus of Athens we learn that he
+painted, under compulsion, the interior of the house of Alcibiades. And
+we are told that he painted a scene for the tragedies of Aeschylus or
+Sophocles. This has led some writers to suppose that he attempted
+illusive landscape; but this is contrary to the possibilities of the
+time; and it is fairly certain that what he really did was to paint the
+wooden front of the stage building in imitation of architecture; in fact
+he painted a permanent architectural background, and not one suited to
+any particular play. Of other painters who flourished at the end of the
+century, such as Zeuxis and Aristides, it will be best to speak under
+the next period.
+
+[Illustration: From Gerhard's _Auserlesene Vasenbilder_, ii. pl. 1.
+
+FIG. 32.--Nike and Bull.]
+
+It is now generally held, in consequence of evidence furnished by tombs,
+that the 5th century saw the end of the making of vases on a great scale
+at Athens for export to Italy and Sicily. And in fact few things in the
+history of art are more remarkable than the rapidity with which
+vase-painting at Athens reached its highest point and passed it on the
+downward road. At the beginning of the century black-figured ware was
+scarcely out of fashion, and the masters of the severe red-figured
+style, Pamphaeus, Epictetus and their contemporaries, were in vogue.
+The schools of Euphronius, Hiero and Duris belong to the age of the
+Persian wars. With the middle of the century the works of these makers
+are succeeded by unsigned vases of most beautiful design, some of them
+showing the influence of Polygnotus. In the later years of the century,
+when the empire of Athens was approaching its fall, drawing becomes
+laxer and more careless, and in the treatment of drapery we frequently
+note the over-elaboration of folds, the want of simplicity, which begin
+to mark contemporary sculpture. These changes of style can only be
+satisfactorily followed in the vase rooms of the British Museum, or
+other treasuries of Greek art (see also A. B. Walters, _History of
+Ancient Pottery_; and the article CERAMICS).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--East Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--West Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.]
+
+
+  Olympia: Temple of Zeus.
+
+Among the sculptural works of this period the first place may be given
+to the great temple of Zeus at Olympia. The statue by Pheidias which
+once occupied the place of honour in that temple, and was regarded as
+the noblest monument of Greek religion, has of course disappeared, nor
+are we able with confidence to restore it. But the plan of the temple,
+its pavement, some of its architectural ornaments, remain. The marbles
+which occupied the pediments and the metopes of the temple have been in
+large part recovered, having been probably thrown down by earthquakes
+and gradually buried in the alluvial soil. The utmost ingenuity and
+science of the archaeologists of Germany have been employed in the
+recovery of the composition of these groups; and although doubt remains
+as to the places of some figures, and their precise attitudes, yet we
+may fairly say that we know more about the sculpture of the Olympian
+temple of Zeus than about the sculpture of any other great Greek temple.
+The exact date of these sculptures is not certain, but we may with some
+confidence give them to 470-460 B.C. (In speaking of them we shall
+mostly follow the opinion of Dr Treu, whose masterly work in vol. iii.
+of the great German publication on Olympia is a model of patience and of
+science.) In the eastern pediment (fig. 33), as Pausanias tells us, were
+represented the preparations for the chariot-race between Oenomaüs and
+Pelops, the result of which was to determine whether Pelops should find
+death or a bride and a kingdom. In the midst, invisible to the
+contending heroes, stood Zeus the supreme arbiter. On one side of him
+stood Oenomaüs with his wife Sterope, on the other Pelops and
+Hippodameia, the daughter of Oenomaüs, whose position at once indicates
+that she is on the side of the newcomer, whatever her parents may feel.
+Next on either side are the four-horse chariots of the two competitors,
+that of Oenomaüs in the charge of his perfidious groom Myrtilus, who
+contrived that it should break down in the running, that of Pelops
+tended by his grooms. At either end, where the pediment narrows to a
+point, reclines a river god, at one end Alpheus, the chief stream of
+Olympia, at the other end his tributary Cladeus. Only one figure
+remains, not noticed in the careful description of Pausanias, the figure
+of a handmaid kneeling, perhaps one of the attendants of Sterope. Our
+engraving gives two conjectural restorations of the pediment, that of
+Treu and that of Kekule, which differ principally in the arrangement of
+the corners of the composition; the position of the central figures and
+of the chariots can scarcely be called in question. The moment chosen is
+one, not of action, but of expectancy, perhaps of preparation for
+sacrifice. The arrangement is undeniably stiff and formal, and in the
+figures we note none of the trained perfection of style which belongs to
+the sculptures of the Parthenon, an almost contemporary temple. Faults
+abound, alike in the rendering of drapery and in the representation of
+the human forms, and the sculptor has evidently trusted to the painter
+who was afterwards to colour his work, to remedy some of his clumsiness,
+or to make clear the ambiguous. Nevertheless there is in the whole a
+dignity, a sobriety, and a simplicity, which reconcile us to the
+knowledge that this pediment was certainly regarded in antiquity as a
+noble work, fit to adorn even the palace of Zeus. In the other, the
+western pediment (fig. 34), the subject is the riot of the Centaurs when
+they attended the wedding of Peirithous in Thessaly, and, attempting to
+carry off the bride and her comrades, were slain by Peirithous and
+Theseus. In the midst of the pediment, invisible like Zeus in the
+eastern pediment, stands Apollo, while on either side of him Theseus and
+Peirithous attack the Centaurs with weapons hastily snatched. Our
+illustration gives two possible arrangements. The monsters are in
+various attitudes of attempted violence, of combat and defeat; with
+each grapples one of the Lapith heroes in the endeavour to rob them of
+their prey. In the corners of the pediment recline female figures,
+perhaps attendant slaves, though the farthest pair may best be
+identified as local Thessalian nymphs, looking on with the calmness of
+divine superiority, yet not wholly unconcerned in what is going forward.
+Though the composition of the two pediments differs notably, the one
+bearing the impress of a parade-like repose, the other of an
+overstrained activity, yet the style and execution are the same in both,
+and the shortcomings must be attributed to the inferior skill of a local
+school of sculptors compared with those of Athens or of Aegina. It even
+appears likely that the designs also belong to a local school.
+Pausanias, it is true, tells us that the pediments were the work of
+Alcamenes, the pupil of Pheidias, and of Paeonius, a sculptor of Thrace,
+respectively; but it is almost certain that he was misled by the local
+guides, who would naturally be anxious to connect the sculptures of
+their great temple with well-known names.
+
+[Illustration: _Olympia_, iii. 45.
+
+FIG. 35--Metope: Olympia; restored.]
+
+[Illustration: _Olympia_, iii. 48.
+
+FIG. 36--Nike of Paeonius; restored.]
+
+The metopes of the temple are in the same style of art as the pediments,
+but the defects of awkwardness and want of mastery are less conspicuous,
+because the narrow limits of the metope exclude any elaborate grouping.
+The subjects are provided by the twelve labours of Heracles; the figures
+introduced in each metope are but two or at most three; and the action
+is simplified as much as possible. The example shown (fig. 35)
+represents Heracles holding up the sky on a cushion, with the friendly
+aid of a Hesperid nymph, while Atlas, whom he has relieved of his usual
+burden, approaches bringing the apples which it was the task of Heracles
+to procure.
+
+Another of the fruits of the excavations of Olympia is the floating
+Victory by Paeonius, unfortunately faceless (fig. 36), which was set up
+in all probability in memory of the victory of the Athenians and their
+Messenian allies at Sphacteria in 425 B.C. The inscription states that
+it was dedicated by the Messenians and people of Naupactus from the
+spoils of their enemies, but the name of the enemy is not mentioned in
+the inscription. The statue of Paeonius, which comes floating down
+through the air with drapery borne backward, is of a bold and innovating
+type, and we may trace its influence in many works of the next age.
+
+
+  Delphic charioteer.
+
+Among the discoveries at Delphi none is so striking and valuable to us
+as the life-size statue in bronze of a charioteer holding in his hand
+the reins. This is maintained by M. Homolle to be part of a
+chariot-group set up by Polyzalus, brother of Gelo and Hiero of
+Syracuse, in honour of a victory won in the chariot-race at the Pythian
+games at Delphi (fig. 37). The charioteer is evidently a high-born
+youth, and is clad in the long chiton which was necessary to protect a
+driver of a chariot from the rush of air. The date would be about
+480-470 B.C. Bronze groups representing victorious chariots with their
+drivers were among the noblest and most costly dedications of antiquity;
+the present figure is our only satisfactory representative of them. In
+style the figure is very notable, tall and slight beyond all
+contemporary examples. The contrast between the conventional
+decorousness of face and drapery and the lifelike accuracy of hands and
+feet is very striking, and indicates the clashing of various tendencies
+in art at the time when the great style was formed in Greece.
+
+[Illustration: _Mémoires, Piot_, 1807, 16.
+
+FIG. 37.--Bronze Charioteer: Delphi.]
+
+The three great masters of the 5th century, Myron, Pheidias and
+Polyclitus are all in some degree known to us from their works. Of Myron
+we have copies of two works, the Marsyas (Plate III. fig. 64) and the
+Discobolus. The Marsyas (a copy in the Lateran Museum) represents the
+Satyr so named in the grasp of conflicting emotions, eager to pick up
+the flutes which Athena has thrown down, but at the same time dreading
+her displeasure if he does so. The Discobolus has usually been judged
+from the examples in the Vatican and the British Museum, in which the
+anatomy is modernized and the head wrongly put on. We have now
+photographs of the very superior replica in the Lancelotti gallery at
+Rome, the pose of which is much nearer to the original. Our illustration
+represents a restoration made at Munich, by combining the Lancelotti
+head with the Vatican body (Plate IV. fig. 68).
+
+Of the works of Pheidias we have unfortunately no certain copy, if we
+except the small replicas at Athens of his Athena Parthenos. The larger
+of these (fig. 38) was found in 1880: it is very clumsy, and the
+wretched device by which a pillar is introduced to support the Victory
+in the hand of Athena can scarcely be supposed to have belonged to the
+great original. Tempting theories have been published by Furtwängler
+(_Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_) and other archaeologists, which
+identify copies of the Athena Lemnia of Pheidias, his Pantarces, his
+Aphrodite Urania and other statues; but doubt hangs over all these
+attributions.
+
+A more pertinent and more promising question is, how far we may take the
+decorative sculpture of the Parthenon, since Lord Elgin's time the pride
+of the British Museum, as the actual work of Pheidias, or as done from
+his designs. Here again we have no conclusive evidence; but it appears
+from the testimony of inscriptions that the pediments at all events were
+not executed until after Pheidias's death.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Statuette of Athena Parthenos.]
+
+Of course the pediments and frieze of the Parthenon (q.v.), whose work
+soever they may be, stand at the head of all Greek decorative sculpture.
+Whether we regard the grace of the composition, the exquisite finish of
+the statues in the round, or the delightful atmosphere of poetry and
+religion which surrounds these sculptures, they rank among the
+masterpieces of the world. The Greeks esteemed them far below the statue
+which the temple was made to shelter; but to us, who have lost the great
+figure in ivory and gold, the carvings of the casket which once
+contained it are a perpetual source of instruction and delight. The
+whole is reproduced by photography in A. S. Murray's _Sculptures of the
+Parthenon_.
+
+An abundant literature has sprung up in regard to these sculptures in
+recent years. It will suffice here to mention the discussions in
+Furtwängler's _Masterpieces_, and the very ingenious attempts of Sauer
+to determine by a careful examination of the bases and backgrounds of
+the pediments as they now stand how the figures must have been arranged
+in them. The two ends of the eastern pediment (Plate III. fig. 65) are
+the only fairly well-preserved part of the pediments.
+
+Among the pupils of Pheidias who may naturally be supposed to have
+worked on the sculptures of the Parthenon, the most notable were
+Alcamenes and Agoracritus. Some fragments remain of the great statue of
+Nemesis at Rhamnus by Agoracritus. And an interesting light has been
+thrown on Alcamenes by the discovery at Pergamum of a professed copy of
+his Hermes set up at the entrance to the Acropolis at Athens (Plate II.
+fig. 57). The style of this work, however, is conventional and
+archaistic, and we can scarcely regard it as typical of the master.
+
+Another noted contemporary who was celebrated mainly for his portraits
+was Cresilas, a Cretan. Several copies of his portrait of Pericles
+exist, and testify to the lofty and idealizing style of portraiture in
+this great age.
+
+We possess also admirable sculpture belonging to the other important
+temples of the Acropolis, the Erechtheum and the temple of Nike. The
+temple of Nike is the earlier, being possibly a memorial of the Spartan
+defeat at Sphacteria. The Erechtheum belongs to the end of our period,
+and embodies the delicacy and finish of the conservative school of
+sculpture at Athens just as the Parthenon illustrates the ideas of the
+more progressive school. The reconstruction of the Erechtheum has been a
+task which has long occupied the attention of archaeologists (see the
+paper by Mr Stevens in the _American Journal of Archaeology_, 1906). Our
+illustration (Plate V. fig. 75) shows one of the Corae or maidens who
+support the entablature of the south porch of the Erechtheum in her
+proper setting. This use of the female figure in place of a pillar is
+based on old Ionian precedent (see fig. 17) and is not altogether
+happy; but the idea is carried out with remarkable skill, the perfect
+repose and solid strength of the maiden being emphasized.
+
+Beside Pheidias of Athens must be placed the greatest of early Argive
+sculptors, Polyclitus. His two typical athletes, the Doryphorus or
+spear-bearer (Plate VI. fig. 80) and the Diadumenus, have long been
+identified, and though the copies are not first-rate, they enable us to
+recover the principles of the master's art.
+
+
+  Polyclitus.
+
+Among the bases discovered at Olympia, whence the statues had been
+removed, are three or four which bear the name of Polyclitus, and the
+definite evidence furnished by these bases as to the position of the
+feet of the statues which they once bore has enabled archaeologists,
+especially Professor Furtwängler, to identify copies of those statues
+among known works. Also newly discovered copies of Polyclitan works have
+made their appearance. At Delos there has been found a copy of the
+Diadumenus, which is of much finer work than the statue in the British
+Museum from Vaison. The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston, U.S.A., has
+secured a very beautiful statue of a young Hermes, who but for the wings
+on the temples might pass as a boy athlete of Polyclitan style (Plate
+II. fig. 60). In fact, instead of relying as regards the manner of
+Polyclitus on Roman copies of the Doryphorus and Diadumenus, we have
+quite a gallery of athletes, boys and men, who all claim relationship,
+nearer or more remote, to the school of the great Argive master. It
+might have been hoped that the excavations, made under the leadership of
+Professor Waldstein at the Argive Heraeum, would have enlightened us as
+to the style of Polyclitus. Just as the sculptures of the Parthenon are
+the best monument of Pheidias, so it might seem likely that the
+sculptural decoration of the great temple which contained the Hera of
+Polyclitus would show us at large how his school worked in marble.
+Unfortunately the fragments of sculpture from the Heraeum are few. The
+most remarkable is a female head, which may perhaps come from a pediment
+(fig. 39). But archaeologists are not in agreement whether it is in
+style Polyclitan or whether it rather resembles in style Attic works.
+Other heads and some highly-finished fragments of bodies come apparently
+from the metopes of the same temple. (See also article Argos.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Female Head: Heraeum.]
+
+Another work of Polyclitus was his Amazon, made it is said in
+competition with his great contemporaries, Pheidias, Cresilas and
+Phradmon, all of whose Amazons were preserved in the great temple of
+Artemis at Ephesus. In our museums are many statues of Amazons
+representing 5th century originals. These have usually been largely
+restored, and it is no easy matter to discover their original type.
+Professor Michaelis has recovered successfully three types (fig. 40).
+The attribution of these is a matter of controversy. The first has been
+given to the chisel of Polyclitus; the second seems to represent the
+Wounded Amazon of Cresilas; the third has by some archaeologists been
+given to Pheidias. It does not represent a wounded amazon, but one
+alert, about to leap upon her horse with the help of a spear as a
+leaping pole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Types of Amazons (Michaelis.)]
+
+
+  Lycia.
+
+We can devote little more than a passing mention to the sculpture of
+other temples and shrines of the later 5th century, which nevertheless
+deserve careful study. The frieze from the temple of Apollo at Phigalia,
+representing Centaur and Amazon battles, is familiar to visitors of the
+British Museum, where, however, its proximity to the remains of the
+Parthenon lays stress upon the faults of grouping and execution which
+this frieze presents. It seems to have been executed by local Arcadian
+artists. More pleasing is the sculpture of the Ionic tomb called the
+Nereid monument, brought by Sir Charles Fellows from Lycia. Here we have
+not only a series of bands of relief which ran round the tomb, but also
+detached female figures, whence the name which it bears is derived. A
+recent view sees in these women with their fluttering drapery not nymphs
+of the sea, but personifications of sea-breezes.
+
+The series of known Lycian tombs has been in recent years enriched
+through the acquisition by the museum of Vienna of the sculptured
+friezes which adorned a heroon near Geul Bashi. In the midst of the
+enclosure was a tomb, and the walls of the enclosure itself were adorned
+within and without with a great series of reliefs, mostly of mythologic
+purport. Many subjects which but rarely occur in early Greek art, the
+siege of Troy, the adventure of the Seven against Thebes, the carrying
+off of the daughters of Leucippus, Ulysses shooting down the Suitors,
+are here represented in detail. Professor Benndorf, who has published
+these sculptures in an admirable volume, is disposed to see in them the
+influence of the Thasian painter Polygnotus. Any one can see their
+kinship to painting, and their subjects recur in some of the great
+frescoes painted by Polygnotus, Micon and others for the Athenians. Like
+other Lycian sculptures, they contain non-Hellenic elements; in fact
+Lycia forms a link of the chain which extends from the wall-paintings of
+Assyria to works like the columns of Trajan and of Antoninus, but is not
+embodied in the more purely idealistic works of the highest Greek art.
+The date of the Vienna tomb is not much later than the middle of the 5th
+century. A small part of the frieze of this monument is shown in fig.
+41. It will be seen that in this fragment there are two scenes, one
+directly above the other. In the upper line Ulysses, accompanied by his
+son Telemachus, is in the act of shooting the suitors, who are reclining
+at table in the midst of a feast; a cup-bearer, possibly Melanthius, is
+escaping by a door behind Ulysses. In the lower line is the central
+group of a frieze which represents the hunting of the Calydonian boar,
+which is represented, as is usual in the best time of Greek art, as an
+ordinary animal and no monster.
+
+
+  Portraits.
+
+Archaeologists have recently begun to pay more attention to an
+interesting branch of Greek art which had until recently been neglected,
+that of sculptured portraits. The known portraits of the 5th century now
+include Pericles, Herodotus, Thucydides, Anacreon, Sophocles, Euripides,
+Socrates and others. As might be expected in a time when style in
+sculpture was so strongly pronounced, these portraits, when not later
+unfaithful copies, are notably ideal. They represent the great men whom
+they portray not in the spirit of realism. Details are neglected,
+expression is not elaborated; the sculptor tries to represent what is
+permanent in his subject rather than what is temporary. Hence these
+portraits do not seem to belong to a particular time of life; they only
+represent a man in the perfection of physical force and mental energy.
+And the race or type is clearly shown through individual traits. In some
+cases it is still disputed whether statues of this age represent deities
+or mortals, so notable are the repose and dignity which even human
+figures acquire under the hands of 5th-century masters. The Pericles
+after Cresilas in the British Museum, and the athlete-portraits of
+Polyclitus, are good examples.
+
+_Period III. 400-300 B.C._--The high ideal level attained by Greek art
+at the end of the 5th century is maintained in the 4th. There cannot be
+any question of decay in it save at Athens, where undoubtedly the loss
+of religion and the decrease of national prosperity acted prejudicially.
+But in Peloponnesus the time was one of expansion; several new and
+important cities, such as Messene, Megalopolis and Mantinea, arose under
+the protection of Epaminondas. And in Asia the Greek cities were still
+prosperous and artistic, as were the cities of Italy and Sicily which
+kept their independence. On the whole we find during this age some
+diminution of the freshness and simplicity of art; it works less in the
+service of the gods and more in that of private patrons; it becomes less
+ethical and more sentimental and emotional. On the other hand, there can
+be no doubt that technique both in painting and sculpture advanced with
+rapid strides; artists had a greater mastery of their materials, and
+ventured on a wider range of subject.
+
+[Illustration: _Heroon of Gyeul Bashi Trysa_, Pl. 7.
+
+FIG. 41.--Odysseus and Suitors; Hunting of Boar.]
+
+In the 4th century no new temples of importance rose at Athens; the
+Acropolis had taken its final form; but at Messene, Tegea, Epidaurus and
+elsewhere, very admirable buildings arose. The remains of the temple at
+Tegea are of wonderful beauty and finish; as are those of the theatre
+and the so-called _Tholus_ of Epidaurus. In Asia Minor vast temples of
+the Ionic order arose, especially at Miletus and Ephesus. The colossal
+pillars of Miletus astonish the visitors to the Louvre; while the
+sculptured columns of Ephesus in the British Museum (Plate II. fig. 59)
+show a high level of artistic skill. The Mausoleum erected about 350
+B.C. at Halicarnassus in memory of Mausolus, king of Caria, and adorned
+with sculpture by the most noted artists of the day, was reckoned one
+of the wonders of the world. It has been in part restored in the British
+Museum. Mr Oldfield's conjectural restoration, published in
+_Archaeologia_ for 1895, though it has many rivals, surpasses them all
+in the lightness of the effect, and in close correspondence to the
+description by Pliny. We show a small part of the sculptural decoration,
+representing a battle between Greeks and Amazons (Plate IV. fig. 70),
+wherein the energy of the action and the careful balance of figure
+against figure are remarkable. We possess also the fine portraits of
+Mausolus himself and his wife Artemisia, which stood in or on the
+building, as well as part of a gigantic chariot with four horses which
+surmounted it.
+
+Another architectural work of the 4th century, in its way a gem, is the
+structure set up at Athens by Lysicrates, in memory of a choragic
+victory. This still survives, though the reliefs with which it is
+adorned have suffered severely from the weather.
+
+[Illustration: Nat. Mus., Naples.
+
+FIG. 42.--Greek Drawing of Women Playing at Knucklebones.]
+
+The 4th century is the brilliant period of ancient painting. It opens
+with the painters of the Asiatic School, Zeuxis and Parrhasius and
+Protogenes, with their contemporaries Nicias and Apollodorus of Athens,
+Timanthes of Sicyon or Cythnus, and Euphranor of Corinth. It witnesses
+the rise of a great school at Sicyon, under Eupompus and Pamphilus,
+which was noted for its scientific character and the fineness of its
+drawing, and which culminated in Apelles, the painter of Alexander the
+Great, and probably the greatest master of the art in antiquity. To each
+of these painters a separate article is given, fixing their place in the
+history of the art. Of their paintings unfortunately we can form but a
+very inadequate notion. Vase-paintings, which in the 5th century give us
+some notion at least of contemporary drawing, are less careful in the
+4th century. Now and then we find on them figures admirably designed, or
+successfully foreshortened; but these are rare occurrences. The art of
+the vase decorator has ceased to follow the methods and improvements of
+contemporary fresco painters, and is pursued as a mere branch of
+commerce.
+
+But very few actual paintings of the age survive, and even these
+fragmentary remains have with time lost the freshness of their
+colouring; nor are they in any case the work of a noteworthy hand. We
+reproduce two examples. The first is from a stone of the vault of a
+Crimean grave (Plate IV. fig. 67). The date of the grave is fixed to the
+4th century by ornaments found in it, among which was a gold coin of
+Alexander the Great. The representation is probably of Demeter or her
+priestess, her hair bound with poppies and other flowers. The original
+is of large size. The other illustration (fig. 42) represents the
+remains of a drawing on marble, representing a group of women playing
+knucklebones. It was found at Herculaneum. Though signed by one
+Alexander of Athens, who was probably a worker of the Roman age,
+Professor Robert is right in maintaining that Alexander only copied a
+design of the age of Zeuxis and Parrhasius. In fact the drawing and
+grouping is so closely like that of reliefs of about 400 B.C. that the
+drawing is of great historic value, though there be no colouring.
+Several other drawings of the same class have been found at Herculaneum,
+and on the walls of the Transtiberine Villa at Rome (now in the Terme
+Museum).
+
+[Illustration: _Olympia_, iii. 53.
+
+FIG. 43.--Hermes of Praxiteles; restored.]
+
+
+  Praxiteles.
+
+Until about the year 1880, our knowledge of the great Greek sculptors of
+the 4th century was derived mostly from the statements of ancient
+writers and from Roman copies, or what were supposed to be copies, of
+their works. We are now in a far more satisfactory position. We now
+possess an original work of Praxiteles, and sculptures executed under
+the immediate direction of, if not from the hand of, other great
+sculptors of that age--Scopas, Timotheus and others. Among all the
+discoveries made at Olympia, none has become so familiar to the artistic
+world as that of the Hermes of Praxiteles. It is the first time that we
+have become possessed of a first-rate Greek original by one of the
+greatest of sculptors. Hitherto almost all the statues in our museums
+have been either late copies of Greek works of art, or else the mere
+decorative sculpture of temples and tombs, which was by the ancients
+themselves but little regarded. But we can venture without misgiving to
+submit the new Hermes to the strictest examination, sure that in every
+line and touch we have the work of a great artist. This is more than we
+can say of any of the literary remains of antiquity--poem, play or
+oration. Hermes is represented by the sculptor (fig. 43 and Plate VI.
+fig. 82) in the act of carrying the young child Dionysus to the nymphs
+who were charged with his rearing. On the journey he pauses and amuses
+himself by holding out to the child-god a bunch of grapes, and watching
+his eagerness to grasp them. To the modern eye the child is not a
+success; only the latest art of Greece is at home in dealing with
+children. But the Hermes, strong without excessive muscular development,
+and graceful without leanness, is a model of physical formation, and his
+face expresses the perfection of health, natural endowment and sweet
+nature. The statue can scarcely be called a work of religious art in the
+modern or Christian sense of the word religious, but from the Greek
+point of view it is religious, as embodying the result of the harmonious
+development of all human faculties and life in accordance with nature.
+
+The Hermes not only adds to our knowledge of Praxiteles, but also
+confirms the received views in regard to him. Already many works in
+galleries of sculpture had been identified as copies of statues of his
+school. Noteworthy among these are, the group at Munich representing
+Peace nursing the infant Wealth, from an original by Cephisodotus,
+father of Praxiteles; copies of the Cnidian Aphrodite of Praxiteles,
+especially one in the Vatican which is here illustrated (Plate V. fig.
+71); copies of the Apollo slaying a lizard (Sauroctonus), of a Satyr (in
+the Capitol Museum), and others. These works, which are noted for their
+softness and charm, make us understand the saying of ancient critics
+that Praxiteles and Scopas were noted for the pathos of their works, as
+Pheidias and Polyclitus for the ethical quality of those they produced.
+But the pathos of Praxiteles is of a soft and dreamy character; there is
+no action, or next to none; and the emotions which he rouses are
+sentimental rather than passionate. Scopas, as we shall see, was of
+another mood. The discovery of the Hermes has naturally set
+archaeologists searching in the museums of Europe for other works which
+may from their likeness to it in various respects be set down as
+Praxitelean in character. In the case of many of the great sculptors of
+Greece--Strongylion, Silanion, Calamis and others--it is of little use
+to search for copies of their works, since we have little really
+trustworthy evidence on which to base our inquiries. But in the case of
+Praxiteles we really stand on a safe level. Naturally it is impossible
+in these pages to give any sketch of the results, some almost certain,
+some very doubtful, of the researches of archaeologists in quest of
+Praxitelean works. But we may mention a few works which have been
+claimed by good judges as coming from the master himself. Professor
+Brunn claimed as work of Praxiteles a torso of a satyr in the Louvre, in
+scheme identical with the well-known satyr of the Capitol. Professor
+Furtwängler puts in the same category a delicately beautiful head of
+Aphrodite at Petworth. And his translator, Mrs Strong, regards the
+Aberdeen head of a young man in the British Museum as the actual work of
+Praxiteles. Certainly this last head does not suffer when placed beside
+the Olympian head of Hermes. At Mantinea has been found a basis whereon
+stood a group of Latona and her two children, Apollo and Artemis, made
+by Praxiteles. This base bears reliefs representing the musical contest
+of Apollo and Marsyas, with the Muses as spectators, reliefs very
+pleasing in style, and quite in the manner of Attic artists of the 4th
+century. But of course we must not ascribe them to the hand of
+Praxiteles himself; great sculptors did not themselves execute the
+reliefs which adorned temples and other monuments, but reserved them for
+their pupils. Yet the graceful figures of the Muses of Mantinea suggest
+how much was due to Praxiteles in determining the tone and character of
+Athenian art in relief in the 4th century. Exactly the same style which
+marks them belongs also to a mass of sepulchral monuments at Athens, and
+such works as the Sidonian sarcophagus of the Mourning Women, to be
+presently mentioned.
+
+
+  Scopas.
+
+Excavation on the site of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea has
+resulted in the recovery of works of the school of Scopas. Pausanias
+tells us that Scopas was the architect of the temple, and so important
+in the case of a Greek temple is the sculptural decoration, that we can
+scarcely doubt that the sculpture also of the temple at Tegea was under
+the supervision of Scopas, especially as he was more noted as a sculptor
+than as an architect. In the pediments of the temple were represented
+two scenes from mythology, the hunting of the Calydonian boar and the
+combat between Achilles and Telephus. To one or other of these scenes
+belong several heads of local marble discovered on the spot, which are
+very striking from their extraordinary life and animation. Unfortunately
+they are so much injured that they can scarcely be made intelligible
+except by the help of restoration; we therefore engrave one of them, the
+helmeted head, as restored by a German sculptor (Plate III. fig. 63).
+The strong bony frame of this head, and its depth from front to back,
+are not less noteworthy than the parted lips and deeply set and strongly
+shaded eye; the latter features impart to the head a vividness of
+expression such as we have found in no previous work of Greek art, but
+which sets the key to the developments of art which take place in the
+Hellenistic age. A draped torso of Atalanta from the same pediment has
+been fitted to one of these heads. Hitherto Scopas was known to us,
+setting aside literary records, only as one of the sculptors who had
+worked at the Mausoleum. Ancient critics and travellers, however, bear
+ample testimony to his fame, and the wide range of his activity, which
+extended to northern Greece, Peloponnese and Asia Minor. His Maenads
+and his Tritons and other beings of the sea were much copied in
+antiquity. But perhaps he reached his highest level in statues such as
+that of Apollo as leader of the Muses, clad in long drapery.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Amazon from Epidaurus.]
+
+
+  Timotheus, Bryaxis, Leochares.
+
+The interesting precinct of Aesculapius at Epidaurus has furnished us
+with specimens of the style of an Athenian contemporary of Scopas, who
+worked with him on the Mausoleum. An inscription which records the sums
+spent on the temple of the Physician-god, informs us that the models for
+the sculptures of the pediments, and one set of acroteria or roof
+adornments, were the work of Timotheus. Of the pedimental figures and
+the acroteria considerable fragments have been recovered, and we may
+with confidence assume that at all events the models for these were by
+Timotheus. It is strange that the unsatisfactory arrangement whereby a
+noted sculptor makes models and some local workman the figures enlarged
+from those models, should have been tolerated by so artistic a people as
+the Greeks. The subjects of the pediments appear to have been the common
+ones of battles between Greek and Amazon and between Lapith and Centaur.
+We possess fragments of some of the Amazon figures, one of which,
+striking downwards at the enemy, is here shown (fig. 44). Their
+attitudes are vigorous and alert; but the work shows no delicacy of
+detail. Figures of Nereids riding on horses, which were found on the
+same site, may very probably be roof ornaments (acroteria) of the
+temple. We have also several figures of Victory, which probably were
+acroteria on some smaller temple, perhaps that of Artemis. A base found
+at Athens, sculptured with figures of horsemen in relief, bears the name
+of Bryaxis, and was probably made by a pupil of his. Probable conjecture
+assigns to Leochares the originals copied in the Ganymede of the
+Vatican, borne aloft by an eagle (Plate I. fig. 53) and the noble statue
+of Alexander the Great at Munich (see LEOCHARES). Thus we may fairly say
+that we are now acquainted with the work of all the great sculptors who
+worked on the Mausoleum--Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and Timotheus; and
+are in a far more advantageous position than were the archaeologists of
+1880 for determining the artistic problems connected with that noblest
+of ancient tombs.
+
+Contemporary with the Athenian school of Praxiteles and Scopas was the
+great school of Argos and Sicyon, of which Lysippus was the most
+distinguished member. Lysippus continued the academic traditions of
+Polyclitus, but he was far bolder in his choice of subjects and more
+innovating in style. Gods, heroes and mortals alike found in him a
+sculptor who knew how to combine fine ideality with a vigorous
+actuality. He was at the height of his fame during Alexander's life, and
+the grandiose ambition of the great Macedonian found him ample
+employment, especially in the frequent representation of himself and his
+marshals.
+
+We have none of the actual works of Lysippus; but our best evidence for
+his style will be found in the statue of Agias an athlete (Plate V. fig.
+74) found at Delphi, and shown by an inscription to be a marble copy of
+a bronze original by Lysippus. The Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (man
+scraping himself with a strigil) (Plate VI. fig. 79) has hitherto been
+regarded as a copy from Lysippus; but of this there is no evidence, and
+the style of that statue belongs rather to the 3rd century than the 4th.
+The Agias, on the other hand, is in style contemporary with the works
+of 4th-century sculptors.
+
+Of the elaborate groups of combatants with which Lysippus enriched such
+centres as Olympia and Delphi, or of the huge bronze statues which he
+erected in temples and shrines, we can form no adequate notion. Perhaps
+among the extant heads of Alexander the one which is most likely to
+preserve the style of Lysippus is the head from Alexandria in the
+British Museum (Plate II. fig. 56), though this was executed at a later
+time.
+
+Many noted extant statues may be attributed with probability to the
+latter part of the 4th or the earlier part of the 3rd century. We will
+mention a few only. The celebrated group at Florence representing Niobe
+and her children falling before the arrows of Apollo and Artemis is
+certainly a work of the pathetic school, and may be by a pupil of
+Praxiteles. Niobe, in an agony of grief, which is in the marble tempered
+and idealized, tries to protect her youngest daughter from destruction
+(Plate VI. fig. 78). Whether the group can have originally been fitted
+into the gable of a temple is a matter of dispute.
+
+Two great works preserved in the Louvre are so noted that it is but
+necessary to mention them, the Aphrodite of Melos (Plate VI. fig. 77),
+in which archaeologists are now disposed to see the influence of Scopas,
+and the Victory of Samothrace (Plate III. figs. 61 and 62), an original
+set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes after a naval victory won at Salamis in
+Cyprus in 306 B.C. over the fleet of Ptolemy, king of Egypt.
+
+Nor can we pass over without notice two works so celebrated as the
+Apollo of the Belvidere in the Vatican (Plate II. fig. 55), and the
+Artemis of Versailles. The Apollo is now by most archaeologists regarded
+as probably a copy of a work of Leochares, to whose Ganymede it bears a
+superficial resemblance. The Artemis is regarded as possibly due to some
+artist of the same age. But it is by no means clear that we have the
+right to remove either of these figures from among the statues of the
+Hellenistic age. The old theory of Preller, which saw in them copies
+from a trophy set up to commemorate the repulse of the Gauls at Delphi
+in 278 B.C., has not lost its plausibility.
+
+[Illustration: Hamdy et Reinach, _Nécropole à Sidon_, Pl. 7.
+
+FIG. 45.--Tomb of Mourning Women: Sidon.]
+
+
+  Sarcophagi of Sidon.
+
+This may be the most appropriate place for mentioning the remarkable
+find made at Sidon in 1886 of a number of sarcophagi, which once
+doubtless contained the remains of kings of Sidon. They are now in the
+museum of Constantinople, and are admirably published by Hamdy Bey and
+T. Reinach (_Une Nécropole royale à Sidon_, 1892-1896). The sarcophagi
+in date cover a considerable period. The earlier are made on Egyptian
+models, the covers shaped roughly in the form of a human body or mummy.
+The later, however, are Greek in form, and are clearly the work of
+skilled Greek sculptors, who seem to have been employed by the grandees
+of Phoenicia in the adornment of their last resting-places. Four of
+these sarcophagi in particular claim attention, and in fact present us
+with examples of Greek art of the 5th and 4th centuries in several of
+its aspects. To the 5th century belong the tomb of the Satrap, the
+reliefs of which bring before us the activities and glories of some
+unknown king, and the Lycian sarcophagus, so called from its form, which
+resembles that of tombs found in Lycia, and which is also adorned with
+reliefs which have reference to the past deeds of the hero buried in the
+tomb, though these deeds are represented, not in the Oriental manner
+directly, but in the Greek manner, clad in mythological forms. To the
+4th century belong two other sarcophagi. One of these is called the
+Tomb of Mourning Women. On all sides of it alike are ranged a series of
+beautiful female figures, separated by Ionic pillars, each in a somewhat
+different attitude, though all attitudes denoting grief (fig. 45). The
+pediments at the ends of the cover are also closely connected with the
+mourning for the loss of a friend and protector, which is the theme of
+the whole decoration of the sarcophagus. We see depicted in them the
+telling of the news of the death, with the results in the mournful
+attitude of the two seated figures. The mourning women must be taken,
+not as the representation of any persons in particular, but generally as
+the expression of the feeling of a city. Such figures are familiar to us
+in the art of the second Attic school; we could easily find parallels to
+the sarcophagus among the 4th-century sepulchral reliefs of Athens. We
+can scarcely be mistaken in attributing the workmanship of this
+beautiful sarcophagus to some sculptor trained in the school of
+Praxiteles. And it is a conjecture full of probability that it once
+contained the body of Strato, king of Sidon, who ruled about 380 B.C.,
+and who was _proxenos_ or public friend of the Athenians.
+
+More celebrated is the astonishing tomb called that of Alexander, though
+there can be no doubt that, although it commemorates the victories and
+exploits of Alexander, it was made not to hold his remains, but those of
+some ruler of Sidon who was high in his favour. Among all the monuments
+of antiquity which have come down to us, none is more admirable than
+this, and none more characteristic of the Greek genius. We give, in two
+lines, the composition which adorned one of the sides of this
+sarcophagus. It represents a victory of Alexander, probably that of the
+Granicus (fig. 46). On the left we see the Macedonian king charging the
+Persian horse, on the right his general Parmenio, and in the midst a
+younger officer, perhaps Cleitus. Mingled with the chiefs are
+foot-soldiers, Greek and Macedonian, with whom the Persians are mingled
+in unequal fray. What most strikes the modern eye is the remarkable
+freshness and force of the action and the attitudes. Those, however, who
+have seen the originals have been specially impressed with the
+colouring, whereof, of course, our engraving gives no hint, but which is
+applied to the whole surface of the relief with equal skill and
+delicacy. There are other features in the relief on which a Greek eye
+would have dwelt with special pleasure--the exceedingly careful symmetry
+of the whole, the balancing of figure against figure, the skill with
+which the result of the battle is hinted rather than depicted. The
+composition is one in which the most careful planning and the most
+precise calculation are mingled with freedom of hand and expressiveness
+in detail. The faces in particular show more expression than would be
+tolerated in art of the previous century. We are unable as yet to assign
+an author or even a school to the sculptor of this sarcophagus; he comes
+to us as a new and striking phenomenon in the history of ancient art.
+The reliefs which adorn the other sides of the sarcophagus are almost
+equally interesting. On one side we see Alexander again, in the company
+of a Persian noble, hunting a lion. The short sides also show us scenes
+of fighting and hunting. In fact it can scarcely be doubted that if we
+had but a clue to the interpretation of the reliefs, they would be found
+to embody historic events of the end of the 4th century. There are but a
+few other works of art, such as the Bayeux tapestry and the Column of
+Trajan, which bring contemporary history so vividly before our eyes. The
+battles with the Persians represented in some of the sculpture of the
+Parthenon and the temple of Nike at Athens are treated conventionally
+and with no attempt at realism; but here the ideal and the actual are
+blended into a work of consummate art, which is at the same time, to
+those who can read the language of Greek art, a historic record. The
+portraits of Alexander the Great which appear on this sarcophagus are
+almost contemporary, and the most authentic likenesses of him which we
+possess. The great Macedonian exercised so strong an influence on
+contemporary art that a multitude of heads of the age, both of gods and
+men, and even the portraits of his successors, show traces of his type.
+
+We have yet to mention what are among the most charming and the most
+characteristic products of the Greek chisel, the beautiful tombs,
+adorned with seated or standing portraits or with reliefs, which were
+erected in great numbers on all the main roads of Greece. A great number
+of these from the Dipylon cemetery are preserved in the Central Museum
+at Athens, and impress all visitors by the gentle sentiment and the
+charm of grouping which they display (Gardner, _Sculptured Tombs of
+Hellas_).
+
+[Illustration: Hamdy et Reinach. _Nécropole à Sidon_, Pl. 30.
+
+FIG. 46.--Battle of The Granicus: Sarcophagus from Sidon.]
+
+_Period IV., 300-50 B.C._--There can be no question but that the period
+which followed the death of Alexander, commonly called the age of
+Hellenism, was one of great activity and expansion in architecture. The
+number of cities founded by himself and his immediate successors in Asia
+and Egypt was enormous. The remains of these cities have in a few cases
+(Ephesus, Pergamum, Assus, Priene, Alexandria) been partially excavated.
+But the adaptation of Greek architecture to the needs of the semi-Greek
+peoples included in the dominions of the kings of Egypt, Syria and
+Pergamum is too vast a subject for us to enter upon here (see
+ARCHITECTURE).
+
+Painting during this age ceased to be religious. It was no longer for
+temples and public stoae that artists worked, but for private persons;
+especially they made frescoes for the decoration of the walls of houses,
+and panel pictures for galleries set up by rich patrons. The names of
+very few painters of the Hellenistic age have come down to us. There can
+be no doubt that the character of the art declined, and there were no
+longer produced great works to be the pride of cities, or to form an
+embodiment for all future time of the qualities of a deity or the
+circumstances of scenes mythical or historic. But at the same time the
+mural paintings of Pompeii and other works of the Roman age, which are
+usually more or less nearly derived from Hellenistic models, prove that
+in technical matters painting continued to progress. Colouring became
+more varied, groups more elaborate, perspective was worked out with
+greater accuracy, and imagination shook itself free from many of the
+conventions of early art. Pompeian painting, however, must be treated of
+under Roman, not under Greek art. We figure a single example, to show
+the elaboration of painting at Alexandria and elsewhere, the wonderful
+Pompeian mosaic (fig. 47), which represents the victory of Alexander at
+Issus. This work being in stone has preserved its colouring; and it
+stands at a far higher level of art than ordinary Pompeian paintings,
+which are the work of mere house-decorators. This on the contrary is
+certainly copied from the work of a great master. It is instructive to
+compare it with the sarcophagus illustrated in Fig. 46, which it excels
+in perspective and in the freedom of individual figures, though the
+composition is much less careful and precise. Alexander charges from the
+left (his portrait being the least successful part of the picture), and
+bears down a young Persian; Darius in his chariot flees towards the
+right; in the foreground a young knight is trying to manage a restive
+horse. It will be observed how very simple is the indication of
+locality: a few stones and a broken tree stand for rocks and woods.
+
+Among the original sculptural creations of the early Hellenistic age, a
+prominent place is claimed by the statue of Fortune, typifying the city
+of Antioch (Plate VI. fig. 81), a work of Eutychides, a pupil of
+Lysippus. Of this we possess a small copy, which is sufficient to show
+how worthy of admiration was the original. We have a beautiful
+embodiment of the personality of the city, seated on a rock, holding
+ears of corn, while the river Orontes, embodied in a young male figure,
+springs forth at her feet.
+
+[Illustration: From a photograph by G. Borgi.
+
+FIG. 47.--Mosaic of the Battle of Issus (Naples).]
+
+This is, so far as we know, almost the only work of the early part of
+the 3rd century which shows imagination. Sculptors often worked on a
+colossal scale, producing such monsters as the colossal Apollo at
+Rhodes, the work of Chares of Lindus, which was more than 100 ft. in
+height. But they did not show freshness or invention; and for the most
+part content themselves with varying the types produced in the great
+schools of the 4th century. The wealthy kings of Syria, Egypt and Asia
+Minor formed art galleries, and were lavish in their payments; but it
+has often been proved in the history of art that originality cannot be
+produced by mere expenditure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Head of Anytus: Lycosura.]
+
+A great artist, whose date has been disputed, but who is now assigned to
+the Hellenistic age, Damophon of Messene, is known to us from his actual
+works. He set up in the shrine of the _Mistress_ (Despoena) at Lycosura
+in Arcadia a great group of figures consisting of Despoena, Demeter,
+Artemis and the Titan Anytus. Three colossal heads found on the spot
+probably belong to the three last-mentioned deities. We illustrate the
+head of Anytus, with wild disordered hair and turbulent expression (fig.
+48). Dr Dörpfeld has argued, on architectural grounds, that shrine and
+images alike must be given to a later time than the 4th century; and
+this judgment is now confirmed by inscriptional and other evidence.
+
+In one important direction sculpture certainly made progress. Hitherto
+Greek sculptors had contented themselves with studying the human body
+whether in rest or motion, from outside. The dissection of the human
+body, with a consequent increase in knowledge of anatomy, became usual
+at Alexandria in the medical school which flourished under the
+Ptolemies. This improved anatomical knowledge soon reacted upon the art
+of sculpture. Works such as the Fighter of Agasias in the Louvre (Plate
+IV. fig. 69), and in a less degree the Apoxyomenus (Plate VI. fig. 79),
+display a remarkable internal knowledge of the human frame, such as
+could only come from the habit of dissection. Whether this was really
+productive of improvement in sculpture may be doubted. But it is
+impossible to withhold one's admiration from works which show an
+astonishing knowledge of the body of man down to its bony framework, and
+a power and mastery of execution which have never since been surpassed.
+
+With accuracy in the portrayal of men's bodies goes of necessity a more
+naturalistic tendency in portraiture. As we have seen, the art of
+portraiture was at a high ideal level in the Pheidian age; and even in
+the age of Alexander the Great, notable men were rendered rather
+according to the idea than the fact. To a base and mechanical naturalism
+Greek art never at any time descended. But from 300 B.C. onwards we have
+a marvellous series of portraits which may be termed rather
+characteristic than ideal, which are very minute in their execution, and
+delight in laying emphasis on the havoc wrought by time and life on the
+faces of noteworthy men. Such are the portraits of Demosthenes, of
+Antisthenes, of Zeno and others, which exist in our galleries. And it
+was no long step from these actual portraits to the invention of
+characteristic types to represent the great men of a past generation,
+such as Homer and Lycurgus, or to form generic images to represent
+weatherbeaten fishermen or toothless old women.
+
+
+  Altar of Pergamum.
+
+Our knowledge of the art of the later Hellenistic age has received a
+great accession since 1875 through the systematic labours directed by
+the German Archaeological Institute, which have resulted in recovering
+the remains of Pergamum, the fortress-city which was the capital of the
+dynasty of the Philetaeri. Among the ancient buildings of Pergamum none
+was more ambitious in scale and striking in execution than the great
+altar used for sacrifices to Zeus, a monument supposed to be referred to
+in the phrase of the Apocalypse "where Satan's throne is." This altar,
+like many great sacrificial altars of later Greece, was a vast erection
+to which one mounted by many steps, and its outside was adorned with a
+frieze which represented on a gigantic scale, in the style of the 2nd
+century B.C., the battle between the gods and the giants. This enormous
+frieze (see PERGAMUM) is now one of the treasures of the Royal Museums
+of Berlin, and it cannot fail to impress visitors by the size of the
+figures, the energy of the action, and the strong vein of sentiment
+which pervades the whole, giving it a certain air of modernity, though
+the subject is strange to the Christian world. In early Greek art the
+giants where they oppose the gods are represented as men armed in full
+panoply, "in shining armour, holding long spears in their hands," to use
+the phrase in which Hesiod describes them. But in the Pergamene frieze
+the giants are strange compounds, having the heads and bodies of wild
+and fierce barbarians, sometimes also human legs, but sometimes in the
+place of legs two long serpents, the heads of which take with the giants
+themselves a share in the battle. Sometimes also they are winged. The
+gods appear in the forms which had been gradually made for them in the
+course of Greek history, but they are usually accompanied by the animals
+sacred to them in cultus, between which and the serpent-feet of the
+giants a weird combat goes on. We can conjecture the source whence the
+Pergamene artist derived the shaggy hair, the fierce expression, the
+huge muscles of his giants (fig. 49); probably these features came
+originally from the Galatians, who at the time had settled in Asia
+Minor, and were spreading the terror of their name and the report of
+their savage devastations through all Asia Minor. The victory over the
+giants clearly stands for the victory of Greek civilization over Gallic
+barbarism; and this meaning is made more emphatic because the gods are
+obviously inferior in physical force to their opponents, indeed, a large
+proportion of the divine combatants are goddesses. Yet everywhere the
+giants are overthrown, writhing in pain on the ground, or transfixed by
+the weapons of their opponents; everywhere the gods are victorious, yet
+in the victory retain much of their divine calm. The piecing together of
+the frieze at Berlin has been a labour of many years; it is now
+complete, and there is a special museum devoted to it. Some of the
+groups have become familiar to students from photographs, especially the
+group which represents Zeus slaying his enemies with thunderbolts, and
+the group wherein Athena seizes by the hair an overthrown opponent, who
+is winged, while Victory runs to crown her, and beneath is seen Gaia,
+the earth-goddess who is the mother of the giants, rising out of the
+ground, and mourning over her vanquished and tortured children. Another
+and smaller frieze which also decorated the altar-place gives us scenes
+from the history of Telephus, who opposed the landing of the army of
+Agamemnon in Asia Minor and was overthrown by Achilles. This frieze,
+which is quite fragmentary, is put together by Dr Schneider in the
+_Jahrbuch_ of the German Archaeological Institute for 1900.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Giant from Great Altar: Pergamum.]
+
+Since the Renaissance Rome has continually produced a crop of works of
+Greek art of all periods, partly originals brought from Greece by
+conquering generals, partly copies, such as the group at Rome formerly
+known as Paetus and Arria, and the overthrown giants and barbarians
+which came from the elaborate trophy set up by Attalus at Athens, of
+which copies exist in many museums. A noted work of kindred school is
+the group of Laocoon and his sons (Plate I. fig. 52), signed by Rhodian
+sculptors of the 1st century B.C., which has been perhaps more discussed
+than any work of the Greek chisel, and served as a peg for the
+aesthetic theories of Lessing and Goethe. In our days the histrionic and
+strained character of the group is regarded as greatly diminishing its
+interest, in spite of the astounding skill and knowledge of the human
+body shown by the artists. To the same school belong the late
+representations of Marsyas being flayed by the victorious Apollo (Plate
+II. fig. 54), a somewhat repulsive subject, chosen by the artists of
+this age as a means for displaying their accurate knowledge of anatomy.
+
+On what a scale some of the artists of Asia Minor would work is shown us
+by the enormous group, by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, which is
+called the Farnese Bull (Plate I. fig. 51), and which represents how
+Dirce was tied to a wild bull by her stepsons Zethus and Amphion.
+
+
+  Rome.
+
+The extensive excavations and alterations which have taken place at Rome
+in recent years have been very fruitful; the results may be found partly
+in the palace of the Conservatori on the Capitol, partly in the new
+museum of the Terme. Among recently found statues none excel in interest
+some bronzes of large size dating from the Hellenistic age. In the
+figure of a seated boxer (Plate V. fig. 72), in scale somewhat exceeding
+life, attitude and gesture are expressive. Evidently the boxer has
+fought already, and is awaiting a further conflict. His face is cut and
+swollen; on his hands are the terrible caestus, here made of leather,
+and not loaded with iron, like the caestus described by Virgil. The
+figure is of astounding force; but though the face is brutal and the
+expression savage, in the sweep of the limbs there is nobility, even
+ideal beauty. To the last the Greek artist could not set aside his
+admiration for physical perfection. Another bronze figure of more than
+life-size is that of a king of the Hellenistic age standing leaning on a
+spear. He is absolutely nude, like the athletes of Polyclitus. Another
+large bronze presents us with a Hellenistic type of Dionysus.
+
+Besides the bronzes found in Rome we may set those recently found in the
+sea on the coast of Cythera, the contents of a ship sailing from Greece
+to Rome, and lost on the way. The date of these bronze statues has been
+disputed. In any case, even if executed in the Roman age, they go back
+to originals of the 5th and 4th centuries. The most noteworthy among
+them is a beautiful athlete (Plate V. fig. 73) standing with hand
+upraised, which reflects the style of the Attic school of the 4th
+century.
+
+After 146 B.C. when Corinth was destroyed and Greece became a Roman
+province, Greek art, though by no means extinct, worked mainly in the
+employ of the Roman conquerors (see ROMAN ART).
+
+  IV. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY.[3]--I. General works on Greek Art.--The only
+  recent general histories of Greek art are: H. Brunn, _Griechische
+  Kunstgeschichte_, bks. i. and ii., dealing with archaic art; W. Klein,
+  _Geschichte der griechischen Kunst_, no illustrations; Perrot et
+  Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquité_, vols. vii. and viii.
+  (archaic art only).
+
+  Introductory are: P. Gardner, _Grammar of Greek Art_; J. E. Harrison,
+  _Introductory Studies in Greek Art_; H. B. Walters, _Art of the
+  Greeks_.
+
+  Useful are also: H. Brunn, _Geschichte der griechischen Künstler_,
+  (new edition, 1889); J. Overbeck, _Die antiken Schriftquellen zur
+  Geschichte der bildenden Künste bei den Griechen_; untranslated
+  passages in Latin and Greek; the Elder Pliny's _Chapters on the
+  History of Art_, edited by K. Jex-Blake and E. Sellers; H. S. Jones,
+  _Ancient Writers on Greek Sculpture_.
+
+  II. Periodicals dealing with Greek Archaeology.--England: _Journal of
+  Hellenic Studies_; _Annual of the British School at Athens_;
+  _Classical Review_. France: _Revue archéologique_; _Gazette
+  archéologique_; _Bulletin de correspondance hellénique_. Germany:
+  _Jahrbuch des K. deutschen arch. Instituts_; _Mitteilungen des arch.
+  Inst._, Athenische Abteilung, Römische Abteilung; _Antike Denkmäler_.
+  Austria: _Jahreshefte des K. Österreich. arch. Instituts_. Italy:
+  Publications of the _Accademia dei Lincei_; _Monumenti antichi_; _Not.
+  dei scavi_; _Bulletino comunale di Roma_. Greece: _Ephemeris
+  archaiologikè_; _Deltion archaiologikon_; _Praktika_ of the Athenian
+  Archaeological Society.
+
+  III. Greek Architecture.--General: Perrot et Chipiez, _Histoire de
+  l'art dans l'antiquité_, vol. vii.; A. Choisy, _Histoire de
+  l'architecture_, vol. i.; Anderson and Spiers, _Architecture of Greece
+  and Rome_; E. Boutmy, _Philosophie de l'architecture en Grèce_; R.
+  Sturgis, _History of Architecture_, vol. i.; A. Marquand, _Greek
+  Architecture_.
+
+  IV. Greek Sculpture.--General: M. Collignon, _Histoire de la sculpture
+  grecque_ (2 vols.); E. A. Gardner, _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_; A.
+  Furtwängler, _Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_, translated and edited
+  by E. Sellers; Friederichs and Wolters, _Bausteine zur Geschichte der
+  griechisch-römischen Plastik_ (1887); von Mach, _Handbook of Greek and
+  Roman Sculpture_, 500 plates; H. Bulle, _Der schöne Mensch in der
+  Kunst: Altertum_, 216 plates; S. Reinach, _Répertoire de la statuaire
+  grecque et romaine_, 3 vols.
+
+  V. Greek Painting and Vases.--Woltmann and Woermann, _History of
+  Painting_, vol. i., translated and edited by S. Colvin (1880); H. B.
+  Walters, _History of Ancient Pottery_ (2 vols.); Harrison and MacColl,
+  _Greek Vase-paintings_ (1894); O. Rayet et M. Collignon, _Histoire de
+  la céramique grecque_ (1888); P. Girard, _La Peinture antique_ (1892);
+  S. Reinach, _Répertoire des vases peints grecs et étrusques_ (2
+  vols.); Furtwängler und Reichhold, "Griechische Vasenmalerei," _Wiener
+  Vorlegeblätter für archäologische Übungen_ (1887-1890).
+
+  VI. Special Schools and Sites.--A. Joubin, _La Sculpture grecque entre
+  les guerres médiques et l'époque de Périclès_; C. Waldstein, _Essays
+  on the Art of Pheidias_ (1885); W. Klein, _Praxiteles_; G. Perrot,
+  _Praxitèle_; A. S. Murray, _Sculptures of the Parthenon_; W. Klein,
+  _Euphronios_; E. Pottier, _Douris_; P. Gardner, _Sculptured Tombs of
+  Hellas_; E. A. Gardner, _Ancient Athens_; A. Bötticher, _Olympia_;
+  Bernoulli, _Griechische Ikonographie_; P. Gardner, _The Types of Greek
+  Coins_ (1883); E. A. Gardner, _Six Greek Sculptors._
+
+  VII. Books related to the subject.--J. G. Frazer, _Pausanias's
+  Description of Greece_ (6 vols.); J. Lange, _Darstellung des Menschen
+  in der älteren griechischen Kunst_; E. Brücke, _The Human Figure; its
+  Beauties and Defects_; A. Michaelis, _Ancient Marbles in Great
+  Britain_ (1882); _Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum_
+  (3 vols.); _Catalogue of Greek Vases in the British Museum_ (4 vols.);
+  J. B. Bury, _History of Greece_ (illustrated edition); Baumeister,
+  _Denkmäler des klassischen Altertums_ (3 vols.).     (P. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Grammar of Greek Art._
+
+  [2] It may here be pointed out that it was found impossible, with any
+    regard for the appearance of the pages, to arrange the Plates for
+    this article so as to preserve a chronological order in the
+    individual figures; they are not arranged consecutively as regards
+    the history or the period, and are only grouped for convenience in
+    paging.--Ed.
+
+  [3] The date is given when the work cannot be considered new.
+
+
+
+
+GREEK FIRE, the name applied to inflammable and destructive compositions
+used in warfare during the middle ages and particularly by the Byzantine
+Greeks at the sieges of Constantinople. The employment of liquid fire is
+represented on Assyrian bas-reliefs. At the siege of Plataea (429 B.C.)
+the Spartans attempted to burn the town by piling up against the walls
+wood saturated with pitch and sulphur and setting it on fire (Thuc. ii.
+77), and at the siege of Delium (424 B.C.) a cauldron containing pitch,
+sulphur and burning charcoal, was placed against the walls and urged
+into flame by the aid of a bellows, the blast from which was conveyed
+through a hollow tree-trunk (Thuc. iv. 100). Aeneas Tacticus in the
+following century mentions a mixture of sulphur, pitch, charcoal,
+incense and tow, which was packed in wooden vessels and thrown lighted
+upon the decks of the enemy's ships. Later, as in receipts given by
+Vegetius (_c._ A.D. 350), naphtha or petroleum is added, and some nine
+centuries afterwards the same substances are found forming part of
+mixtures described in the later receipts (which probably date from the
+beginning of the 13th century) of the collection known as the _Liber
+ignium_ of Marcus Graecus. In subsequent receipts saltpetre and
+turpentine make their appearance, and the modern "carcass composition,"
+containing sulphur, tallow, rosin, turpentine, saltpetre and crude
+antimony, is a representative of the same class of mixtures, which
+became known to the Crusaders as Greek fire but were more usually called
+wildfire. Greek fire, properly so-called, was, however, of a somewhat
+different character. It is said that in the reign of Constantine
+Pogonatus (648-685) an architect named Callinicus, who had fled from
+Heliopolis in Syria to Constantinople, prepared a wet fire which was
+thrown out from siphons ([Greek: to dia tôn siphônôn ekpheromenon pyr
+hugron]), and that by its aid the ships of the Saracens were set on fire
+at Cyzicus and their defeat assured. The art of compounding this
+mixture, which is also referred to as [Greek: pyr thalassion], or sea
+fire, was jealously guarded at Constantinople, and the possession of the
+secret on several occasions proved of great advantage to the city. The
+nature of the compound is somewhat obscure. It has been supposed that
+the novelty introduced by Callinicus was saltpetre, but this view
+involves the difficulty that that substance was apparently not known
+till the 13th century, even if it were capable of accounting for the
+properties attributed to the wet fire. Lieut.-Colonel H. W. L. Hime,
+after a close examination of the available evidence, concludes that what
+distinguished Greek fire from the other incendiaries of the period was
+the presence of quicklime, which was well known to give rise to a large
+development of heat when brought into contact with water. The mixture,
+then, was composed of such materials as sulphur and naphtha with
+quicklime, and took fire spontaneously when wetted--whence the name of
+wet fire or sea fire; and portions of it were "projected and at the same
+time ignited by applying the hose of a water engine to the breech" of
+the siphon, which was a wooden tube, cased with bronze.
+
+  See Lieut.-Col. H. W. L. Hime, _Gunpowder and Ammunition, their Origin
+  and Progress_ (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF, the name given to the great rising of the
+Greek subjects of the sultan against the Ottoman domination, which began
+in 1821 and ended in 1833 with the establishment of the independent
+kingdom of Greece. The circumstances that led to the insurrection and
+the general diplomatic situation by which its fortunes were from time to
+time affected are described elsewhere (see GREECE: _History_; TURKEY:
+_History_). The present article is confined to a description of the
+general character and main events of the war itself. If we exclude the
+abortive invasion of the Danubian principalities by Prince Alexander
+Ypsilanti (March 1821), which collapsed ignominiously as soon as it was
+disavowed by the tsar, the theatre of the war was confined to
+continental Greece, the Morea, and the adjacent narrow seas. Its history
+may, broadly speaking, be divided into three periods: the first
+(1821-1824), during which the Greeks, aided by numerous volunteers from
+Europe, were successfully pitted against the sultan's forces alone; the
+second, from 1824, when the disciplined troops of Mehemet Ali, pasha of
+Egypt, turned the tide against the insurgents; the third, from the
+intervention of the European powers in the autumn of 1827 to the end.
+
+When, on the 2nd of April 1821, Archbishop Germanos, head of the
+_Hetaeria_ in the Morea, raised the standard of the cross at Kalavryta
+as the signal for a general rising of the Christian population, the
+circumstances were highly favourable. In the Morea itself, in spite of
+plentiful warning, the Turks were wholly unprepared; while the bulk of
+the Ottoman army, under the _seraskier_ Khurshid Pasha, was engaged in
+the long task of reducing the intrepid Ali, pasha of Iannina (see ALI,
+pasha of Iannina).
+
+Another factor, and that the determining one, soon came to the aid of
+the Greeks. In warfare carried on in such a country as Greece, sea-girt
+and with a coast deeply indented, inland without roads and intersected
+with rugged mountains, victory--as Wellington was quick to observe--must
+rest with the side that has command of the sea. This was assured to the
+insurgents at the outset by the revolt of the maritime communities of
+the Greek archipelago. The Greeks of the islands had been accustomed
+from time immemorial to seafaring; their ships--some as large as
+frigates--were well armed, to guard against the Barbary pirates and
+rovers of their own kin; lastly, they had furnished the bulk of the
+sailors to the Ottoman navy which, now that this recruiting ground was
+closed, had to be manned hastily with impressed crews of dock-labourers
+and peasants, many of whom had never seen the sea. The Turkish fleet,
+"adrift in the Archipelago"--as the British seamen put it--though
+greatly superior in tonnage and weight of metal, could never be a match
+for the Greek brigs, manned as these were by trained, if not
+disciplined, crews.
+
+
+  Outbreak of the insurrection.
+
+The war was begun by the Greeks without definite plan and without any
+generally recognized leadership. The force with which Germanos marched
+from Kalavryta against Patras was composed of peasants armed with
+scythes, clubs and slings, among whom the "primates" exercised a
+somewhat honorary authority. The town itself was destroyed and those of
+its Mussulman inhabitants who could not escape into the citadel were
+massacred; but the citadel remained in the hands of the Turks till 1828.
+Meanwhile, in the south, leaders of another stamp had appeared: Petros,
+bey of the Maina (q.v.) chief of the Mavromichales, who at the head of
+his clan attacked Kalamata and put the Mussulman inhabitants to the
+sword; and Kolokotrones, a notable brigand once in the service of the
+Ionian government, who--fortified by a vision of the Virgin--captured
+Karytaena and slaughtered its infidel population. Encouraged by these
+successes the revolt spread rapidly; within three weeks there was not a
+Mussulman left in the open country, and the remnants of the once
+dominant class were closely besieged in the fortified towns by hosts of
+wild peasants and brigands. The flames of revolt now spread across the
+Isthmus of Corinth: early in April the Christians of Dervenokhoria rose,
+and the whole of Boeotia and Attica quickly followed suit; at the
+beginning of May the Mussulman inhabitants of Athens were blockaded in
+the Acropolis. In the Morea, meanwhile, a few Mussulman fortresses still
+held out: Coron, Modon, Navarino, Patras, Nauplia, Monemvasia,
+Tripolitsa. One by one they fell, and everywhere were repeated the same
+scenes of butchery. The horrors culminated in the capture of Tripolitsa,
+the capital of the vilayet. In September this was taken by storm;
+Kolokotrones rode in triumph to the citadel over streets carpeted with
+the dead; and the crowning triumph of the Cross was celebrated by a
+cold-blooded massacre of 2000 prisoners of all ages and both sexes. This
+completed the success of the insurrection in the Morea, where only
+Patras, Nauplia, and one or two lesser fortresses remained to the Turks.
+
+Meanwhile, north of the Isthmus, the fortunes of war had been less
+one-sided. In the west Khurshid's lieutenant, Omar Vrioni (a Mussulman
+Greek of the race of the Palaeologi), had inflicted a series of defeats
+on the insurgents, recaptured Levadia, and on the 30th of June relieved
+the Acropolis; but the rout of the troops which Mahommed Pasha was
+bringing to his aid by the Greeks in the defile of Mount Oeta, and the
+news of the fall of Tripolitsa, forced him to retreat, and the campaign
+of 1821 ended with the retirement of the Turks into Thessaly.
+
+The month of April had witnessed the revolt of the principal Greek
+islands, Spetsae on the 7th, Psara on the 23rd, Hydra on the 28th and
+Samos on the 30th. Their fleets were divided into squadrons, of which
+one, under Tombazes, was deputed to watch for the entrance of the
+Ottomans into the archipelago, while the other under Andreas Miaoulis
+(_q.v._) sailed to blockade Patras and watch the coasts of Epirus. At
+sea, as on land, the Greeks opened the campaign with hideous atrocities,
+almost their first exploit being the capture of a vessel carrying to
+Mecca the sheik-ul-Islam and his family, whom they murdered with every
+aggravation of outrage.
+
+
+  General character of the war.
+
+These inauspicious beginnings, indeed, set the whole tone of the war,
+which was frankly one of mutual extermination. On both sides the
+combatants were barbarians, without discipline or competent
+organization. At sea the Greeks rapidly developed into mere pirates, and
+even Miaoulis, for all his high character and courage, was often unable
+to prevent his captains from sailing home at critical moments, when pay
+or booty failed. On land the presence of a few educated Phanariots, such
+as Demetrios Ypsilanti or Alexander Mavrocordato, was powerless to
+inspire the rude hordes with any sense of order or of humanity in
+warfare; while every lull in the fighting, due to a temporary check to
+the Turks, was the signal for internecine conflicts due to the rivalry
+of leaders who, with rare exceptions, thought more of their personal
+power and profit than of the cause of Greece.
+
+
+  Turkish reprisals.
+
+  Europe and the rising Philhellenism.
+
+This cause, indeed, was helped more by the impolitic reprisals of the
+Turks than by the heroism of the insurgents. All Europe stood aghast at
+the news of the execution of the Patriarch Gregorios of Constantinople
+(April 22, 1821) and the wholesale massacres that followed, culminating
+as these did in the extermination of the prosperous community of Scio
+(Chios) in March 1822. The cause of Greece was now that of Christendom,
+of the Catholic and Protestant West, as of the Orthodox East. European
+Liberalism, too, gagged and fettered under Metternich's "system,"
+recognized in the Greeks the champions of its own cause; while even
+conservative statesmen, schooled in the memories of ancient Hellas, saw
+in the struggle a fight of civilization against barbarism. This latter
+belief, which was, moreover, flattering to their vanity, the Greek
+leaders were astute enough to foster; the propaganda of Adamantios
+Coraës (_q.v._) had done its work; and wily brigands, like Odysseus of
+Ithaka, assuming the style and trappings of antiquity, posed as the
+champions of classic culture against the barbarian. All Europe, then,
+hailed with joy the exploit of Constantine Kanaris, who on the night of
+June 18-19 succeeded in steering a fire-ship among the Turkish squadron
+off Scio, and burned the flag-ship of the capudan-pasha with 3000 souls
+on board.
+
+
+  Expedition of Dramali, 1822.
+
+Meanwhile Sultan Mahmud, now wide awake to the danger, had been
+preparing for a systematic effort to suppress the rising. The threatened
+breach with Russia had been avoided by Metternich's influence on the
+tsar Alexander; the death of Ali of Iannina had set free the army of
+Khurshid Pasha, who now, as _seraskier_ of Rumelia, was charged with the
+task of reducing the Morea. In the spring of 1822 two Turkish armies
+advanced southwards: one, under Omar Vrioni, along the coast of Western
+Hellas, the other, under Ali, pasha of Drama (Dramali), through Boeotia
+and Attica. Omar was held in check by the mud ramparts of Missolonghi;
+but Dramali, after exacting fearful vengeance for the massacre of the
+Turkish garrison of the Acropolis at Athens, crossed the Isthmus and
+with the over-confidence of a conquering barbarian advanced to the
+relief of the hard-pressed garrison of Nauplia. He crossed the perilous
+defile of Dervenaki unopposed; and at the news of his approach most of
+the members of the Greek government assembled at Argos fled in panic
+terror. Demetrios Ypsilanti, however, with a few hundred men joined the
+Mainote Karayanni in the castle of Larissa, which crowns the acropolis
+of ancient Argos. This held Dramali in check, and gave Kolokotrones time
+to collect an army. The Turks, in the absence of the fleet which was to
+have brought them supplies, were forced to retreat (August 6); the
+Greeks, inspired with new courage, awaited them in the pass of
+Dervenaki, where the undisciplined Ottoman host, thrown into confusion
+by an avalanche of boulders hurled upon them, was annihilated. In
+Western Greece the campaign had an outcome scarcely less disastrous for
+the Turks. The death of Ali of Iannina had been followed by the
+suppression of the insurgent Suliotes and the advance of Omar Vrioni
+southwards to Missolonghi; but the town held out gallantly, a Turkish
+surprise attack, on the 6th of January 1823, was beaten off, and Omar
+Vrioni had to abandon the siege and retire northwards over the pass of
+Makrynoros.
+
+
+  Civil war among the Greeks.
+
+  Campaign of 1823.
+
+The victorious outcome of the year's fighting had a disastrous effect
+upon the Greeks. Their victories had been due mainly to the guerilla
+tactics of the leaders of the type of Kolokotrones; Mavrocordato, whose
+character and antecedents had marked him out as the natural head of the
+new Greek state, in spite of his successful defence of Missolonghi, had
+been discredited by failures elsewhere; and the Greeks thus learned to
+despise their civilized advisers and to underrate the importance of
+discipline. The temporary removal of the common peril, moreover, let
+loose all the sectional and personal jealousies, which even in face of
+the enemy had been with difficulty restrained, and the year 1823
+witnessed the first civil war between the Greek parties. These
+internecine feuds might easily have proved fatal to the cause of Greece.
+In the Archipelago Hydriotes and Spetsiotes were at daggers drawn; the
+men of Psara were at open war with those of Samos; all semblance of
+discipline and cohesion had vanished from the Greek fleet. Had Khosrev,
+the new Ottoman admiral, been a man of enterprise, he might have
+regained the command of the sea and, with it, that of the whole
+situation. But the fate of his predecessor had filled him with a lively
+terror of Kanaris and his fire-ships; he contented himself with a cruise
+round the coasts of Greece, and was happy to return to safety under the
+guns of the Dardanelles without having accomplished anything beyond
+throwing supplies and troops into Coron, Modon and Patras. On land,
+meanwhile, the events of the year before practically repeated
+themselves. In the west an army of Mussulman and Catholic Albanians,
+under Mustai Pasha, advanced southwards. On the night of the 21st of
+August occurred the celebrated exploit of Marko Botzaris and his
+Suliotes: a successful surprise attack on the camp of the Ottoman
+vanguard, in which the Suliote leader fell. The jealousy of the Aetolian
+militia for the Suliotes, however, prevented the victory being decisive;
+and Mustai advanced to the siege of Anatoliko, a little town in the
+lagoons near Missolonghi. Here he was detained until, on the 11th of
+December, he was forced to raise the siege and retire northwards. His
+colleague, Yussuf Pasha, in East Hellas fared no better; here, too, the
+Turks gained some initial successes, but in the end the harassing
+tactics of Kolokotrones and his guerilla bands forced them back into the
+plain of the Kephissos. At the end of the year the Greeks were once more
+free to renew their internecine feuds.
+
+Just when these feuds were at their height, in the autumn of 1823, the
+most famous of the Philhellenes who sacrificed themselves for the cause
+of Greece, Lord Byron, arrived in Greece.
+
+
+  Second civil war, 1824.
+
+  Intervention of Mehemet Ali.
+
+The year 1824 was destined to be a fateful one for the Greek cause. The
+large loans raised in Europe, the first instalment of which Byron had
+himself brought over, while providing the Greeks with the sinews of war,
+provided them also with fresh material for strife. To the struggle for
+power was added a struggle for a share of this booty, and a second civil
+war broke out, Kolokotrones leading the attack on the forces of the
+government. Early in 1825 the government was victorious; Kolokotrones
+was in prison; and Odysseus, the hero of so many exploits and so many
+crimes, who had ended by turning traitor and selling his services to the
+Turks, had been captured, imprisoned in the Acropolis, and finally
+assassinated by his former lieutenant Gouras (July 16, 1824). But a new
+and more terrible danger now threatened Greece. Sultan Mahmud,
+despairing of suppressing the insurrection by his own power, had
+reluctantly summoned to his aid Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, whose
+well-equipped fleet and disciplined army were now thrown into the scale
+against the Greeks. Already, in June 1823, the pasha's son-in-law
+Hussein Bey had landed in Crete, and by April of the following year had
+reduced the insurgent islanders to submission. Crete now became the base
+of operations against the Greeks. On the 19th of June Hussein appeared
+before Kasos, a nest of pirates of evil reputation, which he captured
+and destroyed. The same day the Egyptian fleet, under Ibrahim Pasha,
+sailed from Alexandria. Khosrev, too, emboldened by this new sense of
+support, ventured to sea, surprised and destroyed Psara (July 2), and
+planned an attack on Samos, which was defeated by Miaoulis and his
+fire-ships (August 16, 17). On the 1st of September, however, Khosrev
+succeeded in effecting a junction with Ibrahim off Budrun, and two
+indecisive engagements followed with the united Greek fleet on the 5th
+and 10th. The object of Ibrahim was to reach Suda Bay with his
+transports, which the Greeks should at all costs have prevented. A first
+attempt was defeated by Miaoulis on the 16th of November, and Ibrahim
+was compelled to retire and anchor off Rhodes; but the Greek admiral was
+unable to keep his fleet together, the season was far advanced, his
+captains were clamouring for arrears of pay, and the Greek fleet sailed
+for Nauplia, leaving the sea unguarded. On the 5th of December Ibrahim
+again set sail, and reached Suda without striking a blow. Here he
+completed his preparations, and, on the 24th of February 1825, landed at
+Modon in the Morea with a force of 4000 regular infantry and 500
+cavalry. The rest followed, without the Greeks making any effort to
+intercept them.
+
+
+  Ibrahim in the Morea.
+
+The conditions of the war were now completely changed. The Greeks, who
+had been squandering the money provided by the loans in every sort of
+senseless extravagance, affected to despise the Egyptian invaders, but
+they were soon undeceived. On the 21st of March Ibrahim had laid siege
+to Navarino, and after some delay a Greek force under Skourti, a
+Hydriote sea-captain, was sent to its relief. The Greeks had in all some
+7000 men, Suliotes, Albanians, _armatoli_ from Rumelia, and some
+irregular Bulgarian and Vlach cavalry. On the 19th of April they were
+met by Ibrahim at Krommydi with 2000 regular infantry, 400 cavalry and
+four guns. The Greek entrenchments were stormed at the point of the
+bayonet by Ibrahim's fellahin at the first onset; the defenders broke
+and fled, leaving 600 dead on the field. The news of this disaster, and
+of the fall of Pylos and Navarino that followed, struck terror into the
+Greek government; and in answer to popular clamour Kolokotrones was
+taken from prison and placed at the head of the army. But the guerilla
+tactics of the wily klepht were powerless against Ibrahim, who marched
+northward, and, avoiding Nauplia for the present, seized Tripolitsa, and
+made this the base from which his columns marched to devastate the
+country far and wide.
+
+
+  Reshid "Kutahia" besieges Missolonghi.
+
+Meanwhile from the north the Ottomans were making another supreme
+effort. The command of the army that was to operate in west Hellas had
+been given to Reshid "Kutahia," pasha of Iannina, an able general and a
+man of determined character. On the 6th of April, after bribing the
+Albanian clansmen to neutrality, he passed the defile of Makrynoros,
+which the Greeks had left undefended, and on the 7th of May opened the
+second siege of Missolonghi. For twelve months the population held out,
+repulsing the attacks of the enemy, refusing every offer of honourable
+capitulation. This resistance was rendered possible by the Greek command
+of the sea, Miaoulis from time to time entering the lagoons with
+supplies; it came to an end when this command was lost. In September
+1825 Ibrahim, at the order of the sultan, had joined Reshid before the
+town; piecemeal the outlying forts and defences now fell, until the
+garrison, reduced by starvation and disease, determined to hazard all on
+a final sortie. This took place on the night of the 22nd of April 1826;
+but a mistaken order threw the ranks of the Greeks into disorder, and
+the Turks entered the town pell-mell with the retreating crowd. Only a
+remnant of the defenders succeeded in gaining the forests of Mount
+Zygos, where most of them perished.
+
+
+  Karaiskakis.
+
+The fall of Missolonghi, followed as this was by the submission of many
+of the more notable chiefs, left Reshid free to turn his attention to
+East Hellas, where Gouras had been ruling as a practically independent
+chief and in the spirit of a brigand. The peasants of the open country
+welcomed the Turks as deliverers, and Reshid's conciliatory policy
+facilitated his march to Athens, which fell at the first assault on the
+25th of August, siege being at once laid to the Acropolis, where Gouras
+and his troops had taken refuge. Round this the war now centred; for all
+recognized that its fall would involve that of the cause of Greece. In
+these straits the Greek government entrusted the supreme command of the
+troops to Karaiskakis, an old retainer of Ali of Iannina, a master of
+the art of guerilla war, and, above all, a man of dauntless courage and
+devoted patriotism. A first attempt to relieve the Acropolis, with the
+assistance of some disciplined troops under the French Colonel Fabvier,
+was defeated at Chaidari by the Turks. The garrison of the Acropolis was
+hard pressed, and the death of Gouras (October 13th) would have ended
+all, had not his heroic wife taken over the command and inspired the
+defenders with new courage. For months the siege dragged on, while
+Karaiskakis fought with varying success in the mountains, a final
+victory at Distomo (February 1827) over Omar Vrioni securing the
+restoration to the Greek cause of all continental Greece, except the
+towns actually held by the Turks.
+
+
+  Cochrane and Church.
+
+  Greek defeat at Athens.
+
+It was at this juncture that the Greek government, reinforced by a fresh
+loan from Europe, handed over the chief command at sea to Lord Cochrane
+(earl of Dundonald, _q.v._), and that of the land forces to General
+(afterwards Sir Richard) Church, both Miaoulis and Karaiskakis
+consenting without demur to serve under them. Cochrane and Church at
+once concentrated their energies on the task of relieving the Acropolis.
+Already, on the 5th of February, General Gordon had landed and
+entrenched himself on the hill of Munychia, near the ancient Piraeus,
+and the efforts of the Turks to dislodge him had failed, mainly owing to
+the fire of the steamer "Karteria" commanded by Captain Hastings. When
+Church and Cochrane arrived, a general assault on the Ottoman camp was
+decided on. This was preceded, on the 25th of April, by an attack,
+headed by Cochrane, on the Turkish troops established near the monastery
+of St Spiridion, the result of which was to establish communications
+between the Greeks at Munychia and Phalerum and isolate Reshid's
+vanguard on the promontory of the Piraeus. The monastery held out for
+two days longer, when the Albanian garrison surrendered on terms, but
+were massacred by the Greeks as they were marching away under escort.
+For this miserable crime Church has, by some historians, been held
+responsible by default; it is clear, however, from his own account that
+no blame rests upon him (see his MS. _Narrative_, vol. i. chap. ii. p.
+34). The assault on the Turkish main camp was fixed for the 6th of May;
+but, unfortunately, a chance skirmish brought on an engagement the day
+before, in the course of which Karaiskakis was killed, an irreparable
+loss in view of his prestige with the wild _armatoli_. The assault on
+the following day was a disastrous failure. The Greeks, advancing
+prematurely over broken ground and in no sort of order, were fallen upon
+in flank by Reshid's horsemen, and fled in panic terror. The English
+officers, who in vain tried to rally them, themselves only just escaped
+by scrambling into their boats and putting off to the war-vessels, whose
+guns checked the pursuit and enabled a remnant of the fugitives to
+escape. Church held Munychia till the 27th, when he sent instructions
+for the garrison of the Acropolis to surrender. On the 5th of June the
+remnant of the defenders marched out with the honours of war, and
+continental Greece was once more in the power of the Turks. Had Reshid
+at once advanced over the Isthmus, the Morea also must have been
+subdued; but he was jealous of Ibrahim, and preferred to return to
+Iannina to consolidate his conquests.
+
+
+  Renewed anarchy.
+
+The fate of Greece was now in the hands of the Powers, who after years
+of diplomatic wrangling had at last realized that intervention was
+necessary if Greece was to be saved for European civilization. The worst
+enemy of the Greeks was their own incurable spirit of faction; in the
+very crisis of their fate, during the siege of Missolonghi, rival
+presidents and rival assemblies struggled for supremacy, and a third
+civil war had only been prevented by the arrival of Cochrane and Church.
+Under their influence a new National Assembly met at Troezene in March
+1827 and elected as president Count Capo d'Istria (_q.v._), formerly
+Russian minister for foreign affairs; at the same time a new
+constitution was promulgated which, when the very life of the
+insurrection seemed on the point of flickering out, set forth the full
+ideal of Pan-Hellenic dreams. Anarchy followed; war of Rumeliotes
+against Moreotes, of chief against chief; rival factions bombarded each
+other from the two forts at Nauplia over the stricken town, and in
+derision of the impotent government. Finally, after months of inaction,
+Ibrahim began once more his systematic devastation of the country. To
+put a stop to this the Powers decided to intervene by means of a joint
+demonstration of their fleets, in order to enforce an armistice and
+compel Ibrahim to evacuate the Morea (Treaty of London, July 6, 1827).
+The refusal of Ibrahim to obey, without special instruction from the
+sultan, led to the entrance of the allied British, French and Russian
+fleet into the harbour of Navarino and the battle of the 20th of October
+1827 (see NAVARINO). This, and the two campaigns of the Russo-Turkish
+war of 1828-29, decided the issue.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--There is no trustworthy history of the war, based on all
+  the material now available, and all the existing works must be read
+  with caution, especially those by eye-witnesses, who were too often
+  prejudiced or the dupes of the Greek factions. The best-known works
+  are: G. Finlay, _Hist. of the Greek Revolution_ (2 vols., London,
+  1861); T. Gordon, _Hist. of the Greek Revolution_ (London, 1833); C.
+  W. P. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, _Geschichte Griechenlands_, &c.
+  (_Staatengeschichte der neuesten Zeit_) (2 vols., Leipzig, 1870-1874);
+  F. C. H. L. Pouqueville, _Histoire de la régénération de la Grèce,
+  &c._ (4 vols., Paris, 1824),--the author was French resident at the
+  court of Ali of Iannina and afterwards consul at Patras; Count A.
+  Prokesch-Osten, _Geschichte des Abfalls der Griechen vom türkischen
+  Reich, &c._ (6 vols., Vienna, 1867), the last four volumes consisting
+  of _pièces justificatives_ of much value. See also W. Alison Phillips,
+  _The War of Greek Independence_ (London and New York, 1897), a sketch
+  compiled mainly from the above-mentioned works: Spiridionos Tricoupi,
+  [Greek: Historia tês Hellênikês epanastaseôs] (Athens, 1853); J.
+  Philemon, [Greek: Dokimion historikon peri tês Hellênikês
+  epanastaseôs] (Athens, 1859), in four parts: (1) History of the
+  Hetaeria Philike, (2) The heralding of the war and the rising under
+  Ypsilanti, (3 and 4). The insurrection in Greece to 1822, with many
+  documents. Of great value also are the 29 volumes of Correspondence
+  and Papers of Sir Richard Church, now in the British Museum (Add MSS.
+  36,543-36,571). Among these is a Narrative by Church of the war in
+  Greece during his tenure of the command (vols. xxi.-xxiii., Nos.
+  36,563-36,565), which contains the material for correcting many errors
+  repeated in most works on the war, notably the strictures of Finlay
+  and others on Church's conduct before Athens. For further references
+  see the bibliography appended to W. Alison Phillips's chapter on
+  "Greece and the Balkan Peninsula" in the _Cambridge Modern History_,
+  x. 803.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GREEK LANGUAGE. Greek is one of the eight main branches into which the
+Indo-European languages (q.v.) are divided. The area in which it is
+spoken has been curiously constant throughout its recorded history.
+These limits are, roughly speaking, the shores of the Aegean, on both
+the European and the Asiatic side, and the intermediate islands (one of
+the most archaic of Greek dialects being found on the eastern side in
+the island of Cyprus), and the Greek peninsula generally from its
+southern promontories as far as the mountains which shut in Thessaly on
+the north. Beyond Mt. Olympus and the Cambunian mountains lay Macedonia,
+in which a closely kindred dialect was spoken, so closely related,
+indeed, that O. Hoffmann has argued (_Die Makedonen_, Göttingen, 1906)
+that Macedonian is not only Greek, but a part of the great Aeolic
+dialect which included Thessalian to the south and Lesbian to the east.
+In the north-west, Greek included many rude dialects little known even
+to the ancient Greeks themselves, and it extended northwards beyond
+Aetolia and Ambracia to southern Epirus and Thesprotia. In the Homeric
+age the great shrine of Pelasgian Zeus was at Dodona, but, by the time
+of Thucydides, Aetolia and all north of it had come to be looked upon as
+the most backward of Greek lands, where men lived a savage life,
+speaking an almost unintelligible language, and eating raw flesh
+([Greek: agnôstotatoi de glôssan kai ômophagoi], Thuc. iii. 94, of the
+Aetolian Eurytanes). The Greeks themselves had no memory of how they
+came to occupy this land. Their earliest legends connected the origin of
+their race with Thessaly and Mt. Pindus, but Athenians and Arcadians
+also boasted themselves of autochthonous race, inhabiting a country
+wherein no man had preceded their ancestors. The Greek language, at any
+rate as it has come down to us, is remarkably perfect, in vowel sounds
+being the most primitive of any of the Indo-European languages, while
+its verb system has no rival in completeness except in the earliest
+Sanskrit of the Vedic literature. Its noun system, on the other hand, is
+much less complete, its cases being more broken down than those of the
+Aryan, Armenian, Slavonic and Italic families.
+
+  The most remarkable characteristic of Greek is one conditioned by the
+  geographical aspect of the land. Few countries are so broken up with
+  mountains as Greece. Not only do mountain ranges as elsewhere on the
+  European continent run east and west, but other ranges cross them from
+  north to south, thus dividing the portions of Greece at some distance
+  from the sea into hollows without outlet, every valley being separated
+  for a considerable part of the year from contact with every other, and
+  inter-communication at all seasons being rendered difficult. Thus till
+  external coercion from Macedon came into play it was never possible to
+  establish a great central government controlling the Greek mainland.
+  The geographical situation of the islands in the Aegean equally led to
+  the isolation of one little territory from another. To these
+  geographical considerations may be added the inveterate desire of the
+  Greeks to make the [Greek: polis], the city state, everywhere and at
+  all times an independent unit, a desire which, originating in the
+  geographical conditions, even accentuated the isolating effect of the
+  natural features of the country. Thus at one time in the little island
+  of Amorgos there were no less than three separate and independent
+  political units. The inevitable result of geographical and political
+  division was the maintenance of a great number of local
+  characteristics in language, differentiating in this respect also each
+  political community from its nearest neighbours. It was only natural
+  that the inhabitants of a country so little adapted to maintain a
+  numerous population should have early sent off swarms to other lands.
+  The earliest stage of colonization lies in the borderland between myth
+  and history. The Greeks themselves knew that a population had preceded
+  them in the islands of the Cyclades which they identified with the
+  Carians of Asia Minor (Herodotus i. 171; Thucydides i. 4. 8). The same
+  population indeed appears to have preceded them on the mainland of
+  Greece, for there are similar place-names in Caria and in Greece which
+  have no etymology in Greek. Thus the endings of words like Parnassus
+  and Halicarnassus seem identical, and the common ending of place-names
+  in -[Greek: inthos, Korinthos, Probalinthos], &c., seems to be the
+  same in origin with the common ending of Asiatic names in -_nda_,
+  Alinda, Karyanda, &c. Probably the earliest portion of Asia Minor to
+  be colonized by the Greeks was the north-west, to which came settlers
+  from Thessaly, when the early inhabitants were driven out by the
+  Thesprotians, who later controlled Thessaly. The name Aeolis, which
+  after times gave to the N.W. of Asia Minor, was the old name for
+  Thessaly (Hdt. vii. 176). These Thesprotians were of the same stock as
+  the Dorians, to whose invasion of the Peloponnese the later migration,
+  which carried the Ionians to Asia and the Cypriot Greeks to Cyprus, in
+  all probability was due. From the north Aegean probably the Dorians
+  reached Crete, where alone their existence is recorded by Homer
+  (_Odyssey_, xix. 175 ff.; Diodorus Siculus v. 80. 2); cp. Fick,
+  _Vorgriechische Ortsnamen_ (1906).
+
+  Among the Greeks of the pre-Dorian period Herodotus distinguishes
+  various stocks. Though the name is not Homeric, both Herodotus and
+  Thucydides recognize an Aeolian stock which must have spread over
+  Thessaly and far to the west till it was suppressed and absorbed by
+  the Dorian stock which came in from the north-west. The name of Aeolis
+  still attached in Thucydides' time to the western area of Calydon
+  between the mountains and the N. side of the entrance to the
+  Corinthian gulf (iii. 102). In Boeotia the same stock survived (Thuc.
+  vii. 57. 5), overlaid by an influx of Dorians, and it came down to the
+  isthmus; for the Corinthians, though speaking in historical times a
+  Doric dialect, were originally Aeolians (Thuc. iv. 42). In the
+  Peloponnese Herodotus recognizes (viii. 73) three original stocks, the
+  Arcadians, the Ionians of Cynuria, and the Achaeans. In Arcadia there
+  is little doubt that the pre-Dorian population maintained itself and
+  its language, just as in the mountains of Wales, the Scottish
+  Highlands and Connemara the Celtic language has maintained itself
+  against the Saxon invaders. By Herodotus' time the Cynurians had been
+  doricized, while the Ionians, along the south side of the Corinthian
+  gulf, were expelled by the Achaeans (vii. 94, viii. 73), apparently
+  themselves driven from their own homes by the Dorian invasion (Strabo
+  viii. p. 333 _fin_.). However this may be, the Achaeans of historical
+  times spoke a dialect akin to that of northern Elis and of the Greeks
+  on the north side of the Corinthian gulf. How close the relation may
+  have been between the language of the Achaeans of the Peloponnese in
+  the Homeric age and their contemporaries in Thessaly we have no means
+  of ascertaining definitely, the documentary evidence for the history
+  of the dialects being all very much later than Homeric times. Even in
+  the Homeric catalogue Agamemnon has to lend the Arcadians ships to
+  take them to Troy (_Iliad_, ii. 612). But a population speaking the
+  same or a very similar dialect was probably seated on the eastern
+  coast, and migrated at the beginning of the Doric invasion to Cyprus.
+  As this population wrote not in the Greek alphabet but in a peculiar
+  syllabary and held little communication with the rest of the Greek
+  world, it succeeded in preserving in Cyprus a very archaic dialect
+  very closely akin to that of Arcadia, and also containing a
+  considerable number of words found in the Homeric vocabulary but lost
+  or modified in later Greek elsewhere.
+
+  On this historical foundation alone is it possible to understand
+  clearly the relation of the dialects in historical times. The
+  prehistoric movements of the Greek tribes can to some extent be
+  realized in their dialects, as recorded in their inscriptions, though
+  all existing inscriptions belong to a much later period. Thus from the
+  ancient Aeolis of northern Greece sprang the historical dialects of
+  Thessaly and Lesbos with the neighbouring coast of Asia Minor. At an
+  early period the Dorians had invaded and to some extent affected the
+  character of the southern Thessalian and to a much greater extent that
+  of the Boeotian dialect. The dialects of Locris, Phocis and Aetolia
+  were a somewhat uncouth and unliterary form of Doric. According to
+  accepted tradition, Elis had been colonized by Oxylus the Aetolian,
+  and the dialect of the more northerly part of Elis, as already pointed
+  out, is, along with the Achaean of the south side of the Corinthian
+  gulf, closely akin to those dialects north of the Isthmus. The most
+  southerly part of Elis--Triphylia--has a dialect akin to Arcadian.
+  Apart from Arcadian the other dialects of the Peloponnese in
+  historical times are all Doric, though in small details they differ
+  among themselves. Though we are unable to check the statements of the
+  historians as to the area occupied by Ionic in prehistoric times, it
+  is clear from the legends of the close connexion between Athens and
+  Troezen that the same dialect, had been spoken on both sides of the
+  Saronic gulf, and may well have extended, as Herodotus says, along the
+  eastern coast of the Peloponnese and the south side of the Corinthian
+  gulf. According to legend, the Ionians expelled from the Peloponnese
+  collected at Athens before they started on their migrations to the
+  coast of Asia Minor. Be that as it may, legend and language alike
+  connected the Athenians with the Ionians, though by the 5th century
+  B.C. the Athenians no longer cared to be known by the name (Hdt. i.
+  143). Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros, which had long belonged to Athens,
+  were Athenian also in language. The great island of Euboea and all the
+  islands of the central Aegean between Greece and Asia were Ionic.
+  Chios, the most northerly Ionic island on the Asiatic coast, seems to
+  have been originally Aeolic, and its Ionic retained some Aeolic
+  characteristics. The most southerly of the mainland towns which were
+  originally Aeolic was Smyrna, but this at an early date became Ionic
+  (Hdt. i. 149). The last important Ionic town to the south was Miletus,
+  but at an early period Ionic widened its area towards the south also
+  and took in Halicarnassus from the Dorians. According to Herodotus,
+  there were four kinds of Ionic ([Greek: charaktêres glôssês tesseres],
+  i. 142). Herodotus tells us the areas in which these dialects were
+  spoken, but nothing of the differences between them. They were (1)
+  Samos, (2) Chios and Erythrae, (3) the towns in Lydia, (4) the towns
+  in Caria. The language of the inscriptions unfortunately is a [Greek:
+  koinê], a conventional literary language which reveals no differences
+  of importance. Only recently has the characteristic so well known in
+  Herodotus of [kappa] appearing in certain words where other dialects
+  have [pi] ([Greek: hokôs] for [Greek: hopôs, kou] for [Greek: pou],
+  &c.) been found in any inscription. It is, however, clear that this
+  was a popular characteristic not considered to be sufficiently
+  dignified for official documents. We may conjecture that the native
+  languages spoken on the Lydian and Carian coasts had affected the
+  character of the language spoken by the Greek immigrants, more
+  especially as the settlers from Athens married Carian women, while the
+  settlers in the other towns were a mixture of Greek tribes, many of
+  them not Ionic at all (Hdt. i. 146).
+
+  The more southerly islands of the Aegean and the most southerly
+  peninsula of Asia Minor were Doric. In the Homeric age Dorians were
+  only one of many peoples in Crete, but in historical times, though the
+  dialects of the eastern and the western ends of the island differ from
+  one another and from the middle whence our most valuable documents
+  come, all are Doric. By Melos and Thera Dorians carried their language
+  to Cos, Calymnus, Cnidus and Rhodes.
+
+  These settlements, Aeolic, Ionic and Doric, grew and prospered, and
+  like flourishing hives themselves sent out fresh swarms to other
+  lands. Most prosperous and energetic of all was Miletus, which
+  established its trading posts in the Black Sea to the north and in the
+  delta of the Nile (Naucratis) to the south. The islands also sent off
+  their colonies, carrying their dialects with them, Paros to Thasos,
+  Euboea to the peninsulas of Chalcidice; the Dorians of Megara guarded
+  the entrance to the Black Sea at Chalcedon and Byzantium. While
+  Achaean influence spread out to the more southerly Ionian islands,
+  Corinth carried her dialect with her colonies to the coast of
+  Acarnania, Leucas and Corcyra. But the greatest of all Corinthian
+  colonies was much farther to the west--at Syracuse in Sicily.
+  Unfortunately the continuous occupation of the same or adjacent sites
+  has led to the loss of almost all that is early from Corinth and from
+  Syracuse. Corcyra has bequeathed to us some interesting grave
+  inscriptions from the 6th century B.C. Southern Italy and Sicily were
+  early colonized by Greeks. According to tradition Cumae was founded
+  not long after the Trojan War; even if we bring the date nearer the
+  founding of Syracuse in 735 B.C., we have apparently no record earlier
+  than the first half of the 5th century B.C., though it is still the
+  earliest of Chalcidian inscriptions. Tarentum was a Laconian
+  foundation, but the longest and most important document from a
+  Laconian colony in Italy comes from Heraclea about the end of the 4th
+  century B.C.--the report of a commission upon and the lease of temple
+  lands with description and conditions almost of modern precision. To
+  Achaea belonged the south Italian towns of Croton, Metapontum and
+  Sybaris. The ancestry of the Greek towns of Sicily has been explained
+  by Thucydides (vi. 2-5). Selinus, a colony of Megara, betrays its
+  origin in its dialect. Gela and Agrigentum no less clearly show their
+  descent from Rhodes. According to tradition the great city of Cyrene
+  in Africa was founded from Thera, itself an offshoot from Sparta.
+
+
+  CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREEK DIALECTS
+
+  1. _Arcadian and Cyprian._--As Cyprian was written in a syllabary
+  which could not represent a consonant by itself, did not distinguish
+  between voiced, unvoiced and aspirated consonants, did not represent
+  at all a nasal before another consonant, and did not distinguish
+  between long and short vowels, the interpretation of the symbols is of
+  the nature of a conundrum and the answer is not always certain. Thus
+  the same combination of two symbols would have to stand for [Greek:
+  tote, tode, dote, dothê, tonde, tôde, to, dê]. No inscription of more
+  than a few words in length is found in either dialect earlier than the
+  5th century B.C. In both dialects the number of important inscriptions
+  is steadily increasing. Both dialects change final [omicron] to
+  [upsilon], [Greek: apo] passing into [Greek: apy]. Arcadian changes
+  the verb ending -[Greek: ai] into -[Greek: oi]. Arcadian uses [delta]
+  or [zeta] for an original _gw_-sound, which appears in Attic Greek as
+  [beta]: [Greek: zellô], Attic [Greek: ballô], "throw." In inflexion
+  both agree in changing -[Greek: ao] of masculine -[alpha] stems into
+  [Greek: au] (Arcadian carries this form also into the feminine
+  -[alpha] stems), and in using locatives in -[Greek: ai] and -[Greek:
+  oi] for the dative, such locatives being governed by the prepositions
+  [Greek: apy] and [Greek: ex] (before a consonant [Greek: es] in
+  Arcadian). Verbs in -[Greek: aô], -[Greek: eô] and -[Greek: oô] are
+  declined not as -[omega], but as -[Greek: mi] verbs. The final [iota]
+  of the ending of the 3rd plural present changes the preceding [tau] to
+  [sigma]: [Greek: pheronsi], cp. Laconian (Doric) [Greek: pheronti],
+  Attic [Greek: pherousi], Lesbian [Greek: pheroisi]. Instead of the
+  Attic [Greek: tis], the interrogative pronoun appears as [Greek: sis],
+  the initial [sigma] in Arcadian being written with a special symbol
+  [koppa]. The pronunciation is not certain. The original sound was
+  _qw_, as in Latin _quis_, whence Attic [Greek: tis] and Thessalian
+  [Greek: kis]. In Arcadian [Greek: kan] the Aeolic particle [Greek: ke]
+  and the Ionic [Greek: an] seem to be combined.
+
+  2. _Aeolic._--Though Boeotian is overlaid with a Doric element, it
+  nevertheless agrees with Thessalian and Lesbian in some
+  characteristics. Unlike Greek generally, they represent the original
+  _qw_ of the word for _four_ by [pi] before [epsilon], where Attic and
+  other dialects have [tau]: [Greek: pettares], Attic [Greek: tettares].
+  The corresponding voiced and aspirated sounds are similarly treated:
+  [Greek: Belphaios] the adjective in Thessalian to [Greek: Delphoi],
+  and [Greek: phêr] for [Greek: thêr]. They all tend to change [omicron]
+  to [upsilon]: [Greek: onyma], "name"; [Greek: ou] for [omega] in
+  Thessalian: [Greek: Aploun], "Apollo"; and [upsilon] in Boeotian for
+  [Greek: oi]: [Greek: wukia] ([Greek: oikia]), "house." They also make
+  the dative plural of the third declension in -[Greek: essi], and the
+  perfect participle active is declined like a present participle in
+  -[Greek: ôn]. Instead of the Athenian method of giving the father's
+  name in the genitive when a citizen is described, these dialects
+  (especially Thessalian) tend to make an adjective: thus instead of the
+  Attic [Greek: Dêmosthenês Dêmosthenous], Aeolic would rather have
+  [Greek: D. Dêmostheneios]. Thessalian stands midway between Lesbian
+  and Boeotian, agreeing with Lesbian in the use of double consonants,
+  where Attic has a single consonant, with or without lengthening of the
+  previous syllable: [Greek: emmi], Attic [Greek: eimi] for an original
+  *_esmi_; [Greek: stalla], Attic [Greek: stêlê]; [Greek: xennos] for an
+  earlier [Greek: xenwos], Attic [Greek: xenos], Ionic [Greek: xeinos],
+  Doric [Greek: xênos]. Where Attic has -[Greek: as] from an earlier
+  -[Greek: ans] or -[Greek: ants], Lesbian has -[Greek: ais]: [Greek:
+  tais archais] accusative in Lesbian for older [Greek: tans archans].
+  Lesbian has no oxyton words according to the grammarians, the accent
+  being carried back to the penult or ante-*penultimate syllable. It has
+  also no "rough breathing," but this characteristic it shared with the
+  Ionic of Asia Minor, and in the course of time with other dialects.
+  The characteristic particle of the dialects is [Greek: ke], which is
+  used like the Doric [Greek: ka], the Arcadian [Greek: kan], and the
+  Attic and Ionic [Greek: an]. Thessalian and Lesbian agree in making
+  their long vowels close, [eta] belonging [Greek: ei] (a close _e_, not
+  a diphthong), [Greek: pateir], "father." The [upsilon] sound did not
+  become _ü_ as in Attic and Ionic, and hence when the Ionic alphabet
+  was introduced it was spelt [Greek: ou], or when in contact with
+  dentals [Greek: iou], as in [Greek: oniouma = onyma], "name," [Greek:
+  tioucha = tychê], "chance"; the pronunciation, therefore, must have
+  been like the English sound in _news_, _tune_. Boeotian developed
+  earlier than other dialects the changes in the vowels which
+  characterize modern Greek: [Greek: ai] became _e_, [Greek: kai]
+  passing into [Greek: kê]: compare [Greek: pateir] and [Greek: wukia]
+  above: [Greek: ei] became [iota] in [Greek: echi], "has." Thessalian
+  shows some examples of the Homeric genitive in -[Greek: oio:
+  polemoio], &c.; its ordinary genitive of [omicron]- stems is in
+  -[Greek: oi].
+
+  There are some points of connexion between this group and
+  Arcadian-Cyprian: in both Thessalian and Cyprian the characteristic
+  [Greek: ptolis] (Attic, &c., [Greek: polis]) and [Greek: dauchna]- for
+  [Greek: daphnê] are found, and both groups form the "contracting
+  verbs" not in -[omega] but in -[Greek: mi]. In the second group as in
+  the first there is little that precedes the 5th century B.C. Future
+  additions to our materials may be expected to lessen the gap between
+  the two groups and Homer.
+
+  3. _Ionic-Attic._--One of the earliest of Greek inscriptions--of the
+  7th century, at least--is the Attic inscription written in two lines
+  from right to left upon a wine goblet ([Greek: oinochoê]) given as a
+  prize: [Greek: hos nun orcheston panton | atalotata paizei toto dekan
+  min]. The last words are uncertain. Till lately early inscriptions in
+  Ionic were few, but recently an early inscription has been found at
+  Ephesus and a later copy of a long early inscription at Miletus.
+
+  The most noticeable characteristic of Attic and Ionic is the change of
+  [alpha] into [eta] which is universal in Ionic but does not appear in
+  Attic after another vowel or [rho]. Thus both dialects used [Greek:
+  mêtêr, timê] from an earlier [Greek: matêr, tima], but Attic had
+  [Greek: sophia, pragma] and [Greek: chôra], not [Greek: sophiê,
+  prêgma] and [Greek: chôrê] as in Ionic. The apparent exception [Greek:
+  korê] is explained by the fact that in this word a digamma [digamma]
+  has been lost after [rho], in Doric [Greek: korwa]. That the change
+  took place after the Ionians came into Asia is shown by the word
+  [Greek: Mêdoi], which in Cyprian is [Greek: Madoi]; the Medes were
+  certainly not known to the Greeks till long after the conquest of
+  Ionia. While Aeolic and the greater part of Doric kept [digamma], this
+  symbol and the sound _w_ represented by it had disappeared from both
+  Ionic and Attic before existing records begin--in other words, were
+  certainly not in use after 800 B.C. The symbol was known and occurs in
+  a few isolated instances. Both dialects agreed in changing _u_ into
+  _ü_, so that a _u_ sound has to be represented by [Greek: ou]. The
+  short _o_ tended towards _u_, so that the contraction of [omicron] +
+  [omicron] gave [Greek: ou]. In the same way short _e_ tended towards
+  _i_, so that the contraction of [epsilon] + [epsilon] gave [Greek:
+  ei], which was not a diphthong but a close _e_-sound. In Attic Greek
+  these contractions were represented by O and E respectively till the
+  official adoption of the Ionic alphabet at Athens in 403 B.C. So also
+  were the lengthened syllables which represent in their length the loss
+  of an earlier consonant, as [Greek: emeina] and [Greek: eneima],
+  Aeolic [Greek: emenna, enemma], which stand for a prehistoric *[Greek:
+  emensa] and *[Greek: enemsa], containing the -[sigma]- of the first
+  aorist, and [Greek: tous, oikous, echousi] representing an earlier
+  [Greek: tons, oikons, echonti] (3 pl. present) or *[Greek: echontsi]
+  (dative pl. of present participle). Both dialects also agreed in
+  changing [tau] before [iota] into [sigma] (like Aeolic), as in [Greek:
+  echousi] above, and in the 3rd person singular of -[Greek: mi] verbs,
+  [Greek: tithêsi, didôsi], &c., and in noun stems, as in [Greek: dosis]
+  for an earlier *[Greek: dotis]. Neither dialect used the particle
+  [Greek: ke] or [Greek: ka], but both have [Greek: an] instead. One of
+  the effects of the change of [alpha] into [eta] was that the
+  combination [Greek: ao] changed in both dialects to [Greek: êo], which
+  in all Attic records and in the later Ionic has become [Greek: eô] by
+  a metathesis in the quantity of the vowels: [Greek: naos], earlier
+  [Greek: nawos], "temple," is in Homeric Greek [Greek: nêos], in later
+  Ionic and Attic [Greek: neôs]. In the dative (locative) plural of the
+  -[alpha] stems, Ionic has generally -[Greek: êisi] on the analogy of
+  the singular; Attic had first the old locative form in -[Greek: êsi],
+  -[Greek: asi], which survived in forms which became adverbs like
+  [Greek: Athênêsi] and [Greek: thurasi]; but after 420 B.C. these were
+  replaced by -[Greek: ais, thurais], &c. The Ionic of Asia Minor showed
+  many changes earlier than that of the Cyclades and Euboea. It lost the
+  aspirate very early: hence in the Ionic alphabet H is _e_, not _h_; it
+  changed [Greek: au] and [Greek: eu] into [Greek: ao] and [Greek: eo],
+  and very early replaced to a large extent the -[Greek: mi] by the
+  -[omega] verbs. This confusion can be seen in progress in the Attic
+  literature of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C., [Greek: deiknymi]
+  gradually giving way to [Greek: deiknyô], while the literature
+  generally uses forms like [Greek: ephiei] for [Greek: ephiê] (impft.).
+  In Attica also the aspiration which survived in the Ionic of Euboea
+  and the Cyclades ceased by the end of the 5th century. The Ionic of
+  Asia Minor has -[Greek: ios] as the genitive of _o_-stems; the other
+  forms of Ionic have -[Greek: idos].
+
+  4. _Doric._--As already mentioned, the dialects of the North-West
+  differ in several respects from Doric elsewhere. As general
+  characteristics of Doric may be noted the contractions of [alpha] +
+  [epsilon] into [eta], and of [alpha] + [omicron] or [omega] into
+  [alpha], while the results in Attic and Ionic of these contractions
+  are [alpha] and [omega] respectively: [Greek: enikê] from [Greek:
+  nikaô], Attic [Greek: enika; timames] 1 pl. pres. from [Greek: timaô],
+  Attic [Greek: timômen; timan] gen. pl. of [Greek: tima] "honour,"
+  Attic [Greek: timôn]. In inflection the most noticeable points are the
+  pronominal adverbs in locative form: [Greek: toutei, tênei] (this from
+  a stem limited to a few Doric dialects and the Bucolic Poets), [Greek:
+  teide, hopei], &c.; the nom. pl. of the article [Greek: toi, tai], not
+  [Greek: hoi, hai] and so [Greek: toutoi] in Selinus and Rhodes; the
+  1st pl. of the verb in -[Greek: mes], not in -[Greek: men], cp. the
+  Latin -_mus_; the aorist and future in -[xi]-, where other dialects
+  have -[sigma]-, or contraction from presents in-[Greek: zô]; dikazô,
+  dikasô], Doric [Greek: dikaxô], &c.; the future passive with active
+  endings, [Greek: epimelêthêseunti] (Rhodes), found as yet only in the
+  Doric islands and in the Doric prose of Archimedes; the particles
+  [Greek: ai] "if" and [Greek: ka] with a similar value to the Aeolic
+  [Greek: ke] and the Attic-Ionic [Greek: an]. Doric had an accentuation
+  system different both from Aeolic and from Ionic-Attic, but the
+  details of the system are very imperfectly known.
+
+  In older works Doric is often divided into a _dialectus severior_ and
+  a _dialectus mitis_. But the difference is one of time rather than of
+  place, the peculiarities of Doric being gradually softened down till
+  it was ultimately merged in the _lingua franca_, the [Greek: koinê],
+  which in time engulfed all the local dialects except the descendant of
+  Spartan, Tzakonian. Here it is possible to mention its varieties only
+  in the briefest form. (a) The southern dialects are well illustrated
+  in the inscriptions of Laconia recently much increased in number by
+  the excavations of the British School at Athens. Apart from some brief
+  dedications, the earliest inscription of importance is the list of
+  names placed on a bronze column soon after 479 B.C. to commemorate the
+  tribes which had repulsed the Persians. The column, originally at
+  Delphi, is now at Constantinople. The most striking features of the
+  dialect are the retention of [digamma] at the beginning of words, as
+  in the dedication from the 6th century [Greek: wanaxibios] (_Annual of
+  British School_, xiv. 144). The dialect changed -[sigma]- between
+  vowels into -h-, [Greek: môha] for [Greek: môsa] "muse." Later it
+  changed [theta] into a sound like the English _th_, which was
+  represented by [sigma]. Before o-sounds [epsilon] here and in some
+  other Doric dialects changed to [iota]: [Greek: thios, sios] for
+  [Greek: theos] "god." The result of contraction and "compensatory
+  lengthening" was not [Greek: ei] and [Greek: ou] as in Attic and
+  Ionic, but [eta] and [omega]: [Greek: êmen] infinitive = [Greek:
+  einai] from *esmen; gen. sing. of _o_-stems in [omega]: [Greek: theô],
+  acc. pl. in -[Greek: ôs: theôs]; dy was represented by [Greek: dd],
+  not [zeta], as in Attic-Ionic; [Greek: musidde = muthize]. The dialect
+  has many strange words, especially in connexion with the state
+  education and organization of the boys and young men. The Heraclean
+  tables from a Laconian colony in S. Italy have curious forms in
+  -[Greek: assi] for the dat. pl. of the participle [Greek:
+  prassontassi] = Attic [Greek: prattousi]. Of the dialect of Messenia
+  we know little, the long inscription about mysteries from Andania
+  being only about 100 B.C. From Argolis there are a considerable number
+  of early inscriptions, and in a later form of the dialect the cures
+  recorded at the temple of Asklepios at Epidaurus present many points
+  of interest. There is also an inscription of the 6th century B.C. from
+  the temple of Aphaia in Aegina. [Digamma] survives in the old
+  inscriptions: [Greek: wewremena (= eirêmena); ns], whether original or
+  arising by sound change from -_nty_, persists till the 2nd century
+  B.C.: [Greek: hantitychonsa = hê antitychousa, tons huions = tous
+  huious]. The dialect of the Inachus valley seems to resemble Laconian
+  more closely than does that of the rest of the Argolic area. Corinth
+  and her colonies in the earliest inscriptions preserve [Digamma] and
+  [qoppa] (= Latin Q) before [omicron] and [upsilon] sounds, and write
+  [xi] and [psi] by [Greek: chs] and [Greek: phs], the symbols which are
+  used also for this purpose in old Attic. In the Corcyrean and Sicilian
+  forms of the dialect, [lambda] before a dental appears as [nu]:
+  [Greek: Phintias = Philtias]; and in Sicilian the perfect-active was
+  treated as a present: [Greek: dedoikô] for [Greek: dedoika], &c. From
+  Megara has come lately an obscure inscription from the beginning of
+  the 5th century; its colony Selinus has inscriptions from the middle
+  of the same century; the inscriptions from Byzantium and its other
+  Pontic colonies date only from Hellenistic times. In Crete, which
+  shows a considerable variety of subdialects, the most important
+  document is the great inscription from Gortyn containing twelve tables
+  of family law, which was discovered in 1884. The local alphabet has no
+  separate symbols for [chi] and [phi], and these sounds are therefore
+  written with [kappa] and [pi]. As in Argive the combination -[Greek:
+  ns] was kept both medially and finally except before words beginning
+  with a consonant; -_ty_- was represented by [zeta], later by -[Greek:
+  tt]-, as in Thessalian and Boeotian: [Greek: hopottoi], Attic [Greek:
+  hoposoi]; and finally by -[Greek: tt]-; [lambda] combined with a
+  preceding vowel into an au-diphthong: [Greek: auka], Attic [Greek:
+  alkê], cp. the English pronunciation of _talk_, &c. In Gortyn and
+  some other towns -[Greek: st]--was assimilated to--[Greek: tt], where
+  [theta] must have been a spirant like the English _th_ in _thin_;
+  [zeta] of Attic Greek is represented initially by [delta], medially by
+  [Greek: dd], but in some towns by [tau] and [Greek: tt: doos (= zôos),
+  dikadden (= dikazein)]. Final consonants are generally assimilated to
+  the beginning of the next word. In inflection there are many local
+  peculiarities. In Melos and Thera some very old inscriptions have been
+  found written in an alphabet without symbols for [phi], [chi], [phi],
+  [xi], which are therefore written as [pi]h, [kappa]h or [koppa]h,
+  [Greek: ps, ks]. The contractions of [epsilon] + [epsilon] and of
+  [omicron] + [omicron] are represented by E and O respectively. The old
+  rock inscriptions of Thera are among the most archaic yet discovered.
+  The most characteristic feature of Rhodian Doric is the infinitive in
+  -[Greek: mein: domein], &c. (= Attic [Greek: dounai]), which passed
+  also to Gela and Agrigentum. The inscriptions from Cos are numerous,
+  but too late to represent the earliest form of the dialect.
+
+  (b) The dialects of N.W. Doric, Locrian, Phocian, Aetolian, with which
+  go Elean and Achaean, present a more uncouth appearance than the other
+  Doric dialects except perhaps Cretan. Only from Locris and Phocis come
+  fairly old inscriptions; later a [Greek: koinê] was developed, in
+  which the documents of the Aetolian league are written, and of which
+  the most distinctive mark is the dative plural of consonant stems in
+  -[Greek: ois: archontois] (= Attic [Greek: archousi]), [Greek:
+  agônois] (= Attic [Greek: agôsi]), &c. Phocian and the Locrian of Opus
+  have also forms like Aeolic in -[Greek: essi]. In place of the dative
+  in -[omega], locatives in -[Greek: oi] are used in Locrian and
+  Phocian. Generally north of the Corinthian gulf the middle present
+  participle from -[Greek: eô]-verbs ends in-[Greek: eimenos]; similar
+  forms are found also in Elean. Locrian changed [epsilon] before [rho]
+  into [alpha]: [Greek: patara] for [Greek: patera]; cf. English _Kerr_
+  and _Carr_, _sergeant_ and _Sargeaunt_. [Greek: st] appears for
+  [Greek: st], and [koppa] and [Digamma] are still much in use in the
+  5th century B.C. Many thousands of inscriptions were found in the
+  French excavations at Delphi, but nothing earlier than the 5th century
+  B.C. In the older inscriptions the Aeolic influence--datives in
+  -[Greek: essi, onyma] for [Greek: onoma]--is better marked than later.
+  In the Laws of the Labyad phratry (about 400 B.C.) the genitive is in
+  [Greek: ou], but a form in -[omega] is also found, [Greek: woikô],
+  which seems to be an old ablative fossilized as an adverb. The nom.
+  pl. [Greek: dekatetores] is used for the acc.; similar forms are found
+  in Elean and Achaean.
+
+  The more important of the older materials for Achaean come from the
+  Achaean colonies of S. Italy, and being scanty give us only an
+  imperfect view of the dialect, but it is clearly in its main features
+  Doric. Much more remarkable is the Elean dialect known chiefly from
+  inscriptions found at Olympia, some of which are as early as the
+  beginning of the 6th century. The native dialect was replaced first by
+  a Doric and then by the Attic [Greek: koinê], but under the Caesars
+  the archaic dialect was restored. Many of its characteristics it
+  shares with the dialects north of the Corinthian gulf, but it changes
+  original [epsilon] to [alpha]: [Greek: ma = mê], &c.; [delta] was
+  apparently a spirant, as in modern Greek (= _th_ in English _the_,
+  _thine_), and is represented by [zeta] in some of the earliest
+  inscriptions. Final -[sigma] became -[rho]; this is found also in
+  Laconian; -_ty_- became -[Greek: ss]-, but was not simplified as in
+  Attic to -[sigma]-: [Greek: ossa] = Attic [Greek: hosa].
+
+  As we have seen, Ionians, Aetolians and Dorians tended to level local
+  peculiarities and make a generally intelligible dialect in which
+  treaties and other important records were framed. The language of
+  literature is always of necessity to some extent a [Greek: koinê]:
+  with some Greek writers the use of a [Greek: koinê] was especially
+  necessary. The local dialect of Boeotia was not easily intelligible in
+  other districts, and a writer like Pindar, whose patrons were mostly
+  not Boeotians, had perforce to write in a dialect that they could
+  understand. Hence he writes in a conventional Doric with Aeolic
+  elements, which forms a strong contrast to that of Corinna, who kept
+  more or less closely to the Boeotian dialect. For different literary
+  purposes Greek had different [Greek: koinai]. A poet who would write
+  an epic must adopt a form of language modelled on that of Homer and
+  Hesiod; Alcaeus and Sappho were the models for the love lyric, which
+  was therefore Aeolic; Stesichorus was the founder of the triumphal
+  ode, which, as he was a Dorian of Sicily, must henceforth be in Doric,
+  though Pindar was an Aeolian, and its other chief representatives,
+  Simonides and Bacchylides, were Ionians from Ceos. The choral ode of
+  tragedy was always conventional Doric, and in the iambics also are
+  Doric words like [Greek: draô, laô], &c. Elegy and epigram were
+  founded on epic; the satirical iambics of Hipponax and his late
+  disciple Herondas are Ionic. The first Greek prose was developed in
+  Ionia, of which an excellent example has been preserved to us in
+  Herodotus. Thucydides was not an Ionian, but he could not shake
+  himself free of the tradition: he therefore writes [Greek: prassô,
+  tassô], &c., with -[Greek: ss]-, which was Ionic, but is never found
+  in Attic inscriptions nor in the writers who imitate the language of
+  common life--Aristophanes (when not parodying tragedy, or other forms
+  of literature or dialect), Plato and the Orators (with the partial
+  exception of Antiphon, who ordinarily has -[Greek: ss]-, but in the
+  one speech actually intended for the law-courts -[Greek: tt]-).
+  Similarly Hippocrates and his medical school in Cos wrote in Ionic,
+  not, however, in the Ionic of Herodotus, but in a language more akin
+  to the Ionic [Greek: koinê] of the inscriptions; and this dialect
+  continued to be used in medicine later, much as doctors now use Latin
+  for their prescriptions. The first literary document written in Attic
+  prose is the treatise on the _Constitution of Athens_, which is
+  generally printed amongst the minor works of Xenophon, but really
+  belongs to about 425 B.C. From the fragment of Aristophanes'
+  _Banqueters_ and from the first speech of Lysias "Against
+  Theomnestos" it is clear that the Attic dialect had changed rapidly in
+  the 6th and 5th centuries B.C., and that much of the phraseology of
+  Solon's laws was no longer intelligible by 400 B.C. Among the most
+  difficult of the literary dialects to trace is the earliest--the
+  Homeric dialect. The Homeric question cannot be discussed here, and on
+  that question it may be said _quot homines tot sententiae_. To the
+  present writer, however, it seems probable that the poems were
+  composed in Chios as tradition asserted; the language contains many
+  Aeolisms, and the heroes sung are, except for the Athenians (very
+  briefly referred to), and possibly Telamonian Ajax, not of the Ionic
+  stock. Chios was itself an Ionicized Aeolic colony (Diodorus v. 81.
+  7). The hypothesis of a great poet writing on the basis of earlier
+  Aeolic lays ([Greek: klea andrôn]) in Chios seems to explain the main
+  peculiarities of the Homeric language, which, however, was modified to
+  some extent in later times first under Ionic and afterwards under
+  Athenian influence.
+
+  Of Dorian literature we know little. The works of Archimedes written
+  in the Syracusan dialect were much altered in language by the late
+  copyists. The most striking development of the late classical age in
+  Doric lands is that of pastoral poetry, which, like Spenser, is "writ
+  in no language," but, on a basis of Syracusan and possibly Coan Doric,
+  has in its structure many elements borrowed from the Aeolic love lyric
+  and from epic.
+
+  From the latter part of the 5th century B.C. Athens became ever more
+  important as a literary centre, and Attic prose became the model for
+  the later [Greek: koinê], which grew up as a consequence of the decay
+  of the local dialects. For this decay there were several reasons. If
+  the Athenian empire had survived the Peloponnesian War, Attic
+  influence would no doubt soon have permeated the whole of that empire.
+  This consummation was postponed. Attic became the court language of
+  Macedon, and, when Alexander's conquests led to the foundation of
+  great new towns, like Alexandria, filled with inhabitants from all
+  parts of the Greek world, this dialect furnished a basis for common
+  intercourse. Naturally the resultant dialect was not pure Attic. There
+  were in it considerable traces of Ionic. In Attica itself the dialect
+  was less uniform than elsewhere even in the 5th century B.C., because
+  Athens was a centre of empire, literature and commerce. Like every
+  other language which is not under the dominion of the schoolmaster, it
+  borrowed the names of foreign objects which it imported from foreign
+  lands, not only from those of Greek-speaking peoples, but also from
+  Egypt, Persia, Lydia, Phoenicia, Thrace and elsewhere. The Ionians
+  were great seafarers, and from them Athens borrowed words for seacraft
+  and even for the tides: [Greek: amtôtis] "ebb," [Greek: rhachia] "high
+  tide," an Ionic word [Greek: rhêchiê] spelt in Attic fashion. From the
+  Dorians it borrowed words connected with war and sport: [Greek:
+  lochagos, kunagos], &c. A soldier of fortune like Xenophon, who spent
+  most of his life away from Athens, introduced not only strange words
+  but strange grammatical constructions also into his literary
+  compositions. With Aristotle, not a born Athenian but long resident in
+  Athens, the [Greek: koinê] may be said to have begun. Some
+  characteristics of Attic foreigners found it hard to acquire--its
+  subtle use of particles and its accent. Hence in Hellenistic Greek
+  particles are comparatively rare. According to Cicero, Theophrastus,
+  who came from as near Attica as Eretria in Euboea, was easily detected
+  by a market-woman as no Athenian after he had lived thirty years in
+  Athens. Thoucritus, an Athenian, who was taken prisoner in the
+  Peloponnesian War and lived for many years in Epirus as a slave, was
+  unable to recover the Athenian accent on his return, and his family
+  lay under the suspicion that they were an alien's children, as his son
+  tells us in Demosthenes' speech "Against Eubulides." In the [Greek:
+  koinê] there were several divisions, though the line between them is
+  faint and irregular. There was a [Greek: koinê] of literary men like
+  Polybius and of carefully prepared state documents, as at Magnesia or
+  Pergamum; and a different [Greek: koinê] of the vulgar which is
+  represented to us in its Egyptian form in the Pentateuch, in a later
+  and at least partially Palestinian form in the Gospels. Still more
+  corrupt is the language which we find in the ill-written and ill-spelt
+  private letters found amongst the Egyptian papyri. Not out of the old
+  dialects but out of this [Greek: koinê] arose modern Greek, with a
+  variety of dialects no less bewildering than that of ancient Greek. In
+  one place more rapidly, in another more slowly, the characteristics of
+  modern Greek begin to appear. As we have seen, in Boeotia the vowels
+  and diphthongs began to pass into the characteristic sounds of modern
+  Greek four centuries before Christ. Dorian dialects illustrate early
+  the passing of the old aspirate [Greek: th], the sound of which was
+  like the final t in English _bit_, into a sound like the English _th_
+  in _thin_, _pith_, which it still retains in modern Greek. The change
+  of [gamma] between vowels into a y sound was charged by the comic
+  poets against Hyperbolus the demagogue about 415 B.C. Only when the
+  Attic sound changes stood isolated amongst the Greek dialects did they
+  give way in the [Greek: koinê] to Ionic. Thus the forms with -[Greek:
+  ss]- instead of -[Greek: tt]- won the day, while modern Greek shows
+  that sometimes the -[Greek: rr]- which Attic shared with some Doric
+  dialects and Arcadian was retained, and that sometimes the Ionic
+  -[Greek: rs]-, which was also Lesbian and partly Doric, took its
+  place. In other cases, where Ionic and Attic did not agree, forms came
+  in which were different from either: the genitives of masculine a
+  stems were now formed as in Doric with [alpha], but the analogy of the
+  other cases may have been the effective force. The form [Greek: naos]
+  "temple," instead of Ionic [Greek: nêos], Attic [Greek: neôs], can
+  only be Doric.[1] In the first five centuries of the Christian era
+  came in the modern Greek characteristics of Itacism and vowel
+  contraction, of the pronunciation of [Greek: mp] and [Greek: nt] as
+  _mb_ and _nd_ and many other sound changes, the loss of the dative and
+  the confusion of the 1st with the 3rd declension, the dropping of the
+  -[Greek: mi] conjugation, the loss of the optative and the
+  assimilation of the imperfect and second aorist endings to those of
+  the first aorist.[2] There were meantime spasmodic attempts at the
+  revival of the old language. Lucian wrote Attic dialogue with a
+  facility almost equal to Plato; the old dialect was revived in the
+  inscriptions of Sparta; Balbilla, a lady-in-waiting on Hadrian's
+  empress, wrote epigrams in Aeolic, and there were other attempts of
+  the same kind. But they were only _tours de force_, [Greek: kêpoi
+  Adônidos], whose flowers had no root in the spoken language and
+  therefore could not survive. Even in the hands of a cultivated man
+  like Plutarch the [Greek: koinê] of the 1st century A.D. looks
+  entirely different from Attic Greek. Apart from non-Attic
+  constructions, which are not very numerous, the difference consists
+  largely in the new vocabulary of the philosophical schools since
+  Aristotle, whose jargon had become part of the language of educated
+  men in Plutarch's time, and made a difference in the language not
+  unlike that which has been brought about in English by the development
+  of the natural sciences. It is hardly necessary to say that these
+  changes, whether of the [Greek: koinê] or of modern Greek, did not of
+  necessity impair the powers of the language as an organ of expression;
+  if elaborate inflection were a necessity for the highest literary
+  merit, then we must prefer Cædmon to Milton and Cynewulf to
+  Shakespeare.
+
+
+  _The Chief Characteristics of Greek._
+
+  As is obvious from the foregoing account of the Greek dialects, it is
+  not possible to speak of the early history of Greek as handed down to
+  us as that of a single uniform tongue. From the earliest times it
+  shows much variety of dialect accentuated by the geographical
+  characteristics of the country, but arising, at least in part, from
+  the fact that the Greeks came into the country in separate waves
+  divided from one another by centuries. For the history of the language
+  it is necessary to take as a beginning the form of the Indo-European
+  language from which Greek descended, so far as it can be reconstructed
+  from a comparison of the individual I.E. languages (see ANDO-EUROPEAN
+  LANGUAGES). The sounds of this language, so far as at present
+  ascertained, were the following:--
+
+  (a) 11 vowels: _a_, _a_, _e_, _e_, _i_, _i_, _o_, _o_, _u_, _u_,
+  _[schwa]_ (a short indistinct vowel).
+
+  (b) 14 diphthongs: _ai_, _au_, _ei_, _eu_, _oi_, _ou_, _ai_, _au_,
+  _ei_, _eu_, _oi_, _ou_, _[schwa]i_, _[schwa]u_.
+
+  (c) 20 stop consonants.
+
+  Labials: _p_, _b_, _ph_, _bh_ (_ph_ and _bh_ being _p_ and _b_
+  followed by an audible breath, not _f_ and _v_).
+
+  Dentals: _t_, _d_, _th_, _dh_ (_th_ and _dh not_ spirants like the two
+  English sounds in _thin_ and _then_, but aspirated _t_ and _d_).
+
+  Palatals: _k_, _g_, _kh_, _gh_ (_kh_ and _gh_ aspirates as explained
+  above).
+
+  Velars: _q_, _g_, _qh_, _gh_ (velars differ from palatals by being
+  produced against the soft palate instead of the roof of the mouth).
+
+  Labio-velars: _qu_, _qu_, _quh_, _guh_ (these differ from the velars
+  by being combined with a slight labial w-sound).
+
+  (d) Spirants--
+
+    Labial: _w_.
+
+    Dental: _s_, _z_, post-dental _s_, _z_, interdental possibly þ, ð.
+
+    Palatal: [chi] (Scotch ch), y.
+
+    Velar: _x_ (a deeply guttural [chi], heard now in Swiss dialects),
+    [gh].
+
+  Closely akin to _w_ and _y_ and often confused with them were the
+  semi-vowels _u_ and _i_.
+
+  (e) Liquids: _l_, _r_.
+
+  (f) Nasals: _m_ (labial), _n_ (dental), _ñ_ (palatal), [symbol]
+  (velar), the last three in combination with similar consonants.
+
+  (a) As far as the vowels are concerned, Greek retains the original
+  state of things more accurately than any other language. The sounds of
+  short _e_ and short _o_ in Attic and Ionic were close, so that _e_ +
+  _e_ contracted to a long close e represented by [Greek: ei], _o_ + _o_
+  to a long close _o_ represented by [Greek: oe]. In these dialects _u_,
+  both long and short, was modified to _ü_, and they changed the long
+  _a_ to _e_, though Attic has [alpha] after [epsilon], [iota] and
+  [rho]. In Greek [schwa] appeared regularly as [alpha], but under the
+  influence of analogy often as [epsilon] and [omicron].
+
+  (b) The short diphthongs as a whole remained unchanged before a
+  following consonant. Before a following vowel the diphthong was
+  divided between the two syllables, the [iota] or [upsilon] forming a
+  consonant at the beginning of the second syllable, which ultimately
+  disappeared. Thus from a root dheu- "run" comes a verb [Greek: theô]
+  for [Greek: the-wô], from an earlier *[Greek: theu-ô]. The
+  corresponding adjective is [Greek: thoos] "swift," for [Greek:
+  tho-wo-s], from an earlier *[Greek: thou-o-s]. The only dialect which
+  kept the whole diphthong in one syllable was Aeolic. The long
+  diphthongs, except at the ends of words, were shortened in Attic. Some
+  of these appear merely as long vowels, having lost their second
+  element in the proethnic period. Apparent long diphthongs like those
+  in [Greek: lêtourgia, sôzô] arise by contraction of two syllables.
+
+  (c) The consonants suffered more extensive change. The voiced
+  aspirates became unvoiced, so that _bh_, _dh_, _gh_, _gh_, _guh_ are
+  confused with original _ph_, _th_, _kh_, _qh_, _quh_: I.E. *_bhero_
+  (Skt. _bharami_) is Gr. [Greek: pherô]; I.E. *_dhumos_ (Skt.
+  _dhumas_), Gr. [Greek: thymos]; I.E. *_ghimo_- (Skt. _hima_-), Gr.
+  [Greek: (dys)-chimo-s]; I.E. *_stigh_- (Skt. _stigh_-), Gr. [Greek:
+  stiches]; I.E. _guhen_- (Skt. _han_-), Gr. [Greek: theinô] (probably),
+  [Greek: phonos]. The palatal and velar series cannot be distinguished
+  in Greek; for the differences between them resort must be had to
+  languages of the _satem_-group, such as Sanskrit, Zend or Slavonic,
+  where the palatals appear as sibilants (see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES).
+  The labio-velar series present a great variety of forms in the
+  different Greek dialects, and in the same dialect before different
+  sounds. Thus in Attic before _o_ vowels, nasals and liquids, the
+  series appears as [pi], [beta], [phi]; before _e_ and _i_ vowels as
+  [tau], [beta] ([delta]), [theta]; in combination with _u_, which led
+  to loss of the u by dissimilation, [kappa], [gamma] [chi]. Thus
+  [Greek: hepomai] corresponds to the Latin _sequo-r_, apart from the
+  ending; [Greek: boûs] to Latin _bos_ (borrowed from Sabine), English
+  _cow_; [Greek: phonos] "slaughter," [Greek: epephnon], old Irish
+  _gonim_, "I wound." Parallel to these forms with _p_ are forms in the
+  Italic languages except Latin and Faliscan, and in the Cymric group of
+  the Celtic languages. The dental forms [tau], [delta], [theta] stand
+  by themselves. Thus [Greek: tis] (from the same root as [Greek: pou,
+  poi, pothen], etc.) is parallel to the Latin _quis_, the Oscan _pis_,
+  old Irish cía, Welsh _pwy_, "who?" "what?"; Attic [Greek: tettares],
+  Ionic [Greek: tesseres] "four" is parallel to Latin _quattuor_, Oscan
+  [Greek: petora], old Irish _cethir_, old Welsh _petguar_; [Greek:
+  tisis] is from the same root as [Greek: poinê]. For the voiced sound,
+  [beta] is much more common than [delta] before _e_ and _i_ sounds;
+  thus [Greek: bios] "life," from the same root as Skt. _jivas_, Latin
+  _vivus_; [Greek: bios] "bowstring," Skt. _jya_, &c. In Arcado-Cyprian
+  and Aeolic, [pi] and [beta] often precede _e_ and _i_ sounds. Thus
+  parallel to Attic [Greek: tettares] Lesbian has [Greek: pessyres],
+  Homer [Greek: pisyres], Boeotian [Greek: pettares]; Thessalian [Greek:
+  bellomai], Boeotian [Greek: beilomai] alongside of Attic [Greek:
+  boulomai], Lesbian [Greek: bollomai], Doric [Greek: bôlomai] and also
+  [Greek: dêlomai]. In Arcadian and Cyprian the form corresponding to
+  [Greek: tis] was [Greek: sis], in Thessalian [Greek: kis], where the
+  labialization was lost (see the article on Q).
+
+  A great variety of changes in the stopped consonants arose in
+  combination with other sounds, especially _i_ (a semivowel of the
+  nature of English _y_), _u_ (_w_) and _s_; -[Greek: ti-, -thi]- became
+  first -[Greek: ss]- and later -[sigma]- in Attic Greek, -[Greek: tt]-
+  in Boeotian (the precise pronunciation of -[Greek: ss]- and -[Greek:
+  tt]- is uncertain): Attic [Greek: ho-posos], earlier [Greek:
+  ho-possos], Boeotian [Greek: ho-pottos], from the same stem as the
+  Latin _quot_, _quotiens_; Homeric [Greek: messos], Attic [Greek:
+  mesos] from *[Greek: methios], Latin _medius_; -[Greek: ki-, -chi]-
+  became -[Greek: ss]-, Attic -[Greek: tt-: pissa] "pitch," Attic
+  [Greek: pitta] from *[Greek: píkia], cp. Latin _pix_, _picis_, [Greek:
+  elasson], Attic [Greek: elatton] comparative to [Greek: elachus].
+  [Greek: di] and [Greek: gi] became [zeta]: [Greek: Zeus] (Skt.
+  _Dyaus_) [Greek: elpizo] from [Greek: elpis], stem [Greek:
+  èlpid]-"hope," [Greek: mastizo] from [Greek: mastix], stem [Greek:
+  mastig]- "lash."
+
+  (d) The sound _u_ was represented in the Greek alphabet by [digamma],
+  the "digamma," but in Attic and Ionic the sound was lost very early.
+  In Aeolic, particularly Boeotian and Lesbian, it was persistent, and
+  so also in many Doric dialects, especially at the beginning of words.
+  When the Ionic alphabet was adopted by districts which had retained
+  [digamma], it was represented by [beta]: [Greek: brodon] Aeolic for
+  [Greek: rodon], i.e. [Greek: Drodon]. In Attic it disappeared, leaving
+  no trace; in Ionic it lengthened the preceding syllable; thus in Homer
+  [Greek: hupodeisas] is scanned with o long because the root of the
+  verb contained [digamma]: [Greek: ddei]-. Attic has [Greek: xenos],
+  but Ionic [Greek: xeinos] for [Greek: xenwos]. Its combination with
+  [tau] became -[Greek: ss]-, Attic and Boeotian -[Greek: tt]-, in
+  [Greek: tesseres, tettares, pettares] for I.E. [Greek: guetu]-.
+
+  But the most effective of all elements in changing the appearance of
+  Greek words was the sound _s_. Before vowels at the beginning, or
+  between vowels in the middle of words, it passed into an _h_ sound,
+  the "rough breathing." Thus [Greek: hepta] is the same word as the
+  Latin _septem_, English _seven_; [Greek: hal-s] has the same stem as
+  the Latin _sal_, English _sal-t_; [Greek: euo] for [Greek: euho] is
+  the same as the Latin _uro_ (*_eusô_). Combined with _i_ or _u_ also
+  it passes into _h_; [Greek: hymên], Skt. _syuman_, "band"; [Greek:
+  hêdus], Doric [Greek: adus], Latin _sua(d)vis_, English sweet; cp.
+  [Greek: oikoio] for *[Greek: woíkosio, nêos], Lesbian [Greek: nauos]
+  "temple," through [Greek: nawos] from *[Greek: naswo-s] connected with
+  [Greek: naiô] "dwell." Before nasals and liquids _s_ was assimilated:
+  [Greek: mei-daô], Latin _mi-ru-s_, English _smile_; [Greek: nipha],
+  Latin _nivem_, English _snow_; [Greek: lêgo], Latin _laxus_, English
+  _slack_; [Greek: rheô] from *_sreu-o_ of the same origin as English
+  _stream_ (where _t_ is a later insertion), imperfect [Greek: erreon]
+  for *_esreuom_; cp. also [Greek: philommeidês, aganniphos, allêktos].
+
+  After nasals _s_ is assimilated except finally; when assimilated, in
+  all dialects except Aeolic the previous syllable is lengthened if not
+  already long: Attic [Greek: eneima, emeina] for the first aorist
+  *_enemsa_, *_emensa_; but [Greek: tons, tans], &c., of the accusative
+  pl. either remained or became in Aeolic [Greek: tois, tais], in Ionic
+  and Attic [Greek: tous, tas], in Doric [Greek: tôs, tas]; cp. [Greek:
+  titheis] for *[Greek: tithents, bas] for *[Greek: bants, heis] "one"
+  for *sem-s, then by analogy of the neuter *sens. Assimilation of
+  [sigma] to preceding [rho] and [lambda] is a matter of dialect: Ionic
+  [Greek: tharseo], but Attic [Greek: tharrô], and so also the Doric of
+  Thera: [Greek: ekelsa], but [Greek: esteila] for *[Greek: ettelsa].
+  With nasals [iota] affected the previous syllable: [Greek: tektainô]
+  (*[Greek: tekteio]), where _n_ is the nasal of the stem [Greek:
+  tektôn], itself forming a syllable (see the article N for these
+  so-called sonant nasals). Before [iota] original _m_ becomes _n_;
+  hence [Greek: bainô] with _n_, though from the same root as English
+  _come_. Original [iota] does not survive in Greek, but is represented
+  by the aspirate at the beginning of words, [Greek: hagnos] = Skt.
+  _yajnas_; medially after consonants it disappears, affecting the
+  preceding consonant or syllable where a consonant precedes; between
+  vowels it disappears. A sound of the same kind is indicated in Cyprian
+  and some other dialects as a glide or transition sound between two
+  vowels.
+
+  (e) The most remarkable feature in the treatment of the nasals is that
+  when _n_ or _m_ forms a syllable by itself its consonant character
+  disappears altogether and it is represented by the vowel [alpha] only:
+  [Greek: tatos], Latin _tentus_, [alpha]- negative particle, Latin
+  _in_, English _un_; [Greek: ha-ploos] has the same prefix as the Latin
+  _sim-plex_ (_sm_). The liquids in similar cases show [Greek: la] or
+  [Greek: al] and [Greek: ra] or [Greek: ar: te-tla-men, pe-paltai;
+  edrakon, thrasys, tharsos].
+
+  The ends of words were modified in appearance by the loss of all
+  stop-consonants and the change of final _m_ to _n_, [Greek: edeixe],
+  Latin _dixit_; [Greek: zygon], Latin _iugum_.
+
+  _Accent._--The vowel system of Greek has been so well preserved
+  because it shows till late times very little in the way of stress
+  accent. As in early Sanskrit the accent was predominantly a pitch
+  accent (see ACCENT).
+
+  _Noun System._--The I.E. noun had three numbers, but the dual was
+  limited to pairs, the two hands, the two horses in the chariot, and
+  was so little in use that the original form of the oblique cases
+  cannot be restored with certainty. Ionic has no dual. The I.E. noun
+  had the following cases: Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, Ablative,
+  Instrumental, Locative and Dative. The vocative was not properly a
+  case, because it usually stands outside the syntactical construction
+  of the sentence; when a distinctive form appears, it is the bare stem,
+  and there is no form (separate from the nominative) for the plural.
+  Greek has confused genitive and ablative (the distinction between them
+  seems to have been derived from the pronouns), except for the solitary
+  [Greek: woikô = oikothen] in an inscription of Delphi. The
+  instrumental, locative and dative are mixed in one case, partly for
+  phonetic, partly for syntactical reasons. In Arcadian, Elean,
+  Boeotian, and later widely in N. Greece, the locative -[Greek: oi] is
+  used for the dative. The masculine _a_-stems make the nom. in most
+  dialects in -[Greek: as]. The genitive is in -[Greek: ao] (with
+  [omicron] borrowed from the _o_-stems), which remains in Homer and
+  Boeotian, appears in Arcado-Cyprian as -[Greek: au], and with
+  metathesis of quantity -[Greek: eô] in Ionic. The Attic form in
+  -[Greek: ou] is borrowed directly from the _o_-stems. In the plural
+  the -[alpha] and -_o_ stems follow the article in making their
+  nominatives in -[Greek: ai] and -[Greek: oi] instead of the original
+  -_as_ and -_os_. The neuter plural was in origin a collective
+  singular, and for this reason takes a singular verb; the plural of
+  [Greek: zygon] "yoke" was originally *_iuga_, and declined like any
+  other -a stem. But through the influence of the masculine and feminine
+  forms the neuter took the same oblique cases, and like its own
+  singular made the accusative the same as the nominative. In the plural
+  of -_a_ and -_o_ stems, the locative in -[Greek: aisi, -oisi] was long
+  kept apart from the instrumental-dative form in -[Greek: ais, -ois].
+
+  _The Verb System._--The verb system of Greek is more complete than
+  that of any of the other I.E. languages. Its only rival, the early
+  Vedic verb system, is already in decay when history begins, and when
+  the classical period of Sanskrit arrives the moods have broken down,
+  and the aorist, perfect, and imperfect tenses are syntactically
+  confused. Throughout the Greek classical period the moods are
+  maintained, but in the period of the [Greek: koinê] the optative
+  occurs less and less and finally disappears. The original I.E. had two
+  voices, an active and a middle, and to these Greek has added a third,
+  the passive, distinguished from the middle in many verbs by separate
+  forms for the future and aorist, made with a syllable -[Greek: thê-,
+  timêthêsomai, etimêthên], though in this instance, [Greek: timêsomai],
+  the future middle, is often used with a passive sense. Other forms
+  which Greek has added to the original system are the pluperfect--in
+  form a past of the perfect stem with aorist endings. It merely
+  expressed the perfect action in past time, and, except as derived from
+  the context, did not possess the notion of relative time (past at a
+  time already past), which attaches to the Latin forms with the same
+  name. The future optative was also a new formation, betraying its
+  origin in the fact that it is almost entirely limited to _Oratio
+  Obliqua_. The aorist imperatives were also new; the history of some of
+  them, as the second sing. act. [Greek: pauson], is not very clear. The
+  whole verb system is affected by the distinction between -_o_ and
+  -_mi_ verbs; the former or thematic verbs have a so-called "thematic
+  vowel" between the root and the personal suffix, while the -_mi_ verbs
+  attach the suffixes directly to the root. The distinction is really
+  one between monosyllabic and disyllabic roots. The history of the
+  personal endings is not altogether clear; the -_o_ verbs have in the
+  present forms for the 2nd and 3rd person in -[Greek: eis] and -[Greek:
+  ei], which are not yet elucidated. In the middle, Greek does not
+  entirely agree with Sanskrit in its personal endings, and the original
+  forms cannot all be restored with certainty. The endings of the
+  primary tenses differed from those of the secondary, but there has
+  been a certain amount of confusion between them.
+
+  The syntax of the verb is founded on the original I.E. distinction of
+  the verb forms, not by time (tense), but by forms of action,
+  progressive action (present and imperfect), consummated action
+  (aorist), state arising from action, emphatic or repeated action
+  (perfect). For the details of this see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(i.) A grammar of Greek, which will deal fully with the
+  whole material of the language, is at present a _desideratum_, and is
+  hardly possible so long as new dialect material is being constantly
+  added and while comparatively so little has been done on the syntax of
+  the dialects. The greatest collection of material is to be found in
+  the new edition of Kühner's _Griechische Grammatik, Laut- und
+  Formenlehre_, by Blass (2 vols., 1890-1892); _Syntax_, by Gerth (2
+  vols., 1896, 1900). Blass's part is useful only for material, the
+  explanations being entirely antiquated. The only full historical
+  account of the language (sounds, forms and syntax) at present in
+  existence is K. Brugmann's _Griechische Grammatik_ (3rd ed., 1900).
+  Gustav Meyer's _Griechische Grammatik_ (nothing on accent or syntax),
+  which did excellent pioneer work when it first appeared in 1880, was
+  hardly brought up to date in its 3rd edition (1896), but is still
+  useful for the dialect and bibliographical material collected. See
+  also H. Hirt, _Handbuch der griech. Laut- und Formenlehre_ (1902). Of
+  smaller grammars in English perhaps the most complete is that of J.
+  Thompson (London, 1902). The grammar of Homer was handled by D. B.
+  Monro (2nd ed., Oxford, 1891). The syntax has been treated in many
+  special works, amongst which may be mentioned W. W. Goodwin, _Syntax
+  of the Greek Moods and Tenses_ (new ed., 1889); B. L. Gildersleeve and
+  C. W. E. Miller, _Syntax of Classical Greek from Homer to
+  Demosthenes_, pt. i. (New York, 1901--and following); J. M. Stahl,
+  _Kritisch-historische Syntax des griechischen Verbums_ (1907); F. E.
+  Thompson, _Attic Greek Syntax_ (1907). (ii.) The relations between
+  Greek and the other I.E. languages are very well brought out in P.
+  Kretschmer's _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_
+  (Göttingen, 1896). For comparative grammar see K. Brugmann and B.
+  Delbrück, _Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen
+  Sprachen_ (the 2nd ed., begun 1897, is still incomplete) and
+  Brugmann's _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik_ (1902-1903); A. Meillet,
+  _Introduction à l'étude comparative des langues indo-européennes_ (2nd
+  ed., 1908). Greek compared with Latin and English: P. Giles, _A Short
+  Manual of Comparative Philology for Classical Students_ (2nd ed.,
+  1901, with an appendix containing a brief account and specimens of the
+  dialects); Riemann and Goelzer, _Grammaire comparative du Grec et du
+  Latin_ (1901), a parallel grammar in 2 vols., specially valuable for
+  syntax. (iii.) For the dialects two works have recently appeared, both
+  covering in brief space the whole field: A. Thumb, _Handbuch der
+  griechischen Dialekte_ (with bibliographies for each dialect, 1909);
+  C. D. Buck, _Introduction to the Study of the Greek Dialects, Grammar,
+  Selected Inscriptions, Glossary_ (Boston, 1910). Works on a larger
+  scale have been undertaken by R. Meister, by O. Hoffmann and by H. W.
+  Smyth. For the [Greek: koinê] may be specially mentioned A. Thumb,
+  _Die griech. Sprache in Zeitalter des Hellenismus_ (1901); E. Mayser,
+  _Grammatik der griechischen Papyri aus der Ptolemäerzeit: Laut- und
+  Wortlehre_ (1906); H. St J. Thackeray, _A Grammar of the Old Testament
+  in Greek_, vol. i. (1909); Blass, _Grammar of New Testament Greek_,
+  trans. by Thackeray (1898); J. H. Moulton, _A Grammar of New Testament
+  Greek. I. Prolegomena_ (3rd ed., 1906). (iv.) For the development from
+  the [Greek: koinê] to modern Greek: A. N. Jannaris, _An Historical
+  Greek Grammar, chiefly of the Attic Dialect, as written and spoken
+  from Classical Antiquity down to the Present Time_ (1901); G. N.
+  Hatzidakis, _Einleitung in die neugriechische Grammatik_ (1892); A.
+  Thumb, _Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache_ (2nd ed. 1910).
+  (v.) The inscriptions are collected in _Inscriptiones Graecae_ in the
+  course of publication by the Berlin Academy, those important for
+  dialect in the _Sammlung der griech. Dialektinschriften_, edited by
+  Collitz and Bechtel. The earlier parts of this collection are to some
+  extent superseded by later volumes of the _Inscr. Graecae_, containing
+  better readings and new inscriptions. A good selection (too brief) is
+  Solmsen's _Inscriptiones Graecae ad inlustrandas dialectos selectae_
+  (3rd ed., 1910). A serviceable lexicon for dialect words is van
+  Herwerden's _Lexicon Graecum suppletorium et dialecticum_ (2nd ed.,
+  much enlarged, 2 vols. 1910). (vi.) The historical basis for the
+  distribution of the Greek dialects is discussed at length in the
+  histories of E. Meyer (_Geschichte des Altertums_, ii.) and G. Busolt
+  (_Griechische Geschichte_, i.); by Professor Ridgeway, _Early Age of
+  Greece_, i. (1901), and P. Kretschmer in _Glotta_, i. 9 ff. See also
+  A. Fick, _Die vorgriechischen Ortsnamen_ (1905). (vii.) Bibliographies
+  containing the new publications on Greek, with some account of their
+  contents, appear from time to time in _Indogermanische Forschungen:
+  Anzeiger_ (Strassburg, Trübner), annually in _Glotta_ (Göttingen,
+  Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht), and _The Year's Work in Classical Studies_
+  (London, Murray).     (P. Gi.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Thumb, _Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus_
+    (1901), pp. 242-243.
+
+  [2] Thumb, _op. cit._ p. 249.
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 4
+       "Grasshopper" to "Greek Language"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 26, 2011 [EBook #38143]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SLICE 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XII SLICE IV<br /><br />
+Grasshopper to Greek Language</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">GRASSHOPPER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GRAY, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GRASS OF PARNASSUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GRAY, WALTER DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GRATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GRAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GRATIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GRAYLING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GRAYS THURROCK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GRAZ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GRATTAN, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GRATTIUS [FALISCUS]</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GREAT AWAKENING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GRAUDENZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GREAT BARRIER REEF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GREAT BARRINGTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GRAVAMEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GREAT BASIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GRAVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GREAT BEAR LAKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GRAVEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GREAT CIRCLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GRAVELINES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GREAT FALLS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GRAVELOTTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GREAT HARWOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GRAVESEND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GRAVINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GREAT REBELLION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GRAVITATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GREAT SALT LAKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GRAVY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GREAT SLAVE LAKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GRAY, ASA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GRAY, DAVID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GREAVES, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GRAY, ELISHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GREBE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GRAY, HENRY PETERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GRECO, EL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GRAY, HORACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GRAY, JOHN DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GREECE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GRAY, JOHN EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GREEK ART</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GRAY, PATRICK GRAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GREEK FIRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GRAY, ROBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GRAY, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GREEK LANGUAGE</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">GRASSHOPPER<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (Fr. <i>sauterelle</i>, Ital. <i>grillo</i>, Ger. <i>Grashüpfer</i>,
+<i>Heuschrecke</i>, Swed. <i>Gräshoppa</i>), names applied to orthopterous
+insects belonging to the families <i>Locustidae</i> and <i>Acridiidae</i>.
+They are especially remarkable for their saltatory powers, due
+to the great development of the hind legs, which are much longer
+than the others and have stout and powerful thighs, and also for
+their stridulation, which is not always an attribute of the male
+only. The distinctions between the two families may be briefly
+stated as follows:&mdash;The <i>Locustidae</i> have very long thread-like
+antennae, four-jointed tarsi, a long ovipositor, the auditory
+organs on the tibiae of the first leg and the stridulatory organ
+in the wings; the <i>Acridiidae</i> have short stout antennae, three-jointed
+tarsi, a short ovipositor, the auditory organs on the first
+abdominal segment, and the stridulatory organ between the
+posterior leg and the wing. The term &ldquo;grasshopper&rdquo; is almost
+synonymous with <span class="sc">Locust</span> (<i>q.v.</i>). Under both &ldquo;grasshopper&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;locust&rdquo; are included members of both families above
+noticed, but the majority belong to the <i>Acridiidae</i> in both cases.
+In Britain the term is chiefly applicable to the large green
+grasshopper (<i>Locusta</i> or <i>Phasgonura viridissima</i>) common in
+most parts of the south of England, and to smaller and much
+better-known species of the genera <i>Stenobothrus</i>, <i>Gomphocerus</i>
+and <i>Tettix</i>, the latter remarkable for the great extension of the
+pronotum, which often reaches beyond the extremity of the body.
+All are vegetable feeders, and, as in all orthopterous insects,
+have an incomplete metamorphosis, so that their destructive
+powers are continuous from the moment of emergence from
+the egg till death. The migratory locust (<i>Pachytylus cinerascens</i>)
+may be considered only an exaggerated grasshopper, and the
+Rocky Mountain locust (<i>Caloptenus spretus</i>) is still more entitled
+to the name. In Britain the species are not of sufficient size,
+nor of sufficient numerical importance, to do any great damage.
+The colours of many of them assimilate greatly to those of their
+habitats; the green of the <i>Locusta viridissima</i> is wonderfully
+similar to that of the herbage amongst which it lives, and those
+species that frequent more arid spots are protected in the same
+manner. Yet many species have brilliantly coloured under-wings
+(though scarcely so in English forms), and during flight are almost
+as conspicuous as butterflies. Those that belong to the <i>Acridiidae</i>
+mostly lay their eggs in more or less cylindrical masses, surrounded
+by a glutinous secretion, in the ground. Some of the
+<i>Locustidae</i> also lay their eggs in the ground, but others deposit
+them in fissures in trees and low plants, in which the female is
+aided by a long flattened ovipositor, or process at the extremity
+of the abdomen, whereas in the <i>Acridiidae</i> there is only an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span>
+apparatus of valves. The stridulation or &ldquo;song&rdquo; in the latter
+is produced by friction of the hind legs against portions of the
+wings or wing-covers. To a practised ear it is perhaps possible
+to distinguish the &ldquo;song&rdquo; of even closely allied species, and some
+are said to produce a sound differing by day and night.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRASS OF PARNASSUS,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> in botany, a small herbaceous plant
+known as <i>Parnassia palustris</i> (natural order <i>Saxifragaceae</i>),
+found on wet moors and bogs in Britain but less common in the
+south. The white regular flower is rendered very attractive
+by a circlet of scales, opposite the petals, each of which bears a
+fringe of delicate filaments ending in a yellow knob. These
+glisten in the sunshine and look like a drop of honey. Honey is
+secreted by the base of each of the scales.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:358px; height:777px" src="images/img378.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Grass of Parnassus (<i>Parnassia palustris</i>). 1, one of the gland-bearing
+scales enlarged.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRATE<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>crates</i>, a hurdle), the iron or steel receptacle
+for a domestic fire. When coal replaced logs and irons were found
+to be unsuitable for burning the comparatively small lumps, and
+for this reason and on account of the more concentrated heat of
+coal it became necessary to confine the area of the fire. Thus a
+basket or cage came into use, which, as knowledge of the scientific
+principles of heating increased, was succeeded by the small
+grate of iron and fire-brick set close into the wall which has since
+been in ordinary use in England. In the early part of the 19th
+century polished steel grates were extensively used, but the
+labour and difficulty of keeping them bright were considerable,
+and they were gradually replaced by grates with a polished black
+surface which could be quickly renewed by an application of
+black-lead. The most frequent form of the 18th-century grate
+was rather high from the hearth, with a small hob on each side.
+The brothers Adam designed many exceedingly elegant grates
+in the shape of movable baskets ornamented with the paterae
+and acanthus leaves, the swags and festoons characteristic of
+their manner. The modern dog-grate is a somewhat similar
+basket supported upon dogs or andirons, fixed or movable.
+In the closing years of the 19th century a &ldquo;well-grate&rdquo; was
+invented, in which the fire burns upon the hearth, combustion
+being aided by an air-chamber below.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRATIAN<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Flavius Gratianus Augustus</span>), Roman emperor
+375-383, son of Valentinian I. by Severa, was born at Sirmium
+in Pannonia, on the 18th of April (or 23rd of May) 359. On the
+24th of August 367 he received from his father the title of
+Augustus. On the death of Valentinian (17th of November 375)
+the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant son (by a second
+wife Justina) emperor under the title of Valentinian II. (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Gratian acquiesced in their choice; reserving for himself the
+administration of the Gallic provinces, he handed over Italy,
+Illyria and Africa to Valentinian and his mother, who fixed their
+residence at Milan. The division, however, was merely nominal,
+and the real authority remained in the hands of Gratian. The
+eastern portion of the empire was under the rule of his uncle
+Valens. In May 378 Gratian completely defeated the Lentienses,
+the southernmost branch of the Alamanni, at Argentaria, near
+the site of the modern Colmar. When Valens met his death
+fighting against the Goths near Adrianople on the 9th of August
+in the same year, the government of the eastern empire devolved
+upon Gratian, but feeling himself unable to resist unaided the
+incursions of the barbarians, he ceded it to Theodosius (January
+379). With Theodosius he cleared the Balkans of barbarians.
+For some years Gratian governed the empire with energy and
+success, but gradually he sank into indolence, occupied himself
+chiefly with the pleasures of the chase, and became a tool in the
+hands of the Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop Ambrose.
+By taking into his personal service a body of Alani, and appearing
+in public in the dress of a Scythian warrior, he aroused the
+contempt and resentment of his Roman troops. A Roman named
+Maximus took advantage of this feeling to raise the standard of
+revolt in Britain and invaded Gaul with a large army, upon which
+Gratian, who was then in Paris, being deserted by his troops, fled
+to Lyons, where, through the treachery of the governor, he was
+delivered over to one of the rebel generals and assassinated on
+the 25th of August 383.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Gratian forms an important epoch in ecclesiastical
+history, since during that period orthodox Christianity for the
+first time became dominant throughout the empire. In dealing
+with pagans and heretics Gratian, who during his later years was
+greatly influenced by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, exhibited
+severity and injustice at variance with his usual character. He
+prohibited heathen worship at Rome; refused to wear the
+insignia of the pontifex maximus as unbefitting a Christian;
+removed the altar of Victory from the senate-house at Rome,
+in spite of the remonstrance of the pagan members of the senate,
+and confiscated its revenues; forbade legacies of real property
+to the Vestals; and abolished other privileges belonging to them
+and to the pontiffs. For his treatment of heretics see the church
+histories of the period.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii.-xxxi.; Aurelius
+Victor, <i>Epit.</i> 47; Zosimus iv. vi.; Ausonius (Gratian&rsquo;s tutor),
+especially the <i>Gratiarum actio pro consulatu</i>; Symmachus x. epp.
+2 and 61; Ambrose, <i>De fide</i>, prolegomena to <i>Epistolae</i> 11, 17, 21,
+<i>Consolatio de obitu Valentiniani</i>; H. Richter, <i>Das weströmische
+Reich, besonders unter den Kaisern Gratian, Valentinian II. und
+Maximus</i> (1865); A. de Broglie, <i>L&rsquo;Église et l&rsquo;empire romain au IV<span class="sp">e</span>
+siècle</i> (4th ed., 1882); H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>,
+iii., iv. 31-33; Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall</i>, ch. 27; R. Gumpoltsberger,
+<i>Kaiser Gratian</i> (Vienna, 1879); T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i>
+(Oxford, 1892), vol. i.; Tillemont, <i>Hist. des empereurs</i>, v.; J. Wordsworth
+in Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of Christian Biography</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> compiler of the <i>Concordia discordantium
+canonum</i> or <i>Decretum Gratiani</i>, and founder of the
+science of canon law, was born about the end of the 11th century
+at Chiusi in Tuscany or, according to another account, at Carraria
+near Orvieto. In early life he appears to have been received into
+the Camaldulian monastery of Classe near Ravenna, whence he
+afterwards removed to that of San Felice in Bologna, where he
+spent many years in the preparation of the <i>Concordia</i>. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span>
+precise date of this work cannot be ascertained, but it contains
+references to the decisions of the Lateran council of 1139, and
+there is fair authority for believing that it was completed while
+Pope Alexander III. was still simply professor of theology at
+Bologna,&mdash;in other words, prior to 1150. The labours of Gratian
+are said to have been rewarded with the bishopric of Chiusi, but
+if so he appears never to have been consecrated; at least his
+name is not in any authentic list of those who have occupied
+that see. The year of his death is unknown.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For some account of the <i>Decretum Gratiani</i> and its history see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Canon Law</a></span>. The best edition is that of Friedberg (<i>Corpus juris
+canonici</i>, Leipzig, 1879). Compare Schultze, <i>Zur Geschichte der
+Litteratur über das Decret Gratians</i> (1870), <i>Die Glosse zum Decret
+Gratians</i> (1872), and <i>Geschichte der Quellen und Litteratur des kanonischen
+Rechts</i> (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1805-1872),
+French author and theologian, was born at Lille on the 10th of
+March 1805. He was educated at the École Polytechnique,
+Paris, and, after a period of mental struggle which he has
+described in <i>Souvenirs de ma jeunesse</i>, he was ordained priest
+in 1832. After a stay at Strassburg as professor of the Petit
+Séminaire, he was appointed director of the Collège Stanislas
+in Paris in 1842 and, in 1847, chaplain of the École Normale
+Supérieure. He became vicar-general of Orleans in 1861,
+professor of ethics at the Sorbonne in 1862, and, on the death of
+Barante, a member of the French Academy in 1867, where he
+occupied the seat formerly held by Voltaire. Together with M.
+Pététot, <i>curé</i> of Saint Roch, he reconstituted the Oratory of the
+Immaculate Conception, a society of priests mainly devoted to
+education. Gratry was one of the principal opponents of the
+definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, but in this respect
+he submitted to the authority of the Vatican Council. He died
+at Montreux in Switzerland on the 6th of February 1872.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His chief works are: <i>De la connaissance de Dieu</i>, opposing
+Positivism (1855); <i>La Logique</i> (1856); <i>Les Sources, conseils pour
+la conduite de l&rsquo;esprit</i> (1861-1862); <i>La Philosophie du credo</i> (1861);
+<i>Commentaire sur l&rsquo;évangile de Saint Matthieu</i> (1863); <i>Jésus-Christ,
+lettres à M. Renan</i> (1864); <i>Les Sophistes et la critique</i> (in controversy
+with E. Vacherot) (1864); <i>La Morale et la loi de l&rsquo;histoire</i>, setting
+forth his social views (1868); <i>Mgr. l&rsquo;évêque d&rsquo;Orléans et Mgr.
+l&rsquo;archevêque de Malines</i> (1869), containing a clear exposition of the
+historical arguments against the doctrine of papal infallibility.
+There is a selection of Gratry&rsquo;s writings and appreciation of his style
+by the Abbé Pichot, in <i>Pages choisies des Grands Écrivains</i> series,
+published by Armand-Colin (1897). See also the critical study by
+the oratorian A. Chauvin, <i>L&rsquo;Abbé Gratry</i> (1901); <i>Le Père Gratry</i>
+(1900), and <i>Les Derniers Jours du Père Gratry et son testament spirituel</i>,
+(1872), by Cardinal Adolphe Perraud, Gratry&rsquo;s friend and disciple.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRATTAN, HENRY<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1746-1820), Irish statesman, son of
+James Grattan, for many years recorder of Dublin, was born
+in Dublin on the 3rd of July 1746. He early gave evidence
+of exceptional gifts both of intellect and character. At
+Trinity College, Dublin, where he had a distinguished career, he
+began a lifelong devotion to classical literature and especially
+to the great orators of antiquity. He was called to the Irish
+bar in 1772, but never seriously practised the law. Like Flood,
+with whom he was on terms of friendship, he cultivated his
+natural genius for eloquence by study of good models, including
+Bolingbroke and Junius. A visit to the English House of Lords
+excited boundless admiration for Lord Chatham, of whose style
+of oratory Grattan contributed an interesting description to
+<i>Baratariana</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flood, Henry</a></span>). The influence of Flood did
+much to give direction to Grattan&rsquo;s political aims; and it was
+through no design on Grattan&rsquo;s part that when Lord Charlemont
+brought him into the Irish parliament in 1775, in the very session
+in which Flood damaged his popularity by accepting office,
+Grattan quickly superseded his friend in the leadership of the
+national party. Grattan was well qualified for it. His oratorical
+powers were unsurpassed among his contemporaries. He
+conspicuously lacked, indeed, the grace of gesture which he so
+much admired in Chatham; he had not the sustained dignity
+of Pitt; his powers of close reasoning were inferior to those of
+Fox and Flood. But his speeches were packed with epigram,
+and expressed with rare felicity of phrase; his terse and telling
+sentences were richer in profound aphorisms and maxims of
+political philosophy than those of any other statesman save
+Burke; he possessed the orator&rsquo;s incomparable gift of conveying
+his own enthusiasm to his audience and convincing them of the
+loftiness of his aims.</p>
+
+<p>The principal object of the national party was to set the Irish
+parliament free from constitutional bondage to the English
+privy council. By virtue of Poyning&rsquo;s Act, a celebrated statute
+of Henry VII., all proposed Irish legislation had to be submitted
+to the English privy council for its approval under the great
+seal of England before being passed by the Irish parliament.
+A bill so approved might be accepted or rejected, but not
+amended. More recent English acts had further emphasized
+the complete dependence of the Irish parliament, and the
+appellate jurisdiction of the Irish House of Lords had also been
+annulled. Moreover, the English Houses claimed and exercised
+the power to legislate directly for Ireland without even the
+nominal concurrence of the parliament in Dublin. This was
+the constitution which Molyneux and Swift had denounced,
+which Flood had attacked, and which Grattan was to destroy.
+The menacing attitude of the Volunteer Convention at Dungannon
+greatly influenced the decision of the government in 1782 to
+resist the agitation no longer. It was through ranks of volunteers
+drawn up outside the parliament house in Dublin that Grattan
+passed on the 16th of April 1782, amidst unparalleled popular
+enthusiasm, to move a declaration of the independence of the
+Irish parliament. &ldquo;I found Ireland on her knees,&rdquo; Grattan
+exclaimed, &ldquo;I watched over her with a paternal solicitude;
+I have traced her progress from injuries to arms, and from arms
+to liberty. Spirit of Swift, spirit of Molyneux, your genius has
+prevailed! Ireland is now a nation!&rdquo; After a month of
+negotiation the claims of Ireland were conceded. The gratitude
+of his countrymen to Grattan found expression in a parliamentary
+grant of £100,000, which had to be reduced by one half before
+he would consent to accept it.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first acts of &ldquo;Grattan&rsquo;s parliament&rdquo; was to prove
+its loyalty to England by passing a vote for the support of
+20,000 sailors for the navy. Grattan himself never failed in
+loyalty to the crown and the English connexion. He was,
+however, anxious for moderate parliamentary reform, and,
+unlike Flood, he favoured Catholic emancipation. It was,
+indeed, evident that without reform the Irish House of Commons
+would not be able to make much use of its newly won independence.
+Though now free from constitutional control it was no less subject
+than before to the influence of corruption, which the English
+government had wielded through the Irish borough owners,
+known as the &ldquo;undertakers,&rdquo; or more directly through the great
+executive officers. &ldquo;Grattan&rsquo;s parliament&rdquo; had no control
+over the Irish executive. The lord lieutenant and his chief
+secretary continued to be appointed by the English ministers;
+their tenure of office depended on the vicissitudes of English,
+not Irish, party politics; the royal prerogative was exercised
+in Ireland on the advice of English ministers. The House of
+Commons was in no sense representative of the Irish people.
+The great majority of the people were excluded as Roman
+Catholics from the franchise; two-thirds of the members of
+the House of Commons were returned by small boroughs at the
+absolute disposal of single patrons, whose support was bought
+by a lavish distribution of peerages and pensions. It was to
+give stability and true independence to the new constitution
+that Grattan pressed for reform. Having quarrelled with Flood
+over &ldquo;simple repeal&rdquo; Grattan also differed from him on the
+question of maintaining the Volunteer Convention. He opposed
+the policy of protective duties, but supported Pitt&rsquo;s famous
+commercial propositions in 1785 for establishing free trade
+between Great Britain and Ireland, which, however, had to be
+abandoned owing to the hostility of the English mercantile
+classes. In general Grattan supported the government for a
+time after 1782, and in particular spoke and voted for the
+stringent coercive legislation rendered necessary by the Whiteboy
+outrages in 1785; but as the years passed without Pitt&rsquo;s
+personal favour towards parliamentary reform bearing fruit
+in legislation, he gravitated towards the opposition, agitated
+for commutation of tithes in Ireland, and supported the Whigs
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span>
+on the regency question in 1788. In 1792 he succeeded in
+carrying an Act conferring the franchise on the Roman Catholics;
+in 1794 in conjunction with William Ponsonby he introduced
+a reform bill which was even less democratic than Flood&rsquo;s bill
+of 1783. He was as anxious as Flood had been to retain the
+legislative power in the hands of men of property, for &ldquo;he had
+through the whole of his life a strong conviction that while
+Ireland could best be governed by Irish hands, democracy in
+Ireland would inevitably turn to plunder and anarchy.&rdquo;<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> At
+the same time he desired to admit the Roman Catholic gentry
+of property to membership of the House of Commons, a proposal
+that was the logical corollary of the Relief Act of 1792. The
+defeat of Grattan&rsquo;s mild proposals helped to promote more
+extreme opinions, which, under French revolutionary influence,
+were now becoming heard in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The Catholic question had rapidly become of the first importance,
+and when a powerful section of the Whigs joined
+Pitt&rsquo;s ministry in 1794, and it became known that the lord-lieutenancy
+was to go to Lord Fitzwilliam, who shared Grattan&rsquo;s
+views, expectations were raised that the question was about to
+be settled in a manner satisfactory to the Irish Catholics. Such
+seems to have been Pitt&rsquo;s intention, though there has been much
+controversy as to how far Lord Fitzwilliam (<i>q.v.</i>) had been
+authorized to pledge the government. After taking Grattan
+into his confidence, it was arranged that the latter should bring
+in a Roman Catholic emancipation bill, and that it should then
+receive government support. But finally it appeared that the
+viceroy had either misunderstood or exceeded his instructions;
+and on the 19th of February 1795 Fitzwilliam was recalled.
+In the outburst of indignation, followed by increasing disaffection
+in Ireland, which this event produced, Grattan acted with
+conspicuous moderation and loyalty, which won for him warm
+acknowledgments from a member of the English cabinet.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+That cabinet, however, doubtless influenced by the wishes of
+the king, was now determined firmly to resist the Catholic
+demands, with the result that the country rapidly drifted towards
+rebellion. Grattan warned the government in a series
+of masterly speeches of the lawless condition to which Ireland
+had been driven. But he could now count on no more than
+some forty followers in the House of Commons, and his words
+were unheeded. He retired from parliament in May 1797, and
+departed from his customary moderation by attacking the government
+in an inflammatory &ldquo;Letter to the citizens of Dublin.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>At this time religious animosity had almost died out in Ireland,
+and men of different faiths were ready to combine for common
+political objects. Thus the Presbyterians of the north, who were
+mainly republican in sentiment, combined with a section of the
+Roman Catholics to form the organization of the United Irishmen,
+to promote revolutionary ideas imported from France; and a
+party prepared to welcome a French invasion soon came into
+existence. Thus stimulated, the increasing disaffection culminated
+in the rebellion of 1798, which was sternly and cruelly
+repressed. No sooner was this effected than the project of a
+legislative union between the British and Irish parliaments,
+which had been from time to time discussed since the beginning
+of the 18th century, was taken up in earnest by Pitt&rsquo;s government.
+Grattan from the first denounced the scheme with
+implacable hostility. There was, however, much to be said in
+its favour. The constitution of Grattan&rsquo;s parliament offered no
+security, as the differences over the regency question had made
+evident that in matters of imperial interest the policy of the
+Irish parliament and that of Great Britain would be in agreement;
+and at a moment when England was engaged in a life and death
+struggle with France it was impossible for the ministry to ignore
+the danger, which had so recently been emphasized by the fact
+that the independent constitution of 1782 had offered no safeguard
+against armed revolt. The rebellion put an end to the
+growing reconciliation between Roman Catholics and Protestants;
+religious passions were now violently inflamed, and the Orangemen
+and Catholics divided the island into two hostile factions.
+It is a curious circumstance, in view of the subsequent history of
+Irish politics, that it was from the Protestant Established
+Church, and particularly from the Orangemen, that the bitterest
+opposition to the union proceeded; and that the proposal
+found support chiefly among the Roman Catholic clergy and
+especially the bishops, while in no part of Ireland was it received
+with more favour than in the city of Cork. This attitude of the
+Catholics was caused by Pitt&rsquo;s encouragement of the expectation
+that Catholic emancipation, the commutation of tithes, and the
+endowment of the Catholic priesthood, would accompany or
+quickly follow the passing of the measure.</p>
+
+<p>When in 1799 the government brought forward their bill it
+was defeated in the Irish House of Commons. Grattan was still
+in retirement. His popularity had temporarily declined, and
+the fact that his proposals for parliamentary reform and Catholic
+emancipation had become the watchwords of the rebellious
+United Irishmen had brought upon him the bitter hostility of
+the governing classes. He was dismissed from the privy council;
+his portrait was removed from the hall of Trinity College; the
+Merchant Guild of Dublin struck his name off their rolls. But
+the threatened destruction of the constitution of 1782 quickly
+restored its author to his former place in the affections of the
+Irish people. The parliamentary recess had been effectually
+employed by the government in securing by lavish corruption a
+majority in favour of their policy. On the 15th of January
+1800 the Irish parliament met for its last session; on the same
+day Grattan secured by purchase a seat for Wicklow; and at a
+late hour, while the debate was proceeding, he appeared to take
+his seat. &ldquo;There was a moment&rsquo;s pause, an electric thrill passed
+through the House, and a long wild cheer burst from the
+galleries.&rdquo;<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Enfeebled by illness, Grattan&rsquo;s strength gave way
+when he rose to speak, and he obtained leave to address the House
+sitting. Nevertheless his speech was a superb effort of oratory;
+for more than two hours he kept his audience spellbound by a
+flood of epigram, of sustained reasoning, of eloquent appeal.
+After prolonged debates Grattan, on the 26th of May, spoke
+finally against the committal of the bill, ending with an impassioned
+peroration in which he declared, &ldquo;I will remain
+anchored here with fidelity to the fortunes of my country,
+faithful to her freedom, faithful to her fall.&rdquo;<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> These were the
+last words spoken by Grattan in the Irish parliament.</p>
+
+<p>The bill establishing the union was carried through its final
+stages by substantial majorities. The people remained listless,
+giving no indications of any eager dislike of the government
+policy. &ldquo;There were absolutely none of the signs which are
+invariably found when a nation struggles passionately against
+what it deems an impending tyranny, or rallies around some
+institution which it really loves.&rdquo;<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a> One of Grattan&rsquo;s main
+grounds of opposition to the union had been his dread of seeing
+the political leadership in Ireland pass out of the hands of the
+landed gentry; and he prophesied that the time would come
+when Ireland would send to the united parliament &ldquo;a hundred
+of the greatest rascals in the kingdom.&rdquo;<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Like Flood before him,
+Grattan had no leaning towards democracy; and he anticipated
+that by the removal of the centre of political interest from Ireland
+the evil of absenteeism would be intensified.</p>
+
+<p>For the next five years Grattan took no active part in public
+affairs; it was not till 1805 that he became a member of the
+parliament of the United Kingdom. He modestly took his seat
+on one of the back benches, till Fox brought him forward to a
+seat near his own, exclaiming, &ldquo;This is no place for the Irish
+Demosthenes!&rdquo; His first speech was on the Catholic question,
+and though some doubt had been felt lest Grattan, like Flood,
+should belie at Westminster the reputation made in Dublin, all
+agreed with the description of his speech by the Annual Register
+as &ldquo;one of the most brilliant and eloquent ever pronounced
+within the walls of parliament.&rdquo; When Fox and Grenville
+came into power in 1806 Grattan was offered, but refused to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span>
+accept, an office in the government. In the following year he
+showed the strength of his judgment and character by supporting,
+in spite of consequent unpopularity in Ireland, a measure for
+increasing the powers of the executive to deal with Irish disorder.
+Roman Catholic emancipation, which he continued to advocate
+with unflagging energy though now advanced in age, became
+complicated after 1808 by the question whether a veto on the
+appointment of Roman Catholic bishops should rest with the
+crown. Grattan supported the veto, but a more extreme Catholic
+party was now arising in Ireland under the leadership of Daniel
+O&rsquo;Connell, and Grattan&rsquo;s influence gradually declined. He
+seldom spoke in parliament after 1810, the most notable exception
+being in 1815, when he separated himself from the Whigs
+and supported the final struggle against Napoleon. His last
+speech of all, in 1819, contained a passage referring to the union
+he had so passionately resisted, which exhibits the statesmanship
+and at the same time the equable quality of Grattan&rsquo;s character.
+His sentiments with regard to the policy of the union remained,
+he said, unchanged; but &ldquo;the marriage having taken place it is
+now the duty, as it ought to be the inclination, of every individual
+to render it as fruitful, as profitable and as advantageous as
+possible.&rdquo; In the following summer, after crossing from Ireland
+to London when out of health to bring forward the Catholic
+question once more, he became seriously ill. On his death-bed
+he spoke generously of Castlereagh, and with warm eulogy of
+his former rival, Flood. He died on the 6th of June 1820, and
+was buried in Westminster Abbey close to the tombs of Pitt and
+Fox. His statue is in the outer lobby of the Houses of Parliament
+at Westminster. Grattan had married in 1782 Henrietta Fitzgerald,
+a lady descended from the ancient family of Desmond,
+by whom he had two sons and two daughters.</p>
+
+<p>The most searching scrutiny of his private life only increases the
+respect due to the memory of Grattan as a statesman and the
+greatest of Irish orators. His patriotism was untainted by self-seeking;
+he was courageous in risking his popularity for what his
+sound judgment showed him to be the right course. As Sydney
+Smith said with truth of Grattan soon after his death: &ldquo;No
+government ever dismayed him. The world could not bribe
+him. He thought only of Ireland; lived for no other object;
+dedicated to her his beautiful fancy, his elegant wit, his manly
+courage, and all the splendour of his astonishing eloquence.&rdquo;<a name="fa7a" id="fa7a" href="#ft7a"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Henry Grattan, <i>Memoirs of the Life and Times of
+the Right Hon. H. Grattan</i> (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); <i>Grattan&rsquo;s
+Speeches</i> (ed. by H. Grattan, junr., 1822); <i>Irish Parl. Debates</i>;
+W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of England in the Eighteenth Century</i> (8 vols.,
+London, 1878-1890) and <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i>
+(enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903). For the controversy concerning the
+recall of Lord Fitzwilliam see, in addition to the foregoing, Lord
+Rosebery, <i>Pitt</i> (London, 1891); Lord Ashbourne, <i>Pitt: Some
+Chapters of his Life</i> (London, 1898); <i>The Pelham Papers (Brit. Mus.
+Add. MSS.</i>, 33118); <i>Carlisle Correspondence; Beresford Correspondence;
+Stanhope Miscellanies</i>; for the Catholic question, W. J.
+Amhurst, <i>History of Catholic Emancipation</i> (2 vols., London, 1886);
+Sir Thomas Wyse, <i>Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association
+of Ireland</i> (London, 1829); W. J. MacNeven, <i>Pieces of Irish History</i>
+(New York, 1807) containing an account of the United Irishmen;
+for the volunteer movement Thomas MacNevin, <i>History of the
+Volunteers of 1782</i> (Dublin, 1845); <i>Proceedings of the Volunteer
+Delegates of Ireland 1784</i> (Anon. Pamph. Brit. Mus.). See also F.
+Hardy, <i>Memoirs of Lord Charlemont</i> (London, 1812); Warden
+Flood, <i>Memoirs of Henry Flood</i> (London, 1838); Francis Plowden,
+<i>Historical Review of the State of Ireland</i> (London, 1803); Alfred
+Webb, <i>Compendium of Irish Biography</i> (Dublin, 1878); Sir Jonah
+Barrington, <i>Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation</i> (London, 1833); W. J.
+O&rsquo;Neill Daunt, <i>Ireland and her Agitators</i>; Lord Mountmorres,
+<i>History of the Irish Parliament</i> (2 vols., London, 1792); Horace
+Walpole, <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George III.</i> (4 vols., London, 1845
+and 1894); Lord Stanhope, <i>Life of William Pitt</i> (4 vols., London,
+1861); Thomas Davis, <i>Life of J. P. Curran</i> (Dublin, 1846)&mdash;this
+contains a memoir of Grattan by D. O. Madden, and Grattan&rsquo;s reply
+to Lord Clare on the question of the Union; Charles Phillips, <i>Recollections
+of Curran and some of his Contemporaries</i> (London, 1822);
+J. A. Froude, <i>The English in Ireland</i> (London, 1881); J. G. McCarthy,
+<i>Henry Grattan: an Historical Study</i> (London, 1886); Lord Mahon&rsquo;s
+<i>History of England</i>, vol. vii. (1858). With special reference to the
+Union see <i>Castlereagh Correspondence; Cornwallis Correspondence;
+Westmorland Papers</i> (Irish State Paper Office).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i>, i. 127
+(enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> i. 204.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> i. 241.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Grattan&rsquo;s Speeches</i>, iv. 23.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>History of England in the Eighteenth Century</i>,
+viii. 491. Cf. <i>Cornwallis Correspondence</i>, iii. 250.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> W. E. H. Lecky, <i>Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland</i>, i. 270.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7a" id="ft7a" href="#fa7a"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Sydney Smith&rsquo;s <i>Works</i>, ii. 166-167.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRATTIUS [FALISCUS],<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> Roman poet, of the age of Augustus,
+author of a poem on hunting (<i>Cynegetica</i>), of which 541 hexameters
+remain. He was possibly a native of Falerii. The only
+reference to him in any ancient writer is incidental (Ovid, <i>Ex
+Ponto</i>, iv. 16. 33). He describes various kinds of game, methods
+of hunting, the best breeds of horses and dogs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are editions by R. Stern (1832); E. Bährens in <i>Poëtae
+Latini Minores</i> (i., 1879) and G. G. Curcio in <i>Poeti Latini Minori</i> (i.,
+1902), with bibliography; see also H. Schenkl, <i>Zur Kritik des G.</i>
+(1898). There is a translation by Christopher Wase (1654).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAUDENZ<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (Polish <i>Grudziadz</i>), a town in the kingdom of
+Prussia, province of West Prussia, on the right bank of the
+Vistula, 18 m. S.S.W. of Marienwerder and 37 m. by rail N.N.E.
+of Thorn. Pop. (1885) 17,336, (1905) 35,988. It has two Protestant
+and three Roman Catholic churches, and a synagogue.
+It is a place of considerable manufacturing activity. The town
+possesses a museum and a monument to Guillaume René Courbière
+(1733-1811), the defender of the town in 1807. It has
+fine promenades along the bank of the Vistula. Graudenz is
+an important place in the German system of fortifications, and
+has a garrison of considerable size.</p>
+
+<p>Graudenz was founded about 1250, and received civic rights in
+1291. At the peace of Thorn in 1466 it came under the lordship
+of Poland. From 1665 to 1759 it was held by Sweden, and in
+1772 it came into the possession of Prussia. The fortress of
+Graudenz, which since 1873 has been used as a barracks and
+a military depot and prison, is situated on a steep eminence about
+1½ m. north of the town and outside its limits. It was completed
+by Frederick the Great in 1776, and was rendered famous
+through its defence by Courbière against the French in 1807.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1701-1759), German musical
+composer, the youngest of three brothers, all more or less musical,
+was born on the 7th of May 1701 at Wahrenbrück in Saxony.
+His father held a small government post and he gave his children
+a careful education. Graun&rsquo;s beautiful soprano voice secured
+him an appointment in the choir at Dresden. At an early age he
+composed a number of sacred cantatas and other pieces for the
+church service. He completed his studies under Johann Christoph
+Schmidt (1664-1728), and profited much by the Italian operas
+which were performed at Dresden under the composer Lotti.
+After his voice had changed to a tenor, he made his début at
+the opera of Brunswick, in a work by Schürmann, an inferior
+composer of the day; but not being satisfied with the arias assigned
+him he re-wrote them, so much to the satisfaction of the court
+that he was commissioned to write an opera for the next season.
+This work, <i>Polydorus</i> (1726), and five other operas written for
+Brunswick, spread his fame all over Germany. Other works,
+mostly of a sacred character, including two settings of the
+<i>Passion</i>, also belong to the Brunswick period. Frederick the
+Great, at that time crown prince of Prussia, heard the singer in
+Brunswick in 1735, and immediately engaged him for his private
+chapel at Rheinsberg. There Graun remained for five years,
+and wrote a number of cantatas, mostly to words written by
+Frederick himself in French, and translated into Italian by
+Boltarelli. On his accession to the throne in 1740, Frederick
+sent Graun to Italy to engage singers for a new opera to be
+established at Berlin. Graun remained a year on his travels,
+earning universal applause as a singer in the chief cities of Italy.
+After his return to Berlin he was appointed conductor of the
+royal orchestra (<i>Kapellmeister</i>) with a salary of 2000 thalers
+(£300). In this capacity he wrote twenty-eight operas, all to
+Italian words, of which the last, <i>Merope</i> (1756), is perhaps the
+most perfect. It is probable that Graun was subjected to considerable
+humiliation from the arbitrary caprices of his royal
+master, who was never tired of praising the operas of Hasse and
+abusing those of his <i>Kapellmeister</i>. In his oratorio <i>The Death
+of Jesus</i> Graun shows his skill as a contrapuntist, and his originality
+of melodious invention. In the Italian operas he imitates
+the florid style of his time, but even in these the recitatives
+occasionally show considerable dramatic power. Graun died
+on the 8th of August 1759, at Berlin, in the same house in which,
+thirty-two years later, Meyerbeer was born.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAVAMEN.<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>gravare</i>, to weigh down; <i>gravis</i>,
+heavy), a complaint or grievance, the ground of a legal action,
+and particularly the more serious part of a charge against an
+accused person. In English the term is used chiefly in ecclesiastical
+cases, being the technical designation of a memorial
+presented from the Lower to the Upper House of Convocation,
+setting forth grievances to be redressed, or calling attention to
+breaches in church discipline.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAVE.<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1) (From a common Teutonic verb, meaning &ldquo;to
+dig&rdquo;; in O. Eng. <i>grafan</i>; cf. Dutch <i>graven</i>, Ger. <i>graben</i>), a place
+dug out of the earth in which a dead body is laid for burial, and
+hence any place of burial, not necessarily an excavation (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Funeral Rites</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burial</a></span>). The verb &ldquo;to grave,&rdquo; meaning
+properly to dig, is particularly used of the making of incisions
+in a hard surface (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Engraving</a></span>). (2) A title, now obsolete,
+of a local administrative official for a township in certain parts
+of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire; it also sometimes appears in the
+form &ldquo;grieve,&rdquo; which in Scotland and Northumberland is used
+for sheriff (<i>q.v.</i>), and also for a bailiff or under-steward. The
+origin of the word is obscure, but it is probably connected with
+the German <i>graf</i>, count, and thus appears as the second part of
+many Teutonic titles, such as landgrave, burgrave and margrave.
+&ldquo;Grieve,&rdquo; on the other hand, seems to be the northern representative
+of O.E. <i>gerefa</i>, reeve; cf. &ldquo;sheriff&rdquo; and &ldquo;count.&rdquo;
+(3) (From the Lat. <i>gravis</i>, heavy), weighty, serious, particularly
+with the idea of dangerous, as applied to diseases and the like,
+of character or temperament as opposed to gay. It is also applied
+to sound, low or deep, and is thus opposed to &ldquo;acute.&rdquo; In
+music the term is adopted from the French and Italian, and
+applied to a movement which is solemn or slow. (4) To clean a
+ship&rsquo;s bottom in a specially constructed dock, called a &ldquo;graving
+dock.&rdquo; The origin of the word is obscure; according to the
+<i>New English Dictionary</i> there is no foundation for the connexion
+with &ldquo;greaves&rdquo; or &ldquo;graves,&rdquo; the refuse of tallow, in candle or
+soap-making, supposed to be used in &ldquo;graving&rdquo; a ship. It may
+be connected with an O. Fr. <i>grave</i>, mod. <i>grève</i>, shore.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAVEL,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Pebble Beds</span>, the name given to deposits of
+rounded, subangular, water-worn stones, mingled with finer
+material such as sand and clay. The word &ldquo;gravel&rdquo; is adapted
+from the O. Fr. <i>gravele</i>, mod. <i>gravelle</i>, dim. of <i>grave</i>, coarse sand,
+sea-shore, Mod. Fr. <i>grève</i>. The deposits are produced by the
+attrition of rock fragments by moving water, the waves and
+tides of the sea and the flow of rivers. Extensive beds of gravel
+are forming at the present time on many parts of the British
+coasts where suitable rocks are exposed to the attack of the
+atmosphere and of the sea waves during storms. The flint
+gravels of the coast of the Channel, Norfolk, &amp;c., are excellent
+examples. When the sea is rough the lesser stones are washed up
+and down the beach by each wave, and in this way are rounded,
+worn down and finally reduced to sand. These gravels are
+constantly in movement, being urged forward by the shore
+currents especially during storms. Large banks of gravel may
+be swept away in a single night, and in this way the coast is laid
+bare to the erosive action of the sea. Moreover, the movement
+of the gravel itself wears down the subjacent rocks. Hence in
+many places barriers have been erected to prevent the drift of
+the pebbles and preserve the land, while often it has been found
+necessary to protect the shores by masonry or cement work.
+Where the pebbles are swept along to a projecting cape they may
+be carried onwards and form a long spit or submarine bank,
+which is constantly reduced in size by the currents and tides
+which flow across it (<i>e.g.</i> Spurn Head at the mouth of the
+Humber). The Chesil Bank is the best instance in Britain of
+a great accumulation of pebbles constantly urged forward by
+storms in a definite direction. In the shallower parts of the North
+Sea considerable areas are covered with coarse sand and pebbles.
+In deeper water, however, as in the Atlantic, beyond the 100
+fathom line pebbles are very rare, and those which are found
+are mostly erratics carried southward by floating icebergs, or
+volcanic rocks ejected by submarine volcanoes.</p>
+
+<p>In many parts of Britain, Scandinavia and North America
+there are marine gravels, in every essential resembling those of
+the sea-shore, at levels considerably above high tide. These
+gravels often lie In flat-topped terraces which may be traced
+for great distances along the coast. They are indications that
+the sea at one time stood higher than it does at present, and
+are known to geologists as &ldquo;raised beaches.&rdquo; In Scotland such
+beaches are known 25, 50 and 100 ft. above the present shores.
+In exposed situations they have old shore cliffs behind them;
+although their deposits are mainly gravelly there is much fine
+sand and silt in the raised beaches of sheltered estuaries and near
+river mouths.</p>
+
+<p>River gravels occur most commonly in the middle and upper
+parts of streams where the currents in times of flood are strong
+enough to transport fairly large stones. In deltas and the lower
+portions of large rivers gravel deposits are comparatively rare
+and indicate periods when the volume of the stream was temporarily
+greatly increased. In the higher torrents also, gravels
+are rare because transport is so effective that no considerable
+accumulations can form. In most countries where the drainage
+is of a mature type, river gravels occur in the lower parts of the
+courses of the rivers as banks or terraces which lie some distance
+above the stream level. Individual terraces usually do not
+persist for a long space but are represented by a series of benches
+at about the same altitude. These were once continuous, and
+have been separated by the stream cutting away the intervening
+portions as it deepened and broadened its channel. Terraces
+of this kind often occur in successive series at different heights,
+and the highest are the oldest because they were laid down at
+a time when the stream flowed at their level and mark the
+various stages by which the valley has been eroded. While
+marine terraces are nearly always horizontal, stream terraces
+slope downwards along the course of the river.</p>
+
+<p>The extensive deposits of river gravels in many parts of
+England, France, Switzerland, North America, &amp;c., would
+indicate that at some former time the rivers flowed in greater
+volume than at the present day. This is believed to be connected
+with the glacial epoch and the augmentation of the streams
+during those periods when the ice was melting away. Many
+changes in drainage have taken place since then; consequently
+wide sheets of glacial and fluvio-glacial gravel lie spread out
+where at present there is no stream. Often they are commingled
+with sand, and where there were temporary post-glacial lakes
+deposits of silt, brick clay and mud have been formed. These
+may be compared to the similar deposits now forming in Greenland,
+Spitzbergen and other countries which are at present in a
+glacial condition.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule gravels consist mainly of the harder kinds of stone
+because these alone can resist attrition. Thus the gravels formed
+from chalk consist almost entirely of flint, which is so hard that
+the chalk is ground to powder and washed away, while the flint
+remains little affected. Other hard rocks such as chert, quartzite,
+felsite, granite, sandstone and volcanic rocks very frequently
+are largely represented in gravels, while coal, limestone and
+shale are far less common. The size of the pebbles varies from a
+fraction of an inch to several feet; it depends partly on the
+fissility of the original rocks and partly on the strength of the
+currents of water; coarse gravels indicate the action of powerful
+eroding agents. In the Tertiary systems gravels occur on many
+horizons, <i>e.g.</i> the Woolwich and Reading beds, Oldhaven beds
+and Bagshot beds of the Eocene of the London basin. They do
+not essentially differ from recent gravel deposits. But in course
+of time the action of percolating water assisted by pressure tends
+to convert gravels into firm masses of conglomerate by depositing
+carbonate of lime, silica and other substances in their interstices.
+Gravels are not usually so fossiliferous as finer deposits of the
+same age, partly because their porous texture enables organic
+remains to be dissolved away by water, and partly because
+shells and other fossils are comparatively fragile and would be
+broken up during the accumulation of the pebbles. The rock
+fragments in conglomerates, however, sometimes contain fossils
+which have not been found elsewhere.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAVELINES<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (Flem. <i>Gravelinghe</i>), a fortified seaport town of
+northern France, in the department of Nord and arrondissement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span>
+of Dunkirk, 15 m. S.W. of Dunkirk on the railway to
+Calais. Pop. (1906) town, 1858; commune, 6284. Gravelines
+is situated on the Aa, 1¼ m. from its mouth in the North Sea.
+It is surrounded by a double circuit of ramparts and by a tidal
+moat. The river is canalized and opens out beneath the fortifications
+into a floating basin. The situation of the port is one of
+the best in France on the North Sea, though its trade has suffered
+owing to the nearness of Calais and Dunkirk and the silting up
+of the channel to the sea. It is a centre for the cod and herring
+fisheries. Imports consist chiefly of timber from Northern
+Europe and coal from England, to which eggs and fruit are
+exported. Gravelines has paper-manufactories, sugar-works,
+fish-curing works, salt-refineries, chicory-roasting factories, a
+cannery for preserved peas and other vegetables and an important
+timber-yard. The harbour is accessible to vessels drawing 18 ft.
+at high tides. The greater part of the population of the commune
+of Gravelines dwells in the maritime quarter of Petit-Fort-Philippe
+at the mouth of the Aa, and in the village of Les Huttes
+(to the east of the town), which is inhabited by the fisher-folk.</p>
+
+<p>The canalization of the Aa by a count of Flanders about the
+middle of the 12th century led to the foundation of Gravelines
+(<i>grave-linghe</i>, meaning &ldquo;count&rsquo;s canal.&rdquo;). In 1558 it was the
+scene of the signal victory of the Spaniards under the count of
+Egmont over the French. It finally passed from the Spaniards
+to the French by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAVELOTTE<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span>, a village of Lorraine between Metz and the
+French frontier, famous as the scene of the battle of the 18th
+of August 1870 between the Germans under King William of
+Prussia and the French under Marshal Bazaine (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metz</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>). The battlefield extends from the
+woods which border the Moselle above Metz to Roncourt, near
+the river Orne. Other villages which played an important part
+in the battle of Gravelotte were Saint Privat, Amanweiler or
+Amanvillers and Sainte-Marie-aux-Chênes, all lying to the N.
+of Gravelotte.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1846-&emsp;&emsp;), Irish writer,
+was born in Dublin, the son of the bishop of Limerick. He was
+educated at Windermere College, and took high honours at
+Dublin University. In 1869 he entered the Civil Service as
+clerk in the Home Office, where he remained until he became in
+1874 an inspector of schools. He was a constant contributor of
+prose and verse to the <i>Spectator</i>, <i>The Athenaeum</i>, <i>John Bull</i>, and
+<i>Punch</i>, and took a leading part in the revival of Irish letters.
+He was for several years president of the Irish Literary Society,
+and is the author of the famous ballad of &ldquo;Father O&rsquo;Flynn&rdquo;
+and many other songs and ballads. In collaboration with Sir
+C. V. Stanford he published <i>Songs of Old Ireland</i> (1882), <i>Irish
+Songs and Ballads</i> (1893), the airs of which are taken from the
+Petrie MSS.; the airs of his <i>Irish Folk-Songs</i> (1897) were arranged
+by Charles Wood, with whom he also collaborated in <i>Songs of
+Erin</i> (1901).</p>
+
+<p>His brother, Charles L. Graves (b. 1856), educated at Marlborough
+and at Christ Church, Oxford, also became well known
+as a journalist, author of two volumes of parodies, <i>The Hawarden
+Horace</i> (1894) and <i>More Hawarden Horace</i> (1896), and of skits
+in prose and verse. An admirable musical critic, his <i>Life and
+Letters of Sir George Grove</i> (1903) is a model biography.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAVESEND<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span>, a municipal and parliamentary borough,
+river-port and market town of Kent, England, on the right bank
+of the Thames opposite Tilbury Fort, 22 m. E. by S. of London
+by the South-Eastern &amp; Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 27,196.
+It extends about 2 m. along the river bank, occupying a slight
+acclivity which reaches its summit at Windmill Hill, whence
+extensive views are obtained of the river, with its windings and
+shipping. The older and lower part of the town is irregularly
+built, with narrow and inconvenient streets, but the upper and
+newer portion contains several handsome streets and terraces.
+Among several piers are the town pier, erected in 1832, and the
+terrace pier, built in 1845, at a time when local river-traffic by
+steamboat was specially prosperous. Gravesend is a favourite
+resort of the inhabitants of London, both for excursions and as
+a summer residence; it is also a favourite yachting centre.
+The principal buildings are the town-hall, the parish church of
+Gravesend, erected on the site of an ancient building destroyed
+by fire in 1727; Milton parish church, a Decorated and Perpendicular
+building erected in the time of Edward II.; and the
+county courts. Milton Mount College is a large institution for
+the daughters of Congregational ministers. East of the town
+are the earthworks designed to assist Tilbury Fort in obstructing
+the passage up river of an enemy&rsquo;s force. They were originally
+constructed on Vauban&rsquo;s system in the reign of Charles II.
+Rosherville Gardens, a popular resort, are in the western suburb
+of Rosherville, a residential quarter named after James Rosher,
+an owner of lime works. They were founded in 1843 by George
+Jones. Gravesend, which is within the Port of London, has some
+import trade in coal and timber, and fishing, especially of
+shrimps, is carried on extensively. The principal other industries
+are boat-building, ironfounding, brewing and soap-boiling.
+Fruit and vegetables are largely grown in the neighbourhood
+for the London market. Since 1867 Gravesend has returned a
+member to parliament, the borough including Northfleet to the
+west. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
+councillors. Area, 1259 acres.</p>
+
+<p>In the Domesday Survey &ldquo;Gravesham&rdquo; is entered among the
+bishop of Bayeux&rsquo;s lands, and a &ldquo;hythe&rdquo; or landing-place is
+mentioned. In 1401 Henry IV. granted the men of Gravesend
+the sole right of conveying in their own vessels all persons
+travelling between London and Gravesend, and this right was
+confirmed by Edward IV. in 1462. In 1562 the town was
+granted a charter of incorporation by Elizabeth, which vested
+the government in 2 portreeves and 12 jurats, but by a later
+charter of 1568 one portreeve was substituted for the two.
+Charles I. incorporated the town anew under the title of the
+mayor, jurats and inhabitants of Gravesend, and a further
+charter of liberties was granted by James II. in 1687. A
+Thursday market and fair on the 13th of October were granted
+to the men of Gravesend by Edward III. in 1367; Elizabeth&rsquo;s
+charters gave them a Wednesday market and fairs on the 24th
+of June and the 13th of October, with a court of pie-powder;
+by the charter of Charles I. Thursday and Saturday were made
+the market days, and these were changed again to Wednesday
+and Saturday by a charter of 1694, which also granted a fair
+on the 23rd of April; the fairs on these dates have died out, but
+the Saturday market is still held.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning of the 17th century Gravesend was the
+chief station for East Indiamen; most of the ships outward
+bound from London stopped here to victual. A customs house
+was built in 1782. Queen Elizabeth established Gravesend as
+the point where the corporation of London should welcome in
+state eminent foreign visitors arriving by water. State processions
+by water from Gravesend to London had previously taken
+place, as in 1522, when Henry VIII. escorted the emperor
+Charles V. A similar practice was maintained until modern
+times; as when, on the 7th of March 1863, the princess Alexandra
+was received here by the prince of Wales (King Edward VII.)
+three days before their marriage. Gravesend parish church
+contains memorials to &ldquo;Princess&rdquo; Pocahontas, who died when
+preparing to return home from a visit to England in 1617, and
+was buried in the old church. A memorial pulpit from the state
+of Indiana, U.S.A., made of Virginian wood, was provided in
+1904, and a fund was raised for a stained-glass window by ladies
+of the state of Virginia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1664-1718), Italian
+littérateur and jurisconsult, was born at Roggiano, a small town
+near Cosenza, in Calabria, on the 20th of January 1664. He was
+descended from a distinguished family, and under the direction
+of his maternal uncle, Gregorio Caloprese, who possessed some
+reputation as a poet and philosopher, received a learned education,
+after which he studied at Naples civil and canon law. In
+1689 he came to Rome, where in 1695 he united with several
+others of literary tastes in forming the Academy of Arcadians.
+A schism occurred in the academy in 1711, and Gravina and his
+followers founded in opposition to it the Academy of Quirina.
+From Innocent XII. Gravina received the offer of various
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span>
+ecclesiastical honours, but declined them from a disinclination
+to enter the clerical profession. In 1699 he was appointed to
+the chair of civil law in the college of La Sapienza, and in 1703
+he was transferred to the chair of canon law. He died at Rome
+on the 6th of January 1718. He was the adoptive father of
+Metastasio.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gravina is the author of a number of works of great erudition, the
+principal being his <i>Origines juris civilis</i>, completed in 3 vols. (1713)
+and his <i>De Romano imperio</i> (1712). A French translation of the
+former appeared in 1775, of which a second edition was published
+in 1822. His collected works were published at Leipzig in 1737,
+and at Naples, with notes by Mascovius, in 1756.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAVINA<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the
+province of Bari, from which it is 63 m. S.W. by rail (29 m. direct),
+1148 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 18,197. The town is
+probably of medieval origin, though some conjecture that it
+occupies the site of the ancient Blera, a post station on the Via
+Appia. The cathedral is a basilica of the 15th century. The
+town is surrounded with walls and towers, and a castle of the
+emperor Frederick II. rises above the town, which later belonged
+to the Orsini, dukes of Gravina; just outside it are dwellings
+and a church (S. Michele) all hewn in the rock, and now
+abandoned.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Prehistoric remains in the district (remains of ancient settlements,
+<i>tumuli</i>, &amp;c.) are described by V. di Cicco in <i>Notizie degli scavi</i>
+(1901), p. 217.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAVITATION<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>gravis</i>, heavy), in physical science,
+that mutual action between masses of matter by virtue of which
+every such mass tends toward every other with a force varying
+directly as the product of the masses and inversely as the square
+of their distances apart. Although the law was first clearly and
+rigorously formulated by Sir Isaac Newton, the fact of the
+action indicated by it was more or less clearly seen by others.
+Even Ptolemy had a vague conception of a force tending toward
+the centre of the earth which not only kept bodies upon its
+surface, but in some way upheld the order of the universe. John
+Kepler inferred that the planets move in their orbits under some
+influence or force exerted by the sun; but the laws of motion
+were not then sufficiently developed, nor were Kepler&rsquo;s ideas of
+force sufficiently clear, to admit of a precise statement of the
+nature of the force. C. Huygens and R. Hooke, contemporaries
+of Newton, saw that Kepler&rsquo;s third law implied a force tending
+toward the sun which, acting on the several planets, varied
+inversely as the square of the distance. But two requirements
+necessary to generalize the theory were still wanting. One was
+to show that the law of the inverse square not only represented
+Kepler&rsquo;s third law, but his first two laws also. The other was to
+show that the gravitation of the earth, following one and the
+same law with that of the sun, extended to the moon. Newton&rsquo;s
+researches showed that the attraction of the earth on the moon
+was the same as that for bodies at the earth&rsquo;s surface, only
+reduced in the inverse square of the moon&rsquo;s distance from the
+earth&rsquo;s centre. He also showed that the total gravitation of
+the earth, assumed as spherical, on external bodies, would be
+the same as if the earth&rsquo;s mass were concentrated in the centre.
+This led at once to the statement of the law in its most general
+form.</p>
+
+<p>The law of gravitation is unique among the laws of nature,
+not only in its wide generality, taking the whole universe in its
+scope, but in the fact that, so far as yet known, it is absolutely
+unmodified by any condition or cause whatever. All other forms
+of action between masses of matter, vary with circumstances.
+The mutual action of electrified bodies, for example, is affected
+by their relative or absolute motion. But no conditions to
+which matter has ever been subjected, or under which it has
+ever been observed, have been found to influence its gravitation
+in the slightest degree. We might conceive the rapid motions
+of the heavenly bodies to result in some change either in the
+direction or amount of their gravitation towards each other at
+each moment; but such is not the case, even in the most rapidly
+moving bodies of the solar system. The question has also been
+raised whether the action of gravitation is absolutely instantaneous.
+If not, the action would not be exactly in the line
+adjoining the two bodies at the instant, but would be affected
+by the motion of the line joining them during the time required
+by the force to pass from one body to the other. The result of
+this would be seen in the motions of the planets around the sun;
+but the most refined observations show no such effect. It is
+also conceivable that bodies might gravitate differently at
+different temperatures. But the most careful researches have
+failed to show any apparent modification produced in this way
+except what might be attributed to the surrounding conditions.
+The most recent and exhaustive experiment was that of J. H.
+Poynting and P. Phillips (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 76A, p. 445). The
+result was that the change, if any, was less than <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span> of the force
+for one degree change of temperature, a result too minute to be
+established by any measures.</p>
+
+<p>Another cause which might be supposed to modify the action
+of gravitation between two bodies would be the interposition of
+masses of matter between them, a cause which materially
+modifies the action of electrified bodies. The question whether
+this cause modifies gravitation admits of an easy test from
+observation. If it did, then a portion of the earth&rsquo;s mass or of
+that of any other planet turned away from the sun would not be
+subjected to the same action of the sun as if directly exposed to
+that action. Great masses, as those of the great planets, would
+not be attracted with a force proportional to the mass because
+of the hindrance or other effect of the interposed portions.
+But not the slightest modification due to this cause is shown.
+The general conclusion from everything we see is that a mass of
+matter in Australia attracts a mass in London precisely as it
+would if the earth were not interposed between the two masses.</p>
+
+<p>We must therefore regard the law in question as the broadest
+and most fundamental one which nature makes known to us.</p>
+
+<p>It is not yet experimentally proved that variation as the
+inverse square is absolutely true at all distances. Astronomical
+observations extend over too brief a period of time to show any
+attraction between different stars except those in each other&rsquo;s
+neighbourhood. But this proves nothing because, in the case
+of distances so great, centuries or even thousands of years of
+accurate observation will be required to show any action. On
+the other hand the enigmatical motion of the perihelion of
+Mercury has not yet found any plausible explanation except on
+the hypothesis that the gravitation of the sun diminishes at
+a rate slightly greater than that of the inverse square&mdash;the most
+simple modification being to suppose that instead of the exponent
+of the distance being exactly &minus;2, it is &minus;2.000 000 161 2.</p>
+
+<p>The argument is extremely simple in form. It is certain that,
+in the general average, year after year, the force with which
+Mercury is drawn toward the sun does vary from the exact
+inverse square of its distance from the sun. The most plausible
+explanation of this is that one or more masses of matter move
+around the sun, whose action, whether they are inside or outside
+the orbit of Mercury, would produce the required modification in
+the force. From an investigation of all the observations upon
+Mercury and the other three interior planets, Simon Newcomb
+found it almost out of the question that any such mass of matter
+could exist without changing either the figure of the sun itself
+or the motion of the planes of the orbits of either Mercury or
+Venus. The qualification &ldquo;almost&rdquo; is necessary because so
+complex a system of actions comes into play, and accurate
+observations have extended through so short a period, that the
+proof cannot be regarded as absolute. But the fact that careful
+and repeated search for a mass of matter sufficient to produce
+the desired effect has been in vain, affords additional evidence of
+its non-existence. The most obvious test of the reality of the
+required modifications would be afforded by two other bodies,
+the motions of whose pericentres should be similarly affected.
+These are Mars and the moon. Newcomb found an excess of
+motions in the perihelion of Mars amounting to about 5&Prime; per
+century. But the combination of observations and theory on
+which this is based is not sufficient fully to establish so slight a
+motion. In the case of the motion of the moon around the earth,
+assuming the gravitation of the latter to be subject to the
+modification in question, the annual motion of the moon&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span>
+perigee should be greater by 1.5&Prime; than the theoretical motion.
+E. W. Brown is the first investigator to determine the theoretical
+motions with this degree of precision; and he finds that there
+is no such divergence between the actual and the computed
+motion. There is therefore as yet no ground for regarding any
+deviation from the law of inverse square as more than a possibility.</p>
+<div class="author">(S. N.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Gravitation Constant and Mean Density of the Earth</p>
+
+<p>The law of gravitation states that two masses M<span class="su">1</span> and M<span class="su">2</span>,
+distant d from each other, are pulled together each with a force
+G. M<span class="su">1</span>M<span class="su">2</span>/d², where G is a constant for all kinds of matter&mdash;the
+<i>gravitation constant</i>. The acceleration of M<span class="su">2</span> towards M<span class="su">1</span> or the
+force exerted on it by M<span class="su">1</span> per unit of its mass is therefore GM<span class="su">1</span>/d².
+Astronomical observations of the accelerations of different
+planets towards the sun, or of different satellites towards the
+same primary, give us the most accurate confirmation of the
+distance part of the law. By comparing accelerations towards
+different bodies we obtain the ratios of the masses of those
+different bodies and, in so far as the ratios are consistent, we
+obtain confirmation of the mass part. But we only obtain the
+ratios of the masses to the mass of some one member of the
+system, say the earth. We do not find the mass in terms of
+grammes or pounds. In fact, astronomy gives us the product
+GM, but neither G nor M. For example, the acceleration of the
+earth towards the sun is about 0.6 cm/sec.² at a distance from
+it about 15 × 10<span class="sp">12</span> cm. The acceleration of the moon towards
+the earth is about 0.27 cm/sec.² at a distance from it about
+4 × 10<span class="sp">10</span> cm. If S is the mass of the sun and E the mass of the
+earth we have 0.6 = GS/(15 × 10<span class="sp">12</span>)² and 0.27 = GE/(4 × 10<span class="sp">10</span>)²
+giving us GS and GE, and the ratio S/E = 300,000 roughly;
+but we do not obtain either S or E in grammes, and we do not
+find G.</p>
+
+<p>The aim of the experiments to be described here may be
+regarded either as the determination of the mass of the earth
+in grammes, most conveniently expressed by its mass ÷ its
+volume, that is by its &ldquo;mean density&rdquo; &Delta;, or the determination
+of the &ldquo;gravitation constant&rdquo; G. Corresponding to these two
+aspects of the problem there are two modes of attack. Suppose
+that a body of mass m is suspended at the earth&rsquo;s surface where
+it is pulled with a force w vertically downwards by the earth&mdash;its
+weight. At the same time let it be pulled with a force p by a
+measurable mass M which may be a mountain, or some measurable
+part of the earth&rsquo;s surface layers, or an artificially prepared
+mass brought near m, and let the pull of M be the same as if
+it were concentrated at a distance d. The earth pull may be
+regarded as the same as if the earth were all concentrated at its
+centre, distant R.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Then</p>
+
+<p class="center">w = G · <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> &pi;R³&Delta;m/R² = G · <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> &pi;R&Delta;m,</p>
+<div class="author">(1)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">and</p>
+
+<p class="center">p = GMm/d².</p>
+<div class="author">(2)</div>
+
+<p class="noind">By division</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&Delta; =</td> <td>3M</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>w</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">4&pi;Rd²</td> <td class="denom">p</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">If then we can arrange to observe w/p we obtain &Delta;, the mean
+density of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>But the same observations give us G also. For, putting
+m = w/g in (2), we get</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">G =</td> <td>d²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>p</td>
+<td rowspan="2">· g.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">M</td> <td class="denom">w</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the second mode of attack the pull p between two artificially
+prepared measured masses M<span class="su">1</span>, M<span class="su">2</span> is determined when they are
+a distance d apart, and since p = G·M<span class="su">1</span>M<span class="su">2</span>/d² we get at once
+G = pd²/M<span class="su">1</span>M<span class="su">2</span>. But we can also deduce &Delta;. For putting w = mg
+in (1) we get</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&Delta; = ¾</td> <td>g</td>
+<td rowspan="2">·</td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">G</td> <td class="denom">&pi;R</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Experiments of the first class in which the pull of a known mass
+is compared with the pull of the earth maybe termed experiments
+on the mean density of the earth, while experiments of the
+second class in which the pull between two known masses is
+directly measured may be termed experiments on the gravitation
+constant.</p>
+
+<p>We shall, however, adopt a slightly different classification
+for the purpose of describing methods of experiment, viz:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed list">
+<p>  1. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of a natural
+        mass as in the Schiehallion experiment.</p>
+
+<p>  2. Determination of the attraction between two artificial masses
+        as in Cavendish&rsquo;s experiment.</p>
+
+<p>  3. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of an
+        artificial mass as in experiments with the common balance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that the possibility of gravitation
+experiments of this kind was first considered by Newton, and
+in both of the forms (1) and (2). In the <i>System of the World</i>
+(3rd ed., 1737, p. 40) he calculates that the deviation by a hemispherical
+mountain, of the earth&rsquo;s density and with radius 3 m.,
+on a plumb-line at its side will be less than 2 minutes. He also
+calculates (though with an error in his arithmetic) the acceleration
+towards each other of two spheres each a foot in diameter
+and of the earth&rsquo;s density, and comes to the conclusion that in
+either case the effect is too small for measurement. In the
+<i>Principia</i>, bk. iii., prop. x., he makes a celebrated estimate
+that the earth&rsquo;s mean density is five or six times that of water.
+Adopting this estimate, the deviation by an actual mountain
+or the attraction of two terrestrial spheres would be of the orders
+calculated, and regarded by Newton as immeasurably small.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever method is adopted the force to be measured is very
+minute. This may be realized if we here anticipate the results
+of the experiments, which show that in round numbers &Delta; = 5.5
+and G = 1/15,000,000 when the masses are in grammes and the
+distances in centimetres.</p>
+
+<p>Newton&rsquo;s mountain, which would probably have density about
+&Delta;/2 would deviate the plumb-line not much more than half a
+minute. Two spheres 30 cm. in diameter (about 1 ft.) and of
+density 11 (about that of lead) just not touching would pull
+each other with a force rather less than 2 dynes, and their
+acceleration would be such that they would move into contact
+if starting 1 cm. apart in rather over 400 seconds.</p>
+
+<p>From these examples it will be realized that in gravitation
+experiments extraordinary precautions must be adopted to
+eliminate disturbing forces which may easily rise to be comparable
+with the forces to be measured. We shall not attempt
+to give an account of these precautions, but only seek to set
+forth the general principles of the different experiments which
+have been made.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">I. <i>Comparison of the Earth Pull with that of a Natural Mass.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Bouguer&rsquo;s Experiments.</i>&mdash;The earliest experiments were made
+by Pierre Bouguer about 1740, and they are recorded in his
+<i>Figure de la terre</i> (1749). They were of two kinds. In the first
+he determined the length of the seconds pendulum, and thence
+g at different levels. Thus at Quito, which may be regarded
+as on a table-land 1466 toises (a toise is about 6.4 ft.) above
+sea-level, the seconds pendulum was less by 1/1331 than on the
+Isle of Inca at sea-level. But if there were no matter above the
+sea-level, the inverse square law would make the pendulum less
+by 1/1118 at the higher level. The value of g then at the higher
+level was greater than could be accounted for by the attraction
+of an earth ending at sea-level by the difference 1/1118 &minus; 1/1331 =
+1/6983, and this was put down to the attraction of the plateau
+1466 toises high; or the attraction of the whole earth was
+6983 times the attraction of the plateau. Using the rule, now
+known as &ldquo;Young&rsquo;s rule,&rdquo; for the attraction of the plateau,
+Bouguer found that the density of the earth was 4.7 times that
+of the plateau, a result certainly much too large.</p>
+
+<p>In the second kind of experiment he attempted to measure
+the horizontal pull of Chimborazo, a mountain about 20,000 ft.
+high, by the deflection of a plumb-line at a station on its south
+side. Fig. 1 shows the principle of the method. Suppose that
+two stations are fixed, one on the side of the mountain due south
+of the summit, and the other on the same latitude but some
+distance westward, away from the influence of the mountain.
+Suppose that at the second station a star is observed to pass the
+meridian, for simplicity we will say directly overhead, then a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span>
+plumb-line will hang down exactly parallel to the observing
+telescope. If the mountain were away it would also hang parallel
+to the telescope at the first station when directed to the same
+star. But the mountain pulls the plumb-line towards it and
+the star appears to the north of the zenith and evidently
+mountain pull/earth pull = tangent
+of angle of displacement
+of zenith.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:243px; height:338px" src="images/img386.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Bouguer&rsquo;s Plumb-line
+Experiment on the attraction
+of Chimborazo.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Bouguer observed the meridian
+altitude of several stars at the
+two stations. There was still
+some deflection at the second
+station, a deflection which he
+estimated as 1/14 that at the
+first station, and he found on
+allowing for this that his observations
+gave a deflection of 8 seconds
+at the first station. From the
+form and size of the mountain he
+found that if its density were that
+of the earth the deflection should
+be 103 seconds, or the earth was
+nearly 13 times as dense as the
+mountain, a result several times
+too large. But the work was
+carried on under enormous difficulties
+owing to the severity of the weather, and no exactness
+could be expected. The importance of the experiment lay in its
+proof that the method was possible.</p>
+
+<p><i>Maskelyne&rsquo;s Experiment.</i>&mdash;In 1774 Nevil Maskelyne (<i>Phil.
+Trans.</i>, 1775, p. 495) made an experiment on the deflection of the
+plumb-line by Schiehallion, a mountain in Perthshire, which has
+a short ridge nearly east and west, and sides sloping steeply on
+the north and south. He selected two stations on the same
+meridian, one on the north, the other on the south slope, and by
+means of a zenith sector, a telescope provided with a plumb-bob,
+he determined at each station the meridian zenith distances of
+a number of stars. From a survey of the district made in the
+years 1774-1776 the geographical difference of latitude between
+the two stations was found to be 42.94 seconds, and this would
+have been the difference in the meridian zenith difference of the
+same star at the two stations had the mountain been away.
+But at the north station the plumb-bob was pulled south and the
+zenith was deflected northwards, while at the south station the
+effect was reversed. Hence the angle between the zeniths, or the
+angle between the zenith distances of the same star at the two
+stations was greater than the geographical 42.94 seconds. The
+mean of the observations gave a difference of 54.2 seconds, or
+the double deflection of the plumb-line was 54.2 &minus; 42.94, say
+11.26 seconds.</p>
+
+<p>The computation of the attraction of the mountain on the
+supposition that its density was that of the earth was made by
+Charles Hutton from the results of the survey (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>,
+1778, p. 689), a computation carried out by ingenious and
+important methods. He found that the deflection should have
+been greater in the ratio 17804 : 9933 say 9 : 5, whence the
+density of the earth comes out at 9/5 that of the mountain.
+Hutton took the density of the mountain at 2.5, giving the mean
+density of the earth 4.5. A revision of the density of the mountain
+from a careful survey of the rocks composing it was made
+by John Playfair many years later (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1811, p. 347),
+and the density of the earth was given as lying between 4.5588
+and 4.867.</p>
+
+<p>Other experiments have been made on the attraction of
+mountains by Francesco Carlini (<i>Milano Effem. Ast.</i>, 1824,
+p. 28) on Mt. Blanc in 1821, using the pendulum method after
+the manner of Bouguer, by Colonel Sir Henry James and Captain
+A. R. Clarke (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1856, p. 591), using the plumb-line
+deflection at Arthur&rsquo;s Seat, by T. C. Mendenhall (<i>Amer. Jour. of
+Sci.</i> xxi. p. 99), using the pendulum method on Fujiyama in
+Japan, and by E. D. Preston (<i>U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey Rep.</i>,
+1893, p. 513) in Hawaii, using both methods.</p>
+
+<p><i>Airy&rsquo;s Experiment.</i>&mdash;In 1854 Sir G. B. Airy (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>
+1856, p. 297) carried out at Harton pit near South Shields an
+experiment which he had attempted many years before in conjunction
+with W. Whewell and R. Sheepshanks at Dolcoath.
+This consisted in comparing gravity at the top and at the bottom
+of a mine by the swings of the same pendulum, and thence finding
+the ratio of the pull of the intervening strata to the pull of the
+whole earth. The principle of the method may be understood
+by assuming that the earth consists of concentric spherical shells
+each homogeneous, the last of thickness h equal to the depth
+of the mine. Let the radius of the earth to the bottom of the
+mine be R, and the mean density up to that point be &Delta;. This
+will not differ appreciably from the mean density of the whole.
+Let the density of the strata of depth h be &delta;. Denoting the
+values of gravity above and below by g<span class="su">a</span> and g<span class="su">b</span> we have</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">g<span class="su">b</span> = G · <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span></td> <td>&pi;R³&Delta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">= G · <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>&pi;R&Delta;,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">R²</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">g<span class="su">a</span> = G · <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span></td> <td>&pi;R³&Delta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+ G · 4&pi;h&delta;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">(R + h)²</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">(since the attraction of a shell h thick on a point just outside it is
+G · 4&pi;(R + h)²h&delta;/(R + h)² = G · 4&pi;h&delta;).</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Therefore</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">g<span class="su">a</span> = G · <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>&pi;R&Delta; <span class="f150">(</span> 1 &minus;</td> <td>2h</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>3h</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>&delta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span> nearly,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">R</td> <td class="denom">R</td> <td class="denom">&Delta;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">whence</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>g<span class="su">a</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2">= 1 &minus;</td> <td>2h</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>3h</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>&delta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">g<span class="su">b</span></td> <td class="denom">R</td>
+<td class="denom">R</td> <td class="denom">&Delta;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>&Delta;</td>
+<td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>3h</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">/ (</span> &minus; 1 +</td> <td>2h</td>
+<td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>g<span class="su">a</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">&delta;</td> <td class="denom">R</td>
+<td class="denom">R</td> <td class="denom">g<span class="su">b</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Stations were chosen in the same vertical, one near the pit
+bank, another 1250 ft. below in a disused working, and a &ldquo;comparison&rdquo;
+clock was fixed at each station. A third clock was
+placed at the upper station connected by an electric circuit to
+the lower station. It gave an electric signal every 15 seconds
+by which the rates of the two comparison clocks could be accurately
+compared. Two &ldquo;invariable&rdquo; seconds pendulums were
+swung, one in front of the upper and the other in front of the
+lower comparison clock after the manner of Kater, and these
+invariables were interchanged at intervals. From continuous
+observations extending over three weeks and after applying
+various corrections Airy obtained g<span class="su">b</span>/g<span class="su">a</span>= 1.00005185. Making
+corrections for the irregularity of the neighbouring strata he
+found &Delta;/&delta; = 2.6266. W. H. Miller made a careful determination
+of &delta; from specimens of the strata, finding it 2.5. The final
+result taking into account the ellipticity and rotation of the earth
+is &Delta; = 6.565.</p>
+
+<p><i>Von Sterneck&rsquo;s Experiments.</i>&mdash;(<i>Mitth. des K.U.K. Mil. Geog.
+Inst. zu Wien</i>, ii, 1882, p. 77; 1883, p. 59; vi., 1886, p. 97).
+R. von Sterneck repeated the mine experiment in 1882-1883
+at the Adalbert shaft at Pribram in Bohemia and in 1885 at the
+Abraham shaft near Freiberg. He used two invariable half-seconds
+pendulums, one swung at the surface, the other below
+at the same time. The two were at intervals interchanged.
+Von Sterneck introduced a most important improvement by
+comparing the swings of the two invariables with the same clock
+which by an electric circuit gave a signal at each station each
+second. This eliminated clock rates. His method, of which it
+is not necessary to give the details here, began a new era in the
+determinations of local variations of gravity. The values which
+von Sterneck obtained for &Delta; were not consistent, but increased
+with the depth of the second station. This was probably due
+to local irregularities in the strata which could not be directly
+detected.</p>
+
+<p>All the experiments to determine &Delta; by the attraction of
+natural masses are open to the serious objection that we cannot
+determine the distribution of density in the neighbourhood
+with any approach to accuracy. The experiments with artificial
+masses next to be described give much more consistent results,
+and the experiments with natural masses are now only of use
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span>
+in showing the existence of irregularities in the earth&rsquo;s superficial
+strata when they give results deviating largely from the accepted
+value.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">II. <i>Determination of the Attraction between two Artificial Masses.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:564px; height:382px" src="images/img387.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Cavendish&rsquo;s Apparatus.<br />
+<i>h h</i>, torsion rod hung by wire <i>l g</i>,; <i>x, x</i>, attracted balls hung from
+its ends; <i>WW</i>, attracting masses.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Cavendish&rsquo;s Experiment</i> (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1798, p. 469).&mdash;This
+celebrated experiment was planned by the Rev. John Michell.
+He completed an apparatus for it but did not live to begin work
+with it. After Michell&rsquo;s death the apparatus came into the
+possession of Henry Cavendish, who largely reconstructed it,
+but still adhered to Michell&rsquo;s plan, and in 1797-1798 he carried
+out the experiment. The essential feature of it consisted in the
+determination of the attraction of a lead sphere 12 in. in diameter
+on another lead sphere 2 in. in diameter, the distance between
+the centres being about 9 in., by means of a torsion balance.
+Fig. 2 shows how the experiment was carried out. A torsion
+rod <i>hh</i> 6 ft. long, tied from its ends to a vertical piece <i>mg</i>, was
+hung by a wire <i>lg</i>. From its ends depended two lead balls xx each
+2 in. in diameter. The position of the rod was determined by a
+scale fixed near the end of the arm, the arm itself carrying a
+vernier moving along the scale. This was lighted by a lamp and
+viewed by a telescope T from the outside of the room containing
+the apparatus. The torsion balance was enclosed in a case
+and outside this two lead spheres WW each 12 in. in diameter
+hung from an arm which could turn round an axis P<i>p</i> in the line
+of <i>gl</i>. Suppose that first the spheres are placed so that one is
+just in front of the right-hand ball <i>x</i> and the other is just behind
+the left-hand ball <i>x</i>. The two will conspire to pull the balls so
+that the right end of the rod moves forward. Now let the big
+spheres be moved round so that one is in front of the left ball
+and the other behind the right ball. The pulls are reversed
+and the right end moves backward. The angle between its two
+positions is (if we neglect cross attractions of right sphere on
+left ball and left sphere on right ball) four times as great as the
+deflection of the rod due to approach of one sphere to one ball.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The principle of the experiment may be set forth thus. Let 2a
+be the length of the torsion rod, m the mass of a ball, M the mass of
+a large sphere, d the distance between the centres, supposed the same
+on each side. Let &theta; be the angle through which the rod moves round
+when the spheres WW are moved from the first to the second of the
+positions described above. Let &mu; be the couple required to twist
+the rod through 1 radian. Then &mu;&theta; = 4GMma/d². But &mu; can be
+found from the time of vibration of the torsion system when we
+know its moment of inertia I, and this can be determined. If T
+is the period &mu; = 4&pi;²I/T², whence G = &pi;²d²I&theta;/T²Mma, or putting the
+result in terms of the mean density of the earth &Delta; it is easy to show
+that, if L, the length of the seconds pendulum, is put for g/&pi;², and C
+for 2&pi;R, the earth&rsquo;s circumference, then</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&Delta; = <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">2</span></td> <td>L</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>Mma</td>
+<td rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td> <td>T²</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">C</td> <td class="denom">d²I</td> <td class="denom">&theta;</td></tr></table>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The original account by Cavendish is still well worth studying
+on account of the excellence of his methods. His work was
+undoubtedly very accurate for a pioneer experiment and has
+only really been improved upon within the last generation.
+Making various corrections of which it is not necessary to give
+a description, the result obtained (after correcting a mistake
+first pointed out by F. Baily) is &Delta; = 5.448. In seeking the origin
+of the disturbed motion of the torsion rod Cavendish made a very
+important observation. He found that when the masses were
+left in one position for a time the attracted balls crept now in
+one direction, now in another, as if the attraction were varying.
+Ultimately he found that this was due to convection currents
+in the case containing the torsion rod, currents produced by
+temperature inequalities. When a large sphere was heated the
+ball near it tended to approach and when it was cooled the ball
+tended to recede. Convection currents constitute the chief
+disturbance and the chief source of error in all attempts to
+measure small forces in air at ordinary pressure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reich&rsquo;s Experiments</i> (<i>Versuche über die mittlere Dichtigkeit
+der Erde mittelst der Drehwage</i>, Freiberg, 1838; &ldquo;Neue
+Versuche mit der Drehwage,&rdquo; <i>Leipzig Abh. Math. Phys.</i> i.,
+1852, p. 383).&mdash;In 1838 F. Reich published an account of a
+repetition of the Cavendish experiment carried out on the
+same general lines, though with somewhat smaller apparatus.
+The chief differences consisted in the methods of measuring
+the times of vibration and the deflection, and the changes
+were hardly improvements. His result after revision was
+&Delta; = 5.49. In 1852 he published an account of further work
+giving as result &Delta; = 5.58. It is noteworthy that in his
+second paper he gives an account of experiments suggested
+by J. D. Forbes in which the deflection was not observed
+directly, but was deduced from observations of the time
+of vibration when the attracting masses were in different
+positions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Let T<span class="su">1</span> be the time of vibration when the masses are in one
+of the usual attracting positions. Let d be the distance between
+the centres of attracting mass and attracted ball, and &delta; the
+distance through which the ball is pulled. If a is the half length
+of the torsion rod and &theta; the deflection, &delta; = a&theta;. Now let the
+attracting masses be put one at each end of the torsion rod
+with their centres in the line through the centres of the balls
+and d from them, and let T<span class="su">2</span> be the time of vibration. Then
+it is easy to show that</p>
+
+<p class="center">&delta;/d = a&theta;/d = (T<span class="su">1</span> &minus; T<span class="su">2</span>) / (T<span class="su">1</span> + T<span class="su">2</span>).</p>
+
+<p class="noind">This gives a value of &theta; which may be used in the formula. The
+experiments by this method were not consistent, and the mean
+result was &Delta; = 6.25.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Baily&rsquo;s Experiment</i> (<i>Memoirs of the Royal Astron. Soc.</i> xiv.).&mdash;In
+1841-1842 Francis Baily made a long series of determinations
+by Cavendish&rsquo;s method and with apparatus nearly of the same
+dimensions. The attracting masses were 12-in. lead spheres
+and as attracted balls he used various masses, lead, zinc, glass,
+ivory, platinum, hollow brass, and finally the torsion rod alone
+without balls. The suspension was also varied, sometimes
+consisting of a single wire, sometimes being bifilar. There were
+systematic errors running through Baily&rsquo;s work, which it is
+impossible now wholly to explain. These made the resulting
+value of &Delta; show a variation with the nature of the attracted
+masses and a variation with the temperature. His final result
+&Delta; = 5.6747 is not of value compared with later results.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cornu and Baille&rsquo;s Experiment</i> (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, lxxvi.,
+1873, p. 954; lxxxvi., 1878, pp. 571, 699, 1001; xcvi., 1883,
+p. 1493).&mdash;In 1870 MM. A. Cornu and J. Baille commenced
+an experiment by the Cavendish method which was never
+definitely completed, though valuable studies of the behaviour
+of the torsion apparatus were made. They purposely departed
+from the dimensions previously used. The torsion balls were of
+copper about 100 gm. each, the rod was 50 cm. long, and the
+suspending wire was 4 metres long. On each side of each ball
+was a hollow iron sphere. Two of these were filled with mercury
+weighing 12 kgm., the two spheres of mercury constituting the
+attracting masses. When the position of a mass was to be
+changed the mercury was pumped from the sphere on one side
+to that on the other side of a ball. To avoid counting time a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span>
+method of electric registration on a chronograph was adopted.
+A provisional result was &Delta; = 5.56.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:371px; height:575px" src="images/img388.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a Section of Professor
+Boys&rsquo;s Apparatus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Boys&rsquo;s Experiment</i> (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, A., 1895, pt. i., p. 1).&mdash;Professor
+C. V. Boys having found that it is possible to draw
+quartz fibres of practically any degree of fineness, of great
+strength and true in their elasticity, determined to repeat the
+Cavendish experiment, using his newly invented fibres for
+the suspension of the torsion rod. He began by an inquiry
+as to the best dimensions for the apparatus. He saw that if
+the period of vibration is kept constant, that is, if the moment
+of inertia I is kept proportional to the torsion couple per radian
+&mu;, then the deflection remains the same however the linear
+dimensions are altered so long as they are all altered in the same
+proportion. Hence we are driven to conclude that the dimensions
+should be reduced until further reduction would make the
+linear quantities too small to be measured with exactness, for
+reduction in the apparatus enables variations in temperature
+and the consequent air disturbances to be reduced, and the
+experiment in other ways becomes more manageable. Professor
+Boys took as the exactness to be sought for 1 in 10,000. He
+further saw that reduction in length of the torsion rod with
+given balls is an advantage. For if the rod be halved the moment
+of inertia is one-fourth, and if the suspending fibre is made
+finer so that the torsion couple per radian is also one-fourth
+the time remains the same. But the moment of the attracting
+force is halved only, so that the deflection against one-fourth
+torsion is doubled. In Cavendish&rsquo;s arrangement there would
+be an early limit
+to the advantage
+in reduction of
+rod in that the
+mass opposite
+one ball would
+begin seriously to
+attract the other
+ball. But Boys
+avoided this
+difficulty by suspending
+the balls
+from the ends of
+the torsion rod at
+different levels
+and by placing
+the attracting
+masses at these
+different levels.
+Fig. 3 represents
+diagrammatically
+a vertical
+section of the
+arrangement
+used on a scale
+of about 1/10.
+The torsion rod
+was a small rectangular
+mirror
+about 2.4 cm.
+wide hung by a
+quartz fibre
+about 43 cm.
+long. From the sides of this mirror the balls were hung by quartz
+fibres at levels differing by 15 cm. The balls were of gold either
+about 5 mm. in diameter and weighing about 1.3 gm. or about
+6.5 mm. in diameter and weighing 2.65 gm. The attracting
+masses were lead spheres, about 10 cm. in diameter and weighing
+about 7.4 kgm. each. These were suspended from the top of
+the case which could be rotated round the central tube, and they
+were arranged so that the radius to the centre from the axis of
+the torsion system made 65° with the torsion rod, the position in
+which the moment of the attraction was a maximum. The
+torsion rod mirror reflected a distant scale by which the deflection
+could be read. The time of vibration was recorded on a chronograph.
+The result of the experiment, probably the best yet made,
+was &Delta; = 5.527; G = 6.658 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;8</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Braun&rsquo;s Experiment</i> (<i>Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.- naturw.
+Cl.</i> 64, p. 187, 1896).&mdash;In 1896 Dr K. Braun, S.J., gave
+an account of a very careful and excellent repetition of the
+Cavendish experiment with apparatus much smaller than was
+used in the older experiments, yet much larger than that used
+by Boys. A notable feature of the work consisted in the suspension
+of the torsion apparatus in a receiver exhausted to about
+4 mm. of mercury, a pressure at which convection currents
+almost disappear while &ldquo;radiometer&rdquo; forces have hardly
+begun. For other ingenious arrangements the original paper
+or a short abstract in <i>Nature</i>, lvi., 1897, p. 127, may be consulted.
+The attracted balls weighed 54 gm. each and were
+25 cm. apart. The attracting masses were spheres of mercury
+each weighing 9 kgm. and brought into position outside the
+receiver. Braun used both the deflection method and the time
+of vibration method suggested to Reich by Forbes. The methods
+gave almost identical results and his final values are to three
+decimal places the same as those obtained by Boys.</p>
+
+<p><i>G. K. Burgess&rsquo;s Experiment</i> (<i>Thèses présentées à la faculté
+des sciences de Paris pour obtenir le titre de docteur de l&rsquo;université
+de Paris</i>, 1901).&mdash;This was a Cavendish experiment in which
+the torsion system was buoyed up by a float in a mercury bath.
+The attracted masses could thus be made large, and yet the
+suspending wire could be kept fine. The torsion beam was 12 cm.
+long, and the attracted balls were lead spheres each 2 kgm. From
+the centre of the beam depended a vertical steel rod with a
+varnished copper hollow float at its end, entirely immersed in
+mercury. The surface of the mercury was covered with dilute
+sulphuric acid to remove irregularities due to varying surface
+tension acting on the steel rod. The size of the float was adjusted
+so that the torsion fibre of quartz 35 cm. long had only to carry
+a weight of 5 to 10 gm. The time of vibration was over one
+hour. The torsion couple per radian was determined by preliminary
+experiments. The attracting masses were each 10 kgm.
+turning in a circle 18 cm. in diameter. The results gave &Delta; = 5.55
+and G = 6.64 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;8</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eötvos&rsquo;s Experiment</i> (<i>Ann. der Physik und Chemie</i>, 1896, 59,
+P. 354).&mdash;In the course of investigations on local variations
+of gravity by means of the torsion balance, R. Eötvos devised
+a method for determining G somewhat like the vibration method
+used by Reich and Braun. Two pillars were built up of lead
+blocks 30 cm. square in cross section, 60 cm. high and 30 cm.
+apart. A torsion rod somewhat less than 30 cm. long with
+small weights at the ends was enclosed in a double-walled brass
+case of as little depth as possible, a device which secured great
+steadiness through freedom from convection currents. The
+suspension was a platinum wire about 150 cm. long. The
+torsion rod was first set in the line joining the centres of the
+pillars and its time of vibration was taken. Then it was set
+with its length perpendicular to the line joining the centres and
+the time again taken. From these times Eötvos was able to
+deduce G = 6.65 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;8</span> whence &Delta; = 5.53. This is only a provisional
+value. The experiment was only as it were a by-product
+in the course of exceedingly ingenious work on the local variation
+in gravity for which the original paper should be consulted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wilsing&rsquo;s Experiment</i> (<i>Publ. des astrophysikalischen Observ. zu
+Potsdam</i>, 1887, No. 22, vol. vi. pt. ii.; pt. iii. p. 133).&mdash;We may
+perhaps class with the Cavendish type an experiment made by
+J. Wilsing, in which a vertical &ldquo;double pendulum&rdquo; was used
+in place of a horizontal torsion system. Two weights each 540
+gm. were fixed at the ends of a rod 1 metre long. A knife edge
+was fixed on the rod just above its centre of gravity, and this
+was supported so that the rod could vibrate about a vertical
+position. Two attracting masses, cast-iron cylinders each 325
+kgm., were placed, say, one in front of the top weight on the
+pendulum and the other behind the bottom weight, and the
+position of the rod was observed in the usual mirror and scale
+way. Then the front attracting mass was dropped to the level
+of the lower weight and the back mass was raised to that of the
+upper weight, and the consequent deflection of the rod was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span>
+observed. By taking the time of vibration of the pendulum
+first as used in the deflection experiment and then when a small
+weight was removed from the upper end a known distance from
+the knife edge, the restoring couple per radian deflection could
+be found. The final result gave &Delta; = 5.579.</p>
+
+<p><i>J. Joly&rsquo;s suggested Experiment</i> (<i>Nature</i> xli., 1890, p. 256).&mdash;Joly
+has suggested that G might be determined by hanging a
+simple pendulum in a vacuum, and vibrating outside the case
+two massive pendulums each with the same time of swing as the
+simple pendulum. The simple pendulum would be set swinging
+by the varying attraction and from its amplitude after a known
+number of swings of the outside pendulums G could be found.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">III. <i>Comparison of the Earth Pull on a body with the Pull of an
+Artificial Mass by Means of the Common Balance.</i></p>
+
+<p>The principle of the method is as follows:&mdash;Suppose a sphere
+of mass m and weight w to be hung by a wire from one arm of
+a balance. Let the mass of the earth be E and its radius be R.
+Then w = GEm/R². Now introduce beneath m a sphere of
+mass M and let d be the distance of its centre from that of m.
+Its pull increases the apparent weight of m say by &delta;w. Then
+&delta;w = GMm/d². Dividing we obtain &delta;w/w = MR²/Ed², whence
+E = MR²w/d²&delta;w; and since g = GE/R², G can be found when E is
+known.</p>
+
+<p><i>Von Jolly&rsquo;s Experiment</i> (<i>Abhand. der k. bayer. Akad. der Wiss.</i>
+2 Cl. xiii. Bd. 1 Abt. p. 157, and xiv. Bd. 2 Abt. p. 3).&mdash;In the
+first of these papers Ph. von Jolly described an experiment in
+which he sought to determine the decrease in weight with increase
+of height from the earth&rsquo;s surface, an experiment suggested by
+Bacon (<i>Nov. Org.</i> Bk. 2, §36), in the form of comparison of rates
+of two clocks at different levels, one driven by a spring, the other
+by weights. The experiment in the form carried out by von
+Jolly was attempted by H. Power, R. Hooke, and others in the
+early days of the Royal Society (Mackenzie, <i>The Laws of Gravitation</i>).
+Von Jolly fixed a balance at the top of his laboratory and
+from each pan depended a wire supporting another pan 5 metres
+below. Two 1-kgm. weights were first balanced in the upper pans
+and then one was moved from an upper to the lower pan on the
+same side. A gain of 1.5 mgm. was observed after correction
+for greater weight of air displaced at the lower level. The inverse
+square law would give a slightly greater gain and the deficiency
+was ascribed to the configuration of the land near the laboratory.
+In the second paper a second experiment was described in which
+a balance was fixed at the top of a tower and provided as before
+with one pair of pans just below the arms and a second pair
+hung from these by wires 21 metres below. Four glass globes
+were prepared equal in weight and volume. Two of these were
+filled each with 5 kgm. of mercury and then all were sealed up.
+The two heavy globes were then placed in the upper pans and
+the two light ones in the lower. The two on one side were now
+interchanged and a gain in weight of about 31.7 mgm. was
+observed. Air corrections were eliminated by the use of the
+globes of equal volume. Then a lead sphere about 1 metre radius
+was built up of blocks under one of the lower pans and the
+experiment was repeated. Through the attraction of the lead
+sphere on the mass of mercury when below the gain was greater
+by 0.589 mgm. This result gave &Delta; = 5.692.</p>
+
+<p><i>Experiment of Richarz and Krigar-Menzel</i> (<i>Anhang zu den
+Abhand. der k. preuss. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin</i>, 1898).&mdash;In
+1884 A. König and F. Richarz proposed a similar experiment
+which was ultimately carried out by Richarz and O. Krigar-Menzel.
+In this experiment a balance was supported somewhat
+more than 2 metres above the floor and with scale pans above
+and below as in von Jolly&rsquo;s experiment. Weights each 1 kgm.
+were placed, say, in the top right pan and the bottom left pan.
+Then they were shifted to the bottom right and the top left, the
+result being, after corrections for change in density of air displaced
+through pressure and temperature changes, a gain in
+weight of 1.2453 mgm. on the right due to change in level of
+2.2628 metres. Then a rectangular column of lead 210 cm.
+square cross section and 200 cm. high was built up under the
+balance between the pairs of pans. The column was perforated
+with two vertical tunnels for the passage of the wires supporting
+the lower pans. On repeating the weighings there was now a
+decrease on the right when a kgm. was moved on that side from
+top to bottom while another was moved on the left from bottom
+to top. This decrease was 0.1211 mgm. showing a total change
+due to the lead mass of 1.2453 + 0.1211 = 1.3664 mgm. and this
+is obviously four times the attraction of the lead mass on one
+kgm. The changes in the positions of the weights were made
+automatically. The results gave &Delta; = 5.05 and G = 6.685 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;8</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Poynting&rsquo;s Experiment</i> (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, vol. 182, A, 1891,
+P. 565).&mdash;In 1878 J. H. Poynting published an account of a
+preliminary experiment which he had made to show that the
+common balance was available for gravitational work. The
+experiment was on the same lines as that of von Jolly but on a
+much smaller scale. In 1891 he gave an account of the full
+experiment carried out with a larger balance and with much
+greater care. The balance had a 4-ft. beam. The scale pans
+were removed, and from the two arms were hung lead spheres
+each weighing about 20 kgm. at a level about 120 cm. below the
+beam. The balance was supported in a case above a horizontal
+turn-table with axis vertically below the central knife edge, and
+on this turn-table was a lead sphere weighing 150 kgm.&mdash;the
+attracting mass. The centre of this sphere was 30 cm. below the
+level of the centres of the hanging weights. The turn-table
+could be rotated between stops so that the attracting mass was
+first immediately below the hanging weight on one side, and then
+immediately under that on the other side. On the same turn-table
+but at double the distance from the centre was a second
+sphere of half the weight introduced merely to balance the
+larger sphere and keep the centre of gravity at the centre of the
+turn-table. Before the introduction of this sphere errors were
+introduced through the tilting of the floor of the balance room
+when the turn-table was rotated. Corrections of course had
+to be made for the attraction of this second sphere. The removal
+of the large mass from left to right made an increase in weight
+on that side of about 1 mgm. determined by riders in a special
+way described in the paper. To eliminate the attraction on the
+beam and the rods supporting the hanging weights another
+experiment was made in which these weights were moved up
+the rods through 30 cm. and on now moving the attracting
+sphere from left to right the gain on the right was only about
+½ mgm. The difference, <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> mgm., was due entirely to change in
+distance of the attracted masses. After all corrections the results
+gave &Delta; = 5.493 and G = 6.698 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;8</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Final Remarks.</i>&mdash;The earlier methods in which natural masses
+were used have disadvantages, as already pointed out, which
+render them now quite valueless. Of later methods the
+Cavendish appears to possess advantages over the common
+balance method in that it is more easy to ward off temperature
+variations, and so avoid convection currents, and probably more
+easy to determine the actual value of the attracting force. For
+the present the values determined by Boys and Braun may be
+accepted as having the greatest weight and we therefore take</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p><i>Mean density of the earth</i> &Delta; = 5.527</p>
+<p><i>Constant of gravitation</i> G = 6.658 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;8</span>.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Probably &Delta; = 5.53 and G = 6.66 × 10<span class="sp">&minus;8</span> are correct to 1 in 500.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;J. H. Poynting, <i>The Mean Density of the Earth</i>
+(1894), gives an account of all work up to the date of publication
+with a bibliography; A. Stanley Mackenzie, <i>The Laws of Gravitation</i>
+(1899), gives annotated extracts from various papers, some
+historical notes and a bibliography. <i>A Bibliography of Geodesy,
+Appendix 8, Report for 1902 of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey</i> includes
+a very complete bibliography of gravitational work.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAVY,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a word usually confined to the natural juices which
+come from meat during cooking. In early uses (in the <i>New
+English Dictionary</i> the quotations date from the end of the 14th
+to the beginning of the 16th centuries) it meant a sauce of broth
+flavoured with spices and almonds. The more modern usage
+seems to date from the end of the 16th century. The word is
+obscure in origin. It has been connected with &ldquo;graves&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;greaves,&rdquo; the refuse of tallow in the manufacture of soap or
+candles. The more probable derivation is from the French.
+In Old French the word is almost certainly <i>grané</i>, and is derived
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span>
+from <i>grain</i>, &ldquo;something used in cooking.&rdquo; The word was early
+read and spelled with a <i>u</i> or <i>v</i> instead of <i>n</i>, and the corruption
+was adopted in English.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY, ASA<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1810-1888), American botanist, was born at
+Paris, Oneida county, N.Y., on the 18th of November 1810.
+He was the son of a farmer, and received no formal education
+except at the Fairfield (N.Y.) academy and the Fairfield medical
+school. From Dr James Hadley, the professor of chemistry and
+<i>materia medica</i> he obtained his first instruction in science (1825-1826).
+In the spring of 1827 he first began to collect and identify
+plants. His formal education, such as it was, ended in February
+1831, when he took the degree of M.D. His first contribution to
+descriptive botany appeared in 1835, and thereafter an uninterrupted
+series of contributions to systematic botany flowed
+from his pen for fifty-three years. In 1836 his first botanical
+text-book appeared under the title <i>Elements of Botany</i>, followed
+in 1839 by his <i>Botanical Text-Book for Colleges, Schools, and
+Private Students</i> which developed into his <i>Structural Botany</i>.
+He published later <i>First Lessons in Botany and Vegetable Physiology</i>
+(1857); <i>How Plants Grow</i> (1858); <i>Field, Forest, and Garden</i>
+Botany (1869); <i>How Plants Behave</i> (1872). These books served
+the purpose of developing popular interest in botanical studies.
+His most important work, however, was his <i>Manual of the Botany
+of the Northern United States</i>, the first edition of which appeared
+in 1847. This manual has passed through a large number of
+editions, is clear, accurate and compact to an extraordinary
+degree, and within its geographical limits is an indispensable
+book for the student of American botany.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout his life Gray was a diligent writer of reviews of
+books on natural history subjects. Often these reviews were
+elaborate essays, for which the books served merely as texts;
+often they were clear and just summaries of extensive works;
+sometimes they were sharply critical, though never ill-natured
+or unfair; always they were interesting, lively and of literary as
+well as scientific excellence. The greater part of Gray&rsquo;s strictly
+scientific labour was devoted to a <i>Flora</i> of North America, the
+plan of which originated with his early teacher and associate,
+John Torrey of New York. The second volume of Torrey and
+Gray&rsquo;s <i>Flora</i> was completed in 1843; but for forty years thereafter
+Gray gave up a large part of his time to the preparation of
+his <i>Synoptical Flora</i> (1878). He lived at the period when the flora
+of North America was being discovered, described and systematized;
+and his enthusiastic labours in this fresh field placed
+him at the head of American botanists and on a level with the
+most famous botanists of the world. In 1856 he published a
+paper on the distribution of plants under the title <i>Statistics of
+the Flora of the Northern United States</i>; and this paper was
+followed in 1859 by a memoir on the botany of Japan and its
+relations to that of North America, a paper of which Sir J. D.
+Hooker said that &ldquo;in point of originality and far-reaching results
+[it] was its author&rsquo;s <i>opus magnum</i>.&rdquo; It was Gray&rsquo;s study of
+plant distribution which led to his intimate correspondence with
+Charles Darwin during the years in which Darwin was elaborating
+the doctrines that later became known as Darwinism. From
+1855 to 1875 Gray was both a keen critic and a sympathetic
+exponent of the Darwinian principles. His religious views were
+those of the Evangelical bodies in the Protestant Church; so
+that, when Darwinism was attacked as equivalent to atheism,
+he was in position to answer effectively the unfounded allegation
+that it was fatal to the doctrine of design. He taught that &ldquo;the
+most puzzling things of all to the old-school teleologists are the
+<i>principia</i> of the Darwinian.&rdquo; He openly avowed his conviction
+that the present species are not special creations, but rather
+derived from previously existing species; and he made his
+avowal with frank courage, when this truth was scarcely recognized
+by any naturalists, and when to the clerical mind evolution
+meant atheism.</p>
+
+<p>In 1842 Gray accepted the Fisher professorship of natural
+history in Harvard University. On his accession to this chair
+the university had no herbarium, no botanical library, few plants
+of any value, and but a small garden, which for lack of money
+had never been well stocked or well arranged. He soon brought
+together, chiefly by widespread exchanges, a valuable herbarium
+and library, and arranged the garden; and thereafter the
+development of these botanical resources was part of his regular
+labours. The herbarium soon became the largest and most
+valuable in America, and on account of the numerous type
+specimens it contains it is likely to remain a collection of national
+importance. Nothing of what Gray did for the botanical
+department of the university has been lost; on the contrary,
+his labours were so well directed that everything he originated
+and developed has been enlarged, improved and placed on stable
+foundations. He himself made large contributions to the
+establishment by giving it all his own specimens, many books
+and no little money, and by his will he gave it the royalties on
+his books. During his long connexion with the university he
+brought up two generations of botanists and he always took a
+strong personal interest in the researches and the personal
+prospects of the young men who had studied under him. His
+scientific life was mainly spent in the herbarium and garden in
+Cambridge; but his labours there were relieved by numerous
+journeys to different parts of the United States and to Europe,
+all of which contributed to his work on the Synoptical Flora.
+He lived to a good age&mdash;long enough, indeed, to receive from
+learned societies at home and abroad abundant evidence of their
+profound respect for his attainments and services. He died
+at Cambridge, Mass., on the 30th of January 1888.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Letters</i> (1893) were edited by his wife; and his <i>Scientific
+Papers</i> (1888) by C. S. Sargent.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. W. E.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY, DAVID<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1838-1861), Scottish poet, the son of a hand-loom
+weaver, was born at Merkland, near Glasgow, on the 29th
+of January 1838. His parents resolved to educate him for the
+church, and through their self-denial and his own exertions as a
+pupil teacher and private tutor he was able to complete a course
+of four sessions at the university of Glasgow. He began to write
+poetry for <i>The Glasgow Citizen</i> and began his idyll on the Luggie,
+the little stream that ran through Merkland. His most intimate
+companion at this time was Robert Buchanan, the poet; and in
+May 1860 the two agreed to proceed to London, with the idea
+of finding literary employment. Shortly after his arrival in
+London Gray introduced himself to Monckton Milnes, afterwards
+Lord Houghton, with whom he had previously corresponded.
+Lord Houghton tried to persuade him to return to
+Scotland, but Gray insisted on staying in London. He was
+unsuccessful in his efforts to place Gray&rsquo;s poem, &ldquo;The Luggie,&rdquo;
+in <i>The Cornhill Magazine</i>, but gave him some light literary work.
+He also showed him great kindness when a cold which had seized
+him assumed the serious form of consumption, and sent him to
+Torquay; but as the disease made rapid progress, an irresistible
+longing seized Gray to return to Merkland, where he arrived in
+January 1861, and died on the 3rd of December following, having
+the day before had the gratification of seeing a printed specimen
+copy of his poem &ldquo;The Luggie,&rdquo; published eventually by the
+exertions of Sydney Dobell. He was buried in the Auld Aisle
+Churchyard, Kirkintilloch, where in 1865 a monument was
+erected by &ldquo;friends far and near&rdquo; to his memory.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The Luggie,&rdquo; the principal poem of Gray, is a kind of reverie
+in which the scenes and events of his childhood and his early
+aspirations are mingled with the music of the stream which
+he celebrates. The series of sonnets, &ldquo;In the Shadows,&rdquo; was
+composed during the latter part of his illness. Most of his poems
+necessarily bear traces of immaturity, and lines may frequently
+be found in them which are mere echoes from Thomson, Wordsworth
+or Tennyson, but they possess, nevertheless, distinct
+individuality, and show a real appreciation of natural beauty.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Luggie and other Poems</i>, with an introduction by R. Monckton
+Milnes, and a brief memoir by James Hedderwick, was published
+in 1862; and a new and enlarged edition of Gray&rsquo;s <i>Poetical Works</i>,
+edited by Henry Glassford Bell, appeared in 1874. See also <i>David
+Gray and other Essays</i>, by Robert Buchanan (1868), and the same
+writer&rsquo;s poem on David Gray, in <i>Idyls and Legends of Inverburn</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY, ELISHA<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1835-1901), American electrician, was born
+in Barnesville, Belmont county, Ohio, on the 2nd of August
+1835. He worked as a carpenter and in a machine shop, reading
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span>
+in physical science at the same time, and for five years studied
+at Oberlin College, where he taught for a time. He then investigated
+the subject of telegraphy, and in 1867 patented a
+telegraphic switch and annunciator. Experimenting in the
+transmittal of electro-tones and of musical tones by wire, he
+utilized in 1874 animal tissues in his receivers, and filed, on
+the 14th of February 1876, a caveat for the invention of a
+telephone, only a few hours after the filing of an application for a
+patent by Alexander Graham Bell. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telephone</a></span>.) The caveat
+was disregarded; letters patent No. 174,465 were granted to Bell,
+whose priority of invention was upheld in 1888 by the United
+States Supreme Court (see <i>Molecular Telephone Co.</i> v. <i>American
+Bell Telephone Co.</i>, 126 U.S. 1). Gray&rsquo;s experiments won for him
+high praise and the decoration of the Legion of Honour at the
+Paris Exposition of 1878. He was for a time a manufacturer of
+electrical apparatus, particularly of his own inventions; and
+was chief electrical expert of the Western Electric Company of
+Chicago. At the Columbian Exposition of 1893 Gray was chairman
+of the International Congress of Electricians. He died at
+Newtonville, Massachusetts, on the 21st of January 1901.
+Among his later inventions were appliances for multiplex
+telegraphy and the telautograph, a machine for the electric
+transmission of handwriting. He experimented in the submarine
+use of electric bells for signalling.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gray wrote, besides scientific addresses and many monographs,
+<i>Telegraphy and Telephony</i> (1878) and <i>Electricity and Magnetism</i>
+(1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY, HENRY PETERS<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1819-1877). American portrait
+and genre painter, was born in New York on the 23rd of June
+1819. He was a pupil of Daniel Huntington there, and subsequently
+studied in Rome and Florence. Elected a member of
+the National Academy of Design in 1842, he succeeded
+Huntington as president in 1870, holding the position until 1871.
+The later years of his life were devoted to portrait work. He
+was strongly influenced by the old Italian masters, painting in
+mellow colour with a classical tendency. One of his notable
+canvases was an allegorical composition called &ldquo;The Birth of
+our Flag&rdquo; (1875). He died in New York City on the 12th of
+November 1877.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY, HORACE<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1828-1902), American jurist, was born in
+Boston, Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1828. He graduated
+at Harvard in 1845; was admitted to the bar in 1851, and in
+1854-1861 was reporter to the Supreme Court of Massachusetts.
+He practised law, first in partnership with Ebenezer Rockwood
+Hoar, and later with Wilder Dwight (1823-1862) and Charles F.
+Blake; was appointed associate justice of the state Supreme
+Court on the 23rd of August 1864, becoming chief-justice on the
+5th of September 1873; and was associate justice of the Supreme
+Court of the United States from December 1881 to August 1902,
+resigning only a few weeks before his death at Nahant, Mass.,
+on the 15th of September 1902. Gray had a fine sense of the
+dignity of the bench, and a taste for historical study. His
+judgments were unmistakably clear and contained the essence
+of earlier opinions. A great case lawyer, he was a much greater
+judge, the variety of his knowledge and his contributions to
+admiralty and prize law and to testamentary law being particularly
+striking; in constitutional law he was a &ldquo;loose&rdquo; rather
+than a &ldquo;strict&rdquo; constructionist.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Francis C. Lowell, &ldquo;Horace Gray,&rdquo; in <i>Proceedings of the
+American Academy</i>, vol. 39, pp. 627-637 (Boston, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY, JOHN DE<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (d. 1214), bishop of Norwich, entered
+Prince John&rsquo;s service, and at his accession (1199) was rapidly
+promoted in the church till he became bishop of Norwich in
+September 1200. King John&rsquo;s attempt to force him into the
+primacy in 1205 started the king&rsquo;s long and fatal quarrel with
+Pope Innocent III. De Gray was a hard-working royal official,
+in finance, in justice, in action, using his position to enrich himself
+and his family. In 1209 he went to Ireland to govern it as
+justiciar. He adopted a forward policy, attempting to extend
+the English frontier northward and westward, and fought a
+number of campaigns on the Shannon and in Fermanagh. But
+in 1212 he suffered a great defeat. He assimilated the coinage of
+Ireland to that of England, and tried to effect a similar reform
+in Irish law. De Gray was a good financier, and could always
+raise money: this probably explains the favour he enjoyed from
+King John. In 1213 he is found with 500 knights at the great
+muster at Barham Downs, when Philip Augustus was threatening
+to invade England. After John&rsquo;s reconciliation with Innocent
+he was one of those exempted from the general pardon, and was
+forced to go in person to Rome to obtain it. At Rome he so
+completely gained over Innocent that the pope sent him back
+with papal letters recommending his election to the bishopric of
+Durham (1213); but he died at St Jean d&rsquo;Audely in Poitou
+on his homeward journey (October 1214).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY, JOHN EDWARD<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1800-1875), English naturalist,
+born at Walsall, Staffordshire, in 1800, was the eldest of the
+three sons of S. F. Gray, of that town, druggist and writer on
+botany, and author of the <i>Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia</i>, &amp;c.,
+his grandfather being S. F. Gray, who translated the <i>Philosophia
+Botanica</i> of Linnaeus for the <i>Introduction to Botany</i> of James
+Lee (1715-1795). Gray studied at St Bartholomew&rsquo;s and other
+hospitals for the medical profession, but at an early age was
+attracted to the pursuit of botany. He assisted his father by
+collecting notes on botany and comparative anatomy and
+zoology in Sir Joseph Banks&rsquo;s library at the British Museum,
+aided by Dr W. E. Leach, assistant keeper, and the systematic
+synopsis of the <i>Natural Arrangement of British Plants</i>, 2 vols.,
+1821, was prepared by him, his father writing the preface and
+introduction only. In consequence of his application for membership
+of the Linnaean Society being rejected in 1822, he turned
+to the study of zoology, writing on zoophytes, shells, <i>Mollusca</i>
+and <i>Papilionidae</i>, still aided by Dr Leach at the British Museum.
+In December 1824 he obtained the post of assistant in that
+institution; and from that date to December 1839, when J. G.
+Children retired from the keepership, he had so zealously applied
+himself to the study, classification and improvement of the
+national collection of zoology that he was selected as the fittest
+person to be entrusted with its charge. Immediately on his
+appointment as keeper, he took in hand the revision of the
+systematic arrangement of the collections; scientific catalogues
+followed in rapid succession; the department was raised in
+importance; its poverty as well as its wealth became known,
+and whilst increased grants, donations and exchanges made
+good many deficiencies, great numbers of students, foreign as
+well as English, availed themselves of its resources to enlarge the
+knowledge of zoology in all its branches. In spite of numerous
+obstacles, he worked up the department, within a few years of
+his appointment as keeper, to such a state of excellence as to
+make it the rival of the cabinets of Leiden, Paris and Berlin;
+and later on it was raised under his management to the dignity
+of the largest and most complete zoological collection in the
+world. Although seized with paralysis in 1870, he continued to
+discharge the functions of keeper of zoology, and to contribute
+papers to the <i>Annals of Natural History</i>, his favourite journal, and
+to the transactions of a few of the learned societies; but at
+Christmas 1874, having completed half a century of official
+work, he resigned office, and died in London on the 7th of March
+1875.</p>
+
+<p>Gray was an exceedingly voluminous writer, and his
+interests were not confined to natural history only, for he took
+an active part in questions of public importance of his day, such
+as slave emancipation, prison discipline, abolition of imprisonment
+for debt, sanitary and municipal organizations, the decimal
+system, public education, extension of the opening of museums,
+&amp;c. He began to publish in 1820, and continued till the year
+of his death.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The titles of the books, memoirs and miscellaneous papers written
+by him, accompanied by a few notes, fill a privately printed list of 56
+octavo pages with 1162 entries.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY, PATRICK GRAY,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> <span class="sc">6th Baron</span> (d. 1612), was descended
+from Sir Andrew Gray (<i>c.</i> 1390-1469) of Broxmouth and Foulis,
+who was created a Scottish peer as Lord Gray, probably in 1445.
+Andrew was a leading figure in Scottish politics during the reigns
+of James I. and his two successors, and visited England as a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span>
+hostage, a diplomatist and a pilgrim. The 2nd Lord Gray was
+his grandson Andrew (d. 1514), and the 4th lord was the latter&rsquo;s
+grandson Patrick (d. 1582), a participant in Scottish politics
+during the stormy time of Mary, queen of Scots. Patrick&rsquo;s son,
+Patrick, the 5th lord (d. 1609), married Barbara, daughter of
+William, 2nd Lord Ruthven, and their son Patrick, known as
+the &ldquo;Master of Gray,&rdquo; is the subject of this article. Educated
+at Glasgow University and brought up as a Protestant, young
+Patrick was married early in life to Elizabeth Lyon, daughter
+of Lord Glamis, whom he repudiated almost directly; and
+afterwards went to France, where he joined the friends of Mary,
+queen of Scots, became a Roman Catholic, and assisted the
+French policy of the Guises in Scotland. He returned and took
+up his residence again in Scotland in 1583, and immediately
+began a career of treachery and intrigue, gaining James&rsquo;s favour
+by disclosing to him his mother&rsquo;s secrets, and acting in agreement
+with James Stewart, earl of Arran, in order to keep Mary a
+prisoner in England. In 1584 he was sent as ambassador to
+England, to effect a treaty between James and Elizabeth
+and to exclude Mary. His ambition incited him at the same
+time to promote a plot to secure the downfall of Arran.
+This was supported by Elizabeth, and was finally accomplished
+by letting loose the lords banished from Scotland for their
+participation in the rebellion called the Raid of Ruthven, who,
+joining Gray, took possession of the king&rsquo;s person at Stirling in
+1585, the league with England being ratified by the parliament
+in December. Gray now became the intermediary between the
+English government and James on the great question of Mary&rsquo;s
+execution, and in 1587 he was despatched on an embassy to
+Elizabeth, ostensibly to save Mary&rsquo;s life. Gray had, however,
+previously advised her secret assassination and had endeavoured
+to overcome all James&rsquo;s scruples; and though he does not appear
+to have carried treachery so far as to advise her death on this
+occasion, no representations made by him could have had any
+force or weight. The execution of Mary caused his own downfall
+and loss of political power in Scotland; and after his return he
+was imprisoned on charges of plots against Protestantism, of
+endeavouring to prevent the king&rsquo;s marriage, and of having been
+bribed to consent to Mary&rsquo;s death. He pleaded guilty of sedition
+and of having obstructed the king&rsquo;s marriage, and was declared
+a traitor; but his life was spared by James and he was banished
+from the country, but permitted to return in 1589, when he was
+restored to his office of master of the wardrobe to which he had
+been appointed in 1585. His further career was marked by
+lawlessness and misconduct. In 1592, together with the 5th
+Lord Bothwell, he made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the
+king at Falkland, and the same year earned considerable discredit
+by bringing groundless accusations against the Presbyterian
+minister, Robert Bruce; while after the king&rsquo;s accession
+to the English throne he was frequently summoned before
+the authorities on account of his conduct. Notwithstanding,
+he never lost James&rsquo;s favour. In 1609 he succeeded his father as
+6th Baron Gray, and died in 1612.</p>
+
+<p>Gray was an intimate friend of Sir Philip Sidney, but, if one
+of the ablest, handsomest and most fascinating, he was beyond
+doubt one of the most unscrupulous men of his day. He married
+as his second wife in 1585 Mary Stewart, daughter of Robert,
+earl of Orkney, and had by her, besides six daughters, a son,
+Andrew (d. 1663), who succeeded him as 7th Baron Gray.
+Andrew, who served for a long time in the French army, was a
+supporter, although not a very prominent one, of Charles I. and
+afterwards of Charles II. He was succeeded as 8th Lord Gray
+by Patrick (d. 1711), a son of his daughter Anne, and Patrick&rsquo;s
+successor was his kinsman and son-in-law John (d. 1724). On
+the extinction of John&rsquo;s direct line in 1878 the title of Lord Gray,
+passed to George Stuart, earl of Moray. In 1606 Gray had been
+ranked sixth among the Scottish baronies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Article in <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i>, and authorities
+there quoted; Gray&rsquo;s relation concerning the surprise at Stirling
+(<i>Bannatyne Club Publns.</i> i. 131, 1827); Andrew Lang, <i>History of
+Scotland</i>, vol. ii. (1902); Peter Gray, <i>The Descent and Kinship of
+Patrick, Master of Gray</i> (1903); <i>Gray Papers</i> (Bannatyne Club,
+1835); <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., Marq. of Salisbury&rsquo;s MSS.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY, ROBERT<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1809-1872), first bishop of Cape Town and
+metropolitan of South Africa, was born at Bishop Wearmouth,
+Durham, and was the son of Robert Gray, bishop of Bristol.
+He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and took orders in 1833.
+After holding the livings of Whitworth, Durham, 1834-1845, and
+Stockton-on-Tees, 1845-1847, he was consecrated bishop of Cape
+Town in 1847; the bishopric having been endowed through the
+liberality of Miss (afterwards Baroness) Burdett-Coutts. Until
+1853 he was a suffragan of Canterbury, but in that year he
+formally resigned his see and was reappointed by letters patent
+metropolitan of South Africa in view of the contemplated
+establishment of the suffragan dioceses of Graham&rsquo;s Town and
+Natal. In that capacity his coercive jurisdiction was twice
+called in question, and in each case the judicial committee of the
+privy council decided against him. The best-known case is that
+of Bishop Colenso, whom Gray deposed and excommunicated in
+1863. The spiritual validity of the sentence was upheld by the
+convocation of Canterbury and the Pan-Anglican synod of 1867,
+but legally Colenso remained bishop of Natal. The privy council
+decisions declared, in effect, that the Anglican body in South
+Africa was on the footing of a voluntary religious society. Gray,
+accepting this position, obtained its recognition by the mother
+church as the Church of the Province of South Africa, in full
+communion with the Church of England. The first provincial
+synod was held in 1870. During his episcopate Bishop Gray
+effected a much-needed organization of the South African church,
+to which he added five new bishoprics, all carved out of the
+original diocese of Cape Town. It was also chiefly owing to his
+suggestions that the universities&rsquo; mission to Central Africa was
+founded.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1369), English chronicler, was a
+son of Sir Thomas Gray, who was taken prisoner by the Scots
+at Bannockburn and who died about 1344. The younger Thomas
+was present at the battle of Neville&rsquo;s Cross in 1346; in 1355,
+whilst acting as warden of Norham Castle, he was made a prisoner,
+and during his captivity in Edinburgh Castle he devoted his
+time to studying the English chroniclers, Gildas, Bede, Ranulf
+Higdon and others. Released in 1357 he was appointed warden
+of the east marches towards Scotland in 1367, and he died about
+1369. Gray&rsquo;s work, the <i>Scalacronica</i> (so called, perhaps, from
+the scaling-ladder in the crest of the Grays), is a chronicle of
+English history from the earliest times to about the year 1362.
+It is, however, only valuable for the reigns of Edward I. and
+Edward II. and part of that of Edward III., being especially
+so for the account of the wars between England and Scotland, in
+which the author&rsquo;s father and the author himself took part.
+Writing in Norman-French, Gray tells of Wallace and Bruce,
+of the fights at Bannockburn, Byland and Dupplin, and makes
+some mention of the troubles in England during the reign of
+Edward II. He also narrates the course of the war in France
+between 1355 and 1361; possibly he was present during some
+of these campaigns.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Scalacronica</i> was summarized by John Leland in the 16th
+century; the part dealing with the period from 1066 to the end,
+together with the prologue, was edited for the Maitland Club by
+J. Stevenson (1836); and the part from 1274 to 1362 was translated
+into English by Sir Herbert Maxwell (Glasgow, 1907). In the
+extant manuscript, which is in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge,
+there is a gap extending from about 1340 to 1355, and Gray&rsquo;s
+account of this period is only known from Leland&rsquo;s summary.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY, THOMAS<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1716-1771), English poet, the fifth and sole
+surviving child of Philip and Dorothy Gray, was born in London
+on the 26th of December 1716. His mother&rsquo;s maiden name was
+Antrobus, and in partnership with her sister Mary she kept a
+millinery shop in Cornhill. This and the house connected with
+it were the property of Philip Gray, a money-scrivener, who
+married Dorothy in 1706 and lived with her in the house, the
+sisters renting the shop from him and supporting themselves
+by its profits. Philip Gray had impaired the fortune which he
+inherited from his father, a wealthy London merchant; yet he
+was sufficiently well-to-do, and at the close of his life was building
+a house upon some property of his own at Wanstead. But he
+was selfish and brutal, and in 1735 his wife took some abortive
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span>
+steps to obtain a separation from him. At this date she had
+given birth to twelve children, of whom Thomas was the only
+survivor. He owed his life as well as his education to this
+&ldquo;careful, tender mother,&rdquo; as he calls her. The child was
+suffocating when she opened one of his veins with her own hand.
+He went at her expense to Eton in 1727, and was confided
+to the care of her brother, William Antrobus, one of the assistant-masters,
+during some part at least of his school-life.</p>
+
+<p>At Eton Gray&rsquo;s closest friends were Horace Walpole, Richard
+West (son of the lord chancellor of Ireland and grandson of the
+famous Bishop Burnet), and Thomas Ashton, afterwards fellow
+of Eton. This little coterie was dubbed &ldquo;the Quadruple
+Alliance&rdquo;; its members were studious and literary, and took
+little part in the amusements of their fellows. In 1734 Gray
+matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, of which his uncle,
+Robert Antrobus, had been a fellow. At Cambridge he had once
+more the companionship of Walpole and Ashton who were at
+King&rsquo;s, but West went to Christchurch, Oxford. Gray made at
+this time the firmest and most constant friendship of his life
+with Thomas Wharton (not the poet Warton) of Pembroke
+College. He was maintained by his mother, and his straitened
+means were eked out by certain small exhibitions from his
+college. His conspicuous abilities and known devotion to study
+perhaps atoned in the eyes of the authorities for his indifference
+to the regular routine of study; for mathematics in particular
+he had an aversion which was the one exception to his almost
+limitless curiosity in other directions. During his first Cambridge
+period he learnt Italian &ldquo;like any dragon,&rdquo; and made translations
+from Guarini, Dante and Tasso, some of which have been preserved.
+In September 1738 he is in the agony of leaving college,
+nor can we trace his movements with any certainty for a while,
+though it may be conjectured that he spent much time with
+Horace Walpole, and made in his company some fashionable
+acquaintances in London. On the 29th of March 1739, he
+started with Walpole for a long continental tour, for the expenses
+of which it is probable that his father, for once, came in some
+measure to his assistance. In Paris, Gray visited the great with
+his friend, studied the picture-galleries, went to tragedies,
+comedies, operas and cultivated there that taste for the French
+classical dramatists, especially Racine, whom he afterwards tried
+to imitate in the fragmentary &ldquo;Agrippina.&rdquo; It is characteristic
+of him that he travels through France with Caesar constantly
+in his hands, ever noting and transcribing. In the same way, in
+crossing the Alps and in Piedmont, he has &ldquo;Livy in the chaise
+with him and Silius Italicus too.&rdquo; In Italy he made a long
+sojourn, principally at Florence, where Walpole&rsquo;s lifelong
+correspondent, Horace Mann, was British envoy, and received
+and treated the travellers most hospitably. But Rome and
+Naples are also described in Gray&rsquo;s letters, sometimes vividly,
+always amusingly, and in his notes are almost catalogued.
+Herculaneum, an object of intense interest to the young poet
+and antiquary, had been discovered the year before. At
+length in April 1741 Gray and Walpole set out northwards for
+Reggio. Here they quarrelled. Gray, &ldquo;never a boy,&rdquo; was a
+student, and at times retiring; Walpole, in his way a student
+too, was at this time a very social being, somewhat too frivolous,
+and, what was worse, too patronizing. He good-humouredly
+said at a later date, &ldquo;Gray loves to find fault,&rdquo; and this fault-finding
+was expressed, no doubt with exaggeration, in a letter
+to Ashton, who violated Gray&rsquo;s confidence. The rupture
+followed, and with two friends, John Chute of the Vyne, Hampshire,
+and the young Francis Whithed, Gray went to Venice to
+see the doge wed the Adriatic on Ascension Day. Thence he
+returned home attended only by a <i>laquais de voyage</i>, visiting
+once more the Grande Chartreuse where he left in the album of
+the brotherhood those beautiful alcaics, <i>O Tu severa Religio
+loci</i>, which reveal his characteristic melancholy (enhanced by
+solitude and estrangement) and that sense of the glory as distinct
+from the horror of mountain scenery to which perhaps he was
+the first of Englishmen to give adequate expression. On the
+18th of September 1741 we find him in London, astonishing the
+street boys with his deep ruffles, large bag-wig and long sword,
+and &ldquo;mortified&rdquo; under the hands of the English barber. On
+the 6th of November his father died; Philip Gray had, it is
+evident, been less savage and niggardly at last to those who
+were dependent upon him, and his death left his wife and son
+some measure of assured peace and comfort.</p>
+
+<p>London was Gray&rsquo;s headquarters for more than a year, with
+occasional visits to Stoke Poges, to which his mother and Mary
+Antrobus had retired from business to live with their sister,
+Mrs Rogers. At Stoke he heard of the death of West, to whom
+he had sent the &ldquo;Ode on Spring,&rdquo; which was returned to him
+unopened. It was an unexpected blow, shocking in all its
+circumstances, especially if we believe the story that his friend&rsquo;s
+frail life was brought to a close by the discovery that the mother
+whom he tenderly loved had been an unfaithful wife, and, as
+some say, poisoned her husband. About this tragedy Gray
+preserved a mournful silence, broken only by the pathetic sonnet,
+and some Latin lines, in which he laments his loss. The year
+1742, was, for him, fruitful in poetic effort, of which, however,
+much was incomplete. The &ldquo;Agrippina,&rdquo; the <i>De principiis
+Cogitandi</i>, the splenetic &ldquo;Hymn to Ignorance&rdquo; in which he
+contemplates his return to the university, remain fragments;
+but besides the two poems already mentioned, the &ldquo;Ode on a
+Distant Prospect of Eton College&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Hymn to Adversity,&rdquo;
+perhaps the most faultless of his poems, were written
+before the close of the summer. After hesitating between
+Trinity Hall and Peterhouse, he returned to the latter, probably
+as a fellow-commoner. He had hitherto neglected to read for a
+degree; he proceeded to that of LL.B. in 1744. In 1745 a
+reconciliation with Walpole, long desired probably on both sides,
+was effected through the kind offices of Chute&rsquo;s sister. In 1746
+he spent his time between Cambridge, Stoke and London; was
+much with Walpole; graphically describes the trial of the
+Scottish rebel lords, and studied Greek with avidity; but &ldquo;the
+muse,&rdquo; which by this time perhaps had stimulated him to begin
+the &ldquo;Elegy,&rdquo; &ldquo;has gone, and left him in much worse company.&rdquo;
+In town he finds his friends Chute and Whithed returned to
+England, and &ldquo;flaunts about&rdquo; in public places with them.
+The year 1747 produced only the ode on Walpole&rsquo;s cat, and we
+gather that he is mainly engaged in reading with a very critical
+eye, and interesting himself more in the troubles of Pembroke
+College, in which he almost seems to live, than in the affairs of
+Peterhouse. In this year also be made the acquaintance of
+Mason, his future biographer. In 1748 he first came before the
+public, but anonymously, in Dodsley&rsquo;s <i>Miscellany</i>, in which
+appeared the Eton ode, the ode on spring, and that on the cat.
+In the same year he sent to Wharton the beginning of the didactic
+poem, &ldquo;The Alliance of Education and Government,&rdquo; which
+remains a fragment. His aunt, Mary Antrobus, died in 1749.</p>
+
+<p>There is little to break the monotony of his days till 1750,
+when from Stoke he sent Walpole &ldquo;a thing to which he had at
+last put an end.&rdquo; The &ldquo;thing&rdquo; was the &ldquo;Elegy.&rdquo; It was
+shown about in manuscript by his admiring friend; it was
+impudently pirated, and Gray had it printed by Dodsley in
+self-defence. Even thus it had &ldquo;a pinch or two in its cradle,&rdquo;
+of which it long bore the marks. The publication led to the one
+incident in Gray&rsquo;s life which has a touch of romance. At Stokehouse
+had come to live the widowed Lady Cobham, who learnt
+that the author of the &ldquo;Elegy&rdquo; was her neighbour. At her
+instance, Lady Schaub, her visitor, and Miss Speed, her protégée,
+paid him a call; the poet was out, and his quiet mother and
+aunts were somewhat flustered at the apparition of these women
+of fashion, whose acquaintance Gray had already made in town.
+Hence the humorous &ldquo;Long Story.&rdquo; A platonic affection
+sprang up between Gray and Miss Speed; rumour, upon the
+death of Lady Cobham, said that they were to be married, but
+the lady escaped this mild destiny to become the Baroness de la
+Peyrière, afterwards Countess Viry, and a dangerous political
+<i>intriguante</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1753 all Gray&rsquo;s completed poems, except the sonnet on the
+death of West, were published by Dodsley in a handsome volume
+illustrated by Richard Bentley, the son of the celebrated master
+of Trinity. To these designs we owe the verses to the artist
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span>
+which were posthumously published from a MS. torn at the end.
+In the same year Gray&rsquo;s mother died and was buried in the
+churchyard at Stoke Poges, the scene of the &ldquo;Elegy,&rdquo; in the
+same grave with Mary Antrobus. A visit to his friend Dr
+Wharton at Durham later in the year revives his earlier impressions
+of that bolder scenery which is henceforth to be in the
+main the framework of his muse. Already in 1752 he had
+almost completed &ldquo;The Progress of Poesy,&rdquo; in which, and in
+&ldquo;The Bard,&rdquo; the imagery is largely furnished forth by mountain
+and torrent. The latter poem long held fire; Gray was stimulated
+to finish it by hearing the blind Welsh harper Parry at
+Cambridge. Both odes were the first-fruits of the press which
+Walpole had set up at Strawberry Hill, and were printed together
+there in 1757. They are genuinely Pindaric, that is, with corresponding
+strophes, antistrophes and epodes. As the Greek
+motto prefixed to them implies, they were vocal to the intelligent
+only; and these at first were few. But the odes, if they did not
+attain the popularity of the &ldquo;Elegy,&rdquo; marked an epoch in
+the history of English poetry, and the influence of &ldquo;The Bard&rdquo;
+may be traced even in that great but very fruitful imposture,
+the pseudo-Ossian of Macpherson. Gray yields to the impulse
+of the Romantic movement; he has long been an admirer of
+ballad poetry; before he wrote &ldquo;The Bard&rdquo; he had begun to
+study Scandinavian literature, and the two &ldquo;Norse Odes,&rdquo;
+written in 1761, were in style and metrical form strangely
+anticipative of Coleridge and Scott. Meanwhile his Cambridge
+life had been vexed by the freaks of the fellow-commoners of
+Peterhouse, a peculiarly riotous set. He had suffered great
+inconvenience for a time by the burning of his property in
+Cornhill, and so nervous was he on the subject of fire that he
+had provided himself with a rope-ladder by which he might
+descend from his college window. Under this window a hunting-party
+of these rude lads raised in the early morning the cry
+of fire; the poet&rsquo;s night-capped head appeared and was at
+once withdrawn. This, or little more than this, was the simple
+fact out of which arose the legend still current at Cambridge.
+The servile authorities of Peterhouse treated Gray&rsquo;s complaints
+with scant respect, and he migrated to Pembroke College. &ldquo;I
+left my lodgings,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;because the rooms were noisy, and
+the people of the house dirty.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In 1758 died Mrs Rogers, and Gray describes himself as
+employed at Stoke in &ldquo;dividing nothing&rdquo; between himself and
+the surviving aunt, Mrs Oliffe, whom he calls &ldquo;the spawn of
+Cerberus and the Dragon of Wantley.&rdquo; In 1759 he availed
+himself of the MS. treasures of the British Museum, then for the
+first time open to the public, made a very long sojourn in town,
+and in 1761 witnessed the coronation of George III., of which
+to his friend Brown of Pembroke he wrote a very vivacious
+account. In his last years he revealed a craving for a life less
+sedentary than heretofore. He visited various picturesque
+districts of Great Britain, exploring great houses and ruined
+abbeys; he was the pioneer of the modern tourist, noting and
+describing in the spirit now of the poet, now of the art-critic,
+now of the antiquary. In 1762 he travelled in Yorkshire and
+Derbyshire; in 1764 in the Lowlands of Scotland, and thence
+went to Southampton and its neighbourhood. In 1765 he
+revisits Scotland; he is the guest of Lord Strathmore at Glamis;
+and revels in &ldquo;those monstrous creatures of God,&rdquo; the Highland
+mountains. His most notable achievement in this direction
+was his journey among the English lakes, of which he wrote an
+interesting account to Wharton; and even in 1770, the year
+before his death, he visited with his young friend Norton Nicholls
+&ldquo;five of the most beautiful counties of the kingdom,&rdquo; and
+descended the Wye for 40 m. In all these quests he displays a
+physical energy which surprises and even perplexes us. His
+true academic status was worthily secured in 1768, when the
+duke of Grafton offered him the professorship of modern history
+which in 1762 he had vainly endeavoured to obtain from Bute.
+He wrote in 1769 the &ldquo;Installation Ode&rdquo; upon the appointment
+of Grafton as chancellor of the university. It was almost the
+only instance in which he successfully executed a task, not, in
+the strictest sense, self-imposed; the great founders of the
+university are tactfully memorized and pass before us in a kind
+of heraldic splendour. He bore with indifference the taunts
+to which, from Junius and others, he was exposed for this
+tribute to his patron. He was contemplating a journey to
+Switzerland to visit his youthful friend de Bonstetten when, in
+the summer of 1771, he was conscious of a great decline in his
+physical powers. He was seized with a sudden illness when
+dining in his college hall, and died of gout in the stomach on the
+30th of July 1771. His last moments were attended by his
+cousin Mary Antrobus, postmistress through his influence at
+Cambridge and daughter of his Eton tutor; and he was laid
+beside his beloved mother in the churchyard of Stoke Poges.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to his shyness and reserve he had few intimate friends,
+but to these his loss was irreparable; for to them he revealed
+himself either in boyish levity and banter, or wise and sympathetic
+counsel and tender and yet manly consolation; to them
+he imparted his quiet but keen observation of passing events
+or the stores of his extensive reading in literature ancient,
+medieval or modern; and with Proteus-like variety he writes
+at one time as a speculative philosopher, at another as a critic
+in art or music, at another as a meteorologist and nature-lover.
+His friendship with the young, after his migration to Pembroke
+College, is a noteworthy trait in his character. With Lord
+Strathmore and the Lyons and with William Palgrave he conversed
+as an elder brother, and Norton Nicholls of Trinity Hall
+lost in him a second father, who had taught him to think and feel.
+The brilliant young foreigner, de Bonstetten, looked back after
+a long and chequered career with remembrance still vivid to the
+days in which the poet so soon to die taught him to read Shakespeare
+and Milton in the monastic gloom of Cambridge. With
+the elderly &ldquo;Levites&rdquo; of the place he was less in sympathy;
+they dreaded his sarcastic vein; they were conscious that he
+laughed at them, and in the polemics of the university he was
+somewhat of a free lance, fighting for his own hand. Lampoons
+of his were privately circulated with effect, and that he could be
+the fiercest of satirists the &ldquo;Cambridge Courtship&rdquo; on the
+candidature of Lord Sandwich for the office of high steward, and
+the verses on Lord Holland&rsquo;s mimic ruins at Westgate, sufficiently
+prove. The faculty which he displayed in humour and satire
+was denied to his more serious muse; there all was the fruit of
+long delay; of that higher inspiration he had a thin but very
+precious vein, and the sublimity which he undoubtedly attained
+was reached by an effort of which captious and even sympathetic
+criticism can discover the traces. In his own time he was
+regarded as an innovator, for like Collins he revived the poetic
+diction of the past, and the adverse judgments of Johnson and
+others upon his work are in fact a defence of the current literary
+traditions. Few men have published so little to so much effect;
+few have attained to fame with so little ambition. His favourite
+maxim was &ldquo;to be employed is to be happy,&rdquo; but he was always
+employed in the first instance for the satisfaction of his own soul,
+and to this end and no other he made himself one of the best
+Greek scholars at Cambridge in the interval between Bentley
+and Porson. His genius was receptive rather than creative,
+and it is to be regretted that he lacked energy to achieve that
+history of English poetry which he once projected, and for which
+he possessed far more knowledge and insight than the poet
+Thomas Warton, to whom he resigned the task. He had a fine
+taste in music, painting and architecture; and his correspondence
+includes a wide survey of such European literature as was
+accessible to him, with criticisms, sometimes indeed a little
+limited and insular, yet of a singularly fresh and modern cast.
+In person he was below the middle height, but well-made, and
+his face, in which the primness of his features was redeemed
+by his flashing eyes, was the index of his character. There was
+a touch of affectation in his demeanour, and he was sometimes
+reticent and secretive even to his best friends. He was a refined
+Epicurean in his habits, and a deist rather than a Christian in
+his religious beliefs; but his friend, Mrs Bonfoy, had &ldquo;taught
+him to pray&rdquo; and he was keenly alive to the dangers of a flippant
+scepticism. In a beautiful alcaic stanza he pronounces the man
+supremely happy who in the depths of the heart is conscious
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span>
+of the &ldquo;fount of tears,&rdquo; and his characteristic melancholy,
+except in the few hours when it was indeed black, was not a
+pitiable state; rather, it was one secret of the charm both of
+the man and of the poet.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A very complete bibliography of Gray will be found in Dr. Bradshaw&rsquo;s
+edition of the poems in the Aldine series. Dodsley published
+ten of the poems, exclusive of the &ldquo;Long Story,&rdquo; in 1768. Mason&rsquo;s
+<i>Life of Gray</i> (1778) included the poems and some hitherto unpublished
+fragments, with a selection from his letters, much garbled.
+Mathias in 1814 reprinted Mason&rsquo;s edition and added much from
+Gray&rsquo;s MS. commentaries together with some more of his translations.
+The most exhaustive edition of Gray&rsquo;s writings was achieved
+by the Rev. John Mitford, who first did justice to the correspondence
+with Wharton and Norton Nicholls (5 vols., Pickering, 1836-1843;
+correspondence of Gray and Mason, Bentley, 1853); see also the
+edition of the works by Edmund Gosse (4 vols., 1884); the Life
+by the same in Eng. Men of Letters (2nd ed., 1889); some further
+relics are given in <i>Gray and His Friends</i> by D. C. Tovey (Cambridge,
+1890); and a new edition of the letters copiously annotated by D.
+C. Tovey is in the Standard Library (1900-1907). Nicholl&rsquo;s
+<i>Illustrations</i>, vol. vi. p. 805, quoted by Professor Kittredge in the
+<i>Nation</i>, Sept. 12th, 1900, gives the true story of Gray&rsquo;s migration
+to Pembroke College. Matthew Arnold&rsquo;s essay on Gray in Ward&rsquo;s
+<i>English Poets</i> is one of the minor classics of literary criticism.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. C. To.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Grey</span>), <b>WALTER DE</b> (d. 1255), English prelate and
+statesman, was a nephew of John de Gray, bishop of Norwich,
+and was educated at Oxford. He owed his early and rapid
+preferment in church and state to the favour of King John,
+becoming the king&rsquo;s chancellor in 1205, and being chosen bishop
+of Lichfield in 1210. He was, however, not allowed to keep this
+bishopric, but he became bishop of Worcester in 1214, resigning
+his office as chancellor in the same year. Gray was with John
+when the king signed Magna Carta in June 1215; soon after
+this event he left England on the king&rsquo;s business, and it was
+during his absence that he was forced into the archbishopric
+of York, owing his election to the good offices of John and of
+Pope Innocent III. He took a leading part in public affairs
+during the minority of Henry III., and was regarded with much
+favour by this king, who employed him on important errands
+to foreign potentates, and left him as guardian of England when
+he went to France in 1242. Afterwards the archbishop seems
+to have been less favourably disposed towards Henry, and for a
+time he absented himself from public business; however, in
+1255, he visited London to attend a meeting of parliament, and
+died at Fulham on the 1st of May 1255. Gray was always
+anxious to assert his archiepiscopal authority over Scotland,
+and to maintain it against the archbishop of Canterbury, but
+in neither case was he very successful. He built the south
+transept of the minster at York and bought for his see the
+village, afterwards called Bishopthorpe, which is still the residence
+of the archbishop of York. He was also generous to the church
+at Ripon. Gray was regarded by his contemporaries as an
+avaricious, but patriotic man.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAY,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Haute-Saône, situated on the declivity of
+a hill on the left bank of the Saône, 36 m. S.W. of Vesoul by the
+Eastern railway. Pop. (1906) 5742. The streets of the town are
+narrow and steep, but it possesses broad and beautiful quays
+and has a busy port. Three bridges, one dating from the 18th
+century, unite it to suburbs on the right bank of the river, on
+which is the railway-station from which lines branch off to
+Auxonne, Dijon, Besançon and Culmont-Chalindrey. The
+principal buildings are the Gothic church, restored in the style
+of the Renaissance but with a modern portal, and the hôtel de
+ville, built by the Spaniards in 1568. The latter building has a
+handsome façade decorated with columns of red granite. Gray
+is the seat of a subprefect and has tribunals of first instance
+and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a communal college
+and a small museum. It has large flour-mills; among the other
+industries is the manufacture of machinery and iron goods.
+There is also a considerable transit traffic in goods from the
+south of France and the colonies, and trade in iron, corn, provisions,
+vegetables, wine, wood, &amp;c., much of which is carried
+by river. Gray was founded in the 7th century. Its fortifications
+were destroyed by Louis XIV. During the Franco-German War
+General von Werder concentrated his army corps in the town
+and held it for a month, making it the <i>point d&rsquo;appui</i> of movements
+towards Dijon and Langres, as well as towards Besançon.</p>
+
+<p>Gray gave its name to the distinguished English family of
+de Gray, Gray or Grey, Anschitel de Gray being mentioned as
+an Oxfordshire tenant in Domesday.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAYLING<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (<i>Thymallus</i>), fishes belonging to the family
+<i>Salmonidae</i>. The best known are the &ldquo;poisson bleu&rdquo; of the
+Canadian voyageurs, and the European species, <i>Thymallus
+vulgaris</i> (the <i>Asch</i> or <i>Äsche</i> of Germany, <i>ombre</i> of France, and
+<i>temola</i> of Upper Italy). This latter species is esteemed on
+account of its agreeable colours (especially of the dorsal fin), its
+well-flavoured flesh, and the sport it affords to anglers. The
+grayling differ from the genus <i>Salmo</i> in the smaller mouth with
+comparatively feeble dentition, in the larger scales, and especially
+in the much greater development of the dorsal fin, which contains
+20 to 24 rays. These beautiful fishes, of which five or six species
+are known, inhabit the fresh waters of Europe, Siberia and the
+northern parts of North America. The European species,
+<i>T. vulgaris</i> or <i>vexillifer</i>, attains, though rarely, a length of 2 ft.
+The colours during life are remarkably changeable and iridescent;
+small dark spots are sometimes present on the body; the very
+high dorsal fin is beautifully marked with purplish bands and
+ocelli. In England and Scotland the grayling appears to have
+had originally a rather irregular distribution, but it has now
+been introduced into a great number of rivers; it is not found in
+Ireland. It is more generally distributed in Scandinavia and
+Russia, and the mountain streams of central Europe southwards
+to the Alpine water of Upper Italy. Specimens attaining to a
+weight of 4 &#8468; are very scarce.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAYS THURROCK,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Grays</span>, an urban district in the south-eastern
+parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the Thames,
+20 m. E. by S. from London by the London, Tilbury &amp; Southend
+railway. Pop. (1901) 13,834. The church of St Peter and St
+Paul, wholly rebuilt, retains some Norman work. The town
+takes its name from a family of Gray who held the manor for
+three centuries from 1149. There are an endowed and two
+training ship schools. Roman remains have been found in the
+vicinity; and the geological formations exhibiting the process
+of silting up of a former river channel are exposed in the quarries,
+and contain large mammalian remains. The town has trade in
+bricks, lime and cement.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAZ<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Gratz</span>], the capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland
+of Styria, 140 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900)
+138,370. It is picturesquely situated on both banks of the Mur,
+just where this river enters a broad and fertile valley, and the
+beauty of its position has given rise to the punning French
+description, <i>La Ville des grâces sur la rivière de l&rsquo;amour</i>. The main
+town lies on the left bank of the river at the foot of the Schlossberg
+(1545 ft.) which dominates the town. The beautiful valley
+traversed by the Mur, known as the Grazer Feld and bounded
+by the Wildonerberge, extends to the south; to the S.W. rise
+the Bacher Gebirge and the Koralpen; to the N. the Schöckel
+(4745 ft.), and to the N.W. the Alps of Upper Styria. On the
+Schlossberg, which can be ascended by a cable tramway, beautiful
+parks have been laid out, and on its top is the bell-tower, 60 ft.
+high, and the quaint clock-tower, 52 ft. high, which bears a
+gigantic clock-dial. At the foot of the Schlossberg is the Stadt-Park.</p>
+
+<p>Among the numerous churches of the city the most important
+is the cathedral of St Aegidius, a Gothic building erected by the
+emperor Frederick III. in 1450-1462 on the site of a previous
+church mentioned as early as 1157. It has been several times
+modified and redecorated, more particularly in 1718. The
+present copper spire dates from 1663. The interior is richly
+adorned with stained-glass windows of modern date, costly
+shrines, paintings and tombs. In the immediate neighbourhood
+of the cathedral is the mausoleum church erected by the emperor
+Ferdinand II. Worthy of mention also are the parish church, a
+Late Gothic building, finished in 1520, and restored in 1875,
+which possesses an altar piece by Tintoretto; the Augustinian
+church, appropriated to the service of the university since 1827;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span>
+the small Leech Kirche, an interesting building in Early Gothic
+style, dating from the 13th century, and the Herz Jesu-Kirche,
+a building in Early Gothic style, finished in 1891, with a tower
+360 ft. high. Of the secular buildings the most important is the
+Landhaus, where the local diet holds its sittings, erected in the
+16th century in the Renaissance style. It possesses an interesting
+portal and a beautiful arcaded court, and amongst the curiosities
+preserved here is the Styrian hat. In its neighbourhood is the
+Zeughaus or arsenal, built in 1644, which contains a very rich
+collection of weapons of the 15th-17th centuries, and which is
+maintained exactly in the same condition as it was 250 years ago.
+The town hall, built in 1807, and rebuilt in 1892 in the German
+Renaissance style, and the imperial castle, dating from the 11th
+century, now used as government offices, are also worth notice.</p>
+
+<p>At the head of the educational institutions is the university
+founded in 1586 by the Austrian archduke Charles Francis, and
+restored in 1817 after an interruption of 45 years. It is now
+housed in a magnificent building, finished in 1895, and is endowed
+with numerous scientific laboratories and a rich library. It
+had in 1901 a teaching staff of 161 professors and lecturers,
+and 1652 students, including many Italians from the Küstenland
+and Dalmatia. The Joanneum Museum, founded in 1811 by the
+archduke John Baptist, has become very rich in many departments,
+and an additional huge building in the rococo style was
+erected in 1895 for its accommodation. The technical college,
+founded in 1814 by the archduke John Baptist, had in 1901
+about 400 pupils.</p>
+
+<p>An active trade, fostered by abundant railway communications,
+is combined with manufactures of iron and steel wares, paper,
+chemicals, vinegar, physical and optical instruments, besides
+artistic printing and lithography. The extensive workshops
+of the Southern railway are at Graz, and since the opening of the
+railway to the rich coal-fields of Köflach the number of industrial
+establishments has greatly increased.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the numerous interesting places in the neighbourhood
+are: the Hilmteich, with the Hilmwarte, about 100 ft. high;
+and the Rosenberg (1570 ft.), whence the ascent of the Platte
+(2136 ft.) with extensive view is made. At the foot of the
+Rosenberg is Maria Grün, with a large sanatorium. All these
+places are situated to the N. of Graz. On the left bank of the
+Mur is the pilgrimage church of Maria Trost, built in 1714;
+on the right bank is the castle of Eggenberg, built in the 17th
+century. To the S.W. is the Buchkogel (2150 ft.), with a magnificent
+view, and a little farther south is the watering-place of
+Tobelbad.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Graz may possibly have been a Roman site, but
+the first mention of it under its present name is in a document
+of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 881, after which it became the residence of the rulers
+of the surrounding district, known later as Styria. Its privileges
+were confirmed by King Rudolph I. in 1281. Surrounded with
+walls and fosses in 1435, it was able in 1481 to defend itself
+against the Hungarians under Matthias Corvinus, and in 1529
+and 1532 the Turks attacked it with as little success. As early
+as 1530 the Lutheran doctrine was preached in Graz by Seifried
+and Jacob von Eggenberg, and in 1540 Eggenberg founded the
+Paradies or Lutheran school, in which Kepler afterwards taught.
+But the archduke Charles burned 20,000 Protestant books in
+the square of the present lunatic asylum, and succeeded by his
+oppressive measures in bringing the city again under the authority
+of Rome. From the earlier part of the 15th century Graz was
+the residence of one branch of the family of Habsburg, a branch
+which succeeded to the imperial throne in 1619 in the person
+of Ferdinand II. New fortifications were constructed in the end
+of the 16th century by Franz von Poppendorf, and in 1644 the
+town afforded an asylum to the family of Ferdinand III. The
+French were in possession of the place in 1797 and again in 1805;
+and in 1809 Marshal Macdonald having, in accordance with the
+terms of the peace of Vienna, entered the citadel which he had
+vainly besieged, blew it all up with the exception of the bell-tower
+and the citizens&rsquo; or clock tower. It benefited greatly
+during the 19th century from the care of the archduke John and
+received extended civic privileges in 1860.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ilwof and Peters, <i>Graz, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt</i>
+(Graz, 1875); G. Fels, <i>Graz und seine Umgebung</i> (Graz, 1898); L.
+Mayer, <i>Die Stadt der Grazien</i> (Graz, 1897), and Hofrichter, <i>Rückblicke
+in die Vergangenheit von Graz</i> (Graz, 1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1503-1583), Italian
+author, was born at Florence on the 22nd of March 1503, of good
+family both by his father&rsquo;s and mother&rsquo;s side. Of his youth
+and education all record appears to be lost, but he probably
+began early to practise as an apothecary. In 1540 he was one
+of the founders of the Academy of the Humid (degli Umidi)
+afterwards called &ldquo;della Fiorentina,&rdquo; and later took a prominent
+part in the establishment of the more famous Accademia della
+Crusca. In both societies he was known as <i>Il Lasca</i> or <i>Leuciscus</i>,
+and this pseudonym is still frequently substituted for his proper
+name. His temper was what the French happily call a difficult
+one, and his life was consequently enlivened or disturbed by
+various literary quarrels. His Humid brethren went so far as
+to expel him for a time from the society&mdash;the chief ground
+of offence being apparently his ruthless criticism of the
+&ldquo;Arameans,&rdquo; a party of the academicians who maintained
+that the Florentine or Tuscan tongue was derived from the
+Hebrew, the Chaldee, or some other branch of the Semitic.
+He was readmitted in 1566, when his friend Salviati was &ldquo;consul&rdquo;
+of the academy. His death took place on the 18th of February
+1583. Il Lasca ranks as one of the great masters of Tuscan
+prose. His style is copious and flexible; abundantly idiomatic,
+but without any affectation of being so, it carries with it the
+force and freshness of popular speech, while it lacks not at the
+same time a flavour of academic culture. His principal works
+are <i>Le Cene</i> (1756), a collection of stories in the manner of
+Boccaccio, and a number of prose comedies, <i>La Gelosia</i> (1568), <i>La
+Spiritata</i> (1561), <i>I Parentadi</i>, <i>La Arenga</i>, <i>La Sibilla</i>, <i>La Pinzochera</i>,
+<i>L&rsquo; Arzigogolo</i>. The stories, though of no special merit as far
+as the plots are concerned, are told with verve and interest.
+A number of miscellaneous poems, a few letters and <i>Four
+Orations to the Cross</i> complete the list of Grazzini&rsquo;s extant works.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He also edited the works of Berni, and collected <i>Tutti i trionfi,
+larri, mascherate, e canti carnascialaschi, andati per Firenze dal
+tempo del magnifico Lorenzo de&rsquo; Medici fino all&rsquo; anno 1559</i>. In 1868
+Adamo Rossi published in his <i>Ricerche per le biblioteche di Perugia</i>
+three &ldquo;novelle&rdquo; by Grazzini, from a MS. of the 16th century in the
+&ldquo;Comunale&rdquo; of Perugia: and in 1870 a small collection of those
+poems which have been left unpublished by previous editors appeared
+at Poggibonsi, <i>Alcune Poesie inedite</i>. See Pietro Fanfani&rsquo;s &ldquo;Vita
+del Lasca,&rdquo; prefixed to his edition of the <i>Opere di A. Grazzini</i>
+(Florence, 1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT AWAKENING,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> the name given to a remarkable
+religious revival centring in New England in 1740-1743, but
+covering all the American colonies in 1740-1750. The word
+&ldquo;awakening&rdquo; in this sense was frequently (and possibly first)
+used by Jonathan Edwards at the time of the Northampton
+revival of 1734-1735, which spread through the Connecticut
+Valley and prepared the way for the work in Rhode Island,
+Massachusetts and Connecticut (1740-1741) of George Whitefield,
+who had previously been preaching in the South, especially
+at Savannah, Georgia. He, his immediate follower, Gilbert
+Tennent (1703-1764), other clergymen, such as James Davenport,
+and many untrained laymen who took up the work, agreed
+in the emotional and dramatic character of their preaching,
+in rousing their hearers to a high pitch of excitement, often
+amounting to frenzy, in the undue stress they put upon &ldquo;bodily
+effects&rdquo; (the physical manifestations of an abnormal psychic
+state) as proofs of conversion, and in their unrestrained attacks
+upon the many clergymen who did not join them and whom
+they called &ldquo;dead men,&rdquo; unconverted, unregenerate and
+careless of the spiritual condition of their parishes. Jonathan
+Edwards, Benjamin Colman (1675-1747), and Joseph Bellamy,
+recognized the viciousness of so extreme a position. Edwards
+personally reprimanded Whitefield for presuming to say of any
+one that he was unconverted, and in his <i>Thoughts Concerning
+the Present Revival of Religion</i> devoted much space to &ldquo;showing
+what things are to be corrected, or avoided, in promoting this
+work.&rdquo; Edwards&rsquo; famous sermon at Enfield in 1741 so affected
+his audience that they cried and groaned aloud, and he found
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span>
+it necessary to bid them be still that he might go on; but
+Davenport and many itinerants provoked and invited shouting
+and even writhing, and other physical manifestations. At its
+May session in 1742 the General Court of Massachusetts forbade
+itinerant preaching save with full consent from the resident
+pastor; in May 1743 the annual ministerial convention, by a
+small plurality, declared against &ldquo;several errors in doctrine
+and disorders in practice which have of late obtained in various
+parts of the land,&rdquo; against lay preachers and disorderly revival
+meetings; in the same year Charles Chauncy, who disapproved
+of the revival, published <i>Seasonable Thoughts on the State of
+Religion in New England</i>; and in 1744-1745 Whitefield, upon
+his second tour in New England, found that the faculties of
+Harvard and Yale had officially &ldquo;testified&rdquo; and &ldquo;declared&rdquo;
+against him and that most pulpits were closed to him. Some
+separatist churches were formed as a result of the Awakening;
+these either died out or became Baptist congregations. To
+the reaction against the gross methods of the revival has been
+ascribed the religious apathy of New England during the last
+years of the 18th century; but the martial and political excitement,
+beginning with King George&rsquo;s War (<i>i.e.</i> the American
+part of the War of the Austrian Succession) and running through
+the American War of Independence and the founding of the
+American government, must be reckoned at the least as contributing
+causes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Joseph Tracy, <i>The Great Awakening</i> (Boston, 1842); Samuel
+P. Hayes, &ldquo;An Historical Study of the Edwardean Revivals,&rdquo; in
+<i>The American Journal of Psychology</i>, vol. 13 (Worcester, Mass.,
+1902); and Frederick M. Davenport, <i>Primitive Traits in Religious
+Revivals</i> (New York, 1905), especially chapter viii. pp. 94-131.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. We.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT BARRIER REEF,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a vast coral reef extending for
+1200 m. along the north-east coast of Australia (<i>q.v.</i>). The
+channel within it is protected from heavy seas by the reef, and
+is a valuable route of communication for coasting steamers.
+The reef itself is also traversed by a number of navigable passages.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT BARRINGTON,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> a township of Berkshire county,
+Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Housatonic river, in the Berkshire
+hills, about 25 m. S.W. of Pittsfield. Pop. (1890) 4612; (1900)
+5854, of whom 1187 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 5926.
+Its area is about 45 sq. m. The township is traversed by
+a branch of the New York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railroad, and
+the Berkshire Street railway (controlled by the N.Y., N.H. &amp; H.)
+has its southern terminus here. Within the township are
+three villages&mdash;Great Barrington (the most important), Housatonic
+and Van Deusenville; the first two are about 5 m. apart.
+The village of Great Barrington, among the hills, is well known
+as a summer resort. The Congregational church with its magnificent
+organ (3954 pipes) is worthy of mention. There is a public
+library in the village of Great Barrington and another in the
+village of Housatonic. Monument Mt. (1710 ft.), partly in
+Stockbridge, commands a fine view of the Berkshires and the
+Housatonic Valley. The Sedgwick School (for boys) was removed
+from Hartford, Connecticut, to Great Barrington in 1869.
+There are various manufactures, including cotton-goods (in the
+village of Housatonic), and electric meters, paper, knit goods
+and counterpanes (in the village of Great Barrington); and
+marble and blue stone are quarried here; but the township is
+primarily given over to farming. The fair of the Housatonic
+Agricultural Society is held here annually during September;
+and the district court of South Berkshire sits here. The township
+was incorporated in 1761, having been, since 1743, the &ldquo;North
+Parish of Sheffield&rdquo;; the township of Sheffield, earlier known
+as the &ldquo;Lower Housatonic Plantation&rdquo; was incorporated in
+1733. Great Barrington was named in honour of John Shute
+(1678-1734), Viscount Barrington of Ardglass (the adjective
+&ldquo;Great&rdquo; being added to distinguish it from another township
+of the same name). In 1761-1787 it was the shire-town. Great
+Barrington was a centre of the disaffection during Shays&rsquo;s
+rebellion, and on the 12th of September 1786 a riot here prevented
+the sitting of court. Samuel Hopkins, one of the most
+eminent of American theologians, was pastor here in 1743-1769;
+General Joseph Dwight (1703-1765), a merchant, lawyer and
+brigadier-general of Massachusetts militia, who took part in
+the Louisburg expedition in 1745 and later in the French and
+Indian War, lived here from 1758 until his death; and William
+Cullen Bryant lived here as a lawyer and town clerk in 1816-1825.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. J. Taylor, <i>History of Great Barrington</i> (Great Barrington,
+1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT BASIN,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> an area in the western Cordilleran region of
+the United States of America, about 200,000 sq. m. in extent,
+characterized by wholly interior drainage, a peculiar mountain
+system and extreme aridity. Its form is approximately that
+of an isosceles triangle, with the sharp angle extending into
+Lower California, W. of the Colorado river; the northern edge
+being formed by the divide of the drainage basin of the Columbia
+river, the eastern by that of the Colorado, the western by the
+central part of the Sierra Nevada crest, and by other high
+mountains. The N. boundary and much of the E. is not conspicuously
+uplifted, being plateau, rather than mountain. The
+W. half of Utah, the S.W. corner of Wyoming, the S.E. corner
+of Idaho, a large area in S.E. Oregon, much of S. California,
+a strip along the E. border of the last-named state, and almost
+the whole of Nevada are embraced within the limits of the
+Great Basin.</p>
+
+<p>The Great Basin is not, as its name implies, a topographic cup.
+Its surface is of varied character, with many independent closed
+basins draining into lakes or &ldquo;playas,&rdquo; none of which, however,
+has outlet to the sea. The mountain chains, which from their
+peculiar geologic character are known as of the &ldquo;Basin Range
+type&rdquo; (not exactly conterminous in distribution with the Basin),
+are echeloned in short ranges running from N. to S. Many of
+them are fault block mountains, the crust having been broken
+and the blocks tilted so that there is a steep face on one side
+and a gentle slope on the other. This is the Basin Range type of
+mountain. These mountains are among the most recent in the
+continent, and some of them, at least, are still growing. In
+numerous instances clear evidence of recent movements along
+the fault planes has been discovered; and frequent earthquakes
+testify with equal force to the present uplift of the mountain
+blocks. The valleys between the tilted mountain blocks are
+smooth and often trough-like, and are often the sites of shallow
+salt lakes or playas. By the rain wash and wind action detritus
+from the mountains is carried to these valley floors, raising their
+level, and often burying low mountain spurs, so as to cause
+neighbouring valleys to coalesce. The plateau &ldquo;lowlands&rdquo; in
+the centre of the Basin are approximately 5000 ft. in altitude.
+Southward the altitude falls, Death valley and Coahuila valley
+being in part below the level of the sea. The whole Basin is
+marked by three features of elevation&mdash;the Utah basin, the
+Nevada basin and, between them, the Nevada plateau.</p>
+
+<p>Over the lowlands of the Basin, taken generally, there is an
+average precipitation of perhaps 6-7 in., while in the Oregon
+region it is twice as great, and in the southern parts even less.
+The mountains receive somewhat more. The annual evaporation
+from water surfaces is from 60 to 150 in. (60 to 80 on the Great
+Salt Lake). The reason for the arid climate differs in different
+sections. In the north it is due to the fact that the winds from
+the Pacific lose most of their moisture, especially in winter, on
+the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada; in the south it is due
+to the fact that the region lies in a zone of calms, and light,
+variable winds. Precipitation is largely confined to local showers,
+often of such violence as to warrant the name &ldquo;cloud bursts,&rdquo;
+commonly applied to the heavy down-pours of this desert
+region. It is these heavy rains, of brief duration, when great
+volumes of water rapidly run off from the barren slopes, that
+cause the deep channels, or arroyas, which cross the desert.
+Permanent streams are rare. Many mountains are quite without
+perennial streams, and some lack even springs. Few of the
+mountain creeks succeed in reaching the arid plains, and those
+that do quickly disappear by evaporation or by seepage into
+the gravels. In the N.W. there are many permanent lakes
+without outlet fed by the mountain streams; others, snow fed,
+occur among the Sierra Nevada; and some in the larger mountain
+masses of the middle region. Almost all are saline. The largest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span>
+of all, Great Salt Lake, is maintained by the waters of the
+Wasatch and associated plateaus. No lakes occur south of
+Owens in the W. and Sevier in the E. (39°); evaporation below
+these limits is supreme. Most of the small closed basins, however,
+contain &ldquo;playas,&rdquo; or alkali mud flats, that are overflowed
+when the tributary streams are supplied with storm water.</p>
+
+<p>Save where irrigation has reclaimed small areas, the whole
+region is a vast desert, though locally only some of the interior
+plains are known as &ldquo;deserts.&rdquo; Such are the Great Salt Lake
+and Carson deserts in the north, the Mohave and Colorado and
+Amargosa (Death Valley) deserts of the south-west. Straggling
+forests, mainly of conifers, characterize the high plateaus of
+central Utah. The lowlands and the lower mountains, especially
+southward, are generally treeless. Cottonwoods line the streams,
+salt-loving vegetation margins the bare playas, low bushes and
+scattered bunch-grass grow over the lowlands, especially in the
+north. Gray desert plants, notably cactuses and other thorny
+plants, partly replace in the south the bushes of the north.
+Except on the scattered oases, where irrigation from springs and
+mountain streams has reclaimed small patches, the desert is
+barren and forbidding in the extreme. There are broad plains
+covered with salt and alkali, and others supporting only scattered
+bunch grass, sage bush, cactus and other arid land plants.
+There are stony wastes, or alluvial fans, where mountain streams
+emerge upon the plains, in time of flood, bringing detritus in
+their torrential courses from the mountain canyons and depositing
+it along the mountain base. The barrenness extends into the
+mountains themselves, where there are bare rock cliffs, stony
+slopes and a general absence of vegetation. With increasing
+altitude vegetation becomes more varied and abundant, until the
+tree limit is reached; then follows a forest belt, which in the
+highest mountains is limited above by cold as it is below by
+aridity.</p>
+
+<p>The successive explorations of B. L. E. Bonneville, J. C.
+Frémont and Howard Stansbury (1806-1863) furnished a
+general knowledge of the hydrographic features and geological
+lacustrine history of the Great Basin, and this knowledge was
+rounded out by the field work of the U.S. Geological Survey from
+1879 to 1883, under the direction of Grove Karl Gilbert. The
+mountains are composed in great part of Paleozoic strata,
+often modified by vulcanism and greatly denuded and sculptured
+by wind and water erosion. The climate in late geologic time
+was very different from that which prevails to-day. In the
+Pleistocene period many large lakes were formed within the Great
+Basin; especially, by the fusion of small catchment basins,
+two great confluent bodies of water&mdash;Lake Lahontan (in the
+Nevada basin) and Lake Bonneville (in the Utah basin). The
+latter, the remnants of which are represented to-day by Great
+Salt, Sevier and Utah Lakes, had a drainage basin of some
+54,000 sq. m.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. K. Gilbert in Wheeler Survey, <i>U.S. Geographical Survey
+West of the Hundredth Meridian</i>, vol. iii.; Clarence King and others
+in the <i>Report of the Fortieth Parallel Survey</i> (U.S. Geol. Exploration
+of the Fortieth Parallel); G. K. Gilbert&rsquo;s <i>Lake Bonneville</i> (U.S.
+Geological Survey, <i>Monographs</i>, No. 1, 1890), also I. C. Russell&rsquo;s
+<i>Lake Lahontan</i> (Same, No. 11, 1885), with references to other publications
+of the Survey. For reference to later geological literature, and
+discussion of the Basin Ranges, see J. E. Spurr, <i>Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.</i>
+vol. 12, 1901, p. 217; and G. D. Louderback, same, vol. 15, 1904,
+p. 280; also general bibliographies issued by the U.S. Geol. Survey
+(<i>e.g.</i> <i>Bull.</i> 301, 372 and 409).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT BEAR LAKE,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> an extensive sheet of fresh water in
+the north-west of Canada, between 65° and 67° N., and 117° and
+123° W. It is of very irregular shape, has an estimated area
+of 11,200 sq. m., a depth of 270 ft., and is upwards of 200 ft.
+above the sea. It is 175 m. in length, and from 25 to 45 in
+breadth, though the greatest distance between its northern and
+southern arms is about 180 m. The Great Bear river discharges
+its waters into the Mackenzie river. It is full of fish, and the
+neighbouring country, though barren and uncultivated, contains
+quantities of game.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT CIRCLE.<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> The circle in which a sphere is cut by a
+plane is called a &ldquo;great circle,&rdquo; when the cutting plane passes
+through the centre of sphere. Treating the earth as a sphere,
+the meridians of longitude are all great circles. Of the parallels
+of latitude, the equator only is a great circle. The shortest line
+joining any two points is an arc of a great circle. For &ldquo;great
+circle sailing&rdquo; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Navigation</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT FALLS,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Cascade county,
+Montana, U.S.A., 99 m. (by rail) N.E. of Helena, on the S. bank
+of the Missouri river, opposite the mouth of the Sun river, at an
+altitude of about 3300 ft. It is 10 m. above the Great Falls
+of the Missouri, from which it derives its name. Pop. (1890)
+3979; (1900) 14,930, of whom 4692 were foreign-born; (1910
+census) 13,948. It has an area of about 8 sq. m. It is served
+by the Great Northern and the Billings &amp; Northern (Chicago,
+Burlington &amp; Quincy system) railways. The city has a splendid
+park system of seven parks (about 530 acres) with 15 m. of
+boulevards.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Among the principal buildings are a city hall,
+court house, high school, commercial college, Carnegie library,
+the Columbus Hospital and Training School for Nurses (under
+the supervision of the Sisters of Charity), and the Montana
+Deaconess hospital. There is a Federal land office in the city.
+Great Falls lies in the midst of a region exceptionally rich in
+minerals&mdash;copper, gold, silver, lead, iron, gypsum, limestone,
+sapphires and bituminous coal being mined in the neighbourhood.
+Much grain is grown in the vicinity, and the city is an important
+shipping point for wool, live-stock and cereals. Near Great
+Falls the Missouri river, within 7½ m., contracts from a width of
+about 900 to 300 yds. and falls more than 500 ft., the principal
+falls being the Black Eagle Falls (50 ft.), from which power is
+derived for the city&rsquo;s street railway and lighting plant, the
+beautiful Rainbow Falls (48 ft.) and Great Falls (92 ft.). Giant
+Spring Fall, about 20 ft. high, is a cascade formed by a spring
+on the bank of the river near Rainbow Falls. The river furnishes
+very valuable water-power, partly utilized by large manufacturing
+establishments, including flour mills, plaster mills, breweries,
+iron works, mining machinery shops, and smelting and reduction
+works. The Boston &amp; Montana copper smelter is one of the
+largest in the world; it has a chimney stack 506 ft. high, and in
+1908 employed 1200 men in the smelter and 2500 in its mining
+department. Great Falls ranked second (to Anaconda) among
+the cities of the state in the value of the factory product of 1905,
+which was $13,291,979, showing an increase of 42.4% since 1900.
+The city owns and operates its water-supply system. Great Falls
+was settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in 1888.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Great Falls was a pioneer among the cities of the state in the
+development of a park system. When the city was first settled its
+site was a &ldquo;barren tract of sand, thinly covered with buffalo-grass
+and patches of sage brush.&rdquo; The first settler, Paris Gibson, of
+Minneapolis, began the planting of trees, which, though not indigenous,
+grew well. The city&rsquo;s sidewalks are bordered by strips of
+lawn, in which there is a row of trees, and the city maintains a large
+nursery where trees are grown for this purpose. A general state law
+(1901) placing the parking of cities on a sound financial basis is due
+very largely to the impulse furnished by Great Falls. See an article,
+&ldquo;Great Falls, the Pioneer Park City of Montana,&rdquo; by C. H. Forbes-Lindsay,
+in the <i>Craftsman</i> for November 1908.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT HARWOOD,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> an urban district in the Darwen parliamentary
+division of Lancashire, England, 4½ m. N.E. of Blackburn,
+on the Lancashire and Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901)
+12,015. It is of modern growth, a township of cotton operatives,
+with large collieries in the vicinity. An agricultural society
+is also maintained.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1844-1896), British engineer,
+was born at Grahamstown, Cape Colony, on the 6th of August
+1844. He migrated to England in 1859, and in 1864 was a pupil
+of P. W. Barlow, from whom he became acquainted with the
+shield system of tunnelling with which his name is especially
+associated. Barlow, indeed, had a strong belief in the shield,
+and was the author of a scheme for facilitating the traffic of
+London by the construction of underground railways running
+in cast-iron tubes constructed by its aid. To show what the
+method could do, it was resolved to make a subway under
+the Thames near the Tower, but the troubles encountered
+by Sir M. I. Brunel in the Thames Tunnel, where also a shield was
+employed, made engineers hesitate to undertake the subway,
+even though it was of very much smaller dimensions (6 ft. 7 in.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span>
+internal diameter) than the tunnel. At this juncture Greathead
+came forward and offered to take up the contract; and he
+successfully carried it through in 1869 without finding any
+necessity to resort to the use of compressed air, which Barlow
+in 1867 had suggested might be employed in water-bearing strata.
+After this he began to practise on his own account, and mainly
+divided his time between railway construction and taking out
+patents for improvements in his shield, and for other inventions
+such as the &ldquo;Ejector&rdquo; fire-hydrant. Early in the &rsquo;eighties he
+began to work in conjunction with a company whose aim was
+to introduce into London from America the Hallidie system of
+cable traction, and in 1884 an act of Parliament was obtained
+authorizing what is now the City &amp; South London Railway&mdash;a
+tube-railway to be worked by cables. This was begun in 1886,
+and the tunnels were driven by means of the Greathead shield,
+compressed air being used at those points where water-bearing
+gravel was encountered. During the progress of the works
+electrical traction became so far developed as to be superior
+to cables; the idea of using the latter was therefore abandoned,
+and when the railway was opened in 1890 it was as an electrical
+one. Greathead was engaged in two other important underground
+lines in London&mdash;the Waterloo &amp; City and the Central
+London. He lived to see the tunnels of the former completed
+under the Thames, but the latter was scarcely begun at the time
+of his death, which happened at Streatham, in the south of
+London, on the 21st of October 1896.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE.<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> The connected
+string of five fresh-water inland seas, Lakes Superior, Michigan,
+Huron, Erie and Ontario, lying in the interior of North America,
+between the Dominion of Canada on the north and the United
+States of America on the south, and forming the head-waters of
+the St Lawrence river system, are collectively and generally
+known as &ldquo;The Great Lakes.&rdquo; From the head of lake Superior
+these lakes are navigable to Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie,
+a distance of 1023 m., for vessels having a draught of 20 ft.;
+from Buffalo to Kingston, 191 m. farther, the draught is limited,
+by the depth in the Welland canal, to 14 ft.; lake Superior, the
+largest and most westerly of the lakes, empties, through the river
+St Mary, 55 m. long, into lake Huron. From Point Iroquois,
+which may be considered the foot of the lake, to Sault Ste
+Marie, St Mary&rsquo;s Falls, St Mary&rsquo;s Rapids or the Soo, as it is
+variously called, a distance of 14 m., there is a single channel,
+which has been dredged by the United States government, at
+points which required deepening, to give a minimum width
+of 800 ft. and a depth of 23 ft. at mean stage water. Below the
+Sault, the river, on its course to lake Huron, expands into several
+lakes, and is divided by islands into numerous contracted
+passages. There are two navigated channels; the older one,
+following the international boundary-line by way of lake George,
+has a width of 150 to 300 ft., and a depth of 17 ft.; it is buoyed
+but not lighted, and is not capable of navigation by modern
+large freighters; the other, some 12 m. shorter, an artificial
+channel dredged by the United States government in their own
+territory, has a minimum width of 300 ft. and depth of 20 ft.
+It is elaborately lighted throughout its length. A third channel,
+west of all the islands, was designed for steamers bound down,
+the older channel being reserved for upbound boats.</p>
+
+<p>Between lake Superior and lake Huron there is a fall of 20 ft.
+of which the Sault, in a distance of ½ m., absorbs from 18 to
+19½ ft., the height varying as the lakes change in level. The
+enormous growth of inter-lake freight traffic has justified the
+construction of three separate locks, each overcoming the rapids
+by a single lift&mdash;two side by side on the United States and one
+on the Canadian side of the river. These locks, the largest in
+the world, are all open to Canadian and United States vessels
+alike, and are operated free from all taxes or tolls on shipping.
+The Canadian ship canal, opened to traffic on the 9th of
+September 1895, was constructed through St Mary Island, on
+the north side of the rapids, by the Canadian government, at a
+cost of $3,684,227, to facilitate traffic and to secure to Canadian
+vessels an entrance to lake Superior without entering United
+States territory. The canal is 5967 ft. long between the extremities
+of the entrance piers, has one lock 900 ft. long and
+60 ft. wide, with a depth on the sills at the lowest known water-level
+of 20½ ft. The approaches to the canal are dredged to
+18 ft. deep, and are well buoyed and lighted. On the United
+States side of the river the length of the canal is 1<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> m., the
+channel outside the locks having a width varying from 108 to
+600 ft. and depth of 25 ft. The locks of 1855 were closed in 1886,
+to give place to the Poe lock. The Weitzel lock, opened to
+navigation on the 1st of September 1881, was built south of the
+old locks, the approach being through the old canal. Its chamber
+is 515 ft. long between lock gates, and 80 ft. wide, narrowing
+to 60 ft. at the gates. The length of the masonry walls is 717 ft.,
+height 39½ ft., with 17 ft. over mitre sills at mean stage of water.
+The Poe lock, built because the Weitzel lock, large and fully
+equipped as it is, was insufficient for the rapidly growing traffic,
+was opened on the 3rd of August 1896. Its length between gates
+is 800 ft.; width 100 ft.; length of masonry walls 1100 ft.;
+height 43½ to 45 ft., with 22 ft. on the mitre sill at mean stage.</p>
+
+<p>The expenditure by the United States government on the
+canal, with its several locks, and on improving the channel
+through the river, aggregated fourteen million dollars up to the
+end of 1906.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Plans were prepared in 1907 for a third United
+States lock with a separate canal approach.</p>
+
+<p>The canals are closed every winter, the average date of opening
+up to 1893 being the 1st of May, and of closing the 1st of
+December. The pressure of business since that time, aided
+possibly by some slight climatic modification, has extended
+the season, so that the average date of opening is now ten days
+earlier and of closing twelve days later. The earliest opening
+was in 1902 on the 1st of April, and the latest closing in 1904 on
+the 20th of December.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The table below gives the average yearly commerce for periods
+of five years, and serves to show the rapid increase in freight growth.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Statement of the commerce through the several Sault Ste Marie canals, averaged for every five years.</i><a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Years.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Passages.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Registered<br />Tonnage.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Passengers.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Coal.<br />Net Tons.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Flour.<br />Barrels.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Wheat.<br />Bushels.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Other.<br />Grains.<br />Bushels</td> <td class="tccm allb">General<br />Merchandise.<br />Net Tons.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Salt.<br />Barrels.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Iron Ore.<br />Net Tons.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Lumber.<br />M. ft.<br />B.M.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Freight.<br />Net Tons.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1855-1859*</td> <td class="tcr rb">387</td> <td class="tcr rb">192,207</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,206</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,672</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,555</td> <td class="tcc rb">None.</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,612</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,249</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,248</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,206</td> <td class="tcr rb">320</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,797</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1880-1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,457</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,267,166</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,607</td> <td class="tcr rb">463,431</td> <td class="tcr rb">681,726</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,435,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">936,346</td> <td class="tcr rb">81,966</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,225</td> <td class="tcr rb">867,999</td> <td class="tcr rb">79,144</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,184,731</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1885-1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,908</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,901,105</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,434</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,398,441</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,838,325</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,438,085</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,213,815</td> <td class="tcr rb">74,447</td> <td class="tcr rb">175,725</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,497,403</td> <td class="tcr rb">197,605</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,441,297</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1890-1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,965</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,912,589</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,609</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,678,805</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,764,766</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,875,971</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,738,706</td> <td class="tcr rb">87,540</td> <td class="tcr rb">231,178</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,939,909</td> <td class="tcr rb">510,482</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,627,349</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1895-1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,352</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,451,447</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,289</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,270,842</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,319,699</td> <td class="tcr rb">57,227,269</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,349,134</td> <td class="tcr rb">164,426</td> <td class="tcr rb">282,156</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,728,075</td> <td class="tcr rb">832,968</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,354,974</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1900-1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,374</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,199,795</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,093</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,457,019</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,021,839</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,269,265</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,760,533</td> <td class="tcr rb">646,277</td> <td class="tcr rb">407,263</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,020,487</td> <td class="tcr rb">999,944</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,245,565</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1906 alone</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">22,155</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">41,098,324</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">63,033</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">8,739,630</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">6,495,350</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">84,271,358</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">54,343,155</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,134,851</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">468,162</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">35,357,042</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">900,631</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">51,751,080</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="13">* The first five years of operation.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Around the canals have grown up two thriving towns, one
+on the Michigan, the other on the Ontario side of the river, with
+manufactories driven by water-power derived from the Sault.
+The outlet of lake Michigan, the only lake of the series lying
+wholly in United States territory, is at the Strait of Mackinac,
+near the point where the river St Mary reaches lake Huron.
+With lake Michigan are connected the Chicago Sanitary and
+Ship canal, the Illinois and Michigan, and the Illinois and Mississippi
+canals, for which see Illinois. With lake Huron is always
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span>
+included Georgian Bay as well as the channel north of Manitoulin
+Island. As it is principally navigated as a connecting waterway
+between lakes Superior and Michigan and lake Erie it has no
+notable harbours on it. It empties into lake Erie through the
+river St Clair, lake St Clair and the river Detroit. On these connecting
+waters are several important manufacturing and shipping
+towns, and through this chain passes nearly all the traffic of the
+lakes, both that to and from lake Michigan ports, and also that of
+lake Superior. The tonnage of a single short season of navigation
+exceeds in the aggregate 60,000,000 tons. Extensive dredging
+and embankment works have been carried on by the United
+States government in lake St Clair and the river Detroit, and a
+20-ft. channel now exists, which is being constantly improved.
+Lake St Clair is nearly circular, 25 m. in diameter, with the north-east
+quadrant filled by the delta of the river St Clair. It has a
+very flat bottom with a general depth of only 21 ft., shoaling very
+gradually, usually to reed beds that line the low swampy shores.
+To enter the lake from river St Clair two channels have been
+provided, with retaining walls of cribwork, one for upward, the
+other for downward bound vessels. Much dredging has also been
+necessary at the outlet of the lake into river Detroit. A critical
+point in that river is at Limekiln crossing, a cut dredged through
+limestone rock above the Canadian town of Amherstburg. The
+normal depth here before improvement was 12½-15 ft.; by a
+project of 1902 a channel 600 ft. wide and 21 ft. deep was planned;
+there are separate channels for up- and down-bound vessels. To
+prevent vessels from crowding together in the cut, the Canadian
+government maintains a patrol service here, while the United
+States government maintains a similar patrol in the St Mary
+channel.</p>
+
+<p>The Grand Trunk railway opened in 1891 a single track
+tunnel under the river St Clair, from Sarnia to Port Huron.
+It is 6026 ft. long, a cylinder 20 ft. in diameter, lined with
+cast iron in flanged sections. A second tunnel was undertaken
+between Detroit and Windsor, under the river Detroit.</p>
+
+<p>From Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie, the river Niagara runs
+northwards 36 m. into lake Ontario. To overcome the difference
+of 327 ft. in level between lakes Erie and Ontario, the Welland
+canal, accommodating vessels of 255 ft. in length, with a draught
+of 14 ft., was built, and is maintained by Canada. The Murray
+canal extends from Presqu&rsquo;ile Bay, on the north shore of lake
+Ontario, a distance of 6½ m., to the headquarters of the Bay of
+Quinte. Trent canal is a term applied to a series of water
+stretches in the interior of Ontario which are ultimately designed
+to connect lake Huron and lake Ontario. At Peterboro a
+hydraulic balance-lock with a lift of 65 ft., 140 ft. in length and
+33 ft. clear in width, allowing a draught of 8 ft., has been constructed.
+The ordinary locks are 134 by 33 ft. with a draught
+of 6 ft. When the whole route of 200 m. is completed, there will
+not be more than 15 m. of actual canal, the remaining portion
+of the waterway being through lakes and rivers. For the Erie
+canal, between that lake and the Hudson river, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Erie</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">New York</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The population of the states and provinces bordering on the
+Great Lakes is estimated to be over 35,000,000. In Pennsylvania
+and Ohio, south of lake Erie, there are large coal-fields. Surrounding
+lake Michigan and west of lake Superior are vast
+grain-growing plains, and the prairies of the Canadian north-west
+are rapidly increasing the area and quantity of wheat
+grown; while both north and south of lake Superior are the
+most extensive iron mines in the world, from which 35 million
+tons of ore were shipped in 1906. The natural highway for the
+shipment of all these products is the Great Lakes, and over
+them coal is distributed westwards and grain and iron ore are
+concentrated eastwards. The great quantity of coarse freights,
+that could only be profitably carried long distances by water,
+has revolutionized the type of vessel used for its transportation,
+making large steamers imperative, consolidating interests and
+cheapening methods. It is usual for the vessels in the grain
+trade and in the iron-ore trade to make their up trips empty;
+but in consequence of the admirable facilities provided at
+terminal points, they make very fast time, and carry freight very
+cheaply. The cost of freight per ton-mile fell from 23/100 cent
+in 1887 to 8/100 cent in 1898; since then the rate has slightly
+risen, but keeps well below 1/10 cent per ton-mile.</p>
+
+<p>The traffic on the lakes may be divided into three classes,
+passenger, package freight and bulk freight. Of passenger
+boats the largest are 380 ft. long by 44 ft. beam, having a
+speed of over 20 m. an hour, making the round trip between
+Buffalo and Chicago 1800 m., or Buffalo and Duluth 2000 m.,
+every week. They carry no freight. The Canadian Pacific
+railway runs a line of fine Tyne-built passenger and freight
+steamers between Owen Sound and Fort William, and these
+two lines equal in accommodation transatlantic passenger
+steamers. On lake Michigan many fine passenger boats run out
+of Chicago, and on lake Ontario there are several large and fast
+Canadian steamers on routes radiating from Toronto. The
+package freight business, that is, the transportation of goods
+in enclosed parcels, is principally local; all the through business
+of this description is controlled by lines run by the great trunk
+railways, and is done in boats limited in beam to 50 ft. to admit
+them through bridges over the rivers at Chicago and Buffalo.
+By far the greatest number of vessels on the lakes are bulk
+freighters, and the conditions of the service have developed a
+special type of vessel. Originally sailing vessels were largely
+used, but these have practically disappeared, giving place to
+steamers, which have grown steadily in size with every increase
+in available draught. In 1894 there was no vessel on the lakes
+with a capacity of over 5000 tons; in 1906 there were 254 vessels
+of a greater capacity, 12 of them carrying over 12,000 tons each.
+For a few years following 1890 many large barges were built,
+carrying up to 8000 tons each, intended to be towed by a
+steamer. It was found, however, that the time lost by one boat
+of the pair having to wait for the other made the plan unprofitable
+and no more were built. Following 1888 some 40 whale-back
+steamers and barges, having oval cross-sections without
+frames or decks, were built, but experience failed to demonstrate
+any advantage in the type, and their construction has ceased.
+The modern bulk freighter is a vessel 600 ft. long, 58 ft. beam,
+capable of carrying 14,000 tons on 20 ft. draught, built with a
+midship section practically rectangular, the coefficient frequently
+as high as .98, with about two-thirds of the entire length
+absolutely straight, giving a block coefficient up to .87. The
+triple-expansion machinery and boilers, designed to drive the
+boat at a speed of 12 m. an hour, are in the extreme stern, and
+the pilot house and quarters in the extreme bow, leaving all
+the cargo space together. Hatches are spaced at multiples
+of 12 ft. throughout the length and are made as wide as possible
+athwartships to facilitate loading and unloading. The vessels
+are built on girder frames and fitted with double bottoms for
+strength and water ballast. This type of vessel can be loaded
+in a few minutes, and unloaded by self-filling grab buckets up to
+ten tons capacity, worked hydraulically, in six or eight hours.
+The bulk freight generally follows certain well-defined routes;
+iron ore is shipped east from ports on both sides of lake Superior
+and on the west side of lake Michigan to rail shipping points
+on the south shore of lake Erie. Wheat and other grains from
+Duluth find their way to Buffalo, as do wheat, corn (maize)
+and other grains from Chicago. Wheat from the Canadian
+north-west is distributed from Fort William and Port Arthur
+to railway terminals on Georgian Bay, to Buffalo, and to Port
+Colborne for trans-shipment to canal barges for Montreal,
+and coal is distributed from lake Erie to all western points. The
+large shipping trade is assisted by both governments by a system
+of aids to navigation that mark every channel and danger.
+There are also life-saving stations at all dangerous points.</p>
+
+<p>The Great Lakes never freeze over completely, but the harbours
+and often the connecting rivers are closed by ice. The navigable
+season at the Sault is about 7½ months; in lake Erie it is
+somewhat longer. The season of navigation has been slightly
+lengthened since 1905, by using powerful tugs as ice-breakers
+in the spring and autumn, the Canadian government undertaking
+the service at Canadian terminal ports, chiefly at Fort William
+and Port Arthur, the most northerly ports, where the season
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span>
+is naturally shortest, and the Lake Carriers&rsquo; Association, a
+federation of the freighting steamship owners, acting in the river
+St Mary. Car ferries run through the winter across lake Michigan
+and the Strait of Mackinac, across the rivers St Clair and Detroit,
+and across the middle of lakes Erie and Ontario. The largest
+of these steamers is 350 ft. long by 56 ft. wide, draught 14 ft.,
+horse power 3500, speed 13 knots. She carries on four tracks 30
+freight cars, with 1350 tons of freight. Certain passenger steamers
+run on lake Michigan, from Chicago north, all the winter.</p>
+
+<p>The level of the lakes varies gradually, and is affected by the
+general character of the season, and not by individual rainfalls.
+The variations of level of the several lakes do not necessarily
+synchronize. There is an annual fluctuation of about 1 ft. in
+the upper lakes, and in some seasons over 2 ft. in the lower
+lakes; the lowest point being at the end of winter and the highest
+in midsummer. In lake Michigan the level has ranged from a
+maximum in the years 1859, 1876 and 1886, to a minimum
+nearly 5 ft. lower in 1896. In lake Ontario there is a range of
+5½ ft. between the maximum of May 1870 and the minimum of
+November 1895. In consequence of the shallowness of lake Erie,
+its level is seriously disturbed by a persistent storm; a westerly
+gale lowers the water at its upper end exceptionally as much
+as 7 ft., seriously interfering with the navigation of the river
+Detroit, while an easterly gale produces a similar effect at Buffalo.
+(For physiographical details see articles on the several lakes,
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">United States</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>There is geological evidence to show that the whole basin of
+the lakes has in recent geological times gradually changed in
+level, rising to the north and subsiding southwards; and it is
+claimed that the movement is still in gradual progress, the rate
+assigned being .42 ft. per 100 m. per century. The maintenance
+of the level of the Great Lakes is a matter of great importance
+to the large freight boats, which always load to the limit of depth
+at critical points in the dredged channels or in the harbours.
+Fears have been entertained that the water power canals at
+Sault Ste Marie, the drainage canal at Chicago and the dredged
+channel in the river Detroit will permanently lower the levels
+respectively of lake Superior and of the Michigan-Huron-Erie
+group. An international deep-waterway commission exists
+for the consideration of this question, and army engineers
+appointed by the United States government have worked on the
+problem.<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Wing dams in the rivers St Mary and Niagara, to
+retard the discharges, have been proposed as remedial measures.
+The Great Lakes are practically tideless, though some observers
+claim to find true tidal pulsations, said to amount to 3½ in. at
+spring tide at Chicago. Secondary undulations of a few minutes
+in period, ranging from 1 to 4 in., are well marked.</p>
+
+<p>The Great Lakes are well stocked with fish of commercial
+value. These are largely gathered from the fishermen by
+steam tenders, and taken fresh or in frozen condition to railway
+distributing points. In lakes Superior and Huron salmon-trout
+(<i>Salvelinus namaycush</i>, Walb) are commercially most important.
+They ordinarily range from 10 to 50 &#8468; in weight, and are often
+larger. In Georgian Bay the catches of whitefish (<i>Coregonus
+clupeiformis</i>, Mitchill) are enormous. In lake Erie whitefish,
+lesser whitefish, erroneously called lake-herring (<i>C. artedi</i>, Le
+Sueur), and sturgeon (<i>Acipenser rubicundus</i>, Le Sueur) are the
+most common. There is good angling at numerous points on the
+lakes and their feeders. The river Nipigon, on the north shore
+of lake Superior, is famous as a stream abounding in speckled
+trout (<i>Salvelinus fontinalis</i>, Mitchill) of unusual size. Black
+bass (<i>Micropterus</i>) are found from Georgian Bay to Montreal, and
+the maskinonge (<i>Esox nobilior</i>, Le Sueur), plentiful in the same
+waters, is a very game fish that often attains a weight of 70 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;E. Channing and M. F. Lansing, <i>Story of the
+Great Lakes</i> (New York, 1909), for an account of the lakes in history;
+and for shipping, &amp;c., J. O. Curwood, <i>The Great Lakes</i> (New York,
+1909); <i>U.S. Hydrographic office publication</i>, No 108, &ldquo;Sailing
+directions for the Great Lakes,&rdquo; Navy Department (Washington,
+1901, seqq.); <i>Bulletin No. 17</i>, &ldquo;Survey of Northern and North-western
+Lakes,&rdquo; Corps of Engineers, U.S. War Department, U.S.
+Lake Survey Office (Detroit, Mich., 1907); <i>Annual reports of
+Canadian Department of Marine and Fisheries</i> (Ottawa, 1868 seqq.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. P. A.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals. Col.
+Chas. E. L. B. Davis, U.S.A., engineer in charge, 1907.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals,
+published annually by the U.S. engineer officer in charge.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, in <i>Report of War
+Department, U.S.</i> 1898, p. 3776.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> the ancient Oriental-Greek-Roman
+deity commonly known as Cybele (<i>q.v.</i>) in Greek and
+Latin literature from the time of Pindar. She was also known
+under many other names, some of which were derived from
+famous places of worship: as Dindymene from Mt. Dindymon,
+Mater Idaea from Mt. Ida, Sipylene from Mt. Sipylus, Agdistis
+from Mt. Agdistis or Agdus, Mater Phrygia from the greatest
+stronghold of her cult; while others were reflections of her
+character as a great nature goddess: <i>e.g.</i> Mountain Mother,
+Great Mother of the Gods, Mother of all Gods and all Men.
+As the great Mother deity whose worship extended throughout
+Asia Minor she was known as M&#257; or Ammas. Cybele is her
+favourite name in ancient and modern literature, while Great
+Mother of the Gods, or Great Idaean Mother of the Gods (<i>Mater
+Deum Magna</i>, <i>Mater Deum Magna Idaea</i>), the most frequently
+recurring epigraphical title, was her ordinary official designation.</p>
+
+<p>The legends agree in locating the rise of the worship of the
+Great Mother in Asia Minor, in the region of loosely defined
+geographical limits which comprised the Phrygian empire of
+prehistoric times, and was more extensive than the Roman
+province of Phrygia (Diod. Sic. iii. 58; Paus. vii. 17; Arnob.
+v. 5; Firm. Mat. <i>De error.</i>, 3; Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, iv. 223 ff.; Sallust.
+Phil. <i>De diis et mundo</i>, 4; Jul. <i>Or.</i> v. 165 ff.). Her best-known
+early seats of worship were Mt. Ida, Mt. Sipylus, Cyzicus, Sardis
+and Pessinus, the last-named city, in Galatia near the borders
+of Roman Phrygia, finally becoming the strongest centre of
+the cult. She was known to the Romans and Greeks as essentially
+Phrygian, and all Phrygia was spoken of as sacred to her
+(Schol. Apollon. Rhod. <i>Argonautica</i>, i. 1126). It is probable,
+however, that the Phrygian race, which invaded Asia Minor
+from the north in the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, found a great nature
+goddess already universally worshipped there, and blended her
+with a deity of their own. The Asiatic-Phrygian worship thus
+evolved was further modified by contact with the Syrians and
+Phoenicians, so that it acquired strong Semitic characteristics.
+The Great Mother known to the Greeks and Romans was thus
+merely the Phrygian form of the nature deity of all Asia Minor.</p>
+
+<p>From Asia Minor the cult of the Great Mother spread first
+to Greek territory. It found its way into Thrace at an early
+date, was known in Boeotia by Pindar in the 6th century, and
+entered Attica near the beginning of the 4th century (Grant
+Showerman, <i>The Great Mother of the Gods</i>, <i>Bulletin of the University
+of Wisconsin</i>, No. 43, Madison, 1901). At Peiraeus, where
+it probably arrived by way of the Aegean islands, it existed
+privately in a fully developed state, that is, accompanied by the
+worship of Attis, at the beginning of the 4th century, and publicly
+two centuries later (D. Comparetti, <i>Annales</i>, 1862, pp. 23 ff.).
+The Greeks from the first saw in the Great Mother a resemblance
+to their own Rhea, and finally identified the two completely,
+though the Asiatic peculiarities of the cult were never universally
+popular with them (Showerman, p. 294). In her less Asiatic
+aspect, <i>i.e.</i> without Attis, she was sometimes identified with
+Gaia and Demeter. It was in this phase that she was worshipped
+in the Metroön at Athens. In reality, the Mother Goddess
+appears under three aspects: Rhea, the Homeric and Hesiodic
+goddess of Cretan origin; the Phrygian Mother, with Attis;
+and the Greek Great Mother, a modified form of the Phrygian
+Mother, to be explained as the original goddess of the Phrygians
+of Europe, communicated to the Greek stock before the Phrygian
+invasion of Asia Minor and consequent mingling with Asiatic
+stocks (cf. Showerman, p. 252).</p>
+
+<p>In 204 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in obedience to the Sibylline prophecy which said
+that whenever an enemy from abroad should make war on Italy
+he could be expelled and conquered if the Idaean Mother were
+brought to Rome from Pessinus, the cult of the Great Mother,
+together with her sacred symbol, a small meteoric stone reputed
+to have fallen from the heavens, was transferred to Rome and
+established in a temple on the Palatine (Livy xxix. 10-14).
+Her identification by the Romans with Maia, Ops, Rhea, Tellus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span>
+and Ceres contributed to the establishment of her worship on a
+firm footing. By the end of the Republic it had attained prominence,
+and under the Empire it became one of the three most
+important cults in the Roman world, the other two being those
+of Mithras and Isis. Epigraphic and numismatic evidence
+prove it to have penetrated from Rome as a centre to the
+remotest provinces (Showerman, pp. 291-293). During the brief
+revival of paganism under Eugenius in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 394, occurred the
+last appearance of the cult in history. Besides the temple on
+the Palatine, there existed minor shrines of the Great Mother near
+the present church of St Peter, on the Sacra Via on the north
+slope of the Palatine, near the junction of the Almo and the
+Tiber, south of the city (<i>ibid.</i> 311-314).</p>
+
+<p>In all her aspects, Roman, Greek and Oriental, the Great
+Mother was characterized by essentially the same qualities.
+Most prominent among them was her universal motherhood.
+She was the great parent of gods and men, as well as of the lower
+orders of creation. &ldquo;The winds, the sea, the earth and the
+snowy seat of Olympus are hers, and when from her mountains
+she ascends into the great heavens, the son of Cronus himself
+gives way before her&rdquo; (Apollon. Rhod. <i>Argonautica</i>, i. 1098).
+She was known as the All-begetter, the All-nourisher, the Mother
+of all the Blest. She was the great, fruitful, kindly earth itself.
+Especial emphasis was placed upon her maternity over wild
+nature. She was called the Mountain Mother; her sanctuaries
+were almost invariably upon mountains, and frequently in caves,
+the name Cybele itself being by some derived from the latter;
+lions were her faithful companions. Her universal power over
+the natural world finds beautiful expression in Apollonius
+Rhodius, <i>Argonautica</i>, i. 1140 ff. She was also a chaste and
+beautiful deity. Her especial affinity with wild nature was
+manifested by the orgiastic character of her worship. Her
+attendants, the Corybantes, were wild, half demonic beings.
+Her priests, the Galli, were eunuchs attired in female garb, with
+long hair fragrant with ointment. Together with priestesses,
+they celebrated her rites with flutes, horns, castanets, cymbals
+and tambourines, madly yelling and dancing until their frenzied
+excitement found its culmination in self-scourging, self-laceration
+or exhaustion. Self-emasculation sometimes accompanied this
+delirium of worship on the part of candidates for the priesthood
+(Showerman, pp. 234-239). The <i>Attis</i> of Catullus (lxiii.) is a
+brilliant treatment of such an episode.</p>
+
+<p>Though her cult sometimes existed by itself, in its fully
+developed state the worship of the Great Mother was accompanied
+by that of Attis (<i>q.v.</i>). The cult of Attis never existed
+independently. Like Adonis and Aphrodite, Baal and Astarte,
+&amp;c., the two formed a duality representing the relations of Mother
+Nature to the fruits of the earth. There is no positive evidence
+to prove the existence of the cult publicly in this phase in Greece
+before the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, nor in Rome before the Empire,
+though it may have existed in private (Showerman, &ldquo;Was Attis
+at Rome under the Republic?&rdquo; in <i>Transactions of the American
+Philological Association</i>, vol. 31, 1900, pp. 46-59; Cumont,
+s.v. &ldquo;Attis,&rdquo; De Ruggiero&rsquo;s <i>Dizionario epigrafico</i> and Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s
+<i>Realencyclopädie</i>, Supplement; Hepding, <i>Attis, seine
+Mythen und seine Kult</i>, Giessen, 1903, p. 142).</p>
+
+<p>The philosophers of the late Roman Empire interpreted the
+Attis legend as symbolizing the relations of Mother Earth to her
+children the fruits. Porphyrius says that Attis signified the
+flowers of spring time, and was cut off in youth because the flower
+falls before the fruit (Augustine, <i>De civ. Dei</i>, vii. 25). Maternus
+(<i>De error.</i> 3) interprets the love of the Great Mother for Attis
+as the love of the earth for her fruits; his emasculation as the
+cutting of the fruits; his death as their preservation; and his
+resurrection as the sowing of the seed again.</p>
+
+<p>At Rome the immediate direction of the cult of the Great
+Mother devolved upon the high priest, <i>Archigallus</i>, called Attis,
+a high priestess, <i>Sacerdos Maxima</i>, and its support was derived,
+at least in part, from a popular contribution, the <i>stips</i>. Besides
+other priests, priestesses and minor officials, such as musicians,
+curator, &amp;c., there were certain colleges connected with the
+administration of the cult, called <i>cannophori</i> (reed-bearers) and
+<i>dendrophori</i> (branch-bearers). The Quindecimvirs exercised a
+general supervision over this cult, as over all other authorized
+cults, and it was, at least originally, under the special patronage
+of a club or sodality (Showerman, pp. 269-276). Roman citizens
+were at first forbidden to take part in its ceremonies, and the ban
+was not removed until the time of the Empire.</p>
+
+<p>The main public event in the worship of the Great Mother was
+the annual festival, which took place originally on the 4th of
+April, and was followed on the 5th by the Megalesia, games
+instituted in her honour on the introduction of the cult. Under
+the Empire, from Claudius on, the Megalesia lasted six days,
+April 4-10, and the original one day of the religious festival
+became an annual cycle of festivals extending from the 15th
+to the 27th of March, in the following order. (1) The 15th of
+March, <i>Canna intrat</i>&mdash;the sacrifice of a six-year-old bull in
+behalf of the mountain fields, the high priest, a priestess and
+the <i>cannophori</i> officiating, the last named carrying reeds in
+procession in commemoration of the exposure of the infant
+Attis on the reedy banks of the stream Gallus in Phrygia. (This
+may have been originally a phallic procession. Cf. Showerman,
+<i>American Journal of Philol.</i> xxvii. 1; <i>Classical Journal</i> i. 4.)
+(2) The 22nd of March, <i>Arbor intrat</i>&mdash;the bearing in procession
+of the sacred pine, emblem of Attis&rsquo; self-mutilation, death and
+immortality, to the temple on the Palatine, the symbol of the
+Mother&rsquo;s cave, by the <i>dendrophori</i>, a gild of workmen who made
+the Mother, among other deities, a patron. (3) The 24th of
+March, <i>Dies sanguinis</i>&mdash;a day of mourning, fasting and abstinence,
+especially sexual, commemorating the sorrow of the
+Mother for Attis, her abstinence from food and her chastity.
+The frenzied dance and self-laceration of the priests in commemoration
+of Attis&rsquo; deed, and the submission to the act of
+consecration by candidates for the priesthood, was a special
+feature of the day. The <i>taurobolium</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) was often performed
+on this day, on which probably took place the initiation of
+mystics. (4) The 25th of March, <i>Hilaria</i>&mdash;one of the great
+festal days of Rome, celebrated by all the people. All mourning
+was put off, and good cheer reigned in token of the return of the
+sun and spring, which was symbolized by the renewal of Attis&rsquo;
+life. (5) The 26th of March, <i>Requietio</i>&mdash;a day of rest and quiet.
+(6) The 27th of March, <i>Lavatio</i>&mdash;the crowning ceremony of the
+cycle. The silver statue of the goddess, with the sacred meteoric
+stone, the <i>Acus</i>, set in its head, was borne in gorgeous procession
+and bathed in the Almo, the remainder of the day being given
+up to rejoicing and entertainment, especially dramatic representation
+of the legend of the deities of the day. Other ceremonies,
+not necessarily connected with the annual festival,
+were the <i>taurobolium</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), the sacrifice of a bull, and the <i>criobolium</i>
+(<i>q.v.</i>), the sacrifice of a ram, the latter being the analogue
+of the former, instituted for the purpose of giving Attis special
+recognition. The baptism of blood, which was the feature of
+these ceremonies, was regarded as purifying and regenerating
+(Showerman, <i>Great Mother</i>, pp. 277-284).</p>
+
+<p>The Great Mother figures in the art of all periods both in
+Asia and Europe, but is especially prominent in the art of the
+Empire. No work of the first class, however, was inspired by
+her. She appears on coins, in painting and in all forms of
+sculpture, usually with mural crown and veil, well draped, seated
+on a throne, and accompanied by two lions. Other attributes
+which often appear are the patera, tympanum, cymbals, sceptre,
+garlands and fruits. Attis and his attributes, the pine, Phrygian
+cap, pedum, syrinx and torch, also appear. The Cybele of
+Formia, now at Copenhagen, is one of the most famous representations
+of the goddess. The Niobe of Mt. Sipylus is really the
+Mother. In literature she is the subject of frequent mention,
+but no work of importance, with the exception of Catullus lxiii.,
+is due to her inspiration. Her importance in the history of
+religion is very great. Together with Isis and Mithras, she was a
+great enemy, and yet a great aid to Christianity. The gorgeous
+rites of her worship, its mystic doctrine of communion with
+the divine through enthusiasm, its promise of regeneration
+through baptism of blood in the taurobolium, were features
+which attracted the masses of the people and made it a strong
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span>
+rival of Christianity; and its resemblance to the new religion,
+however superficial, made it, in spite of the scandalous practices
+which grew up around it, a stepping-stone to Christianity when
+the tide set in against paganism.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Grant Showerman, &ldquo;The Great Mother of the
+Gods,&rdquo; <i>Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin</i>, No. 43; <i>Philology
+and Literature Series</i>, vol. i. No. 3 (Madison, 1901); Hugo Hepding,
+<i>Attis, seine Mythen und seine Kult</i> (Giessen, 1903); Rapp, <i>Roscher&rsquo;s
+Ausführliches Lexicon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie
+s.v.</i> &ldquo;Kybele&rdquo;; Drexler, <i>ibid.</i> <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Meter.&rdquo; See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Religion</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Religion</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Attis</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Corybantes</a></span>; for the great &ldquo;Hittite&rdquo;
+portrayal of the Nature Goddess at Pteria, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. Sn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT REBELLION<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1642-52), a generic name for the civil
+wars in England and Scotland, which began with the raising of
+King Charles I.&rsquo;s standard at Nottingham on the 22nd of August
+1642, and ended with the surrender of Dunottar Castle to the
+Parliament&rsquo;s troops in May 1652. It is usual to classify these
+wars into the First Civil War of 1642-46, and the Second Civil
+War of 1648-52. During most of this time another civil war
+was raging in Ireland. Its incidents had little or no connexion
+with those of the Great Rebellion, but its results influenced the
+struggle in England to a considerable extent.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>First Civil War</i> (<i>1642-46</i>).&mdash;It is impossible rightly to understand
+the events of this most national of all English wars without
+some knowledge of the motive forces on both sides. On the side
+of the king were enlisted the deep-seated loyalty which was the
+result of two centuries of effective royal protection, the pure
+cavalier spirit foreshadowing the courtier era of Charles II., but
+still strongly tinged with the old feudal indiscipline, the militarism
+of an expert soldier nobility, well represented by Prince Rupert,
+and lastly a widespread distrust of extreme Puritanism, which
+appeared unreasonable to Lord Falkland and other philosophic
+statesmen and intolerable to every other class of Royalists.
+The foot of the Royal armies was animated in the main by the
+first and last of these motives; in the eyes of the sturdy rustics
+who followed their squires to the war the enemy were rebels and
+fanatics. To the cavalry, which was composed largely of the
+higher social orders, the rebels were, in addition, bourgeois, while
+the soldiers of fortune from the German wars felt all the regular&rsquo;s
+contempt for citizen militia. Thus in the first episodes of the
+First Civil War moral superiority tended to be on the side of the
+king. On the other side, the causes of the quarrel were primarily
+and apparently political, ultimately and really religious, and thus
+the elements of resistance in the Parliament and the nation were
+at first confused, and, later, strong and direct. Democracy,
+moderate republicanism and the simple desire for constitutional
+guarantees could hardly make head of themselves against the
+various forces of royalism, for the most moderate men of either
+party were sufficiently in sympathy to admit compromise. But
+the backbone of resistance was the Puritan element, and this
+waging war at first with the rest on the political issue soon (as
+the Royalists anticipated) brought the religious issue to the front.
+The Presbyterian system, even more rigid than that of Laud and
+the bishops&mdash;whom no man on either side supported save Charles
+himself&mdash;was destined to be supplanted by the Independents
+and their ideal of free conscience, but for a generation before the
+war broke out it had disciplined and trained the middle classes of
+the nation (who furnished the bulk of the rebel infantry, and later
+of the cavalry also) to centre their whole will-power on the attainment
+of their ideals. The ideals changed during the struggle, but
+not the capacity for striving for them, and the men capable of the
+effort finally came to the front and imposed their ideals on the
+rest by the force of their trained wills.</p>
+
+<p>Material force was throughout on the side of the Parliamentary
+party. They controlled the navy, the nucleus of an army which
+was in process of being organized for the Irish war, and nearly all
+the financial resources of the country. They had the sympathies
+of most of the large towns, where the trained bands, drilled once a
+month, provided cadres for new regiments. Further, by recognizing
+the inevitable, they gained a start in war preparations which
+they never lost. The earls of Warwick, Essex and Manchester
+and other nobles and gentry of their party possessed great wealth
+and territorial influence. Charles, on the other hand, although he
+could, by means of the &ldquo;press&rdquo; and the lords-lieutenant, raise
+men without authority from Parliament, could not raise taxes to
+support them, and was dependent on the financial support of his
+chief adherents, such as the earls of Newcastle and Derby. Both
+parties raised men when and where they could, each claiming that
+the law was on its side&mdash;for England was already a law-abiding
+nation&mdash;and acting in virtue of legal instruments. These
+were, on the side of the Parliament, its own recent &ldquo;Militia
+Ordinance&rdquo;; on that of the king, the old-fashioned &ldquo;Commissions
+of Array.&rdquo; In Cornwall the Royalist leader, Sir Ralph Hopton,
+indicted the enemy before the grand jury of the county as
+disturbers of the peace, and had the <i>posse comitatus</i> called out to
+expel them. The local forces in fact were everywhere employed
+by whichever side could, by producing valid written authority,
+induce them to assemble.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Royalist and Parliamentarian Armies.</i>&mdash;This thread
+of local feeling and respect for the laws runs through the
+earlier operations of both sides almost irrespective of the main
+principles at stake. Many a promising scheme failed because
+of the reluctance of the militiamen to serve beyond the limits
+of their own county, and, as the offensive lay with the
+king, his cause naturally suffered far more therefrom than
+that of the enemy. But the real spirit of the struggle was
+very different. Anything which tended to prolong the struggle,
+or seemed like want of energy and avoidance of a decision, was
+bitterly resented by the men of both sides, who had their hearts
+in the quarrel and had not as yet learned by the severe lesson
+of Edgehill that raw armies cannot bring wars to a speedy
+issue. In France and Germany the prolongation of a war meant
+continued employment for the soldiers, but in England &ldquo;we
+never encamped or entrenched ... or lay fenced with rivers
+or defiles. Here were no leaguers in the field, as at the story of
+Nuremberg,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> neither had our soldiers any tents or what they call
+heavy baggage. &rsquo;Twas the general maxim of the war&mdash;Where is
+the enemy? Let us go and fight them. Or ... if the enemy
+was coming ... Why, what should be done! Draw out into
+the fields and fight them.&rdquo; This passage from the <i>Memoirs of a
+Cavalier</i>, ascribed to Defoe, though not contemporary evidence,
+is an admirable summary of the character of the Civil War. Even
+when in the end a regular professional army is evolved&mdash;exactly
+as in the case of Napoleon&rsquo;s army&mdash;the original decision-compelling
+spirit permeated the whole organization. From the first the
+professional soldiers of fortune, be their advice good or bad, are
+looked upon with suspicion, and nearly all those Englishmen who
+loved war for its own sake were too closely concerned for the welfare
+of their country to attempt the methods of the Thirty Years&rsquo;
+War in England. The formal organization of both armies was
+based on the Swedish model, which had become the pattern of
+Europe after the victories of Gustavus Adolphus, and gave better
+scope for the <i>moral</i> of the individual than the old-fashioned
+Spanish and Dutch formations in which the man in the ranks was
+a highly finished automaton.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Campaign of 1642.</i>&mdash;When the king raised his standard at
+Nottingham on the 22nd of August 1642, war was already in progress
+on a small scale in many districts, each side endeavouring to
+secure, or to deny to the enemy, fortified country-houses, territory,
+and above all arms and money. Peace negotiations went on in the
+midst of these minor events until there came from the Parliament
+an ultimatum so aggressive as to fix the warlike purpose of the
+still vacillating court at Nottingham, and, in the country at large,
+to convert many thousands of waverers to active Royalism.
+Ere long Charles&mdash;who had hitherto had less than 1500 men&mdash;was
+at the head of an army which, though very deficient in arms and
+equipment, was not greatly inferior in numbers or enthusiasm to
+that of the Parliament. The latter (20,000 strong exclusive of
+detachments) was organized during July, August and September
+about London, and moved thence to Northampton under the
+command of Robert, earl of Essex.</p>
+
+<p>At this moment the military situation was as follows. Lord
+Hertford in south Wales, Sir Ralph Hopton in Cornwall, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span>
+young earl of Derby in Lancashire, and small parties in almost
+every county of the west and the midlands, were in arms for the
+king. North of the Tees, the earl of Newcastle, a great territorial
+magnate, was raising troops and supplies for the king, while
+Queen Henrietta Maria was busy in Holland arranging for the
+importation of war material and money. In Yorkshire opinion
+was divided, the royal cause being strongest in York and the North
+Riding, that of the Parliamentary party in the clothing towns
+of the West Riding and also in the important seaport of Hull.
+The Yorkshire gentry made an attempt to neutralize the county,
+but a local struggle soon began, and Newcastle thereupon
+prepared to invade Yorkshire. The whole of the south and east
+as well as parts of the midlands and the west and the important
+towns of Bristol and Gloucester were on the side of the Parliament.
+A small Royalist force was compelled to evacuate Oxford on the
+10th of September.</p>
+
+<p>On the 13th of September the main campaign opened. The
+king&mdash;in order to find recruits amongst his sympathizers and
+arms in the armouries of the Derbyshire and Staffordshire
+trained bands, and also to be in touch with his disciplined
+regiments in Ireland by way of Chester&mdash;moved westward to
+Shrewsbury, Essex following suit by marching from Northampton
+to Worcester. Near the last-named town a sharp cavalry
+engagement (Powick Bridge) took place on the 23rd between the
+advanced cavalry of Essex&rsquo;s army and a force under Prince
+Rupert which was engaged in protecting the retirement of the
+Oxford detachment. The result of the fight was the instantaneous
+overthrow of the rebel cavalry, and this gave the
+Royalist troopers a confidence in themselves and in their brilliant
+leader which was not destined to be shaken until they met
+Cromwell&rsquo;s Ironsides. Rupert soon withdrew to Shrewsbury,
+where he found many Royalist officers eager to attack Essex&rsquo;s
+new position at Worcester. But the road to London now lay
+open and it was decided to take it. The intention was not to
+avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals desired to fight Essex
+before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it
+impossible to postpone the decision; in Clarendon&rsquo;s words,
+&ldquo;it was considered more counsellable to march towards London,
+it being morally sure that the earl of Essex would put himself in
+their way,&rdquo; and accordingly the army left Shrewsbury on the
+12th of October, gaining two days&rsquo; start of the enemy, and
+moved south-east via Bridgnorth, Birmingham and Kenilworth.
+This had the desired effect. Parliament, alarmed for its own
+safety, sent repeated orders to Essex to find the king and bring
+him to battle. Alarm gave place to determination when it was
+discovered that Charles was enlisting papists and seeking foreign
+aid. The militia of the home counties was called out, a second
+army under the earl of Warwick was formed round the nucleus
+of the London trained bands, and Essex, straining every nerve
+to regain touch with the enemy, reached Kineton, where he was
+only 7 m. from the king&rsquo;s headquarters at Edgecote, on the 22nd.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Battle of Edgehill.</i>&mdash;Rupert promptly reported the enemy&rsquo;s
+presence, and his confidence dominated the irresolution of the
+king and the caution of Lord Lindsey, the nominal commander-in-chief.
+Both sides had marched widely dispersed in order to
+live, and the rapidity with which, having the clearer purpose,
+the Royalists drew together helped considerably to neutralize
+Essex&rsquo;s superior numbers. During the morning of the 23rd the
+Royalists formed in battle order on the brow of Edgehill facing
+towards Kineton. Essex, experienced soldier as he was, had
+distrusted his own raw army too much to force a decision
+earlier in the month, when the king was weak; he now found
+Charles in a strong position with an equal force to his own
+14,000, and some of his regiments were still some miles distant.
+But he advanced beyond Kineton, and the enemy promptly
+left their strong position and came down to the foot of the
+hill, for, situated as they were, they had either to fight wherever
+they could induce the enemy to engage, or to starve in the
+midst of hostile garrisons. Rupert was on the right of the
+king&rsquo;s army with the greater part of the horse, Lord Lindsey
+and Sir Jacob Astley in the centre with the foot, Lord Wilmot
+(with whom rode the earl of Forth, the principal military adviser
+of the king) with a smaller body of cavalry on the left. In rear
+of the centre were the king and a small reserve. Essex&rsquo;s order
+was similar. Rupert charged as soon as his wing was deployed,
+and before the infantry of either side was ready. Taking ground
+to his right front and then wheeling inwards at full speed he
+instantly rode down the Parliamentary horse opposed to him.
+Some infantry regiments of Essex&rsquo;s left centre shared the same
+fate as their cavalry. On the other wing Forth and Wilmot
+likewise swept away all that they could see of the enemy&rsquo;s
+cavalry, and the undisciplined Royalists of both wings pursued
+the fugitives in wild disorder up to Kineton, where they were
+severely handled by John Hampden&rsquo;s infantry brigade (which was
+escorting the artillery and baggage of Essex&rsquo;s army). Rupert
+brought back only a few rallied squadrons to the battlefield,
+and in the meantime affairs there had gone badly for the king.
+The right and centre of the Parliamentary foot (the left having
+been brought to a halt by Rupert&rsquo;s charge) advanced with great
+resolution, and being at least as ardent as, and much better armed
+than, Lindsey&rsquo;s men, engaged them fiercely and slowly gained
+ground. Only the best regiments on either side, however,
+maintained their order, and the decision of the infantry battle
+was achieved mainly by a few Parliamentary squadrons. One
+regiment of Essex&rsquo;s right wing only had been the target of Wilmot&rsquo;s
+charge, the other two had been at the moment invisible, and, as
+every Royalist troop on the ground, even the king&rsquo;s guards,
+had joined in the mad ride to Kineton, these, Essex&rsquo;s life-guard,
+and some troops that had rallied from the effect of Rupert&rsquo;s
+charge&mdash;amongst them Captain Oliver Cromwell&rsquo;s&mdash;were the
+only cavalry still present. All these joined with decisive effect
+in the attack on the left of the royal infantry. The king&rsquo;s line
+was steadily rolled up from left to right, the Parliamentary
+troopers captured his guns and regiment after <span class="correction" title="added the">the</span> regiment broke up.
+Charles himself stood calmly in the thick of the fight, but he had
+not the skill to direct it. The royal standard was taken and
+retaken, Lindsey and Sir Edmund Verney, the standard-bearer,
+being killed. By the time that Rupert returned both sides were
+incapable of further effort and disillusioned as to the prospect
+of ending the war at a blow.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24th Essex retired, leaving Charles to claim the victory
+and to reap its results. Banbury and Oxford were reoccupied
+by the Royalists, and by the 28th Charles was marching down
+the Thames valley on London. Negotiations were reopened,
+and a peace party rapidly formed itself in London and Westminster.
+Yet field fortifications sprang up around London,
+and when Rupert stormed and sacked Brentford on the 12th
+of November the trained bands moved out at once and took up
+a position at Turnham Green, barring the king&rsquo;s advance.
+Hampden, with something of the fire and energy of his cousin
+Cromwell, urged Essex to turn both flanks of the Royal army
+via Acton and Kingston, but experienced professional soldiers
+urged him not to trust the London men to hold their ground
+while the rest man&oelig;uvred. Hampden&rsquo;s advice was undoubtedly
+premature. A Sedan or Worcester was not within the power
+of the Parliamentarians of 1642, for, in Napoleon&rsquo;s words, &ldquo;one
+only man&oelig;uvres around a fixed point,&rdquo; and the city levies at
+that time were certainly not, <i>vis-à-vis</i> Rupert&rsquo;s cavalry, a fixed
+point. As a matter of fact, after a slight cannonade at Turnham
+Green on the 13th, Essex&rsquo;s two-to-one numerical superiority of
+itself compelled the king to retire to Reading. Turnham Green
+has justly been called the Valmy of the English Civil War. Like
+Valmy, without being a battle, it was a victory, and the tide of
+invasion came thus far, ebbed, and never returned.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Winter of 1642-43.</i>&mdash;In the winter, while Essex lay
+inactive at Windsor, Charles by degrees consolidated his position
+in the region of Oxford. The city was fortified as a reduit for
+the whole area, and Reading, Wallingford, Abingdon, Brill,
+Banbury and Marlborough constituted a complete defensive
+ring which was developed by the creation of smaller posts from
+time to time. In the north and west, winter campaigns were
+actively carried on. &ldquo;It is summer in Yorkshire, summer in
+Devon, and cold winter at Windsor,&rdquo; said one of Essex&rsquo;s critics.
+At the beginning of December Newcastle crossed the Tees,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span>
+defeated Hotham, the Parliamentary commander in the North
+Riding, then joining hands with the hard-pressed Royalists at
+York, established himself between that city and Pontefract.
+Lord Fairfax and his son Sir Thomas, who commanded for the
+Parliament in Yorkshire, had to retire to the district between
+Hull and Selby, and Newcastle was free to turn his attention
+to the Puritan &ldquo;clothing towns&rdquo; of the West Riding&mdash;Leeds,
+Halifax and Bradford. The townsmen, however, showed a
+determined front, the younger Fairfax with a picked body of
+cavalry rode through Newcastle&rsquo;s lines into the West Riding
+to help them, and about the end of January 1643 the earl gave
+up the attempt to reduce the towns. He continued his march
+southward, however, and gained ground for the king as far as
+Newark, so as to be in touch with the Royalists of Nottinghamshire,
+Derbyshire and Leicestershire (who, especially about
+Newark and Ashby-de-la-Zouch, were strong enough to neutralize
+the local forces of the Parliament), and to prepare the way for
+the further advance of the army of the north when the queen&rsquo;s
+convoy should arrive from over-seas.</p>
+
+<p>In the west Sir Ralph Hopton and his friends, having obtained
+a true bill from the grand jury against the Parliamentary disturbers
+of the peace, placed themselves at the head of the county
+militia and drove the rebels from Cornwall, after which they
+raised a small force for general service and invaded Devonshire
+(November 1642). Subsequently a Parliamentary army under
+the earl of Stamford was withdrawn from south Wales to engage
+Hopton, who had to retire into Cornwall. There, however,
+the Royalist general was free to employ the militia again, and
+thus reinforced he won a victory over a part of Stamford&rsquo;s forces
+at Bradock Down near Liskeard (January 19, 1643) and resumed
+the offensive. About the same time Hertford, no longer opposed
+by Stamford, brought over the South Wales Royalists to Oxford,
+and the fortified area around that place was widened by the
+capture of Cirencester on the 2nd of February. Gloucester and
+Bristol were now the only important garrisons of the Roundheads
+in the west. In the midlands, in spite of a Parliamentary
+victory won by Sir William Brereton at Nantwich on the 28th of
+January, the Royalists of Shropshire, Staffordshire and Leicestershire
+soon extended their influence through Ashby-de-la-Zouch
+into Nottinghamshire and joined hands with their friends at
+Newark. Further, around Chester a new Royalist army was
+being formed under Lord Byron, and all the efforts of Brereton
+and of Sir John Gell, the leading supporter of the Parliament in
+Derbyshire, were required to hold their own, even before Newcastle&rsquo;s
+army was added to the list of their enemies. Lord
+Brooke, who commanded for the Parliament in Warwickshire
+and Staffordshire and was looked on by many as Essex&rsquo;s eventual
+successor, was killed in besieging Lichfield cathedral on the
+2nd of March, and, though the cathedral soon capitulated, Gell
+and Brereton were severely handled in the indecisive battle of
+Hopton Heath near Stafford on the 19th of March, and Prince
+Rupert, after an abortive raid on Bristol (March 7), marched
+rapidly northward, storming Birmingham en route, and recaptured
+Lichfield cathedral. He was, however, soon recalled
+to Oxford to take part in the main campaign. The position of
+affairs for the Parliament was perhaps at its worst in January.
+The Royalist successes of November and December, the ever-present
+dread of foreign intervention, and the burden of new
+taxation which the Parliament now found itself compelled to
+impose, disheartened its supporters. Disorders broke out in
+London, and, while the more determined of the rebels began
+thus early to think of calling in the military assistance of the
+Scots, the majority were for peace on any conditions. But soon
+the position improved somewhat; Stamford in the west and
+Brereton and Gell in the midlands, though hard pressed, were
+at any rate in arms and undefeated, Newcastle had failed to
+conquer the West Riding, and Sir William Waller, who had
+cleared Hampshire and Wiltshire of &ldquo;malignants,&rdquo; entered
+Gloucestershire early in March, destroyed a small Royalist
+force at Highnam (March 24), and secured Bristol and Gloucester
+for the Parliament. Finally, some of Charles&rsquo;s own intrigues
+opportunely coming to light, the waverers, seeing the impossibility
+of plain dealing with the court, rallied again to the party
+of resistance, and the series of negotiations called by the name
+of the Treaty of Oxford closed in April with no more result than
+those which had preceded Edgehill and Turnham Green. About
+this time too, following and improving upon the example of
+Newcastle in the north, Parliament ordered the formation of
+the celebrated &ldquo;associations&rdquo; or groups of counties banded
+together by mutual consent for defence. The most powerful
+and best organized of these was that of the eastern counties
+(headquarters Cambridge), where the danger of attack from the
+north was near enough to induce great energy in the preparations
+for meeting it, and at the same time too distant effectively to
+interfere with these preparations. Above all, the Eastern
+Association was from the first guided and inspired by Colonel
+Cromwell.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>The Plan of Campaign, 1643.</i>&mdash;The king&rsquo;s plan of operations
+for the next campaign, which was perhaps inspired from abroad,
+was more elaborate than the simple &ldquo;point&rdquo; of 1642. The
+king&rsquo;s army, based on the fortified area around Oxford, was
+counted sufficient to use up Essex&rsquo;s forces. On either hand,
+therefore, in Yorkshire and in the west, the Royalist armies
+were to fight their way inwards towards London, after which
+all three armies, converging on that place in due season, were
+to cut off its supplies and its sea-borne revenue and to starve
+the rebellion into surrender. The condition of this threefold
+advance was of course that the enemy should not be able to
+defeat the armies in detail, <i>i.e.</i> that he should be fixed and held
+in the Thames valley; this secured, there was no purely military
+objection against operating in separate armies from the circumference
+towards the centre. It was on the rock of local
+feeling that the king&rsquo;s plan came to grief. Even after the arrival
+of the queen and her convoy, Newcastle had to allow her to
+proceed with a small force, and to remain behind with the main
+body, because of Lancashire and the West Riding, and above
+all because the port of Hull, in the hands of the Fairfaxes,
+constituted a menace that the Royalists of the East Riding
+refused to ignore. Hopton&rsquo;s advance too, undertaken without
+the Cornish levies, was checked in the action of Sourton Down
+(Dartmoor) on the 25th of April, and on the same day Waller
+captured Hereford. Essex had already left Windsor to undertake
+the siege of Reading, the most important point in the circle
+of fortresses round Oxford, which after a vain attempt at relief
+surrendered to him on the 26th of April. Thus the opening
+operations were unfavourable, not indeed so far as to require
+the scheme to be abandoned, but at least delaying the development
+until the campaigning season was far advanced.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Victories of Hopton.</i>&mdash;But affairs improved in May. The
+queen&rsquo;s long-expected convoy arrived at Woodstock on the 13th.
+The earl of Stamford&rsquo;s army, which had again entered Cornwall,
+was attacked in its selected position at Stratton and practically
+annihilated by Hopton (May 16). This brilliant victory was
+due above all to Sir Bevil Grenville and the lithe Cornishmen,
+who, though but 2400 against 5400 and destitute of artillery,
+stormed &ldquo;Stamford Hill,&rdquo; killed 300 of the enemy, and captured
+1700 more with all their guns, colours and baggage. Devon
+was at once overrun by the victors. Essex&rsquo;s army, for want of
+material resources, had had to be content with the capture of
+Reading, and a Royalist force under Hertford and Prince
+Maurice (Rupert&rsquo;s brother) moved out as far as Salisbury to
+hold out a hand to their friends in Devonshire, while Waller,
+the only Parliamentary commander left in the field in the west,
+had to abandon his conquests in the Severn valley to oppose
+the further progress of his intimate friend and present enemy,
+Hopton. Early in June Hertford and Hopton united at Chard
+and rapidly moved, with some cavalry skirmishing, towards Bath,
+where Waller&rsquo;s army lay. Avoiding the barrier of the Mendips,
+they moved round via Frome to the Avon. But Waller, thus
+cut off from London and threatened with investment, acted
+with great skill, and some days of man&oelig;uvres and skirmishing
+followed, after which Hertford and Hopton found themselves
+on the north side of Bath facing Waller&rsquo;s entrenched position
+on the top of Lansdown Hill. This position the Royalists
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span>
+stormed on the 5th of July. The battle of Lansdown was a
+second Stratton for the Cornishmen, but this time the enemy
+was of different quality and far differently led, and they had to
+mourn the loss of Sir Bevil Grenville and the greater part of
+their whole force. At dusk both sides stood on the flat summit
+of the hill, still firing into one another with such energy as was
+not yet expended, and in the night Waller drew off his men into
+Bath. &ldquo;We were glad they were gone,&rdquo; wrote a Royalist
+officer, &ldquo;for if they had not, I know who had within the hour.&rdquo;
+Next day Hopton was severely injured by the explosion of a wagon
+containing the reserve ammunition, and the Royalists, finding
+their victory profitless, moved eastward to Devizes, closely
+followed by the enemy. On the 10th of July Sir William Waller
+took post on Roundway Down, overlooking Devizes, and captured
+a Royalist ammunition column from Oxford. On the 11th
+he came down and invested Hopton&rsquo;s foot in Devizes itself,
+while the Royalist cavalry, Hertford and Maurice with them,
+rode away towards Salisbury. But although the siege was pressed
+with such vigour that an assault was fixed for the evening of the
+13th, the Cornishmen, Hopton directing the defence from his
+bed, held out stubbornly, and on the afternoon of July 13th
+Prince Maurice&rsquo;s horsemen appeared on Roundway Down,
+having ridden to Oxford, picked up reinforcements there, and
+returned at full speed to save their comrades. Waller&rsquo;s army
+tried its best, but some of its elements were of doubtful quality
+and the ground was all in Maurice&rsquo;s favour. The battle did not
+last long. The combined attack of the Oxford force from
+Roundway and of Hopton&rsquo;s men from the town practically
+annihilated Waller&rsquo;s army. Very soon afterwards Rupert came
+up with fresh Royalist forces, and the combined armies moved
+westward. Bristol, the second port of the kingdom, was their
+objective, and in four days from the opening of the siege it was
+in their hands (July 26), Waller with the beaten remnant of his
+army at Bath being powerless to intervene. The effect of this
+blow was felt even in Dorsetshire. Within three weeks of the
+surrender Prince Maurice with a body of fast-moving cavalry
+overran that county almost unopposed.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Adwalton Moor.</i>&mdash;Newcastle meanwhile had resumed operations
+against the clothing towns, this time with success. The
+Fairfaxes had been fighting in the West Riding since January
+with such troops from the Hull region as they had been able to
+bring across Newcastle&rsquo;s lines. They and the townsmen together
+were too weak for Newcastle&rsquo;s increasing forces, and an attempt
+was made to relieve them by bringing up the Parliament&rsquo;s
+forces in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and the
+Eastern Association. But local interests prevailed again, in
+spite of Cromwell&rsquo;s presence, and after assembling at Nottingham,
+the midland rebels quietly dispersed to their several
+counties (June 2). The Fairfaxes were left to their fate, and
+about the same time Hull itself narrowly escaped capture by the
+queen&rsquo;s forces through the treachery of Sir John Hotham, the
+governor, and his son, the commander of the Lincolnshire Parliamentarians.
+The latter had been placed under arrest at the
+instance of Cromwell and of Colonel Hutchinson, the governor
+of Nottingham Castle; he escaped to Hull, but both father and
+son were seized by the citizens and afterwards executed. More
+serious than an isolated act of treachery was the far-reaching
+Royalist plot that had been detected in Parliament itself, for
+complicity in which Lord Conway, Edmund Waller the poet,
+and several members of both Houses were arrested. The safety
+of Hull was of no avail for the West Riding towns, and the
+Fairfaxes underwent a decisive defeat at Adwalton (Atherton)
+Moor near Bradford on the 30th of June. After this, by way
+of Lincolnshire, they escaped to Hull and reorganized the
+defence of that place. The West Riding perforce submitted.</p>
+
+<p>The queen herself with a second convoy and a small army
+under Henry (Lord) Jermyn soon moved via Newark, Ashby-de-la-Zouch,
+Lichfield and other Royalist garrisons to Oxford,
+where she joined her husband on the 14th of July. But Newcastle
+(now a marquis) was not yet ready for his part in the
+programme. The Yorkshire troops would not march on London
+while the enemy was master of Hull, and by this time there was
+a solid barrier between the royal army of the north and the
+capital. Roundway Down and Adwalton Moor were not after
+all destined to be fatal, though peace riots in London, dissensions
+in the Houses, and quarrels amongst the generals were their
+immediate consequences. A new factor had arisen in the war&mdash;the
+Eastern Association.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Cromwell and the Eastern Association.</i>&mdash;This had already
+intervened to help in the siege of Reading and had sent troops
+to the abortive gathering at Nottingham, besides clearing its
+own ground of &ldquo;malignants.&rdquo; From the first Cromwell was the
+dominant influence. Fresh from Edgehill, he had told Hampden,
+&ldquo;You must get men of a spirit that is likely to go as far as
+gentlemen will go,&rdquo; not &ldquo;old decayed serving-men, tapsters
+and such kind of fellows to encounter gentlemen that have
+honour and courage and resolution in them,&rdquo; and in January
+1643 he had gone to his own county to &ldquo;raise such men as had
+the fear of God before them and made some conscience of what
+they did.&rdquo; These men, once found, were willing, for the cause,
+to submit to a rigorous training and an iron discipline such as
+other troops, fighting for honour only or for profit only, could
+not be brought to endure.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The result was soon apparent.
+As early as the 13th of May, Cromwell&rsquo;s regiment of horse&mdash;recruited
+from the horse-loving yeomen of the eastern counties&mdash;demonstrated
+its superiority in the field in a skirmish near
+Grantham, and in the irregular fighting in Lincolnshire during
+June and July (which was on the whole unfavourable to the
+Parliament), as previously in pacifying the Eastern Association
+itself, these Puritan troopers distinguished themselves by long
+and rapid marches that may bear comparison with almost any
+in the history of the mounted arm. When Cromwell&rsquo;s second
+opportunity came at Gainsborough on the 28th of July, the
+&ldquo;Lincolneer&rdquo; horse who were under his orders were fired by
+the example of Cromwell&rsquo;s own regiment, and Cromwell, directing
+the whole with skill, and above all with energy, utterly routed
+the Royalist horse and killed their general, Charles Cavendish.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the army of Essex had been inactive. After
+the fall of Reading a serious epidemic of sickness had reduced
+it to impotence. On the 18th of June the Parliamentary
+cavalry was routed and John Hampden mortally wounded at
+Chalgrove Field near Chiselhampton, and when at last Essex,
+having obtained the desired reinforcements, moved against
+Oxford from the Aylesbury side, he found his men demoralized
+by inaction, and before the menace of Rupert&rsquo;s cavalry, to which
+he had nothing to oppose, he withdrew to Bedfordshire (July).
+He made no attempt to intercept the march of the queen&rsquo;s
+convoys, he had permitted the Oxford army, which he should
+have held fast, to intervene effectually in the midlands, the west,
+and the south-west, and Waller might well complain that Essex,
+who still held Reading and the Chilterns, had given him neither
+active nor passive support in the critical days preceding Roundway
+Down. Still only a few voices were raised to demand his
+removal, and he was shortly to have an opportunity of proving
+his skill and devotion in a great campaign and a great battle.
+The centre and the right of the three Royalist armies had for a
+moment (Roundway to Bristol) united to crush Waller, but
+their concentration was short-lived. Plymouth was to Hopton&rsquo;s
+men what Hull was to Newcastle&rsquo;s&mdash;they would not march on
+London until the menace to their homes was removed. Further,
+there were dissensions among the generals which Charles was too
+weak to crush, and consequently the original plan reappears&mdash;the
+main Royalist army to operate in the centre, Hopton&rsquo;s (now
+Maurice&rsquo;s) on the right, Newcastle on the left towards London.
+While waiting for the fall of Hull and Plymouth, Charles naturally
+decided to make the best use of his time by reducing Gloucester,
+the one great fortress of the Parliament in the west.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Siege and Relief of Gloucester.</i>&mdash;This decision quickly
+brought on a crisis. While the earl of Manchester (with Cromwell
+as his lieutenant-general) was appointed to head the forces of
+the Eastern Association against Newcastle, and Waller was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span>
+given a new army wherewith again to engage Hopton and
+Maurice, the task of saving Gloucester from the king&rsquo;s army fell
+to Essex, who was heavily reinforced and drew his army together
+for action in the last days of August. Resort was had to the
+press-gang to fill the ranks, recruiting for Waller&rsquo;s new army
+was stopped, and London sent six regiments of trained bands
+to the front, closing the shops so that every man should be free
+to take his part in what was thought to be the supreme trial
+of strength.</p>
+
+<p>On the 26th, all being ready, Essex started. Through Aylesbury
+and round the north side of Oxford to Stow-on-the-Wold
+the army moved resolutely, not deterred by want of food and
+rest, or by the attacks of Rupert&rsquo;s and Wilmot&rsquo;s horse on its
+flank. On the 5th of September, just as Gloucester was at
+the end of its resources, the siege was suddenly raised and the
+Royalists drew off to Painswick, for Essex had reached Cheltenham
+and the danger was over. Then, the field armies being
+again face to face and free to move, there followed a series of
+skilful man&oelig;uvres in the Severn and Avon valleys, at the end
+of which the Parliamentary army gained a long start on its
+homeward road via Cricklade, Hungerford and Reading. But
+the Royalist cavalry under Rupert, followed rapidly by Charles
+and the main body from Evesham, strained every nerve to
+head off Essex at Newbury, and after a sharp skirmish on
+Aldbourne Chase on the 18th of September succeeded in doing
+so. On the 19th the whole Royal army was drawn up, facing
+west, with its right on Newbury and its left on Enborne Heath.
+Essex&rsquo;s men knew that evening that they would have to break
+through by force&mdash;there was no suggestion of surrender.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>First Battle of Newbury, September 20, 1643.</i>&mdash;The ground
+was densely intersected by hedges except in front of the Royalists&rsquo;
+left centre (Newbury Wash) and left (Enborne Heath), and,
+practically, Essex&rsquo;s army was never formed in line of battle,
+for each unit was thrown into the fight as it came up its own
+road or lane. On the left wing, in spite of the Royalist counter-strokes,
+the attack had the best of it, capturing field after field,
+and thus gradually gaining ground to the front. Here Lord
+Falkland was killed. On the Reading road itself Essex did not
+succeed in deploying on to the open ground on Newbury Wash,
+but victoriously repelled the royal horse when it charged up to
+the lanes and hedges held by his foot. On the extreme right
+of the Parliamentary army, which stood in the open ground of
+Enborne Heath, took place a famous incident. Here two of the
+London regiments, fresh to war as they were, were exposed to a
+trial as severe as that which broke down the veteran Spanish
+infantry at Rocroi in this same year. Rupert and the Royalist
+horse again and again charged up to the squares of pikes, and
+between each charge his guns tried to disorder the Londoners, but
+it was not until the advance of the royal infantry that the trained
+bands retired, slowly and in magnificent order, to the edge of the
+heath. The result of it all was that Essex&rsquo;s army had fought
+its hardest and failed to break the opposing line. But the
+Royalists had suffered so heavily, and above all the valour
+displayed by the rebels had so profoundly impressed them, that
+they were glad to give up the disputed road and withdraw into
+Newbury. Essex thereupon pursued his march, Reading was
+reached on the 22nd after a small rearguard skirmish at Aldermaston,
+and so ended one of the most dramatic episodes of
+English history.</p>
+
+<p>12. <i>Hull and Winceby.</i>&mdash;Meanwhile the siege of Hull had
+commenced. The Eastern Association forces under Manchester
+promptly moved up into Lincolnshire, the foot besieging Lynn
+(which surrendered on the 16th of September) while the horse
+rode into the northern part of the county to give a hand to the
+Fairfaxes. Fortunately the sea communications of Hull were
+open. On the 18th of September part of the cavalry in Hull
+was ferried over to Barton, and the rest under Sir Thomas
+Fairfax went by sea to Saltfleet a few days later, the whole
+joining Cromwell near Spilsby. In return the old Lord Fairfax,
+who remained in Hull, received infantry reinforcements and
+a quantity of ammunition and stores from the Eastern Association.
+On the 11th of October Cromwell and Fairfax together
+won a brilliant cavalry action at Winceby, driving the Royalist
+horse in confusion before them to Newark, and on the same day
+Newcastle&rsquo;s army around Hull, which had suffered terribly
+from the hardships of continuous siege work, was attacked
+by the garrison and so severely handled that next day the
+siege was given up. Later, Manchester retook Lincoln and
+Gainsborough, and thus Lincolnshire, which had been almost
+entirely in Newcastle&rsquo;s hands before he was compelled to undertake
+the siege of Hull, was added in fact as well as in name to the
+Eastern Association.</p>
+
+<p>Elsewhere, in the reaction after the crisis of Newbury, the
+war languished. The city regiments went home, leaving Essex
+too weak to hold Reading, which the Royalists reoccupied on the
+3rd of October. At this the Londoners offered to serve again,
+and actually took part in a minor campaign around Newport
+Pagnell, which town Rupert attempted to fortify as a menace
+to the Eastern Association and its communications with London.
+Essex was successful in preventing this, but his London regiments
+again went home, and Sir William Waller&rsquo;s new army in
+Hampshire failed lamentably in an attempt on Basing House
+(November 7), the London trained bands deserting <i>en bloc</i>.
+Shortly afterwards Arundel surrendered to a force under Sir
+Ralph, now Lord Hopton (December 9).</p>
+
+<p>13. <i>The &ldquo;Irish Cessation&rdquo; and the Solemn League and
+Covenant.</i>&mdash;Politically, these months were the turning-point of
+the war. In Ireland, the king&rsquo;s lieutenant, by order of his
+master, made a truce with the Irish rebels (Sept. 15). Charles&rsquo;s
+chief object was to set free his army to fight in England, but it
+was believed universally that Irish regiments&mdash;in plain words,
+papists in arms&mdash;would shortly follow. Under these circumstances
+his act united against him nearly every class in
+Protestant England, above all brought into the English quarrel
+the armed strength of Presbyterian Scotland. Yet Charles,
+still trusting to intrigue and diplomacy to keep Scotland in
+check, deliberately rejected the advice of Montrose, his greatest
+and most faithful lieutenant, who wished to give the Scots
+employment for their army at home. Only ten days after the
+&ldquo;Irish cessation,&rdquo; the Parliament at Westminster swore to the
+Solemn League and Covenant, and the die was cast. It is true
+that even a semblance of Presbyterian theocracy put the
+&ldquo;Independents&rdquo; on their guard and definitely raised the question
+of freedom of conscience, and that secret negotiations were
+opened between the Independents and Charles on that basis,
+but they soon discovered that the king was merely using them
+as instruments to bring about the betrayal of Aylesbury and
+other small rebel posts. All parties found it convenient to interpret
+the Covenant liberally for the present, and at the beginning
+of 1644 the Parliamentary party showed so united a front that
+even Pym&rsquo;s death (December 8, 1643) hardly affected its resolution
+to continue the struggle.</p>
+
+<p>The troops from Ireland, thus obtained at the cost of an
+enormous political blunder, proved to be untrustworthy after all.
+Those serving in Hopton&rsquo;s army were &ldquo;mutinous and shrewdly
+infected with the rebellious humour of England.&rdquo; When Waller&rsquo;s
+Londoners surprised<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and routed a Royalist detachment at
+Alton (December 13, 1643), half the prisoners took the Covenant.
+Hopton had to retire, and on the 6th of January 1644 Waller
+recaptured Arundel. Byron&rsquo;s Cheshire army was in no better
+case. Newcastle&rsquo;s retreat from Hull and the loss of Gainsborough
+had completely changed the situation in the midlands, Brereton
+was joined by the younger Fairfax from Lincolnshire, and the
+Royalists were severely defeated for a second time at Nantwich
+(January 25). As at Alton, the majority of the prisoners
+(amongst them Colonel George Monk) took the Covenant and
+entered the Parliamentary army. In Lancashire, as in Cheshire,
+Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire, the cause of
+the Parliament was in the ascendant. Resistance revived in the
+West Riding towns, Lord Fairfax was again in the field in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span>
+East Riding, and even Newark was closely besieged by Sir
+John Meldrum. More important news came in from the north.
+The advanced guard of the Scottish army had passed the Tweed
+on the 19th of January, and the marquis of Newcastle with the
+remnant of his army would soon be attacked in front and rear
+at once.</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Newark and Cheriton</i> (<i>March 1644</i>).&mdash;As in 1643, Rupert
+was soon on his way to the north to retrieve the fortunes of his
+side. Moving by the Welsh border, and gathering up garrisons
+and recruits snowball-wise as he marched, he went first to
+Cheshire to give a hand to Byron, and then, with the utmost
+speed, he made for Newark. On the 20th of March 1644 he
+bivouacked at Bingham, and on the 21st he not only relieved
+Newark but routed the besiegers&rsquo; cavalry. On the 22nd
+Meldrum&rsquo;s position was so hopeless that he capitulated on terms.
+But, brilliant soldier as he was, the prince was unable to do more
+than raid a few Parliamentary posts around Lincoln, after
+which he had to return his borrowed forces to their various
+garrisons and go back to Wales&mdash;laden indeed with captured
+pikes and muskets&mdash;to raise a permanent field army. But
+Rupert could not be in all places at once. Newcastle was
+clamorous for aid. In Lancashire, only the countess of Derby,
+in Lathom House, held out for the king, and her husband
+pressed Rupert to go to her relief. Once, too, the prince was
+ordered back to Oxford to furnish a travelling escort for the
+queen, who shortly after this gave birth to her youngest child
+and returned to France. The order was countermanded within
+a few hours, it is true, but Charles had good reason for avoiding
+detachments from his own army. On the 29th of March, Hopton
+had undergone a severe defeat at Cheriton near New Alresford.
+In the preliminary man&oelig;uvres and in the opening stages of the
+battle the advantage lay with the Royalists, and the earl of
+Forth, who was present, was satisfied with what had been achieved
+and tried to break off the action. But Royalist indiscipline
+ruined everything. A young cavalry colonel charged in defiance
+of orders, a fresh engagement opened, and at the last moment
+Waller snatched a victory out of defeat. Worse than this was
+the news from Yorkshire and Scotland. Charles had at last
+assented to Montrose&rsquo;s plan and promised him the title of
+marquis, but the first attempt to raise the Royalist standard in
+Scotland gave no omen of its later triumphs. In Yorkshire
+Sir Thomas Fairfax, advancing from Lancashire through the
+West Riding, joined his father. Selby was stormed on the 11th
+of April, and thereupon Newcastle, who had been man&oelig;uvring
+against the Scots in Durham, hastily drew back, sent his cavalry
+away, and shut himself up with his foot in York. Two days
+later the Scottish general, Alexander Leslie, Lord Leven, joined
+the Fairfaxes and prepared to invest that city.</p>
+
+<p>15. <i>Plans of Campaign for 1644.</i>&mdash;The original plan of the
+Parliamentary &ldquo;Committee of Both Kingdoms,&rdquo; which directed
+the military and civil policy of the allies after the fashion of a
+modern cabinet, was to combine Essex&rsquo;s and Manchester&rsquo;s
+armies in an attack upon the king&rsquo;s army, Aylesbury being
+appointed as the place of concentration. Waller&rsquo;s troops were
+to continue to drive back Hopton and to reconquer the west,
+Fairfax and the Scots to invest Newcastle&rsquo;s army, while in the
+midlands Brereton and the Lincolnshire rebels could be counted
+upon to neutralize, the one Byron, the others the Newark
+Royalists. But Waller, once more deserted by his trained bands,
+was unable to profit by his victory of Cheriton, and retired to
+Farnham. Manchester, too, was delayed because the Eastern
+Association was still suffering from the effects of Rupert&rsquo;s
+Newark exploit&mdash;Lincoln, abandoned by the rebels on that
+occasion, was not reoccupied till the 6th of May. Moreover,
+Essex found himself compelled to defend his conduct and
+motives to the Committee of Both Kingdoms, and as usual was
+straitened for men and money. But though there were grave
+elements of weakness on the other side, the Royalists considered
+their own position to be hopeless. Prince Maurice was engaged
+in the fruitless siege of Lyme Regis, Gloucester was again a
+centre of activity and counterbalanced Newark, and the situation
+in the north was practically desperate. Rupert himself came
+to Oxford (April 25) to urge that his new army should be kept
+free to march to aid Newcastle, who was now threatened&mdash;owing
+to the abandonment of the enemy&rsquo;s original plan&mdash;by Manchester
+as well as Fairfax and Leven. There was no further talk of the
+concentric advance of three armies on London. The fiery
+prince and the methodical earl of Brentford (Forth) were at
+one at least in recommending that the Oxford area with its
+own garrison and a mobile force in addition should be the pivot
+of the field armies&rsquo; operations. Rupert, needing above all adequate
+time for the development of the northern offensive, was not
+in favour of abandoning any of the barriers to Essex&rsquo;s advance.
+Brentford, on the other hand, thought it advisable to contract
+the lines of defence, and Charles, as usual undecided, agreed
+to Rupert&rsquo;s scheme and executed Brentford&rsquo;s. Reading, therefore,
+was dismantled early in May, and Abingdon given up shortly
+afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>16. <i>Cropredy Bridge.</i>&mdash;It was now possible for the enemy to
+approach Oxford, and Abingdon was no sooner evacuated than
+(May 26) Waller&rsquo;s and Essex&rsquo;s armies united there&mdash;still, unfortunately
+for their cause, under separate commanders. From
+Abingdon Essex moved direct on Oxford, Waller towards
+Wantage, where he could give a hand to Massey, the energetic
+governor of Gloucester. Affairs seemed so bad in the west
+(Maurice with a whole army was still vainly besieging the single
+line of low breastworks that constituted the fortress of Lyme)
+that the king despatched Hopton to take charge of Bristol.
+Nor were things much better at Oxford; the barriers of time
+and space and the supply area had been deliberately given up
+to the enemy, and Charles was practically forced to undertake
+extensive field operations with no hope of success save in consequence
+of the enemy&rsquo;s mistakes. The enemy, as it happened,
+did not disappoint him. The king, probably advised by Brentford,
+conducted a skilful war of man&oelig;uvre in the area defined
+by Stourbridge, Gloucester, Abingdon and Northampton, at the
+end of which Essex, leaving Waller to the secondary work, as he
+conceived it, of keeping the king away from Oxford and reducing
+that fortress, marched off into the west with most of the general
+service troops to repeat at Lyme Regis his Gloucester exploit
+of 1643. At one moment, indeed, Charles (then in Bewdley)
+rose to the idea of marching north to join Rupert and Newcastle,
+but he soon made up his mind to return to Oxford. From
+Bewdley, therefore, he moved to Buckingham&mdash;the distant
+threat on London producing another evanescent citizen army
+drawn from six counties under Major-General Browne&mdash;and
+Waller followed him closely. When the king turned upon
+Browne&rsquo;s motley host, Waller appeared in time to avert disaster,
+and the two armies worked away to the upper Cherwell. Brentford
+and Waller were excellent strategists of the 17th century
+type, and neither would fight a pitched battle without every
+chance in his favour. Eventually on the 29th of June the
+Royalists were successful in a series of minor fights about
+Cropredy Bridge, and the result was, in accordance with continental
+custom, admitted to be an important victory, though
+Waller&rsquo;s main army drew off unharmed. In the meantime,
+Essex had relieved Lyme (June 15) and occupied Weymouth,
+and was preparing to go farther. The two rebel armies were
+now indeed separate. Waller had been left to do as best he could,
+and a worse fate was soon to overtake the cautious earl.</p>
+
+<p>17. <i>Campaign of Marston Moor.</i>&mdash;During these man&oelig;uvres
+the northern campaign had been fought to an issue. Rupert&rsquo;s
+courage and energy were more likely to command success in the
+English Civil War than all the conscientious caution of an Essex
+or a Brentford. On the 16th of May he left Shrewsbury to fight
+his way through hostile country to Lancashire, where he hoped
+to re-establish the Derby influence and raise new forces. Stockport
+was plundered on the 25th, the besiegers of Lathom House
+utterly defeated at Bolton on the 28th. Soon afterwards he
+received a large reinforcement under General Goring, which
+included 5000 of Newcastle&rsquo;s cavalry. The capture of the
+almost defenceless town of Liverpool&mdash;undertaken as usual to
+allay local fears&mdash;did not delay Rupert more than three or four
+days, and he then turned towards the Yorkshire border with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span>
+greatly augmented forces. On the 14th of June he received a
+despatch from the king, the gist of which was that there was a
+time-limit imposed on the northern enterprise. If York were lost
+or did not need his help, Rupert was to make all haste southward
+via Worcester. &ldquo;If York be relieved and you beat the rebels&rsquo;
+armies of both kingdoms, then, but otherways not, I may possibly
+make a shift upon the defensive to spin out time until you come
+to assist me.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Charles did manage to &ldquo;spin out time.&rdquo; But it was of capital
+importance that Rupert had to do his work upon York and
+the allied army in the shortest possible time, and that, according
+to the despatch, there were only two ways of saving the royal
+cause, &ldquo;having relieved York by beating the Scots,&rdquo; or marching
+with all speed to Worcester. Rupert&rsquo;s duty, interpreted through
+the medium of his temperament, was clear enough. Newcastle
+still held out, his men having been encouraged by a small success
+on the 17th of June, and Rupert reached Knaresborough on
+the 30th. At once Leven, Fairfax and Manchester broke up
+the siege of York and moved out to meet him. But the prince,
+moving still at high speed, rode round their right flank via
+Boroughbridge and Thornton Bridge and entered York on the
+north side. Newcastle tried to dissuade Rupert from fighting,
+but his record as a general was scarcely convincing as to the
+value of his advice. Rupert curtly replied that he had orders to
+fight, and the Royalists moved out towards Marston Moor
+(<i>q.v.</i>) on the morning of July 2, 1644. The Parliamentary
+commanders, fearing a fresh man&oelig;uvre, had already begun to
+retire towards Tadcaster, but as soon as it became evident that
+a battle was impending they turned back. The battle of Marston
+Moor began about four in the afternoon. It was the first real
+trial of strength between the best elements on either side, and it
+ended before night with the complete victory of the Parliamentary
+armies. The Royalist cause in the north collapsed once for all,
+Newcastle fled to the continent, and only Rupert, resolute as
+ever, extricated 6000 cavalry from the <i>débâcle</i> and rode away
+whence he had come, still the dominant figure of the war.</p>
+
+<p>18. <i>Independency.</i>&mdash;The victory gave the Parliament entire
+control of the north, but it did not lead to the definitive solution
+of the political problem, and in fact, on the question of Charles&rsquo;s
+place in a new Constitution, the victorious generals quarrelled even
+before York had surrendered. Within three weeks of the battle
+the great army was broken up. The Yorkshire troops proceeded
+to conquer the isolated Royalist posts in their county, the Scots
+marched off to besiege Newcastle-on-Tyne and to hold in check
+a nascent Royalist army in Westmorland. Rupert in Lancashire
+they neglected entirely. Manchester and Cromwell, already
+estranged, marched away into the Eastern Association. There,
+for want of an enemy to fight, their army was forced to be idle,
+and Cromwell and the ever-growing Independent element
+quickly came to suspect their commander of lukewarmness in the
+cause. Waller&rsquo;s army, too, was spiritless and immobile. On
+the 2nd of July, despairing of the existing military system, he
+made to the Committee of Both Kingdoms the first suggestion
+of the New Model,&mdash;&ldquo;My lords,&rdquo; he wrote, &ldquo;till you have an
+army merely your own, that you may command, it is ... impossible
+to do anything of importance.&rdquo; Browne&rsquo;s trained
+band army was perhaps the most ill-behaved of all&mdash;once the
+soldiers attempted to murder their own general. Parliament in
+alarm set about the formation of a new general service force
+(July 12), but meantime both Waller&rsquo;s and Browne&rsquo;s armies
+(at Abingdon and Reading respectively) ignominiously collapsed
+by mutiny and desertion. It was evident that the people at
+large, with their respect for the law and their anxiety for their
+own homes, were tired of the war. Only those men&mdash;such as
+Cromwell&mdash;who has set their hearts on fighting out the quarrel
+of conscience, kept steadfastly to their purpose. Cromwell
+himself had already decided that the king himself must be
+deprived of his authority, and his supporters were equally convinced.
+But they were relatively few. Even the Eastern
+Association trained bands had joined in the disaffection in
+Waller&rsquo;s army, and that unfortunate general&rsquo;s suggestion of a
+professional army, with all its dangers, indicated the only means
+of enforcing a peace such as Cromwell and his friends desired.
+There was this important difference, however, between Waller&rsquo;s
+idea and Cromwell&rsquo;s achievement&mdash;that the professional soldiers
+of the New Model were disciplined, led, and in all things inspired
+by &ldquo;godly&rdquo; officers. Godliness, devotion to the cause, and
+efficiency were indeed the only criteria Cromwell applied in
+choosing officers. Long before this he had warned the Scottish
+major-general Lawrence Crawford that the precise colour of a
+man&rsquo;s religious opinions mattered nothing compared with his
+devotion to them, and had told the committee of Suffolk, &ldquo;I
+had rather have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what
+he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call
+a &lsquo;gentleman&rsquo; and is nothing else. I honour a gentleman that
+is so indeed ... but seeing it was necessary the work must
+go on, better plain men than none.&rdquo; If &ldquo;men of honour and
+birth&rdquo; possessed the essentials of godliness, devotion, and
+capacity, Cromwell preferred them, and as a fact only seven
+out of thirty-seven of the superior officers of the original New
+Model were not of gentle birth.</p>
+
+<p>19. <i>Lostwithiel.</i>&mdash;But all this was as yet in the future. Essex&rsquo;s
+military promenade in the west of England was the subject of
+immediate interest. At first successful, this general penetrated
+to Plymouth, whence, securely based as he thought, he could
+overrun Devon. Unfortunately for him he was persuaded to
+overrun Cornwall as well. At once the Cornishmen rose, as they
+had risen under Hopton, and the king was soon on the march
+from the Oxford region, disregarding the armed mobs under
+Waller and Browne. Their state reflected the general languishing
+of the war spirit on both sides, not on one only, as Charles discovered
+when he learned that Lord Wilmot, the lieutenant-general
+of his horse, was in correspondence with Essex. Wilmot
+was of course placed under arrest, and was replaced by the
+dissolute General Goring. But it was unpleasantly evident
+that even gay cavaliers of the type of Wilmot had lost the ideals
+for which they fought, and had come to believe that the realm
+would never be at peace while Charles was king. Henceforward
+it will be found that the Royalist foot, now a thoroughly professional
+force, is superior in quality to the once superb cavalry,
+and that not merely because its opportunities for plunder, &amp;c.,
+are more limited. Materially, however, the immediate victory
+was undeniably with the Royalists. After a brief period of
+man&oelig;uvre, the Parliamentary army, now far from Plymouth
+found itself surrounded and starving at Lostwithiel, on the
+Fowey river, without hope of assistance. The horse cut its way
+out through the investing circle of posts, Essex himself escaped
+by sea, but Major-General Skippon, his second in command, had
+to surrender with the whole of the foot on the 2nd of September.
+The officers and men were allowed to go free to Portsmouth,
+but their arms, guns and munitions were the spoil of the victors.
+There was now no trustworthy field force in arms for the Parliament
+south of the Humber, for even the Eastern Association
+army was distracted by its religious differences, which had now
+at last come definitely to the front and absorbed the political
+dispute in a wider issue. Cromwell already proposed to abolish
+the peerage, the members of which were inclined to make a
+hollow peace, and had ceased to pay the least respect to his
+general, Manchester, whose scheme for the solution of the quarrel
+was an impossible combination of Charles and Presbyterianism.
+Manchester for his part sank into a state of mere obstinacy,
+refusing to move against Rupert, even to besiege Newark, and
+actually threatened to hang Colonel Lilburne for capturing a
+Royalist castle without orders.</p>
+
+<p>20. <i>Operations of Essex&rsquo;s, Waller&rsquo;s and Manchester&rsquo;s Armies.</i>&mdash;After
+the success of Lostwithiel there was little to detain Charles&rsquo;s
+main army in the extreme west, and meanwhile Banbury, a
+most important point in the Oxford circle, and Basing House
+(near Basingstoke) were in danger of capture. Waller, who had
+organized a small force of reliable troops, had already sent
+cavalry into Dorsetshire with the idea of assisting Essex, and
+he now came himself with reinforcements to prevent, so far as
+lay in his power, the king&rsquo;s return to the Thames valley. Charles
+was accompanied of course only by his permanent forces and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span>
+by parts of Prince Maurice&rsquo;s and Hopton&rsquo;s armies&mdash;the Cornish
+levies had as usual scattered as soon as the war receded from
+their borders. Manchester slowly advanced to Reading, Essex
+gradually reorganized his broken army at Portsmouth, while
+Waller, far out to the west at Shaftesbury, endeavored to gain
+the necessary time and space for a general concentration in
+Wiltshire, where Charles would be far from Oxford and Basing
+and, in addition, outnumbered by two to one. But the work of
+rearming Essex&rsquo;s troops proceeded slowly for want of money,
+and Manchester peevishly refused to be hurried either by his
+more vigorous subordinates or by the Committee of Both
+Kingdoms, saying that the army of the Eastern Association
+was for the guard of its own employers and not for general
+service. He pleaded the renewed activity of the Newark
+Royalists as his excuse, forgetting that Newark would have been
+in his hands ere this had he chosen to move thither instead of
+lying idle for two months. As to the higher command, things
+had come to such a pass that, when the three armies at last
+united, a council of war, consisting of three army commanders,
+several senior officers, and two civilian delegates from the
+Committee, was constituted. When the vote of the majority
+had determined what was to be done, Essex, as lord general
+of the Parliament&rsquo;s first army, was to issue the necessary orders
+for the whole. Under such conditions it was not likely that
+Waller&rsquo;s hopes of a great battle at Shaftesbury would be realized.
+On the 8th of October he fell back, the royal army following
+him step by step and finally reaching Whitchurch on the 20th
+of October. Manchester arrived at Basingstoke on the 17th,
+Waller on the 19th, and Essex on the 21st. Charles had found
+that he could not relieve Basing (a mile or two from Basingstoke)
+without risking a battle with the enemy between himself and
+Oxford;<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> he therefore took the Newbury road and relieved
+Donnington Castle near Newbury on the 22nd. Three days
+later Banbury too was relieved by a force which could now be
+spared from the Oxford garrison. But for once the council of
+war on the other side was for fighting a battle, and the Parliamentary
+armies, their spirits revived by the prospect of action
+and by the news of the fall of Newcastle and the defeat of a
+sally from Newark, marched briskly. On the 26th they appeared
+north of Newbury on the Oxford road. Like Essex in 1643,
+Charles found himself headed off from the shelter of friendly
+fortresses, but beyond this fact there is little similarity between
+the two battles of Newbury, for the Royalists in the first case
+merely drew a barrier across Essex&rsquo;s path. On the present
+occasion the eager Parliamentarians made no attempt to force
+the king to attack them; they were well content to attack
+him in his chosen position themselves, especially as he was better
+off for supplies and quarters than they.</p>
+
+<p>21. <i>Second Newbury.</i>&mdash;The second battle of Newbury is
+remarkable as being the first great man&oelig;uvre-battle (as distinct
+from &ldquo;pitched&rdquo; battle) of the Civil War. A preliminary
+reconnaissance by the Parliamentary leaders (Essex was not
+present, owing to illness) established the fact that the king&rsquo;s
+infantry held a strong line of defence behind the Lambourn
+brook from Shaw (inclusive) to Donnington (exclusive), Shaw
+House and adjacent buildings being held as an advanced
+post. In rear of the centre, in open ground just north of
+Newbury, lay the bulk of the royal cavalry. In the left rear
+of the main line, and separated from it by more than a
+thousand yards, lay Prince Maurice&rsquo;s corps at Speen, advanced
+troops on the high ground west of that village, but Donnington
+Castle, under its energetic governor Sir John Boys, formed a
+strong post covering this gap with artillery fire. The Parliamentary
+leaders had no intention of flinging their men away
+in a frontal attack on the line of the Lambourn, and a flank
+attack from the east side could hardly succeed owing to the
+obstacle presented by the confluence of the Lambourn and the
+Kennet, hence they decided on a wide turning movement via
+Chieveley, Winterbourne and Wickham Heath, against Prince
+Maurice&rsquo;s position&mdash;a decision which, daring and energetic
+as it was, led only to a modified success, for reasons which will
+appear. The flank march, out of range of the castle, was conducted
+with punctuality and precision. The troops composing
+it were drawn from all three armies and led by the best fighting
+generals, Waller, Cromwell, and Essex&rsquo;s subordinates Balfour
+and Skippon. Manchester at Clay Hill was to stand fast until
+the turning movement had developed, and to make a vigorous
+holding attack on Shaw House as soon as Waller&rsquo;s guns were
+heard at Speen. But there was no commander-in-chief to co-ordinate
+the movements of the two widely separated corps, and
+consequently no co-operation. Waller&rsquo;s attack was not unexpected,
+and Prince Maurice had made ready to meet him. Yet
+the first rush of the rebels carried the entrenchments of Speen
+Hill, and Speen itself, though stoutly defended, fell into their
+hands within an hour, Essex&rsquo;s infantry recapturing here some
+of the guns they had had to surrender at Lostwithiel. But meantime
+Manchester, in spite of the entreaties of his staff, had not
+stirred from Clay Hill. He had made one false attack already
+early in the morning, and been severely handled, and he was
+aware of his own deficiencies as a general. A year before this
+he would have asked for and acted upon the advice of a capable
+soldier, such as Cromwell or Crawford, but now his mind was
+warped by a desire for peace on any terms, and he sought only
+to avoid defeat pending a happy solution of the quarrel. Those
+who sought to gain peace through victory were meanwhile
+driving Maurice back from hedge to hedge towards the open
+ground at Newbury, but every attempt to emerge from the lanes
+and fields was repulsed by the royal cavalry, and indeed by
+every available man and horse, for Charles&rsquo;s officers had gauged
+Manchester&rsquo;s intentions, and almost stripped the front of its
+defenders to stop Waller&rsquo;s advance. Nightfall put an end to
+the struggle around Newbury, and then&mdash;too late&mdash;Manchester
+ordered the attack on Shaw House. It failed completely in spite
+of the gallantry of his men, and darkness being then complete
+it was not renewed. In its general course the battle closely
+resembled that of Freiburg (<i>q.v.</i>), fought the same year on the
+Rhine. But, if Waller&rsquo;s part in the battle corresponded in a
+measure to Turenne&rsquo;s, Manchester was unequal to playing the
+part of Condé, and consequently the results, in the case of the
+French won by three days&rsquo; hard fighting, and even then comparatively
+small, were in the case of the English practically nil.
+During the night the royal army quietly marched away through
+the gap between Waller&rsquo;s and Manchester&rsquo;s troops. The heavy
+artillery and stores were left in Donnington Castle, Charles himself
+with a small escort rode off to the north-west to meet Rupert,
+and the main body gained Wallingford unmolested. An attempt
+at pursuit was made by Waller and Cromwell with all the cavalry
+they could lay hands on, but it was unsupported, for the council
+of war had decided to content itself with besieging Donnington
+Castle. A little later, after a brief and half-hearted attempt to
+move towards Oxford, it referred to the Committee for further
+instructions. Within the month Charles, having joined Rupert
+at Oxford and made him general of the Royalist forces vice
+Brentford, reappeared in the neighbourhood of Newbury.
+Donnington Castle was again relieved (November 9) under the
+eyes of the Parliamentary army, which was in such a miserable
+condition that even Cromwell was against fighting, and some
+man&oelig;uvres followed, in the course of which Charles relieved
+Basing House and the Parliamentary armies fell back, not in
+the best order, to Reading. The season for field warfare was
+now far spent, and the royal army retired to enjoy good quarters
+and plentiful supplies around Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>22. <i>The Self-denying Ordinance.</i>&mdash;On the other side, the
+dissensions between the generals had become flagrant and public,
+and it was no longer possible for the Houses of Parliament to
+ignore the fact that the army must be radically reformed.
+Cromwell and Waller from their places in parliament attacked
+Manchester&rsquo;s conduct, and their attack ultimately became, so
+far as Cromwell was concerned, an attack on the Lords, most
+of whom held the same views as Manchester, and on the Scots,
+who attempted to bring Cromwell to trial as an &ldquo;incendiary.&rdquo;
+At the crisis of their bitter controversy Cromwell suddenly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span>
+proposed to stifle all animosities by the resignation of all officers
+who were members of either House, a proposal which affected
+himself not less than Essex and Manchester. The first &ldquo;self-denying
+ordinance&rdquo; was moved on the 9th of December, and
+provided that &ldquo;no member of either house shall have or execute
+any office or command ...,&rdquo; &amp;c. This was not accepted by
+the Lords, and in the end a second &ldquo;self-denying ordinance&rdquo;
+was agreed to (April 3, 1645), whereby all the persons concerned
+were to resign, but without prejudice to their reappointment.
+Simultaneously with this, the formation of the New Model was
+at last definitely taken into consideration. The last exploit of
+Sir William Waller, who was not re-employed after the passing of
+the ordinance, was the relief of Taunton, then besieged by General
+Goring&rsquo;s army. Cromwell served as his lieutenant-general on
+this occasion, and we have Waller&rsquo;s own testimony that he was
+in all things a wise, capable and respectful subordinate. Under
+a leader of the stamp of Waller, Cromwell was well satisfied to
+obey, knowing the cause to be in good hands.</p>
+
+<p>23. <i>Decline of the Royalist Cause.</i>&mdash;A raid of Goring&rsquo;s horse
+from the west into Surrey and an unsuccessful attack on General
+Browne at Abingdon were the chief enterprises undertaken on
+the side of the Royalists during the early winter. It was no
+longer &ldquo;summer in Devon, summer in Yorkshire&rdquo; as in January
+1643. An ever-growing section of Royalists, amongst whom
+Rupert himself was soon to be numbered, were for peace; many
+scores of loyalist gentlemen, impoverished by the loss of three
+years&rsquo; rents of their estates and hopeless of ultimate victory,
+were making their way to Westminster to give in their submission
+to the Parliament and to pay their fines. In such
+circumstances the old decision-seeking strategy was impossible.
+The new plan, suggested probably by Rupert, had already been
+tried with strategical success in the summer campaign of 1644.
+As we have seen, it consisted essentially in using Oxford as the
+centre of a circle and striking out radially at any favourable
+target&mdash;&ldquo;man&oelig;uvring about a fixed point,&rdquo; as Napoleon called
+it. It was significant of the decline of the Royalist cause that
+the &ldquo;fixed point&rdquo; had been in 1643 the king&rsquo;s field army, based
+indeed on its great entrenched camp, Banbury-Cirencester-Reading-Oxford,
+but free to move and to hold the enemy wherever
+met, while now it was the entrenched camp itself, weakened
+by the loss or abandonment of its outer posts, and without the
+power of binding the enemy if they chose to ignore its existence,
+that conditioned the scope and duration of the single remaining
+field army&rsquo;s enterprises.</p>
+
+<p>24. <i>The New Model Ordinance.</i>&mdash;For the present, however,
+Charles&rsquo;s cause was crumbling more from internal weakness
+than from the blows of the enemy. Fresh negotiations for peace
+which opened on the 29th of January at Uxbridge (by the name
+of which place they are known to history) occupied the attention
+of the Scots and their Presbyterian friends, the rise of Independency
+and of Cromwell was a further distraction, and over
+the new army and the Self-denying Ordinance the Lords and
+Commons were seriously at variance. But in February a fresh
+mutiny in Waller&rsquo;s command struck alarm into the hearts of
+the disputants. The &ldquo;treaty&rdquo; of Uxbridge came to the same
+end as the treaty of Oxford in 1643, and a settlement as to army
+reform was achieved on the 15th of February. Though it was
+only on the 25th of March that the second and modified form of
+the ordinance was agreed to by both Houses, Sir Thomas Fairfax
+and Philip Skippon (who were not members of parliament)
+had been approved as lord general and major-general (of the
+infantry) respectively of the new army as early as the 21st of
+January. The post of lieutenant-general and cavalry commander
+was for the moment left vacant, but there was little doubt as to
+who would eventually occupy it.</p>
+
+<p>25. <i>Victories of Montrose.</i>&mdash;In Scotland, meanwhile, Montrose
+was winning victories which amazed the people of the two
+kingdoms. Montrose&rsquo;s royalism differed from that of Englishmen
+of the 17th century less than from that of their forefathers
+under Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. To him the king was the
+protector of his people against Presbyterian theocracy, scarcely
+less offensive to him than the Inquisition itself, and the feudal
+oppression of the great nobles. Little as this ideal corresponded
+to the Charles of reality, it inspired in Montrose not merely
+romantic heroism but a force of leadership which was sufficient
+to carry to victory the nobles and gentry, the wild Highlanders
+and the experienced professional soldiers who at various times
+and places constituted his little armies. His first unsuccessful
+enterprise has been mentioned above. It seemed, in the early
+stages of his second attempt (August 1644), as if failure were again
+inevitable, for the gentry of the northern Lowlands were overawed
+by the prevailing party and resented the leadership of a
+lesser noble, even though he were the king&rsquo;s lieutenant over all
+Scotland. Disappointed of support where he most expected it,
+Montrose then turned to the Highlands. At Blair Athol he
+gathered his first army of Royalist clansmen, and good fortune
+gave him also a nucleus of trained troops. A force of disciplined
+experienced soldiers (chiefly Irish Macdonalds and commanded
+by Alastair of that name) had been sent over from Ireland
+earlier in the year, and, after ravaging the glens of their hereditary
+enemies the Campbells, had attempted without success, now
+here, now there, to gather the other clans in the king&rsquo;s name.
+Their hand was against every man&rsquo;s, and when he finally arrived
+in Badenoch, Alastair Macdonald was glad to protect himself
+by submitting to the authority of the king&rsquo;s lieutenant.</p>
+
+<p>There were three hostile armies to be dealt with, besides&mdash;ultimately&mdash;the
+main covenanting army far away in England.
+The duke of Argyll, the head of the Campbells, had an army
+of his own clan and of Lowland Covenanter levies, Lord Elcho
+with another Lowland army lay near Perth, and Lord Balfour
+of Burleigh was collecting a third (also composed of Lowlanders)
+at Aberdeen. Montrose turned upon Elcho first, and found him
+at Tippermuir near Perth on the 1st of September 1644. The
+Royalists were about 3000 strong and entirely foot, only Montrose
+himself and two others being mounted, while Elcho had about
+7000 of all arms. But Elcho&rsquo;s townsmen found that pike and
+musket were clumsy weapons in inexperienced hands, and,
+like Mackay&rsquo;s regulars at Killiecrankie fifty years later, they
+wholly failed to stop the rush of the Highland swordsmen.
+Many hundreds were killed in the pursuit, and Montrose slept in
+Perth that night, having thus accounted for one of his enemies.
+Balfour of Burleigh was to be his next victim, and he started for
+Aberdeen on the 4th. As he marched, his Highlanders slipped
+away to place their booty in security. But the Macdonald
+regulars remained with him, and as he passed along the coast
+some of the gentry came in, though the great western clan of
+the Gordons was at present too far divided in sentiment to take
+his part. Lord Lewis Gordon and some Gordon horse were even
+in Balfour&rsquo;s army. On the other hand, the earl of Airlie brought
+in forty-four horsemen, and Montrose was thus able to constitute
+two wings of cavalry on the day of battle. The Covenanters
+were about 2500 strong and drawn up on a slope above the How
+Burn<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> just outside Aberdeen (September 13, 1644). Montrose,
+after clearing away the enemy&rsquo;s skirmishers, drew up his army
+in front of the opposing line, the foot in the centre, the forty-four
+mounted men, with musketeers to support them, on either flank.
+The hostile left-wing cavalry charged piecemeal, and some bodies
+of troops did not engage at all. On the other wing, however,
+Montrose was for a moment hard pressed by a force of the enemy
+that attempted to work round to his rear. But he brought over
+the small band of mounted men that constituted his right wing
+cavalry, and also some musketeers from the centre, and
+destroyed the assailants, and when the ill-led left wing of the
+Covenanters charged again, during the absence of the cavalry,
+they were mown down by the close-range volleys of Macdonald&rsquo;s
+musketeers. Shortly afterwards the centre of Balfour&rsquo;s army
+yielded to pressure and fled in disorder. Aberdeen was sacked
+by order of Montrose, whose drummer had been murdered while
+delivering a message under a flag of truce to the magistrates.</p>
+
+<p>26. <i>Inverlochy.</i>&mdash;Only Argyll now remained to be dealt with.
+The Campbells were fighting men from birth, like Montrose&rsquo;s
+own men, and had few townsmen serving with them. Still there
+were enough of the latter and of the impedimenta of regular
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span>
+warfare with him to prevent Argyll from overtaking his agile
+enemy, and ultimately after a &ldquo;hide-and-seek&rdquo; in the districts
+of Rothiemurchus, Blair Athol, Banchory and Strathbogie,
+Montrose stood to fight at Fyvie Castle, repulsed Argyll&rsquo;s attack
+on that place and slipped away again to Rothiemurchus. There
+he was joined by Camerons and Macdonalds from all quarters
+for a grand raid on the Campbell country; he himself wished to
+march into the Lowlands, well knowing that he could not achieve
+the decision in the Grampians, but he had to bow, not for the
+first time nor the last, to local importunity. The raid was duly
+executed, and the Campbells&rsquo; boast, &ldquo;It&rsquo;s a far cry to Loch Awe,&rdquo;
+availed them little. In December and January the Campbell
+lands were thoroughly and mercilessly devastated, and Montrose
+then retired slowly to Loch Ness, where the bulk of his army as
+usual dispersed to store away its plunder. Argyll, with such
+Highland and Lowland forces as he could collect after the disaster,
+followed Montrose towards Lochaber, while the Seaforths and
+other northern clans marched to Loch Ness. Caught between
+them, Montrose attacked the nearest. The Royalists crossed
+the hills into Glen Roy, worked thence along the northern face
+of Ben Nevis, and descended like an avalanche upon Argyll&rsquo;s
+forces at Inverlochy (February 2, 1645). As usual, the Lowland
+regiments gave way at once&mdash;Montrose had managed in all this
+to keep with him a few cavalry&mdash;and it was then the turn of the
+Campbells. Argyll escaped in a boat, but his clan, as a fighting
+force, was practically annihilated, and Montrose, having won four
+victories in these six winter months, rested his men and exultingly
+promised Charles that he would come to his assistance with a
+brave army before the end of the summer.</p>
+
+<p>27. <i>Organization of the New Model Army.</i>&mdash;To return to the
+New Model. Its first necessity was regular pay; its first duty to
+serve wherever it might be sent. Of the three armies that had
+fought at Newbury only one, Essex&rsquo;s, was in a true sense a general
+service force, and only one, Manchester&rsquo;s, was paid with any
+regularity. Waller&rsquo;s army was no better paid than Essex&rsquo;s and
+no more free from local ties than Manchester&rsquo;s. It was therefore
+broken up early in April, and only 600 of its infantry passed
+into the New Model. Essex&rsquo;s men, on the other hand, wanted but
+regular pay and strict officers to make them excellent soldiers,
+and their own major-general, Skippon, managed by tact and his
+personal popularity to persuade the bulk of the men to rejoin.
+Manchester&rsquo;s army, in which Cromwell had been the guiding
+influence from first to last, was naturally the backbone of the
+New Model. Early in April Essex, Manchester, and Waller resigned
+their commissions, and such of their forces as were not
+embodied in the new army were sent to do local duties, for
+minor armies were still maintained, General Poyntz&rsquo;s in the north
+midlands, General Massey&rsquo;s in the Severn valley, a large force in
+the Eastern Association, General Browne&rsquo;s in Buckinghamshire,
+&amp;c., besides the Scots in the north.</p>
+
+<p>The New Model originally consisted of 14,400 foot and 7700
+horse and dragoons. Of the infantry only 6000 came from the
+combined armies, the rest being new recruits furnished by the
+press.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Thus there was considerable trouble during the first
+months of Fairfax&rsquo;s command, and discipline had to be enforced
+with unusual sternness. As for the enemy, Oxford was openly
+contemptuous of &ldquo;the rebels&rsquo; new brutish general&rdquo; and his
+men, who seemed hardly likely to succeed where Essex and Waller
+had failed. But the effect of the Parliament&rsquo;s having &ldquo;an army
+all its own&rdquo; was soon to be apparent.</p>
+
+<p>28. <i>First Operations of 1645.</i>&mdash;On the Royalist side the campaign
+of 1645 opened in the west, whither the young prince of
+Wales (Charles II.) was sent with Hyde (later earl of Clarendon),
+Hopton and others as his advisers. General (Lord) Goring,
+however, now in command of the Royalist field forces in this
+quarter, was truculent, insubordinate and dissolute, though on
+the rare occasions when he did his duty he displayed a certain
+degree of skill and leadership, and the influence of the prince&rsquo;s
+counsellors was but small. As usual, operations began with
+the sieges necessary to conciliate local feeling. Plymouth and
+Lyme were blocked up, and Taunton again invested. The
+reinforcement thrown into the last place by Waller and Cromwell
+was dismissed by Blake (then a colonel in command of the
+fortress and afterwards the great admiral of the Commonwealth),
+and after many adventures rejoined Waller and Cromwell.
+The latter generals, who had not yet laid down their commissions,
+then engaged Goring for some weeks, but neither side having
+infantry or artillery, and both finding subsistence difficult in
+February and March and in country that had been fought over
+for two years past, no results were to be expected. Taunton
+still remained unrelieved, and Goring&rsquo;s horse still rode all over
+Dorsetshire when the New Model at last took the field.</p>
+
+<p>29. <i>Rupert&rsquo;s Northern March.</i>&mdash;In the midlands and Lancashire
+the Royalist horse, as ill-behaved even as Goring&rsquo;s men,
+were directly responsible for the ignominious failure with which
+the king&rsquo;s main army began its year&rsquo;s work. Prince Maurice
+was joined at Ludlow by Rupert and part of his Oxford army
+early in March, and the brothers drove off Brereton from the
+siege of Beeston Castle and relieved the pressure on Lord Byron
+in Cheshire. So great was the danger of Rupert&rsquo;s again invading
+Lancashire and Yorkshire that all available forces in the north,
+English and Scots, were ordered to march against him. But
+at this moment the prince was called back to clear his line
+of retreat on Oxford. The Herefordshire and Worcestershire
+peasantry, weary of military exactions, were in arms, and though
+they would not join the Parliament, and for the most part
+dispersed after stating their grievances, the main enterprise was
+wrecked. This was but one of many ill-armed crowds&mdash;&ldquo;Clubmen&rdquo;
+as they were called&mdash;that assembled to enforce peace
+on both parties. A few regular soldiers were sufficient to disperse
+them in all cases, but their attempt to establish a third party
+in England was morally as significant as it was materially futile.
+The Royalists were now fighting with the courage of despair,
+those who still fought against Charles did so with the full determination
+to ensure the triumph of their cause, and with the
+conviction that the only possible way was the annihilation of the
+enemy&rsquo;s armed forces, but the majority were so weary of the war
+that the earl of Manchester&rsquo;s Presbyterian royalism&mdash;which had
+contributed so materially to the prolongation of the struggle&mdash;would
+probably have been accepted by four-fifths of all England
+as the basis of a peace. It was, in fact, in the face of almost
+universal opposition that Fairfax and Cromwell and their friends
+at Westminster guided the cause of their weaker comrades to
+complete victory.</p>
+
+<p>30. <i>Cromwell&rsquo;s Raid.</i>&mdash;Having without difficulty rid himself
+of the Clubmen, Rupert was eager to resume his march into the
+north. It is unlikely that he wished to join Montrose, though
+Charles himself favoured that plan, but he certainly intended
+to fight the Scottish army, more especially as after Inverlochy
+it had been called upon to detach a large force to deal with
+Montrose. But this time there was no Royalist army in the
+north to provide infantry and guns for a pitched battle, and
+Rupert had perforce to wait near Hereford till the main body,
+and in particular the artillery train, could come from Oxford and
+join him. It was on the march of the artillery train to Hereford
+that the first operations of the New Model centred. The infantry
+was not yet ready to move, in spite of all Fairfax&rsquo;s and Skippon&rsquo;s
+efforts, and it became necessary to send the cavalry by itself
+to prevent Rupert from gaining a start. Cromwell, then under
+Waller&rsquo;s command, had come to Windsor to resign his commission
+as required by the Self-denying Ordinance. Instead, he was
+placed at the head of a brigade of his own old soldiers, with orders
+to stop the march of the artillery train. On the 23rd of April
+he started from Watlington north-westward. At dawn on the
+24th he routed a detachment of Royalist horse at Islip. On
+the same day, though he had no guns and only a few firearms
+in the whole force, he terrified the governor of Bletchingdon
+House into surrender. Riding thence to Witney, Cromwell
+won another cavalry fight at Bampton-in-the-Bush on the 27th,
+and attacked Faringdon House, though without success, on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span>
+29th. Thence he marched at leisure to Newbury. He had done
+his work thoroughly. He had demoralized the Royalist cavalry,
+and, above all, had carried off every horse on the countryside.
+To all Rupert&rsquo;s entreaties Charles could only reply that the guns
+could not be moved till the 7th of May, and he even summoned
+Goring&rsquo;s cavalry from the west to make good his losses.</p>
+
+<p>31. <i>Civilian Strategy.</i>&mdash;Cromwell&rsquo;s success thus forced the
+king to concentrate his various armies in the neighbourhood
+of Oxford, and the New Model had, so Fairfax and Cromwell
+hoped, found its target. But the Committee of Both Kingdoms
+on the one side, and Charles, Rupert and Goring on the other,
+held different views. On the 1st of May Fairfax, having been
+ordered to relieve Taunton, set out from Windsor for the long
+march to that place; meeting Cromwell at Newbury on the 2nd,
+he directed the lieutenant-general to watch the movements of
+the king&rsquo;s army, and himself marched on to Blandford, which
+he reached on the 7th of May. Thus Fairfax and the main army
+of the Parliament were marching away in the west while Cromwell&rsquo;s
+detachment was left, as Waller had been left the previous
+year, to hold the king as best he could. On the very evening
+that Cromwell&rsquo;s raid ended, the leading troops of Goring&rsquo;s
+command destroyed part of Cromwell&rsquo;s own regiment near
+Faringdon, and on the 3rd Rupert and Maurice appeared with
+a force of all arms at Burford. Yet the Committee of Both
+Kingdoms, though aware on the 29th of Goring&rsquo;s move, only
+made up its mind to stop Fairfax on the 3rd, and did not send
+off orders till the 5th. These orders were to the effect that a
+detachment was to be sent to the relief of Taunton, and that
+the main army was to return. Fairfax gladly obeyed, even
+though a siege of Oxford and not the enemy&rsquo;s field army was
+the objective assigned him. But long before he came up to the
+Thames valley the situation was again changed. Rupert, now
+in possession of the guns and their teams, urged upon his uncle
+the resumption of the northern enterprise, calculating that with
+Fairfax in Somersetshire, Oxford was safe. Charles accordingly
+marched out of Oxford on the 7th towards Stow-on-the-Wold,
+on the very day, as it chanced, that Fairfax began his return
+march from Blandford. But Goring and most of the other
+generals were for a march into the west, in the hope of dealing
+with Fairfax as they had dealt with Essex in 1644. The armies
+therefore parted as Essex and Waller had parted at the same
+place in 1644, Rupert and the king to march northward, Goring
+to return to his independent command in the west. Rupert,
+not unnaturally wishing to keep his influence with the king and
+his authority as general of the king&rsquo;s army unimpaired by
+Goring&rsquo;s notorious indiscipline, made no attempt to prevent the
+separation, which in the event proved wholly unprofitable. The
+flying column from Blandford relieved Taunton long before
+Goring&rsquo;s return to the west, and Colonel Weldon and Colonel
+Graves, its commanders, set him at defiance even in the open
+country. As for Fairfax, he was out of Goring&rsquo;s reach preparing
+for the siege of Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>32. <i>Charles in the Midlands.</i>&mdash;On the other side also the
+generals were working by data that had ceased to have any value.
+Fairfax&rsquo;s siege of Oxford, ordered by the Committee on the 10th
+of May, and persisted in after it was known that the king was on
+the move, was the second great blunder of the year and was
+hardly redeemed, as a military measure, by the visionary scheme
+of assembling the Scots, the Yorkshiremen, and the midland
+forces to oppose the king. It is hard to understand how, having
+created a new model army &ldquo;all its own&rdquo; for general service, the
+Parliament at once tied it down to a local enterprise, and trusted
+an improvised army of local troops to fight the enemy&rsquo;s main
+army. In reality the Committee seems to have been misled by
+false information to the effect that Goring and the governor of
+Oxford were about to declare for the Parliament, but had they not
+despatched Fairfax to the relief of Taunton in the first instance
+the necessity for such intrigues would not have arisen. However,
+Fairfax obeyed orders, invested Oxford, and, so far as he was able
+without a proper siege train, besieged it for two weeks, while
+Charles and Rupert ranged the midlands unopposed. At the end
+of that time came news so alarming that the Committee hastily
+abdicated their control over military operations and gave
+Fairfax a free hand. &ldquo;Black Tom&rdquo; gladly and instantly
+abandoned the siege and marched northward to give battle to the
+king.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Charles and Rupert were moving northward. On
+the 11th of May they reached Droitwich, whence after two days&rsquo;
+rest they marched against Brereton. The latter hurriedly raised
+the sieges he had on hand, and called upon Yorkshire and the
+Scottish army there for aid. But only the old Lord Fairfax
+and the Yorkshiremen responded. Leven had just heard of new
+victories won by Montrose, and could do no more than draw his
+army and his guns over the Pennine chain into Westmorland in
+the hope of being in time to bar the king&rsquo;s march on Scotland
+via Carlisle.</p>
+
+<p>33. <i>Dundee.</i>&mdash;After the destruction of the Campbells at
+Inverlochy, Montrose had cleared away the rest of his enemies
+without difficulty. He now gained a respectable force of cavalry
+by the adhesion of Lord Gordon and many of his clan, and this
+reinforcement was the more necessary as detachments from
+Leven&rsquo;s army under Baillie and Hurry&mdash;disciplined infantry and
+cavalry&mdash;were on the march to meet him. The Royalists marched
+by Elgin and through the Gordon country to Aberdeen, and
+thence across the Esk to Coupar-Angus, where Baillie and Hurry
+were encountered. A war of man&oelig;uvre followed, in which they
+thwarted every effort of the Royalists to break through into the
+Lowlands, but in the end retired into Fife. Montrose thereupon
+marched into the hills with the intention of reaching the upper
+Forth and thence the Lowlands, for he did not disguise from
+himself the fact that there, and not in the Highlands, would the
+quarrel be decided, and was sanguine&mdash;over-sanguine, as the
+event proved&mdash;as to the support he would obtain from those who
+hated the kirk and its system. But he had called to his aid the
+semi-barbarous Highlanders, and however much the Lowlands
+resented a Presbyterian inquisition, they hated and feared the
+Highland clans beyond all else. He was equally disappointed in
+his own army. For a war of positions the Highlanders had neither
+aptitude nor inclination, and at Dunkeld the greater part of them
+went home. If the small remnant was to be kept to its duty,
+plunder must be found, and the best objective was the town of
+Dundee. With a small force of 750 foot and horse Montrose
+brilliantly surprised that place on the 4th of April, but Baillie and
+Hurry were not far distant, and before Montrose&rsquo;s men had time
+to plunder the prize they were collected to face the enemy.
+His retreat from Dundee was considered a model operation by
+foreign students of the art of war (then almost as numerous as
+now), and what surprised them most was that Montrose could
+rally his men after a sack had begun. The retreat itself was
+remarkable enough. Baillie moved parallel to Montrose on his
+left flank towards Arbroath, constantly heading him off from the
+hills and attempting to pin him against the sea. Montrose,
+however, halted in the dark so as to let Baillie get ahead of him
+and then turned sharply back, crossed Baillie&rsquo;s track, and made
+for the hills. Baillie soon realized what had happened and
+turned back also, but an hour too late. By the 6th the Royalists
+were again safe in the broken country of the Esk valley. But
+Montrose cherished no illusions as to joining the king at once;
+all he could do, he now wrote, was to neutralize as many of the
+enemy&rsquo;s forces as possible.</p>
+
+<p>34. <i>Auldearn.</i>&mdash;For a time he wandered in the Highlands
+seeking recruits. But soon he learned that Baillie and Hurry had
+divided their forces, the former remaining about Perth and
+Stirling to observe him, the latter going north to suppress the
+Gordons. Strategy and policy combined to make Hurry the
+objective of the next expedition. But the soldier of fortune who
+commanded the Covenanters at Aberdeen was no mean
+antagonist. Marching at once with a large army (formed on the
+nucleus of his own trained troops and for the rest composed of
+clansmen and volunteers) Hurry advanced to Elgin, took contact
+with Montrose there, and, gradually and skilfully retiring, drew
+him into the hostile country round Inverness. Montrose fell into
+the trap, and Hurry took his measures to surprise him at Auldearn
+so successfully that (May 9) Montrose, even though the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span>
+indiscipline of some of Hurry&rsquo;s young soldiers during the night
+march gave him the alarm, had barely time to form up before the
+enemy was upon him. But the best strategy is of no avail when
+the battle it produces goes against the strategist, and Montrose&rsquo;s
+tactical skill was never more conspicuous than at Auldearn.
+Alastair Macdonald with most of the Royalist infantry and the
+Royal standard was posted to the right (north) of the village to
+draw upon himself the weight of Hurry&rsquo;s attack; only enough
+men were posted in the village itself to show that it was occupied,
+and on the south side, out of sight, was Montrose himself with a
+body of foot and all the Gordon horse. It was the prototype, on a
+small scale, of Austerlitz. Macdonald resisted sturdily while
+Montrose edged away from the scene of action, and at the right
+moment and not before, though Macdonald had been driven
+back on the village and was fighting for life amongst the gardens
+and enclosures, Montrose let loose Lord Gordon&rsquo;s cavalry. These,
+abandoning for once the pistol tactics of their time, charged
+home with the sword. The enemy&rsquo;s right wing cavalry was
+scattered in an instant, the nearest infantry was promptly ridden
+down, and soon Hurry&rsquo;s army had ceased to exist.</p>
+
+<p>35. <i>Campaign of Naseby.</i>&mdash;If the news of Auldearn brought
+Leven to the region of Carlisle, it had little effect on his English
+allies. Fairfax was not yet released from the siege of Oxford, in
+spite of the protests of the Scottish representatives in London.
+Massey, the active and successful governor of Gloucester, was
+placed in command of a field force on the 25th of May, but he was
+to lead it against, not the king, but Goring. At that moment the
+military situation once more changed abruptly. Charles, instead
+of continuing his march on to Lancashire, turned due eastward
+towards Derbyshire. The alarm at Westminster when this new
+development was reported was such that Cromwell, in spite of the
+Self-Denying Ordinance, was sent to raise an army for the
+defence of the Eastern Association. Yet the Royalists had no
+intentions in that direction. Conflicting reports as to the
+condition of Oxford reached the royal headquarters in the last
+week of May, and the eastward march was made chiefly to
+&ldquo;spin out time&rdquo; until it could be known whether it would be
+necessary to return to Oxford, or whether it was still possible to
+fight Leven in Yorkshire&mdash;his move into Westmorland was not
+yet known&mdash;and invade Scotland by the easy east coast route.</p>
+
+<p>Goring&rsquo;s return to the west had already been countermanded
+and he had been directed to march to Harborough, while the
+South Wales Royalists were also called in towards Leicester.
+Later orders (May 26) directed him to Newbury, whence he was
+to feel the strength of the enemy&rsquo;s positions around Oxford.
+It is hardly necessary to say that Goring found good military
+reasons for continuing his independent operations, and marched
+off towards Taunton regardless of the order. He redressed the
+balance there for the moment by overawing Massey&rsquo;s weak force,
+and his purse profited considerably by fresh opportunities for
+extortion, but he and his men were not at Naseby. Meanwhile
+the king, at the geographical centre of England, found an important
+and wealthy town at his mercy. Rupert, always for
+action, took the opportunity, and Leicester was stormed and
+thoroughly pillaged on the night of the 30th-31st of May. There
+was the usual panic at Westminster, but, unfortunately for
+Charles, it resulted in Fairfax being directed to abandon the
+siege of Oxford and given <i>carte blanche</i> to bring the Royal army
+to battle wherever it was met. On his side the king had, after
+the capture of Leicester, accepted the advice of those who feared
+for the safety of Oxford&mdash;Rupert, though commander-in-chief,
+was unable to insist on the northern enterprise&mdash;and had marched
+to Daventry, where he halted to throw supplies into Oxford.
+Thus Fairfax in his turn was free to move, thanks to the insubordination
+of Goring, who would neither relieve Oxford nor
+join the king for an attack on the New Model. The Parliamentary
+general moved from Oxford towards Northampton so as to
+cover the Eastern Association. On the 12th of June the two
+armies were only a few miles apart, Fairfax at Kislingbury,
+Charles at Daventry, and, though the Royalists turned northward
+again on the 13th to resume the Yorkshire project under the very
+eyes of the enemy, Fairfax followed close. On the night of
+the 13th Charles slept at Lubenham, Fairfax at Guilsborough.
+Cromwell, just appointed lieutenant-general of the New Model,
+had ridden into camp on the morning of the 13th with fresh
+cavalry from the eastern counties, Colonel Rossiter came up
+with more from Lincolnshire on the morning of the battle,
+and it was with an incontestable superiority of numbers and an
+overwhelming moral advantage that Fairfax fought at Naseby
+(<i>q.v.</i>) on the 14th of June. The result of the battle, this time a
+decisive battle, was the annihilation of the Royal army. Part
+of the cavalry escaped, a small fraction of it in tolerable order,
+but the guns and the baggage train were taken, and, above all,
+the splendid Royal infantry were killed or taken prisoners to a
+man.</p>
+
+<p>36. <i>Effects of Naseby.</i>&mdash;After Naseby, though the war dragged
+on for another year, the king never succeeded in raising an army
+as good as, or even more numerous than, that which Fairfax&rsquo;s
+army had so heavily outnumbered on the 14th of June. That
+the fruits of the victory could not be gathered in a few weeks
+was due to a variety of hindrances rather than to direct opposition&mdash;to
+the absence of rapid means of communication, the
+paucity of the forces engaged on both sides relatively to the total
+numbers under arms, and from time to time to the political
+exigencies of the growing quarrel between Presbyterians and
+Independents. As to the latter, within a few days of Naseby,
+the Scots rejoiced that the &ldquo;back of the malignants was broken,&rdquo;
+and demanded reinforcements as a precaution against &ldquo;the
+insolence of others,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> Cromwell and the Independents&mdash;&ldquo;to
+whom alone the Lord has given the victory of that day.&rdquo; Leven
+had by now returned to Yorkshire, and a fortnight after Naseby,
+after a long and honourable defence by Sir Thomas Glemham,
+Carlisle fell to David Leslie&rsquo;s besieging corps. Leicester was
+reoccupied by Fairfax on the 18th, and on the 20th Leven&rsquo;s
+army, moving slowly southward, reached Mansfield. This move
+was undertaken largely for political reasons, <i>i.e.</i> to restore the
+Presbyterian balance as against the victorious New Model.
+Fairfax&rsquo;s army was intended by its founders to be a specifically
+English army, and Cromwell for one would have employed it
+against the Scots almost as readily as against malignants.
+But for the moment the advance of the northern army was of
+the highest military importance, for Fairfax was thereby set
+free from the necessity of undertaking sieges. Moreover, the
+publication of the king&rsquo;s papers taken at Naseby gave Fairfax&rsquo;s
+troops a measure of official and popular support which a month
+before they could not have been said to possess, for it was now
+obvious that they represented the armed force of England against
+the Irish, Danes, French, Lorrainers, &amp;c., whom Charles had for
+three years been endeavouring to let loose on English soil.
+Even the Presbyterians abandoned for the time any attempt
+to negotiate with the king, and advocated a vigorous prosecution
+of the war.</p>
+
+<p>37. <i>Fairfax&rsquo;s Western Campaign.</i>&mdash;This, in the hands of Fairfax
+and Cromwell, was likely to be effective. While the king and
+Rupert, with the remnant of their cavalry, hurried into South
+Wales to join Sir Charles Gerard&rsquo;s troops and to raise fresh infantry,
+Fairfax decided that Goring&rsquo;s was the most important
+Royalist army in the field, and turned to the west, reaching
+Lechlade on the 26th, less than a fortnight after the battle of
+Naseby. One last attempt was made to dictate the plan of
+campaign from Westminster, but the Committee refused to pass
+on the directions of the Houses, and he remained free to deal
+with Goring as he desired. Time pressed; Charles in Monmouthshire
+and Rupert at Bristol were well placed for a junction with
+Goring, which would have given them a united army 15,000
+strong. Taunton, in spite of Massey&rsquo;s efforts to keep the field,
+was again besieged, and in Wilts and Dorset numerous bands
+of Clubmen were on foot which the king&rsquo;s officers were doing
+their best to turn into troops for their master. But the process
+of collecting a fresh royal army was slow, and Goring and his
+subordinate, Sir Richard Grenville, were alienating the king&rsquo;s
+most devoted adherents by their rapacity, cruelty and debauchery.
+Moreover, Goring had no desire to lose the independent
+command he had extorted at Stow-on-the-Wold in May.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span>
+Still, it was clear that he must be disposed of as quickly as
+possible, and Fairfax requested the Houses to take other
+measures against the king (June 26). This they did by paying up
+the arrears due to Leven&rsquo;s army and bringing it to the Severn
+valley. On the 8th of July Leven reached Alcester, bringing
+with him a Parliamentarian force from Derbyshire under Sir
+John Gell. The design was to besiege Hereford.</p>
+
+<p>38. <i>Langport.</i>&mdash;By that time Fairfax and Goring were at
+close quarters. The Royalist general&rsquo;s line of defence faced west
+along the Yeo and the Parrett between Yeovil and Bridgwater,
+and thus barred the direct route to Taunton. Fairfax, however,
+marched from Lechlade via Marlborough and Blandford&mdash;hindered
+only by Clubmen&mdash;to the friendly posts of Dorchester
+and Lyme, and with these as his centre of operations he was
+able to turn the headwaters of Goring&rsquo;s river-line via Beaminster
+and Crewkerne. The Royalists at once abandoned the south and
+west side of the rivers&mdash;the siege of Taunton had already been
+given up&mdash;and passed over to the north and east bank. Bridgwater
+was the right of this second line as it had been the left of
+the first; the new left was at Ilchester. Goring could thus
+remain in touch with Charles in south Wales through Bristol,
+and the siege of Taunton having been given up there was no
+longer any incentive for remaining on the wrong side of the
+water-line. But his army was thoroughly demoralized by its
+own licence and indiscipline, and the swift, handy and resolute
+regiments of the New Model made short work of its strong
+positions. On the 7th of July, demonstrating against the points
+of passage between Ilchester and Langport, Fairfax secretly
+occupied Yeovil. The post at that place, which had been the
+right of Goring&rsquo;s first position, had, perhaps rightly, been withdrawn
+to Ilchester when the second position was taken up, and
+Fairfax repaired the bridge without interruption. Goring
+showed himself unequal to the new situation. He might, if
+sober, make a good plan when the enemy was not present to
+disturb him, and he certainly led cavalry charges with boldness
+and skill. But of strategy in front of the enemy he was incapable.
+On the news from Yeovil he abandoned the line of the
+Yeo as far as Langport without striking a blow, and Fairfax,
+having nothing to gain by continuing his détour through Yeovil,
+came back and quietly crossed at Long Sutton, west of Ilchester
+(July 9). Goring had by now formed a new plan. A strong rearguard
+was posted at Langport and on high ground east and north-east
+of it to hold Fairfax, and he himself with the cavalry rode
+off early on the 8th to try and surprise Taunton. This place
+was no longer protected by Massey&rsquo;s little army, which Fairfax
+had called up to assist his own. But Fairfax, who was not yet
+across Long Sutton bridge, heard of Goring&rsquo;s raid in good time,
+and sent Massey after him with a body of horse. Massey surprised
+a large party of the Royalists at Ilminster on the 9th,
+wounded Goring himself, and pursued the fugitives up to the
+south-eastern edge of Langport. On the 10th Fairfax&rsquo;s advanced
+guard, led by Major Bethel of Cromwell&rsquo;s own regiment,
+brilliantly stormed the position of Goring&rsquo;s rearguard east of
+Langport, and the cavalry of the New Model, led by Cromwell
+himself, swept in pursuit right up to the gates of Bridgwater,
+where Goring&rsquo;s army, dismayed and on the point of collapse,
+was more or less rallied. Thence Goring himself retired to
+Barnstaple. His army, under the regimental officers, defended
+itself in Bridgwater resolutely till the 23rd of July, when it
+capitulated. The fall of Bridgwater gave Fairfax complete control
+of Somerset and Dorset from Lyme to the Bristol channel.
+Even in the unlikely event of Goring&rsquo;s raising a fresh army,
+he would now have to break through towards Bristol by open
+force, and a battle between Goring and Fairfax could only have
+one result. Thus Charles had perforce to give up his intention
+of joining Goring&mdash;his recruiting operations in south Wales had
+not been so successful as he hoped, owing to the apathy of the
+people and the vigour of the local Parliamentary leaders&mdash;and
+to resume the northern enterprise begun in the spring.</p>
+
+<p>39. <i>Schemes of Lord Digby.</i>&mdash;This time Rupert would not be
+with him. The prince, now despairing of success and hoping
+only for a peace on the best terms procurable, listlessly returned
+to his governorship of Bristol and prepared to meet Fairfax&rsquo;s
+impending attack. The influence of Rupert was supplanted by
+that of Lord Digby. As sanguine as Charles and far more
+energetic, he was for the rest of the campaign the guiding spirit
+of the Royalists, but being a civilian he proved incapable of
+judging the military factors in the situation from a military
+standpoint, and not only did he offend the officers by constituting
+himself a sort of confidential military secretary to the king, but
+he was distrusted by all sections of Royalists for his reckless
+optimism. The resumption of the northern enterprise, opposed
+by Rupert and directly inspired by Digby, led to nothing.
+Charles marched by Bridgnorth, Lichfield and Ashbourne to
+Doncaster, where on the 18th of August he was met by great
+numbers of Yorkshire gentlemen with promises of fresh recruits.
+For a moment the outlook was bright, for the Derbyshire men
+with Gell were far away at Worcester with Leven, the Yorkshire
+Parliamentarians engaged in besieging Scarborough Castle,
+Pontefract and other posts. But two days later he heard that
+David Leslie with the cavalry of Leven&rsquo;s army was coming
+up behind him, and that, the Yorkshire sieges being now ended,
+Major-General Poyntz&rsquo;s force lay in his front. It was now impossible
+to wait for the new levies, and reluctantly the king turned
+back to Oxford, raiding Huntingdonshire and other parts of the
+hated Eastern Association <i>en route</i>.</p>
+
+<p>40. <i>Montrose&rsquo;s Last Victories.</i>&mdash;David Leslie did not pursue him.
+Montrose, though the king did not yet know it, had won two
+more battles, and was practically master of all Scotland. After
+Auldearn he had turned to meet Baillie&rsquo;s army in Strathspey, and
+by superior mobility and skill forced that commander to keep at
+a respectful distance. He then turned upon a new army which
+Lindsay, titular earl of Crawford, was forming in Forfarshire,
+but that commander betook himself to a safe distance, and
+Montrose withdrew into the Highlands to find recruits (June).
+The victors of Auldearn had mostly dispersed on the usual errand,
+and he was now deserted by most of the Gordons, who were recalled
+by the chief of their clan, the marquess of Huntly, in spite
+of the indignant remonstrances of Huntly&rsquo;s heir, Lord Gordon,
+who was Montrose&rsquo;s warmest admirer. Baillie now approached
+again, but he was weakened by having to find trained troops
+to stiffen Lindsay&rsquo;s levies, and a strong force of the Gordons had
+now been persuaded to rejoin Montrose. The two armies met in
+battle near Alford on the Don; little can be said of the engagement
+save that Montrose had to fight cautiously and tentatively
+as at Aberdeen, not in the decision-forcing spirit of Auldearn,
+and that in the end Baillie&rsquo;s cavalry gave way and his infantry
+was cut down as it stood. Lord Gordon was amongst the Royalist
+dead (July 2). The plunder was put away in the glens before any
+attempt was made to go forward, and thus the Covenanters had
+leisure to form a numerous, if not very coherent, army on the
+nucleus of Lindsay&rsquo;s troops. Baillie, much against his will, was
+continued in the command, with a council of war (chiefly of nobles
+whom Montrose had already defeated, such as Argyll, Elcho and
+Balfour) to direct his every movement. Montrose, when rejoined
+by the Highlanders, moved to meet him, and in the last week of
+July and the early part of August there were man&oelig;uvres and
+minor engagements round Perth. About the 7th of August
+Montrose suddenly slipped away into the Lowlands, heading
+for Glasgow. Thereupon another Covenanting army began to
+assemble in Clydesdale. But it was clear that Montrose could
+beat mere levies, and Baillie, though without authority and
+despairing of success, hurried after him. Montrose then, having
+drawn Baillie&rsquo;s Fifeshire militia far enough from home to ensure
+their being discontented, turned upon them on the 14th of August
+near Kilsyth. Baillie protested against fighting, but his aristocratic
+masters of the council of war decided to cut off Montrose
+from the hills by turning his left wing. The Royalist general
+seized the opportunity, and his advance caught them in the very
+act of making a flank march (August 15). The head of the
+Covenanters&rsquo; column was met and stopped by the furious attack
+of the Gordon infantry, and Alastair Macdonald led the men of
+his own name and the Macleans against its flank. A breach was
+made in the centre of Baillie&rsquo;s army at the first rush, and then
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span>
+Montrose sent in the Gordon and Ogilvy horse. The leading half of
+the column was surrounded, broken up and annihilated. The rear
+half, seeing the fate of its comrades, took to flight, but in vain,
+for the Highlanders pursued <i>à outrance</i>. Only about one hundred
+Covenanting infantry out of six thousand escaped. Montrose
+was now indeed the king&rsquo;s lieutenant in all Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>41. <i>Fall of Bristol.</i>&mdash;But Charles was in no case to resume his
+northern march. Fairfax and the New Model, after reducing
+Bridgwater, had turned back to clear away the Dorsetshire
+Clubmen and to besiege Sherborne Castle. On the completion
+of this task, it had been decided to besiege Bristol, and on the
+23rd of August&mdash;while the king&rsquo;s army was still in Huntingdon,
+and Goring was trying to raise a new army to replace the one he
+had lost at Langport and Bridgwater&mdash;the city was invested.
+In these urgent circumstances Charles left Oxford for the west
+only a day or two after he had come in from the Eastern Association
+raid. Calculating that Rupert could hold out longest, he
+first moved to the relief of Worcester, around which place Leven&rsquo;s
+Scots, no longer having Leslie&rsquo;s cavalry with them to find supplies,
+were more occupied with plundering their immediate neighbourhood
+for food than with the siege works. Worcester was relieved
+on the 1st of September by the king. David Leslie with all his
+cavalry was already on the march to meet Montrose, and Leven
+had no alternative but to draw off his infantry without fighting.
+Charles entered Worcester on the 8th, but he found that he
+could no longer expect recruits from South Wales. Worse
+was to come. A few hours later, on the night of the 9th-10th,
+Fairfax&rsquo;s army stormed Bristol. Rupert had long realized the
+hopelessness of further fighting&mdash;the very summons to surrender
+sent in by Fairfax placed the fate of Bristol on the political issue,&mdash;the
+lines of defence around the place were too extensive for
+his small force, and on the 11th he surrendered on terms. He
+was escorted to Oxford with his men, conversing as he rode with
+the officers of the escort about peace and the future of his adopted
+country. Charles, almost stunned by the suddenness of the
+catastrophe, dismissed his nephew from all his offices and ordered
+him to leave England, and for almost the last time called upon
+Goring to rejoin the main army&mdash;if a tiny force of raw infantry
+and disheartened cavalry can be so called&mdash;in the neighbourhood
+of Raglan. But before Goring could be brought to withdraw
+his objections Charles had again turned northward towards
+Montrose. A weary march through the Welsh hills brought the
+Royal army on the 22nd of September to the neighbourhood of
+Chester. Charles himself with one body entered the city, which
+was partially invested by the Parliamentarian colonel Michael
+Jones, and the rest under Sir Marmaduke Langdale was sent to
+take Jones&rsquo;s lines in reverse. But at the opportune moment
+Poyntz&rsquo;s forces, which had followed the king&rsquo;s movements since
+he left Doncaster in the middle of August, appeared in rear of
+Langdale, and defeated him in the battle of Rowton Heath
+(September 24), while at the same time a sortie of the king&rsquo;s
+troops from Chester was repulsed by Jones. Thereupon the Royal
+army withdrew to Denbigh, and Chester, the only important
+seaport remaining to connect Charles with Ireland, was again
+besieged.</p>
+
+<p>42. <i>Philiphaugh.</i>&mdash;Nor was Montrose&rsquo;s position, even after
+Kilsyth, encouraging, in spite of the persistent rumours of
+fighting in Westmorland that reached Charles and Digby.
+Glasgow and Edinburgh were indeed occupied, and a parliament
+summoned in the king&rsquo;s name. But Montrose had now to choose
+between Highlanders and Lowlanders. The former, strictly
+kept away from all that was worth plundering, rapidly vanished,
+even Alastair Macdonald going with the rest. Without the
+Macdonalds and the Gordons, Montrose&rsquo;s military and political
+resettlement of Scotland could only be shadowy, and when he
+demanded support from the sturdy middle classes of the Lowlands,
+it was not forgotten that he had led Highlanders to the
+sack of Lowland towns. Thus his new supporters could only
+come from amongst the discontented and undisciplined Border
+lords and gentry, and long before these moved to join him the
+romantic conquest of Scotland was over. On the 6th of September
+David Leslie had recrossed the frontier with his cavalry and some
+infantry he had picked up on the way through northern England.
+Early on the morning of the 13th he surprised Montrose at
+Philiphaugh near Selkirk. The king&rsquo;s lieutenant had only 650
+men against 4000, and the battle did not last long. Montrose
+escaped with a few of his principal adherents, but his little army
+was annihilated. Of the veteran Macdonald infantry, 500 strong
+that morning, 250 were killed in the battle and the remainder
+put to death after accepting quarter. The Irish, even when they
+bore a Scottish name, were, by Scotsmen even more than Englishmen,
+regarded as beasts to be knocked on the head. After Naseby
+the Irishwomen found in the king&rsquo;s camp were branded by order
+of Fairfax; after Philiphaugh more than 300 women, wives or
+followers of Macdonald&rsquo;s men, were butchered. Montrose&rsquo;s
+Highlanders at their worst were no more cruel than the sober
+soldiers of the kirk.</p>
+
+<p>43. <i>Digby&rsquo;s Northern Expedition.</i>&mdash;Charles received the news
+of Philiphaugh on the 28th of September, and gave orders that
+the west should be abandoned, the prince of Wales should be
+sent to France, and Goring should bring up what forces he could
+to the Oxford region. On the 4th of October Charles himself
+reached Newark (whither he had marched from Denbigh after
+revictualling Chester and suffering the defeat of Rowton Heath).
+The intention to go to Montrose was of course given up, at any
+rate for the present, and he was merely waiting for Goring and
+the Royalist militia of the west&mdash;each in its own way a broken
+reed to lean upon. A hollow reconciliation was patched up
+between Charles and Rupert, and the court remained at Newark
+for over a month. Before it set out to return to Oxford another
+Royalist force had been destroyed. On the 14th of October,
+receiving information that Montrose had raised a new army,
+the king permitted Langdale&rsquo;s northern troops to make a fresh
+attempt to reach Scotland. At Langdale&rsquo;s request Digby was
+appointed to command in this enterprise, and, civilian though he
+was, and disastrous though his influence had been to the discipline
+of the army, he led it boldly and skilfully. His immediate
+opponent was Poyntz, who had followed the king step by step
+from Doncaster to Chester and back to Welbeck, and he succeeded
+on the 15th in surprising Poyntz&rsquo;s entire force of foot at Sherburn.
+Poyntz&rsquo;s cavalry were soon after this reported approaching
+from the south, and Digby hoped to trap them also. At first
+all went well and body after body of the rebels was routed.
+But by a singular mischance the Royalist main body mistook the
+Parliamentary squadrons in flight through Sherburn for friends,
+and believing all was lost took to flight also. Thus Digby&rsquo;s
+cavalry fled as fast as Poyntz&rsquo;s and in the same direction, and
+the latter, coming to their senses first, drove the Royalist horse in
+wild confusion as far as Skipton. Lord Digby was still sanguine,
+and from Skipton he actually penetrated as far as Dumfries.
+But whether Montrose&rsquo;s new army was or was not in the Lowlands,
+it was certain that Leven and Leslie were on the Border,
+and the mad adventure soon came to an end. Digby, with the
+mere handful of men remaining to him, was driven back into
+Cumberland, and on the 24th of October, his army having
+entirely disappeared, he took ship with his officers for the Isle of
+Man. Poyntz had not followed him beyond Skipton, and was
+now watching the king from Nottingham, while Rossiter with the
+Lincoln troops was posted at Grantham. The king&rsquo;s chances of
+escaping from Newark were becoming smaller day by day,
+and they were not improved by a violent dispute between him
+and Rupert, Maurice, Lord Gerard and Sir Richard Willis, at
+the end of which these officers and many others rode away to
+ask the Parliament for leave to go over-seas. The pretext of the
+quarrel mattered little, the distinction between the views of
+Charles and Digby on the one hand and Rupert and his friends
+on the other was fundamental&mdash;to the latter peace had become
+a political as well as a military necessity. Meanwhile south
+Wales, with the single exception of Raglan Castle, had been
+overrun by the Parliamentarians. Everywhere the Royalist
+posts were falling. The New Model, no longer fearing Goring,
+had divided, Fairfax reducing the garrisons of Dorset and
+Devon, Cromwell those of Hampshire. Amongst the latter was
+the famous Basing House, which was stormed at dawn on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span>
+14th of October and burnt to the ground. Cromwell, his work
+finished, returned to headquarters, and the army wintered in the
+neighbourhood of Crediton.</p>
+
+<p>44. <i>End of the First War.</i>&mdash;The military events of 1646 call
+for no comment. The only field army remaining to the king
+was Goring&rsquo;s, and though Hopton, who sorrowfully accepted the
+command after Goring&rsquo;s departure, tried at the last moment
+to revive the memories and the local patriotism of 1643, it was
+of no use to fight against the New Model with the armed rabble
+that Goring turned over to him. Dartmouth surrendered on
+January 18, Hopton was defeated at Torrington on February
+16, and surrendered the remnant of his worthless army on
+March 14. Exeter fell on April 13. Elsewhere, Hereford was
+taken on December 17, 1645, and the last battle of the war
+was fought and lost at Stow-on-the-Wold by Lord Astley on
+March 21, 1646. Newark and Oxford fell respectively on May 6
+and June 24. On August 31 Montrose escaped from the Highlands.
+On the 19th of the same month Raglan Castle surrendered,
+and the last Royalist post of all, Harlech Castle, maintained
+the useless struggle until March 13, 1647. Charles himself, after
+leaving Newark in November 1645, had spent the winter in and
+around Oxford, whence, after an adventurous journey, he came
+to the camp of the Scottish army at Southwell on May 5, 1646.</p>
+
+<p>45. <i>Second Civil War</i> (<i>1648-52</i>).&mdash;The close of the First
+Civil War left England and Scotland in the hands potentially of
+any one of the four parties or any combination of two or more
+that should prove strong enough to dominate the rest. Armed
+political Royalism was indeed at an end, but Charles, though
+practically a prisoner, considered himself and was, almost to
+the last, considered by the rest as necessary to ensure the success
+of whichever amongst the other three parties could come to terms
+with him. Thus he passed successively into the hands of the
+Scots, the Parliament and the New Model, trying to reverse the
+verdict of arms by coquetting with each in turn. The Presbyterians
+and the Scots, after Cornet Joyce of Fairfax&rsquo;s horse
+seized upon the person of the king for the army (June 3, 1647),
+began at once to prepare for a fresh civil war, this time against
+Independency, as embodied in the New Model&mdash;henceforward
+called the Army&mdash;and after making use of its sword, its opponents
+attempted to disband it, to send it on foreign service, to cut
+off its arrears of pay, with the result that it was exasperated
+beyond control, and, remembering not merely its grievances
+but also the principle for which it had fought, soon became the
+most powerful political party in the realm. From 1646 to 1648
+the breach between army and parliament widened day by day
+until finally the Presbyterian party, combined with the Scots and
+the remaining Royalists, felt itself strong enough to begin a
+second civil war.</p>
+
+<p>46. <i>The English War.</i>&mdash;In February 1648 Colonel Poyer, the
+Parliamentary governor of Pembroke Castle, refused to hand
+over his command to one of Fairfax&rsquo;s officers, and he was soon
+joined by some hundreds of officers and men, who mutinied,
+ostensibly for arrears of pay, but really with political objects.
+At the end of March, encouraged by minor successes, Poyer
+openly declared for the king. Disbanded soldiers continued
+to join him in April, all South Wales revolted, and eventually
+he was joined by Major-General Laugharne, his district commander,
+and Colonel Powel. In April also news came that the
+Scots were arming and that Berwick and Carlisle had been
+seized by the English Royalists. Cromwell was at once sent off
+at the head of a strong detachment to deal with Laugharne and
+Poyer. But before he arrived Laugharne had been severely
+defeated by Colonel Horton at St Fagans (May 8). The English
+Presbyterians found it difficult to reconcile their principles
+with their allies when it appeared that the prisoners taken
+at St Fagans bore &ldquo;We long to see our King&rdquo; on their hats;
+very soon in fact the English war became almost purely a Royalist
+revolt, and the war in the north an attempt to enforce a mixture
+of Royalism and Presbyterianism on Englishmen by means of a
+Scottish army. The former were disturbers of the peace and no
+more. Nearly all the Royalists who had fought in the First
+Civil War had given their parole not to bear arms against the
+Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, foremost amongst
+them the old Lord Astley, who had fought the last battle for the
+king in 1646, refused to break their word by taking any part in
+the second war. Those who did so, and by implication those
+who abetted them in doing so, were likely to be treated with
+the utmost rigour if captured, for the army was in a less placable
+mood in 1648 than in 1645, and had already determined to
+&ldquo;call Charles Stuart, that man of blood, to an account for the
+blood he had shed.&rdquo; On the 21st of May Kent rose in revolt in
+the king&rsquo;s name. A few days later a most serious blow to the
+Independents was struck by the defection of the navy, from command
+of which they had removed Vice-Admiral Batten, as being
+a Presbyterian. Though a former lord high admiral, the earl of
+Warwick, also a Presbyterian, was brought back to the service,
+it was not long before the navy made a purely Royalist declaration
+and placed itself under the command of the prince of Wales.
+But Fairfax had a clearer view and a clearer purpose than the
+distracted Parliament. He moved quickly into Kent, and on the
+evening of June 1 stormed Maidstone by open force, after which
+the local levies dispersed to their homes, and the more determined
+Royalists, after a futile attempt to induce the City of London to
+declare for them, fled into Essex. In Cornwall, Northamptonshire,
+North Wales and Lincolnshire the revolt collapsed as
+easily. Only in South Wales, Essex and the north of England
+was there serious fighting. In the first of these districts Cromwell
+rapidly reduced all the fortresses except Pembroke, where
+Laugharne, Poyer and Powel held out with the desperate courage
+of deserters. In the north, Pontefract was surprised by the
+Royalists, and shortly afterwards Scarborough Castle declared
+for the king. Fairfax, after his success at Maidstone and the
+pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce Essex, where,
+under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir Charles
+Lucas, the Royalists were in arms in great numbers. He soon
+drove the enemy into Colchester, but the first attack on the town
+was repulsed and he had to settle down to a long and wearisome
+siege <i>en règle</i>. A Surrey rising, remembered only for the death
+of the young and gallant Lord Francis Villiers in a skirmish at
+Kingston (July 7), collapsed almost as soon as it had gathered
+force, and its leaders, the duke of Buckingham and the earl of
+Holland, escaped, after another attempt to induce London to
+declare for them, to St Albans and St Neots, where Holland was
+taken prisoner. Buckingham escaped over-seas.</p>
+
+<p>47. <i>Lambert in the North.</i>&mdash;By the 10th of July therefore the
+military situation was well defined. Cromwell held Pembroke,
+Fairfax Colchester, Lambert Pontefract under siege; elsewhere
+all serious local risings had collapsed, and the Scottish army had
+crossed the Border. It is on the adventures of the latter that
+the interest of the war centres. It was by no means the veteran
+army of Leven, which had long been disbanded. For the most
+part it consisted of raw levies, and as the kirk had refused to
+sanction the enterprise of the Scottish parliament, David Leslie
+and thousands of experienced officers and men declined to serve.
+The duke of Hamilton proved to be a poor substitute for Leslie;
+his army, too, was so ill provided that as soon as England was
+invaded it began to plunder the countryside for the bare
+means of sustenance. Major-General Lambert, a brilliant young
+general of twenty-nine, was more than equal to the situation.
+He had already left the sieges of Pontefract and Scarborough
+to Colonel Rossiter, and hurried into Cumberland to deal with the
+English Royalists under Sir Marmaduke Langdale. With his
+cavalry he got into touch with the enemy about Carlisle and
+slowly fell back, fighting small rearguard actions to annoy the
+enemy and gain time, to Bowes and Barnard Castle. Langdale
+did not follow him into the mountains, but occupied himself
+in gathering recruits and supplies of material and food for the
+Scots. Lambert, reinforced from the midlands, reappeared
+early in June and drove him back to Carlisle with his work half
+finished. About the same time the local horse of Durham and
+Northumberland were put into the field by Sir A. Hesilrige,
+governor of Newcastle, and under the command of Colonel
+Robert Lilburne won a considerable success (June 30) at the river
+Coquet. This reverse, coupled with the existence of Langdale&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span>
+force on the Cumberland side, practically compelled Hamilton
+to choose the west coast route for his advance, and his army
+began slowly to move down the long <i>couloir</i> between the
+mountains and the sea. The campaign which followed is one
+of the most brilliant in English history.</p>
+
+<p>48. <i>Campaign of Preston.</i>&mdash;On the 8th of July the Scots, with
+Langdale as advanced guard, were about Carlisle, and reinforcements
+from Ulster were expected daily. Lambert&rsquo;s horse were
+at Penrith, Hexham and Newcastle, too weak to fight and having
+only skilful leading and rapidity of movement to enable them
+to gain time. Far away to the south Cromwell was still tied
+down before Pembroke, Fairfax before Colchester. Elsewhere
+the rebellion, which had been put down by rapidity of action
+rather than sheer weight of numbers, smouldered, and Prince
+Charles and the fleet cruised along the Essex coast. Cromwell
+and Lambert, however, understood each other perfectly, while
+the Scottish commanders quarrelled with Langdale and each
+other. Appleby Castle surrendered to the Scots on the 31st
+of July, whereat Lambert, who was still hanging on to the flank
+of the Scottish advance, fell back from Barnard Castle to Richmond
+so as to close Wensleydale against any attempt of the
+invaders to march on Pontefract. All the restless energy of
+Langdale&rsquo;s horse was unable to dislodge him from the passes
+or to find out what was behind that impenetrable cavalry
+screen. The crisis was now at hand. Cromwell had received
+the surrender of Pembroke on the 11th, and had marched off,
+with his men unpaid, ragged and shoeless, at full speed through
+the midlands. Rains and storms delayed his march, but he
+knew that Hamilton in the broken ground of Westmorland was
+still worse off. Shoes from Northampton and stockings from
+Coventry met him at Nottingham, and, gathering up the local
+levies as he went, he made for Doncaster, where he arrived on
+the 8th of August, having gained six days in advance of the time
+he had allowed himself for the march. He then called up
+artillery from Hull, exchanged his local levies for the regulars
+who were besieging Pontefract, and set off to meet Lambert.
+On the 12th he was at Wetherby, Lambert with horse and foot
+at Otley, Langdale at Skipton and Gargrave, Hamilton at
+Lancaster, and Sir George Monro with the Scots from Ulster and
+the Carlisle Royalists (organized as a separate command owing
+to friction between Monro and the generals of the main army)
+at Hornby. On the 13th, while Cromwell was marching to join
+Lambert at Otley, the Scottish leaders were still disputing as to
+whether they should make for Pontefract or continue through
+Lancashire so as to join Lord Byron and the Cheshire Royalists.</p>
+
+<p>49. <i>Preston Fight.</i>&mdash;On the 14th Cromwell and Lambert
+were at Skipton, on the 15th at Gisburn, and on the 16th
+they marched down the valley of the Ribble towards Preston
+with full knowledge of the enemy&rsquo;s dispositions and full determination
+to attack him. They had with them horse and foot
+not only of the army, but also of the militia of Yorkshire,
+Durham, Northumberland and Lancashire, and withal were
+heavily outnumbered, having only 8600 men against perhaps
+20,000 of Hamilton&rsquo;s command. But the latter were scattered
+for convenience of supply along the road from Lancaster,
+through Preston, towards Wigan, Langdale&rsquo;s corps having thus
+become the left flank guard instead of the advanced guard.
+Langdale called in his advanced parties, perhaps with a view
+to resuming the duties of advanced guard, on the night of
+the 13th, and collected them near Longridge. It is not clear
+whether he reported Cromwell&rsquo;s advance, but, if he did, Hamilton
+ignored the report, for on the 17th Monro was half a day&rsquo;s march
+to the north, Langdale east of Preston, and the main army
+strung out on the Wigan road, Major-General Baillie with a body
+of foot, the rear of the column, being still in Preston. Hamilton,
+yielding to the importunity of his lieutenant-general, the earl of
+Callendar, sent Baillie across the Ribble to follow the main body
+just as Langdale, with 3000 foot and 500 horse only, met the
+first shock of Cromwell&rsquo;s attack on Preston Moor. Hamilton,
+like Charles at Edgehill, passively shared in, without directing,
+the battle, and, though Langdale&rsquo;s men fought magnificently,
+they were after four hours&rsquo; struggle driven to the Ribble. Baillie
+attempted to cover the Ribble and Darwen bridges on the Wigan
+road, but Cromwell had forced his way across both before nightfall.
+Pursuit was at once undertaken, and not relaxed until
+Hamilton had been driven through Wigan and Winwick to
+Uttoxeter and Ashbourne. There, pressed furiously in rear by
+Cromwell&rsquo;s horse and held up in front by the militia of the midlands,
+the remnant of the Scottish army laid down its arms on
+the 25th of August. Various attempts were made to raise the
+Royalist standard in Wales and elsewhere, but Preston was the
+death-blow. On the 28th of August, starving and hopeless of
+relief, the Colchester Royalists surrendered to Lord Fairfax.
+The victors in the Second Civil War were not merciful to those
+who had brought war into the land again. On the evening of
+the surrender of Colchester, Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George
+Lisle were shot. Laugharne, Poyer and Powel were sentenced to
+death, but Poyer alone was executed on the 25th of April 1649,
+being the victim selected by lot. Of five prominent Royalist
+peers who had fallen into the hands of the Parliament, three,
+the duke of Hamilton, the earl of Holland, and Lord Capel,
+one of the Colchester prisoners and a man of high character,
+were beheaded at Westminster on the 9th of March. Above
+all, after long hesitations, even after renewal of negotiations,
+the army and the Independents &ldquo;purged&rdquo; the House of their
+ill-wishers, and created a court for the trial and sentence of the
+king. The more resolute of the judges nerved the rest to sign
+the death-warrant, and Charles was beheaded at Whitehall on
+the 30th of January.</p>
+
+<p>50. <i>Cromwell in Ireland.</i>&mdash;The campaign of Preston was
+undertaken under the direction of the Scottish parliament, not
+the kirk, and it needed the execution of the king to bring about
+a union of all Scottish parties against the English Independents.
+Even so, Charles II. in exile had to submit to long negotiations
+and hard conditions before he was allowed to put himself at
+the head of the Scottish armies. The marquis of Huntly was
+executed for taking up arms for the king on the 22nd of March
+1649. Montrose, under Charles&rsquo;s directions, made a last attempt
+to rally the Scottish Royalists early in 1650. But Charles merely
+used Montrose as a threat to obtain better conditions for himself
+from the Covenanters, and when the noblest of all the Royalists
+was defeated (Carbisdale, April 27), delivered up to his pursuers
+(May 4), and executed (May 21, 1650), he was not ashamed to
+give way to the demands of the Covenanters, and to place himself
+at the head of Montrose&rsquo;s executioners. His father, whatever
+his faults, had at least chosen to die for an ideal, the Church of
+England. Charles II. now proposed to regain the throne by
+allowing Scotland to impose Presbyterianism on England, and
+dismissed all the faithful Cavaliers who had followed him to
+exile. Meanwhile, Ireland, in which a fresh war, with openly
+anti-English and anti-Protestant objects, had broken out in
+1648, was thoroughly reduced to order by Cromwell, who beat
+down all resistance by his skill, and even more by his ruthless
+severity, in a brief campaign of nine months (battle of Rathmines
+near Dublin, won by Colonel Michael Jones, August 2, 1649;
+storming of Drogheda, September 11, and of Wexford, October
+11, by Cromwell; capture of Kilkenny, March 28, 1650, and of
+Clonmel, May 10). Cromwell returned to England at the end
+of May 1650, and on June 26 Fairfax, who had been anxious
+and uneasy since the execution of the king, resigned the command-in-chief
+of the army to his lieutenant-general. The
+pretext, rather than the reason, of Fairfax&rsquo;s resignation was his
+unwillingness to lead an English army to reduce Scotland.</p>
+
+<p>51. <i>The Invasion of Scotland.</i>&mdash;This important step had been
+resolved upon as soon as it was clear that Charles II. would
+come to terms with the Covenanters. From this point the
+Second Civil War becomes a war of England against Scotland.
+Here at least the Independents carried the whole of England
+with them. No Englishman cared to accept a settlement at the
+hands of a victorious foreign army, and on the 28th of June,
+five days after Charles II. had sworn to the Covenant, the new
+lord-general was on his way to the Border to take command of
+the English army. About the same time a new militia act was
+passed that was destined to give full and decisive effect to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span>
+national spirit of England in the great final campaign of the war.
+Meanwhile the motto <i>frappez fort, frappez vite</i> was carried out
+at once by the regular forces. On the 19th of July 1650 Cromwell
+made the final arrangements at Berwick-on-Tweed. Major-General
+Harrison, a gallant soldier and an extreme Independent,
+was to command the regular and auxiliary forces left in England,
+and to secure the Commonwealth against Royalists and Presbyterians.
+Cromwell took with him Fleetwood as lieutenant-general
+and Lambert as major-general, and his forces numbered about
+10,000 foot and 5000 horse. His opponent David Leslie (his
+comrade of Marston Moor) had a much larger force, but its degree
+of training was inferior, it was more than tainted by the political
+dissensions of the people at large, and it was, in great part at
+any rate, raised by forced enlistment. On the 22nd of July
+Cromwell crossed the Tweed. He marched on Edinburgh by
+the sea coast, through Dunbar, Haddington and Musselburgh,
+living almost entirely on supplies landed by the fleet which
+accompanied him&mdash;for the country itself was incapable of
+supporting even a small army&mdash;and on the 29th he found
+Leslie&rsquo;s army drawn up and entrenched in a position extending
+from Leith to Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<p>52. <i>Operations around Edinburgh.</i>&mdash;The same day a sharp but
+indecisive fight took place on the lower slopes of Arthur&rsquo;s Seat,
+after which Cromwell, having felt the strength of Leslie&rsquo;s line,
+drew back to Musselburgh. Leslie&rsquo;s horse followed him up
+sharply, and another action was fought, after which the Scots
+assaulted Musselburgh without success. Militarily Leslie had
+the best of it in these affairs, but it was precisely this moment
+that the kirk party chose to institute a searching three days&rsquo;
+examination of the political and religious sentiments of his army.
+The result was that the army was &ldquo;purged&rdquo; of 80 officers and
+3000 soldiers as it lay within musket shot of the enemy. Cromwell
+was more concerned, however, with the supply question
+than with the distracted army of the Scots. On the 6th of
+August he had to fall back as far as Dunbar to enable the fleet
+to land supplies in safety, the port of Musselburgh being unsafe
+in the violent and stormy weather which prevailed. He soon
+returned to Musselburgh and prepared to force Leslie to battle.
+In preparation for an extended man&oelig;uvre three days&rsquo; rations
+were served out. Tents were also issued, perhaps for the first
+time in the civil wars, for it was a regular professional army,
+which had to be cared for, made comfortable and economized,
+that was now carrying on the work of the volunteers of the first
+war. Even after Cromwell started on his man&oelig;uvre, the Scottish
+army was still in the midst of its political troubles, and, certain
+though he was that nothing but victory in the field would give
+an assured peace, he was obliged to intervene in the confused
+negotiations of the various Scottish parties. At last, however,
+Charles II. made a show of agreeing to the demands of his
+strange supporters, and Leslie was free to move. Cromwell
+had now entered the hill country, with a view to occupying
+Queensferry and thus blocking up Edinburgh. Leslie had the
+shorter road and barred the way at Corstorphine Hill (August
+21). Cromwell, though now far from his base, man&oelig;uvred
+again to his right, Leslie meeting him once more at Gogar
+(August 27). The Scottish lines at that point were strong enough
+to dismay even Cromwell, and the man&oelig;uvre on Queensferry
+was at last given up. It had cost the English army severe losses
+in sick, and much suffering in the autumn nights on the bleak
+hillsides.</p>
+
+<p>53. <i>Dunbar.</i>&mdash;On the 28th Cromwell fell back on Musselburgh,
+and on the 31st, after embarking his non-effective men, to Dunbar.
+Leslie followed him up, and wished to fight a battle at
+Dunbar on Sunday, the 1st of September. But again the kirk
+intervened, this time to forbid Leslie to break the Sabbath, and
+the unfortunate Scottish commander could only establish himself
+on Doon Hill (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dunbar</a></span>) and send a force to Cockburnspath
+to bar the Berwick road. He had now 23,000 men to Cromwell&rsquo;s
+11,000, and proposed, <i>faute de mieux</i>, to starve Cromwell into
+surrender. But the English army was composed of &ldquo;ragged
+soldiers with bright muskets,&rdquo; and had a great captain of undisputed
+authority at their head. Leslie&rsquo;s, on the other hand,
+had lost such discipline as it had ever possessed, and was now,
+under outside influences, thoroughly disintegrated. Cromwell
+wrote home, indeed, that he was &ldquo;upon an engagement very
+difficult,&rdquo; but, desperate as his position seemed, he felt the
+pulse of his opponent and steadily refused to take his army away
+by sea. He had not to wait long. It was now the turn of Leslie&rsquo;s
+men on the hillside to endure patiently privation and exposure,
+and after one night&rsquo;s bivouac, Leslie, too readily inferring that
+the enemy was about to escape by sea, came down to fight. The
+battle of Dunbar (<i>q.v.</i>) opened in the early morning of the 3rd of
+September. It was the most brilliant of all Oliver&rsquo;s victories.
+Before the sun was high in the heavens the Scottish army had
+ceased to exist.</p>
+
+<p>54. <i>Royalism in Scotland.</i>&mdash;After Dunbar it was easy for the
+victorious army to overrun southern Scotland, more especially
+as the dissensions of the enemy were embittered by the defeat
+of which they had been the prime cause. The kirk indeed put
+Dunbar to the account of its own remissness in not purging their
+army more thoroughly, but, as Cromwell wrote on the 4th of
+September, the kirk had &ldquo;done its do.&rdquo; &ldquo;I believe their king
+will set up on his own score,&rdquo; he continued, and indeed, now that
+the army of the kirk was destroyed and they themselves were
+secure behind the Forth and based on the friendly Highlands,
+Charles and the Cavaliers were in a position not only to defy
+Cromwell, but also to force the Scottish national spirit of resistance
+to the invader into a purely Royalist channel. Cromwell
+had only received a few drafts and reinforcements from England,
+and for the present he could but block up Edinburgh Castle
+(which surrendered on Christmas eve), and try to bring up
+adequate forces and material for the siege of Stirling&mdash;an attempt
+which was frustrated by the badness of the roads and the violence
+of the weather. The rest of the early winter of 1650 was thus
+occupied in semi-military, semi-political operations between
+detachments of the English army and certain armed forces of the
+kirk party which still maintained a precarious existence in the
+western Lowlands, and in police work against the moss-troopers
+of the Border counties. Early in February 1651, still in the
+midst of terrible weather, Cromwell made another resolute but
+futile attempt to reach Stirling. This time he himself fell sick,
+and his losses had to be made good by drafts of recruits from
+England, many of whom came most unwillingly to serve in the
+cold wet bivouacs that the newspapers had graphically reported.<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<p>55. <i>The English Militia.</i>&mdash;About this time there occurred
+in England two events which had a most important bearing on
+the campaign. The first was the detection of a widespread
+Royalist-Presbyterian conspiracy&mdash;how widespread no one knew,
+for those of its promoters who were captured and executed certainly
+formed but a small fraction of the whole number. Harrison
+was ordered to Lancashire in April to watch the north Welsh,
+Isle of Man and Border Royalists, and military precautions were
+taken in various parts of England. The second was the revival
+of the militia. Since 1644 there had been no general employment
+of local forces, the quarrel having fallen into the hands of the
+regular armies by force of circumstances. The New Model,
+though a national army, resembled Wellington&rsquo;s Peninsular
+army more than the soldiers of the French Revolution and the
+American Civil War. It was now engaged in prosecuting a
+war of aggression against the hereditary foe over the Border&mdash;strictly
+the task of a professional army with a national basis.
+The militia was indeed raw and untrained. Some of the Essex
+men &ldquo;fell flat on their faces on the sound of a cannon.&rdquo; In the
+north of England Harrison complained to Cromwell of the
+&ldquo;badness&rdquo; of his men, and the lord general sympathized,
+having &ldquo;had much such stuff&rdquo; sent him to make good the
+losses in trained men. Even he for a moment lost touch with the
+spirit of the people. His recruits were unwilling drafts for foreign
+service, but in England the new levies were trusted to defend
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span>
+their homes, and the militia was soon triumphantly to justify its
+existence on the day of Worcester.</p>
+
+<p>56. <i>Inverkeithing.</i>&mdash;While David Leslie organized and drilled
+the king&rsquo;s new army beyond the Forth, Cromwell was, slowly
+and with frequent relapses, recovering from his illness. The
+English army marched to Glasgow in April, then returned to
+Edinburgh. The motives of the march and that of the return
+are alike obscure, but it may be conjectured that, the forces in
+England under Harrison having now assembled in Lancashire,
+the Edinburgh-Newcastle-York road had to be covered by the
+main army. Be this as it may, Cromwell&rsquo;s health again broke
+down and his life was despaired of. Only late in June were
+operations actively resumed between Stirling and Linlithgow.
+At first Cromwell sought without success to bring Leslie to
+battle, but he stormed Callendar House near Falkirk on July 13,
+and on the 16th of July he began the execution of a brilliant
+and successful man&oelig;uvre. A force from Queensferry, covered by
+the English fleet, was thrown across the Firth of Forth to Northferry.
+Lambert followed with reinforcements, and defeated a
+detachment of Leslie&rsquo;s army at Inverkeithing on the 20th.
+Leslie drew back at once, but managed to find a fresh strong
+position in front of Stirling, whence he defied Cromwell again.
+At this juncture Cromwell prepared to pass his whole army across
+the firth. His contemplated man&oelig;uvre of course gave up to the
+enemy all the roads into England, and before undertaking it the
+lord general held a consultation with Harrison, as the result of
+which that officer took over the direct defence of the whole
+Border. But his mind was made up even before this, for on the
+day he met Harrison at Linlithgow three-quarters of his whole
+army had already crossed into Fife. Burntisland, surrendered
+to Lambert on the 29th, gave Cromwell a good harbour upon
+which to base his subsequent movements. On the 30th of July
+the English marched upon Perth, and the investment of this
+place, the key to Leslie&rsquo;s supply area, forced the crisis at once.
+Whether Leslie would have preferred to man&oelig;uvre Cromwell
+from his vantage-ground or not is immaterial; the young king
+and the now predominant Royalist element at headquarters
+seized the long-awaited opportunity at once, and on the 31st,
+leaving Cromwell to his own devices, the Royal army marched
+southward to raise the Royal standard in England.</p>
+
+<p>57. <i>The Third Scottish Invasion of England.</i>&mdash;Then began the
+last and most thrilling campaign of the Great Rebellion. Charles
+II. expected complete success. In Scotland, <i>vis-à-vis</i> the extreme
+Covenanters, he was a king on conditions, and he was glad enough
+to find himself in England with some thirty solidly organized regiments
+under Royalist officers and with no regular army in front
+of him. He hoped, too, to rally not merely the old faithful
+Royalists, but also the overwhelming numerical strength of the
+English Presbyterians to his standard. His army was kept well
+in hand, no excesses were allowed, and in a week the Royalists
+covered 150 m.&mdash;in marked contrast to the duke of Hamilton&rsquo;s
+ill-fated expedition of 1648. On the 8th of August the troops
+were given a well-earned rest between Penrith and Kendal.</p>
+
+<p>But the Royalists were mistaken in supposing that the enemy
+was taken aback by their new move. Everything had been
+foreseen both by Cromwell and by the Council of State in Westminster.
+The latter had called out the greater part of the
+militia on the 7th. Lieutenant-General Fleetwood began to
+draw together the midland contingents at Banbury, the London
+trained bands turned out for field service no fewer than 14,000
+strong. Every suspected Royalist was closely watched, and the
+magazines of arms in the country-houses of the gentry were for
+the most part removed into the strong places. On his part
+Cromwell had quietly made his preparations. Perth passed into
+his hands on the 2nd of August, and he brought back his army to
+Leith by the 5th. Thence he despatched Lambert with a cavalry
+corps to harass the invaders. Harrison was already at Newcastle
+picking the best of the county mounted troops to add to his own
+regulars. On the 9th Charles was at Kendal, Lambert hovering in
+his rear, and Harrison marching swiftly to bar his way at the
+Mersey. Fairfax emerged for a moment from his retirement to
+organize the Yorkshire levies, and the best of these as well as of
+the Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire militias were directed
+upon Warrington, which point Harrison reached on the 15th, a
+few hours in front of Charles&rsquo;s advanced guard. Lambert too,
+slipping round the left flank of the enemy, joined Harrison, and
+the English fell back (16th), slowly and without letting themselves
+be drawn into a fight, along the London road.</p>
+
+<p>58. <i>Campaign of Worcester.</i>&mdash;Cromwell meanwhile, leaving
+Monk with the least efficient regiments to carry on the war in
+Scotland, had reached the Tyne in seven days, and thence,
+marching 20 m. a day in extreme heat&mdash;with the country people
+carrying their arms and equipment&mdash;the regulars entered
+Ferrybridge on the 19th, at which date Lambert, Harrison and
+the north-western militia were about Congleton.<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> It seemed
+probable that a great battle would take place between Lichfield
+and Coventry about the 25th or 26th of August, and that Cromwell,
+Harrison, Lambert and Fleetwood would all take part in it.
+But the scene and the date of the <i>denouement</i> were changed by
+the enemy&rsquo;s movements. Shortly after leaving Warrington the
+young king had resolved to abandon the direct march on London
+and to make for the Severn valley, where his father had found the
+most constant and the most numerous adherents in the first war,
+and which had been the centre of gravity of the English Royalist
+movement of 1648. Sir Edward Massey, formerly the Parliamentary
+governor of Gloucester, was now with Charles, and it was
+hoped that he would induce his fellow-Presbyterians to take arms.
+The military quality of the Welsh border Royalists was well
+proved, that of the Gloucestershire Presbyterians not less so, and,
+based on Gloucester and Worcester as his father had been based
+on Oxford, Charles II. hoped, not unnaturally, to deal with an
+Independent minority more effectually than Charles I. had done
+with a Parliamentary majority of the people of England. But
+even the pure Royalism which now ruled in the invading army
+could not alter the fact that it was a Scottish army, and it was
+not an Independent faction but all England that took arms
+against it. Charles arrived at Worcester on the 22nd of August,
+and spent five days in resting the troops, preparing for further
+operations, and gathering and arming the few recruits who came
+in. It is unnecessary to argue that the delay was fatal; it was a
+necessity of the case foreseen and accepted when the march to
+Worcester had been decided upon, and had the other course,
+that of marching on London via Lichfield, been taken the battle
+would have been fought three days earlier with the same result.
+As affairs turned out Cromwell merely shifted the area of his
+concentration two marches to the south-west, to Evesham.
+Early on the 28th Lambert surprised the passage of the Severn
+at Upton, 6 m. below Worcester, and in the action which followed
+Massey was severely wounded. Fleetwood followed Lambert.
+The enemy was now only 16,000 strong and disheartened by the
+apathy with which they had been received in districts formerly all
+their own. Cromwell, for the first and last time in his military
+career, had a two-to-one numerical superiority.</p>
+
+<p>59. <i>The &ldquo;Crowning Mercy.&rdquo;</i>&mdash;He took his measures deliberately.
+Lilburne from Lancashire and Major Mercer with the
+Worcestershire horse were to secure Bewdley Bridge on the
+enemy&rsquo;s line of retreat. Lambert and Fleetwood were to force
+their way across the Teme (a little river on which Rupert had won
+his first victory in 1642) and attack St John&rsquo;s, the western suburb
+of Worcester. Cromwell himself and the main army were to
+attack the town itself. On the 3rd of September, the anniversary
+of Dunbar, the programme was carried out exactly. Fleetwood
+forced the passage of the Teme, and the bridging train (which had
+been carefully organized for the purpose) bridged both the Teme
+and the Severn. Then Cromwell on the left bank and Fleetwood
+on the right swept in a semicircle 4 m. long up to Worcester.
+Every hedgerow was contested by the stubborn Royalists, but
+Fleetwood&rsquo;s men would not be denied, and Cromwell&rsquo;s extreme
+right on the eastern side of the town repelled, after three hours&rsquo;
+hard fighting, the last desperate attempt of the Royalists to break
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span>
+out. It was indeed, as a German critic<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a> has pointed out, the
+prototype of Sedan. Everywhere the defences were stormed as
+darkness came on, regulars and militia fighting with equal
+gallantry, and the few thousands of the Royalists who escaped
+during the night were easily captured by Lilburne and Mercer, or
+by the militia which watched every road in Yorkshire and Lancashire.
+Even the country people brought in scores of prisoners,
+for officers and men alike, stunned by the suddenness of the
+disaster, offered no resistance. Charles escaped after many
+adventures, but he was one of the few men in his army who
+regained a place of safety. The Parliamentary militia were sent
+home within a week. Cromwell, who had ridiculed &ldquo;such stuff&rdquo;
+six months ago, knew them better now. &ldquo;Your new raised
+forces,&rdquo; he wrote to the House, &ldquo;did perform singular good
+service, for which they deserve a very high estimation and
+acknowledgment.&rdquo; Worcester resembled Sedan in much more
+than outward form. Both were fought by &ldquo;nations in arms,&rdquo; by
+citizen soldiers who had their hearts in the struggle, and could be
+trusted not only to fight their hardest but to march their best.
+Only with such troops would a general dare to place a deep river
+between the two halves of his army or to send away detachments
+beforehand to reap the fruits of victory, in certain anticipation
+of winning the victory with the remainder. The sense of duty,
+which the raw militia possessed in so high a degree, ensured the
+arrival and the action of every column at the appointed time and
+place. The result was, in brief, one of those rare victories in
+which a pursuit is superfluous&mdash;a &ldquo;crowning mercy,&rdquo; as Cromwell
+called it. There is little of note in the closing operations. Monk
+had completed his task by May 1652; and Scotland, which had
+twice attempted to impose its will on England, found itself
+reduced to the position of an English province under martial
+law. The details of its subjection are uninteresting after the
+tremendous climax of Worcester.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Earl of Clarendon, <i>The History of the Rebellion</i>
+(Oxford, 1702-1704, ed. W. D. Macray, Oxford, 1888); R. Baillie,
+<i>Letters and Journals</i> (Bannatyne Society, 1841); T. Carlyle, <i>Cromwell&rsquo;s
+Letters and Speeches</i> (new edition, S. C. Lomas, London, 1904);
+<i>Fairfax Correspondence</i> (ed. R. Bell, London, 1849); E. Borlace,
+<i>History of the Irish Rebellion</i> (London, 1675); R. Bellings, <i>Fragmentum
+historicum, or the ... War in Ireland</i> (London, 1772); J.
+Heath, <i>Chronicle of the late Intestine War</i> (London, 1676); <i>Military
+Memoir of Colonel Birch</i> (Camden Society, new series, vol. vii., 1873);
+<i>Autobiography of Captain John Hodgson</i> (edition of 1882); Papers
+on the earl of Manchester, Camden Society, vol. viii., and <i>English
+Historical Review</i>, vol. iii.; J. Ricraft, <i>Survey of England&rsquo;s Champions</i>
+(1647, reprinted, London, 1818); ed. E. Warburton, <i>Memoirs of
+Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers</i> (London, 1849); J. Vicars, <i>Jehovah-Jireh</i>
+(1644), and <i>England&rsquo;s Worthies</i> (1647), the latter reprinted in
+1845: Anthony à Wood, <i>History and Antiquities of the University
+of Oxford</i> (ed. J. Gutch, Oxford, 1792-1795); Margaret, duchess of
+Newcastle, Life of <i>William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle</i> (ed. C. H.
+Firth, London, 1886); Lucy Hutchinson, <i>Memoir of the Life of
+Colonel Hutchinson</i> (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1896); <i>Memoirs of
+Edward Ludlow</i> (ed. C. H. Firth, Oxford, 1892); S. Ashe and W.
+Goode, <i>The Services of the Earl of Manchester&rsquo;s Army</i> (London, 1644);
+H. Cary, <i>Memorials of the Great Civil War</i> (London, 1842); Patrick
+Gordon, <i>Passages from the Diary of Patrick Gordon</i> (Spalding Club,
+Aberdeen, 1859); J. Gwynne, <i>Military Memoirs of the Civil War</i>
+(ed. Sir W. Scott, Edinburgh, 1822); <i>Narratives of Hamilton&rsquo;s
+Expedition</i>, 1648 (C. H. Firth, Scottish Historical Society, Edinburgh,
+1904); Lord Hopton, <i>Bellum Civile</i> (Somerset Record Society,
+London, 1902); <i>Irish War of 1641</i> (Camden Society, old series, vol.
+xiv., 1841); <i>Iter Carolinum, Marches of Charles I. 1641-1649</i> (London,
+1660); Hugh Peters, <i>Reports from the Armies of Fairfax and Cromwell</i>
+(London, 1645-1646); &ldquo;Journal of the Marches of Prince Rupert&rdquo;
+(ed. C. H. Firth, <i>Engl. Historical Review</i>, 1898); J. Sprigge, <i>Anglia
+Rediviva</i> (London, 1847, reprinted Oxford, 1854); R. Symonds,
+<i>Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army, 1644-1645</i> (ed. C. E. Long,
+Camden Society, old series, 1859); J. Corbet, <i>The Military Government
+of Gloucester</i> (London, 1645); M. Carter, <i>Expeditions of Kent,
+Essex and Colchester</i> (London, 1650); <i>Tracts relating to the Civil
+War in Lancashire</i> (ed. G. Ormerod, Chetham Society, London,
+1844); <i>Discourse of the War in Lancashire</i> (ed. W. Beament, Chetham
+Society, London, 1864); Sir M. Langdale, <i>The late Fight at Preston</i>
+(London, 1648); <i>Journal of the Siege of Lathom House</i> (London, 1823);
+J. Rushworth, <i>The Storming of Bristol</i> (London, 1645); S. R. Gardiner
+<i>History of the Great Civil War</i> (London, 1886); and <i>History of the
+Commonwealth and Protectorate</i> (London, 1903); C. H. Firth, <i>Oliver
+Cromwell</i> (New York and London, 1900); <i>Cromwell&rsquo;s Army</i> (London,
+1902); &ldquo;The Raising of the Ironsides,&rdquo; <i>Transactions R. Hist.
+Society</i>, 1899 and 1901; papers in <i>English Historical Review</i>, and
+memoirs of the leading personages of the period in <i>Dictionary of
+National Biography</i>; T. S. Baldock, <i>Cromwell as a Soldier</i> (London,
+1899); F. Hoenig, <i>Oliver Cromwell</i> (Berlin, 1887-1889); Sir J.
+Maclean, <i>Memoirs of the Family of Poyntz</i> (Exeter, 1886); Sir C.
+Markham, <i>Life of Fairfax</i> (London, 1870); M. Napier, <i>Life and
+Times of Montrose</i> (Edinburgh, 1840); W. B. Devereux, <i>Lives of
+the Earls of Essex</i> (London, 1853); W. G. Ross, <i>Mil. Engineering
+in the Civil War</i> (R. E. Professional Papers, 1887); &ldquo;The Battle of
+Naseby,&rdquo; <i>English Historical Review</i>, 1888; <i>Oliver Cromwell and
+his Ironsides</i> (Chatham, 1869); F. N. Maude, <i>Cavalry, its Past and
+Future</i> (London, 1903); E. Scott, <i>Rupert, Prince Palatine</i> (London,
+1899); M. Stace, <i>Cromwelliana</i> (London, 1870); C. S. Terry, <i>Life
+and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven</i> (London, 1899);
+Madame H. de Witt, <i>The Lady of Lathom</i> (London, 1869); F.
+Maseres, <i>Tracts relating to the Civil War</i> (London, 1815); P. A.
+Charrier, <i>Cromwell</i> (London, 1905), also paper in <i>Royal United Service
+Institution Journal</i>, 1906; T. Arnold and W. G. Ross, &ldquo;Edgehill,&rdquo;
+<i>English Historical Review</i>, 1887; <i>The History of Basing House</i>
+(Basingstoke, 1869); E. Broxap, &ldquo;The Sieges of Hull,&rdquo; <i>English
+Historical Review</i>, 1905; J. Willis Bund, <i>The Civil War in Worcestershire</i>
+(Birmingham, 1905); C. Coates, <i>History of Reading</i> (London,
+1802); F. Drake, <i>Eboracum: History of the City of York</i> (London,
+1736); N. Drake, <i>Siege of Pontefract Castle</i> (Surtees Society Miscellanea,
+London, 1861); G. N. Godwin, <i>The Civil War in Hampshire</i>
+(2nd ed., London, 1904); J. F. Hollings, <i>Leicester during the Civil
+War</i> (Leicester, 1840); R. Holmes, <i>Sieges of Pontefract Castle</i>
+(Pontefract, 1887); A. Kingston, <i>East Anglia and the Civil War</i>
+(London, 1897); H. E. Maiden, &ldquo;Maidstone, 1648,&rdquo; <i>English Hist.
+Review</i>, 1892; W. Money, <i>Battles of Newbury</i> (Newbury, 1884);
+J. R. Phillips, <i>The Civil War in Wales and the Marches</i> (London,
+1874); G. Rigaud, <i>Lines round Oxford</i> (1880); G. Roberts, <i>History
+of Lyme</i> (London, 1834); [R. Robinson] <i>Sieges of Bristol</i> (Bristol,
+1868); [J. H. Round] <i>History of Colchester Castle</i> (Colchester, 1882)
+and &ldquo;The Case of Lucas and Lisle,&rdquo; <i>Transactions of R. Historical
+Society</i>, 1894; R. R. Sharpe, <i>London and the Kingdom</i> (London,
+1894); I. Tullie, <i>Siege of Carlisle</i> (1840); E. A. Walford, &ldquo;Edgehill,&rdquo;
+<i>English Hist. Review</i>, 1905; J. Washbourne, <i>Bibliotheca
+Gloucestrensis</i> (Gloucester, 1825); J. Webb, <i>Civil War in Herefordshire</i>(London, 1879).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. F. A.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Gustavus Adolphus before the battle of the Alte Veste (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thirty Years&rsquo; War</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> &ldquo;Making not money but that which they took to be the public
+felicity to be their end they were the more engaged to be valiant&rdquo;
+(Baxter).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For the third time within the year the London trained bands
+turned out in force. It was characteristic of the early years of the
+war that imminent danger alone called forth the devotion of the
+citizen soldier. If he was employed in ordinary times (<i>e.g.</i> at Basing
+House) he would neither fight nor march with spirit.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Charles&rsquo;s policy was still, as before Marston Moor, to &ldquo;spin out
+time&rdquo; until Rupert came back from the north.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The ground has been entirely built over for many years.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The Puritans had by now disappeared almost entirely from the
+ranks of the infantry. <i>Per contra</i> the officers and sergeants and the
+troopers of the horse were the sternest Puritans of all, the survivors
+of three years of a disheartening war.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The tents were evidently issued for regular marches, not for
+cross-country man&oelig;uvres against the enemy. These man&oelig;uvres,
+as we have seen, often took several days. The <i>bon général ordinaire</i>
+of the 17th and 18th centuries framed his man&oelig;uvres on a smaller
+scale so as not to expose his expensive and highly trained soldiers
+to discomfort and the consequent temptation to desert.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The lord general had during his march thrown out successively
+two flying columns under Colonel Lilburne to deal with the Lancashire
+Royalists under the earl of Derby. Lilburne entirely routed
+the enemy at Wigan on the 25th of August.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Fritz Hoenig, <i>Cromwell</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT SALT LAKE<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span>, a shallow body of highly concentrated
+brine in the N.W. part of Utah, U.S.A., lying between 118.8°
+and 113.2° W. long, and between 40.7° and 41.8° lat. Great
+Salt Lake is 4218 ft. above sea-level. It has no outlet, and is
+fed chiefly by the Jordan, the Weber and the Bear rivers, all
+draining the mountainous country to the E. and S.E. The
+irregular outline of the lake has been compared to the roughly
+drawn hand, palm at the S., thumb (exaggerated in breadth)
+pointing N.E., and the fingers (crowded together and drawn
+too small) reaching N.</p>
+
+<p>No bathymetric survey of the lake has been made, but the
+maximum depth is 60 ft. and the mean depth less than 20 ft.,
+possibly as little as 13 ft. The lake in 1906 was approximately
+75 m. long., from N.W. to S.E., and had a maximum width of
+50 m. and an area of 1750 sq. m. This area is not constant, as the
+water is very shallow at the margins, and the relation between
+supply from precipitation, &amp;c., and loss by evaporation is
+variable, there being an annual difference in the height of the
+water of 15-18 in. between June (highest) and November (lowest),
+and besides a difference running through longer cycles: in 1850
+the water was lower and the lake smaller than by any previous
+observations (the area and general outline were nearly the same
+again in 1906); then the water rose until 1873; and between
+1886 and 1902 the fall in level was 11.6 ft. The range of rise and
+fall from 1845 to 1886 was 13 ft., this being the rise in 1865-1886.
+With the fall of water there is an increase in the specific gravity,
+which in 1850 was 1.17, and in September 1901 was 1.179;
+in 1850 the proportion of solids by weight was 22.282%, in
+September 1901 it was 25.221; at the earlier of these dates
+the solids in a litre of water weighed 260.69 grams, at the latter
+date 302.122 grams. The exact cause of this cyclic variation
+is unknown: the low level of 1906 is usually regarded as the
+result of extensive irrigation and ploughing in the surrounding
+country, which have robbed the lake, in part, of its normal
+supply of water. It is also to be noted that the rise and fall
+of the lake level have been coincident, respectively, with continued
+wet and dry cycles. That the lake will soon dry up
+entirely seems unlikely, as there is a central trough, 25 to 30 m.
+wide, about 40 ft. deep, running N.W. and S.E. The area and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span>
+shore-line of the lake are evidently affected by a slight surface
+tilt, for during the same generation that has seen the recent
+fall of the lake level the shore-line is in many cases 2 m. from the
+old, and fences may be seen a mile or more out in the lake. The
+lake bed is for the most part clear sand along the margin, and in
+deeper water is largely coated with crusts of salt, soda and
+gypsum.</p>
+
+<p>The lake is a novel and popular bathing resort, the specific
+gravity of the water being so great that one cannot sink or
+entirely submerge oneself. There are well-equipped bathing
+pavilions at Garfield and Saltair on the S. shore of the lake about
+20 m. from Salt Lake City. The bathing is invigorating; it
+must be followed by a freshwater bath because of the incrustation
+of the body from the briny water. The large amount of
+salt in the water makes both fauna and flora of the lake scanty;
+there are a few algae, the larvae of an <i>Ephydra</i> and of a <i>Tipula</i>
+fly, specimens of what seems to be <i>Corixa decolor</i>, and in great
+quantities, so as to tint the surface of the water, the brine
+shrimp, <i>Artemia salina</i> (or <i>gracilis</i> or <i>fertilis</i>), notable biologically
+for the rarity of males, for the high degree of parthenogenesis and
+for apparent interchangeableness with the <i>Branchipus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The lake is of interest for its generally mountainous surroundings,
+save to the N.W., where it skirts the Great Salt Lake Desert,
+for the mountainous peninsula, the Promontory, lying between
+thumb and fingers of the hand, shaped like and resembling in
+geological structure the two islands S. of it, Fremont and Antelope,<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+and the Oquirrh range S. of the lake. The physiography of the
+surrounding country shows clearly that the basin occupied by
+Great Salt Lake is one of many left by the drying up of a large
+Pleistocene lake, which has been called lake Bonneville. Well-defined
+wave-cut cliffs and terraces show two distinct shore-lines
+of this early lake, one the &ldquo;Bonneville Shore-line,&rdquo; about 1000
+ft. above Great Salt Lake, and the other, the &ldquo;Provo Shoreline,&rdquo;
+about 625 ft. higher than the present lake. These shorelines
+and the presence of two alluvial deposits, the lower and the
+larger of yellow clay 90 ft. deep, and, separated from it by a plane
+of erosion, the other, a deposit of white marl, 10-20 ft. deep,
+clearly prove the main facts as to lake Bonneville: a dry basin
+was first occupied by the shallow waters of a small lake; then,
+during a long period of excessive moisture (or cold), the waters
+rose and spread over an area nearly as large as lake Huron with
+a maximum depth of 1000 ft.; a period of great dryness followed,
+in which the lake disappeared; then came a second, shorter,
+but more intense period of moisture, and in this time the lake
+rose, covered a larger area than before, including W. Utah and
+a little of S. Idaho and of E. Nevada, about 19,750 sq. m., had
+a very much broken shore-line of 2550 m. and a maximum
+depth of 1050 ft. and a mean depth of 800 ft., overflowed the
+basin at the N., and by a tributary stream through Red Rock
+Pass at the N. end of the Cache valley poured its waters into
+the Columbia river system. The great lake was then gradually
+reduced by evaporation, leaving only shallow bodies of salt water,
+of which Great Salt Lake is the largest. The cause of the
+climatic variations which brought about this complex history
+of the Salt Lake region is not known; but it is worthy of
+note that the periods of highest water levels were coincident
+with a great expansion of local valley glaciers, some of which
+terminated in the waters of lake Bonneville.</p>
+
+<p>Industrially Great Salt Lake is of a certain importance. In
+early days it was the source of the salt supply of the surrounding
+country; and the manufacture of salt is now an important
+industry. The brine is pumped into conduits, carried to large
+ponds and there evaporated by the sun; during late years the
+salt has been refined here, being purified of the sulphates and
+magnesium compounds which formerly rendered it efflorescent
+and of a low commercial grade. Mirabilite, or Glauber&rsquo;s salt,
+is commercially valuable, occurring in such quantities in parts
+of the lake that one may wade knee-deep in it; it separates
+from the brine at a temperature between 30° and 20° F. The
+lake is crossed E. and W. by the Southern Pacific railway&rsquo;s
+so-called &ldquo;Lucin Cut-off,&rdquo; which runs from Ogden to Lucin
+on a trestle with more than 20 m. of &ldquo;fill&rdquo;; the former route
+around the N. end of the lake was 43 m. long.</p>
+
+<p>Great Salt Lake was first described in 1689 by Baron La
+Hontan, who had merely heard of it from the Indians. &ldquo;Jim&rdquo;
+Bridger, a famous mountaineer and scout, saw the lake in 1824,
+apparently before any other white man. Captain Bonneville
+described the lake and named it after himself, but the name
+was transferred to the great Pleistocene lake. John C. Frémont
+gave the first description of any accuracy in his <i>Report</i> of 1845.
+But comparatively little was known of it before the Mormon
+settlement in 1847. In 1850 Captain Howard Stansbury completed
+a survey, whose results were published in 1852. The
+most extensive and important studies of the region, however,
+are those by Grove Karl Gilbert of the United States Geological
+Survey, who in 1879-1890 studied especially the earlier and
+greater lake.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. E. Talmage, <i>The Great Salt Lake, Present and Past</i> (Salt
+Lake City, 1900); and Grove Karl Gilbert, <i>Lake Bonneville</i>, monograph
+1 of United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1890),
+containing (pp. 12-19) references to the earlier literature.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Besides these islands there are a few small islands farther N.,
+and W. of Antelope, Stansbury Island, which, like Antelope and
+Fremont Islands, is connected with the mainland by a bar sometimes
+uncovered, and rarely in more than a foot of water.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT SLAVE LAKE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Athapuscow</span>), a lake of Mackenzie
+district, Canada. It is situated between 60° 50&prime; and 62° 55&prime;
+N. and 108° 40&prime; and 117° W., at an altitude of 391 ft. above
+the sea. It is 325 m. long, from 15 to 50 m. wide, and includes
+an area of 9770 sq. m. The water is very clear and deep. Its
+coast line is irregular and deeply indented by large bays, and its
+north-eastern shores are rugged and mountainous. The western
+shores are well wooded, chiefly with spruce, but the northern
+and eastern are dreary and barren. It is navigable from about
+the 1st of July to the end of October. The Yellow-knife, Hoarfrost,
+Lockhart (discharging the waters of Aylmer, Clinton-Colden
+and Artillery Lakes), Tchzudezeth, Du Rocher, Hay
+(400 m. in length), and Slave rivers empty into Great Slave
+Lake. The bulk of its water empties by the Mackenzie river
+into the Arctic Ocean, but a small portion finds its way by the
+Ark-i-linik river into Hudson&rsquo;s Bay. It was discovered in 1771
+by Samuel Hearne.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> the name given to the belt of
+water which extends almost continuously round the globe
+between the parallel of 40° S. and the Antarctic Circle (66½° S.).
+The fact that the southern extremity of South America is the
+only land extending into this belt gives it special physical
+importance in relation to tides and currents, and its position
+with reference to the Antarctic Ocean and continent makes it
+convenient to regard it as a separate ocean from which the
+Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans may be said to radiate.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ocean</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREAVES, JOHN<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (1602-1652), English mathematician and
+antiquary, was the eldest son of John Greaves, rector of Colemore,
+near Alresford in Hampshire. He was educated at Balliol
+College, Oxford, and in 1630 was chosen professor of geometry
+in Gresham College, London. After travelling in Europe,
+he visited the East in 1637, where he collected a considerable
+number of Arabic, Persian and Greek manuscripts, and made a
+more accurate survey of the pyramids of Egypt than any traveller
+who had preceded him. On his return to Europe he visited a
+second time several parts of Italy, and during his stay at Rome
+instituted inquiries into the ancient weights and measures. In
+1643 he was appointed to the Savilian professorship of astronomy
+at Oxford, but he was deprived of his Gresham professorship
+for having neglected its duties. In 1645 he essayed a reformation
+of the calendar, but his plan was not adopted. In 1648 he
+lost both his fellowship and his Savilian chair on account of his
+adherence to the royalist party. But his private fortune more
+than sufficed for all his wants till his death on the 8th of October
+1652.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides his papers in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>, the principal
+works of Greaves are <i>Pyramidographia, or a Description of the
+Pyramids in Egypt</i> (1646); <i>A Discourse on the Roman Foot and</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span>
+<i>Denarius</i> (1649); and <i>Elementa linguae Persicae</i> (1649). His
+miscellaneous works were published in 1737 by Dr Thomas Birch,
+with a biographical notice of the author. See also Smith&rsquo;s <i>Vita
+quorundam erudit. virorum</i> and Ward&rsquo;s <i>Gresham Professors</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREBE<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (Fr. <i>grèbe</i>), the generally accepted name for all the
+birds of the family <i>Podicipedidae</i>,<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> belonging to the group
+<i>Pygopodes</i> of Illiger, members of which inhabit almost all parts
+of the world. Some systematic writers have distributed them
+into several so-called genera, but, with one exception, these
+seem to be insufficiently defined, and here it will be enough to
+allow but two&mdash;Latham&rsquo;s <i>Podiceps</i> and the <i>Centropelma</i> of
+Sclater and Salvin. Grebes are at once distinguishable from
+all other water-birds by their rudimentary tail and the peculiar
+structure of their feet, which are not only placed far behind, but
+have the tarsi flattened and elongated toes furnished with broad
+lobes of skin and flat blunt nails.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:441px; height:511px" src="images/img423.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Illustration: Great Crested Grebe.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In Europe are five well-marked species of <i>Podiceps</i>, the
+commonest and smallest of which is the very well-known dab-chick
+of English ponds, <i>P. fluviatilis</i> or <i>minor</i>, the little grebe
+of ornithologists, found throughout the British Islands, and
+with a wide range in the old world. Next in size are two species
+known as the eared and horned grebes, the former of which,
+<i>P. nigricollis</i>, is a visitor from the south, only occasionally
+showing itself in Britain and very rarely breeding, while the
+latter, <i>P. auritus</i>, has a more northern range, breeding plentifully
+in Iceland, and is a not uncommon winter-visitant. Then there
+is the larger red-necked grebe, <i>P. griseigena</i>, also a northern bird,
+and a native of the subarctic parts of both Europe and America,
+while lastly the great crested grebe, <i>P. cristatus</i> or gaunt&mdash;known
+as the loon on the meres and broads of East Anglia and some
+other parts of England, is also widely spread over the old world.
+North America is credited with seven species of grebes, of which
+two (<i>P. griseigena</i> and <i>P. auritus</i>) are admitted to be specifically
+inseparable from those already named, and two (<i>P. occidentalis</i>
+and <i>P. californicus</i>) appear to be but local forms; the remaining
+two (<i>P. dominicus</i> and <i>P. ludovicianus</i>) may, however, be
+accounted good species, and the last differs so much from other
+grebes that many systematists make it the type of a distinct
+genus, <i>Podilymbus</i>. South America seems to possess four or
+five more species, one of which, the <i>P. micropterus</i> of Gould
+(<i>Proc. Zool. Society</i>, 1858, p. 220), has been deservedly separated
+from the genus <i>Podiceps</i> under the name <i>Centropelma</i> by Sclater
+and Salvin (<i>Exot. Ornithology</i>, p. 189, pl. xcv.), owing to the form
+of its bill, and the small size of its wings, which renders it
+absolutely flightless. Lake Titicaca in Bolivia is, so far as is
+known at present, its only habitat. Grebes in general, though
+averse from taking wing, have much greater power of flight
+than would seem possible on examination of their alar organs,
+and are capable of prolonged aerial journeys. Their plumage is
+short and close. Above it is commonly of some shade of brown,
+but beneath it is usually white, and so glossy as to be in much
+request for muffs and the trimming of ladies&rsquo; dresses. Some
+species are remarkable for the crests or tippets, generally of a
+golden-chestnut colour, they assume in the breeding season.
+<i>P. auritus</i> is particularly remarkable in this respect, and when
+in its full nuptial attire presents an extraordinary aspect, the
+head (being surrounded, as it were, by a <i>nimbus</i> or aureole, such
+as that with which painters adorn saintly characters), reflecting
+the rays of light, glitters with a glory that passes description.
+All the species seem to have similar habits of nidification.
+Water-weeds are pulled from the bottom of the pool, and piled
+on a convenient foundation, often a seminatant growth of bogbean
+(<i>Menyanthes</i>), till they form a large mass, in the centre of
+which a shallow cup is formed, and the eggs, with a chalky
+white shell almost equally pointed at each end, are laid&mdash;the
+parent covering them, whenever she has time to do so, before
+leaving the nest. Young grebes are beautiful objects, clothed
+with black, white and brown down, disposed in streaks and
+their bill often brilliantly tinted. When taken from the nest
+and placed on dry ground, it is curious to observe the way in
+which they progress&mdash;using the wings almost as fore-feet, and
+suggesting the notion that they must be quadrupeds instead of
+birds.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Often, but erroneously, written <i>Podicipidae</i>. The word <i>Podiceps</i>
+being a contracted form of <i>Podicipes</i> (cf. Gloger, <i>Journal für Ornithologie</i>,
+1854, p. 430, note), a combination of <i>podex</i>, <i>podicis</i> and <i>pes</i>,
+<i>pedis</i>, its further compounds must be in accordance with its derivation.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRECO, EL,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> the name commonly given to Dominico Theotocopuli
+(d. 1614), Cretan painter, architect and sculptor. He
+was born in Crete, between 1545 and 1550, and announces his
+Cretan origin by his signature in Greek letters on his most important
+pictures, especially on the &ldquo;St Maurice&rdquo; in the Escorial.
+He appears to have studied art first of all in Venice, and on
+arriving in Rome in 1570 is described as having been a pupil
+of Titian, in a letter written by the miniaturist, Giulio Clovio,
+addressed to Cardinal Alessandro Farnesi, dated the 15th of
+November 1570.</p>
+
+<p>Although a student under Titian, he was at no time an exponent
+of his master&rsquo;s spirit, and his early historical pictures
+were attributed to many other artists, but never to Titian.
+Of his early works, two pictures of &ldquo;The Healing of the Blind
+Man&rdquo; at Dresden and Palma, and the four of &ldquo;Christ driving
+the money-changers out of the Temple&rdquo; in the Yarborough
+collection, the Cork collection, the National Gallery, and the
+Beruete collection at Madrid, are the chief. His first authentic
+portrait is that of his fellow-countryman, Giulio Clovio. It was
+painted between 1570 and 1578, is signed in Greek characters,
+and preserved at Naples, and the last portrait he painted under
+the influence of the Italian school appears to be that of a cardinal
+now in the National Gallery, of which four replicas painted in
+Spain are known. He appears to have come to Spain in 1577,
+but, on being questioned two years later in connexion with a
+judicial suit, as to when he arrived in the country, and for what
+purpose he came, declined to give any information. He was
+probably attracted by the prospect of participating in the
+decoration of the Escorial, and he appears to have settled down
+in Toledo, where his first works were the paintings for the high
+altar of Santo Domingo, and his famous picture of &ldquo;The Disrobing
+of Christ&rdquo; in the sacristy of the cathedral. It was in
+connexion with this last-named work that he proved refractory,
+and the records of a law-suit respecting the price to be paid to
+him give us the earliest information of the artist&rsquo;s sojourn in
+Spain. In 1590, he painted the &ldquo;History of St Maurice&rdquo; for
+Philip II., and in 1578, his masterpiece, entitled &ldquo;The Burial
+of the Count Orgaz.&rdquo; This magnificent picture, one of the finest
+in Spain, is at last being appreciated, and can only be put a
+little below the masterpieces of Velazquez. It is a strangely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span>
+individual work, representing Spanish character even more
+truthfully than did any Spanish artist, and it gathers up all
+the fugitive moods, the grace and charm, the devices and defects
+of a single race, and gives them complete stability in their
+wavering expressions.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1595 and 1600, El Greco executed two groups of
+paintings in the church of San José at Toledo, and in the hospital
+of La Caridad, at Illescas. Besides these, he is known to have
+painted thirty-two portraits, several manuscripts, and many
+paintings for altar-pieces in Toledo and the neighbourhood.
+As an architect he was responsible for more than one of the
+churches of Toledo, and as a sculptor for carvings both in wood
+and in marble, and he can only be properly understood in all
+his varied excellences after a visit to the city where most of
+his work was executed.</p>
+
+<p>He died on the 7th of April 1614, and the date of his death
+is one of the very few certain facts which we have respecting him.
+The record informs us that he made no will, that he received the
+sacraments, and was buried in the church of Santo Domingo.
+The popular legend of his having gone mad towards the latter
+part of his career has no foundation in fact, but his painting
+became more and more eccentric as his life went on, and his
+natural perversity and love of strange, cold colouring, increased
+towards the end of his life. As has been well said, &ldquo;Light with
+him was only used for emotional appeal, and was focussed or
+scattered at will.&rdquo; He was haughtily certain of the value of his
+own art, and was determined to paint in cold, ashen colouring,
+with livid, startling effect, the gaunt and extraordinary figures
+that he beheld with his eccentric genius. His pictures have
+wonderful visionary quality, admirable invention, and are full
+of passionate fervency. They may be considered extravagant,
+but are never commonplace, and are exceedingly attractive in
+their intense emotion, marvellous sincerity, and strange, chilly
+colour.</p>
+
+<p>El Greco&rsquo;s work is typically modern, and from it the portrait-painter,
+J. S. Sargent, claims to have learnt more than from that
+of any other artist. It immortalizes the character of the people
+amongst whom he dwelt, and he may be considered as the initiator
+of truth and realism in art, a precursor and inspirer of Velazquez.</p>
+
+<p>In his own time he was exceedingly popular, and held in
+great repute. Sonnets were written in his honour, and he is
+himself said to have written several treatises, but these have not
+come down to our time. For more than a generation his work
+was hardly known, but it is now gaining rapidly in importance,
+and its true position is more and more recognized. Some
+examples of the artist&rsquo;s own handwriting have been discovered
+in Toledo, and Señor Don Manuel Cossia of Madrid has spent
+many years collecting information for a work dealing with the
+artist.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. C. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897.<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> This war between Greece
+and Turkey (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>Modern History</i>) involved two practically
+distinct campaigns, in Thessaly and in Epirus. Upon the
+Thessalian frontier the Turks, early in March, had concentrated
+six divisions (about 58,000 men), 1500 sabres and 156 guns,
+under Edhem Pasha. A seventh division was rendered available
+a little later. The Greeks numbered about 45,000 infantry,
+800 cavalry and 96 guns, under the crown prince. On both
+sides there was a considerable dispersion of forces along the
+frontier. The Turkish navy, an important factor in the war of
+1877-78, had become paralytic ten years later, and the Greek
+squadron held complete command of the sea. Expeditionary
+forces directed against the Turkish line of communications
+might have influenced the course of the campaign; but for
+such work the Greeks were quite unprepared, and beyond
+bombarding one or two insignificant ports on the coast-line, and
+aiding the transport of troops from Athens to Volo, the navy
+practically accomplished nothing. On the 9th and 10th April
+Greek irregulars crossed the frontier, either with a view to
+provoke hostilities or in the hope of fomenting a rising in Macedonia.
+On the 16th and 17th some fighting occurred, in which
+Greek regulars took part; and on the 18th Edhem Pasha,
+whose headquarters had for some time been established at
+Elassona, ordered a general advance. The Turkish plan was to
+turn the Greek left and to bring on a decisive action, but this
+was not carried out. In the centre the Turks occupied the Meluna
+Pass on the 19th, and the way was practically open to Larissa.
+The Turkish right wing, however, moving on Damani and the
+Reveni Pass, encountered resistance, and the left wing was
+temporarily checked by the Greeks among the mountains near
+Nezeros. At Mati, covering the road to Tyrnavo, the Greeks
+entrenched themselves. Here sharp fighting occurred on the
+21st and 22nd, during which the Greeks sought to turn the right
+flank of the superior Turkish central column. On the 23rd
+fighting was renewed, and the advance guard of the Turkish left
+column, which had been reinforced, and had pressed back the
+Greeks, reached Deliler. The Turkish forces had now drawn
+together, and the Greeks were threatened on both flanks. In
+the evening a general retreat was ordered, and the loose discipline
+of the Greek army was at once manifested. Rumours of disaster
+spread among the ranks, and wild panic supervened. There
+was nothing to prevent an orderly retirement upon Larissa,
+which had been fortified and provisioned, and which offered a
+good defensive position. The general <i>débâcle</i> could not, however,
+be arrested, and in great disorder the mass of the Greek army
+fled southwards to Pharsala. There was no pursuit, and the
+Turkish commander-in-chief did not reach Larissa till the 27th.
+Thus ended the first phase of the war, in which the Greeks
+showed tenacity in defence, which proved fruitless by reason of
+initially bad strategic dispositions entailing far too great dispersion,
+and also because there was no plan of action beyond a
+general desire to avoid risking a defeat which might prevent the
+expected risings in Macedonia and elsewhere. The handling of
+the Turkish army showed little skill or enterprise; but on both
+sides political considerations tended to prevent the application
+of sound military principles.</p>
+
+<p>Larissa being abandoned by the Greeks, Velestino, the junction
+of the Thessalian railways, where there was a strong position
+covering Volo, seemed to be the natural rallying point for the
+Greek army. Here the support of the fleet would have been
+secured, and a Turkish advance across the Othrys range upon
+Athens could not have taken place until the flanking position
+had been captured. Whether by direction or by natural impulse,
+however, the mass of the Greek troops made for Pharsala, where
+some order was re-established, and preparations were made to
+resist attack. The importance of Velestino was recognized by
+sending a brigade thither by railway from Pharsala, and the
+inferior Greek army was thus split into two portions, separated
+by nearly 40 m. On 27th April a Turkish reconnaissance on
+Velestino was repulsed, and further fighting occurred on the
+29th and 30th, in which the Greeks under Colonel Smolenski held
+their own. Meanwhile the Turks made preparations to attack
+Pharsala, and on 5th May the Greeks were driven from their
+positions in front of the town by three divisions. Further
+fighting followed on the 6th, and in the evening the Greek army
+retired in fair order upon Domokos. It was intended to turn
+the Greek left with the first division under Hairi Pasha, but the
+flanking force did not arrive in time to bring about a decisive
+result. The abandonment of Pharsala involved that of Velestino,
+where the Turks had obtained no advantage, and on the evening
+of the 5th Colonel Smolenski began a retirement upon Halmyros.
+Again delaying, Edhem Pasha did not attack Domokos till the
+17th, giving the Greeks time to entrench their positions. The
+attack was delivered in three columns, of which the right was
+checked and the centre failed to take the Greek trenches and
+suffered much loss. The left column, however, menaced the
+line of retreat, and the Greek army abandoned the whole position
+during the night. No effective stand was made at the Furka
+Pass, which was evacuated on the following night. Colonel
+Smolenski, who arrived on the 18th from Halmyros, was directed
+to hold the pass of Thermopylae. The Greek forces being much
+demoralized, the intervention of the tsar was invoked by
+telegraph; and the latter sent a personal appeal to the Sultan,
+who directed a suspension of hostilities. On the 20th an armistice
+was arranged.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span></p>
+
+<p>In Epirus at the outbreak of war about 15,000 Greeks, including
+a cavalry regiment and five batteries, the whole under Colonel
+Manos, occupied a line of defence from Arta to Peta. The
+Turks, about 28,000 strong, with forty-eight guns, under Achmet
+Hifsi Pasha, were distributed mainly at Iannina, Pentepagadia,
+and in front of Arta. On 18th April the Turks commenced a
+three days&rsquo; bombardment of Arta; but successive attempts
+to take the bridge were repulsed, and during the night of the
+21st they retired on Philippiada, 26 m. distant, which was
+attacked and occupied by Colonel Manos on the 23rd. The
+Greeks then advanced to Pentepagadia, meeting with little
+resistance. Their difficulties now began. After some skirmishing
+on the 27th, the position held by their advanced force near
+Homopulos was attacked on the 28th. The attack was renewed
+on the 29th, and no Greek reinforcements were forthcoming
+when needed. The Euzones made a good defence, but were
+driven back by superior force, and a retreat was ordered, which
+quickly degenerated into panic-stricken flight to and across
+the Arta. Reinforcements, including 2500 Epirote volunteers,
+were sent to Arta from Athens, and on 12th May another incursion
+into Turkish territory began, the apparent object being to
+occupy a portion of the country in view of the breakdown in
+Thessaly and the probability that hostilities would shortly end.
+The advance was made in three columns, while the Epirote
+volunteers were landed near the mouth of the Luro river with
+the idea of cutting off the Turkish garrison of Prevesa. The
+centre column, consisting of a brigade, three squadrons and
+two batteries, which were intended to take up and hold a defensive
+position, attacked the Turks near Strevina on the 13th. The
+Greeks fought well, and being reinforced by a battalion from
+the left column, resumed the offensive on the following day, and
+fairly held their own. On the night of the 15th a retreat was
+ordered and well carried out. The volunteers landed at the
+mouth of the Luro, were attacked and routed with heavy loss.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign in Epirus thus failed as completely as that in
+Thessaly. Under the terms of the treaty of peace, signed on
+20th September, and arranged by the European powers, Turkey
+obtained an indemnity of £T4,000,000, and a rectification of
+the Thessalian frontier, carrying with it some strategic advantage.
+History records few more unjustifiable wars than that which
+Greece gratuitously provoked. The Greek troops on several
+occasions showed tenacity and endurance, but discipline and
+cohesion were manifestly wanting. Many of the officers were
+incapable; the campaign was gravely mismanaged; and
+politics, which led to the war, impeded its operations. On the
+other hand, the fruits of the German tuition, which began in
+1880, and received a powerful stimulus by the appointment
+of General von der Goltz in 1883, were shown in the Turkish
+army. The mobilization was on the whole smoothly carried out,
+and the newly completed railways greatly facilitated the concentration
+on the frontier. The young school of officers trained
+by General von der Goltz displayed ability, and the artillery at
+Pharsala and Domokos was well handled. The superior leading
+was, however, not conspicuously successful; and while the rank
+and file again showed excellent military qualities, political
+conditions and the Oriental predilection for half-measures and
+for denying full responsibility and full powers to commanders
+in the field enfeebled the conduct of the campaign. On account
+of the total want of careful and systematic peace training on both
+sides, a war which presented several interesting strategic problems
+provided warnings in place of military lessons.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. S. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREECE,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> an ancient geographical area, and a modern
+kingdom more or less corresponding thereto, situated at the
+south-eastern extremity of Europe and forming the most
+southerly portion of the Balkan Peninsula. The modern kingdom
+is bounded on the N. by European Turkey and on the E., S. and
+W. by the Aegean, Mediterranean and Ionian seas. The name
+<i>Graecia</i>, which was more or less vaguely given to the ancient
+country by the Romans, seems not to have been employed by
+any native writer before Aristotle; it was apparently derived
+by the Romans from the Illyrians, who applied the name of an
+Epirote tribe (<span class="grk" title="Graikoi">&#915;&#961;&#945;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;</span>, Graeci) to all their southern neighbours.
+The names Hellas, Hellenes (<span class="grk" title="Hellas, Hellênes">&#7965;&#955;&#955;&#945;&#962;, &#7965;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span>), by which the
+ancient Greeks called their country and their race, and which are
+still employed by the modern Greeks, originally designated a small
+district in Phthiotis in Thessaly and its inhabitants, who gradually
+spread over the lands south of the Cambunian mountains.
+The name Hellenes was not universally applied to the Greek
+race until the post-Homeric epoch (Thucyd. i. 3).</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:850px; height:609px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img424.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img424a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">1. Geography and Statistics</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Greeks had a somewhat vague conception of the
+northern limits of Hellas. Thessaly was generally included and
+Epirus excluded; some writers included some of the
+southern cantons of Epirus, while others excluded not
+<span class="sidenote">Extent of ancient Greece.</span>
+only all that country but Aetolia and Acarnania.
+Generally speaking, the confines of Hellas in the age
+of its greatest distinction were represented by a line drawn from
+the northern shore of the Ambracian Gulf on the W. to the
+mouth of the Peneus on the E. Macedonia and Thrace were
+regarded as outside the pale of Hellenic civilization till 386 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+when after his conquest of Thessaly and Phocis, Philip of Macedon
+obtained a seat in the Amphictyonic Council. In another sense,
+however, the name Hellas expressed an ethnological rather than
+a geographical unity; it denoted every country inhabited by
+Hellenes. It thus embraced all the Greek settlements on the
+coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, on the shores of the
+Hellespont, the Bosporus and the Black Sea. Nevertheless,
+the Greek peninsula within the limits described above, together
+with the adjacent islands, was always regarded as Hellas <i>par
+excellence</i>. The continental area of Hellas proper was no greater
+than that of the modern Greek kingdom, which comprises but
+a small portion of the territories actually occupied by the Greek
+race. The Greeks have always been a maritime people, and the
+real centre of the national life is now, as in antiquity, the Aegean
+Sea or Archipelago. Thickly studded with islands and bordered
+by deeply indented coasts with sheltered creeks and harbours,
+the Aegean in the earliest days of navigation invited the enterprise
+of the mariner; its shores, both European and Asiatic,
+became covered with Greek settlements and its islands, together
+with Crete and Cyprus, became Greek. True to their maritime
+instincts, the Greeks rarely advanced inland to any distance
+from the sea; the coasts of Macedonia, Thrace and Asia Minor
+are still mainly Greek, but, except for some isolated colonies, the
+<i>hinterland</i> in each case lies outside the limits of the race. Continental
+Greece is divided by its mountain ranges into a number
+of natural cantons; the existence of physical barriers tended
+in the earliest times to the growth of isolated political communities,
+and in the epoch of its ancient independence the
+country was occupied by seventeen separate states, none of
+them larger than an ordinary English county. These states, which
+are noticed separately, were: Thessaly, in northern Greece;
+Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris, Doris, Phocis, Megaris, Boeotia and
+Attica in central Greece; and Corinthia, Sicyonia, Achaea, Elis,
+Messenia, Laconia, Argolis and Arcadia in the Peloponnesus.</p>
+
+<p>Modern Greece, which (including the adjacent islands) extends
+from 35° 50&prime; to 39° 54&prime; N. and from 19° 20&prime; to 26° 15&prime; E., comprises
+all the area formerly occupied by these states.
+Under the arrangement concluded at Constantinople
+<span class="sidenote">Extent of modern Greece.</span>
+on the 21st of July 1832 between Great Britain,
+France, Russia and Turkey, the northern boundary
+of Greece was drawn from the Gulf of Arta (Sinus Ambracius)
+to the Gulf of Volo (S. Pagasaeus), the line keeping to the crest
+of the Othrys range. Thessaly and part of Acarnania were thus
+left to Turkey. The island of Euboea, the Cyclades and the
+northern Sporades were added to the new kingdom. In 1864
+the Ionian Islands (<i>q.v.</i>) were ceded by Great Britain to Greece.
+In 1880 the Conference of Berlin proposed a new frontier, which
+transferred to Greece not only Thessaly but a considerable
+portion of southern Epirus, extending to the river Kalamas.
+This, however, was rejected by Turkey, and the existing boundary
+was traced in 1881. Starting from the Aegean coast at a point
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span>
+near Platamona, between Mount Olympus and the mouth of the
+Salambria (Peneus), the line passes over the heights of Kritiri
+and Zygos (Pindus) and descends the course of the river Arta
+to its mouth. After the war of 1897 Greece restored to Turkey
+some strategical points on the frontier possessing no geographical
+importance. The greatest length of Greece is about 250 m.,
+the greatest breadth 180 m. The country is generally divided
+into five parts, which are indicated by its natural features:&mdash;(i.)
+Northern Greece, which extends northwards from Mount
+Othrys and the gulfs of Zeitun (Lamia) and Arta to the Cambunian
+Mountains, and comprises Thessaly and a small portion of
+Epirus; (ii.) Central Greece, extending from the southern limits
+of Northern Greece to the gulfs of Corinth and Aegina; (iii.)
+the peninsula of the Peloponnesus or Morea, attached to the
+mainland by the Isthmus of Corinth; (iv.) the Ionian Islands
+on the west coasts of Epirus and Greece; (v.) The islands of the
+Aegean Sea, including Euboea, the Cyclades and the northern
+Sporades.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the complexity of its contour and the variety of its natural
+features Greece surpasses every country in Europe, as Europe surpasses
+every continent in the world. The broken character
+of its coast-line is unique; except a few districts in Thessaly
+<span class="sidenote">Physical features.</span>
+no part of the country is more than 50 m. from the
+sea. Although the area of Greece is considerably smaller than that
+of Portugal, its coast-line is greater than that of Spain and Portugal
+together. The mainland is penetrated by numerous gulfs and inlets,
+and the adjoining seas are studded with islands. Another characteristic
+is the number and complexity of the mountain chains, which
+traverse every part of the country and which, together with their
+ramifications, cover four-fifths of its surface. The mountain-chains
+interlace, the interstices forming small enclosed basins, such as the
+plain of Boeotia and the plateau of Arcadia; the only plain of any
+extent is that of Thessaly. The mountains project into the sea,
+forming peninsulas, and sometimes reappearing in rows or groups
+of islands; they descend abruptly to the coast or are separated
+from it by small alluvial plains. The portions of the country suitable
+for human colonization were thus isolated one from the other, but
+as a rule possessed easy access to the sea. The earliest settlements
+were generally situated on or around some rocky elevation, which
+dominated the surrounding plain and was suitable for fortification
+as a citadel or acropolis; owing to the danger of piratical attacks
+they were usually at some little distance from the sea, but in the
+vicinity of a natural harbour. The physical features of the country
+played an important part in moulding the character of its inhabitants.
+Protected against foreign invasion by the mountain barriers and to
+a great extent cut off from mutual intercourse except by sea, the
+ancient Greek communities developed a marked individuality and a
+strong sentiment of local patriotism; their inhabitants were both
+mountaineers and mariners; they possessed the love of country,
+the vigour and the courage which are always found in highlanders,
+together with the spirit of adventure, the versatility and the passion
+for freedom characteristic of a seafaring people. The great variety
+of natural products as well as the facility of maritime communication
+tended to the early growth of commercial enterprise, while the
+peculiar beauty of the scenery, though little dwelt upon in ancient
+literature, undoubtedly quickened the poetic and artistic instincts
+of the race. The effects of physical environment are no less noticeable
+among the modern Greeks. The rural populations of Attica
+and Boeotia, though descended from Albanian colonists in the
+middle ages, display the same contrast in character which marked
+the inhabitants of those regions in ancient times.</p>
+
+<p>In its general aspect the country presents a series of striking and
+interesting contrasts. Fertile tracts covered with vineyards, olive
+groves, corn-fields or forests display themselves in close proximity
+with rugged heights and rocky precipices; the landscape is never,
+monotonous; its outlines are graceful, and its colouring, owing to
+the clearness of the air, is at once brilliant and delicate, while the
+sea, in most instances, adds a picturesque feature, enhancing the
+charm and variety of the scenery.</p>
+
+<p>The ruling feature in the mountain system of northern Greece is
+the great chain of Pindus, which, extending southwards from the
+lofty Shar Dagh (Skardos) near Uskub, forms the backbone
+of the Balkan peninsula. Reaching the frontier
+<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span>
+of Greece a little S. of lat. 40°, the Pindus range is intersected
+by the Cambunian Mountains running E. and W.; the
+eastern branch, which forms the northern boundary of Thessaly,
+extends to the Gulf of Salonica and culminates in Mount Olympus
+(9754 ft.) a little to the N. of the Greek frontier; then bending to
+the S.E. it follows the coast-line, forming a rampart between the
+Thessalian plain and the sea; the barrier is severed at one point
+only where the river Salambria (anc. <i>Peneus</i>) finds an exit through
+the narrow defile of Tempe. South of Tempe the mountain ridge,
+known as the Mavro Vouno, connects the pyramidal Kissovo (anc.
+<i>Ossa</i>, 6400 ft.) with Plessidi (anc. <i>Pelion</i>, 5310 ft.); it is prolonged
+in the Magnesian peninsula, which separates the Gulf of Volo from
+the Aegean, and is continued by the mountains of Euboea (highest
+summits, Dirphys, 5725 ft., and Ocha, 4830 ft.) and by the islands
+of Andros and Tenos. West of Pindus, the Cambunian Mountains
+are continued by several ridges which traverse Epirus from north
+to south, enclosing the plain and lake of Iannina; the most westerly
+of these, projecting into the Adriatic, forms the Acroceraunian
+promontory terminating in Cape Glossa. The principal pass through
+the Cambunian Mountains is that of Meluna, through which runs
+the carriage-road connecting the town of Elassona in Macedonia
+with Larissa, the capital of Thessaly; there are horse-paths at
+Reveni and elsewhere. The central chain of Pindus at the point
+where it is intersected by the Cambunian Mountains forms the mass
+of Zygos (anc. <i>Lacmon</i>, 7113 ft.) through which a horse-path connects
+the town of Metzovo with Kalabaka in Thessaly; on
+the declivity immediately N. of Kalabaka are a series of rocky
+pinnacles on which a number of monasteries are perched. Trending
+to the S., the Pindus chain terminates in the conical Mount Velouchi
+(anc. <i>Tymphrestus</i>, 7609 ft.) in the heart of the mountainous region of
+northern Greece. From this centre-point a number of mountains
+radiate in all directions. To the E. runs the chain of Helloro (anc.
+<i>Othrys</i>; highest summit, Hagios Elias, 5558 ft.) separating the plain
+of Thessaly from the valley of the Spercheios and traversed by the
+Phourka pass (2789 ft.); to the S.E. is Mount Katávothra (anc.
+<i>Oeta</i>, 7080 ft.) extending to the southern shore of the Gulf of Lamia
+at Thermopylae; to the S.E., S. and S.W. are the mountains of
+Aetolia and Acarnania. The Aetolian group, which may be regarded
+as the direct continuation of the Pindus range, includes Kiona
+(8240 ft.), the highest mountain in Greece, and Vardusi (anc. <i>Korax</i>,
+8190 ft.). The mountains of Acarnania with <span class="grk" title="Hupsêlê koruphê">&#8025;&#968;&#951;&#955;&#8052; &#954;&#959;&#961;&#965;&#966;&#942;</span> (5215 ft.)
+rise to the W. of the valley of the Aspropotamo (anc. <i>Achelous</i>). The
+Aetolian Mountains are prolonged to the S.E. by the double-crested
+Liakoura (anc. <i>Parnassus</i>; 8064 ft.) in Phocis; by Palaeo Vouno
+(anc. <i>Helicon</i>, 5738 ft.) and Elateas (anc. <i>Cithaeron</i>, 4626 ft.) respectively
+W. and S. of the Boeotian plain; and by the mountains of
+Attica,&mdash;Ozea (anc. <i>Parnes</i>, 4626 ft.), Mendeli (anc. <i>Pentelicus</i> or
+<i>Brilessos</i>, 3639 ft.), Trellovouno (anc. <i>Hymettus</i>, 3369 ft.), and
+Keratia (2136 ft.)&mdash;terminating in the promontory of Sunium, but
+reappearing in the islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos and Siphnos.
+South of Cithaeron are Patera in Megaris (3583 ft.) and Makri
+Plagi (anc. <i>Geraneia</i>, 4495 ft.) overlooking the Isthmus of Corinth.</p>
+
+<p>The mountains of the Morea, grouped around the elevated central
+plateau of Arcadia, form an independent system with ramifications
+extending through the Argolid peninsula on the E. and the three
+southern promontories of Malea, Taenaron and Acritas. At the
+eastern end of the northern chain, separating Arcadia from the Gulf
+of Corinth, is Ziria (anc. <i>Cyllene</i>, 7789 ft.); it forms a counterpart to
+Parnassus on the opposite side of the gulf. A little to the W.
+is Chelmos (anc. <i>Aroania</i>, 7725 ft.); farther W., Olonos (anc.
+<i>Erymanthus</i>, 7297 ft.) and Voïdia (anc. <i>Panachaïcon</i>, 6322 ft.)
+overlooking the Gulf of Patras. The highest summit in the
+Argolid peninsula is Hagios Elias (anc. <i>Arachnaeon</i>, 3930 ft.). The
+series of heights forming the eastern rampart of Arcadia, including
+Artemision (5814 ft.) and Ktenia (5246 ft.) is continued to the S. by
+the Malevo range (anc. <i>Parnon</i>, highest summit 6365 ft.) which extends
+into the peninsula of Malea and reappears in the island of
+Cerigo. Separated from Parnon by the Eurotas valley to the W.,
+the chain of Taygetus (mod. <i>Pentedaktylon</i>; highest summit Hagios
+Elias, 7874 ft., the culminating point of the Morea) forms a barrier
+between the plains of Laconia and Messenia; it is traversed by the
+Langáda pass leading from Sparta to Kalamata. The range is
+prolonged to the S. through the arid district of Maina and terminates
+in Cape Matapan (anc. <i>Taenarum</i>). The mountains of western
+Arcadia are less lofty and of a less marked type; they include
+Hagios Petros (4777 ft.) and Palaeócastro (anc. <i>Pholoë</i>, 2257 ft.)
+N. of the Alpheus valley, Diaphorti (anc. <i>Lycaeus</i>, 4660 ft.), the
+haunt of Pan, and Nomia (4554 ft.) W. of the plain of Megalopolis.
+Farther south, the mountains of western Messenia form a detached
+group (Varvara, 4003 ft.; Mathia, 3140 ft.) extending to Cape Gallo
+(anc. <i>Acritas</i>) and the Oenussae Islands. In central Arcadia are
+Apanokrapa (anc. <i>Maenalus</i>, also sacred to Pan) and Roudia (5072
+ft.); the Taygetus chain forms the southern continuation of these
+mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The more noteworthy fortified heights of ancient Greece were the
+Acrocorinthus, the citadel of Corinth (1885 ft.); Ithome (2631 ft.) at
+Messene; Larissa (950 ft.) at Argos; the Acropolis of Mycenae
+(910 ft.); Tiryns (60 ft.) near Nauplia, which also possessed its own
+citadel, the Palamidhi or Acro-nauplia (705 ft.); the Acropolis of
+Athens (300 ft. above the mean level of the city and 512 ft. above
+the sea), and the Cadmea of Thebes (715 ft.).</p>
+
+<p>Greece has few rivers; most of these are small, rapid and turbid, as
+might be expected from the mountainous configuration of the country.
+They are either perennial rivers or torrents, the white beds
+of the latter being dry in summer, and only filled with water
+<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span>
+after the autumn rains. The chief rivers (none of which is navigable)
+are the Salambria (<i>Peneus</i>) in Thessaly, the Mavropotamo (<i>Cephisus</i>)
+in Phocis, the Hellada (<i>Spercheios</i>) in Phthiotis, the Aspropotamo
+(<i>Achelous</i>) in Aetolia, and the Ruphia (<i>Alpheus</i>) and Vasiliko
+(<i>Eurotas</i>) in the Morea. Of the famous rivers of Athens, the one,
+the Ilissus, is only a chain of pools all summer, and the other, the
+Cephisus, though never absolutely dry, does not reach the sea,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span>
+being drawn off in numerous artificial channels to irrigate the neighbouring
+olive groves. A frequent peculiarity of the Greek rivers is
+their sudden disappearance in subterranean chasms and reappearance
+on the surface again, such as gave rise to the fabled course of
+the Alpheus under the sea, and its emergence in the fountain of
+Arethusa in Syracuse. Some of these chasms&mdash;&ldquo;Katavothras&rdquo;&mdash;are
+merely sieves with herbage and gravel in the bottom, but others
+are large caverns through which the course of the river may sometimes
+be followed. Floods are frequent, especially in autumn, and
+natural fountains abound and gush out even from the tops of the
+hills. Aganippe rises high up among the peaks of Helicon, and
+Peirene flows from the summit of Acrocorinthus. The only noteworthy
+cascade, however, is that of the Styx in Arcadia, which has a
+fall of 500 ft. During part of the year it is lost in snow, and it
+is at all times almost inaccessible. Lakes are numerous, but few are
+of considerable size, and many merely marshes in summer. The
+largest are Karla (<i>Boebeïs</i>) in Thessaly, Trichonis in Aetolia, Copaïs
+in Boeotia, Pheneus and Stymphalus in Arcadia.</p>
+
+<p>The valleys are generally narrow, and the plains small in extent,
+deep basins walled in among the hills or more free at the mouths
+of the rivers. The principal plains are those of Thessaly,
+Boeotia, Messenia, Argos, Elis and Marathon. The bottom
+<span class="sidenote">Plains.</span>
+of these plains consists of an alluvial soil, the most fertile in Greece.
+In some of the mountainous regions, especially in the Morea, are
+extensive table-lands. The plain of Mantinea is 2000 ft. high, and
+the upland district of Sciritis, between Sparta and Tegea, is in some
+parts 3000 ft.</p>
+
+<p>Strabo said that the guiding thing in the geography of Greece
+was the sea, which presses in upon it at all parts with a thousand
+arms. From the Gulf of Arta on the one side to the Gulf
+of Volo on the other the coast is indented with a succession
+<span class="sidenote">Coast.</span>
+of natural bays and gulfs. The most important are the Gulfs of
+Aegina (<i>Saronicus</i>) and Lepanto (<i>Corinthiacus</i>), which separate
+the Morea from the northern mainland of Greece,&mdash;the first an inlet
+of the Aegean, the second of the Ionian Sea,&mdash;and are now connected
+by a canal cut through the high land of the narrow Isthmus of Corinth
+(3½ m. wide). The outer portion of the Gulf of Lepanto is called the
+Gulf of Patras, and the inner part the Bay of Corinth; a narrow
+inlet on the north side of the same gulf, called the Bay of Salona or
+Itea, penetrates northwards into Phocis so far that it is within
+24 geographical miles of the Gulf of Zeitun on the north-east coast.
+The width of the entrance to the gulf of Lepanto is subject to singular
+changes, which are ascribed to the formation of alluvial deposits by
+certain marine currents, and their removal again by others. At
+the time of the Peloponnesian war this channel was 1200 yds. broad;
+in the time of Strabo it was only 850; and in our own day it has
+again increased to 2200. On the coast of the Morea there are several
+large gulfs, that of Arcadia (<i>Cyparissius</i>) on the west, Kalamata
+(<i>Messeniacus</i>) and Kolokythia (<i>Laconicus</i>) on the south and Nauplia
+(<i>Argolicus</i>) on the east. Between Euboea and the mainland lie the
+channels of Trikeri, Talanti (<i>Euboicum Mare</i>) and Egripo; the latter
+two are connected by the strait of Egripo (<i>Euripus</i>). This strait,
+which is spanned by a swing-bridge, is about 180 ft. wide, and is
+remarkable for the unexplained eccentricity of its tide, which has
+puzzled ancients and moderns alike. The current runs at the
+average speed of 5 m. an hour, but continues only for a short time in
+one direction, changing its course, it is said, ten or twelve times in a
+day; it is sometimes very violent.</p>
+
+<p>There are no volcanoes on the mainland of Greece, but everywhere
+traces of volcanic action and frequently visitations of earthquakes,
+for it lies near a centre of volcanic: agency, the
+island of Santorin, which has been within recent years in
+<span class="sidenote">Volcanic action.</span>
+a state of eruption. There is an extinct crater at Mount
+Laphystium (<i>Granitsa</i>) in Boeotia. The mountain of Methane, on
+the coast of Argolis, was produced by a volcanic eruption in 282 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Earthquakes laid Thebes in ruins in 1853, destroyed every house in
+Corinth in 1858, filled up the Castalian spring in 1870, devastated
+Zante in 1893 and the district of Atalanta in 1894. There are hot
+springs at Thermopylae and other places, which are used for sanitary
+purposes. Various parts of the coast exhibit indications of upheaval
+within historical times. On the coast of Elis four rocky
+islets are now joined to the land, which were separate from it in the
+days of ancient Greece. There are traces of earlier sea-beaches
+at Corinth, and on the coast of the Morea, and at the mouth of
+the Hellada. The land has gained so much that the pass of Thermopylae
+which was extremely narrow in the time of Leonidas and
+his three hundred, is now wide enough for the motions of a whole
+army.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div>
+
+<p>Structurally, Greece may be divided into two regions, an eastern
+and a western. The former includes Thessaly, Boeotia, the island
+of Euboea, the isthmus of Corinth, and the peninsula of
+Argolis, and, throughout, the strike of the beds is nearly
+<span class="sidenote">Geology.</span>
+from west to east. The western region includes the Pindus and all
+the parallel ranges, and the whole of the Peloponnesus excepting
+Argolis. Here the folds which affect the Mesozoic and early Tertiary
+strata run approximately from N.N.W. to S.S.E.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the close of the 19th century the greater part of Greece was
+believed to be formed of Cretaceous rocks, but later researches have
+shown that the supposed Cretaceous beds include a variety of geological
+horizons. The geological sequence begins with crystalline
+schists and limestones, followed by Palaeozoic, Triassic and Liassic
+rocks. The oldest beds which hitherto have yielded fossils belong
+to the Carboniferous System (<i>Fusulina</i> limestone of Euboea).
+Following upon these older beds are the great limestone masses which
+cover most of the eastern region, and which are now known to include
+Jurassic, Tithonian, Lower and Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds.
+In the Pindus and the Peloponnesus these beds are overlaid by a
+series of shales and platy limestones (Olonos Limestone of the
+Peloponnesus), which were formerly supposed to be of Tertiary
+age. It has now been shown, however, that the upper series of
+limestones has been brought upon the top of the lower by a great
+overthrust. Triassic fossils have been found in the Olonos Limestone
+and it is almost certain that other Mesozoic horizons are
+represented.</p>
+
+<p>The earth movements which produced the mountain chains of
+western Greece have folded the Eocene beds and must therefore
+be of post-Eocene date. The Neogene beds, on the other hand, are
+not affected by the folds, although by faulting without folding they
+have in some places been raised to a height of nearly 6000 ft. They
+lie, however, chiefly along the coast and in the valleys, and consist
+of marls, conglomerates and sands, sometimes with seams of lignite.
+The Pikermi deposits, of late Miocene age, are famous for their rich
+mammalian fauna.</p>
+
+<p>Although the folding which formed the mountain chains appears
+to have ceased, Greece is still continually shaken by earthquakes,
+and these earthquakes are closely connected with the great lines
+of fracture to which the country owes its outline. Around the
+narrow gulf which separates the Peloponnesus from the mainland,
+earthquakes are particularly frequent, and another region which is
+often shaken is the south-western corner of Greece, the peninsula of
+Messene.<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+<div class="author">(P. La.)</div>
+
+<p>The vegetation of Greece in general resembles that of southern
+Italy while presenting many types common to that of Asia Minor.
+Owing to the geographical configuration of the peninsula and
+its mountainous surface the characteristic flora of the
+<span class="sidenote">Flora.</span>
+Mediterranean regions is often found in juxtaposition with
+that of central Europe. In respect to its vegetation the country
+may be regarded as divided into four zones. In the first, extending
+from the sea-level to the height of 1500 ft., oranges, olives, dates,
+almonds, pomegranates, figs and vines flourish, and cotton and
+tobacco are grown. In the neighbourhood of streams are found
+the laurel, myrtle, oleander and lentisk, together with the plane and
+white poplar; the cypress is often a picturesque feature in the
+landscape, and there is a variety of aromatic plants. The second
+zone, from 1500 to 3500 ft., is the region of the oak, chestnut and
+other British trees. In the third, from 3500 to 5500 ft., the beech
+is the characteristic forest tree; the <i>Abies cephalonica</i> and <i>Pinus
+pinea</i> now take the place of the <i>Pinus halepensis</i>, which grows
+everywhere in the lower regions. Above 5500 ft. is the Alpine
+region, marked by small plants, lichens and mosses. During the
+short period of spring anemones and other wild flowers enrich
+the hillsides with magnificent colouring; in June all verdure disappears
+except in the watered districts and elevated plateaus.
+The asphodel grows abundantly in the dry rocky soil; aloes, planted
+in rows, form impenetrable hedges. Medicinal plants are numerous,
+such as the <i>Inula Helenium</i>, the <i>Mandragora Officinarum</i>, the
+<i>Colchicum napolitanum</i> and the <i>Helleborus orientalis</i>, which still
+grows abundantly near Aspraspitia, the ancient Anticyra, at the
+foot of Parnassus.</p>
+
+<p>The fauna is similar to that of the other Mediterranean peninsulas,
+and includes some species found in Asia Minor but not elsewhere in
+Europe. The lion existed in northern Greece in the time of
+Aristotle and at an earlier period in the Morea. The bear
+<span class="sidenote">Fauna.</span>
+is still found in the Pindus range. Wolves are common in all the
+mountainous regions and jackals are numerous in the Morea. Foxes
+are abundant in all parts of the country; the polecat is found in the
+woods of Attica and the Morea; the lynx is now rare. The wild
+boar is common in the mountains of northern Greece, but is almost
+extinct in the Peloponnesus. The badger, the marten and the
+weasel are found on the mainland and in the islands. The red
+deer, the fallow deer and the roe exist in northern Greece, but are
+becoming scarce. The otter is rare. Hares and rabbits are abundant
+in many parts of the country, especially in the Cyclades; the
+two species never occupy the same district, and in the Cyclades
+some islands (Naxos, Melos, Tenos, &amp;c.) form the exclusive domain
+of the hares, others (Seriphos, Kimolos, Mykonos, &amp;c.) of the rabbits.
+In Andros alone a demarcation has been arrived at, the hares retaining
+the northern and the rabbits the southern portion of the island.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span>
+The chamois is found in the higher mountains, such as Pindus,
+Parnassus and Tymphrestus. The Cretan <i>agrimi</i>, or wild goat
+(<i>Capra nubiana</i>, <i>C. aegagrus</i>), found in Antimelos and said to exist
+in Taygetus, the jackal, the stellion, and the chameleon are among
+the Asiatic species not found westward of Greece. There is a great
+variety of birds; of 358 species catalogued two-thirds are migratory.
+Among the birds of prey, which are very numerous, are the golden
+and imperial eagle, the yellow vulture, the <i>Gypaëtus barbatus</i>, and
+several species of falcons. The celebrated owl of Athena (<i>Athene
+noctua</i>) is becoming rare at Athens, but still haunts the Acropolis
+and the royal garden; it is a small species, found everywhere in Greece.
+The wild goose and duck, the bustard, partridge, woodcock, snipe,
+wood-pigeon and turtle-dove are numerous. Immense flocks of
+quails visit the southern coast of the Morea, where they are captured
+in great numbers and exported alive. The stork, which was
+common in the Turkish epoch, has now become scarce. There is a
+great variety of reptiles, of which sixty-one species have been
+catalogued. The saurians are all harmless; among them the
+stellion (<i>Stellio vulgaris</i>), commonly called <span class="grk" title="krokodeilos">&#954;&#961;&#959;&#954;&#972;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span> in Mykonos
+and Crete, is believed by Heldreich to have furnished a name to the
+crocodile of the Nile (Herod. ii. 69). There are five species of
+tortoise and nine of Amphibia. Of the serpents, which are numerous,
+there are only two dangerous species, the <i>Vipera ammodytes</i> and the
+<i>Vipera aspis</i>; the first-named is common. Among the marine
+fauna are the dolphins, familiar in the legends and sculpture of
+antiquity; in the clear water of the Aegean they often afford a
+beautiful spectacle as they play round ships; porpoises and whales
+are sometimes seen. Sea-fish, of which 246 species have been
+ascertained, are very abundant.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of Greece, like that of the other countries of the Balkan
+peninsula, is liable to greater extremes of heat and cold than prevail
+in Spain and Italy; the difference is due to the general
+contour of the peninsula, which assimilates its climatic
+<span class="sidenote">Climate.</span>
+conditions to those of the European mainland. Another distinctive
+feature is the great variety of local contrasts; the rapid transitions
+are the natural effect of diversity in the geographical configuration of
+the country. Within a few hours it is possible to pass from winter to
+spring and from spring to summer. The spring is short; the sun
+is already powerful in March, but the increasing warmth is often
+checked by cold northerly winds; in many places the corn harvest
+is cut in May, when southerly winds prevail and the temperature
+rises rapidly. The great heat of summer is tempered throughout the
+whole region of the archipelago by the Etesian winds, which blow
+regularly from the N.E. for forty to fifty days in July and August.
+This current of cool dry air from the north is due to the vacuum
+resulting from intense heat in the region of the Sahara. The healthy
+Etesian winds are generally replaced towards the end of summer by
+the southerly Libas or sirocco, which, when blowing strongly,
+resembles the blast from a furnace and is most injurious to health.
+The sirocco affects, though in a less degree, the other countries of
+the Balkan peninsula and even Rumania. The mean summer
+temperature is about 79° Fahr. The autumn is the least healthy
+season of the year owing to the great increase of humidity, especially
+in October and November. At the end of October snow reappears on
+the higher mountains, remaining on the summits till June. The
+winter is mild, and even in January there are, as a rule, many warm
+clear days; but the recurrence of biting northerly winds and cold
+blasts from the mountains, as well as the rapid transitions from heat
+to cold and the difference in the temperature of sunshine and shade,
+render the climate somewhat treacherous and unsuitable for invalids.
+Snow seldom falls in the maritime and lowland districts and frost is
+rare. The mean winter temperature is from 48° to 55° Fahr. The rainfall
+varies greatly according to localities; it is greatest in the Ionian
+Islands (53.34 ins. at Corfu), in Arcadia and in the other mountainous
+districts, and least on the Aegean littoral and in the Cyclades; in
+Attica, the driest region in Greece, it is 16.1 ins. The wettest
+months are November, December and January; the driest July
+and August, when, except for a few thunder-storms, there is practically
+no rainfall. The rain generally accompanies southerly or south-westerly
+winds. In all the maritime districts the sea breeze greatly
+modifies the temperature; it begins about 9 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, attains its maximum
+force soon after noon, and ceases about an hour after sunset. Greece
+is renowned for the clearness of its climate; fogs and mists are
+almost unknown. In most years, however, only four or five days
+are recorded in which the sky is perfectly cloudless. The natural
+healthiness of the climate is counteracted in the towns, especially
+in Athens, by deficient sanitation and by stifling clouds of dust,
+which propagate infection and are peculiarly hurtful in cases of
+ophthalmia and pulmonary disease. Malarial fever is endemic in
+the marshy districts, especially in the autumn.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The area of the country was 18,341 sq. m. before the acquisition
+of the Ionian Islands in 1864, 19,381 sq. m. prior to the annexation
+of Thessaly and part of Epirus in 1881, and
+24,552 sq. m. at the census in 1896. If we deduct 152
+<span class="sidenote">Area and population.</span>
+sq. m., the extent of territory ceded to Turkey after
+the war of 1897, the area of Greece in 1908 would be
+24,400 sq. m. Other authorities give 25,164 and 25,136 sq. m.
+as the area prior to the rectification of the frontier in 1898.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+The population in 1896 was 2,433,806, or 99.1 to the sq. m.,
+the population of the territories annexed in 1881 being approximately
+350,000; and 2,631,952 in 1907, or 107.8 to the sq. m.
+(according to the official estimate of the area), showing an
+increase of 198,146 or 0.81% per annum, as compared with
+1.61% during the period between 1896 and 1889; the diminished
+increase is mainly due to emigration. The population by sex
+in 1907 is given as 1,324,942 males and 1,307,010 females (or
+50.3% males to 49.6 females). The preponderance of males,
+which was 52% to 48% females in 1896, has also been reduced
+by emigration; it is most marked in the northern departments,
+especially in Larissa. Only in the departments of Arcadia,
+Eurytania, Corinth, Cephalonia, Lacedaemon, Laconia, Phocis,
+Argolis and in the Cyclades, is the female population in excess
+of the male.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Neither the census of 1896 nor that of 1889 gave any classification
+by professions, religion or language. The following figures, which
+are only approximate, were derived from unofficial sources in 1901:&mdash;agricultural
+and pastoral employments 444,000; industries 64,200;
+traders and their employés 118,000; labourers and servants 31,300;
+various professions 15,700; officials 12,000; clergy about 6000;
+lawyers 4000; physicians 2500. In 1879, 1,635,698 of the population
+were returned as Orthodox Christians, 14,677 as Catholics and
+Protestants, 2652 as Jews, and 740 as of other religions. The
+annexation of Thessaly and part of Epirus is stated to have added
+24,165 Mahommedan subjects to the Hellenic kingdom. A considerable
+portion of these, however, emigrated immediately after the
+annexation, and, although a certain number subsequently returned,
+the total Mahommedan population in Greece was estimated to be
+under 5000 in 1908. A number of the Christian inhabitants of these
+regions, estimated at about 50,000, retained Turkish nationality with
+the object of escaping military service. The Albanian population,
+estimated at 200,000 by Finlay in 1851, still probably exceeds
+120,000. It is gradually being absorbed in the Hellenic population.
+In 1870, 37,598 persons (an obviously untrustworthy figure) were
+returned as speaking Albanian only. In 1879 the number is given as
+58,858. The Vlach population, which has been increased by the
+annexation of Thessaly, numbers about 60,000. The number of
+foreign residents is unknown. The Italians are the most numerous,
+numbering about 11,000. Some 1500 persons, mostly Maltese,
+possess British nationality.</p>
+
+<p>By a law of 27 November 1899, Greece, which had hitherto been
+divided into sixteen departments (<span class="grk" title="nomoi">&#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#953;</span>) was redivided into twenty-six
+departments, as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2"><i>Departments.</i></td> <td class="tcc"><i>Pop.</i></td> <td class="tcc" colspan="2"><i>Departments.</i></td> <td class="tcc"><i>Pop.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcl">Attica</td> <td class="tcr">341,247</td> <td class="tcl">14</td> <td class="tcl">Corinth</td> <td class="tcr">71,229</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcl">Boeotia</td> <td class="tcr">65,816</td> <td class="tcl">15</td> <td class="tcl">Arcadia</td> <td class="tcr">162,324</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcl">Phthiotis</td> <td class="tcr">112,328</td> <td class="tcl">16</td> <td class="tcl">Achaea</td> <td class="tcr">150,918</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcl">Phocis</td> <td class="tcr">62,246</td> <td class="tcl">17</td> <td class="tcl">Elis</td> <td class="tcr">103,810</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcl">Aetolia and Acarnania</td> <td class="tcr">141,405</td> <td class="tcl">18</td> <td class="tcl">Triphylia</td> <td class="tcr">90,523</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcl">Eurytania</td> <td class="tcr">47,192</td> <td class="tcl">19</td> <td class="tcl">Messenia</td> <td class="tcr">127,991</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcl">Arta</td> <td class="tcr">41,280</td> <td class="tcl">20</td> <td class="tcl">Laconia</td> <td class="tcr">61,522</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcl">Trikkala</td> <td class="tcr">90,548</td> <td class="tcl">21</td> <td class="tcl">Lacedaemon</td> <td class="tcr">87,106</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcl">Karditsa</td> <td class="tcr">92,941</td> <td class="tcl">22</td> <td class="tcl">Corfu</td> <td class="tcr">99,571</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcl">Larissa</td> <td class="tcr">95,066</td> <td class="tcl">23</td> <td class="tcl">Cephalonia</td> <td class="tcr">71,235</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcl">Magnesia</td> <td class="tcr">102,742</td> <td class="tcl">24</td> <td class="tcl">Leucas (with Ithaca)</td> <td class="tcr">41,186</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcl">Euboea</td> <td class="tcr">116,903</td> <td class="tcl">25</td> <td class="tcl">Zante</td> <td class="tcr">42,502</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcl">Argolis</td> <td class="tcr">81,943</td> <td class="tcl">26</td> <td class="tcl">Cyclades</td> <td class="tcr">130,378</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The population is densest in the Ionian Islands, exceeding 307 per
+sq. m. The departments of Acarnania, Phocis and Euboea are the
+most thinly inhabited (about 58, 61 and 66 per sq. m. respectively).</p>
+
+<p>Very little information is obtainable with regard to the movement
+of the population; no register of births, deaths and marriages is
+kept in Greece. The only official statistics are found in the periodical
+returns of the mortality in the twelve principal towns, according to
+which the yearly average of deaths in these towns for the five years
+1903-1907 was approximately 10,253, or 23.8 per 1000; of these
+more than a quarter are ascribed to pulmonary consumption, due in
+the main to defective sanitation. Both the birth-rate and death-rate
+are low, being 27.6 and 20.7 per 1000 respectively. Infant mortality
+is slight, and in point of longevity Greece compares favourably with
+most other European countries. The number of illegitimate births
+is 12.25 per 1000; these are almost exclusively in the towns.</p>
+
+<p>Of the total population 28.5% are stated to live in towns. The
+population of the principal towns is:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">1896.&ensp;</td> <td class="tcr">1907.&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Athens</td> <td class="tcr">111,486</td> <td class="tcr">167,479</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Peiraeus</td> <td class="tcr">43,848</td> <td class="tcr">73,579</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Patras</td> <td class="tcr">37,985</td> <td class="tcr">37,724
+ <span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Trikkala</td> <td class="tcr">21,149</td> <td class="tcr">17,809</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hermopolis (Syra)</td> <td class="tcr">18,760</td> <td class="tcr">18,132</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Corfu</td> <td class="tcr">18,581</td> <td class="tcr">28,254*</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Volo</td> <td class="tcr">16,788</td> <td class="tcr">23,563</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Larissa</td> <td class="tcr">15,373</td> <td class="tcr">18,001</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Zante</td> <td class="tcr">14,906</td> <td class="tcr">13,580</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Kalamata</td> <td class="tcr">14,298</td> <td class="tcr">15,397</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Pyrgos</td> <td class="tcr">12,708</td> <td class="tcr">13,690</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tripolis</td> <td class="tcr">10,465</td> <td class="tcr">10,789</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Chalcis</td> <td class="tcr">8,661</td> <td class="tcr">10,958</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Laurium</td> <td class="tcr">7,926</td> <td class="tcr">10,007</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">&emsp;* Including suburbs.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>No trustworthy information is obtainable with regard to immigration
+and emigration, of which no statistics have ever been kept.
+Emigration, which was formerly in the main to Egypt and Rumania,
+is now almost exclusively to the United States of America. The
+principal exodus is from Arcadia, Laconia and Maina; the emigrants
+from these districts, estimated at about 14,000 annually, are for the
+most part young men approaching the age of military service. According
+to American statistics 12,431 Greeks arrived in the United
+States from Greece during the period 1869-1898 and 130,154 in
+1899-1907; a considerable number, however, have returned to
+Greece, and those remaining in the United States at the end of 1907
+were estimated at between 136,000 and 138,000; this number was
+considerably reduced in 1908 by remigration. Since 1896 the
+tendency to emigration has received a notable and somewhat
+alarming impulse. There is an increasing immigration into the
+towns from the rural districts, which are gradually becoming depopulated.
+Both movements are due in part to the preference of the
+Greeks for a town life and in part to distaste for military service,
+but in the main to the poverty of the peasant population, whose
+condition and interests have been neglected by the government.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Greece is inhabited by three races&mdash;the Greeks, the Albanians
+and the Vlachs. The Greeks who are by far the most numerous,
+have to a large extent absorbed the other races; the
+process of assimilation has been especially rapid since
+<span class="sidenote">Ethnology.</span>
+the foundation of the Greek kingdom. Like most
+European nations, the modern Greeks are a mixed race. The
+question of their origin has been the subject of much learned
+controversy; their presumed descent from the Greeks of the
+classical epoch has proved a national asset of great value;
+during the period of their struggle for independence it won
+them the devoted zeal of the Philhellenes, it inspired the
+enthusiasm of Byron, Victor Hugo, and a host of minor poets,
+and it has furnished a pleasing illusion to generations of scholarly
+tourists who delight to discover in the present inhabitants of the
+country the mental and physical characteristics with which they
+have been familiarized by the literature and art of antiquity.
+This amiable tendency is encouraged by the modern Greeks,
+who possess an implicit faith in their illustrious ancestry. The
+discussion of the question entered a very acrimonious stage with
+the appearance in 1830 of Fallmerayer&rsquo;s <i>History of the Morea
+during the Middle Ages</i>. Fallmerayer maintained that after
+the great Slavonic immigration at the close of the 8th century the
+original population of northern Greece and the Morea, which
+had already been much reduced during the Roman period, was
+practically supplanted by the Slavonic element and that the
+Greeks of modern times are in fact Byzantinized Slavs. This
+theory was subjected to exhaustive criticism by Ross, Hopf,
+Finlay and other scholars, and although many of Fallmerayer&rsquo;s
+conclusions remain unshaken, the view is now generally held that
+the base of the population both in the mainland and the Morea
+is Hellenic, not Slavonic. During the 5th and 6th centuries
+Greece had been subjected to Slavonic incursions which resulted
+in no permanent settlements. After the great plague of 746-747,
+however, large tracts of depopulated country were colonized
+by Slavonic immigrants; the towns remained in the hands of
+the Greeks, many of whom emigrated to Constantinople. In
+the Morea the Slavs established themselves principally in
+Arcadia and the region of Taygetus, extending their settlements
+into Achaia, Elis, Laconia and the promontory of Taenaron;
+on the mainland they occupied portions of Acarnania, Aetolia,
+Doris and Phocis. Slavonic place-names occurring in all these
+districts confirm the evidence of history with regard to this
+immigration. The Slavs, who were not a maritime race, did
+not colonize the Aegean Islands, but a few Slavonic place-names
+in Crete seem to indicate that some of the invaders reached that
+island. The Slavonic settlements in the Morea proved more
+permanent than those in northern Greece, which were attacked
+by the armies of the Byzantine emperors. But even in the
+Morea the Greeks, or &ldquo;Romans&rdquo; as they called themselves
+(<span class="grk" title="Rhômaioi">&#8172;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#8150;&#959;&#953;</span>), who had been left undisturbed on the eastern side of
+the peninsula, eventually absorbed the alien element, which
+disappeared after the 15th century. In addition to the place-names
+the only remaining traces of the Slav immigration are the
+Slavonic type of features, which occasionally recurs, especially
+among the Arcadian peasants, and a few customs and traditions.
+Even when allowance is made for the remarkable power of
+assimilation which the Greeks possessed in virtue of their
+superior civilization, it is difficult to resist the conclusion that the
+Hellenic element must always have been the most numerous in
+order to effect so complete an absorption. This element has
+apparently undergone no essential change since the epoch of
+Roman domination. The destructive invasions of the Goths in
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 267 and 395 introduced no new ethnic feature; the various
+races which during the middle ages obtained partial or complete
+mastery in Greece&mdash;the Franks, the Venetians, the Turks&mdash;contributed
+no appreciable ingredient to the mass of the population.
+The modern Greeks may therefore be regarded as in the
+main the descendants of the population which inhabited Greece
+in the earlier centuries of Byzantine rule. Owing to the operation
+of various causes, historical, social and economic, that
+population was composed of many heterogeneous elements and
+represented in a very limited degree the race which repulsed
+the Persians and built the Parthenon. The internecine conflicts
+of the Greek communities, wars with foreign powers and the
+deadly struggles of factions in the various cities, had to a large
+extent obliterated the old race of free citizens by the beginning
+of the Roman period. The extermination of the Plataeans by
+the Spartans and of the Melians by the Athenians during the
+Peloponnesian war, the proscription of Athenian citizens after
+the war, the massacre of the Corcyraean oligarchs by the
+democratic party, the slaughter of the Thebans by Alexander
+and of the Corinthians by Mummius, are among the more
+familiar instances of the catastrophes which overtook the civic
+element in the Greek cities; the void can only have been filled
+from the ranks of the metics or resident aliens and of the descendants
+of the far more numerous slave population. Of the latter
+a portion was of Hellenic origin; when a city was taken the
+males of military age were frequently put to the sword, but the
+women and children were sold as slaves; in Laconia and Thessaly
+there was a serf population of indigenous descent. In the classical
+period four-fifths of the population of Attica were slaves and of
+the remainder half were metics. In the Roman period the number
+of slaves enormously increased, the supply being maintained from
+the regions on the borders of the empire; the same influences
+which in Italy extinguished the small landed proprietors and
+created the <i>latifundia</i> prevailed also in Greece. The purely
+Hellenic population, now greatly diminished, congregated in the
+towns; the large estates which replaced the small freeholds
+were cultivated by slaves and managed or farmed by slaves or
+freedmen, and wide tracts of country were wholly depopulated.
+How greatly the free citizen element had diminished by the close
+of the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> may be judged from the estimate of
+Plutarch that all Greece could not furnish more than 3000
+hoplites. The composite population which replaced the ancient
+Hellenic stock became completely Hellenized. According to
+craniologists the modern Greeks are brachycephalous while
+the ancient race is stated to have been dolichocephalous, but it
+seems doubtful whether any such generalization with regard
+to the ancients can be conclusively established. The Aegean
+islanders are more brachycephalous than the inhabitants of the
+mainland, though apparently of purer Greek descent. No
+general conception of the facial type of the ancient race can be
+derived from the highly-idealized statues of deities, heroes and
+athletes; so far as can be judged from portrait statues it was
+very varied. Among the modern Greeks the same variety of
+features prevails; the face is usually oval, the nose generally
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span>
+long and somewhat aquiline, the teeth regular, and the eyes
+remarkably bright and full of animation. The country-folk are,
+as a rule, tall and well-made, though slightly built and rather
+meagre; their form is graceful and supple in movement. The
+urban population, as elsewhere, is physically very inferior.
+The women often display a refined and delicate beauty which
+disappears at an early age. The best physical types of the race
+are found in Arcadia, in the Aegean Islands and in Crete.</p>
+
+<p>The Albanian population extends over all Attica and Megaris
+(except the towns of Athens, Peiraeus and Megara), the greater
+part of Boeotia, the eastern districts of Locris, the southern half
+of Euboea and the northern side of Andros, the whole of the
+islands of Salamis, Hydra, Spetsae and Poros, and part of Aegina,
+the whole of Corinthia and Argolis, the northern districts of
+Arcadia and the eastern portion of Achaea. There are also small
+Albanian groups in Laconia and Messenia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Albania</a></span>). The
+Albanians, who call themselves <i>Shkyipetar</i>, and are called by
+the Greeks <i>Arvanitae</i> (<span class="grk" title="Arbanitai">&#7944;&#961;&#946;&#945;&#957;&#8150;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span>), belong to the Tosk or
+southern branch of the race; their immigration took place in
+the latter half of the 14th century. Their first settlements in the
+Morea were made in 1347-1355. The Albanian colonization was
+first checked by the Turks; in 1454 an Albanian insurrection in
+the Morea against Byzantine rule was crushed by the Turkish
+general Tura Khan, whose aid had been invoked by the Palaeologi.
+With a few exceptions, the Albanians in Greece retained
+their Christian faith after the Turkish conquest. The failure
+of the insurrection of 1770 was followed by a settlement of
+Moslem Albanians, who had been employed by the Turks to
+suppress the revolt. The Christian Albanians have long lived
+on good terms with the Greeks while retaining their own customs
+and language and rarely intermarrying with their neighbours.
+They played a brilliant part during the War of Independence,
+and furnished the Greeks with many of their most distinguished
+leaders. The process of their Hellenization, which scarcely
+began till after the establishment of the kingdom, has been
+somewhat slow; most of the men can now speak Greek, but
+Albanian is still the language of the household. The Albanians,
+who are mainly occupied with agriculture, are less quick-witted,
+less versatile, and less addicted to politics than the Greeks, who
+regard them as intellectually their inferiors. A vigorous and
+manly race, they furnish the best soldiers in the Greek army,
+and also make excellent sailors.</p>
+
+<p>The Vlachs, who call themselves <i>Aromâni</i>, <i>i.e.</i> Romans, form
+another important foreign element in the population of Greece.
+They are found principally in Pindus (the Agrapha district), the
+mountainous parts of Thessaly, Othrys, Oeta, the mountains
+of Boeotia, Aetolia and Acarnania; they have a few settlements
+in Euboea. They are for the most part either nomad shepherds
+and herdsmen or carriers (<i>kiradjis</i>). They apparently descend
+from the Latinized provincials of the Roman epoch who took
+refuge in the higher mountains from the incursions of the barbarians
+and Slavs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vlachs</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Macedonia</a></span>). In the 13th
+century the Vlach principality of &ldquo;Great Walachia&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="Megalê
+Blachia">&#924;&#949;&#947;&#940;&#955;&#951; &#914;&#955;&#945;&#967;&#943;&#945;</span>) included Thessaly and southern Macedonia as far as
+Castoria; its capital was at Hypati near Lamia. Acarnania
+and Aetolia were known as &ldquo;Lesser Walachia.&rdquo; The urban
+element among the Vlachs has been almost completely Hellenized;
+it has always displayed great aptitude for commerce, and Athens
+owes many of its handsomest buildings to the benefactions
+of wealthy Vlach merchants. The nomad population in the
+mountains has retained its distinctive nationality and customs
+together with its Latin language, though most of the men can
+speak Greek. Like the Albanians, the pastoral Vlachs seldom
+intermarry with the Greeks; they occasionally take Greek wives,
+but never give their daughters to Greeks; many of them are
+illiterate, and their children rarely attend the schools. Owing
+to their deficient intellectual culture they are regarded with
+disdain by the Greeks, who employ the term <span class="grk" title="blachos">&#946;&#955;&#940;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span> to denote
+not only a shepherd but an ignorant rustic.</p>
+
+<p>A considerable Italian element was introduced into the Ionian
+Islands during the middle ages owing to their prolonged subjection
+to Latin princes and subsequently (till 1797) to the
+Venetian republic. The Italians intermarried with the Greeks;
+Italian became the language of the upper classes, and Roman
+Catholicism was declared the state religion. The peasantry,
+however, retained the Greek language and remained faithful to
+the Eastern Church; during the past century the Italian element
+was completely absorbed by the Greek population.</p>
+
+<p>The Turkish population in Greece, which numbered about
+70,000 before the war of liberation, disappeared in the course
+of the struggle or emigrated at its conclusion. The Turks in
+Thessaly are mainly descended either from colonists established
+in the country by the Byzantine emperors or from immigrants
+from Asia Minor, who arrived at the end of the 14th century;
+they derive their name Konariots from Iconium (Konia). Many
+of the beys or land-owning class are the lineal representatives
+of the Seljuk nobles who obtained fiefs under the feudal system
+introduced here and in Macedonia by the Sultan Bayezid I.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding their composite origin, their wide geographical
+distribution and their cosmopolitan instincts, the
+modern Greeks are a remarkably homogeneous people,
+differing markedly in character from neighbouring
+<span class="sidenote">National character.</span>
+races, united by a common enthusiasm in the pursuit
+of their national aims, and profoundly convinced of their
+superiority to other nations. Their distinctive character,
+combined with their traditional tendency to regard non-Hellenic
+peoples as barbarous, has, indeed, to some extent counteracted
+the results of their great energy and zeal in the assimilation of
+other races; the advantageous position which they attained at
+an early period under Turkish rule owing to their superior
+civilization, their versatility, their wealth, and their monopoly
+of the ecclesiastical power would probably have enabled them to
+Hellenize permanently the greater part of the Balkan peninsula
+had their attitude towards other Christian races been more
+sympathetic. Always the most civilized race in the East, they
+have successively influenced their Macedonian, Roman and
+Turkish conquerors, and their remarkable intellectual endowments
+bid fair to secure them a brilliant position in the future.
+The intense patriotic zeal of the Greeks may be compared with
+that of the Hungarians; it is liable to degenerate into arrogance
+and intolerance; it sometimes blinds their judgment and involves
+them in ill-considered enterprises, but it nevertheless offers the
+best guarantee for the ultimate attainment of their national
+aims. All Greeks, in whatever country they may reside, work
+together for the realization of the Great Idea (<span class="grk" title="hê Megalê Idea">&#7969; &#924;&#949;&#947;&#940;&#955;&#951; &#7992;&#948;&#941;&#945;</span>)&mdash;the
+supremacy of Hellenism in the East&mdash;and to this object they
+freely devote their time, their wealth and their talents; the
+large fortunes which they amass abroad are often bequeathed
+for the foundation of various institutions in Greece or Turkey,
+for the increase of the national fleet and army, or for the spread
+of Hellenic influence in the Levant. This patriotic sentiment is
+unfortunately much exploited by self-seeking demagogues and
+publicists, who rival each other in exaggerating the national
+pretensions and in pandering to the national vanity. In no other
+country is the passion for politics so intense; &ldquo;keen political
+discussions are constantly going on at the cafés; the newspapers,
+which are extraordinarily numerous and generally of little value,
+are literally devoured, and every measure of the government is
+violently criticized and ascribed to interested motives.&rdquo; The
+influence of the journals is enormous; even the waiters in the
+cafés and domestic servants have their favourite newspaper,
+and discourse fluently on the political problems of the day.
+Much of the national energy is wasted by this continued political
+fever; it is diverted from practical aims, and may be said to
+evaporate in words. The practice of independent criticism
+tends to indiscipline in the organized public services; it has
+been remarked that every Greek soldier is a general and every
+sailor an admiral. During the war of 1897 a young naval
+lieutenant telegraphed to the minister of war condemning the
+measures taken by his admiral, and his action was applauded
+by several journals. There is also little discipline in the ranks
+of political parties, which are held together, not by any definite
+principle, but by the personal influence of the leaders; defections
+are frequent, and as a rule each deputy in the Chamber makes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span>
+his terms with his chief. On the other hand, the independent
+character of the Greeks is favourably illustrated by the circumstance
+that Greece is the only country in the Balkan peninsula
+in which the government cannot count on securing a majority
+by official pressure at the elections. Few scruples are observed
+in political warfare, but attacks on private life are rare. The
+love of free discussion is inherent in the strongly-rooted democratic
+instinct of the Greeks. They are in spirit the most democratic
+of European peoples; no trace of Latin feudalism survives,
+and aristocratic pretensions are ridiculed. In social life there
+is no artificial distinction of classes; all titles of nobility are
+forbidden; a few families descended from the chiefs in the
+War of Independence enjoy a certain pre-eminence, but wealth
+and, still more, political or literary notoriety constitute the
+principal claim to social consideration. The Greeks display great
+intellectual vivacity; they are clever, inquisitive, quick-witted
+and ingenious, but not profound; sustained mental industry
+and careful accuracy are distasteful to them, and their aversion
+to manual labour is still more marked. Even the agricultural
+class is but moderately industrious; abundant opportunities
+for relaxation are provided by the numerous church festivals.
+The desire for instruction is intense even in the lowest ranks
+of the community; rhetorical and literary accomplishments
+possess a greater attraction for the majority than the fields of
+modern science. The number of persons who seek to qualify
+for the learned professions is excessive; they form a superfluous
+element in the community, an educated proletariat, attaching
+themselves to the various political parties in the hope of obtaining
+state employment and spending an idle existence in the cafés
+and the streets when their party is out of power. In disposition
+the Greeks are lively, cheerful, plausible, tactful, sympathetic;
+very affable with strangers, hospitable, kind to their servants
+and dependants, remarkably temperate and frugal in their
+habits, amiable and united in family life. Drunkenness is
+almost unknown, thrift is universally practised; the standard
+of sexual morality is high, especially in the rural districts, where
+illegitimacy is extremely rare. The faults of the Greeks must
+in a large degree be attributed to their prolonged subjection to
+alien races; their cleverness often degenerates into cunning,
+their ready invention into mendacity, their thrift into avarice,
+their fertility of resource into trickery and fraud. Dishonesty
+is not a national vice, but many who would scorn to steal will
+not hesitate to compass illicit gains by duplicity and misrepresentation;
+deceit, indeed, is often practised gratuitously for
+the mere intellectual satisfaction which it affords. In the
+astuteness of their monetary dealings the Greeks proverbially
+surpass the Jews, but fall short of the Armenians; their remarkable
+aptitude for business is sometimes marred by a certain
+short-sightedness which pursues immediate profits at the cost
+of ulterior advantages. Their vanity and egoism, which are
+admitted by even the most favourable observers, render them
+jealous, exacting, and peculiarly susceptible to flattery. In
+common with other southern European peoples the Greeks are
+extremely excitable; their passionate disposition is prone to take
+offence at slight provocation, and trivial quarrels not infrequently
+result in homicide. They are religious, but by no means
+fanatical, except in regard to politico-religious questions affecting
+their national aims. In general the Greeks may be described
+as a clever, ambitious and versatile people, capable of great
+effort and sacrifice, but deficient in some of the more solid
+qualities which make for national greatness.</p>
+
+<p>The customs and habits of the Greek peasantry, in which
+the observances of the classical age may often be traced, together
+with their legends and traditions, have furnished an
+interesting subject of investigation to many writers
+<span class="sidenote">Customs.</span>
+(see <i>Bibliography</i> below). In the towns the more cosmopolitan
+population has largely adopted the &ldquo;European&rdquo; mode of life,
+and the upper classes show a marked preference for French
+manners and usages. In both town and country, however, the
+influence of oriental ideas is still apparent, due in part to the
+long period of Turkish domination, in part to the contact of
+the Greeks with Asiatic races at all epochs of their history. In
+the rural districts, especially, the women lead a somewhat
+secluded life and occupy a subject position; they wait at table,
+and only partake of the meal when the men of the family have
+been served. In most parts of continental Greece the women
+work in the fields, but in the Aegean Islands and Crete they rarely
+leave the house. Like the Turks, the Greeks have a great
+partiality for coffee, which can always be procured even in the
+remotest hamlets; the Turkish practice of carrying a string of
+beads or rosary (<i>comboloio</i>), which provides an occupation for
+the hands, is very common. Many of the observances in connexion
+with births, christenings, weddings and funerals are very
+interesting and in some cases are evidently derived from remote
+antiquity. Nuptial ceremonies are elaborate and protracted;
+in some of the islands of the archipelago they continue for three
+weeks. In the preliminary negotiations for a marriage the
+question of the bride&rsquo;s dowry plays a very important part; a
+girl without a dowry often remains unmarried, notwithstanding
+the considerable excess of the male over the female population.
+Immediately after the christening of a female child her parents begin
+to lay up her portion, and young men often refrain from marrying
+until their sisters have been settled in life. The dead are carried
+to the tomb in an open coffin; in the country districts professional
+mourners are engaged to chant dirges; the body is washed
+with wine and crowned with a wreath of flowers. A valedictory
+oration is pronounced at the grave. Many superstitions still
+prevail among the peasantry; the belief in the vampire and the
+evil eye is almost universal. At Athens and in the larger towns
+many handsome dwelling-houses may be seen, but the upper
+classes have no predilection for rural life, and their country
+houses are usually mere farmsteads, which they rarely visit.
+In the more fertile districts two-storeyed houses of the modern
+type are common, but in the mountainous regions the habitations
+of the country-folk are extremely primitive; the small
+stone-built hut, almost destitute of furniture, shelters not only
+the family but its cattle and domestic animals. In Attica the
+peasants&rsquo; houses are usually built of cob. In Maina the villagers
+live in fortified towers of three or more storeys; the animals
+occupy the ground floor, the family the topmost storey; the
+intermediate space serves as a granary or hay-loft. The walls
+are loop-holed for purposes of defence in view of the traditional
+vendetta and feuds, which in some instances have been handed
+down from remote generations and are maintained by occasional
+sharp-shooting from these primitive fortresses. In general
+cleanliness and sanitation are much neglected; the traveller in
+the country districts is doomed to sleepless nights unless he has
+provided himself with bedding and a hammock. Even Athens,
+though enriched by many munificent benefactions, is still without
+a drainage system or an adequate water supply; the sewers of
+many houses open into the streets, in which rubbish is allowed
+to accumulate. The effects of insanitary conditions are, however,
+counteracted in some degree by the excellent climate.
+The Aegean islanders contrast favourably with the continentals
+in point of personal cleanliness and the neatness of their dwellings;
+their houses are generally covered with the flat roof, familiar
+in Asia, on which the family sleep in summer. The habits and
+customs of the islanders afford an interesting study. Propitiatory
+rites are still practised by the mariners and fishermen, and thank-offerings
+for preservation at sea are hung up in the churches.
+Among the popular amusements of the Greeks dancing holds a
+prominent place; the dance is of various kinds; the most usual
+is the somewhat inanimate round dance (<span class="grk" title="syrto">&#963;&#965;&#961;&#964;&#972;</span> or <span class="grk" title="trata">&#964;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#945;</span>), in
+which a number of persons, usually of the same sex, take part
+holding hands; it seems indentical with the Slavonic <i>kolo</i>
+(&ldquo;circle&rdquo;). The more lively Albanian fling is generally danced
+by three or four persons, one of whom executes a series of leaps
+and pirouettes. The national music is primitive and monotonous.
+All classes are passionately addicted to card-playing, which is
+forbidden by law in places of public resort. The picturesque
+national costume, which is derived from the Albanian Tosks,
+has unfortunately been abandoned by the upper classes and the
+urban population since the abdication of King Otho, who always
+wore it; it is maintained as the uniform of the <i>euzones</i> (highland
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span>
+regiments). It consists of a red cap with dark blue tassel, a
+white shirt with wide sleeves, a vest and jacket, sometimes of
+velvet, handsomely adorned with gold or black braid, a belt in
+which various weapons are carried, a white kilt or <i>fustanella</i> of
+many folds, white hose tied with garters, and red leather shoes
+with pointed ends, from which a tassel depends. Over all is worn
+the shaggy white <i>capote</i>. The islanders wear a dark blue costume
+with a crimson waistband, loose trousers descending to the knee,
+stockings and pumps or long boots. The women&rsquo;s costume is
+very varied; the loose red fez is sometimes worn and a short
+velvet jacket with rich gold embroidery. The more elderly
+women are generally attired in black. In the Megara district
+and elsewhere peasant girls wear on festive occasions a headdress
+composed of strings of coins which formerly represented
+the dowry.</p>
+
+<p>Greece is a constitutional monarchy; hereditary in the male
+line, or, in case of its extinction, in the female. The sovereign,
+by decision of the conference of London (August 1863),
+is styled &ldquo;king of the Hellenes&rdquo;; the title &ldquo;king
+<span class="sidenote">Government.</span>
+of Greece&rdquo; was borne by King Otho. The heir
+apparent is styled <span class="grk" title="ho diadochos">&#8001; &#948;&#953;&#940;&#948;&#959;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;the successor&rdquo;; the title
+&ldquo;duke of Sparta,&rdquo; which has been accorded to the crown prince,
+is not generally employed in Greece. The king and the heir
+apparent must belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; a special
+exception has been made for King George, who is a Lutheran.
+The king attains his majority on completing his eighteenth year;
+before ascending the throne he must take the oath to the constitution
+in presence of the principal ecclesiastical and lay
+dignitaries of the kingdom, and must convoke the Chamber
+within two months after his accession. The civil list amounts
+to 1,125,000 dr., in addition to which it was provided that King
+George should receive £4000 annually as a personal allowance
+from each of the three protecting powers, Great Britain, France
+and Russia. The heir apparent receives from the state an
+annuity of 200,000 dr. The king has a palace at Athens and
+other residences at Corfu, Tatoi (on the slopes of Mt Parnes)
+and Larissa. The present constitution dates from the 29th of
+October 1864. The legislative power is shared by the king with
+a single chamber (<span class="grk" title="boulê">&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#942;</span>) elected by manhood suffrage for a
+period of four years. The election is by ballot; candidates
+must have completed their thirtieth year and electors their
+twenty-first. The deputies (<span class="grk" title="bouleutai">&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#949;&#965;&#964;&#945;&#943;</span>), according to the
+constitution, receive only their travelling expenses, but they
+vote themselves a payment of 1800 dr. each for the session and
+a further allowance in case of an extraordinary session. The
+Chamber sits for a term of not less than three or more than six
+months. No law can be passed except by an absolute majority
+of the house, and one-half of the members must be present to
+form a quorum; these arrangements have greatly facilitated the
+practice of obstruction, and often enable individual deputies
+to impose terms on the government for their attendance. In
+1898 the number of deputies was 234. Some years previously
+a law diminishing the national representation and enlarging
+the constituencies was passed by Trikoupis with the object
+of checking the local influence of electors upon deputies, but
+the measure was subsequently repealed. The number of deputies,
+however, who had hitherto been elected in the proportion of one
+to twelve thousand of the population, was reduced in 1905,
+when the proportion of one to sixteen thousand was substituted;
+the Chamber of 1906, elected under the new system, consisted
+of 177 deputies. In 1906 the electoral districts were diminished
+in number and enlarged so as to coincide with the twenty-six
+administrative departments (<span class="grk" title="nomoi">&#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#953;</span>); the reduction of these
+departments to their former number of sixteen, which is in
+contemplation, will bring about some further diminution in
+parliamentary representation. It is hoped that recent legislation
+will tend to check the pernicious practice of bartering personal
+favours, known as <span class="grk" title="synallagê">&#963;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#945;&#947;&#942;</span>, which still prevails to the great
+detriment of public morality, paralysing all branches of the
+administration and wasting the resources of the state. Political
+parties are formed not for the furtherance of any principle or
+cause, but with the object of obtaining the spoils of office, and
+the various groups, possessing no party watchword or programme,
+frankly designate themselves by the names of their leaders.
+Even the strongest government is compelled to bargain with its
+supporters in regard to the distribution of patronage and other
+favours. The consequent instability of successive ministries
+has retarded useful legislation and seriously checked the national
+progress. In 1906 a law was passed disqualifying junior officers
+of the army and navy for membership of the Chamber; great
+numbers of these had hitherto been candidates at every election.
+This much-needed measure had previously been passed by
+Trikoupis, but had been repealed by his rival Delyannes. The
+executive is vested in the king, who is personally irresponsible,
+and governs through ministers chosen by himself and responsible
+to the Chamber, of which they are <i>ex-officio</i> members. He
+appoints all public officials, sanctions and proclaims laws,
+convokes, prorogues and dissolves the Chamber, grants pardon
+or amnesty, coins money and confers decorations. There are
+seven ministries which respectively control the departments
+of foreign affairs, the interior, justice, finance, education and
+worship, the army and the navy.</p>
+
+<p>The 26 departments or <span class="grk" title="nomoi">&#957;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#943;</span>, into which the country is divided
+for administrative purposes, are each under a prefect or nomarch
+(<span class="grk" title="nomarchos">&#957;&#972;&#956;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>); they are subdivided into 69 districts or
+eparchies, and into 445 communes or demes (<span class="grk" title="dêmoi">&#948;&#8134;&#956;&#959;&#953;</span>)
+<span class="sidenote">Local Administration.</span>
+under mayors or demarchs (<span class="grk" title="dêmarchoi">&#948;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#953;</span>). The prefects
+and sub-prefects are nominated by the government;
+the mayors are elected by the communes for a period of four
+years. The prefects are assisted by a departmental council,
+elected by the population, which manages local business and
+assesses rates; there are also communal councils under the
+presidency of the mayors. There are altogether some 12,000
+state-paid officials in the country, most of them inadequately
+remunerated and liable to removal or transferral upon a change
+of government. A host of office-seekers has thus been created,
+and large numbers of educated persons spend many years in
+idleness or in political agitation. A law passed in 1905 secures
+tenure of office to civil servants of fifteen years&rsquo; standing, and
+some restrictions have been placed on the dismissal and transferral
+of schoolmasters.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Turks the Greeks retained, together with their
+ecclesiastical institutions, a certain measure of local self-government
+and judicial independence. The Byzantine code,
+based on the Roman, as embodied in the <span class="grk" title="Hexabiblos">&#7961;&#958;&#940;&#946;&#953;&#946;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>
+<span class="sidenote">Justice.</span>
+of Armenopoulos (1345), was sanctioned by royal decree in 1835
+with some modifications as the civil law of Greece. Further
+modifications and new enactments were subsequently introduced,
+derived from the old French and Bavarian systems. The penal
+code is Bavarian, the commercial French. Liberty of person
+and domicile is inviolate; no arrest can be made, no house
+entered, and no letter opened without a judicial warrant. Trial
+by jury is established for criminal, political and press offences.
+A new civil code, based on Saxon and Italian law, has been
+drawn up by a commission of jurists, but it has not yet been
+considered by the Chamber. A separate civil code, partly French,
+partly Italian, is in force in the Ionian Islands. The law is
+administered by 1 court of cassation (styled the &ldquo;Areopagus&rdquo;),
+5 courts of appeal, 26 courts of first instance, 233 justices of the
+peace and 19 correctional tribunals.</p>
+
+<p>The judges, who are appointed by the Crown, are liable to
+removal by the minister of justice, whose exercise of this right
+is often invoked by political partisans. The administration of
+justice suffers in consequence, more especially in the country
+districts, where the judges must reckon with the influential
+politicians and their adherents. The pardon or release of a
+convicted criminal is not infrequently due to pressure on the part
+of some powerful patron. The lamentable effects of this system
+have long been recognized, and in 1906 a law was introduced
+securing tenure of office for two or four years to judges of the
+courts of first instance and of the inferior tribunals. In the
+circumstances crime is less rife than might be expected; the
+temperate habits of the Greeks have conduced to this result.
+A serious feature is the great prevalence of homicide, due in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span>
+part to the passionate character of the people, but still more to
+the almost universal practice of carrying weapons. The traditions
+of the vendetta are almost extinct in the Ionian Islands,
+but still linger in Maina, where family feuds are transmitted
+from generation to generation. The brigand of the old-fashioned
+type (<span class="grk" title="lêstês, klephtês">&#955;&#8131;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#962;, &#954;&#955;&#941;&#966;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>) has almost disappeared, except in the
+remoter country districts, and piracy, once so prevalent in the
+Aegean, has been practically suppressed, but numbers of outlaws
+or absconding criminals (<span class="grk" title="phygodikoi">&#966;&#965;&#947;&#972;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#953;</span>) still haunt the mountains,
+and the efforts of the police to bring them to justice are far from
+successful. Their ranks were considerably increased after the
+war of 1897, when many deserters from the army and adventurers
+who came to Greece as volunteers betook themselves to a predatory
+life. On the other hand, there is no habitually criminal
+class in Greece, such as exists in the large centres of civilization,
+and professional mendicancy is still rare.</p>
+
+<p>Police duties, for which officers and, in some cases, soldiers
+of the regular army were formerly employed, are since 1906
+carried out by a reorganized gendarmerie force of 194 officers
+and 6344 non-commissioned officers and men, distributed in
+the twenty-six departments and commanded by an inspector-general
+resident at Athens, who is aided by a consultative commission.
+There are male and female prisons at all the departmental
+centres; the number of prisoners in 1906 was 5705.
+Except in the Ionian Islands, the general condition of the prisons
+is deplorable; discipline and sanitation are very deficient, and
+conflicts among the prisoners are sometimes reported in which
+knives and even revolvers are employed. A good prison has
+been built near Athens by Andreas Syngros, and a reformatory
+for juvenile offenders (<span class="grk" title="ephêbeion">&#7952;&#966;&#951;&#946;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>) has been founded by George
+Averoff, another national benefactor. Capital sentences are
+usually commuted to penal servitude for life; executions, for
+which the guillotine is employed, are for the most part carried
+out on the island of Bourzi near Nauplia; they are often postponed
+for months or even for years. There is no enactment
+resembling the Habeas Corpus Act, and accused persons may
+be detained indefinitely before trial. The Greeks, like the other
+nations liberated from Turkish rule, are somewhat litigious, and
+numbers of lawyers find occupation even in the smaller country
+towns.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks, an intelligent people, have always shown a remarkable
+zeal for learning, and popular education has made great
+strides. So eager is the desire for instruction that
+schools are often founded in the rural districts on the
+<span class="sidenote">Education.</span>
+initiative of the villagers, and the sons of peasants,
+artisans and small shopkeepers come in numbers to Athens,
+where they support themselves by domestic service or other
+humble occupations in order to study at the university during
+their spare hours. Almost immediately after the accession of
+King Otho steps were taken to establish elementary schools in
+all the communes, and education was made obligatory. The
+law is not very rigorously applied in the remoter districts, but
+its enforcement is scarcely necessary. In 1898 there were 2914
+&ldquo;demotic&rdquo; or primary schools, with 3465 teachers, attended by
+129,210 boys (5.38% of the population) and 29,119 girls (1.19%
+of the population). By a law passed in 1905 the primary schools,
+which had reached the number of 3359 in that year, were reduced
+to 2604. The expenditure on primary schools is nominally
+sustained by the communes, but in reality by the government
+in the form of advances to the communes, which are not repaid;
+it was reduced in 1905 from upwards of 7,000,000 dr. to under
+6,000,000 dr. In 1905 there were 306 &ldquo;Hellenic&rdquo; or secondary
+schools, with 819 teachers and 21,575 pupils (boys only) maintained
+by the state at a cost of 1,720,096 dr.; and 39 higher
+schools, or gymnasia, with 261 masters and 6485 pupils, partly
+maintained by the state (expenditure 615,600 dr.) and partly
+by benefactions and other means. Besides these public schools
+there are several private educational institutions, of which there
+are eight at Athens with 650 pupils. The Polytechnic Institute
+of Athens affords technical instruction in the departments of art
+and science to 221 students. Scientific agricultural instruction
+has been much neglected; there is an agricultural school at
+Aïdinion in Thessaly with 40 pupils; there are eight agricultural
+stations (<span class="grk" title="stathmoi">&#963;&#964;&#945;&#952;&#956;&#959;&#943;</span>) in various parts of the country. There are
+two theological seminaries&mdash;the Rizari School at Athens (120
+pupils) and a preparatory school at Arta; three other seminaries
+have been suppressed. The Commercial and Industrial Academy
+at Athens (about 225 pupils), a private institution, has proved
+highly useful to the country; there are four commercial schools,
+each in one of the country towns. A large school for females
+at Athens, the Arsakíon, is attended by 1500 girls. There are
+several military and naval schools, including the military college
+of the Euelpides at Athens and the school of naval cadets (<span class="grk" title="tôn
+dokimôn">&#964;&#8182;&#957; &#948;&#959;&#954;&#943;&#956;&#969;&#957;</span>). The university of Athens in 1905 numbered 57
+professors and 2598 students, of whom 557 were from abroad.
+Of the six faculties, theology numbered 79 students, law 1467,
+medicine 567, arts 206, physics and mathematics 192, and
+pharmacy 87. The university receives a subvention from the
+state, which in 1905 amounted to 563,960 dr.; it possesses
+a library of over 150,000 volumes and geological, zoological and
+botanical museums. A small tax on university education was
+imposed in 1903; the total cost to the student for the four years&rsquo;
+course at the university is about £25. Higher education is
+practically gratuitous in Greece, and there is a somewhat ominous
+increase in the number of educated persons who disdain agricultural
+pursuits and manual labour. The intellectual culture
+acquired is too often of a superficial character owing to the
+tendency to sacrifice scientific thoroughness and accuracy, to
+neglect the more useful branches of knowledge, and to aim at a
+showy dialectic and literary proficiency. (For the native and
+foreign archaeological institutions see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The Greek branch of the Orthodox Eastern Church is practically
+independent, like those of Servia, Montenegro and Rumania,
+though nominally subject to the patriarchate of
+Constantinople. The jurisdiction of the patriarch
+<span class="sidenote">Religion.</span>
+was in fact repudiated in 1833, when the king was declared the
+supreme head of the church, and the severance was completed
+in 1850. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of the
+Ministry of Education. Church government is vested in the
+Holy Synod, a council of five ecclesiastics under the presidency
+of the metropolitan of Athens; its sittings are attended by a
+royal commissioner. The church can invoke the aid of the civil
+authorities for the punishment of heresy and the suppression of
+unorthodox literature, pictures, &amp;c. There were formerly 21
+archbishoprics and 29 bishoprics in Greece, but a law passed in
+1899 suppressed the archbishoprics (except the metropolitan
+see of Athens) on the death of the existing prelates, and fixed
+the total number of sees at 32. The prelates derive their incomes
+partly from the state and partly from the church lands. There
+are about 5500 priests, who belong for the most part to the
+poorest classes. The parochial clergy have no fixed stipends,
+and often resort to agriculture or small trading in order to
+supplement the scanty fees earned by their ministrations. Owing
+to their lack of education their personal influence over their
+parishioners is seldom considerable. In addition to the parochial
+clergy there are 19 preachers (<span class="grk" title="hierokêrukes">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#954;&#942;&#961;&#965;&#954;&#949;&#962;</span>) salaried by the state.
+There are 170 monasteries and 4 nunneries in Greece, with about
+1600 monks and 250 nuns. In regard to their constitution the
+monasteries are either &ldquo;idiorrhythmic&rdquo; or &ldquo;coenobian&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athos</a></span>); the monks (<span class="grk" title="kalogeroi">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#972;&#947;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#953;</span>) are in some cases assisted
+by lay brothers (<span class="grk" title="kosmikoi">&#954;&#959;&#963;&#956;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#943;</span>). More than 300 of the smaller
+monasteries were suppressed in 1829 and their revenues secularized.
+Among the more important and interesting monasteries
+are those of Megaspelaeon and Lavra (where the standard of
+insurrection, unfurled in 1821, is preserved) near Kalavryta,
+St Luke of Stiris near Arachova, Daphne and Penteli near Athens,
+and the Meteora group in northern Thessaly. The bishops, who
+must be unmarried, are as a rule selected from the monastic
+order and are nominated by the king; the parish priests are
+allowed to marry, but the remarriage of widowers is forbidden.
+The bulk of the population, about 2,000,000, belongs to the
+Orthodox Church; other Christian confessions number about
+15,000, the great majority being Roman Catholics. The Roman
+Catholics (principally in Naxos and the Cyclades) have three
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span>
+archbisboprics (Athens, Naxos and Corfu), five bishoprics and about
+60 churches. The Jews, who are regarded with much hostility,
+have almost disappeared from the Greek mainland; they now
+number about 5000, and are found principally at Corfu. The
+Mahommedans are confined to Thessaly except a few at Chalcis.
+National sentiment is a more powerful factor than personal
+religious conviction in the attachment of the Greeks to the
+Orthodox Church; a Greek without the pale of the church is
+more or less an alien. The Catholic Greeks of Syros sided with
+the Turks at the time of the revolution; the Mahommedans of
+Crete, though of pure Greek descent, have always been hostile
+to their Christian fellow-countrymen and are commonly called
+Turks. On the other hand, that portion of the Macedonian
+population which acknowledges the patriarch of Constantinople
+is regarded as Greek, while that which adheres to the Bulgarian
+exarchate, though differing in no point of doctrine, has been
+declared schismatic. The constitution of 1864 guarantees
+toleration to all creeds in Greece and imposes no civil disabilities
+on account of religion.</p>
+
+<p>Greece is essentially an agricultural country; its prosperity
+depends on its agricultural products, and more than half the
+population is occupied in the cultivation of the soil
+and kindred pursuits. The land in the plains and
+<span class="sidenote">Agriculture.</span>
+valleys is exceedingly rich, and, wherever there is
+a sufficiency of water, produces magnificent crops. Cereals
+nevertheless furnish the principal figure in the list of imports,
+the annual value being about 30,000,000 fr. The country,
+especially since the acquisition of the fertile province of Thessaly,
+might under a well-developed agricultural system provide a
+food-supply for all its inhabitants and an abundant surplus
+for exportation. Thessaly alone, indeed, could furnish cereals
+for the whole of Greece. Unfortunately, however, agriculture
+is still in a primitive state, and the condition of the rural population
+has received very inadequate attention from successive
+governments. The wooden plough of the Hesiodic type is still
+in use, especially in Thessaly; modern implements, however,
+are being gradually introduced. The employment of manure
+and the rotation of crops are almost unknown; the fields are
+generally allowed to lie fallow in alternate years. As a rule,
+countries dependent on agriculture are liable to sudden fluctuations
+in prosperity, but in Greece the diversity of products is so
+great that a failure in one class of crops is usually compensated
+by exceptional abundance in another. Among the causes which
+have hitherto retarded agricultural progress are the ignorance
+and conservatism of the peasantry, antiquated methods of
+cultivation, want of capital, absentee proprietorship, sparsity
+of population, bad roads, the prevalence of usury, the uncertainty
+of boundaries and the land tax, which, in the absence of a survey,
+is levied on ploughing oxen; to these may be added the insecurity
+hitherto prevailing in many of the country districts
+and the growing distaste for rural life which has accompanied
+the spread of education. Large estates are managed under the
+metayer system; the cultivator paying the proprietor from
+one-third to half of the gross produce; the landlords, who
+prefer to live in the larger towns, see little of their tenants, and
+rarely interest themselves in their welfare. A great proportion
+of the best arable land in Thessaly is owned by persons who
+reside permanently out of the country. The great estates in
+this province extend over some 1,500,000 acres, of which about
+500,000 are cultivated. In the Peloponnesus peasant proprietorship
+is almost universal; elsewhere it is gradually supplanting
+the metayer system; the small properties vary from 2 or 3 to
+50 acres. The extensive state lands, about one-third of the
+area of Greece, were formerly the property of Mahommedan
+religious communities (<i>vakoufs</i>); they are for the most part
+farmed out annually by auction. They have been much encroached
+upon by neighbouring owners; a considerable portion
+has also been sold to the peasants. The rich plain of Thessaly
+suffers from alternate droughts and inundations, and from the
+ravages of field mice; with improved cultivation, drainage
+and irrigation it might be rendered enormously productive.
+A commission has been occupied for some years in preparing
+a scheme of hydraulic works. Usury is, perhaps, a greater
+scourge to the rural population than any visitation of nature;
+the institution of agricultural banks, lending money at a fair
+rate of interest on the security of their land, would do much
+to rescue the peasants from the clutches of local Shylocks.
+There is a difficulty, however, in establishing any system of
+land credit owing to the lack of a survey. Since 1897 a law
+passed in 1882 limiting the rate of interest to 8% (to 9% in the
+case of commercial debts) has to some extent been enforced by
+the tribunals. In the Ionian Islands the rate of 10% still
+prevails.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following figures give approximately the acreage in 1906
+and the average annual yield of agricultural produce, no official
+statistics being available:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Acres.&emsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fields sown or lying fallow</td> <td class="tcr">3,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Vineyards</td> <td class="tcr">337,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Currant plantations</td> <td class="tcr">175,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Olives (10,000,000 trees)</td> <td class="tcr">250,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fruit trees (fig, mulberry, &amp;c.)</td> <td class="tcr">125,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Meadows and pastures</td> <td class="tcr">7,500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Forests</td> <td class="tcr">2,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Waste lands</td> <td class="tcr">2,875,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">16,262,500</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The average annual yield is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Wheat</td> <td class="tcr">350,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">kilograms</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Maize</td> <td class="tcr">100,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Rye</td> <td class="tcr">20,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Barley</td> <td class="tcr">70,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Oats</td> <td class="tcr">75,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Beans, lentils, &amp;c</td> <td class="tcr">25,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Currants</td> <td class="tcr">350,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">Venetian &#8468;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sultanina</td> <td class="tcr">4,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Wine</td> <td class="tcr">3,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">hectolitres</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Olive oil</td> <td class="tcr">300,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Olives (preserved)</td> <td class="tcr">100,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">kilograms</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Figs (exported only)</td> <td class="tcr">12,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Seed cotton</td> <td class="tcr">6,500,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tobacco</td> <td class="tcr">8,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Vegetables and fresh fruits</td> <td class="tcr">20,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cocoons</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hesperidiums (exported only)</td> <td class="tcr">4,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carobs (exported only)</td> <td class="tcr">10,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Resin</td> <td class="tcr">5,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Beet</td> <td class="tcr">12,000,000</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Rice is grown in the marshy plains of Elis, Boeotia, Marathon
+and Missolonghi; beet in Thessaly. The cultivation of vegetables
+is increasing; beans, peas and lentils are the most common. Potatoes
+are grown in the upland districts, but are not a general article of diet.
+Of late years market-gardening has been taken up as a new industry
+in the neighbourhood of Athens. There is a great variety of fruits.
+Olive plantations are found everywhere; in 1860 they occupied
+about 90,000 acres; in 1887, 433,701 acres. The trees are sometimes
+of immense age and form a picturesque feature in the landscape.
+In latter years the groves in many parts of the western Morea and
+Zante have been cut down to make room for currant plantations;
+the destruction has been deplorable in its consequences, for, as the
+tree requires twenty years to come into full bearing, replanting
+is seldom resorted to. Preserved olives, eaten with bread, are a
+common article of food. Excellent olive oil is produced in Attica
+and elsewhere. The value of the oil and fruit exported varies from
+five to ten million francs. Figs are also abundant, especially in
+Messenia and in the Cyclades. Mulberry trees are planted for the
+purposes of sericulture; they have been cut down in great numbers
+in the currant-growing districts. Other fruit trees are the orange,
+citron, lemon, pomegranate and almond. Peaches, apricots, pears,
+cherries, &amp;c., abound, but are seldom scientifically cultivated; the
+fruit is generally gathered while unripe. Cotton in 1906 occupied
+about 12,500 acres, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Livadia. Tobacco
+plantations in 1893 covered 16,320 acres, yielding about 3,500,000
+kilograms; the yield in 1906 was 9,000,000 kilograms. About 40%
+of the produce is exported, principally to Egypt and Turkey. More
+important are the vineyards, which occupied in 1887 an area of 306,421
+acres. The best wine is made at Patras, on the royal estate at
+Decelea, and on other estates in Attica; a peculiar flavour is imparted
+to the wine of the country by the addition of resin. The
+wine of Santorin, the modern representative of the famous &ldquo;malmsey,&rdquo;
+is mainly exported to Russia. The foreign demand for Greek
+wines is rapidly increasing; 3,770,257 gallons were exported in 1890,
+4,974,196 gallons in 1894, There is also a growing demand for
+Greek cognac. The export of wine in 1905 was 20,850,941 okes,
+value 5,848,544 fr.; of cognac, 363,720 okes, value 1,091,160 fr.</p>
+
+<p>The currant, by far the most important of Greek exports, is cultivated
+in a limited area extending along the southern shore of the
+Gulf of Corinth and the seaboard of the Western Peloponnesus,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span>
+in Zante, Cephalonia and Leucas, and in certain districts of
+<span class="sidenote">Currants.</span>
+Acarnania and Aetolia; attempts to cultivate it elsewhere have
+generally proved unsuccessful. The history of the currant
+industry has been a record of extraordinary vicissitudes.
+Previously to 1877 the currant was exported solely for eating purposes,
+the amounts for the years 1872 to 1877 being 70,766 tons, 71,222
+tons, 76,210 tons, 72,916 tons, 86,947 tons, and 82,181 tons respectively.
+In 1877, however, the French vineyards began to suffer
+seriously from the phylloxera, and French wine producers were
+obliged to have recourse to dried currants, which make an excellent
+wine for blending purposes. The importation of currants into
+France at once rose from 881 tons in 1877 to 20,999 tons in 1880,
+and to 70,401 tons in 1889, or about 20,000 tons more than were
+imported into England in that year. Meanwhile the total amount
+of currants produced in Greece had nearly doubled in these thirteen
+years. The country was seized with a mania for currant planting;
+every other industry was neglected, and olive, orange and lemon
+groves were cut down to make room for the more lucrative growth.
+The currant growers, in order to increase their production as rapidly
+as possible, had recourse to loans at a high rate of interest, and the
+great profits which they made were devoted to further planting,
+while the loans remained unpaid. A crisis followed rapidly. By
+1891 the French vineyards had to a great extent recovered from the
+disease, and wine producers in France began to clamour against the
+competition of foreign wines and wine-producing raisins and currants.
+The import duty on these was thereupon raised from 6 francs to 15
+francs per 100 kilos, and was further increased in 1894 to 25
+francs. The currant trade with France was thus extinguished; of a
+crop averaging 160,000 tons, only some 110,000 now found a market.
+Although a fresh opening for exportation was found in Russia, the
+value of the fruit dropped from £15 to £5 per ton, a price scarcely
+covering the cost of cultivation. In July 1895 the government
+introduced a measure, since known as the Retention (<span class="grk" title="parakratêsis">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>)
+Law, by which it was enacted that every shipper should deliver
+into depots provided by the government a weight of currants equivalent
+to 15% of the amount which he intended to export. A later law
+fixed the quantity to be retained by the state at 10%, which might
+be increased to 20%, should a representative committee, meeting
+every summer at Athens, so advise the government. The currants
+thus taken over by the government cannot be exported unless they
+are reduced to pulp, syrup or otherwise rendered unsuitable for
+eating purposes; they may be sold locally for wine-making or distilling,
+due precautions being taken that they are not used in any other
+way. The price of exported currants is thus maintained at an artificial
+figure. The Retention Law, which after 1895 was voted annually,
+was passed for a period of ten years in 1899. This pernicious
+measure, which is in defiance of all economic laws, perpetuates a
+superfluous production, retards the development of other branches
+of agriculture and burdens the government with vast accumulations
+of an unmarketable commodity. It might excusably be adopted as
+a temporary expedient to meet a pressing crisis, but as a permanent
+system it can only prove detrimental to the country and the currant
+growers themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In 1899 a &ldquo;Bank of Viticulture&rdquo; was established at Patras for the
+purpose of assisting the growers, to whom it was bound to make
+advances at a low rate of interest; it undertook the storage and the
+sale of the retained fruit, from which its capital was derived. The
+bank soon found itself burdened with an enormous unsaleable
+stock, while its loans for the most part remained unpaid; meantime
+over-production, the cause of the trouble, continued to increase,
+and prices further diminished. In 1903 a syndicate of English and
+other foreign capitalists made proposals for a monopoly of the export,
+guaranteeing fixed prices to the growers. The scheme, which conflicted
+with Anglo-Greek commercial conventions, was rejected by the
+Theotokis ministry; serious disturbances followed in the currant-growing
+districts, and M. Theotokis resigned. His successor, M.
+Rallis, in order to appease the cultivators, arranged that the Currant
+Bank should offer them fixed minimum prices for the various growths,
+and guaranteed it a loan of 6,000,000 dr. The resources of the bank,
+however, gave out before the end of the season, and prices pursued
+their downward course. Another experiment was then tried; the
+export duty (15%) was made payable in kind, the retention quota
+being thus practically raised from 20 to 35%. The only result of this
+measure was a diminution of the export; in the spring of 1905 prices
+fell very low and the growers began to despair. A syndicate of banks
+and capitalists then came forward, which introduced the system now
+in operation. A privileged company was formed which obtained
+a charter from the government for twenty years, during which period
+the retention and export duties are maintained at the fixed rates
+of 20 and 15% respectively. The company aims at keeping up the
+prices of the marketable qualities by employing profitably for
+industrial purposes the unexported surplus and retained inferior
+qualities; it pays to the state 4,000,000 dr. annually under the head
+of export duty; offers all growers at the beginning of each agricultural
+year a fixed price of 115 dr. per 1000 Venetian &#8468; irrespective
+of quality, and pays a price varying from 115 dr. to 145 dr. according
+to quality at the end of the year for the unexported surplus. In
+return for these advantages to the growers the company is entitled
+to receive 7 dr. on every 1000 &#8468; of currants produced and to dispose
+of the whole retained amount. A special company has been formed
+for the conversion of the superfluous product into spirit, wine, &amp;c.
+The system may perhaps prove commercially remunerative, but it
+penalizes the producers of the better growths in order to provide a
+livelihood for the growers of inferior and unmarketable kinds and
+protracts an abnormal situation. The following table gives the
+annual currant crop from 1877 to 1905:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total crop<br />(tons).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exported to<br />Gt. Britain.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exported to<br />France.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1877</td> <td class="tcr rb">82,181</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">881</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1878</td> <td class="tcr rb">100,004</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,086</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1879</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,311</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,087</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,337</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,999</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcr rb">121,994</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,315</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1882</td> <td class="tcr rb">109,403</td> <td class="tcr rb">51,933</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,282</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1883</td> <td class="tcr rb">114,980</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,099</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,815</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1884</td> <td class="tcr rb">129,268</td> <td class="tcr rb">59,629</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,198</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1885</td> <td class="tcr rb">113,287</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,765</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,730</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1886</td> <td class="tcr rb">127,570</td> <td class="tcr rb">48,892</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1887</td> <td class="tcr rb">127,160</td> <td class="tcr rb">55,549</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,438</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1888</td> <td class="tcr rb">158,728</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,714</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,735</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">142,308</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,251</td> <td class="tcr rb">69,555</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">146,749</td> <td class="tcr rb">67,502</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,816</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">161,545</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,762</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,712</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">116,944</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,418</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,721</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">119,886</td> <td class="tcr rb">73,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,800</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">135,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">167,695</td> <td class="tcr rb">60,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">153,514</td> <td class="tcr rb">65,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1897</td> <td class="tcr rb">115,730</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">153,514</td> <td class="tcr rb">69,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">144,071</td> <td class="tcr rb">65,600</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,800</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,236</td> <td class="tcr rb">36,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">300</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">139,820</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,000</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,216</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">152,580</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,400</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,782</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">179,499</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,800</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,470</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">146,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">58,850</td> <td class="tcr rb">820</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">162,957</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">61,700</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,042</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;peronospora,&rdquo; a species of white blight, first caused considerable
+damage in the Greek vineyards in 1892, recurring in 1897
+and 1900.</p>
+
+<p>More than half the cultivable area of Greece is devoted to pasturage.
+Cattle-rearing, as a rule, is a distinct occupation from agricultural
+farming; the herds are sent to pasture on the
+mountains in the summer, and return to the plains at the
+<span class="sidenote">Stock-farming.</span>
+beginning of winter. The larger cattle are comparatively
+rare, being kept almost exclusively for agricultural labour; the
+smaller are very abundant. Beef is scarcely eaten in Greece, the
+milk of cows is rarely drunk and butter is almost unknown. Cheese,
+a staple article of diet, is made from the milk of sheep and goats.
+The number of larger cattle has declined in recent years; that of
+the smaller has increased. The native breed of oxen is small;
+buffaloes are seldom seen except in north-western Thessaly; a few
+camels are used in the neighbourhood of Parnassus. The Thessalian
+breed of horses, small but sturdy and enduring, can hardly be taken
+to represent the celebrated chargers of antiquity. Mules are much
+employed in the mountainous districts; the best type of these
+animals is found in the islands. The flocks of long-horned sheep and
+goats add a picturesque feature to Greek rural scenery. The goats
+are more numerous in proportion to the population than in any other
+European country (137 per 100 inhabitants). The shepherds&rsquo; dogs
+rival those of Bulgaria in ferocity. According to an unofficial estimate
+published in 1905 the numbers of the various domestic animals in
+1899 were as follows: Oxen and buffaloes, 408,744; horses, 157,068;
+mules, 88,869; donkeys, 141,174; camels, 51; sheep, 4,568,151;
+goats, 3,339,439; pigs, 79,716. During the four years 1899-1902
+the annual average value of imported cattle was 4,218,015 dr., of
+exported cattle 209,321 dr.</p>
+
+<p>The forest area (about 2,500,000 acres or one-fifth of the surface
+of the mainland) is for the most part state property. The value of
+the forests has been estimated at 200,000,000 fr.; the
+most productive are in the district extending from the
+<span class="sidenote">Forests.</span>
+Pindus range to the Gulf of Corinth. The principal trees are the
+oak (about 30 varieties), the various coniferae, the chestnut, maple,
+elm, beech, alder, cornel and arbutus. In Greece, as in other lands
+formerly subject to Turkish rule, the forests are not only neglected,
+but often deliberately destroyed; this great source of national
+wealth is thus continually diminishing. Every year immense forest
+fires may be seen raging in the mountains, and many of the most
+picturesque districts in the country are converted into desolate
+wildernesses. These conflagrations are mainly the work of shepherds
+eager to provide increased pasturage for their flocks; they are
+sometimes, however, due to the carelessness of smokers, and occasionally,
+it is said, to spontaneous ignition in hot weather. Great
+damage is also done by the goats, which browse on the young saplings;
+the pine trees are much injured by the practice of scoring their bark
+for resin. With the disappearance of the trees the soil of the mountain
+slopes, deprived of its natural protection, is soon washed away
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span>
+by the rain; the rapid descent of the water causes inundations in
+the plains, while the uplands become sterile and lose their vegetation.
+The climate has been affected by the change; rain falls less frequently
+but with greater violence, and the process of denudation is
+accelerated. The government has from time to time made efforts
+for the protection of the forests, but with little success till recently.
+A staff of inspectors and forest guards was first organized in 1877.
+The administration of the forests has since 1893 been entrusted to a
+department of the Ministry of Finance, which controls a staff of 4
+inspectors (<span class="grk" title="epitheôrêtai">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#952;&#949;&#969;&#961;&#8134;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span>), 31 superintendents (<span class="grk" title="dasarchoi">&#948;&#945;&#963;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#943;</span>), 52 head
+foresters (<span class="grk" title="archiphylakes">&#7936;&#961;&#967;&#953;&#966;&#973;&#955;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#962;</span>) and 298 foresters (<span class="grk" title="dasyphylakes">&#948;&#945;&#963;&#965;&#966;&#973;&#955;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#962;</span>). The
+foresters are aided during the summer months, when fires are most
+frequent, by about 500 soldiers and gendarmes. About a third
+of these functionaries have received instruction in the school of
+forestry at Vythine in the Morea, open since 1898. Owing to the
+measures now taken, which include excommunication by the parish
+priests of incendiaries and their accomplices, the conflagrations have
+considerably diminished. The total annual value of the products of
+the Greek forests averages 15,000,000 drachmae. The revenue
+<span class="correction" title="amended from accuring">accruing</span> to the government in 1905 was 1,418,158 dr., as compared
+with 583,991 dr. in 1883. The increase is mainly due to improved
+administration. The supply of timber for house-construction, ship-building,
+furniture-making, railway sleepers, &amp;c., is insufficient, and
+is supplemented by importation (annual value about 12,000,000
+francs); transport is rendered difficult by the lack of roads and
+navigable streams. The principal secondary products are valonea
+(annual exportation about 1,250,000 fr.) and resin, which is locally
+employed as a preservative ingredient in the fabrication of wine.
+The administration of the forests is still defective, and measures
+for the augmentation and better instruction of the staff of foresters
+have been designed by the government. In 1900 a society for the re-afforesting
+of the country districts and environs of the large towns
+was founded at Athens under the patronage of the crown princess.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Tons.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Francs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chrome</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,900</td> <td class="tcr rb">337,952</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Emery</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,972</td> <td class="tcr rb">742,486</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Gypsum</td> <td class="tcr rb">185</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,995</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Iron ore</td> <td class="tcr rb">465,622</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,387,467</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ferromanganese</td> <td class="tcr rb">89,687</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,182,652</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lead (argentiferous pig) ore</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,729</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,811,792</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lignite</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,757</td> <td class="tcr rb">143,814</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Magnesite</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,498</td> <td class="tcr rb">864,982</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Manganese ore</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,171</td> <td class="tcr rb">122,565</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Mill stones</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,628</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,660</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Salt</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,201</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,638,065</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,126</td> <td class="tcr rb">121,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Zinc ore</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">22,562</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,852,355</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The chief minerals are silver, lead, zinc, copper manganese,
+magnesia, iron, sulphur and coal. Emery, salt, millstone and
+gypsum, which are found in considerable quantities,
+are worked by the government. The important mines
+<span class="sidenote">Mines.</span>
+at Laurium, a source of great wealth to ancient Athens, were reopened
+in 1864 by a Franco-Italian company, but were declared to be state
+property in 1871; they are now worked by a Greek and a French
+company. The output of marketable ore in 1899 amounted to
+486,760 tons, besides 289,292 tons of dressed lead ore. In 1905
+the output was as follows: Raw and roasted manganese iron ore,
+113,636 tons; hematite iron ore, 94,734 tons; calamine or zinc
+ore, 22,612 tons; arsenic and argentiferous lead, 1875 tons; zinc
+blende and galena, 443 tons; total, 233,300 tons, together with
+164,857 tons of dressed lead, producing 13,822 tons of silver pig lead
+containing 1657 to 1910 grams of silver per ton. It has been found
+profitable to resmelt the scoriae of the ancient workings. The total
+value of the exports from the Laurium mines, which in 1875 amounted
+to only £150,513, had in 1899 increased to £827,209, but fell in 1905
+to £499,882. The revenue accruing to the government from all mines
+and quarries, including those worked by the state, was estimated
+in the budget for 1906 at 1,332,000 dr. The emery of Naxos, which
+is a state monopoly, is excellent in quality and very abundant.
+Mines of iron ore have latterly been opened at Larimna in Locris.
+Magnesite mines are worked by an Anglo-Greek company in Euboea.
+There are sulphur and manganese mines in the island of Melos, and
+the volcanic island of Santorin produces pozzolana, a kind of cement,
+which is exported in considerable quantities. The great abundance
+of marble in Greece has latterly attracted the attention of foreign
+capitalists. New quarries have been opened since 1897 by an
+English company on the north slope of Mount Pentelicus, and are
+now connected by rail with Athens and the Peiraeus. The marble
+on this side of the mountain is harder than that on the south, which
+alone was worked by the ancients. The output in 1905 was 1573
+tons. Mount Pentelicus furnished material for most of the celebrated
+buildings of ancient Athens; the marble, which is white, blue-veined,
+and somewhat transparent, assumes a rich yellow hue after
+long exposure to the air. The famous Parian quarries are still
+worked; white marble is also found at Scyros, Tenos and Naxos;
+grey at Stoura and Karystos; variegated at Valaxa and Karystos;
+green on Taygetus and in Thessaly; black at Tenos; and red
+(porphyry) in Maina.</p>
+
+<p>The official statistics of the output and value of minerals produced
+in 1905 were as in the preceding table.</p>
+
+<p>The number of persons employed in mining operations in 1905
+was 9934.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Owing to the natural aptitude of the Greeks for commerce
+and their predilection for a seafaring life a great portion of the
+trade of the Levant has fallen into their hands. Important
+Greek mercantile colonies exist in all the
+<span class="sidenote">Commerce and industry.</span>
+larger ports of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea,
+and many of them possess great wealth. In some of
+the islands of the archipelago almost every householder is the
+owner or joint owner of a ship. The Greek mercantile marine,
+which in 1888 consisted of 1352 vessels (70 steamers) with a total
+tonnage of 219,415 tons, numbered in 1906, according to official
+returns, 1364 vessels (275 steamers) with a total tonnage of
+427,291 tons. This figure is apparently too low, as the ship-owners
+are prone to understate the tonnage in order to diminish
+the payment of dues. Almost the whole corn trade of Turkey
+is in Greek hands. A large number of the sailing ships, especially
+the smaller vessels engaged in the coasting trade, belong to the
+islanders. A considerable portion of the shipping on the Danube
+and Pruth is owned by the inhabitants of Ithaca and Cephalonia;
+a certain number of their <i>sleps</i> (<span class="grk" title="slepia">&#963;&#955;&#941;&#960;&#953;&#945;</span>) have latterly been
+acquired by Rumanian Jews, but the Greek flag is still predominant.
+There are seven principal Greek steamship companies
+owning 40 liners with a total tonnage of 21,972 tons. In 1847
+there was but one lighthouse in Greek waters; in 1906 there
+were 70 lighthouses and 68 port lanterns. Hermoupolis (Syra)
+is the chief seat of the carrying trade, but as a commercial port
+it yields to Peiraeus, which is the principal centre of distribution
+for imports. Other important ports are Patras, Volo, Corfu,
+Kalamata and Laurium.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following table gives the total value (in francs) of special
+Greek commerce for the given years:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1887.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1892.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1897.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1902.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Imports</td> <td class="tcr rb">131,849,325</td> <td class="tcr rb">119,306,007</td> <td class="tcr rb">116,363,348</td> <td class="tcr rb">137,229,364</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Exports</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">102,652,487</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">82,261,464</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">81,708,626</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">79,663,473</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The marked fluctuations in the returns are mainly attributable
+to variations in the price and quantity of imported cereals and in
+the sale of currants. The great excess of imports, caused by the
+large importation of food-stuffs and manufactured articles, is due
+to the neglect of agriculture and the undeveloped condition of local
+industries.</p>
+
+<p>The imports and exports for 1905 were distributed as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Imports from.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Exports to.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Frs.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Frs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,725,218</td> <td class="tcr rb">810,925</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Great Britain</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,516,928</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,436,707</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Austria-Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,444,415</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,876,806</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Turkey</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,538,370</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,516,403</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,896,687</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,514,474</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,101,070</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,078,321</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,190,253</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,266,210</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bulgaria</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,135,718</td> <td class="tcr rb">133,106</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rumania</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,814,641</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,152,207</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">America</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,656,501</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,440,648</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,276,393</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,068,138</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,921,762</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,180,301</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Egypt</td> <td class="tcr rb">634,035</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,928,555</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland</td> <td class="tcr rb">348,281</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Other countries</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,555,781</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,288,365</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">141,756,053</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">83,691,166</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>An enumeration of the chief articles of importation and exportation,
+together with their value, will be found in tabular form overleaf.</p>
+
+<p>Greece does not possess any manufacturing industries on a large
+scale; the absence of a native coal supply is an obstacle to their
+development. In 1889 there were 145 establishments employing
+steam of 5568 indicated horse-power; in 1892 the total horse-power
+employed was estimated at 10,000. In addition to the smelting-works
+at Laurium, at which some 5000 hands are employed by Greek and
+French companies and local proprietors, there are flour mills, cloth,
+cotton and silk spinning mills, ship-building and engineering works,
+oil-presses, tanneries, powder and dynamite mills, soap mills (about
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span>
+40), and some manufactures of paper, glass, matches, turpentine, white
+lead, hats, gloves, candles, &amp;c. About 100 factories are established
+in the neighbourhood of Athens and Peiraeus. The wine industry
+(10 factories) is of considerable importance, and the manufacture
+of cognac has latterly made great progress; there are 10 large and
+numerous small cognac distilleries. Ship-building is carried on
+actively at all the ports on the mainland and islands; about 200
+ships, mostly of low tonnage, are launched annually.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Principal Articles of Importation.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Articles.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1905.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total value<br />in francs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imported from<br />the United<br />Kingdom.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Total value<br />in francs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Imported from<br />the United<br />Kingdom.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cereals</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,735,808</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,511,784</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Textiles</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,999,344</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,762,464</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,460,620</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,497,172</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Raw minerals</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,341,191</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,630,633</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Forest products</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,146,500</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,769</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,254,190</td> <td class="tcr rb">61,309</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wrought metals</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,757,444</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,162,250</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Coals and pit-coal</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,522,086</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,087,068</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,073,841</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,308,357</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Yarn and tissues</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,739,819</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,504,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,021,523</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,838,079</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fish</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,992,615</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,394,224</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,014,164</td> <td class="tcr rb">186,072</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Raw hides</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,558,101</td> <td class="tcr rb">478,965</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,909,657</td> <td class="tcr rb">215,745</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Various animals</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,271,151</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,373,523</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,268</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Horses</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,011,450</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,070,250</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paper, books, &amp;c.</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,327,144</td> <td class="tcr rb">157,017</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,319,700</td> <td class="tcr rb">76,454</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Coffee</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,957,601</td> <td class="tcr rb">293,610</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,060,904</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,296</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sugar</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,606,696</td> <td class="tcc rb">none</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,887,854</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Rice</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,977,894</td> <td class="tcr rb">63,882</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,901,486</td> <td class="tcr rb">236,027</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb1">Colours</td> <td class="tcr rb bb1">1,750,858</td> <td class="tcr rb bb1">341,839</td> <td class="tcr rb bb1">2,146,509</td> <td class="tcr rb bb1">281,433</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb ptb1" colspan="5"><i>Chief Articles of Exportation.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Articles.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1904.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">1905.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total value<br />in francs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exported to<br />the United<br />Kingdom.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Total value<br />in francs.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exported to<br />the United<br />Kingdom.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Currants</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,841,678</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,569,137</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,299,780</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,008,929</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Minerals and raw metals</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,134,185</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,161,898</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,125,072</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,438,698</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Wines</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,084,960</td> <td class="tcr rb">429,143</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,832,139</td> <td class="tcr rb">881,696</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tobacco</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,285,385</td> <td class="tcr rb">39,512</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,157,092</td> <td class="tcr rb">147,565</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Olive oil</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,163,262</td> <td class="tcr rb">212,081</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,150,285</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,310</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Figs</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,583,428</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,304</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,309,432</td> <td class="tcr rb">338,196</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Minerals and metals (worked)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,754,245</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,750</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,607,580</td> <td class="tcr rb">900</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Olives</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,793,362</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,833</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,138,116</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,800</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Valonea</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,558,678</td> <td class="tcr rb">200,849</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,917,014</td> <td class="tcr rb">146,927</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Cognac</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,027,224</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,099</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,091,160</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2,283</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Public Works.</i>&mdash;The important drainage-works at Lake Copais
+were taken over by an English company in 1890. The lake covered
+an area of 58,080 acres, the greater part of which is now rendered
+fit for cultivation. The drainage works consist of a canal, 28 kilometres
+in length, and a tunnel of 600 metres descending through
+the mountain to a lower lake, which is connected by a second tunnel
+with the sea. The reclaimed land is highly fertile. The area under
+crops amounted in 1906 to 27,414 acres, of which 20,744 were let
+to tenants and the remainder farmed by the company. The uncultivated
+portion affords excellent grazing. The canal through the
+Isthmus of Corinth was opened to navigation in November 1893.
+The total cost of the works, which were begun by a company in 1882,
+was 70,000,000 francs. The narrowness of the canal, which is only
+24.60 metres broad at the surface, and the strength of the current
+which passes through it, seriously detract from its utility. The high
+charges imposed on foreign vessels have proved almost prohibitive.
+There are reduced rates for ships sailing in Greek waters. Up to the
+31st of July 1906, 37,214 vessels, with a tonnage of 4,971,922, had
+passed through the canal. The receipts up to that date were 3,207,835
+drachmae (mainly from Greek ships) and 415,976 francs (mainly
+from foreign ships). In 1905, 2930 vessels (2735 Greek) passed
+through, the receipts being 281,935 drachmae and 34,142 francs.
+The total liabilities of the company in 1906 were about 40,000,000 fr.
+The canal would be more frequented by foreign shipping if the
+harbours at its entrances were improved, and its sides, which are of
+masonry, lined with beams; efforts are being made to raise funds for
+these purposes. The widening of the Euripus Channel at Chalcis
+to the extent of 21.56 metres was accomplished in 1894. The operations
+involved the destruction of the picturesque Venetian tower
+which guarded the strait. A canal was completed in 1903 rendering
+navigable the shallow channel between Leucas (Santa Maura) and
+the mainland (breadth 15 metres, depth 5 metres). Large careening
+docks were undertaken in 1909 at Peiraeus at an estimated cost of
+4,750,000 drachmae.</p>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;Internal communication by roads is improving,
+though much remains to be done, especially as regards the quality
+of the roads. A considerable impetus was given to road-making
+under the Trikoupis administration.
+In 1878 there were only 555 m. of
+roads; in 1898 there were 2398 m.;
+in 1906, 3275 m. Electric trams have
+been introduced at Patras. Railways
+were open to traffic in 1900 for a length
+of 598 m.; in 1906 for a length of
+867 m. The circuit of the Morea railways
+(462 m.) was completed in 1902;
+from Diakophto, on the north coast, a
+cogwheel railway, finished in 1894,
+ascends to Kalavryta. A very important
+undertaking is the completion
+of a line from Peiraeus to the frontier,
+the contract for which was signed in
+1900 between the Greek government
+and the Eastern Railway Extension
+Syndicate (subsequently converted into
+the <i>Société des Chemins de Fer helléniques</i>).
+A line Connecting Peiraeus
+with Larissa was begun in 1890, but
+in 1894 the English company which
+had undertaken the contract went into
+liquidation. Under the contract of
+1900 the line was drawn through
+Demerli, in the south of Thessaly, to
+Larissa, a distance of 217 m., and continued
+through the vale of Tempe to
+the Turkish frontier (about 246 m. in
+all). Branch lines have been constructed
+to Lamia and Chalcis. The
+establishment of a connexion with the
+continental railway system, by a
+junction with the line from Belgrade
+to Salonica, would be of immense advantage
+to Greece, and the Peiraeus
+would become an important place of
+embarkation for Egypt, India and the
+Far East.</p>
+
+<p>In 1905 the number of post offices
+was 640. Of these 320 were also telegraph
+and 89 telephone
+stations, with 664 clerks;
+the remaining post offices
+possess no special staff, but
+are served by persons who also pursue other occupations. The
+<span class="sidenote">Posts and telegraphs.</span>
+number of postmen and other employees was 889. During the
+year there passed through the post 6,897,899 ordinary letters
+for the interior, 2,980,958 for foreign destinations, 2,788,477 from
+abroad; 540,411 registered letters or parcels for the interior, 309,907
+for foreign countries, and 300,150 from abroad; 880,673 post-cards
+for the interior, 504,785 from abroad, and 187,975 sent abroad;
+100,680 samples; 7,068,125 printed papers for the interior, 5,278,405
+to or from foreign countries. Telegraph lines in 1905 extended
+over 4222 m. with 6836 m. of wires; 841,913 inland telegrams,
+221,188 service telegrams and 129,036 telegrams to foreign destinations
+were despatched, and 169,519 received from abroad. Receipts
+amounted to 4,589,601 drachmae (postal service 2,744,212, telegraph
+and telephone services 1,845,389 drachmae) and expenditure to
+3,954,742 drachmae.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Greek army has recently been in a state of transition.
+Its condition has never been satisfactory, partly owing to the
+absence of systematic effort in the work of organization,
+partly owing to the pernicious influence of political
+<span class="sidenote">Army.</span>
+parties, and in times of national emergency it has never been
+in a condition of readiness. The experience of the war of 1897
+proved the need of far-reaching administrative changes and
+disciplinary reforms. A scheme of complete reorganization was
+subsequently elaborated under the auspices of the crown prince
+Constantine, the commander-in-chief, and received the assent
+of the Chamber in June 1904. During the war of 1897 about
+65,000 infantry, 1000 cavalry, and 24 batteries were put into the
+field, and after great efforts another 15,000 men were mobilized.
+Under the new scheme it is proposed to maintain on a peace
+footing 1887 officers, 25,140 non-commissioned officers and men,
+and 4059 horses and mules; in time of war the active army
+will consist of at least 120,000 men and the territorial army of
+at least 60,000 men. The heavy expenditure entailed by the
+project has been an obstacle to its immediate realization. In
+order to meet this expenditure a special fund has been instituted
+in addition to the ordinary military budget, and certain revenues
+have been assigned to it amounting to about 5,500,000 drachmae
+annually. In 1906, however, it was decided to suspend partially
+for five years the operation of the law of 1904 and to devote
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span>
+the resources thus economized together with other funds to
+the immediate purchase of new armaments and equipment.
+Under this temporary arrangement the peace strength of the
+army in 1908 consisted of 1939 officers and civilians, 19,416
+non-commissioned officers and men and 2661 horses and
+mules; it is calculated that the reserves will furnish about
+77,000 men and the territorial army about 37,000 men in time
+of war.</p>
+
+<p>Military service is obligatory, and liability to serve begins
+from the twenty-first year. The term of service comprises
+two years in the active army, ten years in the active army
+reserve (for cavalry eight years), eight years in the territorial
+army (for cavalry ten years) and ten years for all branches in
+the territorial army reserve. As a rule, however, the period
+of service in the active army has hitherto been considerably
+shortened; with a view to economy, the men, under the law
+of 1904, receive furlough after eighteen months with the colours.
+Exemptions from military service, which were previously very
+numerous, are also restricted considerably by the law of 1904,
+which will secure a yearly contingent of about 13,000 men in
+time of peace. The conscripts in excess of the yearly contingent
+are withdrawn by lot; they are required to receive six months&rsquo;
+training in the ranks as supernumeraries before passing into the
+reserve, in which they form a special category of &ldquo;liability&rdquo; men.
+Under the temporary system of 1906 the contingent is reduced
+to about 10,000 men by postponing the abrogation of several
+exemptions, and the period of service is fixed at fourteen months
+for all the conscripts alike. The field army as constituted by
+the law of 1904 consists of 3 divisions, each division comprising
+2 brigades of infantry, each of 2 regiments of 3 battalions and
+other units. There are thus 36 battalions of infantry (of which
+12 are cadres); also 6 battalions of <i>evzones</i> (highlanders),
+18 squadrons of cavalry (6 cadres), 33 batteries of artillery (6
+cadres), 3 battalions of engineers and telegraphists, 3 companies
+of ambulance, 3 of train, &amp;c. The artillery is composed of 24
+field batteries, 3 heavy and 6 mountain batteries; it is mainly
+provided with Krupp 7.5 cm. guns dating from 1870 or earlier.
+After a series of trials in 1907 it was decided to order 36 field
+batteries of 7.5 cm. quick-firing guns and 6 mountain batteries,
+in all 168 guns, with 1500 projectiles for each battery from the
+Creuzot factory. The infantry, which was hitherto armed
+with the obsolete Gras rifle (.433 in.), was furnished in 1907 with
+the Mannlicher-Schönauer (model 1903) of which 100,000 had
+been delivered in May 1908. Hitherto the gendarmerie, which
+replaced the police, have formed a corps drawn from the army,
+which in 1908 consisted of 194 officers and 6344 non-commissioned
+officers and men, but a law passed in 1907 provided for these
+forces being thenceforth recruited separately by voluntary
+enlistment in annual contingents of 700 men. The participation
+of the officers in politics, which has proved very injurious to
+discipline, has been checked by a law forbidding officers below
+the rank of colonel to stand for the Chamber. In the elections
+of 1905 115 officers were candidates. The three divisional
+headquarters are at Larissa, Athens and Missolonghi; the six
+headquarters of brigades are at Trikkala, Larissa, Athens,
+Chalcis, Missolonghi and Nauplia. In 1907 annual man&oelig;uvres
+were instituted.</p>
+
+<p>The Greek fleet consisted in 1907 of 3 armoured barbette ships
+of 4885 tons (built in France in 1890, reconstructed 1899),
+carrying each three 10.8-in. guns, five 6-in., thirteen
+quick-firing and smaller guns, and three torpedo tubes;
+<span class="sidenote">Navy.</span>
+1 cruiser of 1770 tons (built in 1879), with two 6.7-in. and six
+light quick-firing guns; 1 armoured central battery ship of
+1774 tons (built 1867, reconstructed 1897) with two 8.4 in.
+and nine small quick-firing guns; 2 coast-defence gunboats
+with one 10.6-in. gun each; 4 corvettes; 1 torpedo depôt ship;
+8 destroyers, each with six guns (ordered in 1905); 3 transport
+steamers; 7 small gunboats; 3 mining boats; 5 torpedo boats;
+1 royal yacht; 2 school ships and various minor vessels. The
+personnel of the navy was composed in 1907 of 437 officers, 26
+cadets, 1118 petty officers, 2372 seamen and stokers, 60 boys
+and 99 civilians, together with 386 artisans employed at the
+arsenal. The navy is manned chiefly by conscription; the period
+of service is two years, with four years in the reserve. The
+headquarters of the fleet and arsenal are in the island of Salamis,
+where there is a dockyard with naval stores, a floating dock and
+a torpedo school. Most of the vessels of the Greek fleet were in
+1907 obsolete; in 1904 a commission under the presidency
+of Prince George proposed the rearmament of the existing ironclads
+and the purchase of three new ironclads and other
+vessels. A different scheme of reorganization, providing almost
+exclusively for submarines and scout vessels, was suggested
+to the government by the French admiral Fournier in 1908, but
+was opposed by the Greek naval officers. With a view to the
+augmentation and better equipment of the fleet a special fund
+was instituted in 1900 to which certain revenues have been
+assigned; it has been increased by various donations and
+bequests and by the proceeds of a state lottery. The fleet is not
+exercised methodically either in navigation or gunnery practice;
+a long voyage, however, was undertaken by the ironclad vessels
+in 1904. The Greeks, especially the islanders of the Aegean,
+make better sailors than soldiers; the personnel of the navy,
+if trained by foreign officers, might be brought to a high state
+of efficiency.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The financial history of Greece has been unsatisfactory from the
+outset. Excessive military and naval expenditure (mainly due to
+repeated and hasty mobilizations), a lax and improvident
+system of administration, the corruption of political parties
+<span class="sidenote">Finance.</span>
+and the instability of the government, which has rendered impossible
+the continuous application of any scheme of fiscal reform&mdash;all alike
+have contributed to the economic ruin of the country. For a long
+series of years preceding the declaration of national insolvency in
+1893 successive budgets presented a deficit, which in years of political
+excitement and military activity assumed enormous proportions:
+the shortcomings of the budget were supplied by the proceeds of
+foreign loans, or by means of advances obtained in the country at
+a high rate of interest. The two loans which had been contracted
+during the war of independence were extinguished by means of a
+conversion in 1889. Of the existing foreign loans the earliest is
+that of 60,000,000 frs., guaranteed by the three protecting powers
+in 1832; owing to the payment of interest and amortization by the
+powers, the capital amounted in 1871 to 100,392,833 fr.; on this
+Greece pays an annual sum of 900,000 fr., of which 300,000 have been
+granted by the powers as a yearly subvention to King George.
+The only other existing foreign obligation of early date is the debt to
+the heirs of King Otho (4,500,000 dr.) contracted in 1868. A large
+amount of internal debt was incurred between 1848 and 1880, but
+a considerable proportion of this was redeemed with the proceeds
+of the foreign loans negotiated after this period. At the end of 1880
+the entire national debt, external and internal, stood at 252,652,481
+dr. In 1881 the era of great foreign loans began. In that year a 5%
+loan of 120,000,000 fr. was raised to defray the expenses of the
+mobilization of 1880. This was followed in 1884 by a 5% loan of
+170,000,000 fr., of which 100,000,000 was actually issued. The
+service of these loans was guaranteed by various State revenues. A
+&ldquo;patriotic loan&rdquo; of 30,000,000 dr. without interest, issued during the
+war excitement of 1885, proved a failure, only 2,723,860 dr. being
+subscribed. In 1888 a 4% loan of 135,000,000 fr. was contracted,
+secured on the receipts of the five State monopolies, the management
+of which was entrusted to a privileged company. In the following
+year (1889) two 4% loans of 30,000,000 fr. and 125,000,000 fr.
+respectively were issued without guarantee or sinking fund; Greek
+credit had now apparently attained an established position in the
+foreign money market, but a decline of public confidence soon
+became evident. In 1890, of a 5% loan of 80,000,000 fr. effective,
+authorized for the construction of the Peiraeus-Larissa railway,
+only 40,050,000 fr. was taken up abroad and 12,900,000 fr. at home;
+large portions of the proceeds were devoted to other purposes.
+In 1892 the government was compelled to make large additions
+to the internal floating debt, and to borrow 16,500,000 fr. from the
+National Bank on onerous terms. In 1893 an effort to obtain a
+foreign loan for the reduction of the forced currency proved unsuccessful.
+(For the events leading up to the declaration of national
+bankruptcy in that year see under <i>Recent History</i>.) A funding
+convention was concluded in the summer, under which the creditors
+accepted scrip instead of cash payments of interest. A few months
+later this arrangement was reversed by the Chamber, and on the
+13th December a law was passed assigning provisionally to all the
+foreign loans alike 30% of the stipulated interest; the reduced
+coupons were made payable in paper instead of gold, the sinking
+funds were suspended, and the sums encashed by the monopoly
+company were confiscated. The causes of the financial catastrophe
+may be briefly summarized as follows: (1) The military preparations
+of 1885-1886, with the attendant disorganization of the
+country; the extraordinary expenditure of these years amounted to
+130,987,772 dr. (2) Excessive borrowing abroad, involving a charge
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span>
+for the service of foreign loans altogether disproportionate to the
+revenue. (3) Remissness in the collection of taxation: the total
+loss through arrears in a period of ten years (1882-1891) was
+36,549,202 dr., being in the main attributable to non-payment of
+direct taxes. (4) The adverse balance of trade, largely due to the
+neglected condition of agriculture; in the five years preceding the
+crisis (1888-1892) the exports were stated to amount to £19,578,973,
+while the imports reached £24,890,146; foreign live stock and cereals
+being imported to the amount of £6,193,579. The proximate cause
+of the crisis was the rise in the exchange owing to the excessive
+amount of paper money in circulation. Forced currency was first
+introduced in 1868, when 15,000,000 dr. in paper money was issued;
+it was abolished in the following year, but reintroduced in 1877 with
+a paper issue of 44,000,000 dr. It was abolished a second time in
+1884, but again put into circulation in 1885, when paper loans to
+the amount of 45,000,000 dr. were authorized. In 1893 the total
+authorized forced currency was 146,000,000 dr., of which 88,000,000
+(including 14,000,000 dr. in small notes) was on account of the government.
+The gold and silver coinage had practically disappeared from
+circulation. The rate of exchange, as a rule, varies directly with the
+amount of paper money in circulation, but, owing to speculation, it
+is liable to violent fluctuations whenever there is an exceptional
+demand for gold in the market. In 1893 the gold franc stood at
+the ratio of 1.60 to the paper drachma; the service of the foreign
+loans required upwards of 31,000,000 dr. in gold, and any attempt
+to realize this sum in the market would have involved an outlay
+equivalent to at least half the budget. With the failure of the
+projected loan for the withdrawal of the forced currency repudiation
+became inevitable. The law of the 13th of December was not recognized
+by the national creditors: prolonged negotiations followed,
+but no arrangement was arrived at till 1897, when the intervention
+of the powers after the war with Turkey furnished the opportunity
+for a definite settlement. It was stipulated that Turkey should
+receive an indemnity of £T4,000,000 contingent on the evacuation
+of Thessaly; in order to secure the payment of this sum by Greece
+without prejudice to the interests of her creditors, and to enable
+the country to recover from the economic consequences of the war,
+Great Britain, France and Russia undertook to guarantee a 2½%
+loan of 170,000,000 fr., of which 150,000,000 fr. has been issued.
+By the preliminary treaty of peace (18th of September 1897) an
+International Financial Commission, composed of six representatives
+of the powers, was charged with the payment of the indemnity to
+Turkey, and with &ldquo;absolute control&rdquo; over the collection and
+employment of revenues sufficient for the service of the foreign debt.
+A law defining the powers of the Commission was passed by the
+Chamber, 26th of February 1898 (o.s.). The revenues assigned
+to its supervision were the five government monopolies, the tobacco
+and stamp duties, and the import duties of Peiraeus (total annual
+value estimated at 39,600,000 dr.): the collection was entrusted to a
+Greek society, which is under the absolute control of the Commission.
+The returns of Peiraeus customs (estimated at 10,700,000 dr.) are
+regarded as an extra guarantee, and are handed over to the Greek
+government; when the produce of the other revenues exceeds
+28,900,000 dr. the &ldquo;plus value&rdquo; or surplus is divided in the proportion
+of 50.8% to the Greek government and 49.2% to the creditors.
+The plus values amounted to 3,301,481 dr. in 1898, 3,533,755 dr.
+in 1899, and 3,442,713 dr. in 1900. Simultaneously with the establishment
+of the control the interest for the Monopoly Loan was
+fixed at 43%, for the Funding Loan at 40%, and for the other
+loans at 32% of the original interest. With the revenues at its
+disposal the International Commission has already been enabled
+to make certain augmentations in the service of the foreign debt;
+since 1900 it has begun to take measures for the reduction of the
+forced currency, of which 2,000,000 dr. will be annually bought up
+and destroyed till the amount in circulation is reduced to 40,000,000
+dr. On the 1st of January 1901 the authorized paper issue was
+164,000,000 dr., of which 92,000,000 (including 18,000,000 in
+fractional currency) was on account of the government; the amount
+in actual circulation was 148,619,618 dr. On the 31st of July 1906
+the paper issue had been reduced to 152,775,975 dr., and the amount
+in circulation was 124,668,057 dr. The financial commission retains
+its powers until the extinction of all the foreign loans contracted
+since 1881. Though its activity is mainly limited to the administration
+of the assigned revenues, it has exercised a beneficial influence
+over the whole domain of Greek finance; the effect may be observed
+in the greatly enhanced value of Greek securities since its institution,
+averaging 25.76% in 1906. No change can be made in its composition
+or working without the consent of the six powers, and none of
+the officials employed in the collection of the revenues subject to its
+control can be dismissed or transferred without its consent. It
+thus constitutes an element of stability and order which cannot
+fail to react on the general administration. It is unable, however,
+to control the expenditure or to assert any direct influence over
+the government, with which the responsibility still rests for an improved
+system of collection, a more efficient staff of functionaries
+and the repression of smuggling. The country has shown a remarkable
+vitality in recovering from the disasters of 1897, and
+should it in future obtain a respite from paroxysms of military
+and political excitement, its financial regeneration will be
+assured.</p>
+
+<p>The following table gives the actual expenditure and receipts for
+the period 1889-1906 inclusive:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Actual<br />Receipts.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Actual<br />Expenditure.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Surplus or<br />Deficit.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Drachmae.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Drachmae.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Drachmae.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">83,731,591</td> <td class="tcr rb">110,772,327</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus; 27,040,736</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">79,931,795</td> <td class="tcr rb">125,932,579</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus; 46,000,784</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">90,321,872</td> <td class="tcr rb">122,836,385</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus; 32,514,513</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">95,465,569</td> <td class="tcr rb">107,283,498</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus; 11,817,929</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1893*</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,723,418</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,133,565</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 4,589,853</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">102,885,643</td> <td class="tcr rb">85,135,752</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 17,749,891</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">94,657,065</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,641,967</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 3,015,098</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">96,931,726</td> <td class="tcr rb">90,890,607</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 6,041,119</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1897**</td> <td class="tcr rb">92,485,825</td> <td class="tcr rb">137,043,929</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus; 44,558,104</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1898***</td> <td class="tcr rb">104,949,718</td> <td class="tcr rb">110,341,431</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus; 5,391,713</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">111,318,273</td> <td class="tcr rb">104,586,504</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 6,731,769</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb">112,206,849</td> <td class="tcr rb">112,049,279</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 157,570</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1901</td> <td class="tcr rb">115,734,159</td> <td class="tcr rb">113,646,301</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 2,087,858</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1902</td> <td class="tcr rb">123,949,931</td> <td class="tcr rb">121,885,707</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 2,064,224</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb">120,194,362</td> <td class="tcr rb">117,436,549</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 2,757,813</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1904</td> <td class="tcr rb">121,186,246</td> <td class="tcr rb">120,200,247</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 985,999</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1905</td> <td class="tcr rb">126,472,580</td> <td class="tcr rb">118,699,761</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 7,772,819</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">1906</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">125,753,358</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">124,461,577</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">+ 1,291,781</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4">&emsp;* Reduction of interest on foreign debt by 70%.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4">&ensp;** War with Turkey.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4">*** International Financial Commission instituted.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The steady increase of receipts since 1898 attests the growing
+prosperity of the country, but expenditure has been allowed to outstrip
+revenue, and, notwithstanding the official figures which
+represent a series of surpluses, the accumulated deficit in 1905
+amounted to about 14,000,000, dr. in addition to treasury bonds for
+8,000,000 dr. A remarkable feature has been the rapid fall in the
+exchange since 1903; the gold franc, which stood at 1.63 dr. in 1902,
+had fallen to 1.08 in October 1906. The decline, a favourable
+symptom if resulting from normal economic factors, is apparently
+due to a combination of exceptional circumstances, and consequently
+may not be maintained; it has imposed a considerable strain on the
+financial and commercial situation. The purchasing power of the
+drachma remains almost stationary and the price of imported
+commodities continues high; import dues, which since 1904 are
+payable in drachmae at the fixed rate of 1.45 to the franc, have been
+practically increased by more than 30%. In April 1900 a 4% loan
+of 43,750,000 francs for the completion of the railway from Peiraeus
+to the Turkish frontier, and another loan of 11,750,000 drachmae
+for the construction of a line from Pyrgos to Meligala, linking up
+the Morea railway system, were sanctioned by the Chamber; the
+first-named, the &ldquo;Greek Railways Loan,&rdquo; was taken up at 80 by the
+syndicate contracting for the works and was placed on the market
+in 1902. The service of both loans is provided by the International
+Commission from the surplus funds of the assigned revenues. On
+the 1st of January 1906 the external debt amounted to 725,939,500
+francs and the internal (including the paper circulation) to 171,629,436
+drachmae.</p>
+
+<p>The budget estimates for 1906 were as follows: Civil list, 1,325,000
+dr.; pensions, payment of deputies, &amp;c., 7,706,676 dr.; public debt,
+34,253,471 dr.; foreign affairs, 3,563,994 dr.; justice, 6,240,271
+dr.; interior, 13,890,927 dr.; religion and education, 7,143,924 dr.;
+army, 20,618,563 dr.; navy, 7,583,369 dr.; finance, 2,362,143
+dr.; collection of revenue, 10,650,487 dr.; various expenditure,
+9,122,752 dr.; total, 124,461,577 dr.</p>
+
+<p>The two privileged banks in Greece are the National Bank,
+founded in 1841; capital 20,000,000 drachmae in 20,000 shares of
+1000 dr. each, fully paid up; reserve fund 13,500,000 dr.; notes
+in circulation (September 1906) 126,721,887 dr., of which 76,360,905
+dr. on account of the government; and the Ionian Bank, incorporated
+in 1839; capital paid up £315,500 in 63,102 shares, of £5 each;
+notes in circulation, 10,200,000 drachmae, of which 3,500,000 (in
+fractional notes of 1 and 2 dr.) on account of the government. The
+notes issued by these two banks constitute the forced paper currency
+circulating throughout the kingdom. In the case of the Ionian Bank
+the privilege of issuing notes, originally limited to the Ionian Islands,
+will expire in 1920. The National Bank is a private institution under
+supervision of the government, which is represented by a royal
+commissioner on the board of administration; the central establishment
+is at Athens with forty-two branches throughout the country.
+The headquarters of the Ionian Bank, which is a British institution,
+are in London; the bank has a central office at Athens and five
+branches in Greece. The privileged Epiro-Thessalian Bank ceased to
+exist from the 4th of January 1900, when it was amalgamated with
+the National Bank. There are several other banking companies, as
+well as private banks, at Athens. The most important is the Bank
+of Athens (capital 40,000,000 dr.), founded in 1893; it possesses
+five branches in Greece and six abroad.</p>
+
+<p>Greece entered the Latin Monetary Union in 1868. The monetary
+unit is the new drachma, equivalent to the franc, and divided into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span>
+100 lepta or centimes. There are nickel coins of 20, 10 and 5 lepta,
+copper coins of 10 and 5 lepta. Gold and silver coins were minted
+<span class="sidenote">Currency, weights and measures.</span>
+in Paris between 1868 and 1884, but have since practically
+disappeared from the country. The paper currency
+consists of notes for 1000 dr., 500 dr., 100 dr., 25 dr., 10
+dr. and 5 dr., and of fractional notes for 2 dr. and 1 dr.
+The decimal system of weights and measures was adopted
+in 1876, but some of the old Turkish standards are still in general
+use. The dram = <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span> oz. avoirdupois approximately; the oke = 400
+drams or 2.8 &#8468;; the kilo = 22 okes or 0.114 of an imperial quarter;
+the cantar or quintal = 44 okes or 123.2 &#8468;. Liquids are measured
+by weight. The punta = 1<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in.; the ruppa, 3½ in.; the pik, 26 in.;
+the stadion = 1 kilometre or 1093½ yds. The stremma (square
+measure) is nearly one-third of an acre.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;W. Leake, <i>Researches in Greece</i> (1814), <i>Travels in
+the Morea</i> (3 vols., 1830), <i>Travels in Northern Greece</i> (4 vols., 1834),
+<i>Peloponnesiaca</i> (1846); Bursian, <i>Geographie von Griechenland</i> (2 vols.,
+Leipzig, 1862-1873); Lolling, &ldquo;Hellenische Landeskunde und
+Topographie&rdquo; in Ivan Müller&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>;
+C. Wordsworth, <i>Greece; Pictorial, Descriptive and
+Historical</i> (new ed., revised by H. F. Tozer, London, 1882); K.
+Stephanos, <i>La Grèce</i> (Paris, 1884); C. Neumann and J. Partsch,
+<i>Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland</i> (Breslau, 1885); K.
+Krumbacher, <i>Griechische Reise</i> (Berlin, 1886); J. P. Mahaffy,
+<i>Rambles and Studies in Greece</i> (London, 1887); R. A. H. Bickford-Smith,
+<i>Greece under King George</i> (London, 1893); Ch. Diehl, <i>Excursions
+archéologiques en Grèce</i> (Paris, 1893); Perrot and Chipiez,
+<i>Histoire de l&rsquo;art</i>, tome vi., &ldquo;La Grèce primitive&rdquo; (Paris, 1894);
+tome vii., &ldquo;La Grèce archaïque&rdquo; (Paris, 1898); A. Philippson,
+<i>Griechenland und seine Stellung im Orient</i> (Leipzig, 1897); L.
+Sergeant, <i>Greece in the Nineteenth Century</i> (London, 1897); J. G.
+Frazer, <i>Pausanias&rsquo;s Description of Greece</i> (6 vols., London, 1898);
+<i>Pausanias and other Greek Sketches</i> (London, 1900); <i>Greco-Turkish
+War of 1897</i>, from official sources, by a German staff officer (Eng.
+trans., London, 1898); J. A. Symonds, <i>Studies</i>, and <i>Sketches in
+Italy and Greece</i> (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1898); V. Bérard, <i>La
+Turquie et l&rsquo;hellénisme contemporaine</i> (Paris, 1900).</p>
+
+<p>For the climate: D. Aeginetes,<span class="grk" title="To klima tês Hellados">&#932;&#8056; &#954;&#955;&#8150;&#956;&#945; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#940;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span> (Athens,
+1908).</p>
+
+<p>For the fauna: Th. de Heldreich, <i>La Fauna de la Grèce</i> (Athens,
+1878).</p>
+
+<p>For special topography: A. Meliarakes, <span class="grk" title="Kukladika êtoi geographia
+kai historia tôn Kukladikôn nêsôn">&#922;&#965;&#954;&#955;&#945;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#8048; &#7972;&#964;&#959;&#953; &#947;&#949;&#969;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#943;&#945; &#954;&#945;&#943; &#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#922;&#965;&#954;&#955;&#945;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#8182;&#957; &#957;&#942;&#963;&#969;&#957;</span> (Athens, 1874); <span class="grk" title="&rsquo;Tpomnêmata perigraphika
+tôn Kukladôn nêsôn Androu kai Keô">&#8025;&#960;&#959;&#956;&#957;&#942;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#953;&#954;&#8048; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#922;&#965;&#954;&#955;&#940;&#948;&#969;&#957; &#957;&#942;&#963;&#969;&#957; &#7948;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#959;&#965; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#922;&#941;&#969;</span> (Athens, 1880);
+<span class="grk" title="Geographia politikê nea kai archaia tou nomou Argolidos kai Korinthias">&#915;&#949;&#969;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#943;&#945; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8052; &#957;&#941;&#945; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#957;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#8166; &#7944;&#961;&#947;&#959;&#955;&#943;&#948;&#959;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#922;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#957;&#952;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span> (Athens,
+1886); <span class="grk" title="Geographia politikê nea kai archaia tou nomou Kephallênias">&#915;&#949;&#969;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#966;&#943;&#945; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8052; &#957;&#941;&#945; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#957;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#8166; &#922;&#949;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>.
+(Athens, 1890); Th. Bent, <i>The Cyclades</i> (London, 1885); A.
+Bötticher, <i>Olympia</i> (2nd ed., Berlin, 1886); J. Partsch, <i>Die Insel
+Corfu: eine geographische Monographie</i> (Gotha, 1887); <i>Die Insel
+Leukas</i> (Gotha, 1889); <i>Kephallenia und Ithaka</i> (Gotha, 1890);
+<i>Die Insel Zante</i> (Gotha, 1891); A. Philippson, <i>Der Peloponnes</i>.
+(<i>Versuch einer Landeskunde auf geologischer Grundlage.</i>) (Berlin,
+1892); &ldquo;Thessalien und Epirus&rdquo; (<i>Reisen und Forschungen im
+nördlichen Griechenland</i>) (Berlin, 1897); <i>Die griechischen Inseln
+des ägäischen Meeres</i> (Berlin, 1897); W. J. Woodhouse, <i>Aetolia</i>
+(Oxford, 1897); Schultz and Barnsley, <i>The Monastery of St Luke of
+Stiris</i> (London, 1901); M. Lamprinides, <span class="grk" title="He Nauplia">&#7977; &#925;&#945;&#965;&#960;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span> (Athens, 1898);
+<i>Monuments de l&rsquo;art byzantin</i>, publiés par le Ministère de l&rsquo;Instruction,
+tome i.; G. Millet, &ldquo;Le Monastère de Daphni&rdquo; (Paris, 1900). For
+the life, customs and habits of the modern Greeks: C. Wachsmuth,
+<i>Das alte Griechenland im neuen</i> (Bonn, 1864); C. K. Tuckerman,
+<i>The Greeks of to-day</i> (London, 1873); B. Schmidt, <i>Volksleben der
+Neugriechen und das hellenische Altertum</i> (Leipzig, 1871); Estournelle
+de Constant, <i>La Vie de province en Grèce</i> (Paris, 1878); E.
+About, <i>La Grèce contemporaine</i> (Paris, 1855; 8th ed., 1883); J. T.
+Bent, <i>Modern Life and Thought among the Greeks</i> (London, 1891);
+J. Rennell Rodd, The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece (London,
+1892). Guide-books, Baedeker&rsquo;s <i>Greece</i> (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1905);
+Murray&rsquo;s <i>Handbook for Greece</i> (7th ed., London, 1905); Macmillan&rsquo;s
+<i>Guide to the Eastern Mediterranean</i> (London, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">2. History</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>a.</i> <i>Ancient; to 146</i> <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Introductory.</i>&mdash;It is necessary to indicate at the outset the
+scope and object of the present article. The reader must not
+expect to find in it a compendious summary of the chief events
+in the history of ancient Greece. It is not intended to supply
+an &ldquo;Outlines of Greek History.&rdquo; It may be questioned whether
+such a sketch of the history, within the limits of space which are
+necessarily imposed in a work of reference, would be of utility
+to any class of readers. At any rate, the plan of the present
+work, in which the subject of Greek history is treated of in a
+large number of separate articles, allows of the narrative of
+events being given in a more satisfactory form under the more
+general of the headings (<i>e.g.</i> <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sparta</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peloponnesian
+War</a></span>). The character of the history itself suggests a further
+reason why a general article upon Greek history should not
+be confined to, or even attempt, a narrative of events. A sketch
+of Greek history is not possible in the sense in which a sketch of
+Roman history, or even of English history, is possible. Greek
+history is not the history of a single state. When Aristotle
+composed his work upon the constitutions of the Greek states,
+he found it necessary to extend his survey to no less that 158
+states. Greek history is thus concerned with more than 150
+separate and independent political communities. Nor is it even
+the history of a single country. The area occupied by the Greek
+race extended from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus, and from
+southern Russia to northern Africa. It is inevitable, therefore,
+that the impression conveyed by a sketch of Greek history
+should be a misleading one. A mere narrative can hardly fail
+to give a false perspective. Experience shows that such a
+sketch is apt to resolve itself into the history of a few great
+movements and of a few leading states. What is still worse,
+it is apt to confine itself, at any rate for the greater part of the
+period dealt with, to the history of Greece in the narrower sense,
+<i>i.e.</i> of the Greek peninsula. For the identification of Greece
+with Greece proper there may be some degree of excuse when we
+come to the 5th and 4th centuries. In the period that lies behind
+the year 500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Greece proper forms but a small part of the
+Greek world. In the 7th and 6th centuries it is outside Greece
+itself that we must look for the most active life of the Greek
+people and the most brilliant manifestations of the Greek spirit.
+The present article, therefore, will be concerned with the causes
+and conditions of events, rather than with the events themselves;
+it will attempt analysis rather than narrative. Its object will
+be to indicate problems and to criticize views; to suggest
+lessons and parallels, and to estimate the importance of the
+Hellenic factor in the development of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Minoan and Mycenaean Ages.</i>&mdash;When does Greek
+history begin? Whatever may be the answer that is given to
+this question, it will be widely different from any that could
+have been proposed a generation ago. Then the question was,
+How late does Greek history begin? To-day the question is,
+How early does it begin? The suggestion made by Grote that
+the first Olympiad (776 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) should be taken as the starting-point
+of the history of Greece, in the proper sense of the term
+&ldquo;history,&rdquo; seemed likely, not so many years ago, to win general
+acceptance. At the present moment the tendency would seem
+to be to go back as far as the 3rd or 4th millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in order
+to reach a starting-point. It is to the results of archaeological
+research during the last thirty years that we must attribute so
+startling a change in the attitude of historical science towards
+this problem. In the days when Grote published the first volumes
+of his <i>History of Greece</i> archaeology was in its infancy. Its
+results, so far as they affected the earlier periods of Greek history,
+were scanty; its methods were unscientific. The methods have
+been gradually perfected by numerous workers in the field; but
+the results, which have so profoundly modified our conceptions
+of the early history of the Aegean area, are principally due to the
+discoveries of two men, Heinrich Schliemann and A. J. Evans.
+A full account of these discoveries will be found elsewhere (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>). It will be sufficient to
+mention here that Schliemann&rsquo;s labours began with the excavations
+on the site of Troy in the years 1870-1873; that he passed
+on to the excavations at Mycenae in 1876 and to those at Tiryns
+in 1884. It was the discoveries of these years that revealed
+to us the Mycenaean age, and carried back the history to the
+middle of the 2nd millennium. The discoveries of Dr A. J. Evans
+in the island of Crete belong to a later period. The work of
+excavation was begun in 1900, and was carried on in subsequent
+years. It has revealed to us the Minoan age, and enabled us
+to trace back the development and origins of the civilization
+for a further period of 1000 or 1500 years. The dates assigned
+by archaeologists to the different periods of Mycenaean and
+Minoan art must be regarded as merely approximate. Even
+the relation of the two civilizations is still, to some extent, a
+matter of conjecture. The general chronological scheme,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span>
+however, in the sense of the relative order of the various periods
+and the approximate intervals between them, is too firmly
+established, both by internal evidence, such as the development
+of the styles of pottery, and of the art in general, and by external
+evidence, such as the points of contact with Egyptian art and
+history, to admit of its being any longer seriously called in
+question.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:860px; height:607px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img440.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img440a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<p>If, then, by &ldquo;Greek history&rdquo; is to be understood the history
+of the lands occupied in later times by the Greek race (<i>i.e.</i> the
+Greek peninsula and the Aegean basin), the beginnings of the
+history must be carried back some 2000 years before Grote&rsquo;s
+proposed starting-point. If, however, &ldquo;Greek history&rdquo; is taken
+to mean the history of the Greek people, the determination of
+the starting-point is far from easy. For the question to which
+archaeology does not as yet supply any certain answer is the
+question of race. Were the creators of the Minoan and
+Mycenaean civilization Greeks or were they not? In some
+degree the Minoan evidence has modified the answer suggested
+by the Mycenaean. Although wide differences of opinion as to
+the origin of the Mycenaean civilization existed among scholars
+when the results of Schliemann&rsquo;s labours were first given to the
+world, a general agreement had gradually been arrived at in
+favour of the view which would identify Mycenaean with Achaean
+or Homeric. In presence of the Cretan evidence it is no longer
+possible to maintain this view with the same confidence. The
+two chief difficulties in the way of attributing either the Minoan
+or the Mycenaean civilization to an Hellenic people are connected
+respectively with the script and the religion. The excavations
+at Cnossus have yielded thousands of tablets written in the linear
+script. There is evidence that this script was in use among the
+Mycenaeans as well. If Greek was the language spoken at
+Cnossus and Mycenae, how is it that all attempts to decipher
+the script have hitherto failed? The Cretan excavations, again,
+have taught us a great deal as to the religion of the Minoan age;
+they have, at the same time, thrown a new light upon the evidence
+supplied by Mycenaean sites. It is no longer possible to ignore
+the contrast between the cults of the Minoan and Mycenaean
+ages, and the religious conceptions which they imply, and the
+cults and religious conceptions prevalent in the historical period.
+On the other hand, it may safely be asserted that the argument
+derived from the Mycenaean art, in which we seem to trace a
+freedom of treatment which is akin to the spirit of the later
+Greek art, and is in complete contrast to the spirit of Oriental
+art, has received striking confirmation from the remains of
+Minoan art. The decipherment of the script would at once
+solve the problem. We should at least know whether the
+dominant race in Crete in the Minoan age spoke an Hellenic or
+a non-Hellenic dialect. And what could be inferred with regard
+to Crete in the Minoan age could almost certainly be inferred
+with regard to the mainland in the Mycenaean age. In the
+meanwhile, possibly until the tablets are read, at any rate until
+further evidence is forthcoming, any answer that can be given
+to the question must necessarily be tentative and provisional.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>It has already been implied that this period of the history
+of Greece may be subdivided into a Minoan and a Mycenaean
+age. Whether these terms are appropriate is a question of
+comparatively little importance. They at least serve to remind
+us of the part played by the discoveries at Mycenae and Cnossus
+in the reconstruction of the history. The term &ldquo;Mycenaean,&rdquo;
+it is true, has other associations than those of locality. It may
+seem to imply that the civilization disclosed in the excavations
+at Mycenae is Achaean in character, and that it is to be connected
+with the Pelopid dynasty to which Agamemnon belonged. In
+its scientific use, the term must be cleared of all such associations.
+Further, as opposed to &ldquo;Minoan&rdquo; it must be understood in a
+more definite sense than that in which it has often been employed.
+It has come to be generally recognized that two different periods
+are to be distinguished in Schliemann&rsquo;s discoveries at Mycenae
+itself. There is an earlier period, to which belong the objects
+found in the shaft-graves, and there is a later period, to which
+belong the beehive tombs and the remains of the palaces. It
+is the latter period which is &ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; in the strict sense;
+<i>i.e.</i> it is &ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; as opposed to &ldquo;Minoan.&rdquo; To this
+period belong also the palace at Tiryns, the beehive-tombs
+discovered elsewhere on the mainland of Greece and one of the
+cities on the site of Troy (Schliemann&rsquo;s sixth). The pottery
+of this period is as characteristic of it, both in its forms (<i>e.g.</i> the
+&ldquo;stirrup&rdquo; or &ldquo;false-necked&rdquo; form of vase) and in its peculiar
+glaze, as is the architecture of the palaces and the beehive-tombs.
+Although the chief remains have been found on the mainland
+of Greece itself, the art of this period is found to have extended
+as far north as Troy and as far east as Cyprus. On the other
+hand, hardly any traces of it have been discovered on the west
+coast of Asia Minor, south of the Troad. The Mycenaean age,
+in this sense, may be regarded as extending from 1600 to 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+The Minoan age is of far wider extent. Its latest period includes
+both the earlier and the later periods of the remains found at
+Mycenae. This is the period called by Dr Evans &ldquo;Late Minoan.&rdquo;
+To this period belong the Great Palace at Cnossus and the
+linear system of writing. The &ldquo;Middle Minoan&rdquo; period, to
+which the earlier palace belongs, is characterized by the pictographic
+system of writing and by polychrome pottery of a
+peculiarly beautiful kind. Dr Evans proposes to carry back
+this period as far as 2500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Even behind it there are traces
+of a still earlier civilization. Thus the Minoan age, even if
+limited to the middle and later periods, will cover at least a
+thousand years. Perhaps the most surprising result of the
+excavations in Crete is the discovery that Minoan art is on a
+higher level than Mycenaean art. To the scholars of a generation
+ago it seemed a thing incredible that the art of the shaft-graves,
+and the architecture of the beehive-tombs and the palaces, could
+belong to the age before the Dorian invasion. The most recent
+discoveries seem to indicate that the art of Mycenae is a decadent
+art; they certainly prove that an art, hardly inferior in its way
+to the art of the classical period, and a civilization which implies
+the command of great material resources, were flourishing in the
+Aegean perhaps a thousand years before the siege of Troy.</p>
+
+<p>To the question, &ldquo;What is the origin of this civilization?
+Is it of foreign derivation or of native growth?&rdquo; it is not
+possible to give a direct answer. It is clear, on the one
+hand that it was developed, by a gradual process of
+<span class="sidenote">Oriental influence.</span>
+differentiation, from a culture which was common to
+the whole Aegean basin and extended as far to the
+west as Sicily. It is equally clear, on the other hand, that
+foreign influences contributed largely to the process of development.
+Egyptian influences, in particular, can be traced throughout
+the &ldquo;Minoan&rdquo; and &ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; periods. The developed
+art, however, both in Crete and on the mainland, displays
+characteristics which are the very opposite of those which are
+commonly associated with the term &ldquo;oriental.&rdquo; Egyptian
+work, even of the best period, is stiff and conventional; in the
+best Cretan work, and, in a less degree, in Mycenaean work,
+we find an originality and a freedom of treatment which remind
+one of the spirit of the Greek artists. The civilization is, in
+many respects, of an advanced type. The Cretan architects
+could design on a grand scale, and could carry out their designs
+with no small degree of mechanical skill. At Cnossus we find a
+system of drainage in use, which is far in advance of anything
+known in the modern world before the 19th century. If the art
+of the Minoan age falls short of the art of the Periclean age, it is
+hardly inferior to that of the age of Peisistratus. It is a civilization,
+too, which has long been familiar with the art of writing.
+But it is one that belongs entirely to the Bronze Age. Iron is not
+found until the very end of the Mycenaean period, and then
+only in small quantities. Nor is this the only point of contrast
+between the culture of the earliest age and that of the historical
+period in Greece. The chief seats of the early culture are to be
+found either in the island of Crete, or, on the mainland, at Tiryns
+and Mycenae. In the later history Crete plays no part, and
+Tiryns and Mycenae are obscure. With the great names of a
+later age, Argos, Sparta and Athens, no great discoveries are
+connected. In northern Greece, Orchomenos rather than Thebes
+is the centre of influence. Further points of contrast readily
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span>
+suggest themselves. The so-called Phoenician alphabet, in
+use amongst the later Greeks, is unknown in the earliest age.
+Its systems of writing, both the earlier and the later one, are
+syllabic in character, and analogous to those in vogue in Asia
+Minor and Cyprus. In the art of war, the chariot is of more
+importance than the foot-soldier, and the latter, unlike the
+Greek hoplite, is lightly clad, and trusts to a shield large enough
+to cover the whole body, rather than to the metal helmet, breastplate
+and greaves of later times (see Arms and Armour: Greek).
+The political system appears to have been a despotic monarchy,
+and the realm of the monarch to have extended to far wider
+limits than those of the &ldquo;city-states&rdquo; of historical Greece.
+It is, perhaps, in the religious practices of the age, and in the
+ideas implied in them, that the contrast is most apparent.
+Neither in Crete nor on the mainland is there any trace of the
+worship of the &ldquo;Olympian&rdquo; deities. The cults in vogue remind
+us rather of Asia than of Greece. The worship of pillars and of
+trees carries us back to Canaan, while the double-headed axe,
+so prominent in the ritual of Cnossus, survives in later times
+as the symbol of the national deity of the Carians. The beehive-tombs,
+found on many sites on the mainland besides Mycenae,
+are evidence both of a method of sepulture and of ideas of the
+future state, which are alien to the practice and the thought
+of the Greeks of history. It is only in one region&mdash;in the island
+of Cyprus&mdash;that the culture of the Mycenaean age is found
+surviving into the historical period. As late as the beginning
+of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Cyprus is still ruled by kings, the alphabet
+has not yet displaced a syllabary, the characteristic forms of
+Mycenaean vases still linger on, and the chief deity of the island
+is the goddess with attendant doves whose images are among
+the common objects of Mycenaean finds.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Homeric Age.</i>&mdash;Alike in Crete and on the mainland
+the civilization disclosed by excavation comes abruptly to an
+end. In Crete we can trace it back from c. 1200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the
+Neolithic period. From the Stone Age to the end of the Minoan
+Age the development is continuous and uninterrupted.<a name="fa4g" id="fa4g" href="#ft4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> But
+between the culture of the Early Age and the culture of the
+Dorians, who occupied the island in historical times, no connexion
+whatever can be established. Between the two there is a great
+gulf fixed. It would be difficult to imagine a greater contrast
+than that presented by the rude life of the Dorian communities
+in Crete when it is compared with the political power, the material
+resources and the extensive commerce of the earlier period.
+The same gap between the archaeological age and the historical
+exists on the mainland also. It is true that the solution of
+continuity is here less complete. Mycenaean art continues, here
+and there, in a debased form down to the 9th century, a date to
+which we can trace back the beginnings of the later Greek art.
+On one or two lines (<i>e.g.</i> architecture) it is even possible to
+establish some sort of connexion between them. But Greek
+art as a whole cannot be evolved from Mycenaean art. We
+cannot bridge over the interval that separates the latter art, even
+in its decline, from the former. It is sufficient to compare the
+&ldquo;dipylon&rdquo; ware (with which the process of development begins,
+which culminates in the pottery of the Great Age) with the
+Mycenaean vases, to satisfy oneself that the gulf exists. What
+then is the relation of the Heroic or Homeric Age (<i>i.e.</i> the age
+whose life is portrayed for us in the poems of Homer) to the
+Earliest Age? It too presents many contrasts to the later
+periods. On the other hand, it presents contrasts to the Minoan
+Age, which, in their way, are not less striking. Is it then to be
+identified with the Mycenaean Age? Schliemann, the discoverer
+of the Mycenaean culture, unhesitatingly identified
+Mycenaean with Homeric. He even identified the shaft-graves
+of Mycenae with the tombs of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra.
+Later inquirers, while refusing to discover so literal a correspondence
+between things Homeric and things Mycenaean,
+have not hesitated to accept a general correspondence between
+the Homeric Age and the Mycenaean. Where it is a case of
+comparing literary evidence with archaeological, an exact
+coincidence is not of course to be demanded. The most that
+can be asked is that a general correspondence should be established.
+It may be conceded that the case for such a correspondence
+appears prima facie a strong one. There is much in Homer
+that seems to find confirmation or explanation in Schliemann&rsquo;s
+finds. Mycenae is Agamemnon&rsquo;s city; the plan of the Homeric
+house agrees fairly well with the palaces at Tiryns and Mycenae;
+the forms and the technique of Mycenaean art serve to illustrate
+passages in the poems; such are only a few of the arguments
+that have been urged. It is the great merit of Professor Ridgeway&rsquo;s
+work (<i>The Early Age of Greece</i>) that it has demonstrated,
+once and for all, that Mycenaean is not Homeric pure and simple.
+He insists upon differences as great as the resemblances. Iron is
+in common use in Homer; it is practically unknown to the
+Mycenaeans. In place of the round shield and the metal armour
+of the Homeric soldier, we find at Mycenae that the warrior is
+lightly clad in linen, and that he fights behind an oblong shield,
+which covers the whole body; nor are the chariots the same in
+form. The Homeric dead are cremated; the Mycenaean are
+buried. The gods of Homer are the deities of Olympus, of whose
+cult no traces are to be found in the Mycenaean Age. The
+novelty of Professor Ridgeway&rsquo;s theory is that for the accepted
+equation, Homeric = Achaean = Mycenaean, he proposes to
+substitute the equations, Homeric = Achaean = post-Mycenaean,
+and Mycenaean = pre-Achaean = Pelasgian. The Mycenaean
+civilization he attributes to the Pelasgians, whom he regards
+as the indigenous population of Greece, the ancestors of the later
+Greeks, and themselves Greek both in speech and blood. The
+Homeric heroes are Achaeans, a fair-haired Celtic race, whose
+home was in the Danube valley, where they had learned the use
+of iron. In Greece they are newcomers, a conquering class
+comparable to the Norman invaders of England or Ireland,
+and like them they have acquired the language of their subjects
+in the course of a few generations. The Homeric civilization
+is thus Achaean, <i>i.e.</i> it is Pelasgian (Mycenaean) civilization,
+appropriated by a ruder race; but the Homeric culture is far
+inferior to the Mycenaean. Here, at any rate, the Norman
+analogy breaks down. Norman art in England is far in advance
+of Saxon. Even in Normandy (as in Sicily), where the Norman
+appropriated rather than introduced, he not only assimilated
+but developed. In Greece the process must have been reversed.</p>
+
+<p>The theory thus outlined is probably stronger on its destructive
+side than on its constructive. To treat the Achaeans as an
+immigrant race is to run counter to the tradition of the Greeks
+themselves, by whom the Achaeans were regarded as indigenous
+(cf. Herod. viii. 73). Nor is the Pelasgian part of the theory
+easy to reconcile with the Homeric evidence. If the Achaeans
+were a conquering class ruling over a Pelasgian population,
+we should expect to find this difference of race a prominent
+feature in Homeric society. We should, at least, expect to find
+a Pelasgian background to the Homeric picture. As a matter
+of fact, we find nothing of the sort. There is no consciousness
+in the Homeric poems of a distinction of race between the
+governing and the subject classes. There are, indeed, Pelasgians
+in Homer, but the references either to the people or the name
+are extraordinarily few. They appear as a people, presumably
+in Asia Minor, in alliance with the Trojans; they appear also,
+in a single passage, as one of the tribes inhabiting Crete. The
+name survives in &ldquo;Pelasgicon Argos,&rdquo; which is probably to be
+identified with the valley of the Spercheius,<a name="fa5g" id="fa5g" href="#ft5g"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and as an epithet
+of Zeus of Dodona. The population, however, of Pelasgicon
+Argos and of Dodona is no longer Pelasgian. Thus, in the age
+of Homer, the Pelasgians belong, so far as Greece proper is
+concerned, to a past that is already remote. It is inadmissible
+to appeal to Herodotus against Homer. For the conditions
+of the Homeric age Homer is the sole authoritative witness.
+If, however, Professor Ridgeway has failed to prove that
+&ldquo;Mycenaean&rdquo; equals &ldquo;Pelasgian,&rdquo; he has certainly proved
+that much that is Homeric is post-Mycenaean. It is possible
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span>
+that different strata are to be distinguished in the Homeric
+poems. There are passages which seem to assume the conditions
+of the Mycenaean age; there are others which presuppose the
+conditions of a later age. It may be that the latter passages
+reflect the circumstances of the poet&rsquo;s own times, while the
+former ones reproduce those of an earlier period. If so, the
+substitution of iron for bronze must have been effected in the
+interval between the earlier and the later periods.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been pointed out that the question whether
+the makers of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were
+Greeks must still be regarded as an open one. No
+such question can be raised as to the Homeric Age.
+<span class="sidenote">The Homeric state.</span>
+The Achaeans may or may not have been Greek in
+blood. What is certain is that the Achaean Age
+forms an integral part of Greek history. Alike on the linguistic,
+the religious and the political sides, Homer is the starting-point
+of subsequent developments. In the Greek dialects the great
+distinction is that between the Doric and the rest. Of the non-Doric
+dialects the two main groups are the Aeolic and Ionic,
+both of which have been developed, by a gradual process of
+differentiation, from the language of the Homeric poems. With
+regard to religion it is sufficient to refer to the judgment of
+Herodotus, that it was Homer and Hesiod who were the authors
+of the Greek theogony (ii. 53 <span class="grk" title="houtoi eisi hoi poiêsantes theogoniên
+Hellêsi">&#959;&#8023;&#964;&#959;&#943; &#949;&#7984;&#963;&#953; &#959;&#7985; &#960;&#959;&#953;&#942;&#963;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962; &#952;&#949;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#951;&#957; &#7964;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#953;</span>). It is a commonplace that Homer was the Bible of the
+Greeks. On the political side, Greek constitutional development
+would be unintelligible without Homer. When Greek history,
+in the proper sense, begins, oligarchy is almost universal. Everywhere,
+however, an antecedent stage of monarchy has to be
+presupposed. In the Homeric system monarchy is the sole
+form of government; but it is monarchy already well on the
+way to being transformed into oligarchy. In the person of the
+king are united the functions of priest, of judge and of leader
+in war. He belongs to a family which claims divine descent
+and his office is hereditary. He is, however, no despotic monarch.
+He is compelled by custom to consult the council (<i>boul&#275;</i>) of the
+elders, or chiefs. He must ask their opinion, and, if he fails
+to obtain their consent, he has no power to enforce his will.
+Even when he has obtained the consent of the council, the
+proposal still awaits the approval of the assembly (<i>agora</i>), of the
+people.</p>
+
+<p>Thus in the Homeric state we find the germs not only of the
+oligarchy and democracy of later Greece, but also of all the
+various forms of constitution known to the Western
+world. And a monarchy such as is depicted in the
+<span class="sidenote">Homeric society.</span>
+Homeric poems is clearly ripe for transmutation
+into oligarchy. The chiefs are addressed as kings (<span class="grk" title="basilêes">&#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#8134;&#949;&#962;</span>), and
+claim, equally with the monarch, descent from the gods.
+In Homer, again, we can trace the later organization into tribe
+(<span class="grk" title="phylê">&#966;&#965;&#955;&#942;</span>), clan (<span class="grk" title="genos">&#947;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>), and phratry, which is characteristic of
+Greek society in the historical period, and meets us in analogous
+forms in other Aryan societies. The <span class="grk" title="genos">&#947;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> corresponds to the
+Roman <i>gens</i>, the <span class="grk" title="phylê">&#966;&#965;&#955;&#942;</span> to the Roman tribe, and the phratry to
+the <i>curia</i>. The importance of the <i>phratry</i> in Homeric society is
+illustrated by the well-known passage (<i>Iliad</i> ix. 63) in which
+the outcast is described as &ldquo;one who belongs to no phratry&rdquo;
+(<span class="grk" title="aphrêtôr">&#7936;&#966;&#961;&#942;&#964;&#969;&#961;</span>). It is a society that is, of course, based upon slavery,
+but it is slavery in its least repulsive aspect. The treatment
+which Eumaeus and Eurycleia receive at the hands of the poet
+of the <i>Odyssey</i> is highly creditable to the humanity of the age.
+A society which regarded the slave as a mere chattel would have
+been impatient of the interest shown in a swineherd and a nurse.
+It is a society, too, that exhibits many of the distinguishing
+traits of later Greek life. Feasting and quarrels, it is true, are
+of more moment to the heroes than to the contemporaries of
+Pericles or Plato; but &ldquo;music&rdquo; and &ldquo;gymnastic&rdquo; (though
+the terms must be understood in a more restricted sense) are as
+distinctive of the age of Homer as of that of Pindar. In one
+respect there is retrogression in the historical period. Woman
+in Homeric society enjoys a greater freedom, and receives greater
+respect, than in the Athens of Sophocles and Pericles.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Growth of the Greek States.</i>&mdash;The Greek world at the
+beginning of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> presents a picture in many
+respects different from that of the Homeric Age. The Greek
+race is no longer confined to the Greek peninsula. It occupies
+the islands of the Aegean, the western seaboard of Asia Minor,
+the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, of southern Italy and
+Sicily. Scattered settlements are found as far apart as the mouth
+of the Rhone, the north of Africa, the Crimea and the eastern
+end of the Black Sea. The Greeks are called by a national name,
+<i>Hellenes</i>, the symbol of a fully-developed national self-consciousness.
+They are divided into three great branches, the Dorian,
+the Ionian and the Aeolian, names almost, or entirely, unknown
+to Homer. The heroic monarchy has nearly everywhere disappeared.
+In Greece proper, south of Thermopylae, it survives,
+but in a peculiar form, in the Spartan state alone. What is the
+significance and the explanation of contrasts so profound?</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the explanation is to be found, directly
+or indirectly, in a single cause, the Dorian invasion. In Homer
+the Dorians are mentioned in one passage only (<i>Odyssey</i>
+xix. 177). They there appear as one of the races which
+<span class="sidenote">Dorian invasion.</span>
+inhabit Crete. In the historical period the whole
+Peloponnese, with the exception of Arcadia, Elis and Achaea,
+is Dorian. In northern Greece the Dorians occupy the little
+state of Doris, and in the Aegean they form the population
+of Crete, Rhodes and some smaller islands. Thus the chief
+centres of Minoan and Mycenaean culture have passed into
+Dorian hands, and the chief seats of Achaean power are included
+in Dorian states. Greek tradition explained the overthrow of
+the Achaean system by an invasion of the Peloponnese by the
+Dorians, a northern tribe, which had found a temporary home in
+Doris. The story ran that, after an unsuccessful attempt to
+force an entrance by the Isthmus of Corinth, they had crossed
+from Naupactus, at the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, landed
+on the opposite shore, and made their way into the heart of the
+Peloponnese, where a single victory gave them possession of the
+Achaean states. Their conquests were divided among the
+invaders into three shares, for which lots were cast, and thus
+the three states of Argos, Sparta and Messenia were created.
+There is much in this tradition that is impossible or improbable.
+It is impossible, <i>e.g.</i> for the tiny state of Doris, with its three
+or four &ldquo;small, sad villages&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="poleis mikrai kai lyprochôroi">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#956;&#953;&#954;&#961;&#945;&#8054; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#955;&#965;&#960;&#961;&#972;&#967;&#969;&#961;&#959;&#953;</span>,
+Strabo, p. 427), to have furnished a force of invaders sufficient
+to conquer and re-people the greater part of the Peloponnese.
+It is improbable that the conquest should have been either as
+sudden, or as complete, as the legend represents. On the
+contrary, there are indications that the conquest was gradual,
+and that the displacement of the older population was incomplete.
+The improbability of the details affords, however, no ground
+for questioning the reality of the invasion.<a name="fa6g" id="fa6g" href="#ft6g"><span class="sp">6</span></a> The tradition
+can be traced back at Sparta to the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Tyrtaeus,
+quoted by Strabo, p. 362), and there is abundant evidence, other
+than that of legend, to corroborate it. There is the Dorian name,
+to begin with. If, as Beloch supposes, it originated on the coast
+of Asia Minor, where it served to distinguish the settlers in
+Rhodes and the neighbouring islands from the Ionians and
+Aeolians to the north of them, how came the great and famous
+states of the Peloponnese to adopt a name in use among the
+petty colonies planted by their kinsmen across the sea? Or, if
+Dorian is simply Old Peloponnesian, how are we to account for
+the Doric dialect or the Dorian pride of race?</p>
+
+<p>It is true that there are great differences between the literary
+Doric, the dialect of Corinth and Argos, and the dialects of
+Laconia and Crete, and that there are affinities between the
+dialect of Laconia and the non-Dorian dialects of Arcadia and
+Elis. It is equally true, however, and of far more consequence,
+that all the Doric dialects are distinguished from all other Greek
+dialects by certain common characteristics. Perhaps the
+strongest sentiment in the Dorian nature is the pride of race.
+Indeed, it looks as if the Dorians claimed to be the sole genuine
+Hellenes. How can we account for an indigenous population,
+first imagining itself to be immigrant, and then developing a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span>
+contempt for the rest of the race, equally indigenous with itself,
+on account of a fictitious difference in origin? Finally, there
+is the archaeological evidence. The older civilization comes to
+an abrupt end, and it does so, on the mainland at least, at the
+very period to which tradition assigns the Dorian migration.
+Its development is greatest, and its overthrow most complete,
+precisely in the regions occupied by the Dorians and the other
+tribes, whose migrations were traditionally connected with
+theirs. It is hardly too much to say that the archaeologist would
+have been compelled to postulate an inroad into central and
+southern Greece of tribes from the north, at a lower level of
+culture, in the course of the 12th and 11th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, if the
+historian had not been able to direct him to the traditions of the
+great migrations (<span class="grk" title="metanastaseis">&#956;&#949;&#964;&#945;&#957;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>), of which the Dorian invasion
+was the chief. With the Dorian migration Greek tradition
+connected the expansion of the Greek race eastwards across the
+Aegean. In the historical period the Greek settlements on the
+western coast of Asia Minor fall into three clearly defined groups.
+To the north is the Aeolic group, consisting of the island of
+Lesbos and twelve towns, mostly insignificant, on the opposite
+mainland. To the south is the Dorian <i>hexapolis</i>, consisting of
+Cnidus and Halicarnassus on the mainland, and the islands of
+Rhodes and Cos. In the centre comes the Ionian <i>dodecapolis</i>,
+a group consisting of ten towns on the mainland, together with
+the islands of Samos and Chios. Of these three groups, the
+Ionian is incomparably the most important. The Ionians also
+occupy Euboea and the Cyclades. Although it would appear
+that Cyprus (and possibly Pamphylia) had been occupied by
+settlers from Greece in the Mycenaean age, Greek tradition is
+probably correct in putting the colonization of Asia Minor and
+the islands of the Aegean after the Dorian migration. Both the
+Homeric and the archaeological evidence seem to point to the
+same conclusion. Between Rhodes on the south and the Troad
+on the north scarcely any Mycenaean remains have been found.
+Homer is ignorant of any Greeks east of Euboea. If the poems
+are earlier than the Dorian Invasion, his silence is conclusive.
+If the poems are some centuries later than the Invasion, they at
+least prove that, within a few generations of that event, it was
+the belief of the Greeks of Asia Minor that their ancestors had
+crossed the seas after the close of the Heroic Age. It is probable,
+too, that the names Ionian and Aeolian, the former of which is
+found once in Homer, and the latter not at all, originated among
+the colonists in Asia Minor, and served to designate, in the first
+instance, the members of the Ionic and Aeolic <i>dodecapoleis</i>.
+As Curtius<a name="fa7g" id="fa7g" href="#ft7g"><span class="sp">7</span></a> pointed out, the only Ionia known to history is in
+Asia Minor. It does not follow that Ionia is the original home
+of the Ionian race, as Curtius argued. It almost certainly
+follows, however, that it is the original home of the Ionian
+name.</p>
+
+<p>It is less easy to account for the name <i>Hellenes</i>. The Greeks
+were profoundly conscious of their common nationality, and of
+the gulf that separated them from the rest of mankind. They
+themselves recognized a common race and language, and a
+common type of religion and culture, as the chief factors in this
+sentiment of nationality (see Herod. viii. 144 <span class="grk" title="to Hellênikon eon
+homaimon te kai homoglôsson kai theôn hidrymata te koina kai
+thusiai êthea te homotropa">&#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#957; &#7952;&#8056;&#957; &#8005;&#956;&#945;&#953;&#956;&#972;&#957; &#964;&#949; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#8001;&#956;&#972;&#947;&#955;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#952;&#949;&#8182;&#957; &#7985;&#948;&#961;&#973;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#940; &#964;&#949; &#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#8048; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#952;&#965;&#963;&#943;&#945;&#953; &#7972;&#952;&#949;&#940; &#964;&#949; &#8001;&#956;&#972;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#960;&#945;</span>). &ldquo;Hellenes&rdquo; was the name of their
+common race, and &ldquo;Hellas&rdquo; of their common country. In
+Homer there is no distinct consciousness of a common nationality,
+and consequently no antithesis of Greek and Barbarian
+(see Thuc. i. 3). Nor is there a true collective name. There are
+indeed Hellenes (though the name occurs in one passage only,
+<i>Iliad</i> ii. 684), and there is a Hellas; but his Hellas, whatever its
+precise signification may be, is, at any rate, not equivalent either
+to Greece proper or to the land of the Greeks, and his Hellenes are
+the inhabitants of a small district to the south of Thessaly. It
+is possible that the diffusion of the Hellenic name was due to the
+Dorian invaders. Its use can be traced back to the first half of
+the 7th century. Not less obscure are the causes of the fall of
+monarchy. It cannot have been the immediate effect of the
+Dorian conquest, for the states founded by the Dorians were at
+first monarchically governed. It may, however, have been an indirect
+effect of it. We have already seen that the power of the
+<span class="sidenote">Government.</span>
+Homeric king is more limited than that of the rulers of
+Cnossus, Tiryns or Mycenae. In other words, monarchy
+is already in decay at the epoch of the Invasion. The
+Invasion, in its effects on wealth, commerce and civilization, is
+almost comparable to the irruption of the barbarians into the
+Roman empire. The monarch of the Minoan and Mycenaean age
+has extensive revenues at his command; the monarch of the early
+Dorian states is little better than a petty chief. Thus the interval,
+once a wide one, that separates him from the nobles tends to disappear.
+The decay of monarchy was gradual; much more gradual
+than is generally recognized. There were parts of the Greek world
+in which it still survived in the 6th century, <i>e.g.</i> Sparta, Cyrene,
+Cyprus, and possibly Argos and Tarentum. Both Herodotus
+and Thucydides apply the title &ldquo;king&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="basileus">&#946;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#973;&#962;</span>) to the rulers
+of Thessaly in the 5th century. The date at which monarchy
+gave place to a republican form of government must have
+differed, and differed widely, in different cases. The traditions
+relating to the foundation of Cyrene assume the existence of
+monarchy in Thera and in Crete in the middle of the 7th century
+(Herodotus iv. 150 and 154), and the reign of Amphicrates
+at Samos (Herod, iii. 59) can hardly be placed more than a
+generation earlier. In view of our general ignorance of the history
+of the 7th and 8th centuries, it is hazardous to pronounce these
+instances exceptional. On the other hand, the change from
+monarchy to oligarchy was completed at Athens before the end
+of the 8th century, and at a still earlier date in some of the other
+states. The process, again, by which the change was effected
+was, in all probability, less uniform than is generally assumed.
+There are extremely few cases in which we have any trustworthy
+evidence, and the instances about which we are informed refuse
+to be reduced to any common type. In Greece proper our
+information is fullest in the case of Athens and Argos. In the
+former case, the king is gradually stripped of his powers by a
+process of devolution. An hereditary king, ruling for life, is
+replaced by three annual and elective magistrates, between
+whom are divided the executive, military and religious functions
+of the monarch (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>). At Argos the fall of the monarchy
+is preceded by an aggrandisement of the royal prerogatives.
+There is nothing in common between these two cases, and there
+is no reason to suppose that the process elsewhere was analogous
+to that at Athens. Everywhere, however, oligarchy is the
+form of government which succeeds to monarchy. Political
+power is monopolized by a class of nobles, whose claim to govern
+is based upon birth and the possession of land, the most valuable
+form of property in an early society. Sometimes power is
+confined to a single clan (<i>e.g.</i> the Bacchiadae at Corinth); more
+commonly, as at Athens, all houses that are noble are equally
+privileged. In every case there is found, as the adviser of the
+executive, a Boul&#275;, or council, representative of the privileged
+class. Without such a council a Greek oligarchy is inconceivable.
+The relations of the executive to the council doubtless varied.
+At Athens it is clear that the real authority was exercised by the
+archons;<a name="fa8g" id="fa8g" href="#ft8g"><span class="sp">8</span></a> in many states the magistrates were probably subordinate
+to the council (cf. the relation of the consuls to the senate
+at Rome). And it is clear that the way in which the oligarchies
+used their power varied also. The cases in which the power was
+abused are naturally the ones of which we hear; for an abuse
+of power gave rise to discontent and was the ultimate cause of
+revolution. We hear little or nothing of the cases in which
+power was exercised wisely. Happy is the constitution which
+has no annals! We know, however, that oligarchy held its
+ground for generations, or even for centuries, in a large proportion
+of the Greek states; and a government which, like the
+oligarchies of Elis, Thebes or Aegina, could maintain itself for
+three or four centuries cannot have been merely oppressive.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span></p>
+
+<p>The period of the transition from monarchy to oligarchy
+is the period in which commerce begins to develop, and trade-routes
+to be organized. Greece had been the centre of
+an active trade in the Minoan and Mycenaean epochs.
+<span class="sidenote">Trade.</span>
+The products of Crete and of the Peloponnese had found their
+way to Egypt and Asia Minor. The overthrow of the older
+civilization put an end to commerce. The seas became insecure
+and intercourse with the East was interrupted. Our earliest
+glimpses of the Aegean after the period of the migrations disclose
+the raids of the pirate and the activity of the Phoenician trader.
+It is not till the 8th century has dawned that trade begins to
+revive, and the Phoenician has to retire before his Greek competitor.
+For some time to come, however, no clear distinction is
+drawn between the trader and the pirate. The pioneers of Greek
+trade in the West are the pirates of Cumae (Thucyd. vi. 4).
+The expansion of Greek commerce, unlike that of the commerce
+of the modern world, was not connected with any great scientific
+discoveries. There is nothing in the history of ancient navigation
+that is analogous to the invention of the mariner&rsquo;s compass or
+of the steam-engine. In spite of this, the development of Greek
+commerce in the 7th and 6th centuries was rapid. It must have
+been assisted by the great discovery of the early part of the
+former century, the invention of coined money. To the Lydians,
+rather than the Greeks, belongs the credit of the discovery;
+but it was the genius of the latter race that divined the importance
+of the invention and spread its use. The coinage of the
+Ionian towns goes back to the reign of Gyges (<i>c.</i> 675 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). And
+it is in Ionia that commercial development is earliest and greatest.
+In the most distant regions the Ionian is first in the field. Egypt
+and the Black Sea are both opened up to Greek trade by Miletus,
+the Adriatic and the Western Mediterranean by Phocaea and
+Samos. It is significant that of the twelve states engaged in the
+Egyptian trade in the 6th century all, with the exception of
+Aegina, are from the eastern side of the Aegean (Herod. ii. 178).
+On the western side the chief centres of trade during these
+centuries were the islands of Euboea and Aegina and the town
+of Corinth. The Aeginetan are the earliest coins of Greece
+proper (<i>c.</i> 650 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); and the two rival scales of weights and
+measures, in use amongst the Greeks of every age, are the
+Aeginetan and the Euboic. Commerce naturally gave rise to
+commercial leagues, and commercial relations tended to bring
+about political alliances. Foreign policy even at this early
+epoch seems to have been largely determined by considerations
+of commerce. Two leagues, the members of which were connected
+by political as well as commercial ties, can be recognized. At
+the head of each stood one of the two rival powers in the island
+of Euboea, Chalcis and Eretria. Their primary object was
+doubtless protection from the pirate and the foreigner. Competing
+routes were organized at an early date under their influence,
+and their trading connexions can be traced from the heart of
+Asia Minor to the north of Italy. Miletus, Sybaris and Etruria
+were members of the Eretrian league; Samos, Corinth, Rhegium
+and Zancle (commanding the Straits of Messina), and Cumae,
+on the Bay of Naples, of the Chalcidian. The wool of the
+Phrygian uplands, woven in the looms of Miletus, reached the
+Etruscan markets by way of Sybaris; through Cumae, Rome
+and the rest of Latium obtained the elements of Greek culture.
+Greek trade, however, was confined to the Mediterranean area.
+The Phoenician and the Carthaginian navigators penetrated
+to Britain; they discovered the passage round the Cape two
+thousand years before Vasco da Gama&rsquo;s time. The Greek sailor
+dared not adventure himself outside the Black Sea, the Adriatic
+and the Mediterranean. Greek trade, too, was essentially maritime.
+Ports visited by Greek vessels were often the starting
+points of trade-routes into the interior; the traffic along those
+routes was left in the hands of the natives (see <i>e.g.</i> Herod. iv. 24).
+One service, the importance of which can hardly be overestimated,
+was rendered to civilization by the Greek traders&mdash;the invention
+of geography. The science of geography is the invention of the
+Greeks. The first maps were made by them (in the 6th century);
+and it was the discoveries and surveys of their sailors that made
+map-making possible.</p>
+
+<p>Closely connected with the history of Greek trade is the
+history of Greek colonization. The period of colonization, in
+its narrower sense, extends from the middle of the
+8th to the middle of the 6th century. Greek colonization
+<span class="sidenote">Colonization.</span>
+is, however, merely a continuation of the process
+which at an earlier epoch had led to the settlement, first of
+Cyprus, and then of the islands and coasts of the Aegean. From
+the earlier settlements the colonization of the historical period
+is distinguished by three characteristics. The later colony
+acknowledges a definite <i>metropolis</i> (&ldquo;mother-city&rdquo;); it is
+planted by a definite <i>oecist</i> (<span class="grk" title="oikistês">&#959;&#7984;&#954;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>); it has a definite date
+assigned to its foundation.<a name="fa9g" id="fa9g" href="#ft9g"><span class="sp">9</span></a> It would be a mistake to regard
+Greek colonization as commercial in origin, in the sense that the
+colonies were in all cases established as trading-posts. This
+was the case with the Phoenician and Carthaginian settlements,
+most of which remained mere factories; and some of the Greek
+colonies (<i>e.g.</i> many of those planted by Miletus on the shores
+of the Black Sea) bore this character. The typical Greek colony,
+however, was neither in origin nor in development a mere
+trading-post. It was, or it became, a <i>polis</i>, a city-state, in which
+was reproduced the life of the parent state. Nor was Greek
+colonization, like the emigration from Europe to America and
+Australia in the 19th century, simply the result of over-population.
+The causes were as various as those which can be traced
+in the history of modern colonization. Those which were
+established for the purposes of trade may be compared to the
+factories of the Portuguese and Dutch in Africa and the Far East.
+Others were the result of political discontent, in some form or
+shape; these may be compared to the Puritan settlements
+in New England. Others again were due to ambition or the
+mere love of adventure (see Herod. v. 42 ff., the career of
+Dorieus). But however various the causes, two conditions
+must always be presupposed&mdash;an expansion of commerce and
+a growth of population. Within the narrow limits of the city-state
+there was a constant tendency for population to become
+redundant, until, as in the later centuries of Greek life, its
+growth was artificially restricted. Alike from the Roman
+colonies, and from those founded by the European nations
+in the course of the last few centuries, the Greek colonies are
+distinguished by a fundamental contrast. It is significant that
+the contrast is a political one. The Roman colony was in a
+position of entire subordination to the Roman state, of which it
+formed a part. The modern colony was, in varying degrees,
+in political subjection to the home government. The Greek
+colony was completely independent; and it was independent
+from the first. The ties that united a colony to its metropolis
+were those of sentiment and interest; the political tie did not
+exist. There were, it is true, exceptions. The colonies established
+by imperial Athens closely resembled the colonies of
+imperial Rome. The cleruchy (<i>q.v.</i>) formed part of the Athenian
+state; the cleruchs kept their status as citizens of Athens and
+acted as a military garrison. And if the political tie, in the
+proper sense, was wanting, it was inevitable that political
+relations should spring out of commercial or sentimental ones.
+Thus we find Corinth interfering twice to save her colony Syracuse
+from destruction, and Megara bringing about the revolt of
+Byzantium, her colony, from Athens. Sometimes it is not easy
+to distinguish political relations from a political tie (<i>e.g.</i> the
+relations of Corinth, both in the Persian and Peloponnesian
+Wars, to Ambracia and the neighbouring group of colonies).
+When we compare the development of the Greek and the modern
+colonies we shall find that the development of the former was
+even more rapid than that of the latter. In at least three
+respects the Greek settler was at an advantage as compared
+with the colonist of modern times. The differences of race, of
+colour and of climate, with which the chief problems of modern
+colonization are connected, played no part in the history of the
+Greek settlements. The races amongst whom the Greeks planted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span>
+themselves were in some cases on a similar level of culture.
+Where the natives were still backward or barbarous, they came
+of a stock either closely related to the Greek, or at least separated
+from it by no great physical differences. We need only contrast
+the Carian, the Sicel, the Thracian or even the Scythian, with
+the native Australian, the Hottentot, the Red Indian or the
+Maori, to apprehend the advantage of the Greek. Amalgamation
+with the native races was easy, and it involved neither
+physical nor intellectual degeneracy as its consequence. Of the
+races with which the Greeks came in contact the Thracian was
+far from the highest in the scale of culture; yet three of the
+greatest names in the Great Age of Athens are those of men who
+had Thracian blood in their veins, viz. Themistocles, Cimon
+and the historian Thucydides. In the absence of any distinction
+of colour, no insuperable barrier existed between the Greek and
+the hellenized native. The <i>demos</i> of the colonial cities was
+largely recruited from the native population,<a name="fa10g" id="fa10g" href="#ft10g"><span class="sp">10</span></a> nor was there
+anything in the Greek world analogous to the &ldquo;mean whites&rdquo;
+or the &ldquo;black belt.&rdquo; Of hardly less importance were the
+climatic conditions. In this respect the Mediterranean area is
+unique. There is no other region of the world of equal extent
+in which these conditions are at once so uniform and so favourable.
+Nowhere had the Greek settler to encounter a climate which
+was either unsuited to his labour or subversive of his vigour.
+That in spite of these advantages so little, comparatively
+speaking, was effected in the work of Hellenization before
+the epoch of Alexander and the Diadochi, was the effect of a
+single counteracting cause. The Greek colonist, like the Greek
+trader, clung to the shore. He penetrated no farther inland
+than the sea-breeze. Hence it was only in islands, such as
+Sicily or Cyprus, that the process of Hellenization was complete.
+Elsewhere the Greek settlements formed a mere fringe along the
+coast.</p>
+
+<p>To the 7th century there belongs another movement of high
+importance in its bearing upon the economic, religious and
+literary development of Greece, as well as upon its
+constitutional history. This movement is the rise of
+<span class="sidenote">The tyrants.</span>
+the <i>tyrannis</i>. In the political writers of a later age the
+word possesses a clear-cut connotation. From other forms
+of monarchy it is distinguished by a twofold differentiation.
+The <i>tyrannus</i> is an unconstitutional ruler, and his authority
+is exercised over unwilling subjects. In the 7th and 6th centuries
+the line was not drawn so distinctly between the tyrant and the
+legitimate monarch. Even Herodotus uses the words &ldquo;tyrant&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;king&rdquo; interchangeably (<i>e.g.</i> the princes of Cyprus are
+called &ldquo;kings&rdquo; in v. 110 and &ldquo;tyrants&rdquo; in v. 109), so that it
+is sometimes difficult to decide whether a legitimate monarch
+or a tyrant is meant (<i>e.g.</i> Aristophilides of Tarentum, iii. 136,
+or Telys of Sybaris, v. 44). But the distinction between the
+tyrant and the king of the Heroic Age is a valid one. It is not
+true that his rule was always exercised over unwilling subjects;
+it is true that his position was always unconstitutional. The
+Homeric king is a legitimate monarch; his authority is invested
+with the sanctions of religion and immemorial custom. The
+tyrant is an illegitimate ruler; his authority is not recognized,
+either by customary usage or by express enactment. But the
+word &ldquo;tyrant&rdquo; was originally a neutral team; it did not
+necessarily imply a misuse of power. The origin of the <i>tyrannis</i>
+is obscure. The word <i>tyrannus</i> has been thought, with some
+reason, to be a Lydian one. Probably both the name and the
+thing originated in the Greek colonies of Asia Minor, though the
+earliest tyrants of whom we hear in Asia Minor (at Ephesus and
+Miletus) are a generation later than the earliest in Greece itself,
+where, both at Sicyon and at Corinth, tyranny appears to date
+back to the second quarter of the 7th century. It is not unusual
+to regard tyranny as a universal stage in the constitutional
+development of the Greek states, and as a stage that occurs
+everywhere at one and the same period. In reality, tyranny
+is confined to certain regions, and it is a phenomenon that is
+peculiar to no one age or century. In Greece proper, before the
+4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it is confined to a small group of states round the
+Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs. The greater part of the Peloponnese
+was exempt from it, and there is no good evidence for its
+existence north of the Isthmus, except at Megara and Athens.
+It plays no part in the history of the Greek cities in Chalcidice
+and Thrace. It appears to have been rare in the Cyclades.
+The regions in which it finds a congenial soil are two, Asia Minor
+and Sicily. Thus it is incorrect to say that most Greek states
+passed through this stage. It is still wider of the mark to
+assume that they passed through it at the same time. There is
+no &ldquo;Age of the Tyrants.&rdquo; Tyranny began in the Peloponnese
+a hundred years before it appears in Sicily, and it has disappeared
+in the Peloponnese almost before it begins in Sicily. In the
+latter the great age of tyranny comes at the beginning of the
+5th century; in the former it is at the end of the 7th and the
+beginning of the 6th. At Athens the history of tyranny begins
+after it has ended both at Sicyon and Corinth. There is, indeed,
+a period in which tyranny is non-existent in the Greek states;
+roughly speaking, the last sixty years of the 5th century. But
+with this exception, there is no period in which the tyrant is
+not to be found. The greatest of all the tyrannies, that of
+Dionysius at Syracuse, belongs to the 4th century. Nor must
+it be assumed that tyranny always comes at the same stage in
+the history of a constitution; that it is always a stage between
+oligarchy and democracy. At Corinth it is followed, not by
+democracy but by oligarchy, and it is an oligarchy that lasts,
+with a brief interruption, for two hundred and fifty years. At
+Athens it is not immediately preceded by oligarchy. Between
+the Eupatrid oligarchy and the rule of Peisistratus there comes
+the timocracy of Solon. These exceptions do not stand alone.
+The cause of tyranny is, in one sense, uniform. In the earlier
+centuries, at any rate, tyranny is always the expression of
+discontent; the tyrant is always the champion of a cause.
+But it would be a mistake to suppose that the discontent is
+necessarily political, or that the cause which he champions is
+always a constitutional one. At Sicyon it is a racial one;
+Cleisthenes is the champion of the older population against their
+Dorian oppressors (see Herod. v. 67, 68). At Athens the
+discontent is economic rather than political; Peisistratus is the
+champion of the Diacrii, the inhabitants of the poorest region of
+Attica. The party-strifes of which we hear in the early history
+of Miletus, which doubtless gave the tyrant his opportunity,
+are concerned with the claims of rival industrial classes. In
+Sicily the tyrant is the ally of the rich and the foe of the <i>demos</i>,
+and the cause which he champions, both in the 5th century and
+the 4th, is a national one, that of the Greek against the Carthaginian.
+We may suspect that in Greece itself the tyrannies of
+the 7th century are the expression of an anti-Dorian reaction.
+It can hardly be an accident that the states in which the tyrannis
+is found at this epoch, Corinth, Megara, Sicyon, Epidaurus,
+are all of them states in which a Dorian upper class ruled over
+a subject population. In Asia Minor the <i>tyrannis</i> assumes a
+peculiar character after the Persian conquest. The tyrant
+rules as the deputy of the Persian satrap. Thus in the East the
+tyrant is the enemy of the national cause; in the West, in Sicily,
+he is its champion.</p>
+
+<p>Tyranny is not a phenomenon peculiar to Greek history.
+It is possible to find analogies to it in Roman history, in the
+power of Caesar, or of the Caesars; in the despotisms of medieval
+Italy; or even in the Napoleonic empire. Between the tyrant
+and the Italian despot there is indeed a real analogy; but
+between the Roman principate and the Greek <i>tyrannis</i> there are
+two essential differences. In the first place, the principate was
+expressed in constitutional forms, or veiled under constitutional
+fictions; the tyrant stood altogether outside the constitution.
+And, secondly, at Rome both Julius and Augustus owed their
+position to the power of the sword. The power of the sword,
+it is true, plays a large part in the history of the later tyrants
+(<i>e.g.</i> Dionysius of Syracuse); the earlier ones, however, had no
+mercenary armies at their command. We can hardly compare
+the bodyguard of Peisistratus to the legions of the first or the
+second Caesar.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span></p>
+
+<p>The view taken of the <i>tyrannis</i> in Greek literature is almost
+uniformly unfavourable. In this respect there is no difference
+between Plato and Aristotle, or between Herodotus and the
+later historians.<a name="fa11g" id="fa11g" href="#ft11g"><span class="sp">11</span></a> His policy is represented as purely selfish,
+and his rule as oppressive. Herodotus is influenced partly by
+the traditions current among the oligarchs, who had been the
+chief sufferers, and partly by the odious associations which had
+gathered round tyranny in Asia Minor. The philosophers write
+under their impressions of the later <i>tyrannis</i>, and their account
+is largely an a priori one. It is seldom that we find any attempt,
+either in the philosophers or the historians, to do justice to the
+real services rendered by the tyrants.<a name="fa12g" id="fa12g" href="#ft12g"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Their first service was
+a constitutional one. They helped to break down the power
+of the old aristocratic houses, and thus to create the social and
+political conditions indispensable to democracy. The <i>tyrannis</i>
+involved the sacrifice of liberty in the cause of equality. When
+tyranny falls, it is never succeeded by the aristocracies which
+it had overthrown. It is frequently succeeded by an oligarchy,
+but it is an oligarchy in which the claim to exclusive power is
+based, not upon mere birth, but upon wealth, or the possession
+of land. It would be unfair to treat this service as one that
+was rendered unconsciously and unwillingly. Where the tyrant
+asserted the claims of an oppressed class, he consciously aimed at
+the destruction of privilege and the effacement of class distinctions.
+Hence it is unjust to treat his power as resting upon
+mere force. A government which can last eighty or a hundred
+years, as was the case with the tyrannies at Corinth and Sicyon,
+must have a moral force behind it. It must rest upon the
+consent of its subjects. The second service which the tyrants
+rendered to Greece was a political one. Their policy tended to
+break down the barriers which isolated each petty state from
+its neighbours. In their history we can trace a system of widespread
+alliances, which are often cemented by matrimonial
+connexions. The Cypselid tyrants of Corinth appear to have been
+allied with the royal families of Egypt, Lydia and Phrygia, as
+well as with the tyrants of Miletus and Epidaurus, and with
+some of the great Athenian families. In Sicily we find a league
+of the northern tyrants opposed to a league of the southern;
+and in each ease there is a corresponding matrimonial alliance.
+Anaxilaus of Rhegium is the son-in-law and ally of Terillus of
+Himera; Gelo of Syracuse stands in the same relation to Theron
+of Agrigentum. Royal marriages have played a great part in
+the politics of Europe. In the comparison of Greek and modern
+history it has been too often forgotten how great a difference
+it makes, and how great a disadvantage it involves, to a republic
+that it has neither sons nor daughters to give in marriage. In
+commerce and colonization the tyrants were only continuing
+the work of the oligarchies to which they succeeded. Greek
+trade owed its expansion to the intelligent efforts of the oligarchs
+who ruled at Miletus and Corinth, in Samos, Aegina and Euboea;
+but in particular cases, such as Miletus, Corinth, Sicyon and
+Athens, there was a further development, and a still more rapid
+growth, under the tyrants. In the same way, the foundation
+of the colonies was in most cases due to the policy of the oligarchical
+governments. They can claim credit for the colonies
+of Chalcis and Eretria, of Megara, Phocaea and Samos, as well
+as for the great Achaean settlements in southern Italy. The
+Cypselids at Corinth, and Thrasybulus at Miletus, are instances
+of tyrants who colonized on a great scale.</p>
+
+<p>In their religious policy the tyrants went far to democratize
+Greek religion. The functions of monarchy had been largely
+religious; but, while the king was necessarily a
+priest, he was not the only priest in the community.
+<span class="sidenote">Religion under the &ldquo;tyrants.&rdquo;</span>
+There were special priesthoods, hereditary in particular
+families, even in the monarchical period; and
+upon the fall of the monarchy, while the priestly functions of
+the kings passed to republican magistrates, the priesthoods
+which were in the exclusive possession of the great families
+tended to become the important ones. Thus, before the rise of
+tyranny, Greek religion is aristocratic. The cults recognized
+by the state are the <i>sacra</i> of noble clans. The religious prerogatives
+of the nobles helped to confirm their political ones,
+and, as long as religion retained its aristocratic character, it was
+impossible for democracy to take root. The policy of the tyrants
+aimed at fostering popular cults which had no associations with
+the old families, and at establishing new festivals. The cult
+of the wine-god, Dionysus, was thus fostered at Sicyon by
+Cleisthenes, and at Corinth by the Cypselids; while at Athens
+a new festival of this deity, which so completely overshadowed
+the older festival that it became known as the Great Dionysia,
+probably owed its institution to Peisistratus. Another festival,
+the Panathenaea, which had been instituted only a few years
+before his rise to power, became under his rule, and thanks to his
+policy, the chief national festival of the Athenian state. Everywhere,
+again, we find the tyrants the patrons of literature.
+Pindar and Bacchylides, Aeschylus and Simonides found a
+welcome at the court of Hiero. Polycrates was the patron of
+Anacreon, Periander of Arion. To Peisistratus has been attributed,
+possibly not without reason, the first critical edition of
+the text of Homer, a work as important in the literary history
+of Greece as was the issue of the Authorized Version of the Bible
+in English history. <span class="correction" title="amended from It">If</span> we would judge fairly of tyranny, and of
+what it contributed to the development of Greece, we must
+remember how many states there were in whose history the
+period of greatest power coincides with the rule of a tyrant.
+This is unquestionably true of Corinth and Sicyon, as well as of
+Syracuse in the 5th, and again in the 4th century; it is probably
+true of Samos and Miletus. In the case of Athens it is only the
+splendour of the Great Age that blinds us to the greatness of
+the results achieved by the policy of the Peisistratids.</p>
+
+<p>With the overthrow of this dynasty tyranny disappears from
+Greece proper for more than a century. During the century and
+a half which had elapsed since its first appearance the whole
+aspect of Greek life, and of the Greek world, had changed.
+The development was as yet incomplete, but the lines on which
+it was to proceed had been clearly marked out. Political power
+was no longer the monopoly of a class. The struggle between
+the &ldquo;few&rdquo; and the &ldquo;many&rdquo; had begun; in one state at least
+(Athens) the victory of the &ldquo;many&rdquo; was assured. The first
+chapter in the history of democracy was already written. In
+the art of war the two innovations which were ultimately to
+establish the military supremacy of Greece, hoplite tactics and
+the trireme, had already been introduced. Greek literature was
+<span class="sidenote">The arts.</span>
+no longer synonymous with epic poetry. Some of
+its most distinctive forms had not yet been evolved;
+indeed, it is only quite at the end of the period that
+prose-writing begins; but both lyric and elegiac poetry had been
+brought to perfection. In art, statuary was still comparatively
+stiff and crude; but in other branches, in architecture, in vase-painting
+and in coin-types, the aesthetic genius of the race had
+asserted its pre-eminence. Philosophy, the supreme gift of Greece
+to the modern world, had become a living power. Some of her
+most original thinkers belong to the 6th century. Criticism had
+been applied to everything in turn: to the gods, to conduct,
+and to the conception of the universe. Before the Great Age
+begins, the claims of intellectual as well as of political freedom
+had been vindicated. It was not, however, in Greece proper
+that progress had been greatest. In the next century the centre
+of gravity of Greek civilization shifts to the western side of the
+Aegean; in the 6th century it must be looked for at Miletus,
+rather than at Athens. In order to estimate how far the development
+of Greece had advanced, or to appreciate the distinctive
+features of Greek life at this period, we must study Ionia, rather
+than Attica or the Peloponnese. Almost all that is greatest and
+most characteristic is to be found on the eastern side of the
+Aegean. The great names in the history of science and philosophy
+before the beginning of the 5th century&mdash;Thales, Pythagoras,
+Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Anaximander, Hecataeus;
+names which are representative of mathematics, astronomy,
+geography and metaphysics, are all, without exception, Ionian.
+In poetry, too, the most famous names, if not so exclusively
+Ionian, are connected either with the Asiatic coast or with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span>
+the Cyclades. Against Archilochus and Anacreon, Sappho and
+Alcaeus, Greece has nothing better to set, after the age of Hesiod,
+than Tyrtaeus and Theognis. Reference has already been made
+to the greatness of the Ionians as navigators, as colonizers and
+as traders. In wealth and in population, Miletus, at the epoch
+of the Persian conquest, must have been far ahead of any city
+of European Greece. Sybaris, in Magna Graecia, can have been
+its only rival outside Ionia. There were two respects, however,
+in which the comparison was in favour of the mother-country.
+In warfare, the superiority of the Spartan infantry was unquestioned;
+in politics, the Greek states showed a greater power
+of combination than the Ionian.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, Ionia was the scene of the first conflicts with the
+Persian. Here were decided the first stages of a struggle which
+was to determine the place of Greece in the history
+of the world. The rise of Persia under Cyrus was, as
+<span class="sidenote">External relations.</span>
+Herodotus saw, the turning-point of Greek history.
+Hitherto the Greek had proved himself indispensable to
+the oriental monarchies with which he had been brought into
+contact. In Egypt the power of the Saite kings rested upon the
+support of their Greek mercenaries. Amasis (569-525 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), who
+is raised to the throne as the leader of a reaction against the
+influence of the foreign garrison, ends by showing greater favour
+to the Greek soldiery and the Greek traders than all that were
+before him. With Lydia the relations were originally hostile;
+the conquest of the Greek fringe is the constant aim of Lydian
+policy. Greek influences, however, seem to have quickly permeated
+Lydia, and to have penetrated to the court. Alyattes
+(610-560 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) marries an Ionian wife, and the succession is
+disputed between the son of this marriage and Croesus, whose
+mother was a Carian. Croesus (560-546 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) secures the throne,
+only to become the lavish patron of Greek sanctuaries and the
+ally of a Greek state. The history of Hellenism had begun.
+It was the rise of Cyrus that closed the East to Greek enterprise
+and Greek influences. In Persia we find the antithesis of all
+that is characteristic of Greece&mdash;autocracy as opposed to liberty;
+a military society organized on an aristocratic basis, to an
+industrial society, animated by a democratic spirit; an army,
+whose strength lay in its cavalry, to an army, in which the foot-soldier
+alone counted; a morality, which assigned the chief
+place to veracity, to a morality which subordinated it to other
+virtues; a religion, which ranks among the great religions of
+the world, to a religion, which appeared to the most spiritual
+minds among the Greeks themselves both immoral and absurd.
+Between two such races there could be neither sympathy nor
+mutual understanding. In the Great Age the Greek had learned
+<span class="sidenote">Persian wars.</span>
+to despise the Persian, and the Persian to fear the Greek.
+In the 6th century it was the Persian who despised,
+and the Greek who feared. The history of the conflicts
+between the Ionian Greeks and the Persian empire affords a
+striking example of the combination of intellectual strength and
+political weakness in the character of a people. The causes of
+the failure of the Ionians to offer a successful resistance to Persia,
+both at the time of the conquest by Harpagus (546-545 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and
+in the Ionic revolt (499-494 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), are not far to seek. The
+centrifugal forces always tended to prove the stronger in the
+Greek system, and nowhere were they stronger than in Ionia.
+The tie of their tribal union proved weaker, every time it was
+put to the test, than the political and commercial interests of
+the individual states. A league of jealous commercial rivals is
+certain not to stand the strain of a protracted struggle against
+great odds. Against the advancing power of Lydia a common
+resistance had not so much as been attempted. Miletus, the
+greatest of the Ionian towns, had received aid from Chios alone.
+Against Persia a common resistance was attempted. The Panionium,
+the centre of a religious amphictyony, became for the
+moment the centre of a political league. At the time of the
+Persian conquest Miletus held aloof. She secured favourable
+terms for herself, and left the rest of Ionia to its fate. In the
+later conflict, on the contrary, Miletus is the leader in the revolt.
+The issue was determined, not as Herodotus represents it, by
+the inherent indolence of the Ionian nature, but by the selfish
+policy of the leading states. In the sea-fight at Lade (494 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+the decisive battle of the war, the Milesians and Chians fought
+with desperate courage. The day was lost thanks to the treachery
+of the Samian and Lesbian contingents.</p>
+
+<p>The causes of the successful resistance of the Greeks to the
+invasions of their country, first by Datis and Artaphernes
+(490 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), in the reign of Darius, and then by Xerxes in person
+(480-479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), are more complex. Their success was partly
+due to a moral cause. And this was realized by the Greeks
+themselves. They felt (see Herod. vii. 104) that the subjects
+of a despot are no match for the citizens of a free state, who
+yield obedience to a law which is self-imposed. But the cause
+was not solely a moral one. Nor was the result due to the
+numbers and efficiency of the Athenian fleet, in the degree that
+the Athenians claimed (see Herod. vii. 139). The truth is that
+the conditions, both political and military, were far more favourable
+to the Greek defence in Europe than they had been in Asia.
+At this crisis the centripetal forces proved stronger than the
+centrifugal. The moral ascendancy of Sparta was the determining
+factor. In Sparta the Greeks had a leader whom all
+were ready to obey (Herod. viii. 2). But for her influence the
+forces of disintegration would have made themselves felt as
+quickly as in Ionia. Sparta was confronted with immense
+difficulties in conducting the defence against Xerxes. The two
+chief naval powers, Athens and Aegina, had to be reconciled
+after a long and exasperating warfare (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegina</a></span>). After
+Thermopylae, the whole of northern Greece, with the exception
+of Athens and a few minor states, was lost to the Greek cause.
+The supposed interests of the Peloponnesians, who formed the
+greater part of the national forces, conflicted with the supposed
+interests of the Athenians. A more impartial view than was
+possible to the generation for which Herodotus wrote suggests
+that Sparta performed her task with intelligence and patriotism.
+The claims of Athens and Sparta were about equally balanced.
+And in spite of her great superiority in numbers,<a name="fa13g" id="fa13g" href="#ft13g"><span class="sp">13</span></a> the military
+conditions were far from favourable to Persia. A land so mountainous
+as Greece is was unsuited to the operations of cavalry,
+the most efficient arm of the service in the Persian Army, as
+in most oriental ones. Ignorance of local conditions, combined
+with the dangerous nature of the Greek coast, exposed their ships
+to the risk of destruction; while the composite character of the
+fleet, and the jealousies of its various contingents, tended to
+neutralize the advantage of numbers. In courage and discipline,
+the flower of the Persian infantry was probably little inferior
+to the Greek; in equipment, they were no match for the Greek
+panoply. Lastly, Xerxes laboured under a disadvantage, which
+may be illustrated by the experience of the British army in the
+South African War&mdash;distance from his base.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Great Age</i> (<i>480-338</i> <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).&mdash;The effects of the repulse
+of Persia were momentous in their influence upon Greece. The
+effects upon Elizabethan England of the defeat of the Spanish
+armada would afford quite an inadequate parallel. It gave
+the Greeks a heightened sense, both of their own national unity
+and of their superiority to the barbarian, while at the same time
+it helped to create the material conditions requisite alike for
+the artistic and political development of the 5th century. Other
+cities besides Athens were adorned with the proceeds of the
+spoils won from Persia, and Greek trade benefited both from the
+reunion of Ionia with Greece, and from the suppression of piracy
+in the Aegean and the Hellespont. Do these developments
+justify us in giving to the period, which begins with the repulse
+of Xerxes, and ends with the victory of Philip, the title of
+&ldquo;the Great Age&rdquo;? If the title is justified in the case of the 5th
+century, should the 4th century be excluded from the period?
+At first sight, the difference between the 4th century and the
+5th may seem greater than that which exists between the 5th
+and the 6th. On the political side, the 5th century is an age
+of growth, the 4th an age of decay; on the literary side, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span>
+former is an age of poetry, the latter an age of prose. In spite
+of these contrasts, there is a real unity in the period which begins
+with the repulse of Xerxes and ends with the death of Alexander,
+as compared with any preceding one. It is an age of maturity
+in politics, in literature, and in art; and this is true of no earlier
+age. Nor can we say that the 5th century is, in all these aspects
+of Greek life, immature as compared with the 4th, or, on the
+other hand, that the 4th is decadent as compared with the
+5th. On the political side, maturity is, in one sense, reached
+in the earlier century. There is nothing in the later century so
+great as the Athenian empire. In another sense, maturity is
+not reached till the 4th century. It is only in the later century
+that the tendency of the Greek constitutions to conform to a
+common type, democracy, is (at least approximately) realized,
+and it is only in this century that the principles upon which
+democracy is based are carried to their logical conclusion. In
+literature, if we confine our attention to poetry, we must pronounce
+the 5th century the age of completed development;
+but in prose the case is different. The style even of Thucydides
+is immature, as compared with that of Isocrates and Plato. In
+philosophy, however high may be the estimate that is formed
+of the genius of the earlier thinkers, it cannot be disputed that in
+Plato and Aristotle we find a more mature stage of thought.
+In art, architecture may perhaps be said to reach its zenith in
+the 5th, sculpture in the 4th century. In its political aspect,
+the history of the Great Age resolves itself into the history of
+two movements, the imperial and the democratic. Hitherto
+Greece had meant, politically, an aggregate of independent
+states, very numerous, and, as a rule, very small. The principle
+<span class="sidenote">Systems of government.</span>
+of autonomy was to the Greek the most sacred of all
+political principles; the passion for autonomy the
+most potent of political factors. In the latter half of
+the 6th century Sparta had succeeded in combining
+the majority of the Peloponnesian states into a loose federal
+union; so loose, however, that it appears to have been dormant
+in the intervals of peace. In the crisis of the Persian invasion
+the Peloponnesian League was extended so as to include all the
+states which had espoused the national cause. It looked on the
+morrow of Plataea and Mycale (the two victories, won simultaneously,
+in 479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, by Spartan commanders, by which the
+danger from Persia was finally averted) as if a permanent basis
+for union might be found in the hegemony of Sparta. The sense
+of a common peril and a common triumph brought with it the
+need of a common union; it was Athens, however, instead of
+Sparta, by whom the first conscious effort was made to transcend
+the isolation of the Greek political system and to bring the units
+into combination. The league thus founded (the Delian League,
+established in 477 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was under the presidency of Athens,
+but it included hardly any other state besides those that had
+conducted the defence of Greece. It was formed, almost entirely,
+of the states which had been liberated from Persian rule by
+the great victories of the war. The Delian League, even in the
+form in which it was first established, as a confederation of
+autonomous allies, marks an advance in political conceptions
+upon the Peloponnesian League. Provision is made for an
+annual revenue, for periodical meetings of the council, and for
+a permanent executive. It is a real federation, though an
+imperfect one. There were defects in its constitution which
+rendered it inevitable that it should be transformed into an
+empire. Athens was from the first &ldquo;the predominant partner.&rdquo;
+The fleet was mainly Athenian, the commanders entirely so;
+the assessment of the tribute was in Athenian hands; there
+was no federal court appointed to determine questions at issue
+between Athens and the other members; and, worst omission
+of all, the right of secession was left undecided. By the middle
+of the century the Delian League has become the Athenian
+empire. Henceforward the imperial idea, in one form or another,
+dominates Greek politics. Athens failed to extend her authority
+over the whole of Greece. Her empire was overthrown; but the
+triumph of autonomy proved the triumph of imperialism.
+The Spartan empire succeeds to the Athenian, and, when it is
+finally shattered at Leuctra (371 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the hegemony of Thebes,
+which is established on its ruins, is an empire in all but name.
+The decay of Theban power paves the way for the rise of Macedon.</p>
+
+<p>Thus throughout this period we can trace two forces contending
+for mastery in the Greek political system. Two causes divide
+the allegiance of the Greek world, the cause of empire and the
+cause of autonomy. The formation of the confederacy of Delos
+did not involve the dissolution of the alliance between Athens
+and Sparta. For seventeen years more Athens retained her
+place in the league, &ldquo;which had been established against the
+Mede&rdquo; under the presidency of Sparta in 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Thuc. i. 102).
+The ascendancy of Cimon and the Philolaconian party at Athens
+was favourable to a good understanding between the two states,
+and at Sparta in normal times the balance inclined in favour
+of the party whose policy is best described by the motto &ldquo;quieta
+non movere.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the end, however, the opposition of the two contending
+forces proved too strong for Spartan neutrality. The fall of
+Cimon (461 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was followed by the so-called &ldquo;First
+Peloponnesian War,&rdquo; a conflict between Athens and
+<span class="sidenote">The Peloponnesian Wars.</span>
+her maritime rivals, Corinth and Aegina, into which
+Sparta was ultimately drawn. Thucydides regards
+the hostilities of these years (460-454 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), which were resumed
+for a few months in 446 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, on the expiration of the Five Years&rsquo;
+Truce, as preliminary to those of the great Peloponnesian War
+(431-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The real question at issue was in both cases the
+same. The tie that united the opponents of Athens was found
+in a common hostility to the imperial idea. It is a complete
+misapprehension to regard the Peloponnesian War as a mere
+duel between two rival claimants for empire. The ultimatum
+presented by Sparta on the eve of the war demanded the restoration
+of autonomy to the subjects of Athens. There is no reason
+for doubting her sincerity in presenting it in this form. It would,
+however, be an equal misapprehension to regard the war as
+merely a struggle between the cause of empire and the cause of
+autonomy. Corresponding to this fundamental contrast there
+are other contrasts, constitutional, racial and military. The
+military interest of the war is largely due to the fact that Athens
+was a sea power and Sparta a land one. As the war went on,
+the constitutional aspect tended to become more marked. At
+first there were democracies on the side of Sparta, and oligarchies
+on the side of Athens. In the last stage of the war, when
+Lysander&rsquo;s influence was supreme, we see the forces of oligarchy
+everywhere united and organized for the destruction of democracy.
+In its origin the war was certainly not due to the rivalry
+of Dorian and Ionian. This racial, or tribal, contrast counted
+for more in the politics of Sicily than of Greece; and, though
+the two great branches of the Greek race were represented
+respectively by the leaders of the two sides, the allies on neither
+side belonged exclusively to the one branch or the other. Still,
+it remains true that the Dorian states were, as a rule, on the
+Spartan side, and the Ionian states, as a rule, on the Athenian&mdash;a
+division of sentiment which must have helped to widen the
+breach, and to intensify the animosities.</p>
+
+<p>As a political experiment the Athenian empire possesses a
+unique interest. It represents the first attempt to fuse the
+principles of imperialism and democracy. It is at
+once the first empire in history possessed and administered
+<span class="sidenote">The Athenian empire.</span>
+by a sovereign people, and the first which
+sought to establish a common system of democratic
+institutions amongst its subjects.<a name="fa14g" id="fa14g" href="#ft14g"><span class="sp">14</span></a> It was an experiment that
+failed, partly owing to the inherent strength of the oligarchic
+cause, partly owing to the exclusive character of ancient citizenship.
+The Athenians themselves recognized that their empire
+depended for its existence upon the solidarity of democratic
+interests (see Thuc. iii. 47; Pseudo-Xenophon, <i>de Rep. Ath.</i> i. 14,
+iii. 10). An understanding existed between the democratic
+leaders in the subject-states and the democratic party at Athens.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span>
+Charges were easily trumped up against obnoxious oligarchs,
+and conviction as easily obtained in the Athenian courts of
+law. Such a system forced the oligarchs into an attitude of
+opposition. How much this opposition counted for was realized
+when the Sicilian disaster (413 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) gave the subjects their chance
+to revolt. The organization of the oligarchical party throughout
+the empire, which was effected by Lysander in the last stage
+of the war, contributed to the overthrow of Athenian ascendancy
+hardly less than the subsidies of Persia. Had Athens aimed at
+establishing a community of interest between herself and her
+subjects, based upon a common citizenship, her empire might
+have endured. It would have been a policy akin to that which
+secured the permanence of the Roman empire. And it was a
+policy which found advocates when the day for it was past (see
+Aristophanes, <i>Lysistrata</i>, 574 ff.; cf. the grant of citizenship
+to the Samians after Aegospotami, <i>C.I.A.</i> iv. 2, 1b). But the
+policy pursued by Athens in the plenitude of her power was the
+reverse of the policy pursued by Rome in her treatment of the
+franchise. It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the fate of the
+empire was sealed by the law of Pericles (451 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), by which the
+franchise was restricted to those who could establish Athenian
+descent on both sides. It was not merely that the process of
+amalgamation through intermarriage was abruptly checked;
+what was more serious was that a hard and fast line was drawn,
+once and for all, between the small body of privileged rulers and
+the great mass of unprivileged subjects. Maine (<i>Early Institutions</i>,
+lecture 13) has classed the Athenian empire with those
+of the familiar Oriental type, which attempt nothing beyond the
+raising of taxes and the levying of troops. The Athenian empire
+cannot, indeed, be classed with the Roman, or with the British
+rule in India; it does not, therefore, deserve to be classed with
+the empires of Cyrus or of Jenghiz Khan. Though the basis of
+its organization, like that of the Persian empire under Darius,
+was financial, it attempted, and secured, objects beyond the
+mere payment of tribute and the supply of ships. If Athens did
+not introduce a common religion, or a common system of education,
+or a common citizenship, she did introduce a common type
+of political institutions, and a common jurisdiction.<a name="fa15g" id="fa15g" href="#ft15g"><span class="sp">15</span></a> She went
+some way, too, in the direction of establishing a common system
+of coins, and of weights and measures. A common language
+was there already. In a word, the Athenian empire marks a
+definite stage of political evolution.</p>
+
+<p>The other great political movement of the age was the progress
+of democracy. Before the Persian invasion democracy was a
+rare phenomenon in Greek politics. Where it was
+found it existed in an undeveloped form, and its tenure
+<span class="sidenote">The mature democracy.</span>
+of power was precarious. By the beginning of the
+Peloponnesian War it had become the prevalent form
+of government. The great majority of Greek states had adopted
+democratic constitutions. Both in the Athenian sphere of
+influence and in the colonial world outside that sphere, democracy
+was all but the only form of constitution known. It was
+only in Greece proper that oligarchy held its own. In the
+Peloponnese it could count a majority of the states; in northern
+Greece at least a half of them. The spread of democratic institutions
+was arrested by the victory of Sparta in the East, and
+the rise of Dionysius in the West. There was a moment at the
+end of the 5th century when it looked as if democracy was a lost
+cause. Even Athens was for a brief period under the rule of
+the Thirty (404-403 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). In the regions which had formed
+the empire of Athens the decarchies set up by Lysander were
+soon overthrown, and democracies restored in most cases, but
+oligarchy continued to be the prevalent form in Greece proper
+until Leuctra (371 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and in Sicily tyranny had a still longer
+tenure of power. By the end of the Great Age oligarchy has
+almost disappeared from the Greek world, except in the sphere
+of Persian influence. The Spartan monarchy still survives; a
+few Peloponnesian states still maintain the rule of the few; here
+and there in Greece itself we meet with a revival of the <i>tyrannis</i>;
+but, with these exceptions, democracy is everywhere the only
+type of constitution. And democracy has developed as well
+as spread. At the end of the 5th century the constitution of
+Cleisthenes, which was a democracy in the view of his contemporaries,
+had come to be regarded as an aristocracy (Aristot.
+<i>Ath. Pol.</i> 29. 3). We can trace a similar change of sentiment
+in Sicily. As compared with the extreme form of constitution
+adopted at Syracuse after the defeat of the Athenian expedition,
+the democracies established two generations earlier, on the fall
+of the <i>tyrannis</i>, appeared oligarchical. The changes by which
+the character of the Greek democracies was revolutionized were
+four in number: the substitution of sortition for election, the
+abolition of a property qualification, the payment of officials
+and the rise of a class of professional politicians. In the democracy
+of Cleisthenes no payment was given for service, whether
+as a magistrate, a juror or a member of the Boul&#275;. The higher
+magistracies were filled by election, and they were held almost
+exclusively by the members of the great Athenian families.
+For the highest office of all, the archonship, none but <i>Pentacosiomedimni</i>
+(the first of the four Solonian classes) were eligible.
+The introduction of pay and the removal of the property qualification
+formed part of the reforms of Pericles. Sortition had been
+instituted for election a generation earlier (487 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="fa16g" id="fa16g" href="#ft16g"><span class="sp">16</span></a> What is
+perhaps the most important of all these changes, the rise of the
+demagogues, belongs to the era of the Peloponnesian War.
+From the time of Cleisthenes to the outbreak of the war every
+statesman of note at Athens, with the exception of Themistocles
+(and, perhaps, of Ephialtes), is of aristocratic birth. Down to
+the fall of Cimon the course of Athenian politics is to a great
+extent determined by the alliances and antipathies of the great
+clans. With the Peloponnesian War a new epoch begins. The
+chief office, the <i>strategia</i>, is still, as a rule, held by men of rank.
+But leadership in the Ecclesia has passed to men of a different
+class. The demagogues were not necessarily poor men. Cleon
+was a wealthy man; Eucrates, Lysicles and Hyperbolus were,
+at any rate, tradesmen rather than artisans. The first &ldquo;labour
+member&rdquo; proper is Cleophon (411-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a lyre-maker.
+They belonged, however, not to the land-owning, but to the industrial
+classes; they were distinguished from the older race of
+party-leaders by a vulgar accent, and by a violence of gesture
+in public speaking, and they found their supporters among the
+population of the city and its port, the Peiraeus, rather than
+among the farmers of the country districts. In the 4th century
+the demagogues, though under another name, that of orators,
+have acquired entire control of the Ecclesia. It is an age of
+professionalism, and the professional soldier has his counterpart
+in the professional politician. Down to the death of Pericles
+the party-leader had always held office as Strategus. His rival,
+Thucydides, son of Melesias, forms a solitary exception to this
+statement. In the 4th century the divorce between the general
+and the statesman is complete. The generals are professional
+soldiers, who aspire to no political influence in the state, and the
+statesmen devote themselves exclusively to politics, a career
+for which they have prepared themselves by a professional
+training in oratory or administrative work. The ruin of agriculture
+during the war had reduced the old families to insignificance.
+Birth counts for less than nothing as a political asset
+in the age of Demosthenes.</p>
+
+<p>But great as are the contrasts which have been pointed
+out between the earlier and the later democracy, those that
+distinguish the ancient conception of democracy from
+the modern are of a still more essential nature. The
+<span class="sidenote">The city-state.</span>
+differences that distinguish the democracies of ancient
+Greece from those of the modern world have their origin,
+to a great extent, in the difference between a city-state
+and a nation-state. Many of the most famous Greek states
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span>
+had an area of a few square miles; the largest of them was no
+larger than an English county. Political theory put the limit
+of the citizen-body at 10,000. Though this number was exceeded
+in a few cases, it is doubtful if any state, except Athens, ever
+counted more than 20,000 citizens. In the nation-states of
+modern times, democratic government is possible only under the
+form of a representative system; in the city-state representative
+government was unnecessary, and therefore unknown. In the
+ancient type of democracy a popular chamber has no existence.
+The Ecclesia is not a chamber in any sense of the term; it is an
+assembly of the whole people, which every citizen is entitled
+to attend, and in which every one is equally entitled to vote and
+speak. The question raised in modern political science, as to
+whether sovereignty resides in the electors or their representatives,
+has thus neither place nor meaning in ancient theory. In the
+same way, one of the most familiar results of modern analysis,
+the distinction between the executive and the legislative, finds
+no recognition in the Greek writers. In a direct system of
+government there can be no executive in the proper sense.
+Executive functions are discharged by the ecclesia, to whose
+decision the details of administration may be referred. The
+position of the strategi, the chief officials in the Athenian
+democracy of the 5th century, was in no sense comparable to
+that of a modern cabinet. Hence the individual citizen in an
+ancient democracy was concerned in, and responsible for, the
+actual work of government to a degree that is inconceivable in
+a modern state. Thus participation in the administrative and
+judicial business of the state is made by Aristotle the differentia
+of the citizen (<span class="grk" title="politês estin ho metechôn kriseôs kai archês">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962; &#7952;&#963;&#964;&#8054;&#957; &#8001; &#956;&#949;&#964;&#941;&#967;&#969;&#957; &#954;&#961;&#943;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#7936;&#961;&#967;&#8134;&#962;</span>,
+Aristot. <i>Politics</i>, p. 1275 a 20). A large proportion of the citizens
+of Athens, in addition to frequent service in the courts of law,
+must in the course of their lives have held a magistracy, great
+or small, or have acted for a year or two as members of the
+Boul&#275;.<a name="fa17g" id="fa17g" href="#ft17g"><span class="sp">17</span></a> It must be remembered that there was nothing corresponding
+to a permanent civil service in the ancient state.
+Much of the work of a government office would have been
+transacted by the Athenian Boul&#275;. It must be remembered,
+too, that political and administrative questions of great importance
+came before the popular courts of law. Hence it follows
+that the ordinary citizen of an ancient democracy, in the course
+of his service in the Boul&#275; or the law-courts, acquired an interest
+in political questions, and a grasp of administrative work, which
+none but a select few can hope to acquire under the conditions
+of the modern system. Where there existed neither a popular
+chamber nor a distinct executive, there was no opportunity for
+the growth of a party-system. There were, of course, political
+parties at Athens and elsewhere&mdash;oligarchs and democrats,
+conservatives and radicals, a peace-party and a war-party,
+according to the burning question of the day. There was,
+however, nothing equivalent to a general election, to a cabinet
+(or to that collective responsibility which is of the essence of a
+cabinet), or to the government and the opposition. Party
+organization, therefore, and a party system, in the proper sense,
+were never developed. Whatever may have been the evils
+incident to the ancient form of democracy, the &ldquo;boss,&rdquo; the
+caucus and the spoils-system were not among them.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these differences, which, directly or indirectly, result
+from the difference of scale, there are others, hardly less profound,
+which are not connected with the size of the city-state. Perhaps
+the most striking contrast between the democracies of ancient
+and of modern times is to be found in their attitude towards
+privilege. Ancient democracy implies privilege; modern
+democracy implies its destruction. In the more fully developed
+democracies of the modern world (<i>e.g.</i> in the United States, or in
+Australia), the privilege of class is unknown; in some of them
+(<i>e.g.</i> New Zealand, Australia, Norway) even the privilege of
+sex has been abolished. Ancient democracy was bound up with
+privilege as much as oligarchy was. The transition from the
+latter to the former was effected by enlarging the area of privilege
+and by altering its basis. In an oligarchical state citizenship
+might be confined to 10% of the free population; under a
+democracy 50% might enjoy it. In the former case the qualification
+might be wealth or land; in the latter case it might be,
+as it was at Athens, birth, <i>i.e.</i> descent, on both sides, from a
+citizen family. But, in both cases alike, the distinction between
+a privileged and an unprivileged body of free-born residents
+is fundamental. To the unprivileged class belonged, not only
+foreigners temporarily resident (<span class="grk" title="xenoi">&#958;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span>) and aliens permanently
+domiciled (<span class="grk" title="metoikoi">&#956;&#941;&#964;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#953;</span>), but also those native-born inhabitants of
+the state who were of foreign extraction, on one side or the
+other.<a name="fa18g" id="fa18g" href="#ft18g"><span class="sp">18</span></a> The privileges attaching to citizenship included, in
+addition to eligibility for office and a vote in the assembly, such
+private rights as that of owning land or a house, or of contracting
+a marriage with one of citizen status. The citizen, too, was
+alone the recipient of all the various forms of pay (<i>e.g.</i> for attendance
+in the assembly, for service in the Boul&#275; or the law-courts,
+or for the celebration of the great festivals) which are so conspicuous
+a feature in the developed democracy of the 4th century.
+The <i>metoeci</i> could not even plead in a court of law in person,
+but only through a patron (<span class="grk" title="prostatês">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>). It is intelligible that
+privileges so great should be jealously guarded. In the democracies
+of the modern world naturalization is easy; in those
+of ancient Greece admission to the franchise was rarely accorded.
+In modern times, again, we are accustomed to connect democracy
+<span class="sidenote">Position of women.</span>
+with the emancipation of women. It is true that only
+a few democratic constitutions grant them the suffrage;
+but though, as a rule, they are denied public rights,
+the growth of popular government has been almost
+everywhere accompanied by an extension of their private rights,
+and by the removal of the restrictions imposed by law, custom
+or public opinion upon their freedom of action. In ancient
+Greece the democracies were as illiberal in their policy as the
+oligarchies. Women of the respectable class were condemned
+to comparative seclusion. They enjoyed far less freedom in
+4th-century Athens than in the Homeric Age. It is not in any
+of the democracies, but in conservative Sparta, that they
+possess privilege and exercise influence.</p>
+
+<p>The most fundamental of all the contrasts between democracy
+in its ancient and in its modern form remains to be stated.
+The ancient state was inseparable from slavery. In
+this respect there was no difference between democracy
+<span class="sidenote">Slavery.</span>
+and the other forms of government. No inconsistency was felt,
+therefore, between this institution and the democratic principle.
+Modern political theory has been profoundly affected by the
+conception of the dignity of labour; ancient political theory
+tended to regard labour as a disqualification for the exercise
+of political rights. Where slavery exists, the taint of it will
+inevitably cling to all labour that can be performed by the
+slave. In ancient Athens (which may be taken as typical of
+the Greek democracies) unskilled labour was almost entirely
+slave-labour, and skilled labour was largely so. The arts and
+crafts were, to some extent, exercised by citizens, but to a less
+extent in the 4th than in the 6th century. They were, however,
+chiefly left to aliens or slaves. The citizen-body of Athens in
+the age of Demosthenes has been stigmatized as consisting in
+great measure of salaried paupers. There is, doubtless, an
+exaggeration in this. It is, however, true, both that the system
+of state-pay went a long way towards supplying the simple wants
+of a southern population, and that a large proportion of the
+citizens had time to spare for the service of the state. Had the
+life of the lower class of citizens been absorbed in a round of
+mechanical labours, as fully as is the life of our industrial classes,
+the working of an ancient democracy would have been impossible.
+In justice to the ancient democracies it must be conceded that,
+while popular government carried with it neither the enfranchisement
+of the alien nor the emancipation of the slave, the rights
+secured to both classes were more considerable in the democratic
+states than elsewhere. The lot of the slave, as well as that of the
+alien, was a peculiarly favourable one at Athens. The pseudo-Xenophon
+in the 5th century (<i>De rep. Ath.</i> 1. 10-12) and Plato
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span>
+in the 4th (<i>Republic</i>, p. 563 B), prove that the spirit of liberty,
+with which Athenian life was permeated, was not without its
+influence upon the position of these classes. When we read that
+critics complained of the opulence of slaves, and of the liberties
+they took, and when we are told that the slave could not be
+distinguished from the poorer class of citizens either by his dress
+or his look, we begin to realize the difference between the slavery
+of ancient Athens and the system as it was worked on the Roman
+<i>latifundia</i> or the plantations of the New World.</p>
+
+<p>It had been anticipated that the fall of Athens would mean
+the triumph of the principle of autonomy. If Athens had
+surrendered within a year or so of the Sicilian catastrophe,
+this anticipation would probably have been
+<span class="sidenote">The Spartan empire.</span>
+fulfilled. It was the last phase of the struggle (412-404
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>) that rendered a Spartan empire inevitable.
+The oligarchical governments established by Lysander recognized
+that their tenure of power was dependent upon Spartan support,
+while Lysander himself, to whose genius, as a political organizer
+not less than as a commander, the triumph of Sparta was due,
+was unwilling to see his work undone. The Athenian empire
+had never included the greater part of Greece proper; since
+the Thirty Years&rsquo; Peace its possessions on the mainland, outside
+the boundaries of Attica, were limited to Naupactus and Plataea.
+Sparta, on the other hand, attempted the control of the entire
+Greek world east of the Adriatic. Athens had been compelled
+to acknowledge a dual system; Sparta sought to establish
+uniformity. The attempt failed from the first. Within a year
+of the surrender of Athens, Thebes and Corinth had drifted into
+an attitude of opposition, while Argos remained hostile. It was
+not long before the policy of Lysander succeeded in uniting
+against Sparta the very forces upon which she had relied when
+she entered on the Peloponnesian War. The Corinthian War
+(394-387 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was brought about by the alliance of all the second-class
+powers&mdash;Thebes, Athens, Corinth, Argos&mdash;against the one
+first-class power, Sparta. Though Sparta emerged successful
+from the war, it was with the loss of her maritime empire, and
+at the cost of recognizing the principle of autonomy as the basis
+of the Greek political system. It was already evident, thus
+early in the century, that the centrifugal forces were to prove
+stronger than the centripetal. Two further causes may be
+indicated which help to explain the failure of the Spartan
+empire. In the first place Spartan sea-power was an artificial
+creation. History seems to show that it is idle for a state to
+aspire to naval supremacy unless it possesses a great commercial
+marine. Athens had possessed such a marine; her naval
+supremacy was due not to the mere size of her fleet, but to the
+numbers and skill of her seafaring population. Sparta had no
+commerce. She could build fleets more easily than she could
+man them. A single defeat (at Cnidus, 391 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) sufficed for
+the ruin of her sea-power. The second cause is to be found in the
+financial weakness of the Spartan state. The Spartan treasury
+had been temporarily enriched by the spoils of the Peloponnesian
+War, but neither during that war, nor afterwards, did Sparta
+succeed in developing any scientific financial system. Athens
+was the only state which either possessed a large annual revenue
+or accumulated a considerable reserve. Under the conditions
+of Greek warfare, fleets were more expensive than armies. Not
+only was money needed for the building and maintenance of the
+ships, but the sailor must be paid, while the soldier served for
+nothing. Hence the power with the longest purse could both
+build the largest fleet and attract the most skilful seamen.</p>
+
+<p>The battle of Leuctra transferred the hegemony from Sparta
+to Thebes, but the attempt to unite Greece under the leadership
+of Thebes was from the first doomed to failure. The
+conditions were less favourable to Thebes than they
+<span class="sidenote">Theban hegemony.</span>
+had been to Athens or Sparta. Thebes was even more
+exclusively a land-power than Sparta. She had no
+revenue comparable to that of Athens in the preceding century.
+Unlike Athens and Sparta, she had not the advantage of being
+identified with a political cause. As the enemy of Athens in the
+5th century, she was on the side of oligarchy; as the rival of
+Sparta in the 4th, she was on the side of democracy; but in her
+bid for primacy she could not appeal, as Athens and Sparta
+could, to a great political tradition, nor had she behind her,
+as they had, the moral force of a great political principle. Her
+position, too, in Boeotia itself was insecure. The rise of Athens
+was in great measure the result of the <i>synoecism</i> (<span class="grk" title="sunoikismos)">&#963;&#965;&#957;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>
+of Attica. All inhabitants of Attica were Athenians. But
+&ldquo;Boeotian&rdquo; and &ldquo;Theban&rdquo; were not synonymous terms. The
+Boeotian league was an imperfect form of union, as compared
+with the Athenian state, and the claim of Thebes to the presidency
+of the league was, at best, sullenly acquiesced in by the
+other towns. The destruction of some of the most famous of
+the Boeotian cities, however necessary it may have been in order
+to unite the country, was a measure which at once impaired the
+resources of Thebes and outraged Greek sentiment. It has been
+often held that the failure of Theban policy was due to the death
+of Epaminondas (at the battle of Mantinea, 362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). For this
+view there is no justification. His policy had proved a failure
+before his death. Where it harmonized with the spirit of the
+age, the spirit of dissidence, it succeeded; where it attempted
+to run counter to it, it failed. It succeeded in destroying the
+supremacy of Sparta in the Peloponnese; it failed to unite the
+Peloponnese on a new basis. It failed still more <span class="correction" title="amended from signally">significantly</span> to unite
+Greece north of the Isthmus. It left Greece weaker and more
+divided than it found it (see the concluding words of Xenophon&rsquo;s
+<i>Hellenics</i>). It would be difficult to overestimate the importance
+of his policy as a destructive force; as a constructive force it
+effected nothing.<a name="fa19g" id="fa19g" href="#ft19g"><span class="sp">19</span></a> The Peloponnesian system which Epaminondas
+overthrew had lasted two hundred years. Under
+Spartan leadership the Peloponnese had enjoyed almost complete
+immunity from invasion and comparative immunity from
+<i>stasis</i> (faction). The claim that Isocrates makes for Sparta is
+probably well-founded (<i>Archidamus</i>, 64-69; during the period
+of Spartan ascendency the Peloponnesians were <span class="grk" title="eudaimonestatoi
+tôn Hellênôn">&#949;&#8016;&#948;&#945;&#953;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#941;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#953; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#942;&#957;&#969;&#957;</span>). Peloponnesian sentiment had been one of the
+chief factors in Greek politics; to it, indeed, in no small degree
+was due the victory over Persia. The Theban victory at Leuctra
+destroyed the unity, and with it the peace and the prosperity,
+of the Peloponnese. It inaugurated a period of misery, the
+natural result of <i>stasis</i> and invasion, to which no parallel can
+be found in the earlier history (See Isocrates, <i>Archidamus</i>, 65,
+66; the Peloponnesians were <span class="grk" title="ômalismenoi tais sumphopais">&#8033;&#956;&#945;&#955;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#953; &#964;&#945;&#8150;&#962; &#963;&#965;&#956;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#945;&#8150;&#962;</span>). It
+destroyed, too, the Peloponnesian sentiment of hostility to the
+invader. The bulk of the army that defeated Mardonius at
+Plataea came from the Peloponnese; at Chaeronea no Peloponnesian
+state was represented.</p>
+
+<p>The question remains, Why did the city-state fail to save
+Greece from conquest by Macedon? Was this result due to the
+inherent weakness either of the city-state itself, or of
+one particular form of it, democracy? It is clear, in
+<span class="sidenote">The rise of Macedon.</span>
+any case, that the triumph of Macedon was the effect
+of causes which had long been at work. If neither
+Philip nor Alexander had appeared on the scene, Greece might
+have maintained her independence for another generation or
+two; but, when invasion came, it would have found her weaker
+and more distracted, and the conquerors might easily have been
+less imbued with the Greek spirit, and less sympathetic towards
+Greek ideals, than the great Macedonian and his son. These
+causes are to be found in the tendencies of the age, political,
+economic and moral. Of the two movements which characterized
+the Great Age in its political aspect, the imperial and the
+democratic, the one failed and the other succeeded. The failure
+and the success were equally fatal to the chances of Greece in
+the conflict with Macedon. By the middle of the 4th century
+Greek politics had come to be dominated by the theory of the
+balance of power. This theory, enunciated in its coarsest form
+by Demosthenes (<i>Pro Megalopolit.</i> 4 <span class="grk" title="sumpherei tê polei kai
+Lakedaimonious astheneis einai kai Thêbaious">&#963;&#965;&#956;&#966;&#941;&#961;&#949;&#953; &#964;&#8135; &#960;&#972;&#955;&#949;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#923;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#948;&#945;&#953;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#7936;&#963;&#952;&#949;&#957;&#949;&#8150;&#962; &#949;&#7990;&#957;&#945;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#920;&#951;&#946;&#945;&#943;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>; cf. <i>in Aristocrat.</i>
+102, 103), had shaped the foreign policy of Athens since the end
+of the Peloponnesian War. As long as Sparta was the stronger,
+Athens inclined to a Theban alliance; after Leuctra she tended
+in the direction of a Spartan one. At the epoch of Philip&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span>
+accession the forces were everywhere nicely balanced. The
+Peloponnese was fairly equally divided between the Theban and
+the Spartan interests, and central Greece was similarly divided
+between the Theban and the Athenian. Farther north we get
+an Athenian party opposed to an Olynthian in Chalcidice, and
+a republican party, dependent upon the support of Thebes,
+opposed to that of the tyrants in Thessaly. It is easy to see that
+the political conditions of Greece, both in the north and in the
+south, invited interference from without. And the triumph of
+democracy in its extreme form was ruinous to the military
+efficiency of Greece. On the one side there was a monarchical
+state, in which all powers, civil as well as military, were concentrated
+in the hands of a single ruler; on the other, a constitutional
+system, in which a complete separation had been effected between
+the responsibility of the statesman and that of the commander.<a name="fa20g" id="fa20g" href="#ft20g"><span class="sp">20</span></a></p>
+
+<p>It could not be doubtful with which side victory would rest.
+Meanwhile, the economic conditions were steadily growing worse.
+The cause which Aristotle assigns for the decay of the Spartan
+state&mdash;a declining population (see <i>Politics</i>, p. 1270 a <span class="grk" title="apôleto
+ê pólis tôn Lakedaimoniôn dià tên oliganthrôpian">&#7936;&#960;&#974;&#955;&#949;&#964;&#959; &#7969; &#960;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#923;&#945;&#954;&#949;&#948;&#945;&#953;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#948;&#953;&#8048; &#964;&#8052;&#957; &#8000;&#955;&#953;&#947;&#945;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#969;&#960;&#943;&#945;&#957;</span>)&mdash;might be
+extended to the Greek world generally. The loss of population
+was partly the result of war and <i>stasis</i>&mdash;Isocrates speaks of the
+number of political exiles from the various states as enormous<a name="fa21g" id="fa21g" href="#ft21g"><span class="sp">21</span></a>&mdash;but
+it was also due to a declining birth-rate, and to the exposure
+of infants. Aristotle, while condemning exposure, sanctions the
+procuring of abortion (<i>Politics</i>, 1335 b). It is probable that
+both ante-natal and post-natal infanticide were rife everywhere,
+except among the more backward communities. A people
+which has condemned itself to racial suicide can have little
+chance when pitted against a nation in which healthier instincts
+prevail. The materials for forming a trustworthy estimate of
+the population of Greece at any given epoch are not available;
+there is enough evidence, however, to prove that the military
+population of the leading Greek states at the era of the battle
+of Chaeronea (338 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) fell far short of what it had been at the
+beginning of the Peloponnesian War. The decline in population
+had been accompanied by a decline in wealth, both public and
+private; and while revenues had shrunk, expenditure had
+grown. It was a century of warfare; and warfare had become
+enormously more expensive, partly through the increased employment
+of mercenaries, partly through the enhanced cost of
+material. The power of the purse had made itself felt even in
+the 5th century; Persian gold had helped to decide the issue
+of the great war. In the politics of the 4th century the power
+of the purse becomes the determining factor. The public
+finance of the ancient world was singularly simple in character,
+and the expedients for raising a revenue were comparatively few.
+The distinction between direct and indirect taxation was recognized
+in practice, but states as a rule were reluctant to submit
+to the former system. The revenue of Athens in the 5th century
+was mainly derived from the tribute paid by her subjects; it
+was only in time of war that a direct tax was levied upon the
+citizen-body.<a name="fa22g" id="fa22g" href="#ft22g"><span class="sp">22</span></a> In the age of Demosthenes the revenue derived
+from the Athenian Confederacy was insignificant. The whole
+burden of the expenses of a war fell upon the 1200 richest
+citizens, who were subject to direct taxation in the dual form of
+the <i>Trierarchy</i> and the <i>Eisphora</i> (property-tax). The revenue
+thus raised was wholly insufficient for an effort on a great scale;
+yet the revenues of Athens at this period must have exceeded
+those of any other state.</p>
+
+<p>It is to moral causes, however, rather than to political or
+economic ones, that the failure of Greece in the conflict with
+Macedon is attributed by the most famous Greek statesmen
+of that age. Demosthenes is never weary of insisting upon the
+decay of patriotism among the citizens and upon the decay
+of probity among their leaders. Venality had always been
+the besetting sin of Greek statesmen. Pericles&rsquo; boast as to his
+own incorruptibility (Thuc. ii. 60) is significant as to the reputation
+of his contemporaries. In the age of Demosthenes the level of
+public life in this respect had sunk at least as low as that which
+prevails in many states of the modern world (see Demosth. <i>On the
+Crown</i>, 61 <span class="grk" title="para tois Hellêsin, oì tisin all&rsquo; apasin omoíos phørà
+proòton kai dorodókon sunébê">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#8048; &#964;&#959;&#8150;&#962; &#7964;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#957;, &#959;&#8016; &#964;&#953;&#963;&#8054;&#957; &#7936;&#955;&#955;&#8125; &#7941;&#960;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#957; &#8001;&#956;&#959;&#943;&#969;&#962; &#966;&#959;&#961;&#8048; &#960;&#961;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#964;&#8182;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#948;&#969;&#961;&#959;&#948;&#972;&#954;&#969;&#957; &#963;&#965;&#957;&#941;&#946;&#951;</span>; cf. §§ 295, 296). Corruption was
+certainly not confined to the Macedonian party. The best that
+can be said in defence of the patriots, as well as of their opponents,
+is that they honestly believed that the policy which they were
+bribed to advocate was the best for their country&rsquo;s interests.
+The evidence for the general decay of patriotism among the mass
+of the citizens is less conclusive. The battle of Megalopolis
+(331 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), in which the Spartan soldiery &ldquo;went down in a blaze
+of glory,&rdquo; proves that the spirit of the Lacedemonian state
+remained unchanged. But at Athens it seemed to contemporary
+observers&mdash;to Isocrates equally with Demosthenes&mdash;that the
+spirit of the great days was extinct (see Isocr. <i>On the Peace</i>,
+47, 48). It cannot, of course, be denied that public opinion was
+obstinately opposed to the diversion of the Theoric Fund to the
+purposes of the war with Philip. It was not till the year before
+Chaeronea that Demosthenes succeeded in persuading the
+assembly to devote the entire surplus to the expenses of the war.<a name="fa23g" id="fa23g" href="#ft23g"><span class="sp">23</span></a>
+Nor can it be denied that mercenaries were far more largely
+employed in the 4th century than in the 5th. In justice, however,
+to the Athenians of the Demosthenic era, it should be remembered
+that the burden of direct taxation was rarely imposed, and was
+reluctantly endured, in the previous century. It must also be
+remembered that, even in the 4th century, the Athenian citizen
+was ready to take the field, provided that it was not a question
+of a distant expedition or of prolonged service.<a name="fa24g" id="fa24g" href="#ft24g"><span class="sp">24</span></a> For distant
+expeditions, or for prolonged service, a citizen-militia is unsuited.
+The substitution of a professional force for an unprofessional
+one is to be explained, partly by the change in the character of
+Greek warfare, and partly by the operation of the laws of supply
+and demand. There had been a time when warfare meant a
+brief campaign in the summer months against a neighbouring
+state. It had come to mean prolonged operations against a
+distant enemy.<a name="fa25g" id="fa25g" href="#ft25g"><span class="sp">25</span></a> Athens was at war, <i>e.g.</i> with Philip, for eleven
+years continuously (357-346 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). If winter campaigns in
+Thrace were unpopular at this epoch, they had been hardly
+less unpopular in the epoch of the Peloponnesian War. In the
+days of her greatness, too, Athens had freely employed mercenaries,
+but it was in the navy rather than the army. In the
+age of Pericles the supply of mercenary rowers was abundant,
+the supply of mercenary troops inconsiderable. In the age of
+Demosthenes incessant warfare and ceaseless revolution had
+filled Greece with crowds of homeless adventurers. The supply
+helped to create the demand. The mercenary was as cheap as
+the citizen-soldier, and much more effective. On the whole,
+then, it may be inferred that it is a mistake to regard the prevalence
+of the mercenary system as the expression of a declining
+patriotism. It would be nearer the mark to treat the transition
+from the voluntary to the professional system as cause rather
+than effect: as one among the causes which contributed to the
+decay of public spirit in the Greek world.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>From Alexander to the Roman Conquest</i> (<i>336-146</i> <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).&mdash;In
+the history of Greece proper during this period the interest is
+mainly constitutional. It may be called the age of
+federation. Federation, indeed, was no novelty in
+<span class="sidenote">Federal government.</span>
+Greece. Federal unions had existed in Thessaly, in
+Boeotia and elsewhere, and the Boeotian league can be
+traced back at least to the 6th century. Two newly-founded
+federations, the Chalcidian and the Arcadian, play no inconsiderable
+part in the politics of the 4th century. But it is not till the
+3rd century that federation attains to its full development in
+Greece, and becomes the normal type of polity. The two great
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span>
+leagues of this period are the Aetolian and the Achaean. Both
+had existed in the 4th century, but the latter, which had been
+dissolved shortly before the beginning of the 3rd century,
+becomes important only after its restoration in 280 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, about
+which date the former, too, first begins to attract notice. The
+interest of federalism lies in the fact that it marks an advance
+beyond the conception of the city-state. It is an attempt to
+solve the problem which the Athenian empire failed to solve, the
+reconciliation of the claims of local autonomy with those of
+national union. The federal leagues of the 3rd century possess
+a further interest for the modern world, in that there can be
+traced in their constitutions a nearer approach to a representative
+system than is found elsewhere in Greek experience. A genuine
+representative system, it is true, was never developed in any
+Greek polity. What we find in the leagues is a sort of compromise
+between the principle of a primary assembly and the principle
+of a representative chamber. In both leagues the nominal
+sovereign was a primary assembly, in which every individual
+citizen had the right to vote. In both of them, however, the
+real power lay with a council (<span class="grk" title="Boulê">&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#942;</span>) composed of members
+representative of each of the component states.<a name="fa26g" id="fa26g" href="#ft26g"><span class="sp">26</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The real interest of this period, however, is to be looked for
+elsewhere than in Greece itself. Alexander&rsquo;s career is one of the
+turning-points in history. He is one of the few to
+whom it has been given to modify the whole future
+<span class="sidenote">Alexander&rsquo;s empire.</span>
+of the human race. He originated two forces which
+have profoundly affected the development of civilization.
+He created Hellenism, and he created for the western
+world the monarchical ideal. Greece had produced personal
+rulers of ability, or even of genius; but to the greatest of these,
+to Peisistratus, to Dionysius, even to Jason of Pherae, there
+clung the fatal taint of illegitimacy. As yet no ruler had succeeded
+in making the person of the monarch respectable.
+Alexander made it sacred. From him is derived, for the West,
+that &ldquo;divinity that doth hedge a king.&rdquo; And in creating
+Hellenism he created, for the first time, a common type of
+civilization, with a common language, literature and art, as
+well as a common form of political organization. In Asia Minor
+he was content to reinforce the existing Hellenic elements
+(cf. the case of Side, Arrian, <i>Anabasis</i>, i. 26. 4). In the rest of
+the East his instrument of hellenization was the <i>polis</i>. He is
+said to have founded no less than seventy cities, destined to
+become centres of Greek influence; and the great majority
+of these were in lands in which city-life was almost unknown.
+In this respect his example was emulated by his successors. The
+eastern provinces were soon lost, though Greek influences
+lingered on even in Bactria and across the Indus. It was only
+the regions lying to the west of the Euphrates that were
+effectively hellenized, and the permanence of this result was
+largely due to the policy of Rome. But after all deductions have
+been made, the great fact remains that for many centuries after
+Alexander&rsquo;s death Greek was the language of literature and
+religion, of commerce and of administration throughout the
+Nearer East. Alexander had created a universal empire as well
+as a universal culture. His empire perished at his death, but
+its central idea survived&mdash;that of the municipal freedom of the
+Greek <i>polis</i> within the framework of an imperial system. Hellenistic
+civilization may appear degenerate when compared with
+Hellenic; when compared with the civilizations which it superseded
+in non-Hellenic lands, it marks an unquestionable advance.
+(For the history of Greek civilization in the East, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hellenism</a></span>.)
+Greece left her mark upon the civilization of the West as well
+as upon that of the East, but the process by which her influence
+was diffused was essentially different. In the East Hellenism
+came in the train of the conqueror, and Rome was content to
+build upon the foundations laid by Alexander. In the West
+Greek influences were diffused by the Roman conquest of Greece.
+It was through the ascendancy which Greek literature, philosophy
+and art acquired over the Roman mind that Greek culture
+penetrated to the nations of western Europe. The civilization
+of the East remained Greek. The civilization of the West
+became and remained Latin, but it was a Latin civilization that
+was saturated with Greek influences. The ultimate division,
+both of the empire and the church, into two halves, finds its
+explanation in this original difference of culture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Ancient Authorities.</span>&mdash;(I.) For the earliest periods of Greek
+history, the so-called Minoan and Mycenaean, the evidence is
+purely archaeological. It is sufficient here to refer to the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization</a></span>. For the next period, the Heroic or
+Homeric Age, the evidence is derived from the poems of Homer.
+In any estimate of the value of these poems as historical evidence,
+much will depend upon the view taken of the authorship, age
+and unity of the poems. For a full discussion of these questions
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Homer</a></span>. It cannot be questioned that the poems are evidence
+for the existence of a period in the history of the Greek race,
+which differed from later periods in political and social, military
+and economic conditions. But here agreement ends. If, as is
+generally held by German critics, the poems are not earlier than
+the 9th century, if they contain large interpolations of considerably
+later date and if they are Ionian in origin, the authority
+of the poems becomes comparatively slight. The existence of
+different strata in the poems will imply the existence of inconsistencies
+and contradictions in the evidence; nor will the
+evidence be that of a contemporary. It will also follow that the
+picture of the heroic age contained in the poems is an idealized
+one. The more extreme critics, <i>e.g.</i> Beloch, deny that the poems
+are evidence even for the existence of a pre-Dorian epoch. If,
+on the other hand, the poems are assigned to the 11th or 12th
+century, to a Peloponnesian writer, and to a period anterior to
+the Dorian Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor (this
+is the view of the late Dr D. B. Munro), the evidence becomes
+that of a contemporary, and the authority of the poems for the
+distribution of races and tribes in the Heroic Age, as well as for
+the social and political conditions of the poet&rsquo;s time, would be
+conclusive. Homer recognizes no Dorians in Greece, except in
+Crete (see <i>Odyssey</i>, xix. 177), and no Greek colonies in Asia
+Minor. Only two explanations are possible. Either there is
+deliberate archaism in the poems, or else they are earlier in date
+than the Dorian Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor.</p>
+
+<p>II. For the period that extends from the end of the Heroic
+Age to the end of the Peloponnesian War<a name="fa27g" id="fa27g" href="#ft27g"><span class="sp">27</span></a> the two principal
+authorities are Herodotus and Thucydides. Not only
+have the other historical works which treated of this
+<span class="sidenote">Herodotus.</span>
+period perished (those at least whose date is earlier than
+the Christian era), but their authority was secondary and
+their material chiefly derived from these two writers. In one
+respect then this period of Greek history stands alone. Indeed,
+it might be said, with hardly an exaggeration, that there is
+nothing like it elsewhere in history. Almost our sole authorities
+are two writers of unique genius, and they are writers whose
+works have come down to us intact. For the period which ends
+with the repulse of the Persian invasion our authority is Herodotus.
+For the period which extends from 478 to 411 we are
+dependent upon Thucydides&rsquo;. In each case, however, a distinction
+must be drawn. The Persian Wars form the proper subject
+of Herodotus&rsquo;s work; the Peloponnesian War is the subject of
+Thucydides. The interval between the two wars is merely
+sketched by Thucydides; while of the period anterior to the
+conflicts of the Greek with the Persian, Herodotus does not
+attempt either a complete or a continuous narrative. His
+references to it are episodical and accidental. Hence our knowledge
+of the Persian Wars and of the Peloponnesian War is
+widely different in character from our knowledge of the rest of
+this period. In the history of these wars the <i>lacunae</i> are few;
+in the rest of the history they are alike frequent and serious. In
+the history, therefore, of the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars
+little is to be learnt from the secondary sources. Elsewhere,
+especially in the interval between the two wars, they become
+relatively important.</p>
+
+<p>In estimating the authority of Herodotus (<i>q.v.</i>) we must be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span>
+careful to distinguish between the invasion of Xerxes and all
+that is earlier. Herodotus&rsquo;s work was published soon after
+430 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, <i>i.e.</i> about half a century after the invasion. Much of his
+information was gathered in the course of the preceding twenty
+years. Although his evidence is not that of an eye-witness, he
+had had opportunities of meeting those who had themselves
+played a part in the war, on one side or the other (<i>e.g.</i> Thersander
+of Orchomenos, ix. 16). In any case, we are dealing with a
+tradition which is little more than a generation old, and the
+events to which the tradition relates, the incidents of the struggle
+against Xerxes, were of a nature to impress themselves indelibly
+upon the minds of contemporaries. Where, on the other hand,
+he is treating of the period anterior to the invasion of Xerxes,
+he is dependent upon a tradition which is never less than two
+generations old, and is sometimes centuries old. His informants
+were, at best, the sons or grandsons of the actors in the wars
+(<i>e.g.</i> Archias the Spartan, iii. 55). Moreover, the invasion of
+Xerxes, entailing, as it did, the destruction of cities and sanctuaries,
+especially of Athens and its temples, marks a dividing
+line in Greek history. It was not merely that evidence perished
+and records were destroyed. What in reference to tradition is
+even more important, a new consciousness of power was awakened,
+new interests were aroused, and new questions and problems
+came to the front. The former things had passed away; all
+things were become new. A generation that is occupied with
+making history on a great scale is not likely to busy itself with
+the history of the past. Consequently, the earlier traditions
+became faint and obscured, and the history difficult to reconstruct.
+As we trace back the conflict between Greece and
+Persia to its beginnings and antecedents, we are conscious that
+the tradition becomes less trustworthy as we pass back from
+one stage to another. The tradition of the expedition of Datis
+and Artaphernes is less credible in its details than that of the
+expedition of Xerxes, but it is at once fuller and more credible
+than the tradition of the Ionian revolt. When we get back to
+the Scythian expedition, we can discover but few grains of
+historical truth.</p>
+
+<p>Much recent criticism of Herodotus has been directed against
+his veracity as a traveller. With this we are not here concerned.
+The criticism of him as an historian begins with Thucydides.
+Among the references of the latter writer to his predecessor are
+the following passages: i. 21; i. 22 <i>ad fin.</i>; i. 20 <i>ad fin.</i>
+(cf. Herod. ix. 53, and vi. 57 <i>ad fin.</i>); iii. 62 § 4 (cf. Herod.
+ix. 87); ii. 2 §§ 1 and 3 (cf. Herod. vii. 233); ii. 8 § 3 (cf. Herod.
+vi. 98). Perhaps the two clearest examples of this criticism are
+to be found in Thucydides&rsquo; correction of Herodotus&rsquo;s account
+of the Cylonian conspiracy (Thuc. i. 126, cf. Herod. v. 71) and
+in his appreciation of the character of Themistocles&mdash;a veiled
+protest against the slanderous tales accepted by Herodotus
+(i. 138). In Plutarch&rsquo;s tract &ldquo;On the Malignity of Herodotus&rdquo;
+there is much that is suggestive, although his general standpoint,
+viz. that Herodotus was in duty bound to suppress all that was
+discreditable to the valour or patriotism of the Greeks, is not
+that of the modern critic. It must be conceded to Plutarch
+that he makes good his charge of bias in Herodotus&rsquo;s attitude
+towards certain of the Greek states. The question, however,
+may fairly be asked, how far this bias is personal to the author,
+or how far it is due to the character of the sources from which
+his information was derived. He cannot, indeed, altogether be
+acquitted of personal bias. His work is, to some extent, intended
+as an <i>apologia</i> for the Athenian empire. In answer to the charge
+that Athens was guilty of robbing other Greek states of their
+freedom, Herodotus seeks to show, firstly, that it was to Athens
+that the Greek world, as a whole, owed its freedom from Persia,
+and secondly, that the subjects of Athens, the Ionian Greeks,
+were unworthy to be free. This leads him to be unjust both
+to the services of Sparta and to the qualities of the Ionian race.
+For his estimate of the debt due to Athens see vii. 139. For
+bias against the Ionians see especially iv. 142 (cf. Thuc. vi. 77);
+cf. also i. 143 and 146, vi. 12-14 (Ladë), vi. 112 <i>ad fin.</i> A
+striking example of his prejudice in favour of Athens is furnished
+by vi. 91. At a moment when Greece rang with the crime of
+Athens in expelling the Aeginetans from their Island, he ventures
+to trace in their expulsion the vengeance of heaven for an act
+of sacrilege nearly sixty years earlier (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegina</a></span>). As a rule,
+however, the bias apparent in his narrative is due to the sources
+from which it is derived. Writing at Athens, in the first years
+of the Peloponnesian War, he can hardly help seeing the past
+through an Athenian medium. It was inevitable that much
+of what he heard should come to him from Athenian informants,
+and should be coloured by Athenian prejudices. We may thus
+explain the leniency which he shows towards Argos and Thessaly,
+the old allies of Athens, in marked contrast to his treatment of
+Thebes, Corinth and Aegina, her deadliest foes. For Argos
+cf. vii. 152; Thessaly, vii. 172-174; Thebes, vii. 132, vii. 233,
+ix. 87; Corinth (especially the Corinthian general Adeimantus,
+whose son Aristeus was the most active enemy of Athens at the
+outbreak of the Peloponnesian War), vii. 5, vii. 21, viii. 29 and
+61, vii. 94; Aegina, ix. 78-80 and 85. In his intimacy with
+members of the great Alcmaeonid house we probably have the
+explanation of his depreciation of the services of Themistocles, as
+well as of his defence of the family from the charges brought
+against it in connexion with Cylon and with the incident of the
+shield shown on Pentelicus at the time of Marathon (v. 71, vi.
+121-124). His failure to do justice to the Cypselid tyrants of
+Corinth (v. 92), and to the Spartan king Cleomenes, is to be
+accounted for by the nature of his sources&mdash;in the former case,
+the tradition of the Corinthian oligarchy; in the latter, accounts,
+partly derived from the family of the exiled king Demaratus and
+partly representative of the view of the ephorate. Much of the
+earlier history is cast in a religious mould, <i>e.g.</i> the story of the
+Mermnad kings of Lydia in book i., or of the fortunes of the
+colony of Cyrene (iv. 145-167). In such cases we cannot fail
+to recognize the influence of the Delphic priesthood. Grote
+has pointed out that the moralizing tendency observable in
+Herodotus is partly to be explained by the fact that much of his
+information was gathered from priests and at temples, and that
+it was given in explanation of votive offerings, or of the fulfilment
+of oracles. Hence the determination of the sources of his narrative
+has become one of the principal tasks of Herodotean criticism. In
+addition to the current tradition of Athens, the family tradition
+of the Alcmaeonidae, and the stories to be heard at Delphi and
+other sanctuaries, there may be indicated the Spartan tradition,
+in the form in which it existed in the middle of the 5th century;
+that of his native Halicarnassus, to which is due the prominence
+of its queen Artemisia; the traditions of the Ionian cities,
+especially of Samos and Miletus (important both for the history
+of the Mermnadae and for the Ionian Revolt); and those current
+in Sicily and Magna Graecia, which were learned during his
+residence at Thurii (Sybaris and Croton, v. 44, 45; Syracuse and
+Gela, vii. 153-167). Among his more special sources we can
+point to the descendants of Demaratus, who still held, at the
+beginning of the 4th century, the principality in the Troad
+which had been granted to their ancestor by Darius (Xen. <i>Hell.</i>
+iii. i. 6), and to the family of the Persian general Artabazus,
+in which the satrapy of Dascylium (Phrygia) was hereditary in
+the 5th century.<a name="fa28g" id="fa28g" href="#ft28g"><span class="sp">28</span></a> His use of written material is more difficult
+to determine. It is generally agreed that the list of Persian
+satrapies, with their respective assessments of tribute (iii. 89-97),
+the description of the royal road from Sardis to Susa (v. 52-54),
+and of the march of Xerxes, together with the list of the contingents
+that took part in the expedition (vii. 26-131), are all
+derived from documentary and authoritative sources. From
+previous writers (<i>e.g.</i> Dionysius of Miletus, Hecataeus, Charon
+of Lampsacus and Xanthus the Lydian) it is probable that he
+has borrowed little, though the fragments are too scanty to
+permit of adequate comparison. His references to monuments,
+dedicatory offerings, inscriptions and oracles are frequent.</p>
+
+<p>The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure <span class="correction" title="amended from too">to</span> grasp the
+principles of historical criticism, to understand the nature of
+military operations, and to appreciate the importance of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span>
+chronology. In place of historical criticism we find a crude
+rationalism (<i>e.g.</i> ii. 45, vii. 129, viii. 8). Having no conception of
+the distinction between occasion and cause, he is content to find
+the explanation of great historical movements in trivial incidents
+or personal motives. An example of this is furnished by his
+account of the Ionian revolt, in which he fails to discover the
+real causes either of the movement or of its result. Indeed, it
+is clear that he regarded criticism as no part of his task as an
+historian. In vii. 152 he states the principles which have guided
+him&mdash;<span class="grk" title="egô de opheilô legein ta legomena, peithesthai ge men ou
+pantapasi opheilô, kai moi touto to epos echeto es panta logon">&#7952;&#947;&#8060; &#948;&#8050; &#8000;&#966;&#949;&#943;&#955;&#969; &#955;&#941;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#957; &#964;&#8048; &#955;&#949;&#947;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#945;,
+&#960;&#949;&#943;&#952;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#943; &#947;&#949; &#956;&#8050;&#957; &#959;&#8016; &#960;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#940;&#960;&#945;&#963;&#953; &#8000;&#966;&#949;&#943;&#955;&#969;,
+&#954;&#945;&#943; &#956;&#959;&#953; &#964;&#959;&#8166;&#964;&#959; &#964;&#8056; &#7956;&#960;&#959;&#962; &#7952;&#967;&#941;&#964;&#969; &#7952;&#962; &#960;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#945; &#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#957;</span>.
+In obedience to this principle he again and again gives two or
+more versions of a story. We are thus frequently enabled to
+arrive at the truth by a comparison of the discrepant traditions.
+It would have been fortunate if all ancient writers who lacked
+the critical genius of Thucydides had been content to adopt the
+practice of Herodotus. His accounts of battles are always
+unsatisfactory. The great battles, Marathon, Thermopylae,
+Salamis and Plataea, present a series of problems. This result
+is partly due to the character of the traditions which he follows&mdash;traditions
+which were to some extent inconsistent or contradictory,
+and were derived from different sources; it is, however,
+in great measure due to his inability to think out a strategical
+combination or a tactical movement. It is not too much to say
+that the battle of Plataea, as described by Herodotus, is wholly
+unintelligible. Most serious of all his deficiencies is his careless
+chronology. Even in the case of the 5th century, the data
+which he affords are inadequate or ambiguous. The interval
+between the Scythian expedition and the Ionian revolt is
+described by so vague an expression as <span class="grk" title="meta de ou pollon chronon
+anesis kakôn ên">&#956;&#949;&#964;&#8048; &#948;&#8050; &#959;&#8016; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#955;&#8056;&#957; &#967;&#961;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#957; &#7940;&#957;&#949;&#963;&#953;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#954;&#8182;&#957; &#7974;&#957;</span> (v. 28). In the history of the revolt itself,
+though he gives us the interval between its outbreak and the
+fall of Miletus (<span class="grk" title="ektô etei">&#7956;&#954;&#964;&#8179; &#7956;&#964;&#949;&#8146;</span>, vi. 18), he does not give us the interval
+between this and the battle of Lad&#275;, nor does he indicate with
+sufficient precision the years to which the successive phases of
+the movement belong. Throughout the work professed synchronisms
+too often prove to be mere literary devices for facilitating
+a transition from one subject to another (cf. <i>e.g.</i> v. 81 with
+89, 90; or vi. 51 with 87 and 94). In the 6th century, as Grote
+pointed out, a whole generation, or more, disappears in his
+historical perspective (cf. i. 30, vi. 125, v. 94, iii. 47, 48,
+v. 113 contrasted with v. 104 and iv. 162). The attempts to
+reconstruct the chronology of this century upon the basis of the
+data afforded by Herodotus (<i>e.g.</i> by Beloch, <i>Rheinisches Museum</i>,
+xlv., 1890, pp. 465-473) have completely failed.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of all such defects Herodotus is an author, not only
+of unrivalled literary charm, but of the utmost value to the
+historian. If much remains uncertain or obscure, even in the
+history of the Persian Wars, it is chiefly to motives or policy,
+to topography or strategy, to dates or numbers, that uncertainty
+attaches. It is to these that a sober criticism will confine itself.</p>
+
+<p>Thucydides is at once the father of contemporary history and
+the father of historical criticism. From a comparison of i. 1,
+i. 22 and v. 26, we may gather both the principles to
+which he adhered in the composition of his work and
+<span class="sidenote">Thucydides.</span>
+the conditions under which it was composed. It is
+seldom that the circumstances of an historical writer have been
+so favourable for the accomplishment of his task. Thucydides
+was a contemporary of the Twenty-Seven Years&rsquo; War in the
+fullest sense of the term. He had reached manhood at its outbreak,
+and he survived its close by at least half-a-dozen years.
+And he was more than a mere contemporary. As a man of high
+birth, a member of the Periclean circle, and the holder of the
+chief political office in the Athenian state, the <i>strategia</i>, he was
+not only familiar with the business of administration and the
+conduct of military operations, but he possessed in addition
+a personal knowledge of those who played the principal part in
+the political life of the age. His exile in the year 424 afforded
+him opportunities of visiting the scenes of distant operations
+(<i>e.g.</i> Sicily) and of coming in contact with the actors on the other
+side. He himself tells us that he spared no pains to obtain the
+best information available in each case. He also tells us that
+he began collecting materials for his work from the very beginning
+of the war. Indeed, it is probable that much of books i.-v. 24
+was written soon after the Peace of Nicias (421), just as it is
+possible that the history of the Sicilian Expedition (books vi.
+and vii.) was originally intended to form a separate work. To
+the view, however, which has obtained wide support in recent
+years, that books i.-v. 22 and books vi. and vii. were separately
+published, the rest of book v. and book viii. being little more than
+a rough draught, composed after the author had adopted the
+theory of a single war of twenty-seven years&rsquo; duration, of which
+the Sicilian Expedition and the operations of the years 431-421
+formed integral parts, there seem to the present writer to be
+insuperable objections. The work, as a whole, appears to have
+been composed in the first years of the 4th century, after his
+return from exile in 404, when the material already in existence
+must have been revised and largely recast. There are exceedingly
+few passages, such as iv. 48. 5, which appear to have been
+overlooked in the process of revision. It can hardly be
+questioned that the impression left upon the reader&rsquo;s mind is
+that the point of view of the author, in all the books alike, is
+that of one writing after the fall of Athens.</p>
+
+<p>The task of historical criticism in the case of the Peloponnesian
+War is widely different from its task in the case of the Persian
+Wars. It has to deal, not with facts as they appear in the
+traditions of an imaginative race, but with facts as they appeared
+to a scientific observer. Facts, indeed, are seldom in dispute.
+The question is rather whether facts of importance are omitted,
+whether the explanation of causes is correct, or whether the
+judgment of men and measures is just. Such inaccuracies as
+have been brought home to Thucydides on the strength, <i>e.g.</i> of
+epigraphic evidence, are, as a rule, trivial. His most serious
+errors relate to topographical details, in cases where he was
+dependent on the information of others. Sphacteria (see Pylos)
+(see G. B. Grundy, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, xvi., 1896, p. 1)
+is a case in point. Nor have the difficulties connected with the
+siege of Plataea been cleared up either by Grundy or by others
+(see Grundy, <i>Topography of the Battle of Plataea</i>, &amp;c., 1894).
+Where, on the contrary, he is writing at first hand his descriptions
+of sites are surprisingly correct. The most serious charge
+as yet brought against his authority as to matters of fact relates
+to his account of the Revolution of the Four Hundred, which
+appears, at first sight, to be inconsistent with the documentary
+evidence supplied by Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of Athens</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). It
+may be questioned, however, whether the documents have
+been correctly interpreted by Aristotle. On the whole, it is
+probable that the general course of events was such as Thucydides
+describes (see E. Meyer, <i>Forschungen</i>, ii. 406-436), though he
+failed to appreciate the position of Theramenes and the Moderate
+party, and was clearly misinformed on some important points of
+detail. With regard to the omission of facts, it is unquestionable
+that much is omitted that would not be omitted by a modern
+writer. Such omissions are generally due to the author&rsquo;s conception
+of his task. Thus the internal history of Athens is
+passed over as forming no part of the history of the war. It
+is only where the course of the war is directly affected by the
+course of political events (<i>e.g.</i> by the Revolution of the Four
+Hundred) that the internal history is referred to. However
+much it may be regretted that the relations of political parties
+are not more fully described, especially in book v., it cannot be
+denied that from his standpoint there is logical justification
+even for the omission of the ostracism of Hyperbolus. There
+are omissions, however, which are not so easily explained.
+Perhaps the most notable instance is that of the raising of the
+tribute in 425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delian League</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Nowhere is the contrast between the historical methods of
+Herodotus and Thucydides more apparent than in the treatment
+of the causes of events. The distinction between the occasion
+and the cause is constantly present to the mind of Thucydides,
+and it is his tendency to make too little rather than too much
+of the personal factor. Sometimes, however, it may be doubted
+whether his explanation of the causes of an event is adequate or
+correct. In tracing the causes of the Peloponnesian War itself,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span>
+modern writers are disposed to allow more weight to the commercial
+rivalry of Corinth; while in the case of the Sicilian
+expedition, they would actually reverse his judgment (ii. 65 <span class="grk" title="ho es
+Sikelian plous hos ou tosoutov gnômês hamartêma ên pros hous
+epêesan">&#8001; &#7952;&#962; &#931;&#953;&#954;&#949;&#955;&#943;&#945;&#957; &#960;&#955;&#959;&#8166;&#962; &#8003;&#962; &#959;&#8016; &#964;&#959;&#963;&#959;&#8166;&#964;&#959;&#957; &#947;&#957;&#974;&#956;&#951;&#962; &#7937;&#956;&#940;&#961;&#964;&#951;&#956;&#945; &#7974;&#957; &#960;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#959;&#8019;&#962; &#7952;&#960;&#8132;&#949;&#963;&#945;&#957;</span>). To us it seems that the very idea of the expedition
+implied a gigantic miscalculation of the resources of Athens and of
+the difficulty of the task. His judgments of men and of measures
+have been criticized by writers of different schools and from
+different points of view. Grote criticized his verdict upon Cleon,
+while he accepted his estimate of the policy of Pericles. More
+recent writers, on the other hand, have accepted his view of
+Cleon, while they have selected for attack his appreciation alike
+of the policy and the strategy of Pericles. He has been charged,
+too, with failure to do justice to the statesmanship of Alcibiades.<a name="fa29g" id="fa29g" href="#ft29g"><span class="sp">29</span></a>
+There are cases, undoubtedly, in which the balance of recent
+opinion will be adverse to the view of Thucydides. There are
+many more in which the result of criticism has been to establish
+his view. That he should occasionally have been mistaken in
+his judgment and his views is certainly no detraction from his
+claim to greatness.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, it may be said that while the criticism of
+Herodotus, since Grote wrote, has tended seriously to modify
+our view of the Persian Wars, as well as of the earlier history,
+the criticism of Thucydides, in spite of its imposing bulk, has
+affected but slightly our view of the course of the Peloponnesian
+War. The labours of recent workers in this field have borne
+most fruit where they have been directed to subjects neglected
+by Thucydides, such as the history of political parties, or the
+organization of the empire (G. Gilbert&rsquo;s <i>Innere Geschichte Athens
+im Zeitalter des pel. Krieges</i> is a good example of such work).</p>
+
+<p>In regard to Thucydides&rsquo; treatment of the period between the
+Persian and Peloponnesian Wars (the so-called <i>Pentecontaëteris</i>)
+it should be remembered that he does not profess to give, even
+in outline, the history of this period as a whole. The period is
+regarded simply as a prelude to the Peloponnesian War. There
+is no attempt to sketch the history of the Greek world or of
+Greece proper during this period. There is, indeed, no attempt
+to give a complete sketch of Athenian history. His object is to
+trace the growth of the Athenian Empire, and the causes that
+made the war inevitable. Much is therefore omitted not only
+in the history of the other Greek states, especially the Peloponnesian,
+but even in the history of Athens. Nor does Thucydides
+attempt an exact chronology. He gives us a few dates
+(<i>e.g.</i> surrender of Ithome, in the tenth year, i. 103; of Thasos,
+in the third year, i. 101; duration of the Egyptian expedition
+six years, i. 110; interval between Tanagra and Oenophyta
+61 days, i. 108; revolt of Samos, in the sixth year after the
+Thirty Years&rsquo; Truce, i. 115), but from these data alone it would
+be impossible to reconstruct the chronology of the period. In
+spite of all that can be gleaned from our other authorities, our
+knowledge of this, the true period of Athenian greatness, must
+remain slight and imperfect as compared with our knowledge
+of the next thirty years.</p>
+
+<p>Of the secondary authorities for this period the two principal
+ones are Diodorus (xi. 38 to xii. 37) and Plutarch. Diodorus
+is of value chiefly in relation to Sicilian affairs, to which
+he devotes about a third of this section of his work
+<span class="sidenote">Diodorus.</span>
+and for which he is almost our sole authority. His source for
+Sicilian history is the Sicilian writer Timaeus (<i>q.v.</i>), an author
+of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> For the history of Greece Proper during
+the Pentecontaetia Diodorus contributes comparatively little
+of importance. Isolated notices of particular events (<i>e.g.</i> the
+<i>Synoecism</i> of Elis, 471 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, or the foundation of Amphipolis,
+437 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), which appear to be derived from a chronological writer,
+may generally be trusted. The greater part of his narrative
+is, however, derived from Ephorus, who appears to have had
+before him little authentic information for this period of Greek
+history other than that afforded by Thucydides&rsquo; work. Four of
+<span class="correction" title="amended from Plutatch's">Plutarch&rsquo;s</span> <i>Lives</i> are concerned with this period, viz. <i>Themistocles</i>,
+<i>Aristides</i>, <i>Cimon</i> and <i>Pericles</i>. From the <i>Aristides</i> little can
+be gained. Plutarch, in this biography, appears to be mainly
+dependent upon Idomeneus of Lampsacus, an excessively untrustworthy
+<span class="sidenote">Plutarch.</span>
+writer of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, who is probably
+to be credited with the invention of the oligarchical
+conspiracy at the time of the battle of Plataea (ch. 13), and of
+the decree of Aristides, rendering all four classes of citizens
+eligible for the archonship (ch. 22). The <i>Cimon</i>, on the other
+hand, contains much that is valuable; such as, <i>e.g.</i> the account
+of the battle of the Eurymedon (chs. 12 and 13). To the <i>Pericles</i>
+we owe several quotations from the Old Comedy. Two other
+of the <i>Lives</i>, <i>Lycurgus</i> and <i>Solon</i>, are amongst our most important
+sources for the early history of Sparta and Athens respectively.
+Of the two (besides <i>Pericles</i>) which relate to the Peloponnesian
+War, <i>Alcibiades</i> adds little to what can be gained from Thucydides
+and Xenophon; the <i>Nicias</i>, on the other hand, supplements
+Thucydides&rsquo; narrative of the Sicilian expedition with many
+valuable details, which, it may safely be assumed, are derived
+from the contemporary historian, Philistus of Syracuse.
+Amongst the most valuable material afforded by Plutarch are
+the quotations, which occur in almost all the <i>Lives</i>, from the
+collection of Athenian decrees (<span class="grk" title="psêphismatôn sunagôgê">&#968;&#951;&#966;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957; &#963;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#947;&#969;&#947;&#942;</span>) formed
+by the Macedonian writer Craterus, in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Two other works may be mentioned in connexion with the
+history of Athens. For the history of the Athenian Constitution
+<span class="sidenote">The constitutions.</span>
+down to the end of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Aristotle&rsquo;s
+<i>Constitution of Athens</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) is our chief authority.
+The other <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, erroneously attributed
+to Xenophon, a tract of singular interest both on literary and
+historical grounds, throws a good deal of light on the internal
+condition of Athens, and on the system of government, both of
+the state and of the empire, in the age of the Peloponnesian War,
+during the earlier years of which it was composed.</p>
+
+<p>To the literary sources for the history of Greece, especially of
+Athens, in the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> must be added the epigraphic.
+Few inscriptions have been discovered which date
+back beyond the Persian Wars. For the latter half
+<span class="sidenote">Inscriptions.</span>
+of the 5th century they are both numerous and important.
+Of especial value are the series of Quota-lists, from
+which can be calculated the amount of tribute paid by the
+subject-allies of Athens from the year 454 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards. The
+great majority of the inscriptions of this period are of Athenian
+origin. Their value is enhanced by the fact that they relate, as
+a rule, to questions of organization, finance and administration,
+as to which little information is to be gained from the literary
+sources.</p>
+
+<p>For the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars
+Busolt, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, iii. 1, is indispensable. Hill&rsquo;s
+<i>Sources of Greek History, <span class="scs">B.C.</span> 478-431</i> (Oxford, 1897) is excellent.
+It gives the most important inscriptions in a convenient form.</p>
+
+<p>III. <i>The 4th Century to the Death of Alexander.</i>&mdash;Of the historians
+who flourished in the 4th century the sole writer whose works
+have come down to us is Xenophon. It is a singular
+accident of fortune that neither of the two authors,
+<span class="sidenote">Xenophon.</span>
+who at once were most representative of their age and did most
+to determine the views of Greek history current in subsequent
+generations, Ephorus (<i>q.v.</i>) and Theopompus (<i>q.v.</i>), should be
+extant. It was from them, rather than from Herodotus, Thucydides
+or Xenophon that the Roman world obtained its knowledge
+of the history of Greece in the past, and its conception of its
+significance. Both were pupils of Isocrates, and both, therefore,
+bred up in an atmosphere of rhetoric. Hence their popularity
+and their influence. The scientific spirit of Thucydides was alien
+to the temper of the 4th century, and hardly more congenial to
+the age of Cicero or Tacitus. To the rhetorical spirit, which is
+common to both, each added defects peculiar to himself. Theopompus
+is a strong partisan, a sworn foe to Athens and to
+Democracy. Ephorus, though a military historian, is ignorant
+of the art of war. He is also incredibly careless and uncritical.
+It is enough to point to his description of the battle of the
+Eurymedon (Diodorus xi. 60-62), in which, misled by an epigram,
+which he supposed to relate to this engagement (it really refers
+to the Athenian victory off Salamis in Cyprus, 449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span>
+makes the coast of Cyprus the scene of Cimon&rsquo;s naval victory,
+and finds no difficulty in putting it on the same day as the
+victory on shore on the banks of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia.
+Only a few fragments remain of either writer, but Theopompus
+(<i>q.v.</i>) was largely used by Plutarch in several of the <i>Lives</i>,
+while Ephorus continues to be the main source of Diodorus&rsquo;
+history, as far as the outbreak of the Sacred War (Fragments of
+Ephorus in Müller&rsquo;s <i>Fragmenta historicorum Graecorum</i>, vol.i.;
+of Theopompus in <i>Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, cum Theopompi
+et Cratippi fragmentis</i>, ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt,
+1909).</p>
+
+<p>It may be at least claimed for Xenophon (<i>q.v.</i>) that he is free
+from all taint of the rhetorical spirit. It may also be claimed
+for him that, as a witness, he is both honest and well-informed.
+But, if there is no justification for the charge of deliberate
+falsification, it cannot be denied that he had strong political
+prejudices, and that his narrative has suffered from them. His
+historical writings are the <i>Anabasis</i>, an account of the expedition
+of the Ten Thousand, the <i>Hellenica</i> and the <i>Agesilaus</i>, a eulogy
+of the Spartan king. Of these the <i>Hellenica</i> is far the most
+important for the student of history. It consists of two distinct
+parts (though there is no ground for the theory that the two
+parts were separately written and published), books i. and ii.,
+and books iii. to vii. The first two books are intended as a
+continuation of Thucydides&rsquo; work. They begin, quite abruptly,
+in the middle of the Attic year 411/10, and they carry the
+history down to the fall of the Thirty, in 403. Books iii. to vii.,
+the <i>Hellenica</i> proper, cover the period from 401 to 362, and give
+the histories of the Spartan and Theban hegemonies down to
+the death of Epaminondas. There is thus a gap of two years
+between the point at which the first part ends and that at which
+the second part begins. The two parts differ widely, both in
+their aim and in the arrangement of the material. In the first
+part Xenophon attempts, though not with complete success,
+to follow the chronological method of Thucydides, and to make
+each successive spring, when military and naval operations were
+resumed after the winter&rsquo;s interruption, the starting-point of a
+fresh section. The resemblance between the two writers ends,
+however, with the outward form of the narrative. All that is
+characteristic of Thucydides is absent in Xenophon. The
+latter writer shows neither skill in portraiture, nor insight into
+motives. He is deficient in the sense of proportion and of the
+distinction between occasion and cause. Perhaps his worst
+fault is a lack of imagination. To make a story intelligible
+it is necessary sometimes to put oneself in the reader&rsquo;s place,
+and to appreciate his ignorance of circumstances and events
+which would be perfectly familiar to the actors in the scene
+or to contemporaries. It was not given to Xenophon, as it was
+to Thucydides, to discriminate between the circumstances that
+are essential and those that are not essential to the comprehension
+of the story. In spite, therefore, of its wealth of detail,
+his narrative is frequently obscure. It is quite clear that in the
+trial of the generals, <i>e.g.</i>, something is omitted. It may be
+supplied as Diodorus has supplied it (xiii. 101), or it may be
+supplied otherwise. It is probable that, when under cross-examination
+before the council, the generals, or some of them,
+disclosed the commission given to Theramenes and Thrasybulus.
+The important point is that Xenophon himself has omitted to
+supply it. As it stands his narrative is unintelligible. In the
+first two books, though there are omissions (<i>e.g.</i> the loss of
+Nisaea, 409 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), they are not so serious as in the last five, nor
+is the bias so evident. It is true that if the account of the rule
+of the Thirty given in Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of Athens</i> be
+accepted, Xenophon must have deliberately misrepresented
+the course of events to the prejudice of Theramenes. But it is
+at least doubtful whether Aristotle&rsquo;s version can be sustained
+against Xenophon&rsquo;s, though it may be admitted, not only that
+there are mistakes as to details in the latter writer&rsquo;s narrative,
+but that less than justice is done to the policy and motives
+of the &ldquo;Buskin.&rdquo; The <i>Hellenica</i> was written, it should be
+remembered, at Corinth, after 362. More than forty years had
+thus elapsed since the events recorded in the first two books,
+and after so long an interval accuracy of detail, even where the
+detail is of importance, is not always to be expected.<a name="fa30g" id="fa30g" href="#ft30g"><span class="sp">30</span></a> In the
+second part the chronological method is abandoned. A subject
+once begun is followed out to its natural ending, so that sections
+of the narrative which are consecutive in order are frequently
+parallel in point of date. A good example of this will be found
+in book iv. In chapters 2 to 7 the history of the Corinthian
+war is carried down to the end of 390, so far as the operations
+on land are concerned, while chapter 8 contains an account of
+the naval operations from 394 to 388. In this second part of the
+<i>Hellenica</i> the author&rsquo;s disqualifications for his task are more
+apparent than in the first two books. The more he is acquitted
+of bias in his selection of events and in his omissions, the more
+clearly does he stand convicted of lacking all sense of the proportion
+of things. Down to Leuctra (371 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Sparta is the centre
+of interest, and it is of the Spartan state alone that a complete
+or continuous history is given. After Leuctra, if the point of
+view is no longer exclusively Spartan, the narrative of events
+is hardly less incomplete. Throughout the second part of the
+<i>Hellenica</i> omissions abound which it is difficult either to explain
+or justify. The formation of the Second Athenian Confederacy
+of 377 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the foundation of Megalopolis and the restoration
+of the Messenian state are all left unrecorded. Yet the writer
+who passes them over without mention thinks it worth while
+to devote more than one-sixth of an entire book to a chronicle
+of the unimportant feats of the citizens of the petty state of
+Phlius. Nor is any attempt made to appraise the policy of
+the great Theban leaders, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The
+former, indeed, is mentioned only in a single passage, relating
+to the embassy to Susa in 368; the latter does not appear on
+the scene till a year later, and receives mention but twice before
+the battle of Mantinea. An author who omits from his narrative
+some of the most important events of his period, and elaborates
+the portraiture of an Agesilaus while not attempting the bare
+outline of an Epaminondas, may be honest; he may even
+write without a consciousness of bias; he certainly cannot rank
+among the great writers of history.<a name="fa31g" id="fa31g" href="#ft31g"><span class="sp">31</span></a></p>
+
+<p>For the history of the 4th century Diodorus assumes a higher
+degree of importance than belongs to him in the earlier periods.
+This is partly to be explained by the deficiencies of
+Xenophon&rsquo;s <i>Hellenica</i>, partly by the fact that for the
+<span class="sidenote">Diodorus.</span>
+interval between the death of Epaminondas and the accession of
+Alexander we have in Diodorus alone a continuous narrative
+of events. Books xiv. and xv. of his history include the period
+covered by the <i>Hellenica</i>. More than half of book xiv. is devoted
+to the history of Sicily and the reign of Dionysius, the tyrant of
+Syracuse. For this period of Sicilian history he is, practically,
+our sole authority. In the rest of the book, as well as in book xv.,
+there is much of value, especially in the notices of Macedonian
+history. Thanks to Diodorus we are enabled to supply many
+of the omissions of the <i>Hellenica</i>. Diodorus is, <i>e.g.</i>, our sole
+literary authority for the Athenian naval confederation of 377.
+Book xvi. must rank, with the <i>Hellenica</i> and Arrian&rsquo;s <i>Anabasis</i>,
+as one of the three principal authorities for this century, so far,
+at least, as works of an historical character are concerned. It is
+our authority for the Social and the Sacred Wars, as well as
+for the reign of Philip. It is a curious irony of fate that, for
+what is perhaps the most momentous epoch in the history
+of Greece, we should have to turn to a writer of such inferior
+capacity. For this period his material is better and his importance
+greater: his intelligence is as limited as ever. Who but
+Diodorus would be capable of narrating the siege and capture
+of Methone twice over, once under the year 354, and again under
+the year 352 (xvi. 31 and 34; cf. xii. 35 and 42; Archidamus (<i>q.v.</i>)
+dies in 434, commands Peloponnesian army in 431); or of giving
+three different numbers of years (eleven, ten and nine) in three
+different passages (chs. 14, 23 and 59) for the length of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span>
+Sacred War; or of asserting the conclusion of peace between
+Athens and Philip in 340, after the failure of his attack on
+Perinthus and Byzantium? Amongst the subjects which are
+omitted is the Peace of Philocrates. For the earlier chapters,
+which bring the narrative down to the outbreak of the Sacred War,
+Ephorus, as in the previous book, is Diodorus&rsquo; main source.
+His source for the rest of the book, <i>i.e.</i> for the greater part of
+Philip&rsquo;s reign, cannot be determined. It is generally agreed that
+it is not the <i>Philippica</i> of Theopompus.</p>
+
+<p>For the reign of Alexander our earliest extant authority is
+Diodorus, who belongs to the age of Augustus. Of the others,
+Q. Curtius Rufus, who wrote in Latin, lived in the
+reign of the emperor Claudius, Arrian and Plutarch
+<span class="sidenote">Historians of Alexander&rsquo;s reign.</span>
+in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Yet Alexander&rsquo;s reign is
+one of the best known periods of ancient history.
+The Peloponnesian War and the twenty years of Roman
+history which begin with 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> are the only two periods
+which we can be said to know more fully or for which we
+have more trustworthy evidence. For there is no period of
+ancient history which was recorded by a larger number of
+contemporary writers, or for which better or more abundant
+materials were available. Of the writers actually contemporary
+with Alexander there were five of importance&mdash;Ptolemy, Aristobulus,
+Callisthenes, Onesicritus and Nearchus; and all of them
+occupied positions which afforded exceptional opportunities
+of ascertaining the facts. Four of them were officers in
+Alexander&rsquo;s service. Ptolemy, the future king of Egypt, was
+one of the <i>somatophylaces</i> (we may, perhaps, regard them as
+corresponding to Napoleon&rsquo;s marshals); Aristobulus was also
+an officer of high rank (see Arrian, <i>Anab.</i> vi. 29. 10); Nearchus
+was admiral of the fleet which surveyed the Indus and the
+Persian Gulf, and Onesicritus was one of his subordinates. The
+fifth, Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied Alexander
+on his march down to his death in 327 and was admitted to the
+circle of his intimate friends. A sixth historian, Cleitarchus,
+was possibly also a contemporary; at any rate he is not more
+than a generation later. These writers had at their command a
+mass of official documents, such as the <span class="grk" title="basileioi ephêmerides">&#946;&#945;&#963;&#943;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#953; &#7952;&#966;&#951;&#956;&#949;&#961;&#943;&#948;&#949;&#962;</span>&mdash;the
+<i>Gazette</i> and <i>Court Circular</i> combined&mdash;edited and published
+after Alexander&rsquo;s death by his secretary, Eumenes of Cardia;
+the <span class="grk" title="stathmoi">&#963;&#964;&#945;&#952;&#956;&#959;&#943;</span>, or records of the marches of the armies, which were
+carefully measured at the time; and the official reports on the
+conquered provinces. That these documents were made use of
+by the historians is proved by the references to them which are
+to be found in Arrian, Plutarch and Strabo; <i>e.g.</i> Arrian, <i>Anab.</i>
+vii. 25 and 26, and Plutarch, <i>Alexander</i> 76 (quotation from the
+<span class="grk" title="basileioi ephêmerides">&#946;&#945;&#963;&#943;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#953; &#7952;&#966;&#951;&#956;&#949;&#961;&#943;&#948;&#949;&#962;</span>); Strabo xv. 723 (reference to the <span class="grk" title="stathmoi">&#963;&#964;&#945;&#952;&#956;&#959;&#943;</span>),
+ii. 69 (reports drawn up on the various provinces). We have,
+in addition, in Plutarch numerous quotations from Alexander&rsquo;s
+correspondence with his mother, Olympias, and with his officers.
+The contemporary historians may be roughly divided into two
+groups. On the one hand there are Ptolemy and Aristobulus,
+who, except in a single instance, are free from all suspicion of
+deliberate invention. On the other hand, there are Callisthenes,
+Onesicritus and Cleitarchus, whose tendency is rhetorical.
+Nearchus appears to have allowed full scope to his imagination
+in dealing with the wonders of India, but to have been otherwise
+veracious. Of the extant writers Arrian (<i>q.v.</i>) is incomparably
+the most valuable. His merits are twofold. As the commander
+of Roman legions and the author of a work on tactics, he combined
+a practical with a theoretical knowledge of the military art,
+while the writers whom he follows in the <i>Anabasis</i> are the two
+most worthy of credit, Ptolemy and Aristobulus. We may well
+hesitate to call in question the authority of writers who exhibit
+an agreement which it would be difficult to parallel elsewhere
+in the case of two independent historians. It may be inferred
+from Arrian&rsquo;s references to them that there were only eleven
+cases in all in which he found discrepancies between them.
+The most serious drawback which can be alleged against them
+is an inevitable bias in Alexander&rsquo;s favour. It would be only
+natural that they should pass over in silence the worst blots on
+their great commander&rsquo;s fame. Next in value to the <i>Anabasis</i>
+comes Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Life of Alexander</i>, the merits of which, however,
+are not to be gauged by the influence which it has exercised upon
+literature. The <i>Life</i> is a valuable supplement to the <i>Anabasis</i>,
+partly because Plutarch, as he is writing biography rather than
+history (for his conception of the difference between the two
+see the famous preface, <i>Life of Alexander</i>, ch. i.), is concerned
+to record all that will throw light upon Alexander&rsquo;s character
+(<i>e.g.</i> his epigrammatic sayings and quotations from his letters);
+partly because he tells us much about his early life, before he
+became king, while Arrian tells us nothing. It is unfortunate
+that Plutarch writes in an uncritical spirit; it is hardly less
+unfortunate that he should have formed no clear conception
+and drawn no consistent picture of Alexander&rsquo;s character.
+Book xvii. of Diodorus and the <i>Historiae Alexandri</i> of Curtius
+Rufus are thoroughly rhetorical in spirit. It is probable that
+in both cases the ultimate source is the work of Clitarchus.</p>
+
+<p>It is towards the end of the 5th century that a fresh source
+of information becomes available in the speeches of the orators,
+the earliest of whom is Antiphon (d. 411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Lysias
+is of great importance for the history of the Thirty
+<span class="sidenote">The orators.</span>
+(see the speeches against Eratosthenes and Agoratus),
+and a good deal may be gathered from Andocides with regard
+to the last years of the 5th and the opening years of the next
+century. At the other end of this period Lycurgus, Hyperides
+and Dinarchus throw light upon the time of Philip and Alexander.
+The three, however, who are of most importance to the historian
+are Isocrates, Aeschines and Demosthenes. Isocrates (<i>q.v.</i>),
+whose long life (436-338) more than spans the interval
+<span class="sidenote">Isocrates.</span>
+between the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War and
+the triumph of Macedon at Chaeronea, is one of the
+most characteristic figures in the Greek world of his day. To
+comprehend that world the study of Isocrates is indispensable;
+for in an age dominated by rhetoric he is the prince of rhetoricians.
+It is difficult for a modern reader to do him justice, so alien is
+his spirit and the spirit of his age from ours. It must be allowed
+that he is frequently monotonous and prolix; at the same time
+it must not be forgotten that, as the most famous representative
+of rhetoric, he was read from one end of the Greek world to the
+other. He was the friend of Evagoras and Archidamus, of
+Dionysius and Philip; he was the master of Aeschines and
+Lycurgus amongst orators and of Ephorus and Theopompus
+amongst historians. No other contemporary writer has left
+so indelible a stamp upon the style and the sentiment of his
+generation. It is a commonplace that Isocrates is the apostle
+of Panhellenism. It is not so generally recognized that he is the
+prophet of Hellenism. A passage in the Panegyricus (§ 50
+<span class="grk" title="hôste to tôn Hellênon onoma mêketi tou genous alla tês dianoias
+dokein einai kai mallon Hellênas kaleisthai tous tês paideuseôs
+tês hêmeteras ê tous tês koinês physeôs metechontas">&#8037;&#963;&#964;&#949; &#964;&#8056; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#942;&#957;&#969;&#957; &#8004;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#945; &#956;&#942;&#954;&#949;&#964;&#953; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#947;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#7936;&#955;&#955;&#8048; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#948;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#943;&#945;&#962;
+&#948;&#959;&#954;&#949;&#8150;&#957; &#949;&#7990;&#957;&#945;&#953; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#956;&#8118;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#957; &#7965;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#945;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#955;&#949;&#8150;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953; &#964;&#959;&#8058;&#962; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#960;&#945;&#953;&#948;&#949;&#973;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;
+&#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7969;&#956;&#949;&#964;&#941;&#961;&#945;&#962; &#7972; &#964;&#959;&#8058;&#962; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#8134;&#962; &#966;&#973;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962; &#956;&#949;&#964;&#941;&#967;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#962;</span>) is the key
+to the history of the next three centuries. Doubtless he had no
+conception of the extent to which the East was to be hellenized.
+He was, however, the first to recognize that it would be hellenized
+by the diffusion of Greek culture rather than of Greek blood. His
+Panhellenism was the outcome of his recognition of the new
+forces and tendencies which were at work in the midst of a new
+generation. When Greek culture was becoming more and more
+international, the exaggeration of the principle of autonomy
+in the Greek political system was becoming more and more
+absurd. He had sufficient insight to be aware that the price
+paid for this autonomy was the domination of Persia; a domination
+which meant the servitude of the Greek states across the
+Aegean and the demoralization of Greek political life at home.
+His Panhellenism led him to a more liberal view of the distinction
+between what was Greek and what was not than was possible
+to the intenser patriotism of a Demosthenes. In his later orations
+he has the courage not only to pronounce that the day of Athens
+as a first-rate power is past, but to see in Philip the needful
+leader in the crusade against Persia. The earliest and greatest of
+his political orations is the <i>Panegyricus</i>, published in 380 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+midway between the peace of Antalcidas and Leuctra. It is
+his <i>apologia</i> for Panhellenism. To the period of the Social War
+belong the <i>De pace</i> (355 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and the <i>Areopagiticus</i> (354 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span>
+both of great value as evidence for the internal conditions of
+Athens at the beginning of the struggle with Macedon. The
+<i>Plataicus</i> (373 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and the <i>Archidamus</i> (366 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) throw light
+upon the politics of Boeotia and the Peloponnese respectively.
+The <i>Panathenaicus</i> (339 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the child of his old age, contains
+little that may not be found in the earlier orations. The
+<i>Philippus</i> (346 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) is of peculiar interest, as giving the views
+of the Macedonian party.</p>
+
+<p>Not the least remarkable feature in recent historical criticism
+is the reaction against the view which was at one time almost
+universally accepted of the character, statesmanship
+and authority of the orator Demosthenes (<i>q.v.</i>).
+<span class="sidenote">Demosthenes.</span>
+During the last quarter of a century his character and
+statesmanship have been attacked, and his authority impugned,
+by a series of writers of whom Holm and Beloch are the best
+known. With the estimate of his character and statesmanship
+we are not here concerned. With regard to his value as an
+authority for the history of the period, it is to his speeches, and
+to those of his contemporaries, Aeschines, Hypereides, Dinarchus
+and Lycurgus, that we owe our intimate knowledge, both of
+the working of the constitutional and legal systems, and of the
+life of the people, at this period of Athenian history. From this
+point of view his value can hardly be overestimated. As a
+witness, however, to matters of fact, his authority can no longer
+be rated as highly as it once was, <i>e.g.</i> by Schaefer and by Grote.
+The orator&rsquo;s attitude towards events, both in the past and in the
+present, is inevitably a different one from the historian&rsquo;s. The
+object of a Thucydides is to ascertain a fact, or to exhibit it in
+its true relations. The object of a Demosthenes is to make
+a point, or to win his case. In their dealings with the past the
+orators exhibit a levity which is almost inconceivable to a modern
+reader. Andocides, in a passage of his speech <i>On the Mysteries</i>
+(§ 107), speaks of Marathon as the crowning victory of Xerxes&rsquo;
+campaign; in his speech <i>On the Peace</i> (§ 3) he confuses Miltiades
+with Cimon, and the Five Years&rsquo; Peace with the Thirty Years&rsquo;
+Truce. Though the latter passage is a mass of absurdities and
+confusions, it was so generally admired that it was incorporated
+by Aeschines in his speech <i>On the Embassy</i> (§§ 172-176). If such
+was their attitude towards the past; if, in order to make a point,
+they do not hesitate to pervert history, is it likely that they
+would conform to a higher standard of veracity in their statements
+as to the present&mdash;as to their contemporaries, their rivals
+or their own actions? When we compare different speeches of
+Demosthenes, separated by an interval of years, we cannot fail
+to observe a marked difference in his statements. The farther
+he is from the events, the bolder are his mis-statements. It is
+only necessary to compare the speech <i>On the Crown</i> with that <i>On
+the Embassy</i>, and this latter speech with the <i>Philippics</i> and
+<i>Olynthiacs</i>, to find illustrations. It has come to be recognized
+that no statement as to a matter of fact is to be accepted, unless
+it receives independent corroboration, or unless it is admitted
+by both sides. The speeches of Demosthenes may be conveniently
+divided into four classes according to their dates. To the pre-Philippic
+period belong the speeches <i>On the Symmories</i> (354 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+<i>On Megalopolis</i> (352 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), <i>Against Aristocrates</i> (351 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and,
+perhaps, the speech <i>On Rhodes</i> (? 351 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). These speeches
+betray no consciousness of the danger threatened by Philip&rsquo;s
+ambition. The policy recommended is one based upon the
+principle of the balance of power. To the succeeding period,
+which ends with the peace of Philocrates (346 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), belong the
+<i>First Philippic</i> and the three <i>Olynthiacs</i>. To the period between
+the peace of Philocrates and Chaeronea belong the speech <i>On
+the Peace</i> (346 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the <i>Second Philippic</i> (344 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the speeches
+<i>On the Embassy</i> (344 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and <i>On the Chersonese</i> (341 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and
+the <i>Third Philippic</i>. The masterpiece of his genius, the speech
+On the Crown, was delivered in 330 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in the reign of Alexander.
+Of the three extant speeches of Aeschines (<i>q.v.</i>) that <i>On the
+Embassy</i> is of great value, as enabling us to correct the mis-statements
+of Demosthenes. For the period from the death of
+Alexander to the fall of Corinth (323-146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) our literary
+authorities are singularly defective. For the Diadochi Diodorus
+(books xviii.-xx.) is our chief source. These books form the
+most valuable part of Diodorus&rsquo; work. They are mainly based
+upon the work of Hieronymus of Cardia, a writer who combined
+exceptional opportunities for ascertaining the truth (he was in
+the service first of Eumenes, and then of Antigonus) with an
+exceptional sense of its importance. Hieronymus ended his
+history at the death of Pyrrhus (272 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), but, unfortunately,
+book xx. of Diodorus&rsquo; work carries us no farther than 303 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+and of the later books we have but scanty fragments. The
+narrative of Diodorus may be supplemented by the fragments
+of Arrian&rsquo;s <i>History of the events after Alexander&rsquo;s death</i> (which
+reach, however, only to 321 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and by Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Lives of
+Eumenes</i> and of <i>Demetrius</i>. For the rest of the 3rd century and
+the first half of the 2nd we have his <i>Lives of Pyrrhus</i>, of <i>Aratus</i>,
+of <i>Philopoemen</i>, and of <i>Agis and Cleomenes</i>. For the period
+from 220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards Polybius (<i>q.v.</i>) is our chief authority (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>Ancient History</i>, section &ldquo;Authorities&rdquo;). In a period
+in which the literary sources are so scanty great weight attaches
+to the epigraphic and numismatic evidence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;The literature which deals with the history of
+Greece, in its various periods, departments and aspects, is of so vast
+a bulk that all that can be attempted here is to indicate the most important
+and most accessible works.</p>
+
+<p><i>General Histories of Greece.</i>&mdash;Down to the middle of the 19th
+century the only histories of Greece deserving of mention were the
+products of English scholarship. The two earliest of these were
+published about the same date, towards the end of the 18th century,
+nearly three-quarters of a century before any history of Greece,
+other than a mere compendium, appeared on the Continent. John
+Gillies&rsquo; <i>History of Greece</i> was published in 1786, Mitford&rsquo;s in 1784.
+Both works were composed with a political bias and a political object.
+Gillies was a Whig. In the dedication (to George III.) he expresses
+the view that &ldquo;the History of Greece exposes the dangerous turbulence
+of Democracy, and arraigns the despotism of Tyrants, while
+it evinces the inestimable benefits, resulting to Liberty itself, from
+the steady operation of well-regulated monarchy.&rdquo; Mitford was
+a Tory, who thought to demonstrate the evils of democracy from
+the example of the Athenian state. His <i>History</i>, in spite of its bias,
+was a work of real value. More than fifty years elapsed between
+Mitford&rsquo;s work and Thirlwall&rsquo;s. Connop Thirlwall, fellow of Trinity
+College, Cambridge, afterwards bishop of St David&rsquo;s, brought a
+sound judgment to the aid of ripe scholarship. His <i>History of Greece</i>,
+published in 1835-1838 (8 vols.), is entirely free from the controversial
+tone of Mitford&rsquo;s volumes. Ten years later (1846) George Grote
+published the first volumes of his history, which was not completed
+(in 12 vols.) till 1856. Grote, like Mitford, was a politician&mdash;an
+ardent Radical, with republican sympathies. It was in order to
+refute the slanders of the Tory partisan that he was impelled to
+write a history of Greece, which should do justice to the greatest
+democracy of the ancient world, the Athenian state. Thus, in the
+case of three of these four writers, the interest in their subject was
+mainly political. Incomparably the greatest of these works is
+Grote&rsquo;s. Grote had his faults and his limitations. His prejudices
+are strong, and his scholarship is weak; he had never visited Greece,
+and he knew little or nothing of Greek art; and, at the time he wrote,
+the importance of coins and inscriptions was imperfectly apprehended.
+In spite of every defect, however, his work is the greatest
+history of Greece that has yet been written. It is not too much to
+say that nobody knows Greek history till he has mastered Grote.
+No history of Greece has since appeared in England on a scale at all
+comparable to that of Grote&rsquo;s work. The most important of the
+more recent ones is that by J. B. Bury (1 vol., 1900), formerly fellow
+of Trinity College, Dublin, afterwards Regius Professor of Modern
+History at Cambridge. Mitford and Bury end with the death of
+Alexander; Gillies and Grote carry on the narrative a generation
+farther; while Thirlwall&rsquo;s work extends to the absorption of Greece
+in the Roman Empire (146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p>
+
+<p>While in France the <i>Histoire des Grecs</i> (ending at 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) of
+Victor Duruy (new edition, 2 vols., 1883), Minister of Public Instruction
+under Napoleon III., is the only one that need be mentioned,
+in Germany there has been a succession of histories of Greece since
+the middle of the 19th century. Kortüm&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte Griechenlands</i>
+(3 vols., 1854), a work of little merit, was followed by Max Duncker&rsquo;s
+<i>Geschichte der Griechen</i> (vols. 1 and 2 published in 1856; vols. 1 and
+2, Neue Folge, which bring the narrative down to the death of
+Pericles, in 1884; the two former volumes form vols. 5, 6 and 7
+of his <i>Geschichte des Altertums</i>), and by the <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>
+of Ernst Curtius (3 vols., 1857-1867). An English translation of
+Duncker, by S. F. Alleyne, appeared in 1883 (2 vols., Bentley),
+and of Curtius, by A. W. Ward (5 vols., Bentley, 1868-1873). Among
+more recent works may be mentioned the <i>Griechische Geschichte</i> of
+Adolf Holm (4 vols., Berlin, 1886-1894; English translation by F.
+Clarke, 4 vols., Macmillan, 1894-1898), and histories with the same
+title by Julius Beloch (3 vols., Strassburg, 1893-1904) and Georg
+Busolt (2nd ed., 3 vols., Gotha, 1893-1904). Holm carries on the
+narrative to 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Beloch to 217 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Busolt to Chaeronea
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span>
+(338 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="fa32g" id="fa32g" href="#ft32g"><span class="sp">32</span></a> Busolt&rsquo;s work is entirely different in character from any
+other history of Greece. The writer&rsquo;s object is to refer in the notes
+(which constitute five-sixths of the book) to the views of every writer
+in any language upon every controverted question. It is absolutely
+indispensable, as a work of reference, for any serious study of Greek
+history. The ablest work since Grote&rsquo;s is Eduard Meyer&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte
+des Altertums</i>, of which 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1884-1902)
+have appeared, carrying the narrative down to the death of Epaminondas
+(362 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Vols. 2-5 are principally concerned with Greek
+history. It must be remembered that, partly owing to the literary
+finds and the archaeological discoveries of the last thirty years,
+and partly owing to the advance made in the study of epigraphy
+and numismatics, all the histories published before those of Busolt,
+Beloch, Meyer and Bury are out of date.</p>
+
+<p><i>Works bearing on the History of Greece.</i>&mdash;Earlier works and editions
+are omitted, except in the case of a work which has not been superseded.</p>
+
+<p><i>Introductions.</i>&mdash;C. Wachsmuth, <i>Einleitung in das Studium der
+alten Geschichte</i> (1 vol., Leipzig, 1895); E. Meyer, <i>Forschungen zur
+alten Geschichte</i> (2 parts, Halle, 1892-1899; quite indispensable);
+J. B. Bury, <i>The Ancient Greek Historians</i> (London, 1909).</p>
+
+<p><i>Constitutional History and Institutions.</i>&mdash;G. F. Schömann, <i>Griechische
+Altertümer</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1855-1859; vol. i., tr. by E. G.
+Hardy and J. S. Mann, Rivingtons, 1880); G. Gilbert, <i>Griechische
+Staatsaltertümer</i> (2nd ed., 2 vols., Leipzig, 1893; vol. i. tr. by E. J.
+Brooks and T. Nicklin, Swan Sonnenschein, 1895); K. F. Hermann,
+<i>Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten</i> (6th ed., 4 vols., Freiburg,
+1882-1895); Iwan Müller, <i>Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>
+(9 vols., Nördlingen, 1886, in progress; several of the
+volumes are concerned with Greek history); J. H. Lipsius, <i>Das
+attische Recht und Rechtsverfahren</i> (Leipzig, 1905, in progress);
+A. H. J. Greenidge, <i>Handbook of Greek Constitutional History</i> (1 vol.,
+Macmillan, 1896); Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyklopädie der klassischen
+Altertumswissenschaft</i> (Stuttgart, 1894 foll.).</p>
+
+<p><i>Geography.</i>&mdash;E. H. Bunbury, <i>History of Ancient Geography
+amongst the Greeks and Romans</i> (2nd ed., 2 vols., Murray, 1883),
+W. M. Leake, <i>Travels in the Morea</i> (3 vols., 1830), and <i>Travels in
+Northern Greece</i> (4 vols., 1834); H. F. Tozer, <i>Lectures on the Geography
+of Greece</i> (1 vol., Murray, 1873), and <i>History of Ancient Geography</i>
+(1 vol., Cambridge, 1897); J. P. Mahaffy, <i>Rambles and Studies in
+Greece</i> (3rd ed., 1 vol., Macmillan, 1887, an admirable book); C.
+Bursian, <i>Geographie von Griechenland</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1872); H.
+Berger, <i>Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen</i>
+(4 parts, Leipzig, 1887-1893); Ernst Curtius, <i>Peloponnesos</i> (2 vols.,
+Gotha, 1850-1851).</p>
+
+<p><i>Epigraphy and Numismatics.</i>&mdash;<i>Corpus inscriptionum Atticarum</i>
+(Berlin, 1875, in progress), <i>Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum</i> (Berlin,
+1892, in progress). The following selections of Greek inscriptions may
+be mentioned: E. F. Hicks and G. F. Hill, <i>Manual of Greek Historical
+Inscriptions</i> (new ed., 1 vol., Oxford, 1901): W. Dittenberger, <i>Sylloge
+inscriptionum Graecarum</i> (2nd ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1898); C. Michel,
+<i>Recueil d&rsquo;inscriptions grecques</i> (Paris, 1900). Among works on
+numismatics the English reader may refer to B. V. Head, <i>Historia
+numorum</i> (1 vol., Oxford, 1887); G. F. Hill, <i>Handbook of Greek and
+Roman Coins</i> (1 vol., Macmillan, 1899), as well as to the <i>British
+Museum Catalogue of Greek Coins</i>. In French the most important
+general work is the <i>Monnaies grecques</i> of F. Imhoof-Blumer (Paris,
+1883).</p>
+
+<p><i>Chronology, Trade, War, Social Life, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;H. F. Clinton, <i>Fasti
+Hellenici</i> (3rd ed., 3 vols., Oxford, 1841, a work of which English
+scholarship may well be proud; it is still invaluable for the study
+of Greek chronology); B. Büchsenschütz, <i>Besitz und Erwerb im
+griechischen Altertume</i> (1 vol., Halle, 1869; this is still the best
+book on Greek commerce); J. Beloch, <i>Die Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen
+Welt</i> (1 vol., Leipzig, 1886); W. Rüstow and H. Köchly,
+<i>Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens</i> (1 vol., Aarau, 1852); J. P.
+Mahaffy, <i>Social Life in Greece</i> (2nd ed., 1 vol., 1875).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. M. W.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>b.</i> <i>Post-Classical: 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1800</i></p>
+
+<p>I. <span class="sc">The Period of Roman Rule.</span>&mdash;(i.) <i>Greece under the
+Republic</i> (146-27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). After the collapse of the Achaean
+League (<i>q.v.</i>) the Senate appointed a commission to reorganize
+Greece as a Roman dependency. Corinth, the chief centre of
+resistance, was destroyed and its inhabitants sold into slavery.
+In addition to this act of exemplary punishment, which may
+perhaps have been inspired in part by the desire to crush a
+commercial competitor, steps were taken to obviate future
+insurrections. The national and cantonal federations were
+dissolved, commercial intercourse between cities was restricted,
+and the government transferred from the democracies to the
+propertied classes, whose interests were bound up with Roman
+supremacy. In other respects few changes were made in existing
+institutions. Some favoured states like Athens and Sparta
+retained their full sovereign rights as <i>civitates liberae</i>, the other
+cities continued to enjoy local self-government. The ownership
+of the land was not greatly disturbed by confiscations, and
+though a tribute upon it was levied, this impost may not have
+been universal. General powers of supervision were entrusted
+to the governor of Macedonia, who could reserve cases of high
+treason for his decision, and in case of need send troops into the
+country. But although Greece was in the <i>provincia</i> of the
+Macedonian proconsul, in the sense of belonging to his sphere of
+command, its status was in fact more favourable than that of
+other provincial dependencies.</p>
+
+<p>This settlement was acquiesced in by the Greek people, who
+had come to realize the hopelessness of further resistance. The
+internal disorder which was arising from the numerous disputes
+about property rights consequent upon the political revolutions
+was checked by the good offices of the historian Polybius, whom
+the Senate deputed to mediate between the litigants. The
+pacification of the country eventually became so complete that
+the Romans withdrew the former restrictions upon intercourse
+and allowed some of the leagues to revive. But its quiet was
+seriously disturbed during the first Mithradatic War (88-84 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+when numerous Greek states sided with Mithradates (<i>q.v.</i>).
+The success which the invader experienced in detaching the
+Greeks from Rome is partly to be explained by the skilful way
+in which his agents incited the imperialistic ambitions of
+prominent cities like Athens, partly perhaps by his promises
+of support to the democratic parties. The result of the war was
+disastrous to Greece. Apart from the confiscations and exactions
+by which the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla punished the
+disloyal communities, the extensive and protracted campaigns
+left Central Greece in a ruinous condition. During the last
+decades of the Roman republic European Greece was scarcely
+affected by contemporary wars nor yet exploited by Roman
+magistrates in the same systematic manner as most other
+provinces. Yet oppression by officials who traversed Greece
+from time to time and demanded lavish entertainments and
+presentations in the guise of <i>viaticum</i> or <i>aurum coronarium</i> was
+not unknown. Still greater was the suffering produced by the
+rapacity of Roman traders and capitalists: it is recorded that
+Sicyon was reduced to sell its most cherished art treasures in
+order to satisfy its creditors. A more indirect but none the less
+far-reaching drawback to Greek prosperity was the diversion
+of trade which followed upon the establishment of direct communication
+between Italy and the Levant. The most lucrative
+source of wealth which remained to the European Greeks was
+pasturage in large domains, an industry which almost exclusively
+profited the richer citizens and so tended to widen the breach
+between capitalists and the poorer classes, and still further to
+pauperize the latter. The coast districts and islands also
+suffered considerably from swarms of pirates who, in the absence
+of any strong fleet in Greek waters, were able to obtain a firm
+footing in Crete and freely plundered the chief trading places
+and sanctuaries; the most notable of such visitations was
+experienced in 69 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the island of Delos. This evil came to
+an end with the general suppression of piracy in the Mediterranean
+by Pompey (67 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), but the depopulation which it had
+caused in some regions is attested by the fact that the victorious
+admiral settled some of his captives on the desolated coast
+strip of Achaea.</p>
+
+<p>In the conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Greeks
+provided the latter with a large part of his excellent fleet. In
+48 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the decisive campaign of the war was fought on Greek
+soil, and the resources of the land were severely taxed by the
+requisitions of both armies. As a result of Caesar&rsquo;s victory at
+Pharsalus, the whole country fell into his power; the treatment
+which it received was on the whole lenient, though individual
+cities were punished severely. After the murder of Caesar the
+Greeks supported the cause of Brutus (42 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), but were too
+weak to render any considerable service. In 39 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Peloponnese
+for a short time was made over to Sextus Pompeius.
+During the subsequent period Greece remained in the hands of
+M. Antonius (Mark Antony), who imposed further exactions in
+order to defray the cost of his wars. The extensive levies which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span>
+he made in 31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> for his campaign against Octavian, and the
+contributions which his gigantic army required, exhausted the
+country&rsquo;s resources so completely that a general famine was
+prevented only by Octavian&rsquo;s prompt action after the battle of
+Actium in distributing supplies of grain and evacuating the land
+with all haste. The depopulation which resulted from the civil
+wars was partly remedied by the settlement of Italian colonists at
+Corinth and Patrae by Julius Caesar and Octavian; on the other
+hand, the foundation of Nicopolis (<i>q.v.</i>) by the latter merely had
+the effect of transferring the people from the country to the city.</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) <i>The Early Roman Empire</i> (27 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 323).&mdash;Under the
+emperor Augustus Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia;
+the rest of Greece was converted into the province of Achaea,
+under the control of a senatorial proconsul resident at Corinth.
+Many states, including Athens and Sparta, retained their rights
+as free and nominally independent cities. The provincials were
+encouraged to send delegates to a communal synod (<span class="grk" title="koinon tôn
+Achaiôn">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#8056;&#957; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7944;&#967;&#945;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span>) which met at Argos to consider the general interests
+of the country and to uphold national Hellenic sentiment; the
+Delphic amphictyony was revived and extended so as to represent
+in a similar fashion northern and central Greece.</p>
+
+<p>Economic conditions did not greatly improve under the
+empire. Although new industries sprang up to meet the needs
+of Roman luxury, and Greek marble, textiles and
+table delicacies were in great demand, the only cities
+<span class="sidenote">Social conditions.</span>
+which regained a really flourishing trade were the
+Italian communities of Corinth and Patrae. Commerce
+languished in general, and the soil was mainly abandoned to
+pasturage. Though certain districts retained a measure of
+prosperity, <i>e.g.</i> Thessaly, Phocis, Elis, Argos and Laconia, huge
+tracts stood depopulated and many notable cities had sunk
+into ruins; Aetolia, Acarnania and Epirus never recovered
+from the effects of former wars and from the withdrawal of
+their surviving inhabitants into Nicopolis. Such wealth as
+remained was amassed in the hands of a few great landowners
+and capitalists; the middle class continued to dwindle, and
+large numbers of the people were reduced to earning a precarious
+subsistence, supplemented by frequent doles and largesses.</p>
+
+<p>The social aspect of Greek life henceforward becomes its most
+attractive feature. After a long period of storm and stress, the
+European Hellenes had relapsed into a quiet and resigned
+frame of mind which stands in sharp contrast on the one hand
+with the energy and ability, and on the other with the vulgar
+intriguing of their Asiatic kinsmen. Seeing no future before
+them, the inhabitants were content to dwell in contemplation
+amid the glories of the past. National pride was fostered by the
+undisguised respect with which the leading Romans of the age
+treated Hellenic culture. And although this sentiment could
+degenerate into antiquarian pedantry and vanity, such as finds
+its climax in the diatribes of Apollonius of Tyana against the
+&ldquo;barbarians,&rdquo; it prevented the nation from sinking into some
+of the worst vices of the age. A healthy social tone repressed
+extravagant luxury and the ostentatious display of wealth, and
+good taste long checked the spread of gladiatorial contests
+beyond the Italian community of Corinth. The most widespread
+abuse of that period, the adulation and adoration of emperors,
+was indeed introduced into European Greece and formed an
+essential feature of the proceedings at the Delphic amphictyony,
+but it never absorbed the energies of the people in the same
+way as it did in Asia. In order to perpetuate their old culture,
+the Greeks continued to set great store by classical education,
+and in Athens they possessed an academic centre which gradually
+became the chief university of the Roman empire. The highest
+representatives of this type of old-world refinement are to be
+found in Dio Chrysostom and especially in Plutarch of Chaeroneia
+(<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The relations between European Greece and Rome were
+practically confined to the sphere of scholarship. The Hellenes
+had so far lost their warlike qualities that they supplied scarcely
+any recruits to the army. They retained too much local patriotism
+to crowd into the official careers of senators or imperial
+servants. Although in the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> the astute Greek
+man of affairs and the <i>Graeculus esuriens</i> of Juvenal abounded
+in Rome, both these classes were mainly derived from the
+less pure-blooded population beyond the Aegean.</p>
+
+<p>The influx of Greek rhetoricians and professors into Italy
+during the 2nd and 3rd centuries was balanced by the large
+number of travellers who came to Greece to frequent its sanatoria,
+and especially to admire its works of art; the abundance in
+which these latter were preserved is strikingly attested in the
+extant record of Pausanias (about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 170).</p>
+
+<p>The experience of the Greeks under their earliest governors
+seems to have been unfortunate, for in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 15 they petitioned
+Tiberius to transfer the administration to an imperial
+legate. This new arrangement was sanctioned, but
+<span class="sidenote">Roman administration.</span>
+only lasted till <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 44, when Claudius restored the
+province to the senate. The proconsuls of the later
+1st and 2nd centuries were sometimes ill qualified for their posts,
+but cases of oppression are seldom recorded against them.
+The years 66 and 67 were marked by a visit of the emperor Nero,
+who made a prolonged tour through Greece in order to display
+his artistic accomplishments at the various national festivals. In
+return for the flattering reception accorded to him he bestowed
+freedom and exemption from tribute upon the country. But
+this favour was almost neutralized by the wholesale depredations
+which he committed among the chief collections of art. A
+scheme for cutting through the Corinthian isthmus and so
+reviving the Greek carrying trade was inaugurated in his presence,
+but soon abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>As Nero&rsquo;s grant of self-government brought about a recrudescence
+of misplaced ambition and party strife, Vespasian revoked
+the gift and turned Achaea again into a province, at the same
+time burdening it with increased taxes. In the 2nd century a
+succession of genuinely phil-Hellenic emperors made serious
+attempts to revive the nation&rsquo;s prosperity. Important material
+benefits were conferred by Hadrian, who made a lengthy visit to
+Greece. Besides erecting useful public works in many cities,
+he relieved Achaea of its arrears of tribute and exempted it from
+various imposts. In order to check extravagance on the part
+of the free cities, he greatly extended the practice of placing
+them under the supervision of imperial functionaries known as
+<i>correctores</i>. Hadrian fostered national sentiment by establishing
+a new pan-Hellenic congress at Athens, while he gave recognition
+to the increasing ascendancy of Hellenic culture at Rome by
+his institution of the Athenaeum.</p>
+
+<p>In the 3rd century the only political event of importance was
+the edict of Caracalla which threw open the Roman citizenship
+to large numbers of provincials. Its chief effect in Greece was
+to diminish the preponderance of the wealthy classes, who
+formerly had used their riches to purchase the franchise and so
+to secure exemption from taxation. The chief feature of this
+period is the renewal of the danger from foreign invasions.
+Already in 175 a tribe named Costoboci had penetrated into
+central Greece, but was there broken up by the local militia.
+In 253 a threatened attack was averted by the stubborn resistance
+of Thessalonica. In 267-268 the province was overrun by
+Gothic bands, which captured Athens and some other towns,
+but were finally repulsed by the Attic levies and exterminated
+with the help of a Roman fleet.</p>
+
+<p>(iii.) <i>The Late Roman Empire.</i>&mdash;After the reorganization of the
+empire by Diocletian, Achaea occupied a prominent position
+in the &ldquo;diocese&rdquo; of Macedonia. Under Constantine I. it was
+included in the &ldquo;prefecture&rdquo; of Illyricum. It was subdivided
+into the &ldquo;eparchies&rdquo; of Hellas, Peloponnesus, Nicopolis and
+the islands, with headquarters at Thebes, Corinth, Nicopolis
+and Samos. Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia. A
+complex hierarchy of imperial officials was now introduced and
+the system of taxation elaborated so as to yield a steady revenue
+to the central power. The levying of the land-tax was imposed
+upon the <span class="grk" title="dekaprôtoi">&#948;&#949;&#954;&#940;&#960;&#961;&#969;&#964;&#959;&#953;</span> or &ldquo;ten leading men,&rdquo; who, like the Latin
+<i>decuriones</i>, were entrusted henceforth with the administration
+in most cities. The tendency to reduce all constitutions to the
+Roman municipal pattern became prevalent under the rulers
+of this period, and the greater number of them was stereotyped
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span>
+by the general regulations of the Codex Theodosianus (438).
+Although the elevation of Constantinople to the rank of capital
+was prejudicial to Greece, which felt the competition of the
+new centre of culture and learning and had to part with numerous
+works of art destined to embellish its privileged neighbour, the
+general level of prosperity in the 4th century was rising. Commercial
+stagnation was checked by a renewed expansion of
+trade consequent upon the diversion of the trade routes to
+the east from Egypt to the Euxine and Aegean Seas. Agriculture
+remained in a depressed condition, and many small
+proprietors were reduced to serfdom; but the fiscal interests
+of the government called for the good treatment of this class,
+whose growth at the expense of the slaves was an important
+step in the gradual equalization of the entire population under the
+central despotism which restored solidarity to the Greek nation.</p>
+
+<p>This prosperity received a sharp set-back by a series of unusually
+severe earthquakes in 375 and by the irruption of a host
+of Visigoths under Alaric (395-396), whom the imperial officers
+allowed to overrun the whole land unmolested and the local
+levies were unable to check. Though ultimately hunted down
+in Arcadia and induced to leave the province, Alaric had time
+to execute systematic devastations which crippled Greece for
+several decades. The arrears of taxation which accumulated
+in consequence were remitted by Theodosius II. in 428.</p>
+
+<p>The emperors of the 4th century made several attempts to
+stamp out by edict the old pagan religion, which, with its
+accompaniment of festivals, oracles and mysteries, still maintained
+an outward appearance of vigour, and, along with the
+philosophy in which the intellectual classes found comfort,
+retained the affection of the Greeks. Except for the decree of
+Theodosius I. by which the Olympian games were interdicted
+(394), these measures had no great effect, and indeed were not
+rigorously enforced. Paganism survived in Greece till about
+600, but the interchange of ideas and practices which the long-continued
+contact with Christianity had effected considerably
+modified its character. Hence the Christian religion, though
+slow in making its way, eventually gained a sure footing among
+a nation which accepted it spontaneously. The hold of the
+Church upon the Greeks was strengthened by the judicious
+manner in which the clergy, unsupported by official patronage
+and often out of sympathy with the Arian emperors, identified
+itself with the interests of the people. Though in the days when
+the orthodox Church found favour at court corruption spread
+among its higher branches, the clergy as a whole rendered
+conspicuous service in opposing the arbitrary interferences of
+the central government and in upholding the use of the Hellenic
+tongue, together with some rudiments of Hellenic culture.</p>
+
+<p>The separation of the eastern and western provinces of the
+empire ultimately had an important effect in restoring the
+language and customs of Greece to their predominant position
+in the Levant. This result, however, was long retarded by the
+romanizing policy of Constantine and his successors. The
+emperors of the 5th and 6th centuries had no regard for Greek
+culture, and Justinian I. actively counteracted Hellenism by
+propagating Roman law in Greece, by impairing the powers of
+the self-governing cities, and by closing the philosophical schools
+at Athens (529). In course of time the inhabitants had so far
+forgotten their ancient culture that they abandoned the name
+of Hellenes for that of Romans (<i>Rhomaioi</i>). For a long time
+Greece continued to be an obscure and neglected province, with
+no interests beyond its church and its commercial operations,
+and its culture declined rapidly. Its history for some centuries
+dwindles into a record of barbarian invasions which, in addition
+to occasional plagues and earthquakes, seem to have been the
+only events found worthy of record by the contemporary
+chroniclers.</p>
+
+<p>In the 5th century Greece was only subjected to brief raids
+by Vandal pirates (466-474) and Ostrogoths (482). In Justinian&rsquo;s
+reign irruptions by Huns and Avars took place, but led to no
+far-reaching results. The emperor had endeavoured to strengthen
+the country&rsquo;s defences by repairing the fortifications of cities
+and frontier posts (530), but his policy of supplanting the local
+guards by imperial troops and so rendering the natives incapable
+of self-defence was ill-advised; fortunately it was never carried
+out with energy, and so the Greek militias were occasionally
+able to render good service against invaders.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the century mention is made for the first
+time of an incursion by Slavonic tribes (581). These invaders
+are to be regarded as merely the forerunners of a
+steady movement of immigration by which a considerable
+<span class="sidenote">Slavonic immigrations.</span>
+part of Greece passed for a time into foreign
+hands. It is doubtful how far the newcomers won
+their territory by force of arms; in view of the desolation of
+many rural tracts, which had long been in progress as a result
+of economic changes, it seems probable that numerous settlements
+were made on unoccupied land and did not challenge
+serious opposition. At any rate the effect upon the Greek population
+was merely to accelerate its emigration from the interior
+to the coastland and the cities. The foreigners, consisting mainly
+of Slovenes and Wends, occupied the mountainous inland,
+where they mostly led a pastoral life; the natives retained some
+strips of plain and dwelt secure in their walled towns, among
+which the newly-built fortresses of Monemvasia, Corone and
+Calamata soon rose to prosperity. The Slavonic element, to
+judge by the geographical names in that tongue which survive
+in Greece, is specially marked in N.W. Greece and Peloponnesus;
+central Greece appears to have been protected against them
+by the fortress-square of Chalcis, Thebes, Corinth and Athens.
+For a long time the two nations dwelt side by side without either
+displacing the other. The Slavs were too rude and poor, and
+too much distracted with cantonal feuds, to make any further
+headway; the Greeks, unused to arms and engrossed in commerce,
+were content to adopt a passive attitude. The central
+government took no steps to dislodge the invaders, until in 783
+the empress Irene sent an expedition which reduced most of
+the tribes to pay tribute. In 810 a desperate attempt by the
+Slavs to capture Patrae was foiled; henceforth their power
+steadily decreased and their submission to the emperor was
+made complete by 850. A powerful factor in their subjugation
+was the Greek clergy, who by the 10th century had christianized
+and largely hellenized all the foreigners save a remnant in the
+peninsula of Maina.</p>
+
+<p>II. <span class="sc">The Byzantine Period.</span>&mdash;In the 7th century the Greek
+language made its way into the imperial army and civil service,
+but European Greece continued to have little voice in the
+administration. The land was divided into four &ldquo;themes&rdquo;
+under a yearly appointed civil and military governor. Imperial
+troops were stationed at the chief strategic points, while the
+natives contributed ships for naval defence. During the dispute
+about images the Greeks were the backbone of the image-worshipping
+party, and the iconoclastic edicts of Leo III. led
+to a revolt in 727 which, however, was easily crushed by the
+imperial fleet; a similar movement in 823, when the Greeks
+sent 350 ships to aid a pretender, met with the same fate. The
+firm government of the Isaurian dynasty seems to have benefited
+Greece, whose commerce and industry again became flourishing.
+In spite of occasional set-backs due to the depredations of
+pirates, notably the Arab corsairs who visited the Aegean from
+the 7th century onwards, the Greeks remained the chief carriers
+in the Levant until the rise of the Italian republics, supplying
+all Europe with its silk fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>In the 10th century Greece experienced a renewal of raids
+from the Balkan tribes. The Bulgarians made incursions after
+929 and sometimes penetrated to the Isthmus; but they mostly
+failed to capture the cities, and in 995 their strength was broken
+by a crushing defeat on the Spercheius at the hands of the
+Byzantine army. Yet their devastations greatly thinned the
+population of northern Greece, and after 1084 Thessaly was
+occupied without resistance by nomad tribes of Vlachs. In
+1084 also Greece was subjected to the first attack from the new
+nations of the west, when the Sicilian Normans gained a footing
+in the Ionian islands. The same people made a notable raid upon
+the seaboard of Greece in 1145-1146, and sacked the cities of
+Thebes and Corinth. The Venetians also appear as rivals of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span>
+the Greeks, and after 1122 their encroachments in the Aegean
+Sea never ceased.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of these attacks, the country on the whole maintained
+its prosperity. The travellers Idr&#299;s&#299; of Palermo (1153) and
+Benjamin of Tudela (1161) testify to the briskness of commerce,
+which induced many foreign merchants to take up their residence
+in Greece. But this prosperity revived an aristocracy of wealth
+which used its riches and power for purely selfish ends, and under
+the increasing laxity of imperial control the <i>archontes</i> or municipal
+rulers often combined with the clergy in oppressing the poorer
+classes. Least of all were these nobles prepared to become the
+champions of Greece against foreign invaders at a time when they
+alone could have organized an effectual resistance.</p>
+
+<p>III. <i>The Latin Occupation and Turkish Conquest.</i>&mdash;The
+capture of Constantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine
+empire by the Latins (1204) brought in its train an invasion of
+Greece by Frankish barons eager for new territory. The
+natives, who had long forgotten the use of arms and dreaded
+no worse oppression from their new masters, submitted almost
+without resistance, and only the N.W. corner of Greece, where
+Michael Angelus, a Byzantine prince, founded the &ldquo;despotat&rdquo;
+of Epirus, was saved from foreign occupation. The rest of the
+country was divided up between a number of Frankish barons,
+chief among whom were the dukes of Achaea (or Peloponnese)
+and &ldquo;grand signors&rdquo; of Thebes and Athens, the Venetians, who
+held naval stations at different points and the island of Crete,
+and various Italian adventurers who mainly settled in the
+Cyclades. The conquerors transplanted their own language,
+customs and religion to their new possessions, and endeavoured
+to institute the feudal system of land-tenure. Yet recognizing
+the superiority of Greek civil institutions they allowed the
+natives to retain their law and internal administration and confirmed
+proprietors in possession of their land on payment of a
+rent; the Greek church was subordinated to the Roman archbishops,
+but upheld its former control over the people. The
+commerce and industry of the Greek cities was hardly affected
+by the change of government.</p>
+
+<p>Greek history during the Latin occupation loses its unity and
+has to be followed in several threads. In the north the &ldquo;despots&rdquo;
+of Epirus extended their rule to Thessaly and Macedonia, but
+eventually were repulsed by the Asiatic Greeks of Nicaea, and
+after a decisive defeat at Pelagonia (1259) reduced to a small
+dominion round Iannina. Thessaly continued to change masters
+rapidly. Till 1308 it was governed by a branch line of the
+Epirote dynasty. When this family died out it fell to the Grand
+Catalan Company; in 1350 it was conquered along with Epirus
+by Stephen Dushan, king of Servia. About 1397 it was annexed
+by the Ottoman Turks, who after 1431 also gradually wrested
+Epirus from its latest possessors, the Beneventine family of
+Tocco (1390-1469).</p>
+
+<p>The leading power in central Greece was the Burgundian
+house de la Roche, which established a mild and judicious government
+in Boeotia and Attica and in 1261 was raised to ducal rank
+by the French king Louis IX. A conflict with the Grand Catalan
+Company resulted in a disastrous defeat of the Franks on the
+Boeotian Cephissus (1311) and the occupation of central Greece
+by the Spanish mercenaries, who seized for themselves the barons&rsquo;
+fiefs and installed princes from the Sicilian house of Aragon as
+&ldquo;dukes of Athens and Neopatras&rdquo; (Thessaly). After seventy-five
+years of oppressive rule and constant wars with their
+neighbours the Catalans were expelled by the Peloponnesian
+baron Nerio Acciaiuoli. The new dynasty, whose peaceful
+government revived its subjects&rsquo; industry, became tributary to
+the Turks about 1415, but was deposed by Sultan Mahommed II.,
+who annexed central Greece in 1456.</p>
+
+<p>The conquest of the Peloponnese was effected by two French
+knights, William Champlitte and Geoffrey Villehardouin, the
+latter of whom founded a dynasty of &ldquo;princes of all Achaea.&rdquo;
+The rulers of this line were men of ability, who controlled their
+barons and spiritual vassals with a firm hand and established
+good order throughout their province. The Franks of the
+Morea maintained as high a standard of culture as their compatriots
+at home, while the natives grew rich enough from their
+industry to pay considerable taxes without discontent. The
+climax of the Villehardouins&rsquo; power was attained under Prince
+William, who subdued the last independent cities of the coast
+and the mountaineers of Maina (1246-1248). In 1259, however,
+the same ruler was involved in the war between the rulers of
+Epirus and Nicaea, and being captured at the battle of Pelagonia,
+could only ransom himself by the cession of Laconia
+to the restored Byzantine empire. This new dependency after
+1349 was treated with great care by the Byzantine monarchs,
+who sought to repress the violence of the local aristocracies by
+sending their kinsmen to govern under the title of &ldquo;despots.&rdquo;
+On the other hand, with the extinction of the Villehardouin
+dynasty the Frankish province fell more and more into anarchy;
+at the same time the numbers of the foreigners were constantly
+dwindling through war, and as they disdained to recruit them
+by intermarriage, the preponderance of the native element
+in the Morea eventually became complete. Thus by 1400 the
+Byzantines were enabled to recover control over almost the
+whole peninsula and apportion it among several &ldquo;despots.&rdquo;
+But the mutual quarrels of these princes soon proved fatal to
+their rule. Already in the 14th century they had employed
+Albanians and the Turkish pirates who harried their coasts as
+auxiliaries in their wars. The Albanians largely remained as
+settlers, and the connexion with the Turks could no longer be
+shaken off. In spite of attempts to fortify the Isthmus (1415) an
+Ottoman army penetrated into Morea and deported many
+inhabitants in 1423. An invasion of central Greece by the despot
+Constantine was punished by renewed raids in 1446 and 1450.
+In 1457 the despot Thomas withheld the tribute which he had
+recently stipulated to pay, but was reduced to obedience by an
+expedition under Mahommed II. (1458). A renewed revolt in
+1459 was punished by an invasion attended with executions and
+deportations on a large scale, and by the annexation of the
+Morea to Turkey (1460).</p>
+
+<p>IV. <i>The Turkish Dominion till 1800.</i>&mdash;Under the Ottoman
+government Greece was split up into six <i>sanjaks</i> or military
+divisions: (1) Morea, (2) Epirus, (3) Thessaly, (4) Euboea,
+Boeotia and Attica, (5) Aetolia and Acarnania, (6) the rest of
+central Greece, with capitals at Nauplia, Jannina, Trikkala,
+Negropont (Chalkis), Karlili and Lepanto; further divisions
+were subsequently composed of Crete and the islands. In each
+<i>sanjak</i> a number of fiefs was apportioned to Turkish settlers,
+who were bound in return to furnish some mounted men for
+the sultan&rsquo;s army, the total force thus held in readiness being
+over 7000. The local government was left in the hands of the
+archontes or primates in each community, who also undertook
+the farming of the taxes and the policing of their districts. Law
+was usually administered by the Greek clergy. The natives
+were not burdened with large imposts, but the levying of the
+land-tithes was effected in an inconvenient fashion, and the
+capitation-tax, to which all Christians were subjected was felt
+as a humiliation. A further grievance lay in the requisitions
+of forced labour which the pashas were entitled to call for; but
+the most galling exaction was the tribute of children for the
+recruiting of the Janissaries (<i>q.v.</i>), which was often levied with
+great ruthlessness. The habitual weakness of the central government
+also left the Greeks exposed to frequent oppression by the
+Turkish residents and by their own magistrates and clergy.
+But the new rulers met with singularly little opposition. The
+dangerous elements of the population had been cleared away by
+Mahommed&rsquo;s executions; the rest were content to absorb
+their energies in agriculture and commerce, which in spite of
+preferential duties and capitulations to foreign powers largely
+fell again into the hands of Greeks. Another important instrument
+by which the people were kept down was their own clergy,
+whom the Turkish rulers treated with marked favour and so
+induced to acquiesce in their dominion.</p>
+
+<p>In the following centuries Greece was often the theatre of
+war in which the Greeks played but a passive part. Several
+wars with Venice (1463-79, 1498-1504) put the Turks in possession
+of the last Italian strongholds on the mainland. But the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span>
+issue was mainly fought out on sea; the conflicts which had
+never ceased in the Aegean since the coming of the Italians
+now grew fiercer than ever; Greek ships and sailors were
+frequently requisitioned for the Turkish fleets, and the damage
+done to the Greek seaboard by the belligerents and by fleets of
+adventurers and corsairs brought about the depopulation of
+many islands and coast-strips. The conquest of the Aegean
+by the Ottomans was completed by 1570; but Venice retained
+Crete till 1669 and never lost Corfu until its cession to France
+in 1797.</p>
+
+<p>In 1684 the Venetians took advantage of the preoccupation of
+Turkey on the Danube to attack the Morea. A small mercenary
+army under Francesco Morosini captured the strong places
+with remarkable ease, and by 1687 had conquered almost the
+whole peninsula. In 1687 the invaders also captured Athens
+and Lepanto; but the former town had soon to be abandoned,
+and with their failure to capture Negropont (1688) the Venetians
+were brought to a standstill. By the peace of Karlowitz (1699)
+the Morea became a possession of Venice. The new rulers, in
+spite of the commercial restrictions which they imposed in favour
+of their own traders, checked the impoverishment and decrease
+of population (from 300,000 to 86,000) which the war had
+caused. By their attempts to cooperate with the native magistrates
+and the mildness of their administration they improved
+the spirit of their subjects. But they failed to make their
+government popular, and when in 1715 the Ottomans with
+a large and well-disciplined army set themselves to recover
+the Morea, the Venetians were left without support from the
+Greeks. The peninsula was rapidly recaptured and by the peace
+of Passarowitz (1718) again became a Turkish dependency.
+The gaps left about this time in the Greek population were
+largely made up by an immigration from Albania.</p>
+
+<p>The condition of the Greeks in the 18th century showed a
+great improvement which gave rise to yet greater hopes. Already
+in the 17th century the personal services of the subjects had
+been commuted into money contributions, and since 1676 the
+tribute of children fell into abeyance. The increasing use of
+Greek officials in the Turkish civil service, coupled with the
+privileges accorded to the Greek clergy throughout the Balkan
+countries, tended to recall the consciousness of former days of
+predominance in the Levant. Lastly, the education of the
+Greeks, which had always remained on a comparatively high
+level, was rapidly improved by the foundation of new schools
+and academies.</p>
+
+<p>The long neglect which Greece had experienced at the hands
+of the European Powers was broken in 1764, when Russian
+agents appeared in the country with promises of a speedy
+deliverance from the Turks. A small expedition under Feodor
+and Alexis Orloff actually landed in the Morea in 1769, but failed
+to rouse national sentiment. Although the Russian fleet gained
+a notable victory off Chesme near Chios, a heavy defeat near
+Tripolitza ruined the prospects of the army. The Albanian
+troops in the Turkish army subsequently ravaged the country
+far and wide, until in 1779 they were exterminated by a force
+of Turkish regulars. In 1774 a concession, embodied in the
+treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, by which Greek traders were allowed
+to sail under the protection of the Russian flag, marked an
+important step in the rehabilitation of the country as an independent
+power. Greek commerce henceforth spread swiftly
+over the Mediterranean, and increased intercourse developed a
+new sense of Hellenic unity. Among the pioneers who fostered
+this movement should be mentioned Constantine Rhigas, the
+&ldquo;modern Tyrtaeus,&rdquo; and Adamantios Coraës (<i>q.v.</i>), the reformer
+of the Greek tongue. The revived memories of ancient Hellas
+and the impression created by the French revolution combined
+to give the final impulse which made the Greeks strike for
+freedom. By 1800 the population of Greece had increased to
+1,000,000, and although 200,000 of these were Albanians, the
+common aversion to the Moslem united the two races. The
+military resources of the country alone remained deficient, for
+the <i>armatoli</i> or local militias, which had never been quite disbanded
+since Byzantine times, were at last suppressed by Ali
+Pasha of Iannina and found but a poor substitute in the klephts
+who henceforth spring into prominence. But at the first sign
+of weakness in the Turkish dominion the Greek nation was
+ready to rise, and the actual outbreak of revolt had become
+merely a question of time.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;General: G. Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i> (ed. Tozer,
+Oxford, 1877), especially vols. i., iv., v.; K. Paparrhigopoulos,
+<span class="grk" title="Historia tou Hellênikou ethnous">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#8166; &#7956;&#952;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span> (4th ed., Athens, 1903), vols. ii.-v.;
+<i>Histoire de la civilisation hellénique</i> (Paris, 1878); R. v. Scala,
+<i>Das Griechentum seit Alexander dem Grossen</i> (Leipzig and Vienna,
+1904); and specially W. Miller, <i>The Latins in the Levant</i> (1908).</p>
+
+<p>Special&mdash;(<i>a</i>) The Roman period: Strabo, bks. viii.-x.; Pausanias,
+<i>Descriptio Graeciae</i>; G. F. Hertzberg, <i>Die Geschichte Griechenlands
+unter der Herrschaft der Römer</i> (Halle, 1866-1875); Sp. Lampros,
+<span class="grk" title="Historia tês Hellados">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#940;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span> (Athens, 1888 sqq.), vol. iii.; A. Holm,
+<i>History of Greece</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1894-1898). vol. iv., chs.
+19, 24, 26, 28 seq.; Th. Mommsen, <i>The Provinces of the Roman
+Empire</i> (Eng. trans., London, 1886, ch. 7); J. P. Mahaffy, <i>The
+Greek World under Roman Sway, from Polybius to Plutarch</i> (London,
+1890); W. Miller, &ldquo;The Romans in Greece&rdquo; (<i>Westminster Review</i>,
+August 1903, pp. 186-210); L. Friedländer, &ldquo;Griechenland unter
+den Römern&rdquo; (<i>Deutsche Rundschau</i>, 1899, pp. 251-274, 402-430).
+(<i>b</i>) The Byzantine and Latin periods: G. F. Hertzberg, <i>Geschichte
+Griechenlands seit dem Absterben des antiken Lebens</i> (Gotha, 1876-1879),
+vols. i., ii.; C. Hopf, <i>Geschichte Griechenlands im Mittelalter</i>
+(Leipzig, 1868); J. A. Buchon, <i>Histoire des conquêtes et de l&rsquo;établissement
+des Français dans les États de l&rsquo;ancienne Grèce</i> (Paris, 1846);
+G. Schmitt, <i>The Chronicle of Morea</i> (London, 1904); W. Miller,
+&ldquo;The Princes of the Peloponnese&rdquo; (<i>Quarterly Review</i>, July 1905,
+pp. 109-135); D. Bikelas, <i>Seven Essays on Christian Greece</i> (Paisley
+and London, 1890); <i>La Grèce byzantine et moderne</i> (Paris, 1893),
+pp. 1-193. (<i>c</i>) The Turkish and Venetian periods: Hertzberg,
+<i>op. cit.</i>, vol. iii.; K. M. Bartholdy, <i>Geschichte Griechenlands von der
+Eroberung Konstantinopels</i> (Leipzig, 1870), bks. i. and ii., pp. 1-155;
+K. N. Sathas, <span class="grk" title="Tourkokratoumenê Hellas">&#932;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#954;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#951; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#940;&#962;</span> (Athens, 1869); W. Miller,
+&ldquo;Greece under the Turks&rdquo; (<i>Westminster Review</i>, August and
+September 1904, pp. 195-210, 304-320; <i>English Historical Review</i>,
+1904, pp. 646-668); L. Ranke, &ldquo;Die Venetianer in Morea&rdquo;
+(<i>Historisch-politische Zeitschrift</i>, ii. 405-502). (<i>d</i>) Special subjects:
+Religion. E. Hatch, <i>The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon
+the Christian Church</i> (London, 1890). Ethnology. J. P. Fallmerayer,
+<i>Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea während des Mittelalters</i> (Stuttgart
+and Tübingen, 1830); S. Zampelios, <span class="grk" title="Peri pêgôn neoellênikês ethnotêtos">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#960;&#951;&#947;&#8182;&#957; &#957;&#949;&#959;&#949;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#7952;&#952;&#957;&#972;&#964;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>
+(Athens, 1857); A. Philippson, &ldquo;Zur Ethnographie des Peloponnes&rdquo;
+[<i>Petermann&rsquo;s Mitteilungen</i> 36 (1890), pp. 1-11, 33-41]; A. Vasiljev,
+&ldquo;Die Slaven in Griechenland&rdquo; [<i>Vizantijsky Vremennik</i>, St Petersburg,
+5 (1898), pp. 404-438, 626-670].</p>
+
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Empire, Later</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. O. B. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>c.</i> <i>Modern History: 1800-1908.</i></p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the 19th century Greece was still under
+Turkish domination, but the dawn of freedom was already
+breaking, and a variety of forces were at work which
+prepared the way for the acquisition of national
+<span class="sidenote">The decadence of Turkey.</span>
+independence. The decadence of the Ottoman empire,
+which began with the retreat of the Turks from Vienna
+in 1683, was indicated in the 18th century by the weakening of
+the central power, the spread of anarchy in the provinces, the
+ravages of the janissaries, and the establishment of practically
+independent sovereignties or fiefs, such as those of Mehemet
+of Bushat at Skodra and of Ali Pasha of Tepelen at Iannina;
+the 19th century witnessed the first uprisings of the Christian
+populations and the detachment of the outlying portions of
+European Turkey. Up to the end of the 18th century none of
+the subject races had risen in spontaneous revolt against the
+Turks, though in some instances they rendered aid to the sultan&rsquo;s
+enemies; the spirit of the conquered nations had been broken
+by ages of oppression. In some of the remoter and more mountainous
+districts, however, the authority of the Turks had never
+been completely established; in Montenegro a small fragment
+of the Serb race maintained its independence; among the Greeks,
+the Mainotes in the extreme south of the Morea and the Sphakiote
+mountaineers in Crete had never been completely subdued.
+Resistance to Ottoman rule was maintained sporadically in the
+mountainous districts by the Greek <i>klephts</i> or brigands, the
+counterpart of the Slavonic <i>haiduks</i>, and by the pirates of the
+Aegean; the <i>armatoles</i> or bodies of Christian warriors, recognized
+by the Turks as a local police, often differed little in their
+proceedings from the brigands whom they were appointed to
+pursue.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span></p>
+
+<p>Of the series of insurrections which took place in the 19th
+century, the first in order of time was the Servian, which broke
+out in 1804; the second was the Greek, which began
+in 1821. In both these movements the influence of
+<span class="sidenote">Russian influence.</span>
+Russia played a considerable part. In the case of
+the Servians Russian aid was mainly diplomatic, in that of the
+Greeks it eventually took a more material form. Since the days
+of Peter the Great, the eyes of Russia had been fixed on Constantinople,
+the great metropolis of the Orthodox faith. The
+policy of inciting the Greek Christians to revolt against their
+oppressors, which was first adopted in the reign of the empress
+Anna, was put into practical operation by the empress Catharine
+II., whose favourite, Orlov, appeared in the Aegean with a fleet
+in 1769 and landed in the Morea, where he organized a revolt.
+The attempt proved a failure; Orlov re-embarked, leaving the
+Greeks at the mercy of the Turks, and terrible massacres took
+place at Tripolitza, Lemnos and elsewhere. By the treaty of
+Kutchuk-Kainarji (July 21, 1774) Russia obtained a vaguely-defined
+protectorate over the Orthodox Greek subjects of Turkey,
+and in 1781 she arrived at an arrangement with Austria, known
+as the &ldquo;Greek project,&rdquo; for a partition of Turkish territory
+and the restoration of the Byzantine empire under Constantine,
+the son of Catharine II. The outbreak of the French Revolution
+distracted the attention of the two empires, but Russia never
+ceased to intrigue among the Christian subjects of Turkey. A
+revolt of the inhabitants of Suli in 1790 took place with her
+connivance, and in the two first decades of the 19th century
+her agents were active and ubiquitous.</p>
+
+<p>The influence of the French Revolution, which pervaded
+all Europe, extended to the shores of the Aegean. The Greeks,
+who had hitherto been drawn together mainly by a
+common religion, were now animated by the sentiment
+<span class="sidenote">Greek revolutionary activity.</span>
+of nationality and by an ardent desire for political
+freedom. The national awakening, as in the case of
+the other subject Christian nations, was preceded by a literary
+revival. Literary and patriotic societies, the Philhellenes, the
+Philomousi, came into existence; Greek schools were founded
+everywhere; the philological labours of Coraës, which created
+the modern written language, furnished the nation with a mode
+of literary expression; the songs of Rhigas of Velestino fired
+the enthusiasm of the people. In 1815 was founded the celebrated
+<i>Philiké Hetaerea</i>, or friendly society, a revolutionary
+organization with centres at Moscow, Bucharest, Triest, and in
+all the cities of the Levant; it collected subscriptions, issued
+manifestos, distributed arms and made preparations for the
+coming insurrection. The revolt of Ali Pasha of Iannina against
+the authority of the sultan in 1820 formed the prelude to the
+Greek uprising; this despot, who had massacred the Greeks
+by hundreds, now declared himself their friend, and became
+a member of the Hetaerea. In March 1821 Alexander Ypsilanti,
+a former aide-de-camp of the tsar Alexander I., and
+president of the Hetaerea, entered Moldavia from Russian
+territory at the head of a small force; in the same month
+Archbishop Germanos of Patras unfurled the standard of revolt
+at Kalavryta in the Morea.</p>
+
+<p>For the history of the prolonged struggle which followed
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek War of Independence</a></span>. The warfare was practically
+brought to a close by the annihilation of the Egyptian
+fleet at Navarino by the fleets of Great Britain, France
+<span class="sidenote">Independence of Greece.</span>
+and Russia on the 20th of October 1827. Nine months
+previously, Count John Capo d&rsquo;Istria (<i>q.v.</i>), formerly
+minister of foreign affairs of the tsar Alexander, had been
+elected president of the Greek republic for seven years beginning
+on January 18, 1828. By the protocol of London (March 22,
+1829) the Greek mainland south of a line drawn from the Gulf
+of Arta to the Gulf of Volo, the Morea and the Cyclades were
+declared a principality tributary to the sultan under a Christian
+prince. The limits drawn by the protocol of London were
+confirmed by the treaty of Adrianople (September 14, 1829),
+by which Greece was constituted an independent monarchy.
+The governments of Russia, France and England were far
+from sharing the enthusiasm which the gallant resistance of the
+Greeks had excited among the peoples of Europe, and which
+inspired the devotion of Byron, Cochrane, Sir Richard Church,
+Fabvier and other distinguished Philhellenes; jealousies
+prevailed among the three protecting powers, and the newly-liberated
+nation was treated in a niggardly spirit; its narrow
+limits were reduced by a new protocol (February 3, 1830), which
+drew the boundary line at the Aspropotamo, the Spercheios and
+the Gulf of Lamia. Capo d&rsquo;Istria, whose Russian proclivities
+and arbitrary government gave great offence to the Greeks, was
+assassinated by two members of the Mavromichalis family
+(October 9, 1831), and a state of anarchy followed. Before his
+death the throne of Greece had been offered to Prince Leopold
+of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians, who
+declined it, basing his refusal on the inadequacy of the limits
+assigned to the new kingdom and especially the exclusion of
+Crete.</p>
+
+<p>By the convention of London (May 7, 1832) Greece was
+declared an independent kingdom under the protection of
+Great Britain, France and Russia with Prince Otto,
+son of King Louis I. of Bavaria, as king. The frontier
+<span class="sidenote">King Otto.</span>
+line, now traced from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Lamia,
+was fixed by the arrangement of Constantinople (July 21, 1832).
+King Otto, who had been brought up in a despotic court,
+ruled absolutely for the first eleven years of his reign; he
+surrounded himself with Bavarian advisers and Bavarian troops,
+and his rule was never popular. The Greek chiefs and politicians,
+who found themselves excluded from all influence and advancement,
+were divided into three factions which attached themselves
+respectively to the three protecting powers. On the 15th of
+September 1843 a military revolt broke out which compelled the
+king to dismiss the Bavarians and to accept a constitution. A
+responsible ministry, a senate nominated by the king, and a
+chamber elected by universal suffrage were now instituted.
+Mavrocordatos, the leader of the English party, became the first
+prime minister, but his government was overthrown at the
+ensuing elections, and a coalition of the French and Russian
+parties under Kolettes and Metaxas succeeded to power. The
+warfare of factions was aggravated by the rivalry between the
+British and French ministers, Sir Edmond Lyons and M.
+Piscatory; King Otto supported the French party, and trouble
+arose with the British government, which in 1847 despatched
+warships to enforce the payment of interest on the loan contracted
+after the War of Independence. A British fleet subsequently
+blockaded the Peiraeus in order to obtain satisfaction
+for the claims of Pacifico, a Portuguese Jew under British
+protection, whose house had been plundered during a riot. On
+the outbreak of hostilities between Russia and Turkey in 1853
+the Greeks displayed sympathy with Russia; armed bands
+were sent into Thessaly, and an insurrection was fomented in
+Epirus in the hope of securing an accession of territory. In
+order to prevent further hostile action on the part of Greece,
+British and French fleets made a demonstration against the
+Peiraeus, which was occupied by a French force during the
+Crimean War. The disappointment of the national hopes
+increased the unpopularity of King Otto, who had never
+acquiesced in constitutional rule. In 1862 a military revolt
+broke out, and a national assembly pronounced his deposition.
+The vacant throne was offered by the assembly to Duke Nicholas
+of Leuchtenberg, a cousin of the tsar, but the mass of the people
+desired a constitutional monarchy of the British type; a
+plebiscite was taken, and Prince Alfred of England was elected
+by an almost unanimous vote. The three protecting powers,
+however, had bound themselves to the exclusion of any member
+of their ruling houses. In the following year Prince William
+George of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, whom
+the British government had designated as a suitable candidate,
+was elected by the National Assembly with the title &ldquo;George I.,
+king of the Hellenes.&rdquo; Under the treaty of London (July 13,
+1863) the change of dynasty was sanctioned by the three protecting
+powers, Great Britain undertaking to cede to Greece the
+seven Ionian Islands, which since 1815 had formed a commonwealth
+under British protection.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span></p>
+
+<p>On the 29th of October 1863 the new sovereign arrived in
+Athens, and in the following June the British authorities handed
+over the Ionian Islands to a Greek commissioner.
+King George thus began his reign under the most
+<span class="sidenote">Accession of George I.</span>
+favourable auspices, the patriotic sentiments of the
+Greeks being flattered by the acquisition of new territory.
+He was, however, soon confronted with constitutional difficulties;
+party spirit ran riot at Athens, the ministries which he appointed
+proved short-lived, his counsellor, Count Sponneck, became
+the object of violent attacks, and at the end of 1864 he was
+compelled to accept an ultra-democratic constitution, drawn
+up by the National Assembly. This, the sixth constitution voted
+since the establishment of the kingdom, is that which is still in
+force. In the following year Count Sponneck left Greece, and
+the attention of the nation was concentrated on the affairs of
+Crete. The revolution which broke out in that island received
+moral and material support from the Greek government, with
+the tacit approval of Russia; military preparations were
+pressed forward at Athens, and cruisers were purchased, but the
+king, aware of the inability of Greece to attain her ends by
+warlike means, discouraged a provocative attitude towards
+Turkey, and eventually dismissed the bellicose cabinet of
+Koumoundouros. The removal of a powerful minister commanding
+a large parliamentary majority constituted an important
+precedent in the exercise of the royal prerogative; the king
+adopted a similar course with regard to Delyannes in 1892 and
+1897. The relations with the porte, however, continued to grow
+worse, and Hobart Pasha, with a Turkish fleet, made a demonstration
+off Syra. The Cretan insurrection was finally crushed in
+the spring of 1869, and a conference of the powers, which
+assembled that year at Paris, imposed a settlement of the
+Turkish dispute on Greece, but took no steps on behalf of the
+Cretans. In 1870 the murder of several Englishmen by brigands
+in the neighbourhood of Athens produced an unfavourable
+impression in Europe; in the following year the confiscation
+of the Laurion mines, which had been ceded to a Franco-Italian
+company, provoked energetic action on the part of France and
+Italy. In 1875, after an acute constitutional crisis, Charilaos
+Trikoupes, who but ten months previously had been imprisoned
+for denouncing the crown in a newspaper article, was summoned
+to form a cabinet. This remarkable man, the only great statesman
+whom modern Greece has produced, exercised an extraordinary
+influence over his countrymen for the next twenty
+years; had he been able to maintain himself uninterruptedly
+in power during that period, Greece might have escaped a long
+succession of misfortunes. His principal opponent, Theodore
+Delyannes, succeeded in rallying a strong body of adherents,
+and political parties, hitherto divided into numerous factions,
+centred around these two prominent figures.</p>
+
+<p>In 1877 the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War produced a
+fever of excitement in Greece; it was felt that the quarrels
+of the party leaders compromised the interests of the
+country, and the populace of Athens insisted on the
+<span class="sidenote">New frontier, 1881.</span>
+formation of a coalition cabinet. The &ldquo;great&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;oecumenical&rdquo; ministry, as it was called, now came
+into existence under the presidency of the veteran Kanares; in
+reality, however, it was controlled by Trikoupes, who, recognizing
+the unpreparedness of the country, resolved on a pacific policy.
+The capture of Plevna by the Russians brought about the fall
+of the &ldquo;oecumenical&rdquo; ministry, and Koumoundouros and
+Delyannes, who succeeded to power, ordered the invasion of
+Thessaly. Their warlike energies, however, were soon checked
+by the signing of the San Stefano Treaty, in which the claims
+of Greece to an extension of frontier were altogether ignored.
+At the Berlin congress two Greek delegates obtained a hearing
+on the proposal of Lord Salisbury. The congress decided that
+the rectification of the frontier should be left to Turkey and
+Greece, the mediation of the powers being proposed in case of
+non-agreement; it was suggested, however, that the rectified
+frontier should extend from the valley of the Peneus on the east
+to the mouth of the Kalamas, opposite the southern extremity
+of Corfu, on the west. In 1879 a Greco-Turkish commission
+for the delimitation met first at Prevesa, and subsequently at
+Constantinople, but its conferences were without result, the
+Turkish commissioners declining the boundary suggested at
+Berlin. Greece then invoked the arbitration of the powers,
+and the settlement of the question was undertaken by a conference
+of ambassadors at Berlin (1880). The line approved by
+the conference was practically that suggested by the congress;
+Turkey, however, refused to accept it, and the Greek army was
+once more mobilized. <span class="correction" title="amended from In">It</span> was evident, however, that nothing
+could be gained by an appeal to arms, the powers not being
+prepared to apply coercion to Turkey. By a convention signed
+at Constantinople in July 1881, the demarcation was entrusted
+to a commission representing the six powers and the two
+interested parties. The line drawn ran westwards from a point
+between the mouth of the Peneus and Platamona to the summits
+of Mounts Kritiri and Zygos, thence following the course of
+the river Arta to its mouth. An area of 13,395 square kilometres,
+with a population of 300,000 souls, was thus added to the kingdom,
+while Turkey was left in possession of Iannina, Metzovo and
+most of Epirus. The ceded territory was occupied by Greek
+troops before the close of the year.</p>
+
+<p>In 1882 Trikoupes came into power at the head of a strong
+party, over which he exercised an influence and authority
+hitherto unknown in Greek political life. With the
+exception of three brief intervals (May 1885 to May
+<span class="sidenote">Trikoupes and Delyannes.</span>
+1886, October 1890 to February 1892, and a few
+months in 1893), he continued in office for the next
+twelve years. The reforms which he introduced during this period
+were generally of an unpopular character, and were loudly
+denounced by his democratic rivals; most of them were cancelled
+during the intervals when his opponent Delyannes occupied the
+premiership. The same want of continuity proved fatal to the
+somewhat ambitious financial programme which he now inaugurated.
+While pursuing a cautious foreign policy, and keeping
+in control the rash impetuosity of his fellow-countrymen, he
+shared to the full the national desire for expansion, but he looked
+to the development of the material resources of the country
+as a necessary preliminary to the realization of the dreams of
+Hellenism. With this view he endeavoured to attract foreign
+capital to the country, and the confidence which he inspired in
+financial circles abroad enabled him to contract a number of
+loans and to better the financial situation by a series of conversions.
+Under a stable, wise, and economical administration
+this far-reaching programme might perhaps have been carried
+out with success, but the vicissitudes of party politics and the
+periodical outbursts of national sentiment rendered its realization
+impossible. In April 1885 Trikoupes fell from power, and a
+few months later the indignation excited in Greece by the revolution
+of Philippopolis placed Delyannes once more at the head
+of a warlike movement. The army and fleet were again
+mobilized with a view to exacting territorial compensation
+for the aggrandizement of Bulgaria, and several conflicts with
+the Turkish troops took place on the frontier. The powers,
+after repeatedly inviting the Delyannes cabinet to disarm,
+established a blockade of Peiraeus and other Greek ports (8th
+May 1886), France alone declining to cooperate in this measure.
+Delyannes resigned (11th May) and Trikoupes, who succeeded
+to power, issued a decree of disarmament (25th May). Hostilities,
+however, continued on the frontier, and the blockade was not
+raised till 7th June. Trikoupes had now to face the serious
+financial situation brought about by the military activity of his
+predecessor. He imposed heavy taxation, which the people,
+for the time at least, bore without murmuring, and he continued
+to inspire such confidence abroad that Greek securities maintained
+their price in the foreign market. It was ominous, however,
+that a loan which he issued in 1890 was only partially covered.
+Meanwhile the Cretan difficulty had become once more a source
+of trouble to Greece. In 1889 Trikoupes was grossly deceived
+by the Turkish government, which, after inducing him to
+dissuade the Cretans from opposing the occupation of certain
+fortified posts, issued a firman annulling many important
+provisions in the constitution of the island. The indignation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span>
+in Greece was intense, and popular discontent was increased
+by the success of the Bulgarians in obtaining the <i>exequatur</i> of
+the sultan for a number of bishops in Macedonia. In the
+autumn of 1890 Trikoupes was beaten at the elections, and
+Delyannes, who had promised the people a radical reform of
+the taxation, succeeded to power. He proved unequal, however,
+to cope with the financial difficulty, which now became urgent;
+and the king, perceiving that a crisis was imminent, dismissed
+him and recalled Trikoupes. The hope of averting national
+bankruptcy depended on the possibility of raising a loan by
+which the rapid depreciation of the paper currency might be
+arrested, but foreign financiers demanded guarantees which
+seemed likely to prove hurtful to Greek susceptibilities; an
+agitation was raised at Athens, and Trikoupes suddenly resigned
+(May 1893). His conduct at this juncture appears to have been
+due to some misunderstandings which had arisen between him
+and the king. The Sotiropoulos-Rhalles ministry which followed
+effected a temporary settlement with the national creditors,
+but Trikoupes, returning to power in the autumn, at once
+annulled the arrangement. He now proceeded to a series of
+arbitrary measures which provoked the severest criticism
+throughout Europe and exposed Greece to the determined
+hostility of Germany. A law was hastily passed which deprived
+the creditors of 70% of their interest, and the proceeds of the
+revenues conceded to the monopoly bondholders were seized
+(December 1893). Long negotiations followed, resulting in an
+arrangement which was subsequently reversed by the German
+bondholders. In January 1895 Trikoupes resigned office, in
+consequence of a disagreement with the crown prince on a
+question of military discipline. His popularity had vanished,
+his health was shattered, and he determined to abandon his
+political career. His death at Cannes (11th April 1896), on the
+eve of a great national convulsion, deprived Greece of his
+masterly guidance and sober judgment at a critical moment
+in her history.</p>
+
+<p>His funeral took place at Athens on 23rd April, while the city
+was still decorated with flags and garlands after the celebration
+of the Olympic games. The revival of the ancient
+festival, which drew together multitudes of Greeks
+<span class="sidenote">Nationalist agitation, 1896.</span>
+from abroad, led to a lively awakening of the national
+sentiment, hitherto depressed by the economic misfortunes
+of the kingdom, and a secret patriotic society, known
+as the <i>Ethniké Hetaerea</i>, began to develop prodigious activity,
+enrolling members from every rank of life and establishing
+branches in all parts of the Hellenic world. The society had
+been founded in 1894, by a handful of young officers who considered
+that the military organization of the country was
+neglected by the government; its principal aim was the preparation
+of an insurrectionary movement in Macedonia, which,
+owing to the activity of the Bulgarians and the reconciliation
+of Prince Ferdinand with Russia, seemed likely to be withdrawn
+for ever from the domain of Greek irredentism. The outbreak
+of another insurrection in Crete supplied the means of creating
+a diversion for Turkey while the movement in Macedonia was
+being matured; arms and volunteers were shipped to the
+island, but the society was as yet unable to force the hand of the
+government, and Delyannes, who had succeeded Trikoupes in
+1895, loyally aided the powers in the restoration of order by
+advising the Cretans to accept the constitution of 1896. The
+appearance of strong insurgent bands in Macedonia in the
+summer of that year testified to the activity of the society and
+provoked the remonstrances of the powers, while the spread
+of its propaganda in the army led to the issue of a royal rescript
+announcing grand military man&oelig;uvres, the formation of a
+standing camp, and the rearmament of the troops with a new
+weapon (6th December). The objects of the society were
+effectually furthered by the evident determination of the porte
+to evade the application of the stipulated reforms in Crete; the
+Cretan Christians lost patience, and indignation was widespread
+in Greece. Emissaries of the society were despatched to the
+island, and affairs were brought to a climax by an outbreak
+at Canea on 4th February 1897. The Turkish troops fired on
+the Christians, thousands of whom took refuge on the warships
+of the powers, and a portion of the town was consumed by fire.</p>
+
+<p>Delyannes now announced that the government had
+abandoned the policy of abstention. On the 6th two warships
+were despatched to Canea, and on the 10th a torpedo
+flotilla, commanded by Prince George, left Peiraeus
+<span class="sidenote">Cretan crisis, 1897.</span>
+amid tumultuous demonstrations. The ostensible object
+of these measures was the protection of Greek subjects
+in Crete, and Delyannes was still anxious to avoid a definite
+rupture with Turkey, but the Ethniké Hetaerea had found
+means to influence several members of the ministry and to alarm
+the king. Prince George, who had received orders to prevent
+the landing of Turkish reinforcements on the island, soon withdrew
+from Cretan waters owing to the decisive attitude adopted
+by the commanders of the international squadron. A note was
+now addressed by the government to the powers, declaring
+that Greece could no longer remain a passive spectator of events
+in Crete, and on the 13th of February a force of 1500 men, under
+Colonel Vassos, embarked at Peiraeus. On the same day a
+Greek warship fired on a Turkish steam yacht which was conveying
+troops from Candia to Sitia. Landing near Canea on the
+night of the 14th, Colonel Vassos issued a proclamation announcing
+the occupation of Crete in the name of King George. He
+had received orders to expel the Turkish garrisons from the
+fortresses, but his advance on Canea was arrested by the international
+occupation of that town, and after a few engagements
+with the Turkish troops and irregulars he withdrew into the
+interior of the island. Proposals for the coercion of Greece were
+now put forward by Germany, but Great Britain declined to
+take action until an understanding had been arrived at with
+regard to the future government of Crete. Eventually (2nd
+March) collective notes were addressed to the Greek and Turkish
+governments announcing the decision of the powers that (1)
+Crete could in no case in present circumstances be annexed to
+Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by Turkey in the application
+of the reforms, Crete should be endowed with an effective
+autonomous administration, calculated to ensure it a separate
+government, under the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at
+the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet within
+the space of six days, and Turkey was warned that its troops
+must for the present be concentrated in the fortified towns and
+ultimately withdrawn from the island. The action of the powers
+produced the utmost exasperation at Athens; the populace
+demanded war with Turkey and the annexation of Crete, and
+the government drew up a reply to the powers in which, while
+expressing the conviction that autonomy would prove a failure,
+it indicated its readiness to withdraw some of the ships, but
+declined to recall the army. A suggestion that the troops might
+receive a European mandate for the preservation of order in
+the island proved unacceptable to the powers, owing to the
+aggressive action of Colonel Vassos after his arrival. Meanwhile
+troops, volunteers and munitions of war were hurriedly
+despatched to the Turkish frontier in anticipation of an international
+blockade of the Greek ports, but the powers contented
+themselves with a pacific blockade of Crete, and military preparations
+went on unimpeded.</p>
+
+<p>While the powers dallied, the danger of war increased; on
+29th March the crown prince assumed command of the Greek
+troops in Thessaly, and a few days later hostilities
+were precipitated by the irregular forces of the Ethniké
+<span class="sidenote">War with Turkey.</span>
+Hetaerea, which attacked several Turkish outposts
+near Grevena. According to a report of its proceedings, subsequently
+published by the society, this invasion received the
+previous sanction of the prime minister. On 17th April Turkey
+declared war. The disastrous campaign which followed was of
+short duration, and it was evident from the outset that the
+Greeks had greatly underrated the military strength of their
+opponents (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greco-Turkish War</a></span>). After the evacuation
+of Larissa on the 24th, great discontent prevailed at Athens;
+Delyannes was invited by the king to resign, but refusing to do
+so was dismissed (29th April). His successor, Rhalles, after
+recalling the army from Crete (9th May) invoked the mediation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span>
+of the powers, and an armistice was concluded on the 19th of
+that month. Thus ended an unfortunate enterprise, which
+was undertaken in the hope that discord among the powers
+would lead to a European war and the dismemberment of Turkey.
+Greek interference in Crete had at least the result of compelling
+Europe to withdraw the island for ever from Turkish rule. The
+conditions of peace put forward by Turkey included a war
+indemnity of £10,000,000 and the retention of Thessaly; the
+latter demand, however, was resolutely opposed by Great
+Britain, and the indemnity was subsequently reduced to
+£4,000,000. The terms agreed to by the powers were rejected
+by Rhalles; the chamber, however, refused him a vote of
+confidence and King George summoned Zaimes to power
+(October 3). The definitive treaty of peace, which was signed
+at Constantinople on the 6th of December, contained a provision
+for a slight modification of the frontier, designed to afford
+Turkey certain strategical advantages; the delimitation was
+carried out by a commission composed of military delegates of
+the powers and representatives of the interested parties. The
+evacuation of Thessaly by the Turkish troops was completed
+in June 1898. An immediate result of the war was the institution
+of an international financial commission at Athens, charged with
+the control of certain revenues assigned to the service of the
+national debt. The state of the country after the conclusion of
+hostilities was deplorable; the towns of northern Greece and
+the islands were crowded with destitute refugees from Thessaly;
+violent recriminations prevailed at Athens, and the position of
+the dynasty seemed endangered. A reaction, however, set in,
+in consequence of an attempt to assassinate King George (28th
+February 1898), whose great services to the nation in obtaining
+favourable terms from the powers began to receive general
+recognition. In the following summer the king made a tour
+through the country, and was everywhere received with
+enthusiasm. In the autumn the powers, on the initiative of
+Russia, decided to entrust Prince George of Greece with the
+government of Crete; on 26th November an intimation that
+the prince had been appointed high commissioner in the island
+was formally conveyed to the court of Athens, and on 21st
+December he landed in Crete amid enthusiastic demonstrations
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In April 1899 Zaimes gave way to Theotokes, the chief of
+the Trikoupist party, who introduced various improvements in
+the administration of justice and other reforms including
+a measure transferring the administration of the
+<span class="sidenote">Macedonian troubles.</span>
+army from the minister of war to the crown prince.
+In May 1901 a meeting took place at Abbazia, under the
+auspices of the Austro-Hungarian government, between King
+George and King Charles of Rumania with a view to the conclusion
+of a Graeco-Rumanian understanding directed against the growth
+of Slavonic, and especially Bulgarian, influence in Macedonia.
+The compact, however, was destined to be short-lived owing
+to the prosecution of a Rumanian propaganda among the
+semi-Hellenized Vlachs of Macedonia. In November riots took
+place at Athens, the patriotic indignation of the university
+students and the populace being excited by the issue of a translation
+of the Gospels into modern Greek at the suggestion of the
+queen. The publication was attributed to Panslavist intrigues
+against Greek supremacy over the Orthodox populations of
+the East, and the archbishop of Athens was compelled to resign.
+Theotokes, whose life was attempted, retired from power, and
+Zaimes formed a cabinet. In 1902 the progress of the Bulgarian
+movement in Macedonia once more caused great irritation in
+Greece. Zaimes, having been defeated at the elections in
+December, resigned, and was succeeded by Delyannes, whose
+popularity had not been permanently impaired by the misfortunes
+of the war. Delyannes now undertook to carry out extensive
+economic reforms, and introduced a measure restoring the
+control of the army to the ministry of war. He failed, however,
+to carry out his programme, and, being deserted by a section
+of his followers, resigned in June 1903, when Theotokes again
+became prime minister. The new cabinet resigned within a
+month owing to the outbreak of disturbances in the currant-growing
+districts, and Rhalles took office for the second time
+(July 8). The Bulgarian insurrection in Macedonia during the
+autumn caused great excitement in Athens, and Rhalles adopted
+a policy of friendship with Turkey (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Macedonia</a></span>). The
+co-operation of the Greek party in Macedonia with the Turkish
+authorities exposed it to the vengeance of the insurgents, and
+in the following year a number of Greek bands were sent into
+that country. The campaign of retaliation was continued in
+subsequent years.</p>
+
+<p>In December Rhalles, who had lost the support of the
+Delyannist party, was replaced by Theotokes, who promulgated
+a scheme of army reorganization, introduced various
+economies and imposed fresh taxation. In December
+<span class="sidenote">Murder of Delyannes.</span>
+the government was defeated on a vote of confidence
+and Delyannes once more became prime minister, obtaining a
+considerable majority in the elections which followed (March
+1905), but on the 13th of June he was assassinated. He was
+succeeded by Rhalles, who effected a settlement of the currant
+question and cultivated friendly relations with Turkey in regard
+to Macedonia.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn anti-Greek demonstrations in Rumania led
+to a rupture of relations with that country. In December the
+ministry resigned owing to an adverse vote of the chamber,
+and Theotokes formed a cabinet. The new government, as a
+preliminary to military and naval reorganization, introduced
+a law directed against the candidature of military officers for
+parliament. Owing to obstruction practised by the military
+members of the chamber a dissolution took place, and at the
+subsequent elections (April 1906) Theotokes secured a large
+majority. In the autumn various excesses committed against
+the Greeks in Bulgaria in reprisal for the depredations of the
+Greek bands in Macedonia caused great indignation in Greece,
+but diplomatic relations between the two countries were not
+suspended. On the 26th of September Prince George, who had
+resigned the high commissionership of Crete, returned to Athens;
+the designation of his successors was accorded by the protecting
+powers to King George as a satisfaction to Greek national sentiment
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crete</a></span>). The great increase in the activity of the
+Greek bands in Macedonia during the following spring and summer
+led to the delivery of a Turkish note at Athens (July 1907),
+which was supported by representations of the powers.</p>
+
+<p>In October 1908 the proclamation by the Cretan assembly of
+union with Greece threatened fresh complications, the cautious
+attitude of the Greek government leading to an agitation in the
+army, which came to a head in 1909. On the 18th of July a
+popular demonstration against his Cretan policy led to the
+resignation of Theotokes, whose successor, Rhalles, announced
+a programme of military and economical reform. The army,
+however, took matters into its own hands, and on the 23rd of
+August Rhalles was replaced by Mavromichales, the nominee of
+the &ldquo;Military League.&rdquo; For the next six months constitutional
+government was practically superseded by that of the League,
+and for a while the crown itself seemed to be in danger. The
+influence of the League, however, rapidly declined; army and
+navy quarrelled; and a fresh <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> at the beginning of 1910
+failed of its effect, owing to the firmness of the king. On the 7th
+of February Mavromichales resigned, and his successor, Dragoumis,
+accepting the Cretan leader Venezelo&rsquo;s suggestion of a
+national assembly, succeeded in persuading the League to
+dissolve (March 29) on receiving the king&rsquo;s assurance that such
+an assembly would be convened. On the 31st, accordingly,
+King George formally proclaimed the convocation of a national
+assembly to deal with the questions at issue.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i> (Oxford, 1877); K. N.
+Sathas, <span class="grk" title="Mesaiônikê Bibliothêkê">&#924;&#949;&#963;&#945;&#953;&#969;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8052; &#946;&#953;&#946;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#952;&#942;&#954;&#951;</span> (7 vols., Venice, 1872-1894); and
+<span class="grk" title="Mnêmeia Hellênikês historias">&#924;&#957;&#951;&#956;&#949;&#8150;&#945; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>. <i>Documents inédits relatifs à l&rsquo;histoire du
+moyen âge</i> (9 vols., Paris, 1880-1890); Sp. Trikoupes, <span class="grk" title="Historia tês
+Hellênikês epanastaseôs">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#7952;&#960;&#945;&#957;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span> (4 vols., 3rd ed., Athens, 1888); K.
+Paparrhegopoulos, <span class="grk" title="Historia tou Hellênikou ethnous">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#8166; &#7956;&#952;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span> (5 vols., 4th ed.,
+Athens, 1903); J. Philemon, <span class="grk" title="Dokimion historikon peri tês Hellênikês
+epanastaseôs">&#916;&#959;&#954;&#943;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#957; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#7952;&#960;&#963;&#957;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span> (Athens, 1859-1861); P. Kontoyannes, <span class="grk" title="Oi Hellênes kata
+ton prôton epi Aikaterinês 'Rhôssotourkikon polemon">&#927;&#7985; &#7965;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#964;&#8056;&#957; &#960;&#961;&#8182;&#964;&#959;&#957; &#7952;&#960;&#8054; &#913;&#7984;&#954;&#945;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#943;&#957;&#951;&#962; &#8172;&#969;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#964;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#954;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#957; &#960;&#972;&#955;&#949;&#956;&#959;&#957;</span> (Athens, 1903);
+D. G. Kampouroglos, <span class="grk" title="Historia tôn Athênaiôn, Tourkokratia,">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7944;&#952;&#951;&#957;&#945;&#943;&#969;&#957;, &#932;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#954;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#943;&#945;</span>, 1458-1687
+(2 vols., Athens, 1889-1890); and <span class="grk" title="Mnêmeia tês historias tôn Athênaiôn">&#924;&#957;&#951;&#956;&#949;&#8150;&#945; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;&#962; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7944;&#952;&#951;&#957;&#945;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span>
+(3 vols., Athens, 1889-1892); G. E. Mavrogiannes, <span class="grk" title="Historia tôn Ioniôn
+nêsôn,">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7992;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#957;&#942;&#963;&#969;&#957;</span>, 1797-1815 (2 vols., Athens, 1889); P. Karolides, <span class="grk" title="Historia tou
+ith aiônos">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#953;&#952;&#8127; &#945;&#7984;&#8182;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, 1814-1892 (Athens, 1891-1893); E. Kyriakides, <span class="grk" title="Historia
+tou sugchronou Hellênismou">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#963;&#965;&#947;&#967;&#961;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#965; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#959;&#8166;</span> 1832-1892 (2 vols., Athens, 1892); G.
+Konstantinides, <span class="grk" title="Historia tôn Hathênôn apo Xristou gennêseôs mechri tou">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#7944;&#952;&#951;&#957;&#8182;&#957; &#7936;&#960;&#8056; &#935;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#8166; &#947;&#949;&#957;&#957;&#942;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962; &#956;&#949;&#967;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#959;&#8166;</span> 1821
+(2nd ed., Athens, 1894); D. Bikelas, <i>La Grèce byzantine et moderne</i>
+(Paris, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. D. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Language</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Law</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek
+Literature</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Religion</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For the Geology of Greece see: M. Neumayr, &amp;c., <i>Denks. k.
+Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. Cl.</i> vol. xl. (1880); A. Philippson, <i>Der
+Peloponnes</i> (Berlin, 1892) and &ldquo;Beiträge zur Kenntnis der griechischen
+Inselwelt,&rdquo; <i>Peterm. Mitt.</i>, Ergänz.-heft No. 134 (1901); R. Lepsius,
+<i>Geologie von Attika</i> (Berlin, 1893); L. Cayeux, &ldquo;Phénomènes de
+charriage dans la Méditerranée orientale,&rdquo; <i>C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris</i>,
+vol. cxxxvi. (1903) pp. 474-476; J. Deprat, &ldquo;Note préliminaire sur la
+géologie de l&rsquo;île d&rsquo;Eubée,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Soc. Géol. France</i>, ser. 4, vol. iii.
+(1903) pp. 229-243, p. vii. and &ldquo;Note sur la géologie du massif
+du Pélion et sur l&rsquo;influence exercée par les massifs archéens sur la
+tectonique de l&rsquo;Égéide,&rdquo; <i>ib.</i> vol. iv. (1904), pp. 299-338.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> No state survey of Greece was available in 1908, though a
+survey had been undertaken by the ministry of war.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4g" id="ft4g" href="#fa4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It would be more accurate to say to the year 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At
+Cnossus the palace is sacked soon after this date, and the art, both
+in Crete and in the whole Aegean area, becomes lifeless and decadent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5g" id="ft5g" href="#fa5g"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See T. W. Allen in the <i>Classical Review</i>, vol. xx. (1906), No. 4
+(May).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6g" id="ft6g" href="#fa6g"><span class="fn">6</span></a> It has been impugned by J. Beloch, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i.
+149 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7g" id="ft7g" href="#fa7g"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>History of Greece</i> (Eng. trans., i. 32 ff.); cf. the same writer&rsquo;s
+<i>Ioner vor der ionischen Wanderung</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8g" id="ft8g" href="#fa8g"><span class="fn">8</span></a> If the account of early Athenian constitutional history given in
+the <i>Athenaion Politeia</i> were accepted, it would follow that the
+archons were inferior in authority to the Eupatrid Boul&#275;, the
+Areopagus.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9g" id="ft9g" href="#fa9g"><span class="fn">9</span></a> The dates before the middle of the 7th century are in most cases
+artificial, <i>e.g.</i> those given by Thucydides (book vi.) for the earlier
+Sicilian settlements. See J. P. Mahaffy, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>,
+ii. 164 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10g" id="ft10g" href="#fa10g"><span class="fn">10</span></a> At Syracuse the <i>demos</i> makes common cause with the Sicel
+serf-population against the nobles (Herod. vii. 155).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11g" id="ft11g" href="#fa11g"><span class="fn">11</span></a> An exception should perhaps be made in the case of Thucydides.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12g" id="ft12g" href="#fa12g"><span class="fn">12</span></a> The Peisistratidae come off better, however.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13g" id="ft13g" href="#fa13g"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The numbers given by Herodotus (upwards of 5,000,000) are
+enormously exaggerated. We must divide by ten or fifteen to
+arrive at a probable estimate of the forces that actually crossed
+the Hellespont.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14g" id="ft14g" href="#fa14g"><span class="fn">14</span></a> It has been denied by some writers (<i>e.g.</i> by A. H. J. Greenidge)
+that Athens interfered with the constitutions of the subject-states.
+For the view put forward in the text, the following passages may
+be quoted: Aristotle, <i>Politics</i> 1307 b 20; Isocrates, <i>Panegyricus</i>,
+105, 106, <i>Panathenaicus</i>, 54 and 68; Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, iii. 4. 7;
+Ps.-Xen. <i>Athen. Constit.</i> i. 14, iii. 10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15g" id="ft15g" href="#fa15g"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The evidence seems to indicate that all the more important
+criminal cases throughout the empire were tried in the Athenian
+courts. In civil cases Athens secured to the citizens of the subject-states
+the right of suing Athenian citizens, as well as citizens of other
+subject-states.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16g" id="ft16g" href="#fa16g"><span class="fn">16</span></a> After this date, and partly in consequence of the change, the
+archonship, to which sortition was applied, loses its importance.
+The <i>strategi</i> (generals) become the chief executive officials. As election
+was never replaced by the lot in their case, the change had less
+practical meaning than might appear at first sight. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17g" id="ft17g" href="#fa17g"><span class="fn">17</span></a> For an estimate of the numbers annually engaged in the service
+of Athens, see Aristot. <i>Ath. Pol.</i> 24. 3.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18g" id="ft18g" href="#fa18g"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Foreign is not used here as equivalent to non-Hellenic. It means
+&ldquo;belonging to another state, whether Greek or barbarian.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19g" id="ft19g" href="#fa19g"><span class="fn">19</span></a> It failed even to create a united Arcadia or a strong Messenia.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20g" id="ft20g" href="#fa20g"><span class="fn">20</span></a> See Demosthenes, <i>On the Crown</i>, 235. Philip was <span class="grk" title="autokratôr,
+despotês, êgemôn, kurios panton.">&#945;&#8016;&#964;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#961;, &#948;&#949;&#963;&#960;&#972;&#964;&#951;&#962;, &#7969;&#947;&#949;&#956;&#8061;&#957;, &#954;&#973;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#962; &#960;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21g" id="ft21g" href="#fa21g"><span class="fn">21</span></a> See <i>Archidamus</i>, 68; Philippus, 96, <span class="grk" title="ôste raon eínai sustêsai
+stratopedon meizon kai kreltton ek ton planômênôn e ek ton politeuomenon.">&#8036;&#963;&#964;&#949; &#8165;&#8119;&#959;&#957; &#949;&#7990;&#957;&#945;&#953; &#963;&#965;&#963;&#964;&#8134;&#963;&#945;&#953; &#963;&#964;&#961;&#945;&#964;&#972;&#960;&#949;&#948;&#959;&#957; &#956;&#949;&#8150;&#950;&#959;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#954;&#961;&#949;&#8150;&#964;&#964;&#959;&#957; &#7952;&#954; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#960;&#955;&#945;&#957;&#969;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#969;&#957; &#8134; &#7952;&#954; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#949;&#965;&#959;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#969;&#957;</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22g" id="ft22g" href="#fa22g"><span class="fn">22</span></a> The <i>Liturgies</i> (<i>e.g.</i> the trierarchy) had much the same effect as
+a direct tax levied upon the wealthiest citizens.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23g" id="ft23g" href="#fa23g"><span class="fn">23</span></a> His extreme caution in approaching the question at an earlier
+date is to be noticed. See, <i>e.g.</i>, <i>Olynthiacs</i>, i. 19, 20.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24g" id="ft24g" href="#fa24g"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> the two expeditions sent to Euboea, the cavalry force that
+took part in the battle of Mantinea, and the army that fought at
+Chaeronea. The troops in all these cases were citizens.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25g" id="ft25g" href="#fa25g"><span class="fn">25</span></a> For the altered character of warfare see Demosthenes, <i>Philippics</i>,
+iii. 48, 49.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26g" id="ft26g" href="#fa26g"><span class="fn">26</span></a> It is known that the councillors were appointed by the states
+in the Aetolian league; it is only surmised in the case of the Achaean.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27g" id="ft27g" href="#fa27g"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Strictly speaking, to 411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> For the last seven years of the
+war our principal authority is Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, i., ii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28g" id="ft28g" href="#fa28g"><span class="fn">28</span></a> Possibly some of his information about Persian affairs may have
+been derived, at first or second hand, from Zopyrus, son of Megabyzus,
+whose flight to Athens is mentioned in iii. 160.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29g" id="ft29g" href="#fa29g"><span class="fn">29</span></a> For a defence of Thucydides&rsquo; judgment on all three statesmen,
+see E. Meyer, <i>Forschungen</i>, ii. 296-379.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30g" id="ft30g" href="#fa30g"><span class="fn">30</span></a> On the discrepancies between Xenophon&rsquo;s account of the Thirty,
+and Aristotle&rsquo;s, see G. Busolt, <i>Hermes</i> (1898), pp. 71-86.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31g" id="ft31g" href="#fa31g"><span class="fn">31</span></a> The fragment of the New Historian (<i>Oxyrhynchus Papyri</i>, vol. v.)
+affords exceedingly important material for the criticism of Xenophon&rsquo;s
+narrative. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theopompus</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft32g" id="ft32g" href="#fa32g"><span class="fn">32</span></a> Vol. iii. goes down to the end of the Peloponnesian War.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEK ART.<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> It is proposed in the present article to give a
+brief account of the history of Greek art and of the principles
+embodied in that history. In any broad view of history, the
+products of the various arts practised by a people constitute an
+objective and most important record of the spirit of that people.
+But all nations have not excelled in the same way: some have
+found their best expression in architecture, some in music, some
+in poetry. The Greeks most fully embodied their ideas in two
+ways, first in their splendid literature, both prose and verse, and
+secondly, in their plastic and pictorial art, in which matter they
+have remained to our days among the greatest instructors of
+mankind. The three arts of architecture, sculpture and painting
+were brought by them into a focus; and by their aid they produced
+a visible splendour of public life such as has perhaps been
+nowhere else attained.</p>
+
+<p>The volume of the remains of Greek civilization is so vast, and
+the learning with which these have been discussed is so ample,
+that it is hopeless to attempt to give in a work like the present
+any complete account of either. Rather we shall be frankly
+eclectic, choosing for consideration such results of Greek art
+as are most noteworthy and most characteristic. In some cases
+it will be possible to give a reference to a more detailed treatment
+of particular monuments in these volumes under the
+heading of the places to which they belong. Architectural
+detail is relegated to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span> and allied architectural
+articles. Coins (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>) and gems (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gems</a></span>) are
+treated apart, as are vases (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>), and in the bibliography
+which closes this article an effort is made to direct those who
+wish for further information in any particular branch of our
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Rediscovery of Greek Art.</i>&mdash;The visible works of Greek
+architect, sculptor and painter, accumulated in the cities of
+Greece and Asia Minor until the Roman conquest. And in spite
+of the ravages of conquering Roman generals, and the more
+systematic despoilings of the emperors, we know that when
+Pausanias visited Greece, in the age of the Antonines, it was from
+coast to coast a museum of works of art of all ages. But the tide
+soon turned. Works of originality were no longer produced, and
+a succession of disasters gradually obliterated those of previous
+ages. In the course of the Teutonic and Slavonic invasions from
+the north, or in consequence of earthquakes, very frequent in
+Greece, the splendid cities and temples fell into ruins; and
+with the taking of Constantinople by the Franks in 1204 the last
+great collection of works of Greek sculpture disappeared. But
+while paintings decayed, and works in metal were melted down,
+many marble buildings and statues survived, at least in a
+mutilated condition, while terra-cotta is almost proof against
+decay.</p>
+
+<p>With the Renaissance attention was directed to the extant
+remains of Greek and Roman art; as early as the 15th century
+collections of ancient sculpture, coins and gems began to be formed
+in Italy; and in the 16th the enthusiasm spread to Germany and
+France. The earl of Arundel, in the reign of James I., was the
+first Englishman to collect antiques from Italy and Asia Minor:
+his marbles are now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.
+Systematic travel in Greece for the discovery of buildings and
+works of art was begun by Spon and Wheler (1675-1676); and
+the discovery of Pompeii in 1748 opened a new chapter in the
+history of ancient art.</p>
+
+<p>But though kings delighted to form galleries of ancient statues,
+and the great Italian artists of the Renaissance drew from them
+inspiration for their paintings and bronzes, the first really
+critical appreciation of Greek art belongs to Winckelmann
+(<i>Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums</i>, 1764). The monuments
+accessible to Winckelmann were but a very small proportion of
+those we now possess, and in fact mostly works of inferior merit:
+but he was the first to introduce the historical method into the
+treatment of ancient art, and to show how it embodied the
+ideas of the great peoples of the ancient world. He was succeeded
+by Lessing, and the waves of thought and feeling set
+in motion by these two affected the cultivated class in all nations,&mdash;they
+inspired in particular Goethe in Germany and Lord Byron
+in England.</p>
+
+<p>The second stage in the recovery of Greek art begins with the
+permission accorded by the Porte to Lord Elgin in 1800 to remove
+to England the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon
+and other buildings of Athens. These splendid works, after
+various vicissitudes, became the property of the English nation,
+and are now the chief treasures of the British Museum. The
+sight of them was a revelation to critics and artists, accustomed
+only to the base copies which fill the Italian galleries, and a new
+epoch in the appreciation of Greek art began. English and
+German savants, among whom Cockerell and Stackelberg were
+conspicuous, recovered the glories of the temples of Aegina and
+Bassae. Leake and Ross, and later Curtius, journeyed through
+the length and breadth of Greece, identifying ancient sites and
+studying the monuments which were above ground. Ross reconstructed
+the temple of Athena Nik&#275; on the Acropolis of Athens
+from fragments rescued from a Turkish bastion.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime more methodical exploration brought to light the
+remains of remarkable civilizations in Asia, not only in the valley
+of the Euphrates, but in Lycia, whence Sir Charles Fellows
+brought to London the remains of noteworthy tombs, among
+which the so-called Harpy Monument and Nereid Monument
+take the first place. Still more important were the accessions
+derived from the excavations of Sir Charles Newton, who in the
+years 1852-1859 resided as consul in Asia Minor, and explored
+the sites of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the shrine of
+Demeter at Cnidus. Pullan at Priene, and Wood at Ephesus also
+made fruitful excavations.</p>
+
+<p>The next landmark is set by the German excavations at
+Olympia (1876 and foll.), which not only were conducted with
+a scientific completeness before unknown, and at great cost, but
+also established the principle that in future all the results of
+excavations in Greece must remain in the country, the right of
+first publication only remaining with the explorers. The discovery
+of the Hermes of Praxiteles, almost the only certain
+original of a great Greek sculptor which we possess, has furnished
+a new and invaluable fulcrum for the study of ancient art.
+In emulation of the achievements of the Germans at Olympia,
+the Greek archaeological society methodically excavated the
+Athenian acropolis, and were rewarded by finding numerous
+statues and fragments of pediments belonging to the age of
+Peisistratus, an age when the promise of art was in full bud.
+More recently French explorers have made a very thorough
+examination of the site of Delphi, and have succeeded in recovering
+almost complete two small treasuries, those of the people of
+Athens and of Cnidus or Siphnos, the latter of 6th-century
+Ionian work, and adorned with extremely important sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>No other site of the same importance as Athens, Olympia and
+Delphi remains for excavation in Greece proper. But in all
+parts of the country, at Tegea, Corinth, Sparta and on a number
+of other ancient sites, striking and important monuments have
+come to light. And at the same time monuments already known
+in Italy and Sicily, such as the temples of Paestum, Selinus and
+Agrigentum have been re-examined with fuller knowledge and
+better system. Only Asia Minor, under the influence of Turkish
+rule, has remained a country where systematic exploration is
+difficult. Something, however, has been accomplished at Ephesus,
+Priene, Assos and Miletus, and great works of sculpture such as
+the reliefs of the great altar at Pergamum, now at Berlin, and the
+splendid sarcophagi from Sidon, now at Constantinople, show
+what might be expected from methodic investigation of the
+wealthy Greek cities of Asia.</p>
+
+<p>From further excavations at Herculaneum we may expect a
+rich harvest of works of art of the highest class, such as have
+already been found in the excavations on that site in the past;
+and the building operations at Rome are constantly bringing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span>
+to light fine statues brought from Greece in the time of the
+Empire, which are now placed in the collections of the Capitol
+and the Baths of Diocletian.</p>
+
+<p>The work of explorers on Greek sites requires as its complement
+and corrective much labour in the great museums of
+Europe. As museum work apart from exploration tends to
+dilettantism and pedantry, so exploration by itself does not
+produce reasoned knowledge. When a new building, a great
+original statue, a series of vases is discovered, these have to be
+fitted in to the existing frame of our knowledge; and it is by
+such fitting in that the edifice of knowledge is enlarged. In all
+the museums and universities of Europe the fresh examination
+of new monuments, the study of style and subject, and attempts
+to work out points in the history of ancient art, are incessantly
+going on. Such archaeological work is an important element in
+the gradual education of the world, and is fruitful, quite apart
+from the particular results attained, because it encourages a
+method of thought. Archaeology, dealing with things which
+can be seen and handled, yet being a species of historic study,
+lies on the borderland between the province of natural science
+and that of historic science, and furnishes a bridge whereby the
+methods of investigation proper to physical and biological study
+may pass into the human field.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>These investigations and studies are recorded, partly in books, but
+more particularly in papers in learned journals (see bibliography),
+such as the <i>Mitteilungen</i> of the German Institute, and the <i>English
+Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>An example or two may serve to give the reader a clearer
+notion of the recent progress in the knowledge of Greek art.</p>
+
+<p>To begin with architecture. Each of the palmary sites of
+which we have spoken has rendered up examples of early Greek
+temples. At Olympia there is the Heraeum, earliest of known
+temples of Greece proper, which clearly shows the process
+whereby stone gradually superseded wood as a constructive
+material. At Delphi the explorers have been so fortunate as to
+be able to put together the treasuries of the Cnidians (or
+Siphnians) and of the Athenians. The former (see fig. 17) is a
+gem of early Ionic art, with two Caryatid figures in front in the
+place of columns, and adorned with the most delicate tracery
+and fine reliefs. On the Athenian acropolis very considerable
+remains have been found of temples which were destroyed by
+the Persians when they temporarily occupied the site in 480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+And recently the ever-renewed study of the Erechtheum has
+resulted in a restoration of its original form more valuable and
+trustworthy than any previously made.</p>
+
+<p>In the field of sculpture recent discoveries have been too many
+and too important to be mentioned at any length. One instance
+may serve to mark the rapidity of our advance. When the
+remains of the Mausoleum were brought to London from the
+excavations begun by Sir Charles Newton in 1856 we knew from
+Pliny that four great sculptors, Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and
+Timotheus, had worked on the sculpture; but we knew of these
+artists little more than the names. At present we possess many
+fragments of two pediments at Tegea executed under the direction
+of Scopas, we have a basis with reliefs signed by Bryaxis, we
+have identified a group in the Vatican museum as a copy of the
+Ganymede of Leochares, and we have pedimental remains from
+Epidaurus which we know from inscriptional evidence to be
+either the works of Timotheus or made from his models. Any one
+can judge how enormously our power of criticizing the Mausoleum
+sculptures, and of comparing them with contemporary monuments,
+has increased.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to ancient painting we can of course expect no such
+fresh illumination. Many important wail-paintings of the Roman
+age have been found at Rome and Pompeii: but we have no
+certain or even probable work of any great Greek painter. We
+have to content ourselves with studying the colouring of reliefs,
+such as those of the sarcophagi at Constantinople, and the
+drawings on vases, in order to get some notion of the composition
+and drawing of painted scenes in the great age of Greece. As
+to the portraits of the Roman age painted on wood which have
+come in considerable quantities from Egypt, they stand at a far
+lower level than even the paintings of Pompeii. The number of
+our vase-paintings, however, increases steadily, and whole
+classes, such as the early vases of Ionia, are being marked off
+from the crowd, and so becoming available for use in illustrating
+the history of Hellenic civilization.</p>
+
+<p>The study of Greek art is thus one which is eminently progressive.
+It has over the study of Greek literature the immense
+advantage that its materials increase far more rapidly. And it
+is becoming more and more evident that a sound and methodic
+study of Greek art is quite as indispensable as a foundation for
+an artistic and archaeological education as the study of Greek
+poets and orators is as a basis of literary education. The extreme
+simplicity and thorough rationality of Greek art make it an
+unrivalled field for the training and exercise of the faculties
+which go to the making of the art-critic and art historian.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The General Principles of Greek Art.</i>&mdash;Before proceeding
+to sketch the history of the rise and decline of Greek art, it is
+desirable briefly to set forth the principles which underlie it
+(see also P. Gardner&rsquo;s <i>Grammar of Greek Art</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As the literature of Greece is composed in a particular language,
+the grammar and the syntax of which have to be studied before
+the works in poetry and prose can be read, so Greek works of art
+are composed in what may be called an artistic language. To
+the accidence of a grammar may be compared the mere technique
+of sculpture and painting: to the syntax of a grammar correspond
+the principles of composition and grouping of individual
+figures into a relief or picture. By means of the rules of this
+grammar the Greek artist threw into form the ideas which
+belonged to him as a personal or a racial possession.</p>
+
+<p>We may mention first some of the more external conditions
+of Greek art; next, some of those which the Greek spirit posited
+for itself.</p>
+
+<p>No nation is in its works wholly free from the domination of
+climate and geographical position; least of all a people so keenly
+alive to the influence of the outer world as the Greeks. They
+lived in a land where the soil was dry and rocky, far less hospitable
+to vegetation than that of western Europe, while on all sides
+the horizon of the land was bounded by hard and jagged lines
+of mountain. The sky was extremely clear and bright, sunshine
+for a great part of the year almost perpetual, and storms, which
+are more than passing gales, rare. It was in accordance with these
+natural features that temples and other buildings should be
+simple in form and bounded by clear lines. Such forms as
+the cube, the oblong, the cylinder, the triangle, the pyramid
+abound in their constructions. Just as in Switzerland the gables
+of the chalets match the pine-clad slopes and lofty summits of
+the mountains, so in Greece, amid barer hills of less elevation,
+the Greek temple looks thoroughly in place. But its construction
+is related not only to the surface of the land, but also to the
+character of the race. M. Émile Boutmy, in his interesting
+<i>Philosophie de l&rsquo;architecture en Grèce</i>, has shown how the temple
+is a triumph of the senses and the intellect, not primarily
+emotional, but showing in every part definite purpose and
+design. It also exhibits in a remarkable degree the love of
+balance, of symmetry, of a mathematical proportion of parts and
+correctness of curvature which belong to the Greek artist.</p>
+
+<p>The purposes of a Greek temple may be readily judged from
+its plan. Primarily it was the abode of the deity, whose statue
+dwelt in it as men dwell in their own houses. Hence the cella
+or <i>naos</i> is the central feature of the building. Here was placed
+the image to which worship was brought, while the treasures
+belonging to the god were disposed partly in the cella itself,
+partly in a kind of treasury which often existed, as in the
+Parthenon, behind the cella. There was in large temples a
+porch of approach, the <i>pronaos</i>, and another behind, the <i>opisthodomos</i>.
+Temples were not meant for, nor accommodated to,
+regular services or a throng of worshippers. Processions and
+festivals took place in the open air, in the streets and fields, and
+men entered the abodes of the gods at most in groups and
+families, commonly alone. Thus when a place had been found
+for the statue, which stood for the presence of the god, for the
+small altar of incense, for the implements of cult and the gifts of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span>
+votaries, little space remained free, and great spaces or subsidiary
+chapels such as are usual in Christian cathedrals did not exist
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Temple</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Here our concern is not with the purposes or arrangements
+of a temple, but with its appearance and construction, regarded
+as a work of art, and as an embodiment of Greek ideas. A few
+simple and striking principles may be formulated, which are
+characteristic of all Greek buildings:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(i.) Each member of the building has one function, and only
+one, and this function controls even the decoration of that
+member. The pillar of a temple is made to support the architrave
+and is for that purpose only. The flutings of the pillar, being
+perpendicular, emphasize this fact. The line of support which
+runs up through the pillar is continued in the triglyph, which
+also shows perpendicular grooves. On the other hand, the wall
+of a temple is primarily meant to divide or space off; thus it
+may well at the top be decorated by a horizontal band of relief,
+which belongs to it as a border belongs to a curtain. The base of
+a column, if moulded, is moulded in such a way as to suggest
+support of a great weight; the capital of a column is so carved
+as to form a transition between the column and the cornice which
+it supports.</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) Greek architects took the utmost pains with the proportions,
+the symmetry as they called it, of the parts of their
+buildings. This was a thing in which the keen and methodical
+eyes of the Greeks delighted, to a degree which a modern finds
+it hard to understand. Simple and natural relations, 1:2,
+1:3, 2:3 and the like, prevailed between various members of a
+construction. All curves were planned with great care, to
+please the eye with their flow; and the alternations and correspondences
+of features is visible at a glance. For example, the
+temple must have two pediments and two porches, and on its
+sides and fronts triglyph and metope must alternate with
+unvarying regularity.</p>
+
+<p>(iii.) Rigidity in the simple lines of a temple is avoided by the
+device that scarcely any outline is actually straight. All are
+carefully planned and adapted to the eye of the spectator. In
+the Parthenon the line of the floor is curved, the profiles of the
+columns are curved, the corner columns slope inward from their
+bases, the columns are not even equidistant. This elaborate
+adaptation, called entasis, was expounded by F. C. Penrose in
+his work on Athenian architecture, and has since been observed
+in several of the great temples of Greece.</p>
+
+<p>(iv.) Elaborate decoration is reserved for those parts of the
+temple which have, or at least appear to have, no strain laid upon
+them. It is true that in the archaic age experiments were made
+in carving reliefs on the lower drums of columns (as at Ephesus)
+and on the line of the architrave (as at Assus). But such examples
+were not followed. Nearly always the spaces reserved for
+mythological reliefs or groups are the tops of walls, the spaces
+between the triglyphs, and particularly the pediments surmounting
+the two fronts, which might be left hollow without danger
+to the stability of the edifice. Detached figures in the round are
+in fact found only in the pediments, or standing upon the tops
+of the pediments. And metopes are sculptured in higher relief
+than friezes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;When we examine in detail even the simplest architectural
+decoration, we discover a combination of care, sense of proportion,
+and reason. The flutings of an Ionic column are not in section mere
+arcs of a circle, but made up of a combination of curves which produce
+a beautiful optical effect; the lines of decoration, as may be best
+seen in the case of the Erechtheum, are cut with a marvellous
+delicacy. Instead of trying to invent new schemes, the mason
+contents himself with improving the regular patterns until they
+approach perfection, and he takes everything into consideration.
+Mouldings on the outside of a temple, in the full light of the sun, are
+differently planned from those in the diffused light of the interior.
+Mouldings executed in soft stone are less fine than those in marble.
+The mason thinks before he works, and while he works, and thinks
+in entire correspondence with his surroundings.&rdquo;<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Greek architecture, however, is treated elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>);
+we will therefore proceed to speak briefly of the
+principles exemplified in sculpture. Existing works of Greek
+sculpture fall easily into two classes. The first class comprises
+what may be called works of substantive art, statues or groups
+made for their own sake and to be judged by themselves. Such
+are cult-statues of gods and goddesses from temple and shrine,
+honorary portraits of rulers or of athletes, dedicated groups
+and the like. The second class comprises decorative sculptures,
+such as were made, usually in relief, for the decoration of temples
+and tombs and other buildings, and were intended to be subordinate
+to architectural effect.</p>
+
+<p>Speaking broadly, it may be said that the works of substantive
+sculpture in our museums are in the great majority of cases
+copies of doubtful exactness and very various merit. The
+Hermes of Praxiteles is almost the only marble statue which can
+be assigned positively to one of the great sculptors; we have to
+work back towards the productions of the peers of Praxiteles
+through works of poor execution, often so much restored in modern
+times as to be scarcely recognizable. Decorative works, on the
+other hand, are very commonly originals, and their date can often
+be accurately fixed, as they belong to known buildings. They are
+thus infinitely more trustworthy and more easy to deal with than
+the copies of statues of which the museums of Europe, and more
+especially those of Italy, are full. They are also more commonly
+unrestored. But yet there are certain disadvantages attaching
+to them. Decorative works, even when carried out under the
+supervision of a great sculptor, were but seldom executed by him.
+Usually they were the productions of his pupils or masons.
+Thus they are not on the same level of art as substantive sculpture.
+And they vary in merit to an extraordinary extent, according
+to the capacity of the man who happened to have them in hand,
+and who was probably but little controlled. Every one knows
+how noble are the pedimental sculptures of the Parthenon. But
+we know no reason why they should be so vastly superior to the
+frieze from Phigalia; nor why the heads from the temple at Tegea
+should be so fine, while those from the contemporary temple
+at Epidaurus should be comparatively insignificant. From the
+records of payments made to the sculptors who worked on the
+Erechtheum at Athens it appears that they were ordinary masons,
+some of them not even citizens, and paid at the rate of 60 drachms
+(about 60 francs) for each figure, whether of man or horse, which
+they produced. Such piece-work would not, in our days, produce
+a very satisfactory result.</p>
+
+<p>Works of substantive sculpture may be divided into two
+classes, the statues of human beings and those of the gods.
+The line between the two is not, however, very easy to draw,
+or very definite. For in representing men the Greek sculptor
+had an irresistible inclination to idealize, to represent what was
+generic and typical rather than what was individual, and the
+essential rather than the accidental. And in representing
+deities he so fully anthropomorphized them that they became
+men and women, only raised above the level of everyday life
+and endowed with a superhuman stateliness. Moreover, there
+was a class of heroes represented largely in art who covered
+the transition from men to gods. For example, if one regards
+Heracles as a deity and Achilles as a man of the heroic age and of
+heroic mould, the line between the two will be found to be very
+narrow.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:342px; height:511px" src="images/img472a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:437px; height:494px" src="images/img472b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Brogi.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Brogi.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 50. HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON.<br />
+(Nat. Mus. Naples.)</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 51. FARNESE BULL. (Naples.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:370px; height:498px" src="images/img472c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:409px; height:506px" src="images/img472d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 52. LAOCOON GROUP. (Vatican.)</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 53. GANYMEDE OF LEOCHARES. (Vatican.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:152px; height:646px" src="images/img472e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:383px; height:611px" src="images/img472f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 54.&mdash;FLYING OF<br />MARSYAS. (Villa<br />Albani, Rome.)</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 55.&mdash;APOLLO OF THE BELVIDERE. (Vatican.)</td></tr></table>
+
+</td><td>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:194px; height:287px" src="images/img472g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 56.&mdash;HEAD OF YOUNG<br />ALEXANDER. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:185px; height:347px" src="images/img472h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Seebah.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 57.&mdash;HERMES OF<br />ALCAMENES. (Constantinople.)</td></tr></table>
+
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:165px; height:337px" src="images/img472i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:312px; height:328px" src="images/img472j.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:193px; height:329px" src="images/img472k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Mansell.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Baldwin Coolidge.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 58.&mdash;THESEUS AND<br />AMAZON (ERETRIA).</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 59.&mdash;DRUM OF COLUMN FROM EPHESUS.<br />(Brit. Mus.)</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 60.&mdash;YOUNG HERMES.<br />(Mus. of Fine Arts, Boston.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Nevertheless one may for convenience speak first of human
+and afterwards of divine figures. It was the custom from the
+6th century onwards to honour those who had done any great
+achievement by setting up their statues in conspicuous positions.
+One of the earliest examples is that of the tyrannicides, Harmodius
+and Aristogiton, a group, a copy of which has come down to us
+(Plate I. fig. 50<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a>). Again, people who had not won any distinction
+were in the habit of dedicating to the deities portraits of
+themselves or of a priest or priestess, thus bringing themselves,
+as it were, constantly under the notice of a divine patron. The
+rows of statues before the temples at Miletus, Athens and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span>
+elsewhere came thus into being. But from the point of view of
+art, by far the most important class of portraits consisted of
+athletes who had won victories at some of the great games of
+Greece, at Olympia, Delphi or elsewhere. Early in the 6th
+century the custom arose of setting up portraits of athletic
+victors in the great sacred places. We have records of numberless
+such statues executed by all the greatest sculptors. When
+Pausanias visited Greece he found them everywhere far too
+numerous for complete mention.</p>
+
+<p>It is the custom of studying and copying the forms of the
+finest of the young athletes, combined with the Greek habit of
+complete nudity during the sports, which lies at the basis of
+Greek excellence in sculpture. Every sculptor had unlimited
+opportunities for observing young vigorous bodies in every
+pose and in every variety of strain. The natural sense of beauty
+which was an endowment of the Greek race impelled him to copy
+and preserve what was excellent, and to omit what was ungainly
+or poor. Thus there existed, and in fact there was constantly
+accumulating, a vast series of types of male beauty, and the
+public taste was cultivated to an extreme delicacy. And of
+course this taste, though it took its start from athletic customs,
+and was mainly nurtured by them, spread to all branches of
+portraiture, so that elderly men, women, and at last even children,
+were represented in art with a mixture of ideality and fidelity
+to nature such as has not been reached by the sculpture of any
+other people.</p>
+
+<p>The statues of the gods began either with stiff and ungainly
+figures roughly cut out of the trunk of a tree, or with the
+monstrous and symbolical representations of Oriental art. In
+the Greece of late times there were still standing rude pillars,
+with the tops sometimes cut into a rough likeness to the human
+form. And in early decoration of vases and vessels one may
+find Greek deities represented with wings, carrying in their hands
+lions or griffins, bearing on their heads lofty crowns. But as
+Greek art progressed it grew out of this crude symbolism. In
+the language of Brunn, the Greek artists borrowed from Oriental
+or Mycenaean sources the letters used in their works, but with
+these letters they spelled out the ideas of their own nation.
+What the artists of Babylon and Egypt express in the character
+of the gods by added attribute or symbol, swiftness by wings,
+control of storms by the thunderbolt, traits of character by
+animal heads, the artists of Greece work more and more fully
+into the sculptural type; modifying the human subject by the
+constant addition of something which is above the ordinary level
+of humanity, until we reach the Zeus of Pheidias or the Demeter
+of Cnidus. When the decay of the high ethical art of Greece
+sets in, the gods become more and more warped to the merely
+human level. They lose their dignity, but they never lose their
+charm.</p>
+
+<p>The decorative sculpture of Greece consists not of single
+figures, but of groups; and in the arrangement of these groups
+the strict Greek laws of symmetry, of rhythm, and of balance,
+come in. We will take the three most usual forms, the pediment,
+the metope and the frieze, all of which belong properly to the
+temple, but are characteristic of all decoration, whether of tomb,
+trophy or other monument.</p>
+
+<p>The form of the pediment is triangular; the height of the
+triangle in proportion to its length being about 1:8. The
+conditions of space are here strict and dominant; to comply
+with them requires some ingenuity. To a modern sculptor the
+problem thus presented is almost insoluble; but it was allowable
+in ancient art to represent figures in a single composition as
+of various sizes, in correspondence not to actual physical
+measurement but to importance. As the more important figures
+naturally occupy the midmost place in a pediment, their greater
+size comes in conveniently. And by placing some of the persons
+of the group in a standing, some in a seated, some in a reclining
+position, it can be so contrived that their heads are equidistant
+from the upper line of the pediment.</p>
+
+<p>The statues in a Greek pediment, which are after quite an
+early period usually executed in the round, fall into three, five
+or seven groups, according to the size of the whole. As examples
+to illustrate this exposition we take the two pediments of the
+temple at Olympia, the most complete which have come down to
+us, which are represented in figs. 33 and 34. The east pediment
+represents the preparation for the chariot race between Pelops
+and Oenomaus. The central group consists of five figures, Zeus
+standing between the two pairs of competitors and their wives.
+In the corners recline the two river-gods Alpheus and Cladeus,
+who mark the locality; and the two sides are filled up with the
+closely corresponding groups of the chariots of Oenomaus and
+Pelops with their grooms and attendants. Every figure to the
+left of Zeus balances a corresponding figure on his right, and all
+the lines of the composition slope towards a point above the
+apex of the pediment.</p>
+
+<p>In the opposite or western pediment is represented the battle
+between Lapiths and Centaurs which broke out at the marriage
+of Peirithous in Thessaly. Here we have no less than nine groups.
+In the midst is Apollo. On each side of him is a group of three,
+a centaur trying to carry off a woman and a Lapith striking at
+him. Beyond these on each side is a struggling pair, next once
+more a trio of two combatants and a woman, and finally in each
+corner two reclining female figures, the outermost apparently
+nymphs to mark locality. A careful examination of these
+compositions will show the reader more clearly than detailed
+description how clearly in this kind of group Greek artists
+adhered to the rules of rhythm and of balance.</p>
+
+<p>The metopes were the long series of square spaces which ran
+along the outer walls of temples between the upright triglyphs
+and the cornice. Originally they may have been left open and
+served as windows; but the custom came in as early as the 7th
+century, first of filling them in with painted boards or slabs of
+stone, and next of adorning them with sculpture. The metopes
+of the Treasury of Sicyon at Delphi (Plate IV. fig. 66) are as
+early as the first half of the 6th century. This recurrence of a
+long series of square fields for occupation well suited the genius
+and the habits of the sculptor. As subjects he took the successive
+exploits of some hero such as Heracles or Theseus, or the contemporary
+groups of a battle. His number of figures was
+limited to two or three, and these figures had to be worked into
+a group or scheme, the main features of which were determined
+by artistic tradition, but which could be varied in a hundred
+ways so as to produce a pleasing and in some degree novel result.</p>
+
+<p>With metopes, as regards shape, we may compare the reliefs
+of Greek tombs, which also usually occupy a space roughly
+square, and which also comprise but a few figures arranged
+in a scheme generally traditional. A figure standing giving
+his hand to one seated, two men standing hand in hand, or a
+single figure in some vigorous pose is sufficient to satisfy the
+simple but severe taste of the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to friezes, which are long reliefs containing figures
+ranged between parallel lines, there is more variety of custom.
+In temples the height of the relief from the background varies
+according to the light in which it was to stand, whether direct
+or diffused. Almost all Greek friezes, however, are of great
+simplicity in arrangement and perspective. Locality is at most
+hinted at by a few stones or trees, never actually portrayed.
+There is seldom more than one line of figures, in combat or procession,
+their heads all equidistant from the top line of the
+frieze. They are often broken up into groups; and when this is
+the case, figure will often balance figure on either side of a central
+point almost as rigidly as in a pediment. An example of this
+will be found in the section of the Mausoleum frieze shown in
+fig. 70, Plate IV. Some of the friezes executed by Greek artists
+for semi-Greek peoples, such as those adorning the tomb at
+Trysa in Lycia, have two planes, the figures in the background
+being at a higher level.</p>
+
+<p>The rules of balance and symmetry in composition which are
+followed in Greek decorative art are still more to be discerned
+in the paintings of vases, which must serve, in the absence of
+more dignified compositions, to enlighten us as to the methods
+of Greek painters. Great painters would not, of course, be bound
+by architectonic rule in the same degree as the mere workmen
+who painted vases. Nevertheless we must never forget that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span>
+Greek painting of the earlier ages was of extreme simplicity. It
+did not represent localities, save by some slight hint; it had
+next to no perspective; the colours used were but very few even
+down to the days of Apelles. Most of the great pictures of which
+we hear consisted of but one or two figures; and when several
+figures were introduced they were kept apart and separately
+treated, though, of course, not without relation to one another.
+Idealism and ethical purpose must have predominated in painting
+as in sculpture and in the drama and in the writing of history.</p>
+
+<p>We will take from vases a few simple groups to illustrate the
+laws of Greek drawing; colouring we cannot illustrate.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:296px" src="images/img474a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(<i>Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Vases</i>, iii, Pl. vi. 2).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Kylix by Epictetus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The fields offered to the draughtsman on Greek vases naturally
+follow the form of the vase; but they may be set down as
+approximately round, square or oblong. To each of these spaces
+the artist carefully adapts his designs. In fig. 1 we have a
+characteristic adaptation to circular form by the vase painter
+Epictetus.</p>
+
+<p>In the early period of painting all the space not occupied by the
+figures is filled with patterns or accessories, or even animals
+which have no connexion with the subject (fig. 9). In later and
+more developed art, as in this example, the outlines are so
+figured as to fill the space.</p>
+
+<p>When the space is square we have much the same problem as is
+presented by the metope spaces of a temple. In the case of both
+square and oblong fields the laws of balance are carefully
+observed. Thus if there is an even number of figures in the
+scheme, two of them will form a sort of centre-piece, those on
+either side balancing one another. If the number of figures is
+uneven, either there will be a group of three in the midst, or
+the midmost figure will be so contrived that he belongs wholly to
+neither side, but is the balance between them. These remarks will
+be made clear by figs. 2 and 3, which repeat the two sides of
+an amphora, one of which bears a design of three figures, the
+other of four.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:515px; height:377px" src="images/img474b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From <i>Wiener Vorlegeblätter</i>, 1890, Pl.
+viii., by permission of the Director of the <i>K. K. Österr.
+Archäol. Institut.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:509px; height:368px" src="images/img474c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Vase Drawings.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Greek artist not only adhered to the architectonic laws of
+balance and symmetry, but he thought in schemes. Certain group
+arrangements had a recognized signification. There are schemes
+for warriors fighting on equal terms, and schemes which represent
+the defeat of one of these by the other; the vanquished has
+commonly fallen on his knees, but still defends himself. There
+is a scheme for the leading away of a captive woman; the captor
+leads her by the hand looking back at her, while a friend walks
+behind to ward off pursuit. Such schemes, are constantly varied
+in detail, and often very skilfully varied; but the Greek artist
+uses schemes as a sort of shorthand, to show as clearly as
+possible what he meant. They serve the same purpose as the mask
+in the acting of a play, the first glance at which will tell the
+spectators what they have to look for.</p>
+
+<p>No doubt the great painters of Greece were not so much under the
+dominion of these schemes as the very inferior painters of vases.
+They used the schemes for their own purposes instead of being
+used by them. But as great poets do not revolt against the
+restrictions of the sonnet or of rhyme, so great artists in
+Greece probably found recognized conventions more helpful than
+hurtful.</p>
+
+<p>Students of Greek sculpture and vases must be warned not to
+suppose that Greek reliefs and drawings can be taken as direct
+illustrations of Homer or the dramatists. Book illustration in
+the modern sense did not exist in Greece. The poet and the
+painter pursued courses which were parallel, but never in actual
+contact. Each moved by the traditions of his own craft. The poet
+took the accepted tale and enshrined it in a setting of feeling
+and imagination. The painter took the traditional schemes which
+were current, and altered or enlarged them, adding new figures
+and new motives, but not attempting to set aside the general
+scheme. But varieties suitable to poetry were not likely to be
+suitable in painting. Thus it is but seldom that a vase-painter
+seems to have had in his mind, as he drew, passages of the
+Homeric poems, though these might well be familiar to him. And
+almost never does a vase-painting of the 5th century show any
+sign of the influence of the dramatists, who were bringing before
+the Athenian public on the stage many of the tales and incidents
+popular with the vase-painter. Only on vases of lower Italy of
+the 4th century and later we can occasionally discern something
+of Aeschylean and Euripidean influence in the treatment of a
+myth; and even in a few cases we may discern that the
+vase-painter has taken suggestions direct from the actors in the
+theatre.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Historic Sketch.</i>&mdash;We propose next to trace in brief outline
+the history of Greek art from its rise to its decay. We begin
+with the rise of a national art, after the destruction of the
+Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations of early Greece by the
+irruption of tribes from the north, that is to say, about 800
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and we stop with the Roman age of Greece, after which Greek
+art works in the service of the conquerors (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Art</a></span>).
+The period 800-50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> we divide into four sections: (1) the
+period down to the Persian Wars, 800-480 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; (2) the period
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span>
+of the early schools of art, 480-400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; (3) the period of the
+later great schools, 400-300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; (4) the period of Hellenistic
+art, 300-50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In dealing with these successive periods we
+confine our sketch to the three greater branches of representative
+art, architecture, sculpture and painting, which in Greece are
+closely connected. The lesser arts, of pottery, gem-engraving,
+coin-stamping and the like, are treated of under the heads of
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gem</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>, &amp;c., while the more technical
+treatment of architectural construction are dealt with under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span> and allied architectural articles. Further, for
+brief accounts of the chief artists the reader is referred to biographical
+articles, under such heads as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pheidias</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Praxiteles</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apelles</a></span>. We treat here only of the main course of art in its
+historic evolution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Period I. 800-480</i> <span class="scs">B.C.</span>&mdash;The fact is now generally allowed
+that the Mycenaean, or as it is now termed Aegean, civilization
+was for the most part destroyed by an invasion from
+the north. This invasion appears to have been
+<span class="sidenote">Northern invasion.</span>
+gradual; its racial character is much in dispute.
+Archaeological evidence abundantly proves that it was the
+conquest of a more by a less rich and civilized race. In the graves
+of the period (900-600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) we find none of the wealthy spoil
+which has made celebrated the tombs of Mycenae and Vaphio (<i>q.v.</i>).
+The character of the pottery and the bronze-work which is found
+in these later graves reminds us of the art of the necropolis
+of Hallstatt in Austria, and other sites belonging to what is
+called the bronze age of North Europe. Its predominant
+characteristic is the use of geometrical forms, the lozenge, the
+triangle, the maeander, the circle with tangents, in place of the
+elaborate spirals and plant-forms which mark Mycenaean ware.
+For this reason the period from the 9th to the 7th century in
+Greece passes by the name of &ldquo;the Geometric Age.&rdquo; It is
+commonly held that in the remains of the Geometric Age we
+may trace the influence of the Dorians, who, coming in as a
+hardy but uncultivated race, probably of purer Aryan blood
+than the previous inhabitants of Greece, not only brought to an
+end the wealth and the luxury which marked the Mycenaean
+age, but also replaced an art which was in character essentially
+southern by one which belonged rather to the north and the
+west. The great difficulty inherent in this view, a difficulty
+which has yet to be met, lies in the fact that some of the most
+abundant and characteristic remains of the geometric age which
+we possess come, not from Peloponnesus, but from Athens and
+Boeotia, which were never conquered by the Dorians.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:245px" src="images/img475a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Geometric Vase from Rhodes. (Ashmolean Museum.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:451px; height:314px" src="images/img475b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Mon. d. Inst.</i> ix. 39.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Corpse with Mourners.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:455px; height:173px" src="images/img475c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Arch. Zeit.</i> 1884, 8.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Gold Plaques: Corinth.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:377px" src="images/img475d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Olympia</i> iv. 33.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Handle of Tripod.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The geometric ware is for the most part adorned with painted
+patterns only. Fig. 4 is a characteristic example, a small two-handled
+vase from Rhodes in the Ashmolean Museum,
+the adornment of which consists in zigzags, circles
+<span class="sidenote">Geometric ware.</span>
+with tangents, and lines of water birds, perhaps swans.
+Sometimes, however, especially in the case of large vases from
+the cemetery at Athens, which adjoins the Dipylon gate, scenes
+from Greek life are depicted, from daily life, not from legend or
+divine myth. Especially scenes from the lying-in-state and the
+burial of the dead are prevalent. An excerpt from a Dipylon
+vase (fig. 5) shows a dead man on his couch surrounded by
+mourners, male and female. Both sexes are apparently represented
+naked, and are distinguished very simply; some of them
+hold branches to sprinkle the corpse or to keep away flies. It
+will be seen how primitive and conventional is the drawing of
+this age, presenting a wonderful contrast to the free drawing
+and modelling of the Mycenaean age. In the same graves with
+the pottery are sometimes found plaques of gold or bronze, and
+towards the end of the geometric age these <span class="correction" title="amended from somtimes">sometimes</span> bear
+scenes from mythology, treated with the greatest simplicity.
+For example, in the museum of Berlin are the contents of a
+tomb found at Corinth, consisting mainly of gold work of geometric
+decoration. But in the same tomb were also found gold
+plates or plaques of repoussé work bearing subjects from Greek
+legend. Two of these are shown in fig. 6. On one Theseus is
+slaying the Minotaur, while Ariadne stands by and encourages
+the hero. The tale could not have been told in a simpler or more
+straightforward way. On the other we have an armed warrior
+with his charioteer in a
+chariot drawn by two
+horses. The treatment of
+the human body is here
+more advanced than on
+the vases of the Dipylon.
+On the site of Olympia,
+where Mycenaean remains
+are not found, but the
+earliest monuments show
+the geometric style, a
+quantity of dedications
+in bronze have been
+found, the decoration of
+which belongs to this
+style. Fig. 7 shows the
+handle of a tripod from
+Olympia, which is
+adorned with geometric
+patterns and surmounted
+by the figure of a horse.</p>
+
+<p>It was about the 6th
+century that the genius of the Greeks, almost suddenly, as it
+seems to us, emancipated itself from the thraldom of tradition,
+and passed beyond the limits with which the nations of the
+east and west had hitherto been content, in a free and
+bold effort towards the ideal. Thus the 6th century marks
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span>
+the stage in art in which it may be said to have become
+definitely Hellenic. The Greeks still borrowed many of their
+decorative forms, either from the prehistoric remains in their
+own country or, through Phoenician agency, from the old-world
+empires of Egypt and Babylon, but they used those forms freely
+to express their own meaning. And gradually, in the course of
+the century, we see both in the painting of vases and in sculpture
+a national spirit and a national style forming under the influence
+of Greek religion and mythology, Greek athletic training, Greek
+worship of beauty. We must here lay emphasis on the fact,
+which is sometimes overlooked in an age which is greatly given
+to the Darwinian search after origins, that it is one thing to
+trace back to its original sources the nascent art of Greece, and
+quite another thing to follow and to understand its gradual
+embodiment of Hellenic ideas and civilization. The immense
+success with which the veil has in late years been lifted from the
+prehistoric age of Greece, and the clearness with which we can
+discern the various strands woven into the web of Greek art,
+have tended to fix our attention rather on what Greece possessed
+in common with all other peoples at the same early stage of
+civilization than on what Greece added for herself to this common
+stock. In many respects the art of Greece is incomparable&mdash;one
+of the great inspirations which have redeemed the world from
+mediocrity and vulgarity. And it is the searching out and
+appreciation of this unique and ideal beauty in all its phases,
+in idea and composition and execution, which is the true task
+of Greek archaeological science.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:299px; height:448px" src="images/img476a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Mus. Napoléon</i>, 57.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Jug from Rhodes.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In very recent years it has been possible, for the first time,
+to trace the influence of Ionian painting, as represented by vases,
+on the rise of art. The discoveries at Naucratis and
+Daphnae in Egypt, due to the keenness and pertinacity
+<span class="sidenote">Ionian vases.</span>
+of W. M. Flinders Petrie, threw new light on this matter.
+It became evident that when those cities were first inhabited
+by Ionian Greeks, in the 7th century, they used pottery of
+several distinct but allied
+styles, the most notable
+feature of which was the
+use of the lotus in decoration,
+the presence of continuous
+friezes of animals
+and of monsters, and the
+filling up of the background
+with rosettes,
+lozenges and other forms.
+Fig. 8 shows a vase found
+in Rhodes which illustrates
+this Ionian decoration.
+The sphinx, the
+deer and the swan are
+prominent on it, the last-named
+serving as a link
+between the geometric
+ware and the more
+brilliant and varied ware
+of the Ionian cities. The
+assignment of the many
+species of early Ionic ware
+to various Greek localities,
+Miletus, Samos, Phocaea
+and other cities, is a work of great difficulty, which now closely
+occupies the attention of archaeologists. For the results of
+their studies the reader is referred to two recent German works,
+Böhlau&rsquo;s <i>Aus ionischen und italischen Nekropolen</i>, and Endt&rsquo;s
+<i>Beiträge zur ionischen Vasenmalerei</i>. The feature which is most
+interesting in this pottery from our present point of view is the
+way in which representations of Greek myth and legend gradually
+make their way, and relegate the mere decoration of the vases to
+borders and neck. One of the earliest examples of representation
+of a really Greek subject is the contest of Menelaus and Euphorbus
+on a plate found in Rhodes. On the vases of Melos, of the 7th
+century, which are, however, not Ionian, but rather Dorian in
+character, we have a certain number of mythological scenes,
+battles of Homeric heroes and the like. One of these is shown in
+fig. 9. It represents Apollo in a chariot drawn by winged horses,
+playing on the lyre, and accompanied by a pair of Muses, meeting
+his sister Artemis. It is notable that Apollo is bearded, and that
+Artemis holds her stag by the horns, much in the manner of the
+deities on Babylonian cylinders; in the other hand she carries
+an arrow; above is a line of water birds.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:464px; height:268px" src="images/img476b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">Conze. <i>Mel. Tongefässe</i>, 4.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Vase Painting: Melos.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Some sites in Asia Minor and the islands adjoining, such cities
+as Samos, Camirus in Rhodes, and the Ionian colonies on the
+Black Sea, have furnished us with a mass of ware of the Ionian
+class, but it seldom bears interesting subjects; it is essentially
+decorative. For Ionian ware which has closer relation to Greek
+mythology and history we must turn elsewhere. The cemeteries
+of the great Etruscan cities, Caere in particular, have preserved
+for us a large number of vases, which are now generally recognized
+as Ionian in design and drawing, though they may in some cases
+be only Italian imitations of Ionian imported ware. Thus has
+been filled up what was a blank page in the history of early
+Greek art. The Ionian painting is unrestrained in character,
+characterized by a licence not foreign to the nature of the race,
+and wants the self-control and moderation which belong to
+Doric art, and to Attic art after the first.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the most interesting examples of early Ionic painting
+are found on the sarcophagi of Clazomenae. In that city in
+archaic times an exceptional custom prevailed of burying the
+dead in great coffins of terra-cotta adorned with painted scenes
+from chariot-racing, war and the chase. The British Museum
+possesses some remarkable specimens, which are published in
+A. S. Murray&rsquo;s <i>Terra-Cotta Sarcophagi of the British Museum</i>.
+On one of them he sees depicted a battle between Cimmerian
+invaders and Greeks, the former accompanied to the field by
+their great war-dogs. In some of the representations of hunting
+on these sarcophagi the hunters ride in chariots, a way of hunting
+quite foreign to the Greeks, but familiar to us from Assyrian
+wall-sculptures. We know that the life of the Ionians before
+the Persian conquest was refined and not untinged with luxury,
+and they borrowed many of the stately ways of the satraps of
+the kings of Assyria and Persia.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:192px" src="images/img476c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">Furtwängler, <i>Goldfund v. Vettersfelde</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Fish of gold.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fig. 10 shows a curious product of the Ionian workshops, a
+fish of solid gold, adorned with reliefs which represent a flying
+eagle, lions pulling down their prey, and a monstrous sea-god
+among his fishes. This relic is the more valuable on account of
+the spot where it was found&mdash;Vettersfelde in Brandenburg. It
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span>
+furnishes a proof that the influence and perhaps the commerce
+of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea spread far to the north
+through the countries of the Scythians and other barbarians.
+The fish dates from the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate III.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:189px; height:272px" src="images/img476d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Giraudon.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 61.&mdash;WINGED VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE. (Louvre.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:188px; height:254px" src="images/img476f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 63. HEAD OF WARRIOR, RESTORED, FROM TEGEA.</td></tr></table>
+
+</td><td>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:255px; height:533px" src="images/img476e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:299px; height:569px" src="images/img476g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Giraudon.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 62.&mdash;WINGED VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE. (Louvre.)</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 64.&mdash;MARSYAS OF MYRON. (Lateran Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:785px; height:440px" src="images/img476h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Mansell.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 65.&mdash;EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON; LEFT AND RIGHT
+ENDS. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate IV.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:344px; height:286px" src="images/img476i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:312px" src="images/img476j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 66.&mdash;METOPE OF THE TREASURY OF SICYON AT DELPHI.</span><br />
+(From <i>Fouilles de Delphes</i>, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 67.&mdash;GREEK PAINTING OF WOMAN&rsquo;S HEAD.</span><br />
+(From <i>Comptes Rendus</i> of St. Petersburg, 1865. Pl. I.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:345px; height:449px" src="images/img476k.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:391px; height:452px" src="images/img476l.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, F. Bruckmann.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Giraudon.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 68.&mdash;DISCOBOLUS OF MYRON, RESTORED BY
+PROF. FURTWÄNGLER.</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 69.&mdash;FIGHTER OF AGASIAS. (Louvre.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:794px; height:249px" src="images/img476m.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Mansell.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 70.&mdash;PORTION OF FRIEZE OF MAUSOLEUM. (Brit. Mus.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:301px; height:332px" src="images/img477a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Brit. Mus.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Gold Ornaments from
+Camirus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>We may compare some of the gold ornaments from Camirus
+in Rhodes, which show an Ionian tendency, perhaps combined
+with Phoenician elements. On one of them (fig. 11) we see
+a centaur with human forelegs holding up a fawn, on the other
+the oriental goddess
+whom the Greeks identified
+with their Artemis,
+winged, and flanked by
+lions. This form was
+given to Artemis on the
+Corinthian chest of
+Cypselus, a work of art
+preserved at Olympia,
+and carefully described
+for us by Pausanias.</p>
+
+<p>From Ionia the style
+of vase-painting which
+has been called by various
+names, but may best be
+termed the &ldquo;orientalizing,&rdquo;
+spread to Greece
+proper. Its main home
+here was in Corinth; and
+small Corinthian unguent-vases
+bearing
+figures of swans, lions, monsters and human beings, the intervals
+between which are filled by rosettes, are found wherever
+Corinthian trade penetrated, notably in the cemeteries of
+Sicily. For the larger Corinthian vases, which bore more
+elaborate scenes from mythology, we must again turn to the
+graves of the cities of Etruria. Here, besides the Ionian
+ware, of which mention has already been made, we find
+pottery of three Greek cities clearly defined, that of Corinth,
+that of Chalcis in Euboea, and that of Athens. Corinthian
+and Chalcidian ware is most readily distinguished by means
+of the alphabets used in the inscriptions which have
+distinctive forms easily to be identified. Whether in the style
+of the paintings coming from the various cities any distinct
+differences may be traced is a far more difficult question, into
+which we cannot now enter. The subjects are mostly from heroic
+legend, and are treated with great simplicity and directness.
+There is a manly vigour about them which distinguishes them
+at a glance from the laxer works of Ionian style. Fig. 12 shows
+a group from a Chalcidian vase, which represents the conflict
+over the dead body of Achilles. The corpse of the hero lies in
+the midst, the arrow in his heel. The Trojan Glaucus tries to
+draw away the body by means of a rope tied round the ankle,
+but in doing so is transfixed by the spear of Ajax, who charges
+under the protection of the goddess Athena. Paris on the Trojan
+side shoots an arrow at Ajax.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:441px; height:218px" src="images/img477b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Mon. d. Inst.</i> i. 51.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Fight over the Body of Achilles.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In fig. 13, from a Corinthian vase, Ajax falls on his sword in
+the presence of his colleagues, Odysseus and Diomedes. The short
+stature of Odysseus is a well-known Homeric feature. These
+vases are black-figured; the heroes are painted in silhouette on
+the red ground of the vases. Their names are appended in
+archaic Greek letters.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:340px" src="images/img477c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Mus. Napoléon</i>, 66.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Suicide of Ajax.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:284px" src="images/img477d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Arch. Zeit.</i> 1882, 9.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span> Harpies: Attic Vase.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The early history of vase-painting at Athens is complicated.
+It was only by degrees that the geometric style gave way to,
+or developed into, what is known as the black-figured
+style. It would seem that until the age of Peisistratus
+<span class="sidenote">Athens.</span>
+Athens was not notable in the world of art, and nothing could
+be ruder than some of the vases of Athens in the 7th century,
+for example that here figured, on one side of which are represented
+the winged Harpies (fig. 14) and on the other Perseus accompanied
+by Athena flying from the pursuit of the Gorgons. This vase
+retains in its decoration some features of geometric style; but
+the lotus and rosette, the lion and sphinx which appear on it,
+belong to the wave of Ionian influence. Although it involves a
+departure from strict chronological order, it will be well here to
+follow the course of development in pottery at Athens until the
+end of our period. Neighbouring cities, and especially Corinth,
+seem to have exercised a strong influence at Athens about the
+7th century. We have even a class of vases called by archaeologists
+Corintho-Attic. But in the course of the 6th century
+there is formed at Athens a distinct and marked black-figured
+style. The most-remarkable example of this ware is the so-called
+François vase at Munich, by Clitias and Ergotimus, which
+contains, in most careful and precise rendering, a number of
+scenes from Greek myth. One of these vases is dated, since it
+bears the name and the figure of Callias in his chariot (<i>Mon.
+dell&rsquo; Inst.</i> iii. 45), and this Callias won a victory at Olympia in
+564 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Fig. 15 shows the reverse of a somewhat later black-figured
+vase of the Panathenaic class, given at Athens as a
+prize to the winner of a foot-race at the Panathenaea, with the
+foot-race (<i>stadion</i>) represented on it. A large number of Athenian
+vases of the 6th century have reached us, which bear the signatures
+of the potters who made, or the artists who painted them;
+lists of these will be found in the useful work of Klein, <i>Griechische
+Vasen mit Meistersignaturen</i>. The recent excavations on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span>
+Acropolis have proved the erroneousness of the view, strongly
+maintained by Brunn, that the mass of the black-figured vases
+were of a late and imitative fabric. We now know that, with a
+few exceptions, vases of this class are not later than the early
+part of the 5th century. The same excavations have also
+proved that red-figured vase-painting, that is, vase-painting
+in which the background was blocked out with black, and the
+figures left in the natural colour of the vase originated at Athens
+in the last quarter of the 6th century. We cannot here give a
+detailed account of the beautiful series of Athenian vases of this
+fabric. Many of the finest of them are in the British Museum.
+As an example, fig. 16 presents a group by the painter Pamphaeus,
+representing Heracles wrestling with the river-monster Achelous,
+which belongs to the age of the Persian Wars. The clear precision
+of the figures, the vigour of the grouping, the correctness of the
+anatomy and the delicacy of the lines are all marks of distinction.
+The student of art will perhaps find the nearest parallel to these
+vase-pictures in Japanese drawings. The Japanese artists are
+very inferior to the Greek in their love and understanding of
+the human body, but equal them in freshness and vigour of
+design. At the same time began the beautiful series of white
+vases made at Athens for the purpose of burial with the dead,
+and found in great quantities in the cemeteries of Athens, of
+Eretria, of Gela in Sicily, and of some other cities. They are
+well represented in the British Museum and that of Oxford.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:289px" src="images/img478a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Mon. d. Inst.</i> x. 48 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Foot-race: Panathenaic Vase.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:455px; height:349px" src="images/img478b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Wiener Vorlegeblätter</i>, D. 6.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Heracles and Achelous.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>We now return to the early years of the 6th century, and
+proceed to trace, by the aid of recent discoveries, the rise of
+architecture and sculpture. The Greek temple in its character
+and form gives the clue to the whole character of Greek art.
+It is the abode of the deity, who is represented by his sacred
+image; and the flat surfaces of the temple offer a great field
+to the sculptor for the depicting of sacred legend. The process
+of discovery has emphasized the line which divides Ionian from
+Dorian architecture and art. We will speak first of the temples
+and the sculpture of Ionia. The Ionians were a people far more
+susceptible than were the Dorians to oriental influences. The
+dress, the art, the luxury of western Asia attracted them with
+irresistible force. We may suspect, as Brunn has suggested,
+that Ionian artists worked in the great Assyrian and Persian
+palaces, and that the reliefs which adorn the walls of those
+palaces were in part their handiwork. Some of the great temples
+of Ionia have been excavated in recent years, notably those of
+Apollo at Miletus, of Hera at Samos, and of Artemis at Ephesus.
+Very little, however, of the architecture of the 6th-century temples
+of those sites has been recovered. Quite recently, however, the
+French excavators at Delphi have successfully restored the
+<span class="sidenote">Delphi.</span>
+treasury of the people of Cnidus, which is quite a gem
+of Ionic style, the entablature being supported in front
+not by pillars but by two maidens or Corae, and a frieze running
+all round the building above. But though this building is of
+Ionic type, it is scarcely in the technical sense of
+Ionic style, since the columns have not Ionic
+capitals, but are carved with curious reliefs. The
+Ionic capital proper is developed in Asia by degrees (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capital</a></span>; also Perrot and Chipiez, <i>Hist.
+de l&rsquo;art</i>, vii. ch. 4).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:570px" src="images/img478c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Restoration of the Treasury of Cnidus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Doric temple is not wholly of European origin. One
+of the earliest examples is the old temple of Assus in Troas.
+Yet it was developed mainly in Hellas and the west. The most
+ancient example is the Heraeum at Olympia, next to which come
+the fragmentary temples of Corinth and of Selinus in Sicily.
+With the early Doric temple we are familiar from examples
+which have survived in fair preservation to our own days at
+Agrigentum in Sicily, Paestum in Italy, and other sites.</p>
+
+<p>Of the decorative sculpture which adorned these early temples
+we have more extensive remains than we have of actual construction.
+It will be best to speak of them under their districts.
+On the coast of Asia Minor, the most extensive series of archaic
+decorative sculptures which has come down to us is that which
+adorned the temple of Assus (fig. 18). These were placed in a
+unique position on the temple, a long frieze running along the
+entablature, with representations of wild animals, of centaurs,
+of Hercules seizing Achelous, and of men feasting, scene succeeding
+scene without much order or method. The only figures from
+Miletus which can be considered as belonging to the original
+temple destroyed by Darius, are the dedicated seated statues,
+some of which, brought away by Sir Charles Newton, are now
+preserved at the British Museum. At Ephesus Mr Wood has
+been more successful, and has recovered considerable fragments
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span>
+of the temple of Artemis, to which, as Herodotus tells us, Croesus
+presented many columns. The lower part of one of these columns,
+bearing figures in relief of early Ionian style, has been put
+together at the British Museum; and remains of inscriptions
+recording the presentation by Croesus are still to be traced.
+Reliefs from a cornice of somewhat later date are also to be
+found at the British Museum. Among the Aegean Islands,
+Delos has furnished us with the most important remains of early
+art. French excavators have there found a very early statue of
+a woman dedicated by one Nicandra to Artemis, a figure which
+may be instructively compared with another from Samus,
+dedicated to Hera by Cheramues. The Delian statue is in shape
+like a flat beam; the Samian, which is headless, is like a round
+tree. The arms of the Delian figure are rigid to the sides; the
+Samian lady has one arm clasped to her breast. A great improvement
+on these helpless and inexpressive figures is marked
+by another figure found at Delos, and connected, though perhaps
+incorrectly, with a basis recording the execution of a statue by
+Archermus and Micciades, two sculptors who stood, in the
+middle of the 6th century, at the head of a sculptural school at
+Chios. The representation (fig. 19) is of a running or flying
+figure, having six wings, like the seraphim in the vision of
+Isaiah, and clad in long drapery. It may be a statue of Nike or
+Victory, who is said to have been represented in winged form
+by Archermus. The figure, with its neatness and precision of
+work, its expressive face and strong outlines, certainly marks
+great progress in the art of sculpture. When we examine the
+early sculpture of Athens, we find reason to think that the Chian
+school had great influence in that city in the days of Peisistratus.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:330px" src="images/img479a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Perrot and Chipiez, vii. pl. 35, by permission of Chapman and Hall, Ltd., and
+Hachette &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Restoration of the Temple at Assus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:378px; height:439px" src="images/img479b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Nik&#275; of Delos, restored.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>At Athens, in the age 650-480, we may trace two quite distinct
+periods of architecture and sculpture. In the earlier of the two
+periods, a rough limestone was used alike for the walls
+and the sculptural decoration of temples; in the
+<span class="sidenote">Athenian sculpture.</span>
+later period it was superseded by marble, whether
+native or imported. Every visitor to the museum of the
+Athenian acropolis stands astonished at the recently recovered
+groups which decorated the pediments of Athenian temples
+before the age of Peisistratus&mdash;groups of large size, rudely cut
+in soft stone, of primitive workmanship, and painted with bright
+red, blue and green, in a fashion which makes no attempt to
+follow nature, but only to produce a vivid result. The two
+largest in scale of these groups seem to have belonged to the
+pediments of the early 6th-century temple of Athena. On other
+smaller pediments, perhaps belonging to shrines of Heracles
+and Dionysus, we have conflicts of Heracles with Triton or with
+other monstrous foes. It is notable how fond the Athenian artists
+of this early time are of exaggerated muscles and of monstrous
+forms, which combine the limbs of men and of animals; the
+measure and moderation which mark developed Greek art are
+as completely absent as are skill in execution or power of grouping.
+Fig. 20 shows a small pediment in which appears in relief
+the slaying of the Lernaean hydra by Heracles. The hero strikes
+at the many-headed water-snake, somewhat inappropriately,
+with his club. Iolaus, his usual companion, holds the reins of
+the chariot which awaits Heracles after his victory. On the
+extreme left a huge crab comes to the aid of the hydra.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:120px" src="images/img479c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Athen. Mitteil.</i> x. 237.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Athenian Pediment: Heracles and Hydra.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:435px; height:450px" src="images/img479d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Athen. Mitteil.</i> xxii. 3.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Pediment: Athena and Giant.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:138px; height:446px" src="images/img480a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Figure by Antenor, restored.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>There can be little doubt that Athens owed its great start in
+art to the influence of the court of Peisistratus, at which artists
+of all kinds were welcome. We can trace a gradual transformation
+in sculpture, in which the influence of the Chian and other
+progressive schools of sculpture is visible, not only in the substitution
+of island marble for native stone, but in increased
+grace and truth to nature, in the toning down of glaring colour,
+and the appearance of taste in composition. A transition
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span>
+between the older and the newer is furnished by the well-known
+statue of the calf-bearer, an Athenian preparing to sacrifice a
+calf to the deities, which is made of marble of Hymettus, and in
+robust clumsiness of forms is not far removed from the limestone
+pediments. The sacrificer has been
+commonly spoken of as Hermes or Theseus,
+but he seems rather to be an ordinary
+human votary.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of Peisistratus or his sons a
+peristyle of columns was added to the old
+temple of Athena; and this necessitated
+the preparation of fresh pediments. These
+were of marble. In one of them was represented
+the battle between gods and
+giants; in the midst Athena herself striking
+at a prostrate foe (fig. 21). In these
+figures no eye can fail to trace remarkable
+progress. On about the same level of art
+are the charming statues dedicated to
+Athena, which were set up in the latter half
+of the 6th century in the Acropolis, whose
+graceful though conventional forms and
+delicate colouring make them one of the
+great attractions of the Acropolis Museum.
+We show a figure (fig. 22) which, if it be
+rightly connected with the basis on which
+it stands, is the work of the sculptor
+Antenor, who was also author of a celebrated
+group representing the tyrant-slayers,
+Harmodius and Aristogiton. To the same age belong many
+other votive reliefs of the Acropolis, representing horsemen,
+scribes and other votaries of Athena.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:333px; height:452px" src="images/img480b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Bust from Crete.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>From Athens we pass to the seats of Dorian art. And in
+doing so we find a complete change of character. In place of
+Dorian draped goddesses and female figures, we find nude
+male forms. In place of Ionian softness and elegance,
+<span class="sidenote">Dorian sculpture.</span>
+we find hard, rigid outlines, strong muscular development,
+a greater love of and faithfulness to the actual human
+form&mdash;the influence of the palaestra rather than of the harem.
+To the known series
+of archaic male
+figures, recent years
+have added many
+examples. We may
+especially mention a
+series of figures from
+the temple of Apollo
+Ptoos in Boeotia,
+probably representing
+the god himself.
+Still more noteworthy
+are two
+colossal nude figures
+of Apollo, remarkable
+both for force and
+for rudeness, found
+at Delphi, the inscriptions
+of which
+prove them to be
+the work of an
+Argive sculptor.
+(Plate V. fig. 76.)
+From Crete we have
+acquired the upper
+part of a draped figure (fig. 23), whether male or female is not
+certain, which should be an example of the early Daedalid
+school, whence the art of Peloponnesus was derived; but we
+can scarcely venture to treat it as a characteristic product of
+that school; rather the likeness to the dedication of Nicandra
+is striking.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:269px; height:407px" src="images/img480c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Head of Hera: Olympia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:306px; height:396px" src="images/img480d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Spartan Tombstone: Berlin.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Another remarkable piece of Athenian sculpture, of the time
+of the Persian Wars, is the group of the tyrannicides Harmodius
+and Aristogiton, set up by the people of Athens, and made by
+the sculptors Critius and Nesiotes. These figures were hard and
+rigid in outline, but showing some progress in the treatment of
+the nude. Copies are preserved in the museum of Naples (Plate I.
+fig. 50). It should be observed that one of the heads does not
+belong.</p>
+
+<p>Next in importance to Athens, as a find-spot for works of
+early Greek art, ranks Olympia. Olympia, however, did not
+suffer like Athens from sudden violence, and the
+explorations there have brought to light a continuous
+<span class="sidenote">Olympia, Sparta, Selinus.</span>
+series of remains, beginning with the bronze tripods
+of the geometric age already mentioned and ending
+at the barbarian invasions of the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Notable
+among the 6th-century stone-sculpture of Olympia are the
+pediment of the treasury of
+the people of Megara, in
+which is represented a battle
+of gods and giants, and a
+huge rude head of Hera (fig.
+24), which seems to be part of
+the image worshipped in the
+Heraeum. Its flatness and
+want of style are noteworthy.
+Among the temples of Greece
+proper the Heraeum of
+Olympia stands almost alone
+for antiquity and interest, its
+chief rival, besides the temples
+of Athens, being the other
+temple of Hera at Argos. It
+appears to have been originally
+constructed of wood, for
+which stone was by slow
+degrees, part by part, substituted.
+In the time of
+Pausanias one of the pillars
+was still of oak, and at the
+present day the varying diameter of the columns and other
+structural irregularities bear witness to the process of constant
+renewal which must have taken place. The early small
+bronzes of Olympia form an important series, figures of deities
+standing or striding, warriors in their armour, athletes with
+exaggerated muscles, and
+women draped in the
+Ionian fashion, which did
+not become unpopular in
+Greece until after the
+Persian Wars. Excavations
+at Sparta have revealed
+interesting monuments
+belonging to the
+worship of ancestors,
+which seems in the conservative
+Dorian states of
+Greece to have been more
+strongly developed than
+elsewhere. On some of
+these stones, which doubtless
+belonged to the family
+cults of Sparta, we see
+the ancestor seated holding
+a wine-cup, accompanied
+by his faithful
+horse or dog; on some we
+see the ancestor and ancestress seated side by side (fig. 25),
+ready to receive the gifts of their descendants, who appear
+in the corner of the relief on a much smaller scale. The male
+figure holds a wine-cup, in allusion to the libations of wine
+made at the tomb. The female figure holds her veil and the
+pomegranate, the recognized food of the dead. A huge
+serpent stands erect behind the pair. The style of these
+sculptures is as striking as the subjects; we see lean, rigid
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span>
+forms with severe outline carved in a very low relief,
+the surface of which is not rounded but flat. The name of
+Selinus in Sicily, an early Megarian colony, has long been associated
+with some of the most curious of early sculptures, the
+metopes of ancient temples, representing the exploits of Heracles
+and of Perseus. Even more archaic metopes have in recent
+years been brought to light, one representing a seated sphinx,
+one the journey of Europa over the sea on the back of the
+amorous bull (fig. 26), a pair of dolphins swimming beside her.
+In simplicity and in rudeness of work these reliefs remind us
+of the limestone pediments of Athens (fig. 20), but yet they are
+of another and a severer style; the Ionian laxity is wanting.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate V.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:207px; height:505px" src="images/img480e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:291px; height:500px" src="images/img480f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:224px; height:533px" src="images/img480g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>From a Cast.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 71.&mdash;APHRODITE OF CNIDUS. (Vatican.)</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 72.&mdash;BRONZE BOXER OF TERME. (Rome.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 73.&mdash;BRONZE OF CERIGOTTO. (Athens.)</span>
+Found in the sea near Cythera.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:166px; height:506px" src="images/img480h.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:360px; height:507px" src="images/img480i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:166px; height:504px" src="images/img480j.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 74.&mdash;AGIAS AT DELPHI.</span>
+(From <i>Fouilles de Delphes</i>, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 75.&mdash;CORA (KORÉ) OF ERECHTHEUM. (Athens.)</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 76.&mdash;APOLLO AT DELPHI.</span>
+(From <i>Fouilles de Delphes</i>, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noinf f90 sc">Plate VI.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:186px; height:490px" src="images/img480k.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:323px; height:495px" src="images/img480l.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:226px; height:497px" src="images/img480m.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Giraudon.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Alinari.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 77.&mdash;APHRODITE PF MELOS. (Louvre.)</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 78.&mdash;NIOBE AND HER YOUNGEST DAUGHTER. (Florence.)</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 79.&mdash;APOXYOMENUS. (Vatican.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:206px; height:503px" src="images/img480n.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:283px; height:499px" src="images/img480o.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:224px; height:504px" src="images/img480p.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Brogi.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, Alinari.</i></td>
+<td class="tcl f80"><i>Photo, English Photographic Co.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption sc">Fig. 80.&mdash;DORYPHORUS OF POLYCLITUS. (Nat. Mus., Naples.)</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 81.&mdash;ANTIOCH SEATED ON A ROCK. (Vatican.)</td>
+<td class="caption sc">Fig. 82.&mdash;HERMES OF TELES. (Olympia.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:316px; height:407px" src="images/img481a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"> <span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;Metope: Europa on Bull:
+Palermo.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The recent French excavations at Delphi add a new and
+important chapter to the history of 6th-century art. Of three
+treasure-houses, those of Sicyon, Cnidus and Athens,
+the sculptural adornments have been in great part
+<span class="sidenote">Delphi.</span>
+recovered. These sculptures form a series almost covering the
+century 570-470 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and include representations of some myths
+of which we have hitherto
+had no example. We
+may say here a few
+words as to the sculpture
+which has been discovered,
+leaving to the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delphi</a></span> an
+account of the topography
+and the buildings
+of the sacred site. Of
+the archaic temple of
+Apollo, built as Herodotus
+tells us by the
+Alcmaeonidae of Athens,
+the only sculptural remains
+which have come
+down to us are some
+fragments of the pedimental
+figures. Of the
+treasuries which contained
+the offerings of
+the pious at Delphi, the
+most archaic of which
+there are remains is that belonging to the people of Sicyon.
+To it appertain a set of exceedingly primitive metopes.
+One represents Idas and Dioscuri driving off cattle (Plate IV.
+fig. 66); another, the ship Argo; another, Europa on the bull,
+others merely animals, a ram or a boar. The treasury of the
+people of Cnidus (or perhaps Siphnos) is in style some half a
+century later (see fig. 17). To it belongs a long frieze representing
+a variety of curious subjects: a battle, perhaps between Greeks
+and Trojans, with gods and goddesses looking on; a gigantomachy
+in which the figures of Poseidon, Athena, Hera, Apollo,
+Artemis and Cybele can be made out, with their opponents,
+who are armed like Greek hoplites; Athena and Heracles in a
+chariot; the carrying off of the daughters of Leucippus by
+Castor and Pollux; Aeolus holding the winds in sacks. The
+Treasury of the Athenians, erected at the time of the Persian
+Wars, was adorned with metopes of singularly clear-cut and
+beautiful style, but very fragmentary, representing the deeds
+of Heracles and Theseus.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:298px" src="images/img481b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;Restoration of West Pediment, Aegina.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>We have yet to speak of the most interesting and important of
+all Greek archaic sculptures, the pediments of the temple at
+Aegina (<i>q.v.</i>). These groups of nude athletes fighting
+over the corpses of their comrades are preserved at
+<span class="sidenote">Aegina.</span>
+Munich, and are familiar to artists and students. But the very
+fruitful excavations of Professor Furtwängler have put them in
+quite a new light. Furtwängler (<i>Aegina: Heiligtum der Aphaia</i>)
+has entirely rearranged these pediments, in a way which removes
+the extreme simplicity and rigour of the composition, and
+introduces far greater variety of attitudes and motive. We
+repeat here these new arrangements (figs. 27 and 28), the reasons
+for which must be sought in Furtwängler&rsquo;s great publication.
+The individual figures are not much altered, as the restorations of
+Thorwaldsen, even when incorrect, have now a prescriptive right
+of which it is not easy to deprive them. Besides the pediments of
+Aegina must be set the remains of the pediments of the temple
+of Apollo at Eretria in Euboea, the chief group of which (Plate II.
+fig. 58), Theseus carrying off an Amazon, is one of the most
+finely executed works of early Greek art.</p>
+
+<p><i>Period II. 480-400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></i>&mdash;The most marvellous phenomenon
+in the whole history of art is the rapid progress made by Greece
+in painting and sculpture during the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> As in
+literature the 5th century takes us from the rude peasant plays
+of Thespis to the drama of Sophocles and Euripides; as in
+philosophy it takes us from Pythagoras to Socrates; so in
+sculpture it covers the space from the primitive works made for
+the Peisistratidae to some of the most perfect productions of the
+chisel.</p>
+
+<p>In architecture the 5th century is ennobled by the Theseum,
+the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the temples of Zeus at
+Olympia, of Apollo at Phigalia, and many other central
+<span class="sidenote">Architecture.</span>
+shrines, as well as by the Hall of the Mystae at Eleusis
+and the Propylaea of the Acropolis. Some of the most
+important of the Greek temples of Italy and Sicily, such as those
+of Segesta and Selinus, date from the same age. It is, however,
+only of their sculptural decorations, carried out by the greatest
+masters in Greece, that we need here treat in any detail.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:516px; height:308px" src="images/img481c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;Restoration of East Pediment, Aegina.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It is the rule in the history of art that innovations and technical
+progress are shown earlier in the case of painting than in that of
+sculpture, a fact easily explained by the greater ease
+and rapidity of the brush compared with the chisel.
+<span class="sidenote">Painting.</span>
+That this was the order of development in Greek art cannot be
+doubted. But our means for judging of the painting of the
+5th century are very slight. The noble paintings of such masters
+as Polygnotus, Micon and Panaenus, which once adorned the
+walls of the great porticoes of Athens and Delphi, have disappeared.
+There remain only the designs drawn rather than
+painted on the beautiful vases of the age, which in some degree
+help us to realize, not the colouring or the charm of contemporary
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span>
+paintings, but the principle of their composition and the accuracy
+of their drawing.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:286px" src="images/img482a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>From monumenti dell&rsquo; Instituto di Correspondenza archeologica</i>, xi. 40.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;Vase of Orvieto. (The Children of Niobe.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Polygnotus of Thasos was regarded by his compatriots as a
+great ethical painter. His colouring and composition were alike
+very simple, his figures quiet and statuesque, his drawing careful
+and precise. He won his fame largely by incorporating in his
+works the best current ideas as to mythology, religion and morals.
+In particular his painting of Hades with its rewards and punishments,
+which was on the walls of the building of the people of
+Cnidus at Delphi, might be considered as a great religious work,
+parallel to the paintings of the Campo Santo at Pisa or to the
+painted windows of such churches as that at Fairford. But he
+also introduced improvements in perspective and greater freedom
+in grouping.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:334px; height:349px" src="images/img482b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Arch. Zeit.</i> 1878, pl. 22.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;Vase Drawing.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It is fortunate for us that the Greek traveller Pausanias has
+left us very careful and detailed descriptions of some of the most
+important of the frescoes of Polygnotus, notably of the Taking
+of Troy and the Visit to Hades, which were at Delphi. A comparison
+of these descriptions with vase paintings of the middle
+of the 5th century has enabled us to discern with great probability
+the principles of Polygnotan drawing and perspective.
+Professor Robert has even ventured to restore the paintings
+on the evidence of vases. We here represent one of the scenes
+depicted on a vase found at Orvieto (fig. 29), which is certainly
+Polygnotan in character. It represents the slaying of the
+children of Niobe
+by Apollo and
+Artemis. Here we
+may observe a
+remarkable perspective.
+The
+different heights
+of the rocky background
+are represented
+by lines
+traversing the
+picture on which
+the figures stand;
+but the more
+distant figures are
+no smaller than
+the nearer. The
+forests of Mount
+Sipylus are represented
+by a single
+conventional tree.
+The figures are
+beautifully drawn, and full of charm; but there is a want of
+energy in the action.</p>
+
+<p>There can be little doubt that the school of Polygnotus
+exercised great influence on contemporary sculpture. Panaenus,
+brother of Pheidias, worked with Polygnotus, and many of the
+groupings found in the sculptures of the Parthenon remind us of
+those usual with the Thasian master. At this simple and early
+stage of art there was no essential difference between fresco-painting
+and coloured relief, light and shade and aerial perspective
+being unknown. We reproduce two vase-paintings,
+one (fig. 30) a group of man and horse which closely resembles
+figures in the Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon (fig. 31);
+the other (fig. 32) representing Victory pouring water for a
+sacrificial ox to drink, which reminds us of the balustrade of the
+shrine of Wingless Victory at Athens.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 430px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:379px; height:282px" src="images/img482c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;Part of Frieze of the Parthenon.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Most writers on Greek painting have supposed that after the
+middle of the 5th century the technique of painting rapidly
+improved. This
+may well have
+been the case;
+but we have
+little means of
+testing the question.
+Such improvements
+would soon raise
+such a barrier
+between fresco-painting
+and
+vase-painting,&mdash;which
+by its
+very nature
+must be simple
+and architectonic,&mdash;that
+vases can no longer be used with confidence as
+evidence for contemporary painting. The stories told us by
+Pliny of the lives of Greek painters are mostly of a trivial and
+untrustworthy character. Some of them are mentioned in this
+<i>Encyclopaedia</i> under the names of individual artists. We can
+only discern a few general facts. Of Agatharchus of Athens we
+learn that he painted, under compulsion, the interior of the house
+of Alcibiades. And we are told that he painted a scene for the
+tragedies of Aeschylus or Sophocles. This has led some writers
+to suppose that he attempted illusive landscape; but this is
+contrary to the possibilities of the time; and it is fairly certain
+that what he really did was to paint the wooden front of the
+stage building in imitation of architecture; in fact he painted
+a permanent architectural background, and not one suited to
+any particular play. Of other painters who flourished at the
+end of the century, such as Zeuxis and Aristides, it will be best
+to speak under the next period.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:352px" src="images/img482d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From Gerhard&rsquo;s <i>Auserlesene Vasenbilder</i>, ii. pl. 1.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;Nik&#275; and Bull.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It is now generally held, in consequence of evidence furnished
+by tombs, that the 5th century saw the end of the making of
+vases on a great scale at Athens for export to Italy and Sicily.
+And in fact few things in the history of art are more remarkable
+than the rapidity with which vase-painting at Athens reached
+its highest point and passed it on the downward road. At the
+beginning of the century black-figured ware was scarcely out
+of fashion, and the masters of the severe red-figured style,
+Pamphaeus, Epictetus and their contemporaries, were in vogue.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span>
+The schools of Euphronius, Hiero and Duris belong to the age
+of the Persian wars. With the middle of the century the works
+of these makers are succeeded by unsigned vases of most beautiful
+design, some of them showing the influence of Polygnotus. In
+the later years of the century, when the empire of Athens was
+approaching its fall, drawing becomes laxer and more careless,
+and in the treatment of drapery we frequently note the over-elaboration
+of folds, the want of simplicity, which begin to mark
+contemporary sculpture. These changes of style can only be
+satisfactorily followed in the vase rooms of the British Museum,
+or other treasuries of Greek art (see also A. B. Walters, <i>History
+of Ancient Pottery</i>; and the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:900px; height:250px" src="images/img483a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;East Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:900px; height:242px" src="images/img483b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;West Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Among the sculptural works of this period the first place may
+be given to the great temple of Zeus at Olympia. The statue by
+Pheidias which once occupied the place of honour in
+that temple, and was regarded as the noblest monument
+<span class="sidenote">Olympia: Temple of Zeus.</span>
+of Greek religion, has of course disappeared, nor
+are we able with confidence to restore it. But the plan
+of the temple, its pavement, some of its architectural ornaments,
+remain. The marbles which occupied the pediments and the
+metopes of the temple have been in large part recovered, having
+been probably thrown down by earthquakes and gradually buried
+in the alluvial soil. The utmost ingenuity and science of the
+archaeologists of Germany have been employed in the recovery
+of the composition of these groups; and although doubt remains
+as to the places of some figures, and their precise attitudes, yet
+we may fairly say that we know more about the sculpture of
+the Olympian temple of Zeus than about the sculpture of any
+other great Greek temple. The exact date of these sculptures
+is not certain, but we may with some confidence give them to
+470-460 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (In speaking of them we shall mostly follow the
+opinion of Dr Treu, whose masterly work in vol. iii. of the great
+German publication on Olympia is a model of patience and of
+science.) In the eastern pediment (fig. 33), as Pausanias tells
+us, were represented the preparations for the chariot-race
+between Oenomaüs and Pelops, the result of which was to
+determine whether Pelops should find death or a bride and a
+kingdom. In the midst, invisible to the contending heroes,
+stood Zeus the supreme arbiter. On one side of him stood
+Oenomaüs with his wife Sterope, on the other Pelops and Hippodameia,
+the daughter of Oenomaüs, whose position at once
+indicates that she is on the side of the newcomer, whatever her
+parents may feel. Next on either side are the four-horse chariots
+of the two competitors, that of Oenomaüs in the charge of his
+perfidious groom Myrtilus, who contrived that it should break
+down in the running, that of Pelops tended by his grooms.
+At either end, where the pediment narrows to a point, reclines a
+river god, at one end Alpheus, the chief stream of Olympia, at
+the other end his tributary Cladeus. Only one figure remains,
+not noticed in the careful description of Pausanias, the figure
+of a handmaid kneeling, perhaps one of the attendants of Sterope.
+Our engraving gives two conjectural restorations of the pediment,
+that of Treu and that of Kekule, which differ principally in the
+arrangement of the corners of the composition; the position
+of the central figures and of the chariots can scarcely be called
+in question. The moment chosen is one, not of action, but of
+expectancy, perhaps of preparation for sacrifice. The arrangement
+is undeniably stiff and formal, and in the figures we note
+none of the trained perfection of style which belongs to the
+sculptures of the Parthenon, an almost contemporary temple.
+Faults abound, alike in the rendering of drapery and in the
+representation of the human forms, and the sculptor has
+evidently trusted to the painter who was afterwards to colour
+his work, to remedy some of his clumsiness, or to make clear the
+ambiguous. Nevertheless there is in the whole a dignity, a
+sobriety, and a simplicity, which reconcile us to the knowledge
+that this pediment was certainly regarded in antiquity as a noble
+work, fit to adorn even the palace of Zeus. In the other, the
+western pediment (fig. 34), the subject is the riot of the Centaurs
+when they attended the wedding of Peirithous in Thessaly, and,
+attempting to carry off the bride and her comrades, were slain
+by Peirithous and Theseus. In the midst of the pediment,
+invisible like Zeus in the eastern pediment, stands Apollo, while
+on either side of him Theseus and Peirithous attack the Centaurs
+with weapons hastily snatched. Our illustration gives two
+possible arrangements. The monsters are in various attitudes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span>
+of attempted violence, of combat and defeat; with each grapples
+one of the Lapith heroes in the endeavour to rob them of their
+prey. In the corners of the pediment recline female figures,
+perhaps attendant slaves, though the farthest pair may best be
+identified as local Thessalian nymphs, looking on with the
+calmness of divine superiority, yet not wholly unconcerned in
+what is going forward. Though the composition of the two
+pediments differs notably, the one bearing the impress of a
+parade-like repose, the other of an overstrained activity, yet
+the style and execution are the same in both, and the shortcomings
+must be attributed to the inferior skill of a local school
+of sculptors compared with those of Athens or of Aegina. It
+even appears likely that the designs also belong to a local school.
+Pausanias, it is true, tells us that the pediments were the work
+of Alcamenes, the pupil of Pheidias, and of Paeonius, a sculptor
+of Thrace, respectively; but it is almost certain that he was
+misled by the local guides,
+who would naturally be
+anxious to connect the
+sculptures of their great
+temple with well-known
+names.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:384px; height:409px" src="images/img484a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Olympia</i>, iii. 45.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 35</span>&mdash;Metope: Olympia; restored.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:447px" src="images/img484b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Olympia</i>, iii. 48.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 36</span>&mdash;Nik&#275; of Paeonius; restored.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The metopes of the
+temple are in the same style
+of art as the pediments, but
+the defects of awkwardness
+and want of mastery are
+less conspicuous, because
+the narrow limits of the
+metope exclude any elaborate
+grouping. The subjects
+are provided by the
+twelve labours of Heracles;
+the figures introduced in
+each metope are but two or
+at most three; and the
+action is simplified as much
+as possible. The example
+shown (fig. 35) represents
+Heracles holding up the
+sky on a cushion, with the
+friendly aid of a Hesperid nymph, while Atlas, whom he has
+relieved of his usual burden, approaches bringing the apples
+which it was the task of Heracles to procure.</p>
+
+<p>Another of the fruits of the excavations of Olympia is the
+floating Victory by Paeonius, unfortunately faceless (fig. 36),
+which was set up in all probability in memory of the victory of
+the Athenians and their Messenian allies at Sphacteria in 425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+The inscription states that it was dedicated by the Messenians
+and people of Naupactus from the spoils of their enemies, but
+the name of the enemy is not mentioned in the inscription.
+The statue of Paeonius, which comes floating down through the
+air with drapery borne backward, is of a bold and innovating
+type, and we may trace its influence in many works of the next
+age.</p>
+
+<p>Among the discoveries at Delphi none is so striking and
+valuable to us as the life-size statue in bronze of a charioteer
+holding in his hand the reins. This is maintained
+by M. Homolle to be part of a chariot-group set up
+<span class="sidenote">Delphic charioteer.</span>
+by Polyzalus, brother of Gelo and Hiero of Syracuse,
+in honour of a victory won in the chariot-race at the Pythian
+games at Delphi (fig. 37). The charioteer is evidently a high-born
+youth, and is clad in the long chiton which was necessary to
+protect a driver of a chariot from the rush of air. The date
+would be about 480-470 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Bronze groups representing
+victorious chariots with their drivers were among the noblest
+and most costly dedications of antiquity; the present figure
+is our only satisfactory representative of them. In style the
+figure is very notable, tall and slight beyond all contemporary
+examples. The contrast between the conventional decorousness
+of face and drapery and the lifelike accuracy of hands and
+feet is very striking, and indicates the clashing of various
+tendencies in art at the time when the great style was formed
+in Greece.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:369px; height:398px" src="images/img484c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Mémoires, Piot</i>, 1807, 16.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;Bronze Charioteer: Delphi.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The three great masters of the 5th century, Myron, Pheidias
+and Polyclitus are all in some degree known to us from their
+works. Of Myron we have copies of two works, the Marsyas
+(Plate III. fig. 64) and the Discobolus. The Marsyas (a copy in
+the Lateran Museum) represents the Satyr so named in the
+grasp of conflicting emotions, eager to pick up the flutes which
+Athena has thrown down, but at the same time dreading her
+displeasure if he does so. The Discobolus has usually been
+judged from the examples in the Vatican and the British Museum,
+in which the anatomy is modernized and the head wrongly put on.
+We have now photographs of the very superior replica in the
+Lancelotti gallery at Rome, the pose of which is much nearer
+to the original. Our illustration represents a restoration made
+at Munich, by combining the Lancelotti head with the Vatican
+body (Plate IV. fig. 68).</p>
+
+<p>Of the works of Pheidias we have unfortunately no certain
+copy, if we except the small replicas at Athens of his Athena
+Parthenos. The larger of these (fig. 38) was found in 1880:
+it is very clumsy, and the wretched device by which a pillar
+is introduced to support the Victory in the hand of Athena can
+scarcely be supposed to have belonged to the great original.
+Tempting theories have been published by Furtwängler (<i>Masterpieces
+of Greek Sculpture</i>) and other archaeologists, which
+identify copies of the Athena Lemnia of Pheidias, his Pantarces,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span>
+his Aphrodite Urania and other statues; but doubt hangs over
+all these attributions.</p>
+
+<p>A more pertinent and more promising question is, how far
+we may take the decorative sculpture of the Parthenon, since
+Lord Elgin&rsquo;s time the pride of the British Museum, as the
+actual work of Pheidias, or as done from his designs. Here
+again we have no conclusive evidence; but it appears from the
+testimony of inscriptions that the pediments at all events were
+not executed until after Pheidias&rsquo;s death.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:294px; height:443px" src="images/img485a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;Statuette of Athena Parthenos.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Of course the pediments and frieze of the Parthenon (<i>q.v.</i>),
+whose work soever they may be, stand at the head of all Greek
+decorative sculpture.
+Whether we regard the
+grace of the composition,
+the exquisite finish
+of the statues in the
+round, or the delightful
+atmosphere of poetry
+and religion which surrounds
+these sculptures,
+they rank among the
+masterpieces of the
+world. The Greeks
+esteemed them far below
+the statue which the
+temple was made to
+shelter; but to us, who
+have lost the great
+figure in ivory and gold,
+the carvings of the casket
+which once contained it
+are a perpetual source of
+instruction and delight.
+The whole is reproduced
+by photography
+in A. S. Murray&rsquo;s <i>Sculptures of the Parthenon</i>.</p>
+
+<p>An abundant literature has sprung up in regard to these
+sculptures in recent years. It will suffice here to mention the
+discussions in Furtwängler&rsquo;s <i>Masterpieces</i>, and the very ingenious
+attempts of Sauer to determine by a careful examination of the
+bases and backgrounds of the pediments as they now stand how
+the figures must have been arranged in them. The two ends
+of the eastern pediment (Plate III. fig. 65) are the only fairly
+well-preserved part of the pediments.</p>
+
+<p>Among the pupils of Pheidias who may naturally be supposed
+to have worked on the sculptures of the Parthenon, the most
+notable were Alcamenes and Agoracritus. Some fragments
+remain of the great statue of Nemesis at Rhamnus by Agoracritus.
+And an interesting light has been thrown on Alcamenes by the
+discovery at Pergamum of a professed copy of his Hermes set
+up at the entrance to the Acropolis at Athens (Plate II.
+fig. 57). The style of this work, however, is conventional
+and archaistic, and we can scarcely regard it as typical of the
+master.</p>
+
+<p>Another noted contemporary who was celebrated mainly for
+his portraits was Cresilas, a Cretan. Several copies of his
+portrait of Pericles exist, and testify to the lofty and idealizing
+style of portraiture in this great age.</p>
+
+<p>We possess also admirable sculpture belonging to the other
+important temples of the Acropolis, the Erechtheum and the
+temple of Nike. The temple of Nike is the earlier, being possibly
+a memorial of the Spartan defeat at Sphacteria. The Erechtheum
+belongs to the end of our period, and embodies the
+delicacy and finish of the conservative school of sculpture at
+Athens just as the Parthenon illustrates the ideas of the more
+progressive school. The reconstruction of the Erechtheum has
+been a task which has long occupied the attention of archaeologists
+(see the paper by Mr Stevens in the <i>American Journal
+of Archaeology</i>, 1906). Our illustration (Plate V. fig. 75) shows
+one of the Corae or maidens who support the entablature of the
+south porch of the Erechtheum in her proper setting. This
+use of the female figure in place of a pillar is based on old Ionian
+precedent (see fig. 17) and is not altogether happy; but the
+idea is carried out with remarkable skill, the perfect repose
+and solid strength of the maiden being emphasized.</p>
+
+<p>Beside Pheidias of Athens must be placed the greatest of early
+Argive sculptors, Polyclitus. His two typical athletes, the
+Doryphorus or spear-bearer (Plate VI. fig. 80) and the Diadumenus,
+have long been identified, and though the copies are not
+first-rate, they enable us to recover the principles of the master&rsquo;s
+art.</p>
+
+<p>Among the bases discovered at Olympia, whence the statues
+had been removed, are three or four which bear the name of
+Polyclitus, and the definite evidence furnished by
+these bases as to the position of the feet of the
+<span class="sidenote">Polyclitus.</span>
+statues which they once bore has enabled archaeologists,
+especially Professor Furtwängler, to identify copies of those
+statues among known works. Also newly discovered copies of
+Polyclitan works have made their appearance. At Delos there
+has been found a copy of the Diadumenus, which is of much
+finer work than the statue in the British Museum from Vaison.
+The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston, U.S.A., has secured a very
+beautiful statue of a young Hermes, who but for the wings on
+the temples might pass as a boy athlete of Polyclitan style
+(Plate II. fig. 60). In fact, instead of relying as regards the
+manner of Polyclitus on Roman copies of the Doryphorus and
+Diadumenus, we have quite a gallery of athletes, boys and men,
+who all claim relationship, nearer or more remote, to the school
+of the great Argive master. It might have been hoped that the
+excavations, made under the leadership of Professor Waldstein
+at the Argive Heraeum, would have enlightened us as to the
+style of Polyclitus. Just as the sculptures of the Parthenon
+are the best monument of Pheidias, so it might seem likely that
+the sculptural decoration of the great temple which contained
+the Hera of Polyclitus would show us at large how his school
+worked in marble. Unfortunately the fragments of sculpture
+from the Heraeum are few. The most remarkable is a female
+head, which may perhaps come from a pediment (fig. 39). But
+archaeologists are not in agreement whether it is in style Polyclitan
+or whether it rather resembles in style Attic works. Other
+heads and some highly-finished fragments of bodies come
+apparently from the metopes of the same temple. (See also
+article Argos.)</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:358px; height:423px" src="images/img485b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;Female Head: Heraeum.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Another work of Polyclitus was his Amazon, made it is said
+in competition with his great contemporaries, Pheidias, Cresilas
+and Phradmon, all of whose Amazons were preserved in the
+great temple of Artemis at Ephesus. In our museums are many
+statues of Amazons representing 5th century originals. These
+have usually been largely restored, and it is no easy matter to
+discover their original type. Professor Michaelis has recovered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span>
+successfully three types (fig. 40). The attribution of these is a
+matter of controversy. The first has been given to the chisel
+of Polyclitus; the second seems to represent the Wounded
+Amazon of Cresilas; the third has by some archaeologists been
+given to Pheidias. It does not represent a wounded amazon,
+but one alert, about to leap upon her horse with the help of a
+spear as a leaping pole.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:392px" src="images/img486a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;Types of Amazons (Michaelis.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>We can devote little more than a passing mention to the
+sculpture of other temples and shrines of the later 5th century,
+which nevertheless deserve careful study. The frieze
+from the temple of Apollo at Phigalia, representing
+<span class="sidenote">Lycia.</span>
+Centaur and Amazon battles, is familiar to visitors of the British
+Museum, where, however, its proximity to the remains of the
+Parthenon lays stress upon the faults of grouping and execution
+which this frieze presents. It seems to have been executed by
+local Arcadian artists. More pleasing is the sculpture of the
+Ionic tomb called the Nereid monument, brought by Sir Charles
+Fellows from Lycia. Here we have not only a series of bands
+of relief which ran round the tomb, but also detached female
+figures, whence the name which it bears is derived. A recent
+view sees in these women with their fluttering drapery not
+nymphs of the sea, but personifications of sea-breezes.</p>
+
+<p>The series of known Lycian tombs has been in recent years
+enriched through the acquisition by the museum of Vienna of
+the sculptured friezes which adorned a heroon near Geul Bashi.
+In the midst of the enclosure was a tomb, and the walls of the
+enclosure itself were adorned within and without with a great
+series of reliefs, mostly of mythologic purport. Many subjects
+which but rarely occur in early Greek art, the siege of Troy, the
+adventure of the Seven against Thebes, the carrying off of the
+daughters of Leucippus, Ulysses shooting down the Suitors, are
+here represented in detail. Professor Benndorf, who has published
+these sculptures in an admirable volume, is disposed to
+see in them the influence of the Thasian painter Polygnotus.
+Any one can see their kinship to painting, and their subjects
+recur in some of the great frescoes painted by Polygnotus,
+Micon and others for the Athenians. Like other Lycian sculptures,
+they contain non-Hellenic elements; in fact Lycia forms
+a link of the chain which extends from the wall-paintings of
+Assyria to works like the columns of Trajan and of Antoninus,
+but is not embodied in the more purely idealistic works of the
+highest Greek art. The date of the Vienna tomb is not much
+later than the middle of the 5th century. A small part of the
+frieze of this monument is shown in fig. 41. It will be seen that
+in this fragment there are two scenes, one directly above the other.
+In the upper line Ulysses, accompanied by his son Telemachus,
+is in the act of shooting the suitors, who are reclining at table
+in the midst of a feast; a cup-bearer, possibly Melanthius, is
+escaping by a door behind Ulysses. In the lower line is the
+central group of a frieze which represents the hunting of the
+Calydonian boar, which is represented, as is usual in the best time
+of Greek art, as an ordinary animal and no monster.</p>
+
+<p>Archaeologists have recently begun to pay more attention
+to an interesting branch of Greek art which had until recently
+been neglected, that of sculptured portraits. The
+known portraits of the 5th century now include
+<span class="sidenote">Portraits.</span>
+Pericles, Herodotus, Thucydides, Anacreon, Sophocles, Euripides,
+Socrates and others. As might be expected in a time when style
+in sculpture was so strongly pronounced, these portraits, when not
+later unfaithful copies, are notably ideal. They represent the
+great men whom they portray not in the spirit of realism.
+Details are neglected, expression is not elaborated; the sculptor
+tries to represent what is permanent in his subject rather than
+what is temporary. Hence these portraits do not seem to belong
+to a particular time of life; they only represent a man in the
+perfection of physical force and mental energy. And the race
+or type is clearly shown through individual traits. In some
+cases it is still disputed whether statues of this age represent
+deities or mortals, so notable are the repose and dignity which
+even human figures acquire under the hands of 5th-century
+masters. The Pericles after Cresilas in the British Museum,
+and the athlete-portraits of Polyclitus, are good examples.</p>
+
+<p><i>Period III. 400-300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></i>&mdash;The high ideal level attained by
+Greek art at the end of the 5th century is maintained in the 4th.
+There cannot be any question of decay in it save at Athens,
+where undoubtedly the loss of religion and the decrease of
+national prosperity acted prejudicially. But in Peloponnesus
+the time was one of expansion; several new and important cities,
+such as Messene, Megalopolis and Mantinea, arose under the
+protection of Epaminondas. And in Asia the Greek cities were
+still prosperous and artistic, as were the cities of Italy and Sicily
+which kept their independence. On the whole we find during
+this age some diminution of the freshness and simplicity of art;
+it works less in the service of the gods and more in that of private
+patrons; it becomes less ethical and more sentimental and
+emotional. On the other hand, there can be no doubt that
+technique both in painting and sculpture advanced with rapid
+strides; artists had a greater mastery of their materials, and
+ventured on a wider range of subject.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:453px; height:354px" src="images/img486b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80"><i>Heroon of Gyeul Bashi Trysa</i>, Pl. 7.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;Odysseus and Suitors; Hunting of Boar.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the 4th century no new temples of importance rose at
+Athens; the Acropolis had taken its final form; but at Messene,
+Tegea, Epidaurus and elsewhere, very admirable buildings arose.
+The remains of the temple at Tegea are of wonderful beauty
+and finish; as are those of the theatre and the so-called <i>Tholus</i>
+of Epidaurus. In Asia Minor vast temples of the Ionic order
+arose, especially at Miletus and Ephesus. The colossal pillars
+of Miletus astonish the visitors to the Louvre; while the
+sculptured columns of Ephesus in the British Museum (Plate II.
+fig. 59) show a high level of artistic skill. The Mausoleum
+erected about 350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> at Halicarnassus in memory of Mausolus,
+king of Caria, and adorned with sculpture by the most noted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span>
+artists of the day, was reckoned one of the wonders of the world.
+It has been in part restored in the British Museum. Mr Oldfield&rsquo;s
+conjectural restoration, published in <i>Archaeologia</i> for 1895,
+though it has many rivals, surpasses them all in the lightness
+of the effect, and in close correspondence to the description by
+Pliny. We show a small part of the sculptural decoration,
+representing a battle between Greeks and Amazons (Plate IV.
+fig. 70), wherein the energy of the action and the careful balance
+of figure against figure are remarkable. We possess also the
+fine portraits of Mausolus himself and his wife Artemisia, which
+stood in or on the building, as well as part of a gigantic chariot
+with four horses which surmounted it.</p>
+
+<p>Another architectural work of the 4th century, in its way a
+gem, is the structure set up at Athens by Lysicrates, in memory
+of a choragic victory. This still survives, though the reliefs
+with which it is adorned have suffered severely from the weather.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:519px; height:543px" src="images/img487a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">Nat. Mus., Naples.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;Greek Drawing of Women Playing at Knucklebones.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The 4th century is the brilliant period of ancient painting.
+It opens with the painters of the Asiatic School, Zeuxis and Parrhasius
+and Protogenes, with their contemporaries Nicias and
+Apollodorus of Athens, Timanthes of Sicyon or Cythnus, and
+Euphranor of Corinth. It witnesses the rise of a great school
+at Sicyon, under Eupompus and Pamphilus, which was noted
+for its scientific character and the fineness of its drawing, and
+which culminated in Apelles, the painter of Alexander the Great,
+and probably the greatest master of the art in antiquity. To
+each of these painters a separate article is given, fixing their
+place in the history of the art. Of their paintings unfortunately
+we can form but a very inadequate notion. Vase-paintings,
+which in the 5th century give us some notion at least of contemporary
+drawing, are less careful in the 4th century. Now
+and then we find on them figures admirably designed, or successfully
+foreshortened; but these are rare occurrences. The art
+of the vase decorator has ceased to follow the methods and
+improvements of contemporary fresco painters, and is pursued
+as a mere branch of commerce.</p>
+
+<p>But very few actual paintings of the age survive, and even
+these fragmentary remains have with time lost the freshness of
+their colouring; nor are they in any case the work of a noteworthy
+hand. We reproduce two examples. The first is from
+a stone of the vault of a Crimean grave (Plate IV. fig. 67). The
+date of the grave is fixed to the 4th century by ornaments found
+in it, among which was a gold coin of Alexander the Great. The
+representation is probably of Demeter or her priestess, her hair
+bound with poppies and other flowers. The original is of large
+size. The other illustration (fig. 42) represents the remains of
+a drawing on marble, representing a group of women playing
+knucklebones. It was found at Herculaneum. Though signed
+by one Alexander of Athens, who was probably a worker of the
+Roman age, Professor Robert is right in maintaining that
+Alexander only copied a design of the age of Zeuxis and Parrhasius.
+In fact the drawing and grouping is so closely like that
+of reliefs of about 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that the drawing is of great historic
+value, though there be no colouring. Several other drawings
+of the same class have been found at Herculaneum, and on the
+walls of the Transtiberine Villa at Rome (now in the Terme
+Museum).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:235px; height:430px" src="images/img487b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80"><i>Olympia</i>, iii. 53.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;Hermes of Praxiteles;
+restored.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Until about the year 1880, our knowledge of the great Greek
+sculptors of the 4th century was derived mostly from the
+statements of ancient writers and from Roman
+copies, or what were supposed to be copies, of
+<span class="sidenote">Praxiteles.</span>
+their works. We are now in a far more satisfactory
+position. We now possess an original work of Praxiteles, and
+sculptures executed under the immediate direction of, if not from
+the hand of, other great sculptors of that age&mdash;Scopas, Timotheus
+and others. Among all the discoveries made at Olympia, none
+has become so familiar to the artistic world as that of the Hermes
+of Praxiteles. It is the first time that we have become possessed
+of a first-rate Greek original by one of the greatest of sculptors.
+Hitherto almost all the statues in our museums have been either
+late copies of Greek works of art, or else the mere decorative
+sculpture of temples and tombs, which was by the ancients
+themselves but little regarded. But we can venture without
+misgiving to submit the new Hermes to the strictest examination,
+sure that in every line and touch we have the work of a great
+artist. This is more than we can say of any of the literary
+remains of antiquity&mdash;poem, play or oration. Hermes is represented
+by the sculptor (fig. 43
+and Plate VI. fig. 82) in the act
+of carrying the young child
+Dionysus to the nymphs who
+were charged with his rearing.
+On the journey he pauses and
+amuses himself by holding out to
+the child-god a bunch of grapes,
+and watching his eagerness to
+grasp them. To the modern eye
+the child is not a success; only
+the latest art of Greece is at home
+in dealing with children. But the
+Hermes, strong without excessive
+muscular development, and graceful
+without leanness, is a model
+of physical formation, and his
+face expresses the perfection of
+health, natural endowment and
+sweet nature. The statue can
+scarcely be called a work of
+religious art in the modern or
+Christian sense of the word
+religious, but from the Greek
+point of view it is religious, as
+embodying the result of the harmonious
+development of all human faculties and life in accordance
+with nature.</p>
+
+<p>The Hermes not only adds to our knowledge of Praxiteles,
+but also confirms the received views in regard to him. Already
+many works in galleries of sculpture had been identified as
+copies of statues of his school. Noteworthy among these are,
+the group at Munich representing Peace nursing the infant
+Wealth, from an original by Cephisodotus, father of Praxiteles;
+copies of the Cnidian Aphrodite of Praxiteles, especially one in
+the Vatican which is here illustrated (Plate V. fig. 71); copies
+of the Apollo slaying a lizard (Sauroctonus), of a Satyr (in the
+Capitol Museum), and others. These works, which are noted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span>
+for their softness and charm, make us understand the saying of
+ancient critics that Praxiteles and Scopas were noted for the
+pathos of their works, as Pheidias and Polyclitus for the ethical
+quality of those they produced. But the pathos of Praxiteles
+is of a soft and dreamy character; there is no action, or next
+to none; and the emotions which he rouses are sentimental
+rather than passionate. Scopas, as we shall see, was of another
+mood. The discovery of the Hermes has naturally set archaeologists
+searching in the museums of Europe for other works
+which may from their likeness to it in various respects be set
+down as Praxitelean in character. In the case of many of the
+great sculptors of Greece&mdash;Strongylion, Silanion, Calamis and
+others&mdash;it is of little use to search for copies of their works,
+since we have little really trustworthy evidence on which to
+base our inquiries. But in the case of Praxiteles we really stand
+on a safe level. Naturally it is impossible in these pages to give
+any sketch of the results, some almost certain, some very doubtful,
+of the researches of archaeologists in quest of Praxitelean works.
+But we may mention a few works which have been claimed
+by good judges as coming from the master himself. Professor
+Brunn claimed as work of Praxiteles a torso of a satyr in the
+Louvre, in scheme identical with the well-known satyr of the
+Capitol. Professor Furtwängler puts in the same category a
+delicately beautiful head of Aphrodite at Petworth. And his
+translator, Mrs Strong, regards the Aberdeen head of a young
+man in the British Museum as the actual work of Praxiteles.
+Certainly this last head does not suffer when placed beside the
+Olympian head of Hermes. At Mantinea has been found a basis
+whereon stood a group of Latona and her two children, Apollo
+and Artemis, made by Praxiteles. This base bears reliefs
+representing the musical contest of Apollo and Marsyas, with the
+Muses as spectators, reliefs very pleasing in style, and quite
+in the manner of Attic artists of the 4th century. But of course
+we must not ascribe them to the hand of Praxiteles himself;
+great sculptors did not themselves execute the reliefs which
+adorned temples and other monuments, but reserved them for
+their pupils. Yet the graceful figures of the Muses of Mantinea
+suggest how much was due to Praxiteles in determining the tone
+and character of Athenian art in relief in the 4th century.
+Exactly the same style which marks them belongs also to a mass
+of sepulchral monuments at Athens, and such works as the
+Sidonian sarcophagus of the Mourning Women, to be presently
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>Excavation on the site of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea
+has resulted in the recovery of works of the school of Scopas.
+Pausanias tells us that Scopas was the architect of
+the temple, and so important in the case of a Greek
+<span class="sidenote">Scopas.</span>
+temple is the sculptural decoration, that we can scarcely
+doubt that the sculpture also of the temple at Tegea was
+under the supervision of Scopas, especially as he was more
+noted as a sculptor than as an architect. In the pediments
+of the temple were represented two scenes from mythology,
+the hunting of the Calydonian boar and the combat between
+Achilles and Telephus. To one or other of these scenes belong
+several heads of local marble discovered on the spot, which are
+very striking from their extraordinary life and animation.
+Unfortunately they are so much injured that they can scarcely
+be made intelligible except by the help of restoration; we
+therefore engrave one of them, the helmeted head, as restored
+by a German sculptor (Plate III. fig. 63). The strong bony
+frame of this head, and its depth from front to back, are not
+less noteworthy than the parted lips and deeply set and strongly
+shaded eye; the latter features impart to the head a vividness
+of expression such as we have found in no previous work of Greek
+art, but which sets the key to the developments of art which
+take place in the Hellenistic age. A draped torso of Atalanta
+from the same pediment has been fitted to one of these heads.
+Hitherto Scopas was known to us, setting aside literary records,
+only as one of the sculptors who had worked at the Mausoleum.
+Ancient critics and travellers, however, bear ample testimony to
+his fame, and the wide range of his activity, which extended to
+northern Greece, Peloponnese and Asia Minor. His Maenads
+and his Tritons and other beings of the sea were much copied in
+antiquity. But perhaps he reached his highest level in statues
+such as that of Apollo as leader of the Muses, clad in long drapery.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:333px; height:418px" src="images/img488.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 44.</span>&mdash;Amazon from Epidaurus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The interesting precinct of Aesculapius at Epidaurus has
+furnished us with specimens of the style of an Athenian contemporary
+of Scopas, who worked with him on the
+Mausoleum. An inscription which records the sums
+<span class="sidenote">Timotheus, Bryaxis, Leochares.</span>
+spent on the temple of the Physician-god, informs us
+that the models for the sculptures of the pediments, and
+one set of acroteria or roof adornments, were the work of Timotheus.
+Of the pedimental figures and the acroteria considerable
+fragments have been recovered, and we may with confidence
+assume that at all events the models for these were by Timotheus.
+It is strange that the unsatisfactory arrangement whereby a
+noted sculptor makes models and some local workman the
+figures enlarged from those models, should have been tolerated
+by so artistic a people as the Greeks. The subjects of the pediments
+appear to have been the common ones of battles between
+Greek and Amazon and between Lapith and Centaur. We
+possess fragments of some of the Amazon figures, one of which,
+striking downwards at the enemy, is here shown (fig. 44). Their
+attitudes are vigorous and alert; but the work shows no delicacy
+of detail. Figures of
+Nereids riding on
+horses, which were
+found on the same site,
+may very probably be
+roof ornaments (acroteria)
+of the temple.
+We have also several
+figures of Victory,
+which probably were
+acroteria on some
+smaller temple, perhaps
+that of Artemis.
+A base found at
+Athens, sculptured
+with figures of horsemen
+in relief, bears the
+name of Bryaxis, and
+was probably made by
+a pupil of his. Probable
+conjecture assigns
+to Leochares the
+originals copied in the
+Ganymede of the Vatican, borne aloft by an eagle (Plate I.
+fig. 53) and the noble statue of Alexander the Great at Munich
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leochares</a></span>). Thus we may fairly say that we are now
+acquainted with the work of all the great sculptors who worked
+on the Mausoleum&mdash;Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and Timotheus;
+and are in a far more advantageous position than were the
+archaeologists of 1880 for determining the artistic problems
+connected with that noblest of ancient tombs.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporary with the Athenian school of Praxiteles and
+Scopas was the great school of Argos and Sicyon, of which
+Lysippus was the most distinguished member. Lysippus continued
+the academic traditions of Polyclitus, but he was far
+bolder in his choice of subjects and more innovating in style.
+Gods, heroes and mortals alike found in him a sculptor who knew
+how to combine fine ideality with a vigorous actuality. He
+was at the height of his fame during Alexander&rsquo;s life, and the
+grandiose ambition of the great Macedonian found him ample
+employment, especially in the frequent representation of himself
+and his marshals.</p>
+
+<p>We have none of the actual works of Lysippus; but our best
+evidence for his style will be found in the statue of Agias an
+athlete (Plate V. fig. 74) found at Delphi, and shown by an
+inscription to be a marble copy of a bronze original by Lysippus.
+The Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (man scraping himself with a
+strigil) (Plate VI. fig. 79) has hitherto been regarded as a copy
+from Lysippus; but of this there is no evidence, and the style
+of that statue belongs rather to the 3rd century than the 4th.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span>
+The Agias, on the other hand, is in style contemporary with the
+works of 4th-century sculptors.</p>
+
+<p>Of the elaborate groups of combatants with which Lysippus
+enriched such centres as Olympia and Delphi, or of the huge bronze
+statues which he erected in temples and shrines, we can form no
+adequate notion. Perhaps among the extant heads of Alexander
+the one which is most likely to preserve the style of Lysippus
+is the head from Alexandria in the British Museum (Plate II.
+fig. 56), though this was executed at a later time.</p>
+
+<p>Many noted extant statues may be attributed with probability
+to the latter part of the 4th or the earlier part of the 3rd century.
+We will mention a few only. The celebrated group at Florence
+representing Niobe and her children falling before the arrows of
+Apollo and Artemis is certainly a work of the pathetic school,
+and may be by a pupil of Praxiteles. Niobe, in an agony of
+grief, which is in the marble tempered and idealized, tries to
+protect her youngest daughter from destruction (Plate VI. fig. 78).
+Whether the group can have originally been fitted into the gable
+of a temple is a matter of dispute.</p>
+
+<p>Two great works preserved in the Louvre are so noted that it is
+but necessary to mention them, the Aphrodite of Melos (Plate
+VI. fig. 77), in which archaeologists are now disposed to see the
+influence of Scopas, and the Victory of Samothrace (Plate III. figs.
+61 and 62), an original set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes after a
+naval victory won at Salamis in Cyprus in 306 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> over the
+fleet of Ptolemy, king of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Nor can we pass over without notice two works so celebrated
+as the Apollo of the Belvidere in the Vatican (Plate II. fig. 55),
+and the Artemis of Versailles. The Apollo is now by most
+archaeologists regarded as probably a copy of a work of Leochares,
+to whose Ganymede it bears a superficial resemblance. The
+Artemis is regarded as possibly due to some artist of the same
+age. But it is by no means clear that we have the right to
+remove either of these figures from among the statues of the
+Hellenistic age. The old theory of Preller, which saw in them
+copies from a trophy set up to commemorate the repulse of the
+Gauls at Delphi in 278 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, has not lost its plausibility.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:299px; height:335px" src="images/img489.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">Hamdy et Reinach, <i>Nécropole à Sidon</i>, Pl. 7.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 45.</span>&mdash;Tomb of Mourning Women:
+Sidon.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>This may be the most appropriate place for mentioning the
+remarkable find made at Sidon in 1886 of a number of sarcophagi,
+which once doubtless contained the remains of kings
+of Sidon. They are now in the museum of Constantinople,
+<span class="sidenote">Sarcophagi of Sidon.</span>
+and are admirably published by Hamdy Bey
+and T. Reinach (<i>Une Nécropole royale à Sidon</i>, 1892-1896).
+The sarcophagi in date cover a considerable period.
+The earlier are made on Egyptian models, the covers shaped
+roughly in the form of a human body or mummy. The later,
+however, are Greek in form, and are clearly the work of skilled
+Greek sculptors, who seem
+to have been employed by
+the grandees of Phoenicia
+in the adornment of their
+last resting-places. Four
+of these sarcophagi in particular
+claim attention,
+and in fact present us
+with examples of Greek
+art of the 5th and 4th
+centuries in several of its
+aspects. To the 5th
+century belong the tomb
+of the Satrap, the reliefs of
+which bring before us the
+activities and glories of
+some unknown king, and
+the Lycian sarcophagus,
+so called from its form,
+which resembles that of
+tombs found in Lycia, and which is also adorned with reliefs
+which have reference to the past deeds of the hero buried in the
+tomb, though these deeds are represented, not in the Oriental
+manner directly, but in the Greek manner, clad in mythological
+forms. To the 4th century belong two other sarcophagi. One
+of these is called the Tomb of Mourning Women. On all sides
+of it alike are ranged a series of beautiful female figures, separated
+by Ionic pillars, each in a somewhat different attitude, though all
+attitudes denoting grief (fig. 45). The pediments at the ends of the
+cover are also closely connected with the mourning for the loss of
+a friend and protector, which is the theme of the whole decoration
+of the sarcophagus. We see depicted in them the telling of the
+news of the death, with the results in the mournful attitude of the
+two seated figures. The mourning women must be taken, not
+as the representation of any persons in particular, but generally
+as the expression of the feeling of a city. Such figures are familiar
+to us in the art of the second Attic school; we could easily find
+parallels to the sarcophagus among the 4th-century sepulchral
+reliefs of Athens. We can scarcely be mistaken in attributing
+the workmanship of this beautiful sarcophagus to some sculptor
+trained in the school of Praxiteles. And it is a conjecture full of
+probability that it once contained the body of Strato, king of
+Sidon, who ruled about 380 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and who was <i>proxenos</i> or public
+friend of the Athenians.</p>
+
+<p>More celebrated is the astonishing tomb called that of
+Alexander, though there can be no doubt that, although it
+commemorates the victories and exploits of Alexander, it was
+made not to hold his remains, but those of some ruler of Sidon
+who was high in his favour. Among all the monuments of antiquity
+which have come down to us, none is more admirable than
+this, and none more characteristic of the Greek genius. We give,
+in two lines, the composition which adorned one of the sides of
+this sarcophagus. It represents a victory of Alexander, probably
+that of the Granicus (fig. 46). On the left we see the Macedonian
+king charging the Persian horse, on the right his general
+Parmenio, and in the midst a younger officer, perhaps Cleitus.
+Mingled with the chiefs are foot-soldiers, Greek and Macedonian,
+with whom the Persians are mingled in unequal fray. What
+most strikes the modern eye is the remarkable freshness and
+force of the action and the attitudes. Those, however, who
+have seen the originals have been specially impressed with the
+colouring, whereof, of course, our engraving gives no hint, but
+which is applied to the whole surface of the relief with equal
+skill and delicacy. There are other features in the relief on
+which a Greek eye would have dwelt with special pleasure&mdash;the
+exceedingly careful symmetry of the whole, the balancing of
+figure against figure, the skill with which the result of the battle
+is hinted rather than depicted. The composition is one in which
+the most careful planning and the most precise calculation are
+mingled with freedom of hand and expressiveness in detail.
+The faces in particular show more expression than would be
+tolerated in art of the previous century. We are unable as yet
+to assign an author or even a school to the sculptor of this
+sarcophagus; he comes to us as a new and striking phenomenon
+in the history of ancient art. The reliefs which adorn the other
+sides of the sarcophagus are almost equally interesting. On
+one side we see Alexander again, in the company of a Persian
+noble, hunting a lion. The short sides also show us scenes of
+fighting and hunting. In fact it can scarcely be doubted that
+if we had but a clue to the interpretation of the reliefs, they
+would be found to embody historic events of the end of the 4th
+century. There are but a few other works of art, such as the
+Bayeux tapestry and the Column of Trajan, which bring contemporary
+history so vividly before our eyes. The battles with
+the Persians represented in some of the sculpture of the Parthenon
+and the temple of Nike at Athens are treated conventionally
+and with no attempt at realism; but here the ideal and the actual
+are blended into a work of consummate art, which is at the same
+time, to those who can read the language of Greek art, a historic
+record. The portraits of Alexander the Great which appear on
+this sarcophagus are almost contemporary, and the most
+authentic likenesses of him which we possess. The great Macedonian
+exercised so strong an influence on contemporary art
+that a multitude of heads of the age, both of gods and men, and
+even the portraits of his successors, show traces of his type.</p>
+
+<p>We have yet to mention what are among the most charming
+and the most characteristic products of the Greek chisel, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span>
+beautiful tombs, adorned with seated or standing portraits or with
+reliefs, which were erected in great numbers on all the main roads of
+Greece. A great number of these from the Dipylon cemetery are preserved
+in the Central Museum at Athens, and impress all visitors by the gentle
+sentiment and the charm of grouping which they display (Gardner,
+<i>Sculptured Tombs of Hellas</i>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:879px; height:662px" src="images/img490a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">Hamdy et Reinach. <i>Nécropole à Sidon</i>, Pl. 30.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;Battle of The Granicus: Sarcophagus from Sidon.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Period IV., 300-50 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></i>&mdash;There can be no question but that the period
+which followed the death of Alexander, commonly called the age of
+Hellenism, was one of great activity and expansion in architecture. The
+number of cities founded by himself and his immediate successors in Asia
+and Egypt was enormous. The remains of these cities have in a few cases
+(Ephesus, Pergamum, Assus, Priene, Alexandria) been partially excavated.
+But the adaptation of Greek architecture to the needs of the semi-Greek
+peoples included in the dominions of the kings of Egypt, Syria and
+Pergamum is too vast a subject for us to enter upon here (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Painting during this age ceased to be religious. It was no longer for
+temples and public stoae that artists worked, but for private persons;
+especially they made frescoes for the decoration of the walls of houses,
+and panel pictures for galleries set up by rich patrons. The names of
+very few painters of the Hellenistic age have come down to us. There can
+be no doubt that the character of the art declined, and there were no
+longer produced great works to be the pride of cities, or to form an
+embodiment for all future time of the qualities of a deity or the
+circumstances of scenes mythical or historic. But at the same time the
+mural paintings of Pompeii and other works of the Roman age, which are
+usually more or less nearly derived from Hellenistic models, prove that
+in technical matters painting continued to progress. Colouring became
+more varied, groups more elaborate, perspective was worked out with
+greater accuracy, and imagination shook itself free from many of the
+conventions of early art. Pompeian painting, however, must be treated of
+under Roman, not under Greek art. We figure a single example, to show
+the elaboration of painting at Alexandria and elsewhere, the wonderful
+Pompeian mosaic (fig. 47), which represents the victory of Alexander at
+Issus. This work being in stone has preserved its colouring; and it
+stands at a far higher level of art than ordinary Pompeian paintings,
+which are the work of mere house-decorators. This on the contrary is
+certainly copied from the work of a great master. It is instructive to
+compare it with the sarcophagus illustrated in Fig. 46, which it excels
+in perspective and in the freedom of individual figures, though the
+composition is much less careful and precise. Alexander charges from the
+left (his portrait being the least successful part of the picture), and
+bears down a young Persian; Darius in his chariot flees towards the
+right; in the foreground a young knight is trying to manage a restive
+horse. It will be observed how very simple is the indication of
+locality: a few stones and a broken tree stand for rocks and woods.</p>
+
+<p>Among the original sculptural creations of the early Hellenistic
+age, a prominent place is claimed by the statue of Fortune,
+typifying the city of Antioch (Plate VI. fig. 81), a work of
+Eutychides, a pupil of Lysippus. Of this we possess a small copy,
+which is sufficient to show how worthy of admiration was the
+original. We have a beautiful embodiment of the personality of
+the city, seated on a rock, holding ears of corn, while the river
+Orontes, embodied in a young male figure, springs forth at her
+feet.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:250px" src="images/img490b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f80">From a photograph by G. Borgi.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 47.</span>&mdash;Mosaic of the Battle of Issus (Naples).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>This is, so far as we know, almost the only work of the early part of
+the 3rd century which shows imagination. Sculptors often worked on a
+colossal scale, producing such monsters as the colossal Apollo at
+Rhodes, the work of Chares of Lindus, which was more than 100 ft. in
+height. But they did not show freshness or invention; and for the most
+part content themselves with varying the types produced in the great
+schools of the 4th century. The wealthy kings of Syria, Egypt and Asia
+Minor formed art galleries, and were lavish in their payments; but it
+has often been proved in the history of art that originality cannot be
+produced by mere expenditure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:269px; height:445px" src="images/img491a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 48.</span>&mdash;Head of Anytus: Lycosura.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A great artist, whose date has been disputed, but who is
+now assigned to the Hellenistic age, Damophon of Messene,
+is known to us from his actual works. He set up in the shrine
+of the <i>Mistress</i> (Despoena) at Lycosura in Arcadia a great
+group of figures consisting of Despoena, Demeter, Artemis
+and the Titan Anytus. Three colossal heads found on the spot
+probably belong to the three last-mentioned deities. We
+illustrate the head of Anytus, with wild disordered hair and
+turbulent expression (fig. 48). Dr Dörpfeld has argued, on
+architectural grounds, that
+shrine and images alike
+must be given to a later
+time than the 4th century;
+and this judgment is now
+confirmed by inscriptional
+and other evidence.</p>
+
+<p>In one important direction
+sculpture certainly
+made progress. Hitherto
+Greek sculptors had contented
+themselves with
+studying the human body
+whether in rest or motion,
+from outside. The dissection
+of the human body,
+with a consequent increase
+in knowledge of anatomy,
+became usual at Alexandria
+in the medical school which
+flourished under the Ptolemies.
+This improved anatomical
+knowledge soon
+reacted upon the art of
+sculpture. Works such as
+the Fighter of Agasias in the Louvre (Plate IV. fig. 69), and in a
+less degree the Apoxyomenus (Plate VI. fig. 79), display a
+remarkable internal knowledge of the human frame, such as
+could only come from the habit of dissection. Whether this
+was really productive of improvement in sculpture may be
+doubted. But it is impossible to withhold one&rsquo;s admiration
+from works which show an astonishing knowledge of the body
+of man down to its bony framework, and a power and mastery
+of execution which have never since been surpassed.</p>
+
+<p>With accuracy in the portrayal of men&rsquo;s bodies goes of necessity
+a more naturalistic tendency in portraiture. As we have seen,
+the art of portraiture was at a high ideal level in the Pheidian
+age; and even in the age of Alexander the Great, notable men
+were rendered rather according to the idea than the fact. To a
+base and mechanical naturalism Greek art never at any time
+descended. But from 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> onwards we have a marvellous
+series of portraits which may be termed rather characteristic
+than ideal, which are very minute in their execution, and delight
+in laying emphasis on the havoc wrought by time and life on
+the faces of noteworthy men. Such are the portraits of Demosthenes,
+of Antisthenes, of Zeno and others, which exist in our
+galleries. And it was no long step from these actual portraits
+to the invention of characteristic types to represent the great
+men of a past generation, such as Homer and Lycurgus, or to
+form generic images to represent weatherbeaten fishermen or
+toothless old women.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:248px; height:430px" src="images/img491b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 49.</span>&mdash;Giant from Great Altar:
+Pergamum.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of the art of the later Hellenistic age has
+received a great accession since 1875 through the systematic
+labours directed by the German Archaeological Institute,
+which have resulted in recovering the remains
+<span class="sidenote">Altar of Pergamum.</span>
+of Pergamum, the fortress-city which was the capital
+of the dynasty of the Philetaeri. Among the ancient
+buildings of Pergamum none was more ambitious in scale and
+striking in execution than the great altar used for sacrifices to
+Zeus, a monument supposed to be referred to in the phrase of
+the Apocalypse &ldquo;where Satan&rsquo;s throne is.&rdquo; This altar, like many
+great sacrificial altars of later Greece, was a vast erection to
+which one mounted by many steps, and its outside was adorned
+with a frieze which represented on a gigantic scale, in the style
+of the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, the battle between the gods and the
+giants. This enormous frieze (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pergamum</a></span>) is now one of the
+treasures of the Royal Museums of Berlin, and it cannot fail to
+impress visitors by the size of the figures, the energy of the action,
+and the strong vein of sentiment which pervades the whole,
+giving it a certain air of modernity, though the subject is strange
+to the Christian world. In early Greek art the giants where
+they oppose the gods are represented as men armed in full
+panoply, &ldquo;in shining armour, holding long spears in their
+hands,&rdquo; to use the phrase in which Hesiod describes them.
+But in the Pergamene frieze the giants are strange compounds,
+having the heads and bodies of wild and fierce barbarians,
+sometimes also human legs, but sometimes in the place of legs
+two long serpents, the heads of which take with the giants themselves
+a share in the battle. Sometimes also they are winged.
+The gods appear in the forms which had been gradually made
+for them in the course of Greek history, but they are usually
+accompanied by the animals sacred to them in cultus, between
+which and the serpent-feet of the giants a weird combat goes on.
+We can conjecture the source whence the Pergamene artist
+derived the shaggy hair, the fierce expression, the huge muscles
+of his giants (fig. 49); probably these features came originally
+from the Galatians, who at the time had settled in Asia Minor,
+and were spreading the terror of their name and the report of
+their savage devastations through all Asia Minor. The victory
+over the giants clearly stands for the victory of Greek civilization
+over Gallic barbarism; and this meaning is made more emphatic
+because the gods are obviously inferior in physical force to their
+opponents, indeed, a large proportion of the divine combatants
+are goddesses. Yet everywhere the giants are overthrown,
+writhing in pain on the ground, or transfixed by the weapons of
+their opponents; everywhere the gods are victorious, yet in the
+victory retain much of their divine calm. The piecing together
+of the frieze at Berlin has been a labour of many years; it is
+now complete, and there is
+a special museum devoted to
+it. Some of the groups have
+become familiar to students
+from photographs, especially
+the group which represents
+Zeus slaying his enemies with
+thunderbolts, and the group
+wherein Athena seizes by the
+hair an overthrown opponent,
+who is winged, while Victory
+runs to crown her, and beneath
+is seen Gaia, the earth-goddess
+who is the mother of
+the giants, rising out of the
+ground, and mourning over
+her vanquished and tortured
+children. Another and smaller
+frieze which also decorated
+the altar-place gives us scenes
+from the history of Telephus,
+who opposed the landing of
+the army of Agamemnon in
+Asia Minor and was overthrown
+by Achilles. This
+frieze, which is quite fragmentary, is put together by Dr Schneider
+in the <i>Jahrbuch</i> of the German Archaeological Institute for 1900.</p>
+
+<p>Since the Renaissance Rome has continually produced a crop
+of works of Greek art of all periods, partly originals brought
+from Greece by conquering generals, partly copies, such as the
+group at Rome formerly known as Paetus and Arria, and the
+overthrown giants and barbarians which came from the elaborate
+trophy set up by Attalus at Athens, of which copies exist in
+many museums. A noted work of kindred school is the group
+of Laocoon and his sons (Plate I. fig. 52), signed by Rhodian
+sculptors of the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, which has been perhaps more
+discussed than any work of the Greek chisel, and served as a peg
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span>
+for the aesthetic theories of Lessing and Goethe. In our days
+the histrionic and strained character of the group is regarded as
+greatly diminishing its interest, in spite of the astounding skill
+and knowledge of the human body shown by the artists. To
+the same school belong the late representations of Marsyas
+being flayed by the victorious Apollo (Plate II. fig. 54), a somewhat
+repulsive subject, chosen by the artists of this age as a
+means for displaying their accurate knowledge of anatomy.</p>
+
+<p>On what a scale some of the artists of Asia Minor would work
+is shown us by the enormous group, by Apollonius and Tauriscus
+of Tralles, which is called the Farnese Bull (Plate I. fig. 51), and
+which represents how Dirce was tied to a wild bull by her stepsons
+Zethus and Amphion.</p>
+
+<p>The extensive excavations and alterations which have taken
+place at Rome in recent years have been very fruitful; the
+results may be found partly in the palace of the
+Conservatori on the Capitol, partly in the new museum
+<span class="sidenote">Rome.</span>
+of the Terme. Among recently found statues none excel in
+interest some bronzes of large size dating from the Hellenistic age.
+In the figure of a seated boxer (Plate V. fig. 72), in scale somewhat
+exceeding life, attitude and gesture are expressive. Evidently
+the boxer has fought already, and is awaiting a further conflict.
+His face is cut and swollen; on his hands are the terrible caestus,
+here made of leather, and not loaded with iron, like the caestus
+described by Virgil. The figure is of astounding force; but
+though the face is brutal and the expression savage, in the sweep
+of the limbs there is nobility, even ideal beauty. To the last the
+Greek artist could not set aside his admiration for physical
+perfection. Another bronze figure of more than life-size is that
+of a king of the Hellenistic age standing leaning on a spear. He
+is absolutely nude, like the athletes of Polyclitus. Another
+large bronze presents us with a Hellenistic type of Dionysus.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the bronzes found in Rome we may set those recently
+found in the sea on the coast of Cythera, the contents of a ship
+sailing from Greece to Rome, and lost on the way. The date of
+these bronze statues has been disputed. In any case, even if
+executed in the Roman age, they go back to originals of the 5th
+and 4th centuries. The most noteworthy among them is a
+beautiful athlete (Plate V. fig. 73) standing with hand upraised,
+which reflects the style of the Attic school of the 4th century.</p>
+
+<p>After 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> when Corinth was destroyed and Greece became
+a Roman province, Greek art, though by no means extinct,
+worked mainly in the employ of the Roman conquerors (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Art</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>IV. <span class="sc">Select Bibliography.</span><a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a>&mdash;I. <b>General works on Greek Art.</b>&mdash;The
+only recent general histories of Greek art are: H. Brunn,
+<i>Griechische Kunstgeschichte</i>, bks. i. and ii., dealing with archaic art;
+W. Klein, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Kunst</i>, no illustrations; Perrot
+et Chipiez, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;art dans l&rsquo;antiquité</i>, vols. vii. and viii.
+(archaic art only).</p>
+
+<p>Introductory are: P. Gardner, <i>Grammar of Greek Art</i>; J. E.
+Harrison, <i>Introductory Studies in Greek Art</i>; H. B. Walters, <i>Art of
+the Greeks</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Useful are also: H. Brunn, <i>Geschichte der griechischen Künstler</i>,
+(new edition, 1889); J. Overbeck, <i>Die antiken Schriftquellen zur
+Geschichte der bildenden Künste bei den Griechen</i>; untranslated
+passages in Latin and Greek; the Elder Pliny&rsquo;s <i>Chapters on the
+History of Art</i>, edited by K. Jex-Blake and E. Sellers; H. S. Jones,
+<i>Ancient Writers on Greek Sculpture</i>.</p>
+
+<p>II. <b>Periodicals dealing with Greek Archaeology.</b>&mdash;England:
+<i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>; <i>Annual of the British School at Athens</i>;
+<i>Classical Review</i>. France: <i>Revue archéologique</i>; <i>Gazette archéologique</i>;
+<i>Bulletin de correspondance hellénique</i>. Germany: <i>Jahrbuch
+des K. deutschen arch. Instituts</i>; <i>Mitteilungen des arch. Inst.</i>,
+Athenische Abteilung, Römische Abteilung; <i>Antike Denkmäler</i>.
+Austria: <i>Jahreshefte des K. Österreich. arch. Instituts</i>. Italy:
+Publications of the <i>Accademia dei Lincei</i>; <i>Monumenti antichi</i>; <i>Not.
+dei scavi</i>; <i>Bulletino comunale di Roma</i>. Greece: <i>Ephemeris
+archaiologikè</i>; <i>Deltion archaiologikon</i>; <i>Praktika</i> of the Athenian
+Archaeological Society.</p>
+
+<p>III. <b>Greek Architecture.</b>&mdash;General: Perrot et Chipiez, <i>Histoire de
+l&rsquo;art dans l&rsquo;antiquité</i>, vol. vii.; A. Choisy, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;architecture</i>,
+vol. i.; Anderson and Spiers, <i>Architecture of Greece and Rome</i>; E.
+Boutmy, <i>Philosophie de l&rsquo;architecture en Grèce</i>; R. Sturgis, <i>History of
+Architecture</i>, vol. i.; A. Marquand, <i>Greek Architecture</i>.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <b>Greek Sculpture.</b>&mdash;General: M. Collignon, <i>Histoire de la
+sculpture grecque</i> (2 vols.); E. A. Gardner, <i>Handbook of Greek Sculpture</i>;
+A. Furtwängler, <i>Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture</i>, translated and
+edited by E. Sellers; Friederichs and Wolters, <i>Bausteine zur
+Geschichte der griechisch-römischen Plastik</i> (1887); von Mach, <i>Handbook
+of Greek and Roman Sculpture</i>, 500 plates; H. Bulle, <i>Der schöne
+Mensch in der Kunst: Altertum</i>, 216 plates; S. Reinach, <i>Répertoire
+de la statuaire grecque et romaine</i>, 3 vols.</p>
+
+<p>V. <b>Greek Painting and Vases.</b>&mdash;Woltmann and Woermann, <i>History
+of Painting</i>, vol. i., translated and edited by S. Colvin (1880); H. B.
+Walters, <i>History of Ancient Pottery</i> (2 vols.); Harrison and MacColl,
+<i>Greek Vase-paintings</i> (1894); O. Rayet et M. Collignon, <i>Histoire de
+la céramique grecque</i> (1888); P. Girard, <i>La Peinture antique</i> (1892);
+S. Reinach, <i>Répertoire des vases peints grecs et étrusques</i> (2 vols.);
+Furtwängler und Reichhold, &ldquo;Griechische Vasenmalerei,&rdquo; <i>Wiener
+Vorlegeblätter für archäologische Übungen</i> (1887-1890).</p>
+
+<p>VI. <b>Special Schools and Sites.</b>&mdash;A. Joubin, <i>La Sculpture grecque
+entre les guerres médiques et l&rsquo;époque de Périclès</i>; C. Waldstein, <i>Essays
+on the Art of Pheidias</i> (1885); W. Klein, <i>Praxiteles</i>; G. Perrot,
+<i>Praxitèle</i>; A. S. Murray, <i>Sculptures of the Parthenon</i>; W. Klein,
+<i>Euphronios</i>; E. Pottier, <i>Douris</i>; P. Gardner, <i>Sculptured Tombs of
+Hellas</i>; E. A. Gardner, <i>Ancient Athens</i>; A. Bötticher, <i>Olympia</i>;
+Bernoulli, <i>Griechische Ikonographie</i>; P. Gardner, <i>The Types of Greek
+Coins</i> (1883); E. A. Gardner, <i>Six Greek Sculptors.</i></p>
+
+<p>VII. <b>Books related to the subject.</b>&mdash;J. G. Frazer, <i>Pausanias&rsquo;s
+Description of Greece</i> (6 vols.); J. Lange, <i>Darstellung des Menschen in
+der älteren griechischen Kunst</i>; E. Brücke, <i>The Human Figure; its
+Beauties and Defects</i>; A. Michaelis, <i>Ancient Marbles in Great Britain</i>
+(1882); <i>Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum</i> (3 vols.);
+<i>Catalogue of Greek Vases in the British Museum</i> (4 vols.); J. B. Bury,
+<i>History of Greece</i> (illustrated edition); Baumeister, <i>Denkmäler des
+klassischen Altertums</i> (3 vols.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. G.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Grammar of Greek Art.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It may here be pointed out that it was found impossible, with
+any regard for the appearance of the pages, to arrange the Plates for
+this article so as to preserve a chronological order in the individual
+figures; they are not arranged consecutively as regards the history
+or the period, and are only grouped for convenience in paging.&mdash;Ed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The date is given when the work cannot be considered new.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEK FIRE,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> the name applied to inflammable and
+destructive compositions used in warfare during the middle
+ages and particularly by the Byzantine Greeks at the sieges of
+Constantinople. The employment of liquid fire is represented
+on Assyrian bas-reliefs. At the siege of Plataea (429 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the
+Spartans attempted to burn the town by piling up against the
+walls wood saturated with pitch and sulphur and setting it on
+fire (Thuc. ii. 77), and at the siege of Delium (424 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) a cauldron
+containing pitch, sulphur and burning charcoal, was placed
+against the walls and urged into flame by the aid of a bellows,
+the blast from which was conveyed through a hollow tree-trunk
+(Thuc. iv. 100). Aeneas Tacticus in the following century
+mentions a mixture of sulphur, pitch, charcoal, incense and tow,
+which was packed in wooden vessels and thrown lighted upon
+the decks of the enemy&rsquo;s ships. Later, as in receipts given by
+Vegetius (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 350), naphtha or petroleum is added, and some
+nine centuries afterwards the same substances are found forming
+part of mixtures described in the later receipts (which probably
+date from the beginning of the 13th century) of the collection
+known as the <i>Liber ignium</i> of Marcus Graecus. In subsequent
+receipts saltpetre and turpentine make their appearance, and
+the modern &ldquo;carcass composition,&rdquo; containing sulphur, tallow,
+rosin, turpentine, saltpetre and crude antimony, is a representative
+of the same class of mixtures, which became known
+to the Crusaders as Greek fire but were more usually called
+wildfire. Greek fire, properly so-called, was, however, of a somewhat
+different character. It is said that in the reign of Constantine
+Pogonatus (648-685) an architect named Callinicus,
+who had fled from Heliopolis in Syria to Constantinople, prepared
+a wet fire which was thrown out from siphons (<span class="grk" title="to dia tôn siphônôn
+ekpheromenon pyr hugron">&#964;&#8056; &#948;&#953;&#8048; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#963;&#953;&#966;&#974;&#957;&#969;&#957; &#7952;&#954;&#966;&#949;&#961;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#957; &#960;&#8166;&#961; &#8017;&#947;&#961;&#972;&#957;</span>), and that by its aid the ships of the
+Saracens were set on fire at Cyzicus and their defeat assured.
+The art of compounding this mixture, which is also referred to
+as <span class="grk" title="pyr thalassion">&#960;&#8166;&#961; &#952;&#945;&#955;&#940;&#963;&#963;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>, or sea fire, was jealously guarded at Constantinople,
+and the possession of the secret on several occasions
+proved of great advantage to the city. The nature of the
+compound is somewhat obscure. It has been supposed that the
+novelty introduced by Callinicus was saltpetre, but this view
+involves the difficulty that that substance was apparently not
+known till the 13th century, even if it were capable of accounting
+for the properties attributed to the wet fire. Lieut.-Colonel
+H. W. L. Hime, after a close examination of the available
+evidence, concludes that what distinguished Greek fire from the
+other incendiaries of the period was the presence of quicklime,
+which was well known to give rise to a large development of
+heat when brought into contact with water. The mixture, then,
+was composed of such materials as sulphur and naphtha with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span>
+quicklime, and took fire spontaneously when wetted&mdash;whence
+the name of wet fire or sea fire; and portions of it were &ldquo;projected
+and at the same time ignited by applying the hose of a
+water engine to the breech&rdquo; of the siphon, which was a wooden
+tube, cased with bronze.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Lieut.-Col. H. W. L. Hime, <i>Gunpowder and Ammunition, their
+Origin and Progress</i> (London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span>, the name given to the
+great rising of the Greek subjects of the sultan against the
+Ottoman domination, which began in 1821 and ended in 1833
+with the establishment of the independent kingdom of Greece.
+The circumstances that led to the insurrection and the general
+diplomatic situation by which its fortunes were from time to time
+affected are described elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greece</a></span>: <i>History</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turkey</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>). The present article is confined to a description of the
+general character and main events of the war itself. If we
+exclude the abortive invasion of the Danubian principalities
+by Prince Alexander Ypsilanti (March 1821), which collapsed
+ignominiously as soon as it was disavowed by the tsar, the
+theatre of the war was confined to continental Greece, the Morea,
+and the adjacent narrow seas. Its history may, broadly speaking,
+be divided into three periods: the first (1821-1824), during
+which the Greeks, aided by numerous volunteers from Europe,
+were successfully pitted against the sultan&rsquo;s forces alone; the
+second, from 1824, when the disciplined troops of Mehemet Ali,
+pasha of Egypt, turned the tide against the insurgents; the
+third, from the intervention of the European powers in the
+autumn of 1827 to the end.</p>
+
+<p>When, on the 2nd of April 1821, Archbishop Germanos, head
+of the <i>Hetaeria</i> in the Morea, raised the standard of the cross at
+Kalavryta as the signal for a general rising of the Christian
+population, the circumstances were highly favourable. In the
+Morea itself, in spite of plentiful warning, the Turks were wholly
+unprepared; while the bulk of the Ottoman army, under the
+<i>seraskier</i> Khurshid Pasha, was engaged in the long task of
+reducing the intrepid Ali, pasha of Iannina (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ali</a></span>, pasha of
+Iannina).</p>
+
+<p>Another factor, and that the determining one, soon came to the
+aid of the Greeks. In warfare carried on in such a country as
+Greece, sea-girt and with a coast deeply indented, inland without
+roads and intersected with rugged mountains, victory&mdash;as
+Wellington was quick to observe&mdash;must rest with the side that
+has command of the sea. This was assured to the insurgents at
+the outset by the revolt of the maritime communities of the
+Greek archipelago. The Greeks of the islands had been accustomed
+from time immemorial to seafaring; their ships&mdash;some
+as large as frigates&mdash;were well armed, to guard against the
+Barbary pirates and rovers of their own kin; lastly, they had
+furnished the bulk of the sailors to the Ottoman navy which,
+now that this recruiting ground was closed, had to be manned
+hastily with impressed crews of dock-labourers and peasants,
+many of whom had never seen the sea. The Turkish fleet,
+&ldquo;adrift in the Archipelago&rdquo;&mdash;as the British seamen put it&mdash;though
+greatly superior in tonnage and weight of metal, could
+never be a match for the Greek brigs, manned as these were by
+trained, if not disciplined, crews.</p>
+
+<p>The war was begun by the Greeks without definite plan and
+without any generally recognized leadership. The force with
+which Germanos marched from Kalavryta against
+Patras was composed of peasants armed with scythes,
+<span class="sidenote">Outbreak of the insurrection.</span>
+clubs and slings, among whom the &ldquo;primates&rdquo; exercised
+a somewhat honorary authority. The town
+itself was destroyed and those of its Mussulman inhabitants
+who could not escape into the citadel were massacred; but the
+citadel remained in the hands of the Turks till 1828. Meanwhile,
+in the south, leaders of another stamp had appeared:
+Petros, bey of the Maina (<i>q.v.</i>) chief of the Mavromichales, who
+at the head of his clan attacked Kalamata and put the Mussulman
+inhabitants to the sword; and Kolokotrones, a notable
+brigand once in the service of the Ionian government, who&mdash;fortified
+by a vision of the Virgin&mdash;captured Karytaena and
+slaughtered its infidel population. Encouraged by these
+successes the revolt spread rapidly; within three weeks there
+was not a Mussulman left in the open country, and the remnants
+of the once dominant class were closely besieged in the fortified
+towns by hosts of wild peasants and brigands. The flames of
+revolt now spread across the Isthmus of Corinth: early in April
+the Christians of Dervenokhoria rose, and the whole of Boeotia
+and Attica quickly followed suit; at the beginning of May the
+Mussulman inhabitants of Athens were blockaded in the Acropolis.
+In the Morea, meanwhile, a few Mussulman fortresses still
+held out: Coron, Modon, Navarino, Patras, Nauplia, Monemvasia,
+Tripolitsa. One by one they fell, and everywhere were repeated
+the same scenes of butchery. The horrors culminated in the
+capture of Tripolitsa, the capital of the vilayet. In September
+this was taken by storm; Kolokotrones rode in triumph
+to the citadel over streets carpeted with the dead; and the
+crowning triumph of the Cross was celebrated by a cold-blooded
+massacre of 2000 prisoners of all ages and both sexes. This
+completed the success of the insurrection in the Morea, where
+only Patras, Nauplia, and one or two lesser fortresses remained to
+the Turks.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, north of the Isthmus, the fortunes of war had been
+less one-sided. In the west Khurshid&rsquo;s lieutenant, Omar
+Vrioni (a Mussulman Greek of the race of the Palaeologi), had
+inflicted a series of defeats on the insurgents, recaptured Levadia,
+and on the 30th of June relieved the Acropolis; but the rout
+of the troops which Mahommed Pasha was bringing to his aid
+by the Greeks in the defile of Mount Oeta, and the news of the fall
+of Tripolitsa, forced him to retreat, and the campaign of 1821
+ended with the retirement of the Turks into Thessaly.</p>
+
+<p>The month of April had witnessed the revolt of the principal
+Greek islands, Spetsae on the 7th, Psara on the 23rd, Hydra
+on the 28th and Samos on the 30th. Their fleets were divided
+into squadrons, of which one, under Tombazes, was deputed
+to watch for the entrance of the Ottomans into the archipelago,
+while the other under Andreas Miaoulis (<i>q.v.</i>) sailed to blockade
+Patras and watch the coasts of Epirus. At sea, as on land, the
+Greeks opened the campaign with hideous atrocities, almost
+their first exploit being the capture of a vessel carrying to Mecca
+the sheik-ul-Islam and his family, whom they murdered with
+every aggravation of outrage.</p>
+
+<p>These inauspicious beginnings, indeed, set the whole tone of
+the war, which was frankly one of mutual extermination. On
+both sides the combatants were barbarians, without
+discipline or competent organization. At sea the
+<span class="sidenote">General character of the war.</span>
+Greeks rapidly developed into mere pirates, and even
+Miaoulis, for all his high character and courage, was
+often unable to prevent his captains from sailing home at critical
+moments, when pay or booty failed. On land the presence of
+a few educated Phanariots, such as Demetrios Ypsilanti or
+Alexander Mavrocordato, was powerless to inspire the rude
+hordes with any sense of order or of humanity in warfare; while
+every lull in the fighting, due to a temporary check to the Turks,
+was the signal for internecine conflicts due to the rivalry of
+leaders who, with rare exceptions, thought more of their personal
+power and profit than of the cause of Greece.</p>
+
+<p>This cause, indeed, was helped more by the impolitic reprisals
+of the Turks than by the heroism of the insurgents. All
+Europe stood aghast at the news of the execution of
+<span class="sidenote">Turkish reprisals.</span>
+the Patriarch Gregorios of Constantinople (April 22,
+1821) and the wholesale massacres that followed,
+culminating as these did in the extermination of the
+prosperous community of Scio (Chios) in March 1822. The
+cause of Greece was now that of Christendom, of the Catholic
+and Protestant West, as of the Orthodox East. European
+Liberalism, too, gagged and fettered under Metternich&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Europe and the rising Philhellenism.</span>
+&ldquo;system,&rdquo; recognized in the Greeks the champions
+of its own cause; while even conservative statesmen,
+schooled in the memories of ancient Hellas,
+saw in the struggle a fight of civilization against
+barbarism. This latter belief, which was, moreover, flattering
+to their vanity, the Greek leaders were astute enough to foster;
+the propaganda of Adamantios Coraës (<i>q.v.</i>) had done its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span>
+work; and wily brigands, like Odysseus of Ithaka, assuming
+the style and trappings of antiquity, posed as the champions
+of classic culture against the barbarian. All Europe, then,
+hailed with joy the exploit of Constantine Kanaris, who on the
+night of June 18-19 succeeded in steering a fire-ship among the
+Turkish squadron off Scio, and burned the flag-ship of the
+capudan-pasha with 3000 souls on board.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Sultan Mahmud, now wide awake to the danger,
+had been preparing for a systematic effort to suppress the
+rising. The threatened breach with Russia had been avoided
+by Metternich&rsquo;s influence on the tsar Alexander; the death of
+Ali of Iannina had set free the army of Khurshid Pasha, who now,
+as <i>seraskier</i> of Rumelia, was charged with the task of reducing
+the Morea. In the spring of 1822 two Turkish armies advanced
+southwards: one, under Omar Vrioni, along the coast of Western
+Hellas, the other, under Ali, pasha of Drama (Dramali), through
+Boeotia and Attica. Omar was held in check by the mud
+<span class="sidenote">Expedition of Dramali, 1822.</span>
+ramparts of Missolonghi; but Dramali, after exacting
+fearful vengeance for the massacre of the Turkish
+garrison of the Acropolis at Athens, crossed the
+Isthmus and with the over-confidence of a conquering
+barbarian advanced to the relief of the hard-pressed garrison
+of Nauplia. He crossed the perilous defile of Dervenaki unopposed;
+and at the news of his approach most of the members
+of the Greek government assembled at Argos fled in panic terror.
+Demetrios Ypsilanti, however, with a few hundred men joined
+the Mainote Karayanni in the castle of Larissa, which crowns
+the acropolis of ancient Argos. This held Dramali in check,
+and gave Kolokotrones time to collect an army. The Turks,
+in the absence of the fleet which was to have brought them
+supplies, were forced to retreat (August 6); the Greeks, inspired
+with new courage, awaited them in the pass of Dervenaki, where
+the undisciplined Ottoman host, thrown into confusion by an
+avalanche of boulders hurled upon them, was annihilated. In
+Western Greece the campaign had an outcome scarcely less
+disastrous for the Turks. The death of Ali of Iannina had been
+followed by the suppression of the insurgent Suliotes and the
+advance of Omar Vrioni southwards to Missolonghi; but the
+town held out gallantly, a Turkish surprise attack, on the 6th of
+January 1823, was beaten off, and Omar Vrioni had to abandon
+the siege and retire northwards over the pass of Makrynoros.</p>
+
+<p>The victorious outcome of the year&rsquo;s fighting had a disastrous
+effect upon the Greeks. Their victories had been due mainly
+to the guerilla tactics of the leaders of the type of
+Kolokotrones; Mavrocordato, whose character and
+<span class="sidenote">Civil war among the Greeks.</span>
+antecedents had marked him out as the natural head
+of the new Greek state, in spite of his successful
+defence of Missolonghi, had been discredited by failures elsewhere;
+and the Greeks thus learned to despise their civilized
+advisers and to underrate the importance of discipline. The
+temporary removal of the common peril, moreover, let loose all
+the sectional and personal jealousies, which even in face of the
+enemy had been with difficulty restrained, and the year 1823
+witnessed the first civil war between the Greek parties. These
+internecine feuds might easily have proved fatal to the cause
+of Greece. In the Archipelago Hydriotes and Spetsiotes were
+at daggers drawn; the men of Psara were at open war with
+those of Samos; all semblance of discipline and cohesion had
+vanished from the Greek fleet. Had Khosrev, the new Ottoman
+admiral, been a man of enterprise, he might have regained the
+command of the sea and, with it, that of the whole situation.
+But the fate of his predecessor had filled him with a lively terror
+of Kanaris and his fire-ships; he contented himself with a
+<span class="sidenote">Campaign of 1823.</span>
+cruise round the coasts of Greece, and was happy
+to return to safety under the guns of the Dardanelles
+without having accomplished anything beyond throwing
+supplies and troops into Coron, Modon and Patras.
+On land, meanwhile, the events of the year before practically
+repeated themselves. In the west an army of Mussulman and
+Catholic Albanians, under Mustai Pasha, advanced southwards.
+On the night of the 21st of August occurred the celebrated
+exploit of Marko Botzaris and his Suliotes: a successful surprise
+attack on the camp of the Ottoman vanguard, in which the
+Suliote leader fell. The jealousy of the Aetolian militia for the
+Suliotes, however, prevented the victory being decisive; and
+Mustai advanced to the siege of Anatoliko, a little town in the
+lagoons near Missolonghi. Here he was detained until, on the
+11th of December, he was forced to raise the siege and retire
+northwards. His colleague, Yussuf Pasha, in East Hellas fared
+no better; here, too, the Turks gained some initial successes,
+but in the end the harassing tactics of Kolokotrones and his
+guerilla bands forced them back into the plain of the Kephissos.
+At the end of the year the Greeks were once more free to renew
+their internecine feuds.</p>
+
+<p>Just when these feuds were at their height, in the autumn
+of 1823, the most famous of the Philhellenes who sacrificed
+themselves for the cause of Greece, Lord Byron, arrived in
+Greece.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1824 was destined to be a fateful one for the Greek
+cause. The large loans raised in Europe, the first instalment
+of which Byron had himself brought over, while
+providing the Greeks with the sinews of war, provided
+<span class="sidenote">Second civil war, 1824.</span>
+them also with fresh material for strife. To the
+struggle for power was added a struggle for a share of
+this booty, and a second civil war broke out, Kolokotrones
+leading the attack on the forces of the government. Early in
+1825 the government was victorious; Kolokotrones was in
+prison; and Odysseus, the hero of so many exploits and so
+many crimes, who had ended by turning traitor and selling his
+services to the Turks, had been captured, imprisoned in the
+Acropolis, and finally assassinated by his former lieutenant
+Gouras (July 16, 1824). But a new and more terrible danger
+now threatened Greece. Sultan Mahmud, despairing of suppressing
+the insurrection by his own power, had reluctantly
+summoned to his aid Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, whose
+<span class="sidenote">Intervention of Mehemet Ali.</span>
+well-equipped fleet and disciplined army were now
+thrown into the scale against the Greeks. Already,
+in June 1823, the pasha&rsquo;s son-in-law Hussein Bey
+had landed in Crete, and by April of the following
+year had reduced the insurgent islanders to submission. Crete
+now became the base of operations against the Greeks. On the
+19th of June Hussein appeared before Kasos, a nest of pirates
+of evil reputation, which he captured and destroyed. The same
+day the Egyptian fleet, under Ibrahim Pasha, sailed from
+Alexandria. Khosrev, too, emboldened by this new sense of
+support, ventured to sea, surprised and destroyed Psara (July 2),
+and planned an attack on Samos, which was defeated by Miaoulis
+and his fire-ships (August 16, 17). On the 1st of September,
+however, Khosrev succeeded in effecting a junction with Ibrahim
+off Budrun, and two indecisive engagements followed with the
+united Greek fleet on the 5th and 10th. The object of Ibrahim
+was to reach Suda Bay with his transports, which the Greeks
+should at all costs have prevented. A first attempt was defeated
+by Miaoulis on the 16th of November, and Ibrahim was compelled
+to retire and anchor off Rhodes; but the Greek admiral was
+unable to keep his fleet together, the season was far advanced,
+his captains were clamouring for arrears of pay, and the Greek
+fleet sailed for Nauplia, leaving the sea unguarded. On the
+5th of December Ibrahim again set sail, and reached Suda
+without striking a blow. Here he completed his preparations,
+and, on the 24th of February 1825, landed at Modon in the
+Morea with a force of 4000 regular infantry and 500 cavalry.
+The rest followed, without the Greeks making any effort to
+intercept them.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions of the war were now completely changed.
+The Greeks, who had been squandering the money provided
+by the loans in every sort of senseless extravagance,
+affected to despise the Egyptian invaders, but they
+<span class="sidenote">Ibrahim in the Morea.</span>
+were soon undeceived. On the 21st of March Ibrahim
+had laid siege to Navarino, and after some delay a
+Greek force under Skourti, a Hydriote sea-captain, was sent to
+its relief. The Greeks had in all some 7000 men, Suliotes,
+Albanians, <i>armatoli</i> from Rumelia, and some irregular Bulgarian
+and Vlach cavalry. On the 19th of April they were met by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span>
+Ibrahim at Krommydi with 2000 regular infantry, 400 cavalry
+and four guns. The Greek entrenchments were stormed at the
+point of the bayonet by Ibrahim&rsquo;s fellahin at the first onset; the
+defenders broke and fled, leaving 600 dead on the field. The
+news of this disaster, and of the fall of Pylos and Navarino that
+followed, struck terror into the Greek government; and in
+answer to popular clamour Kolokotrones was taken from prison
+and placed at the head of the army. But the guerilla tactics
+of the wily klepht were powerless against Ibrahim, who marched
+northward, and, avoiding Nauplia for the present, seized
+Tripolitsa, and made this the base from which his columns
+marched to devastate the country far and wide.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile from the north the Ottomans were making another
+supreme effort. The command of the army that was to operate
+in west Hellas had been given to Reshid &ldquo;Kutahia,&rdquo;
+pasha of Iannina, an able general and a man of determined
+<span class="sidenote">Reshid &ldquo;Kutahia&rdquo; besieges Missolonghi.</span>
+character. On the 6th of April, after bribing
+the Albanian clansmen to neutrality, he passed the
+defile of Makrynoros, which the Greeks had left
+undefended, and on the 7th of May opened the second siege of
+Missolonghi. For twelve months the population held out, repulsing
+the attacks of the enemy, refusing every offer of honourable
+capitulation. This resistance was rendered possible by the
+Greek command of the sea, Miaoulis from time to time entering
+the lagoons with supplies; it came to an end when this command
+was lost. In September 1825 Ibrahim, at the order of the sultan,
+had joined Reshid before the town; piecemeal the outlying
+forts and defences now fell, until the garrison, reduced by
+starvation and disease, determined to hazard all on a final sortie.
+This took place on the night of the 22nd of April 1826; but a
+mistaken order threw the ranks of the Greeks into disorder,
+and the Turks entered the town pell-mell with the retreating
+crowd. Only a remnant of the defenders succeeded in gaining
+the forests of Mount Zygos, where most of them perished.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of Missolonghi, followed as this was by the submission
+of many of the more notable chiefs, left Reshid free to turn his
+attention to East Hellas, where Gouras had been ruling
+as a practically independent chief and in the spirit
+<span class="sidenote">Karaiskakis.</span>
+of a brigand. The peasants of the open country
+welcomed the Turks as deliverers, and Reshid&rsquo;s conciliatory
+policy facilitated his march to Athens, which fell at the first
+assault on the 25th of August, siege being at once laid to the
+Acropolis, where Gouras and his troops had taken refuge.
+Round this the war now centred; for all recognized that its
+fall would involve that of the cause of Greece. In these straits
+the Greek government entrusted the supreme command of the
+troops to Karaiskakis, an old retainer of Ali of Iannina, a master
+of the art of guerilla war, and, above all, a man of dauntless
+courage and devoted patriotism. A first attempt to relieve the
+Acropolis, with the assistance of some disciplined troops under
+the French Colonel Fabvier, was defeated at Chaidari by the
+Turks. The garrison of the Acropolis was hard pressed, and the
+death of Gouras (October 13th) would have ended all, had not
+his heroic wife taken over the command and inspired the defenders
+with new courage. For months the siege dragged on, while
+Karaiskakis fought with varying success in the mountains, a
+final victory at Distomo (February 1827) over Omar Vrioni
+securing the restoration to the Greek cause of all continental
+Greece, except the towns actually held by the Turks.</p>
+
+<p>It was at this juncture that the Greek government, reinforced
+by a fresh loan from Europe, handed over the chief command
+at sea to Lord Cochrane (earl of Dundonald, <i>q.v.</i>), and
+that of the land forces to General (afterwards Sir
+<span class="sidenote">Cochrane and Church.</span>
+Richard) Church, both Miaoulis and Karaiskakis
+consenting without demur to serve under them.
+Cochrane and Church at once concentrated their energies on the
+task of relieving the Acropolis. Already, on the 5th of February,
+General Gordon had landed and entrenched himself on the hill
+of Munychia, near the ancient Piraeus, and the efforts of the
+Turks to dislodge him had failed, mainly owing to the fire of
+the steamer &ldquo;Karteria&rdquo; commanded by Captain Hastings.
+When Church and Cochrane arrived, a general assault on the
+Ottoman camp was decided on. This was preceded, on the
+25th of April, by an attack, headed by Cochrane, on the Turkish
+troops established near the monastery of St Spiridion, the result
+of which was to establish communications between the Greeks
+at Munychia and Phalerum and isolate Reshid&rsquo;s vanguard on
+the promontory of the Piraeus. The monastery held out for
+two days longer, when the Albanian garrison surrendered on
+terms, but were massacred by the Greeks as they were marching
+away under escort. For this miserable crime Church has, by
+some historians, been held responsible by default; it is clear,
+however, from his own account that no blame rests upon him
+(see his MS. <i>Narrative</i>, vol. i. chap. ii. p. 34). The assault on
+the Turkish main camp was fixed for the 6th of May; but,
+unfortunately, a chance skirmish brought on an engagement
+the day before, in the course of which Karaiskakis was killed,
+an irreparable loss in view of his prestige with the wild <i>armatoli</i>.
+The assault on the following day was a disastrous failure. The
+<span class="sidenote">Greek defeat at Athens.</span>
+Greeks, advancing prematurely over broken ground
+and in no sort of order, were fallen upon in flank by
+Reshid&rsquo;s horsemen, and fled in panic terror. The
+English officers, who in vain tried to rally them,
+themselves only just escaped by scrambling into their boats
+and putting off to the war-vessels, whose guns checked the
+pursuit and enabled a remnant of the fugitives to escape.
+Church held Munychia till the 27th, when he sent instructions
+for the garrison of the Acropolis to surrender. On the 5th of
+June the remnant of the defenders marched out with the
+honours of war, and continental Greece was once more in the
+power of the Turks. Had Reshid at once advanced over the
+Isthmus, the Morea also must have been subdued; but he
+was jealous of Ibrahim, and preferred to return to Iannina to
+consolidate his conquests.</p>
+
+<p>The fate of Greece was now in the hands of the Powers, who
+after years of diplomatic wrangling had at last realized that
+intervention was necessary if Greece was to be saved
+for European civilization. The worst enemy of the
+<span class="sidenote">Renewed anarchy.</span>
+Greeks was their own incurable spirit of faction; in
+the very crisis of their fate, during the siege of Missolonghi, rival
+presidents and rival assemblies struggled for supremacy, and a
+third civil war had only been prevented by the arrival of Cochrane
+and Church. Under their influence a new National Assembly
+met at Troezene in March 1827 and elected as president Count
+Capo d&rsquo;Istria (<i>q.v.</i>), formerly Russian minister for foreign affairs;
+at the same time a new constitution was promulgated which,
+when the very life of the insurrection seemed on the point of
+flickering out, set forth the full ideal of Pan-Hellenic dreams.
+Anarchy followed; war of Rumeliotes against Moreotes, of chief
+against chief; rival factions bombarded each other from the
+two forts at Nauplia over the stricken town, and in derision of
+the impotent government. Finally, after months of inaction,
+Ibrahim began once more his systematic devastation of the
+country. To put a stop to this the Powers decided to intervene
+by means of a joint demonstration of their fleets, in order to
+enforce an armistice and compel Ibrahim to evacuate the Morea
+(Treaty of London, July 6, 1827). The refusal of Ibrahim to
+obey, without special instruction from the sultan, led to the
+entrance of the allied British, French and Russian fleet into the
+harbour of Navarino and the battle of the 20th of October 1827
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Navarino</a></span>). This, and the two campaigns of the Russo-Turkish
+war of 1828-29, decided the issue.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;There is no trustworthy history of the war, based
+on all the material now available, and all the existing works must be
+read with caution, especially those by eye-witnesses, who were too
+often prejudiced or the dupes of the Greek factions. The best-known
+works are: G. Finlay, <i>Hist. of the Greek Revolution</i> (2 vols., London,
+1861); T. Gordon, <i>Hist. of the Greek Revolution</i> (London, 1833);
+C. W. P. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, <i>Geschichte Griechenlands</i>, &amp;c.
+(<i>Staatengeschichte der neuesten Zeit</i>) (2 vols., Leipzig, 1870-1874);
+F. C. H. L. Pouqueville, <i>Histoire de la régénération de la Grèce, &amp;c.</i>
+(4 vols., Paris, 1824),&mdash;the author was French resident at the court
+of Ali of Iannina and afterwards consul at Patras; Count A.
+Prokesch-Osten, <i>Geschichte des Abfalls der Griechen vom türkischen
+Reich, &amp;c.</i> (6 vols., Vienna, 1867), the last four volumes consisting
+of <i>pièces justificatives</i> of much value. See also W. Alison
+Phillips, <i>The War of Greek Independence</i> (London and New York,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span>
+1897), a sketch compiled mainly from the above-mentioned works:
+Spiridionos Tricoupi, <span class="grk" title="Historia tês Hellênikês epanastaseôs">&#7993;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#7952;&#960;&#945;&#957;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span> (Athens,
+1853); J. Philemon, <span class="grk" title="Dokimion historikon peri tês Hellênikês epanastaseôs">&#916;&#959;&#954;&#943;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#7985;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#957; &#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8134;&#962; &#7961;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#8134;&#962; &#7952;&#960;&#945;&#957;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#963;&#949;&#969;&#962;</span>
+(Athens, 1859), in four parts: (1) History of the Hetaeria Philike,
+(2) The heralding of the war and the rising under Ypsilanti, (3 and 4).
+The insurrection in Greece to 1822, with many documents. Of great
+value also are the 29 volumes of Correspondence and Papers of Sir
+Richard Church, now in the British Museum (Add MSS. 36,543-36,571).
+Among these is a Narrative by Church of the war in Greece
+during his tenure of the command (vols. xxi.-xxiii., Nos. 36,563-36,565),
+which contains the material for correcting many errors repeated
+in most works on the war, notably the strictures of Finlay and
+others on Church&rsquo;s conduct before Athens. For further references
+see the bibliography appended to W. Alison Phillips&rsquo;s chapter on
+&ldquo;Greece and the Balkan Peninsula&rdquo; in the <i>Cambridge Modern
+History</i>, x. 803.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GREEK LANGUAGE.<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> Greek is one of the eight main
+branches into which the Indo-European languages (<i>q.v.</i>) are
+divided. The area in which it is spoken has been curiously
+constant throughout its recorded history. These limits are,
+roughly speaking, the shores of the Aegean, on both the
+European and the Asiatic side, and the intermediate islands
+(one of the most archaic of Greek dialects being found on the
+eastern side in the island of Cyprus), and the Greek peninsula
+generally from its southern promontories as far as the
+mountains which shut in Thessaly on the north. Beyond
+Mt. Olympus and the Cambunian mountains lay Macedonia,
+in which a closely kindred dialect was spoken, so closely
+related, indeed, that O. Hoffmann has argued (<i>Die Makedonen</i>,
+Göttingen, 1906) that Macedonian is not only Greek, but
+a part of the great Aeolic dialect which included Thessalian
+to the south and Lesbian to the east. In the north-west,
+Greek included many rude dialects little known even to the
+ancient Greeks themselves, and it extended northwards beyond
+Aetolia and Ambracia to southern Epirus and Thesprotia.
+In the Homeric age the great shrine of Pelasgian Zeus was at
+Dodona, but, by the time of Thucydides, Aetolia and all north
+of it had come to be looked upon as the most backward of Greek
+lands, where men lived a savage life, speaking an almost unintelligible
+language, and eating raw flesh (<span class="grk" title="agnôstotatoi de glôssan
+kai ômophagoi">&#7936;&#947;&#957;&#969;&#963;&#964;&#972;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#953; &#948;&#8050; &#947;&#955;&#8182;&#963;&#963;&#945;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#8032;&#956;&#959;&#966;&#940;&#947;&#959;&#953;</span>, Thuc. iii. 94, of the Aetolian Eurytanes). The
+Greeks themselves had no memory of how they came to occupy
+this land. Their earliest legends connected the origin of their
+race with Thessaly and Mt. Pindus, but Athenians and Arcadians
+also boasted themselves of autochthonous race, inhabiting a
+country wherein no man had preceded their ancestors. The
+Greek language, at any rate as it has come down to us, is
+remarkably perfect, in vowel sounds being the most primitive
+of any of the Indo-European languages, while its verb system
+has no rival in completeness except in the earliest Sanskrit of
+the Vedic literature. Its noun system, on the other hand, is
+much less complete, its cases being more broken down than
+those of the Aryan, Armenian, Slavonic and Italic families.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The most remarkable characteristic of Greek is one conditioned
+by the geographical aspect of the land. Few countries are so broken
+up with mountains as Greece. Not only do mountain ranges as
+elsewhere on the European continent run east and west, but other
+ranges cross them from north to south, thus dividing the portions
+of Greece at some distance from the sea into hollows without outlet,
+every valley being separated for a considerable part of the year
+from contact with every other, and inter-communication at all
+seasons being rendered difficult. Thus till external coercion from
+Macedon came into play it was never possible to establish a great
+central government controlling the Greek mainland. The geographical
+situation of the islands in the Aegean equally led to the
+isolation of one little territory from another. To these geographical
+considerations may be added the inveterate desire of the Greeks
+to make the <span class="grk" title="polis">&#960;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span>, the city state, everywhere and at all times an
+independent unit, a desire which, originating in the geographical
+conditions, even accentuated the isolating effect of the natural
+features of the country. Thus at one time in the little island of
+Amorgos there were no less than three separate and independent
+political units. The inevitable result of geographical and political
+division was the maintenance of a great number of local characteristics
+in language, differentiating in this respect also each political
+community from its nearest neighbours. It was only natural that
+the inhabitants of a country so little adapted to maintain a numerous
+population should have early sent off swarms to other lands. The
+earliest stage of colonization lies in the borderland between myth
+and history. The Greeks themselves knew that a population had
+preceded them in the islands of the Cyclades which they identified
+with the Carians of Asia Minor (Herodotus i. 171; Thucydides i.
+4. 8). The same population indeed appears to have preceded them
+on the mainland of Greece, for there are similar place-names in Caria
+and in Greece which have no etymology in Greek. Thus the endings
+of words like Parnassus and Halicarnassus seem identical, and the
+common ending of place-names in -<span class="grk" title="inthos, Korinthos, Probalinthos">&#953;&#957;&#952;&#959;&#962;, &#922;&#972;&#961;&#953;&#957;&#952;&#959;&#962;, &#928;&#961;&#959;&#946;&#940;&#955;&#953;&#957;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>, &amp;c.,
+seems to be the same in origin with the common ending of Asiatic
+names in -<i>nda</i>, Alinda, Karyanda, &amp;c. Probably the earliest portion
+of Asia Minor to be colonized by the Greeks was the north-west, to
+which came settlers from Thessaly, when the early inhabitants were
+driven out by the Thesprotians, who later controlled Thessaly. The
+name Aeolis, which after times gave to the N.W. of Asia Minor,
+was the old name for Thessaly (Hdt. vii. 176). These Thesprotians
+were of the same stock as the Dorians, to whose invasion of the
+Peloponnese the later migration, which carried the Ionians to Asia
+and the Cypriot Greeks to Cyprus, in all probability was due. From
+the north Aegean probably the Dorians reached Crete, where alone
+their existence is recorded by Homer (<i>Odyssey</i>, xix. 175 ff.; Diodorus
+Siculus v. 80. 2); cp. Fick, <i>Vorgriechische Ortsnamen</i> (1906).</p>
+
+<p>Among the Greeks of the pre-Dorian period Herodotus distinguishes
+various stocks. Though the name is not Homeric, both
+Herodotus and Thucydides recognize an Aeolian stock which must
+have spread over Thessaly and far to the west till it was suppressed
+and absorbed by the Dorian stock which came in from the north-west.
+The name of Aeolis still attached in Thucydides&rsquo; time to the
+western area of Calydon between the mountains and the N. side of
+the entrance to the Corinthian gulf (iii. 102). In Boeotia the same
+stock survived (Thuc. vii. 57. 5), overlaid by an influx of Dorians,
+and it came down to the isthmus; for the Corinthians, though
+speaking in historical times a Doric dialect, were originally Aeolians
+(Thuc. iv. 42). In the Peloponnese Herodotus recognizes (viii. 73)
+three original stocks, the Arcadians, the Ionians of Cynuria, and the
+Achaeans. In Arcadia there is little doubt that the pre-Dorian
+population maintained itself and its language, just as in the mountains
+of Wales, the Scottish Highlands and Connemara the Celtic
+language has maintained itself against the Saxon invaders. By
+Herodotus&rsquo; time the Cynurians had been doricized, while the Ionians,
+along the south side of the Corinthian gulf, were expelled by the
+Achaeans (vii. 94, viii. 73), apparently themselves driven from their
+own homes by the Dorian invasion (Strabo viii. p. 333 <i>fin</i>.). However
+this may be, the Achaeans of historical times spoke a dialect
+akin to that of northern Elis and of the Greeks on the north side of
+the Corinthian gulf. How close the relation may have been between
+the language of the Achaeans of the Peloponnese in the Homeric age
+and their contemporaries in Thessaly we have no means of ascertaining
+definitely, the documentary evidence for the history of the
+dialects being all very much later than Homeric times. Even in
+the Homeric catalogue Agamemnon has to lend the Arcadians ships
+to take them to Troy (<i>Iliad</i>, ii. 612). But a population speaking the
+same or a very similar dialect was probably seated on the eastern
+coast, and migrated at the beginning of the Doric invasion to Cyprus.
+As this population wrote not in the Greek alphabet but in a peculiar
+syllabary and held little communication with the rest of the Greek
+world, it succeeded in preserving in Cyprus a very archaic dialect
+very closely akin to that of Arcadia, and also containing a considerable
+number of words found in the Homeric vocabulary but lost or
+modified in later Greek elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>On this historical foundation alone is it possible to understand
+clearly the relation of the dialects in historical times. The prehistoric
+movements of the Greek tribes can to some extent be realized in
+their dialects, as recorded in their inscriptions, though all existing
+inscriptions belong to a much later period. Thus from the ancient
+Aeolis of northern Greece sprang the historical dialects of Thessaly
+and Lesbos with the neighbouring coast of Asia Minor. At an early
+period the Dorians had invaded and to some extent affected the
+character of the southern Thessalian and to a much greater extent
+that of the Boeotian dialect. The dialects of Locris, Phocis and
+Aetolia were a somewhat uncouth and unliterary form of Doric.
+According to accepted tradition, Elis had been colonized by Oxylus
+the Aetolian, and the dialect of the more northerly part of Elis, as
+already pointed out, is, along with the Achaean of the south side of
+the Corinthian gulf, closely akin to those dialects north of the
+Isthmus. The most southerly part of Elis&mdash;Triphylia&mdash;has a dialect
+akin to Arcadian. Apart from Arcadian the other dialects of the
+Peloponnese in historical times are all Doric, though in small details
+they differ among themselves. Though we are unable to check the
+statements of the historians as to the area occupied by Ionic in
+prehistoric times, it is clear from the legends of the close connexion
+between Athens and Troezen that the same dialect, had been spoken
+on both sides of the Saronic gulf, and may well have extended, as
+Herodotus says, along the eastern coast of the Peloponnese and the
+south side of the Corinthian gulf. According to legend, the Ionians
+expelled from the Peloponnese collected at Athens before they
+started on their migrations to the coast of Asia Minor. Be that as
+it may, legend and language alike connected the Athenians with the
+Ionians, though by the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Athenians no longer
+cared to be known by the name (Hdt. i. 143). Lemnos, Imbros and
+Scyros, which had long belonged to Athens, were Athenian also in
+language. The great island of Euboea and all the islands of the
+central Aegean between Greece and Asia were Ionic. Chios, the most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span>
+northerly Ionic island on the Asiatic coast, seems to have been originally
+Aeolic, and its Ionic retained some Aeolic characteristics. The
+most southerly of the mainland towns which were originally Aeolic was
+Smyrna, but this at an early date became Ionic (Hdt. i. 149). The
+last important Ionic town to the south was Miletus, but at an early
+period Ionic widened its area towards the south also and took in
+Halicarnassus from the Dorians. According to Herodotus, there
+were four kinds of Ionic (<span class="grk" title="charaktêres glôssês tesseres">&#967;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#8134;&#961;&#949;&#962; &#947;&#955;&#974;&#963;&#963;&#951;&#962; &#964;&#941;&#963;&#963;&#949;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>, i. 142).
+Herodotus tells us the areas in which these dialects were spoken,
+but nothing of the differences between them. They were (1) Samos,
+(2) Chios and Erythrae, (3) the towns in Lydia, (4) the towns in Caria.
+The language of the inscriptions unfortunately is a <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span>, a conventional
+literary language which reveals no differences of importance.
+Only recently has the characteristic so well known in Herodotus of &kappa;
+appearing in certain words where other dialects have &pi; (<span class="grk" title="hokôs">&#8005;&#954;&#969;&#962;</span> for
+<span class="grk" title="hopôs">&#8005;&#960;&#969;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="kou">&#954;&#959;&#8166;</span> for <span class="grk" title="pou">&#960;&#959;&#8166;</span>, &amp;c.) been found in any inscription. It is, however,
+clear that this was a popular characteristic not considered to
+be sufficiently dignified for official documents. We may conjecture
+that the native languages spoken on the Lydian and Carian coasts
+had affected the character of the language spoken by the Greek
+immigrants, more especially as the settlers from Athens married
+Carian women, while the settlers in the other towns were a mixture
+of Greek tribes, many of them not Ionic at all (Hdt. i. 146).</p>
+
+<p>The more southerly islands of the Aegean and the most southerly
+peninsula of Asia Minor were Doric. In the Homeric age Dorians
+were only one of many peoples in Crete, but in historical times,
+though the dialects of the eastern and the western ends of the island
+differ from one another and from the middle whence our most
+valuable documents come, all are Doric. By Melos and Thera Dorians
+carried their language to Cos, Calymnus, Cnidus and Rhodes.</p>
+
+<p>These settlements, Aeolic, Ionic and Doric, grew and prospered,
+and like flourishing hives themselves sent out fresh swarms to other
+lands. Most prosperous and energetic of all was Miletus, which
+established its trading posts in the Black Sea to the north and in the
+delta of the Nile (Naucratis) to the south. The islands also sent off
+their colonies, carrying their dialects with them, Paros to Thasos,
+Euboea to the peninsulas of Chalcidice; the Dorians of Megara
+guarded the entrance to the Black Sea at Chalcedon and Byzantium.
+While Achaean influence spread out to the more southerly Ionian
+islands, Corinth carried her dialect with her colonies to the coast of
+Acarnania, Leucas and Corcyra. But the greatest of all Corinthian
+colonies was much farther to the west&mdash;at Syracuse in Sicily. Unfortunately
+the continuous occupation of the same or adjacent sites
+has led to the loss of almost all that is early from Corinth and from
+Syracuse. Corcyra has bequeathed to us some interesting grave
+inscriptions from the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Southern Italy and Sicily
+were early colonized by Greeks. According to tradition Cumae was
+founded not long after the Trojan War; even if we bring the date
+nearer the founding of Syracuse in 735 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, we have apparently no
+record earlier than the first half of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, though it is
+still the earliest of Chalcidian inscriptions. Tarentum was a Laconian
+foundation, but the longest and most important document from a
+Laconian colony in Italy comes from Heraclea about the end of the
+4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>&mdash;the report of a commission upon and the lease of
+temple lands with description and conditions almost of modern
+precision. To Achaea belonged the south Italian towns of Croton,
+Metapontum and Sybaris. The ancestry of the Greek towns of Sicily
+has been explained by Thucydides (vi. 2-5). Selinus, a colony of
+Megara, <span class="correction" title="amended from bewrays">betrays</span> its origin in its dialect. Gela and Agrigentum no
+less clearly show their descent from Rhodes. According to tradition
+the great city of Cyrene in Africa was founded from Thera, itself an
+offshoot from Sparta.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Chief Characteristics of the Greek Dialects</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Arcadian and Cyprian.</i>&mdash;As Cyprian was written in a syllabary
+which could not represent a consonant by itself, did not distinguish
+between voiced, unvoiced and aspirated consonants, did not represent
+at all a nasal before another consonant, and did not distinguish
+between long and short vowels, the interpretation of the symbols is
+of the nature of a conundrum and the answer is not always certain.
+Thus the same combination of two symbols would have to stand
+for <span class="grk" title="tote, tode, dote, dothê, tonde, tôde, to, dê">&#964;&#972;&#964;&#949;, &#964;&#972;&#948;&#949;, &#948;&#972;&#964;&#949;, &#948;&#959;&#952;&#8134;, &#964;&#972;&#957;&#948;&#949;, &#964;&#8182;&#948;&#949;, &#964;&#8056;, &#948;&#942;</span>. No inscription of more
+than a few words in length is found in either dialect earlier than
+the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In both dialects the number of important inscriptions
+is steadily increasing. Both dialects change final &omicron; to &upsilon;,
+<span class="grk" title="apo">&#7936;&#960;&#972;</span> passing into <span class="grk" title="apy">&#7936;&#960;&#973;</span>. Arcadian changes the verb ending -<span class="grk" title="ai">&#945;&#953;</span> into
+-<span class="grk" title="oi">&#959;&#953;</span>. Arcadian uses &delta; or &zeta; for an original <i>gw</i>-sound, which appears in
+Attic Greek as &beta;: <span class="grk" title="zellô">&#950;&#941;&#955;&#955;&#969;</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="ballô">&#946;&#940;&#955;&#955;&#969;</span>, &ldquo;throw.&rdquo; In inflexion both
+agree in changing -<span class="grk" title="ao">&#8118;&#959;</span> of masculine -&alpha; stems into <span class="grk" title="au">&#945;&#965;</span> (Arcadian carries
+this form also into the feminine -&alpha; stems), and in using locatives in
+-<span class="grk" title="ai">&#945;&#953;</span> and -<span class="grk" title="oi">&#959;&#953;</span> for the dative, such locatives being governed by the
+prepositions <span class="grk" title="apy">&#7936;&#960;&#973;</span> and <span class="grk" title="ex">&#7952;&#958;</span> (before a consonant <span class="grk" title="es">&#7952;&#962;</span> in Arcadian). Verbs
+in -<span class="grk" title="aô">&#945;&#969;</span>, -<span class="grk" title="eô">&#949;&#969;</span> and -<span class="grk" title="oô">&#959;&#969;</span> are declined not as -&omega;, but as -<span class="grk" title="mi">&#956;&#953;</span> verbs. The final
+&iota; of the ending of the 3rd plural present changes the preceding &tau;
+to &sigma;: <span class="grk" title="pheronsi">&#966;&#941;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#963;&#953;</span>, cp. Laconian (Doric) <span class="grk" title="pheronti">&#966;&#941;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#953;</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="pherousi">&#966;&#941;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;</span>, Lesbian
+<span class="grk" title="pheroisi">&#966;&#941;&#961;&#959;&#953;&#963;&#953;</span>. Instead of the Attic <span class="grk" title="tis">&#964;&#943;&#962;</span>, the interrogative pronoun appears
+as <span class="grk" title="sis">&#963;&#943;&#962;</span>, the initial &sigma; in Arcadian being written with a special symbol
+&#991;. The pronunciation is not certain. The original sound was <i>qw</i>,
+as in Latin <i>quis</i>, whence Attic <span class="grk" title="tis">&#964;&#943;&#962;</span> and Thessalian <span class="grk" title="kis">&#954;&#943;&#962;</span>. In Arcadian
+<span class="grk" title="kan">&#954;&#945;&#957;</span> the Aeolic particle <span class="grk" title="ke">&#954;&#949;</span> and the Ionic <span class="grk" title="an">&#945;&#957;</span> seem to be combined.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Aeolic.</i>&mdash;Though Boeotian is overlaid with a Doric element, it
+nevertheless agrees with Thessalian and Lesbian in some characteristics.
+Unlike Greek generally, they represent the original <i>qw</i> of the
+word for <i>four</i> by &pi; before &epsilon;, where Attic and other dialects have &tau;:
+<span class="grk" title="pettares">&#960;&#941;&#964;&#964;&#945;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="tettares">&#964;&#941;&#964;&#964;&#945;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>. The corresponding voiced and aspirated
+sounds are similarly treated: <span class="grk" title="Belphaios">&#914;&#941;&#955;&#966;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span> the adjective in Thessalian to
+<span class="grk" title="Delphoi">&#916;&#949;&#955;&#966;&#959;&#943;</span>, and <span class="grk" title="phêr">&#966;&#942;&#961;</span> for <span class="grk" title="thêr">&#952;&#942;&#961;</span>. They all tend to change &omicron; to &upsilon;: <span class="grk" title="onyma">&#8004;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#945;</span>, &ldquo;name&rdquo;;
+<span class="grk" title="ou">&#959;&#965;</span> for &omega; in Thessalian: <span class="grk" title="Aploun">&#7948;&#960;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#957;</span>, &ldquo;Apollo&rdquo;; and &upsilon; in Boeotian for <span class="grk" title="oi">&#959;&#953;</span>:
+<span class="grk" title="wukia">&#989;&#965;&#954;&#943;&#945;</span> (<span class="grk" title="oikia">&#959;&#7984;&#954;&#943;&#945;</span>), &ldquo;house.&rdquo; They also make the dative plural of the
+third declension in -<span class="grk" title="essi">&#949;&#963;&#963;&#953;</span>, and the perfect participle active is declined
+like a present participle in -<span class="grk" title="ôn">&#969;&#957;</span>. Instead of the Athenian method of
+giving the father&rsquo;s name in the genitive when a citizen is described,
+these dialects (especially Thessalian) tend to make an adjective:
+thus instead of the Attic <span class="grk" title="Dêmosthenês Dêmosthenous">&#916;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#963;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#951;&#962; &#916;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#963;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>, Aeolic would
+rather have <span class="grk" title="D. Dêmostheneios">&#916;. &#916;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#963;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>. Thessalian stands midway between
+Lesbian and Boeotian, agreeing with Lesbian in the use of double
+consonants, where Attic has a single consonant, with or without
+lengthening of the previous syllable: <span class="grk" title="emmi">&#7952;&#956;&#956;&#943;</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="eimi">&#949;&#7984;&#956;&#943;</span> for an
+original *<i>esmi</i>; <span class="grk" title="stalla">&#963;&#964;&#940;&#955;&#955;&#945;</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="stêlê">&#963;&#964;&#942;&#955;&#951;</span>; <span class="grk" title="xennos">&#958;&#941;&#957;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> for an earlier <span class="grk" title="xenwos">&#958;&#941;&#957;&#989;&#959;&#962;</span>, Attic
+<span class="grk" title="xenos">&#958;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, Ionic <span class="grk" title="xeinos">&#958;&#949;&#8150;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, Doric <span class="grk" title="xênos">&#958;&#8134;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>. Where Attic has -<span class="grk" title="as">&#8118;&#962;</span> from an earlier
+-<span class="grk" title="ans">&#945;&#957;&#962;</span> or -<span class="grk" title="ants">&#945;&#957;&#964;&#962;</span>, Lesbian has -<span class="grk" title="ais">&#945;&#953;&#962;</span>: <span class="grk" title="tais archais">&#964;&#945;&#8054;&#962; &#7940;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#953;&#962;</span> accusative in Lesbian
+for older <span class="grk" title="tans archans">&#964;&#8048;&#957;&#962; &#7940;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#957;&#962;</span>. Lesbian has no oxyton words according to
+the grammarians, the accent being carried back to the penult or ante-penultimate
+syllable. It has also no &ldquo;rough breathing,&rdquo; but this
+characteristic it shared with the Ionic of Asia Minor, and in the course
+of time with other dialects. The characteristic particle of the dialects
+is <span class="grk" title="ke">&#954;&#949;</span>, which is used like the Doric <span class="grk" title="ka">&#954;&#945;</span>, the Arcadian <span class="grk" title="kan">&#954;&#945;&#957;</span>, and the Attic
+and Ionic <span class="grk" title="an">&#7940;&#957;</span>. Thessalian and Lesbian agree in making their long
+vowels close, &eta; belonging <span class="grk" title="ei">&#949;&#953;</span> (a close <i>&#275;</i>, not a diphthong), <span class="grk" title="pateir">&#960;&#945;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#961;</span>,
+&ldquo;father.&rdquo; The &upsilon; sound did not become <i>ü</i> as in Attic and Ionic,
+and hence when the Ionic alphabet was introduced it was spelt <span class="grk" title="ou">&#959;&#965;</span>,
+or when in contact with dentals <span class="grk" title="iou">&#953;&#959;&#965;</span>, as in <span class="grk" title="oniouma">&#8000;&#957;&#943;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#945;</span> = <span class="grk" title="onyma">&#8004;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#945;</span>, &ldquo;name,&rdquo;
+<span class="grk" title="tioucha">&#964;&#953;&#959;&#973;&#967;&#945;</span> = <span class="grk" title="tychê">&#964;&#973;&#967;&#951;</span>, &ldquo;chance&rdquo;; the pronunciation, therefore, must have
+been like the English sound in <i>news</i>, <i>tune</i>. Boeotian developed earlier
+than other dialects the changes in the vowels which characterize
+modern Greek: <span class="grk" title="ai">&#945;&#953;</span> became <i>&#275;</i>, <span class="grk" title="kai">&#954;&#945;&#8054;</span> passing into <span class="grk" title="kê">&#954;&#942;</span>: compare <span class="grk" title="pateir">&#960;&#945;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#961;</span>
+and <span class="grk" title="wukia">&#989;&#965;&#954;&#943;&#945;</span> above: <span class="grk" title="ei">&#949;&#953;</span> became &iota; in <span class="grk" title="echi">&#7956;&#967;&#953;</span>, &ldquo;has.&rdquo; Thessalian shows
+some examples of the Homeric genitive in -<span class="grk" title="oio">&#959;&#953;&#959;</span>: <span class="grk" title="polemoio">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#941;&#956;&#959;&#953;&#959;</span>, &amp;c.;
+its ordinary genitive of &omicron;- stems is in -<span class="grk" title="oi">&#959;&#953;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>There are some points of connexion between this group and
+Arcadian-Cyprian: in both Thessalian and Cyprian the characteristic
+<span class="grk" title="ptolis">&#960;&#964;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span> (Attic, &amp;c., <span class="grk" title="polis">&#960;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span>) and <span class="grk" title="dauchna">&#948;&#945;&#965;&#967;&#957;&#945;</span>- for <span class="grk" title="daphnê">&#948;&#940;&#966;&#957;&#951;</span> are found, and
+both groups form the &ldquo;contracting verbs&rdquo; not in -&omega; but in -<span class="grk" title="mi">&#956;&#953;</span>.
+In the second group as in the first there is little that precedes the
+5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Future additions to our materials may be expected
+to lessen the gap between the two groups and Homer.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Ionic-Attic.</i>&mdash;One of the earliest of Greek inscriptions&mdash;of the
+7th century, at least&mdash;is the Attic inscription written in two lines
+from right to left upon a wine goblet (<span class="grk" title="oinochoê">&#959;&#7984;&#957;&#959;&#967;&#972;&#951;</span>) given as a prize:
+<span class="grk" title="hos nun orcheston panton | atalotata paizei toto dekan min">h&#972;&#962; &#957;&#8166;&#957; &#8000;&#961;&#967;&#949;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#957; &#960;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#957; | &#7936;&#964;&#945;&#955;&#972;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#945; &#960;&#945;&#943;&#950;&#949;&#953; &#964;&#959;&#964;&#959; &#948;&#949;&#954;&#8118;&#957; &#956;&#953;&#957;</span>. The last
+words are uncertain. Till lately early inscriptions in Ionic were
+few, but recently an early inscription has been found at Ephesus
+and a later copy of a long early inscription at Miletus.</p>
+
+<p>The most noticeable characteristic of Attic and Ionic is the change
+of &alpha; into &eta; which is universal in Ionic but does not appear in Attic
+after another vowel or &rho;. Thus both dialects used <span class="grk" title="mêtêr">&#956;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span>, <span class="grk" title="timê">&#964;&#953;&#956;&#942;</span> from
+an earlier <span class="grk" title="matêr">&#956;&#8113;&#964;&#951;&#961;</span>, <span class="grk" title="tima">&#964;&#953;&#956;&#945;</span>, but Attic had <span class="grk" title="sophia">&#963;&#959;&#966;&#943;&#945;</span>, <span class="grk" title="pragma">&#960;&#961;&#8118;&#947;&#956;&#945;</span> and <span class="grk" title="chôra">&#967;&#974;&#961;&#945;</span>, not
+<span class="grk" title="sophiê">&#963;&#959;&#966;&#943;&#951;</span>, <span class="grk" title="prêgma">&#960;&#961;&#8134;&#947;&#956;&#945;</span> and <span class="grk" title="chôrê">&#967;&#974;&#961;&#951;</span> as in Ionic. The apparent exception <span class="grk" title="korê">&#954;&#972;&#961;&#951;</span>
+is explained by the fact that in this word a digamma &#989; has been lost
+after &rho;, in Doric <span class="grk" title="korwa">&#954;&#972;&#961;&#989;&#945;</span>. That the change took place after the Ionians
+came into Asia is shown by the word <span class="grk" title="Mêdoi">&#924;&#8134;&#948;&#959;&#953;</span>, which in Cyprian is
+<span class="grk" title="Madoi">&#924;&#8118;&#948;&#959;&#953;</span>; the Medes were certainly not known to the Greeks till long
+after the conquest of Ionia. While Aeolic and the greater part of
+Doric kept &#989;, this symbol and the sound <i>w</i> represented by it had
+disappeared from both Ionic and Attic before existing records begin&mdash;in
+other words, were certainly not in use after 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The symbol
+was known and occurs in a few isolated instances. Both dialects
+agreed in changing <i>u</i> into <i>ü</i>, so that a <i>u</i> sound has to be represented
+by <span class="grk" title="ou">&#959;&#965;</span>. The short <i>o</i> tended towards <i>u</i>, so that the contraction of
+&omicron; + &omicron; gave <span class="grk" title="ou">&#959;&#965;</span>. In the same way short <i>e</i> tended towards <i>i</i>, so that the
+contraction of &epsilon; + &epsilon; gave <span class="grk" title="ei">&#949;&#953;</span>, which was not a diphthong but a close
+<i>&#275;</i>-sound. In Attic Greek these contractions were represented by O
+and E respectively till the official adoption of the Ionic alphabet at
+Athens in 403 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> So also were the lengthened syllables which
+represent in their length the loss of an earlier consonant, as <span class="grk" title="emeina">&#7956;&#956;&#949;&#953;&#957;&#945;</span>
+and <span class="grk" title="eneima">&#7956;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#956;&#945;</span>, Aeolic <span class="grk" title="emenna">&#7956;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#957;&#945;</span>, <span class="grk" title="enemma">&#7956;&#957;&#949;&#956;&#956;&#945;</span>, which stand for a prehistoric
+*<span class="grk" title="emensa">&#7956;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#963;&#945;</span> and *<span class="grk" title="enemsa">&#7956;&#957;&#949;&#956;&#963;&#945;</span>, containing the -&sigma;- of the first aorist, and
+<span class="grk" title="tous">&#964;&#959;&#8058;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="oikous">&#959;&#7988;&#954;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="echousi">&#7956;&#967;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;</span> representing an earlier <span class="grk" title="tons">&#964;&#972;&#957;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="oikons">&#959;&#7988;&#954;&#959;&#957;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="echonti">&#7956;&#967;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#953;</span>
+(3 pl. present) or *<span class="grk" title="echontsi">&#7956;&#967;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#963;&#953;</span> (dative pl. of present participle). Both
+dialects also agreed in changing &tau; before &iota; into &sigma; (like Aeolic), as in
+<span class="grk" title="echousi">&#7956;&#967;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;</span> above, and in the 3rd person singular of -<span class="grk" title="mi">&#956;&#953;</span> verbs, <span class="grk" title="tithêsi">&#964;&#943;&#952;&#951;&#963;&#953;</span>,
+<span class="grk" title="didôsi">&#948;&#943;&#948;&#969;&#963;&#953;</span>, &amp;c., and in noun stems, as in <span class="grk" title="dosis">&#948;&#972;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> for an earlier *<span class="grk" title="dotis">&#948;&#972;&#964;&#953;&#962;</span>.
+Neither dialect used the particle <span class="grk" title="ke">&#954;&#949;</span> or <span class="grk" title="ka">&#954;&#945;</span>, but both have <span class="grk" title="an">&#7940;&#957;</span> instead.
+One of the effects of the change of &#8113; into &eta; was that the combination
+<span class="grk" title="ao">&#8113;&#959;</span> changed in both dialects to <span class="grk" title="êo">&#951;&#959;</span>, which in all Attic records and in
+the later Ionic has become <span class="grk" title="eô">&#949;&#969;</span> by a metathesis in the quantity of the
+vowels: <span class="grk" title="naos">&#957;&#8113;&#972;&#962;</span>, earlier <span class="grk" title="nawos">&#957;&#8113;&#989;&#972;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;temple,&rdquo; is in Homeric Greek <span class="grk" title="nêos">&#957;&#951;&#972;&#962;</span>,
+in later Ionic and Attic <span class="grk" title="neôs">&#957;&#949;&#974;&#962;</span>. In the dative (locative) plural of the
+-&#8113; stems, Ionic has generally -<span class="grk" title="êisi">&#951;&#953;&#963;&#953;</span> on the analogy of the singular;
+Attic had first the old locative form in -<span class="grk" title="êsi">&#951;&#963;&#953;</span>, -<span class="grk" title="asi">&#8113;&#963;&#953;</span>, which survived
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span>
+in forms which became adverbs like <span class="grk" title="Athênêsi">&#7944;&#952;&#942;&#957;&#951;&#963;&#953;</span> and <span class="grk" title="thurasi">&#952;&#973;&#961;&#8113;&#963;&#953;</span>; but
+after 420 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> these were replaced by -<span class="grk" title="ais">&#945;&#953;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="thurais">&#952;&#973;&#961;&#945;&#953;&#962;</span>, &amp;c. The Ionic
+of Asia Minor showed many changes earlier than that of the Cyclades
+and Euboea. It lost the aspirate very early: hence in the Ionic
+alphabet H is <i>&#275;</i>, not <i>h</i>; it changed <span class="grk" title="au">&#945;&#965;</span> and <span class="grk" title="eu">&#949;&#965;</span> into <span class="grk" title="ao">&#945;&#959;</span> and <span class="grk" title="eo">&#949;&#959;</span>, and
+very early replaced to a large extent the -<span class="grk" title="mi">&#956;&#953;</span> by the -&omega; verbs. This
+confusion can be seen in progress in the Attic literature of the 5th
+and 4th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, <span class="grk" title="deiknymi">&#948;&#949;&#943;&#954;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#953;</span> gradually giving way to <span class="grk" title="deiknyô">&#948;&#949;&#953;&#954;&#957;&#973;&#969;</span>,
+while the literature generally uses forms like <span class="grk" title="ephiei">&#7952;&#966;&#943;&#949;&#953;</span> for <span class="grk" title="ephiê">&#7952;&#966;&#943;&#951;</span> (impft.).
+In Attica also the aspiration which survived in the Ionic of Euboea
+and the Cyclades ceased by the end of the 5th century. The Ionic
+of Asia Minor has -<span class="grk" title="ios">&#953;&#959;&#962;</span> as the genitive of &iota;-stems; the other forms of
+Ionic have -<span class="grk" title="idos">&#953;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Doric.</i>&mdash;As already mentioned, the dialects of the North-West
+differ in several respects from Doric elsewhere. As general characteristics
+of Doric may be noted the contractions of &alpha; + &epsilon; into &eta;, and
+of &alpha; + &omicron; or &omega; into &#8113;, while the results in Attic and Ionic of these contractions
+are &#8113; and &omega; respectively: <span class="grk" title="enikê">&#7952;&#957;&#943;&#954;&#951;</span> from <span class="grk" title="nikaô">&#957;&#953;&#954;&#940;&#969;</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="enika">&#7952;&#957;&#943;&#954;&#945;</span>;
+<span class="grk" title="timames">&#964;&#953;&#956;&#8118;&#956;&#949;&#962;</span> 1 pl. pres. from <span class="grk" title="timaô">&#964;&#953;&#956;&#940;&#969;</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="timômen">&#964;&#953;&#956;&#8182;&#956;&#949;&#957;</span>; <span class="grk" title="timan">&#964;&#953;&#956;&#8118;&#957;</span> gen. pl. of <span class="grk" title="tima">&#964;&#953;&#956;&#8113;</span>
+&ldquo;honour,&rdquo; Attic <span class="grk" title="timôn">&#964;&#953;&#956;&#8182;&#957;</span>. In inflection the most noticeable points are
+the pronominal adverbs in locative form: <span class="grk" title="toutei">&#964;&#959;&#965;&#964;&#949;&#8150;</span>, <span class="grk" title="tênei">&#964;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#8150;</span> (this from a
+stem limited to a few Doric dialects and the Bucolic Poets), <span class="grk" title="teide">&#964;&#949;&#8150;&#948;&#949;</span>,
+<span class="grk" title="hopei">&#8005;&#960;&#949;&#953;</span>, &amp;c.; the nom. pl. of the article <span class="grk" title="toi">&#964;&#959;&#943;</span>, <span class="grk" title="tai">&#964;&#945;&#943;</span>, not <span class="grk" title="hoi">&#959;&#7985;</span>, <span class="grk" title="hai">&#945;&#7985;</span> and so
+<span class="grk" title="toutoi">&#964;&#959;&#8166;&#964;&#959;&#953;</span> in Selinus and Rhodes; the 1st pl. of the verb in -<span class="grk" title="mes">&#956;&#949;&#962;</span>,
+not in -<span class="grk" title="men">&#956;&#949;&#957;</span>, cp. the Latin -<i>mus</i>; the aorist and future in -&xi;-, where
+other dialects have -&sigma;-, or contraction from presents in-<span class="grk" title="zô">&#950;&#969;</span>; <span class="grk" title="dikazô">&#948;&#953;&#954;&#940;&#950;&#969;</span>,
+<span class="grk" title="dikasô">&#948;&#953;&#954;&#940;&#963;&#969;</span>, Doric <span class="grk" title="dikaxô">&#948;&#953;&#954;&#940;&#958;&#969;</span>, &amp;c.; the future passive with active endings,
+<span class="grk" title="epimelêthêseunti">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#956;&#949;&#955;&#951;&#952;&#951;&#963;&#949;&#8166;&#957;&#964;&#953;</span> (Rhodes), found as yet only in the Doric islands
+and in the Doric prose of Archimedes; the particles <span class="grk" title="ai">&#945;&#7985;</span> &ldquo;if&rdquo; and
+<span class="grk" title="ka">&#954;&#945;</span> with a similar value to the Aeolic <span class="grk" title="ke">&#954;&#949;</span> and the Attic-Ionic <span class="grk" title="an">&#7940;&#957;</span>.
+Doric had an accentuation system different both from Aeolic and
+from Ionic-Attic, but the details of the system are very imperfectly
+known.</p>
+
+<p>In older works Doric is often divided into a <i>dialectus severior</i> and a
+<i>dialectus mitis</i>. But the difference is one of time rather than of
+place, the peculiarities of Doric being gradually softened down till
+it was ultimately merged in the <i>lingua franca</i>, the <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span>, which in
+time engulfed all the local dialects except the descendant of Spartan,
+Tzakonian. Here it is possible to mention its varieties only in the
+briefest form. (<i>a</i>) The southern dialects are well illustrated in the
+inscriptions of Laconia recently much increased in number by the
+excavations of the British School at Athens. Apart from some brief
+dedications, the earliest inscription of importance is the list of names
+placed on a bronze column soon after 479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to commemorate the
+tribes which had repulsed the Persians. The column, originally at
+Delphi, is now at Constantinople. The most striking features of the
+dialect are the retention of &#989; at the beginning of words, as in the
+dedication from the 6th century <span class="grk" title="wanaxibios">&#989;&#945;&#957;&#945;&#958;&#943;&#946;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span> (<i>Annual of British
+School</i>, xiv. 144). The dialect changed -&sigma;- between vowels into
+-h-, <span class="grk" title="môha">&#956;&#8182;h&#945;</span> for <span class="grk" title="môsa">&#956;&#8182;&#963;&#945;</span> &ldquo;muse.&rdquo; Later it changed &theta; into a sound like the
+English <i>th</i>, which was represented by &sigma;. Before <i>o</i>-sounds &epsilon; here and
+in some other Doric dialects changed to &iota;: <span class="grk" title="thios">&#952;&#953;&#972;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="sios">&#963;&#953;&#972;&#962;</span> for <span class="grk" title="theos">&#952;&#949;&#972;&#962;</span> &ldquo;god.&rdquo;
+The result of contraction and &ldquo;compensatory lengthening&rdquo; was not
+<span class="grk" title="ei">&#949;&#953;</span> and <span class="grk" title="ou">&#959;&#965;</span> as in Attic and Ionic, but &eta; and &omega;: <span class="grk" title="êmen">&#7974;&#956;&#949;&#957;</span> infinitive = <span class="grk" title="einai">&#949;&#7990;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>
+from *<i>esmen</i>; gen. sing. of <i>o</i>-stems in &omega;: <span class="grk" title="theô">&#952;&#949;&#8182;</span>, acc. pl. in -<span class="grk" title="ôs">&#969;&#962;</span>: <span class="grk" title="theôs">&#952;&#949;&#974;&#962;</span>;
+<i>dy</i> was represented by <span class="grk" title="dd">&#948;&#948;</span>, not &zeta;, as in Attic-Ionic; <span class="grk" title="musidde">&#956;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#948;&#948;&#949;</span> =
+<span class="grk" title="muthize">&#956;&#973;&#952;&#953;&#950;&#949;</span>. The dialect has many strange words, especially in connexion
+with the state education and organization of the boys and young men.
+The Heraclean tables from a Laconian colony in S. Italy have curious
+forms in -<span class="grk" title="assi">&#945;&#963;&#963;&#953;</span> for the dat. pl. of the participle <span class="grk" title="prassontassi">&#960;&#961;&#945;&#963;&#963;&#972;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#963;&#963;&#953;</span> = Attic
+<span class="grk" title="prattousi">&#960;&#961;&#940;&#964;&#964;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;</span>. Of the dialect of Messenia we know little, the long
+inscription about mysteries from Andania being only about 100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+From Argolis there are a considerable number of early inscriptions,
+and in a later form of the dialect the cures recorded at the temple of
+Asklepios at Epidaurus present many points of interest. There is
+also an inscription of the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> from the temple of
+Aphaia in Aegina. &#989; survives in the old inscriptions: <span class="grk" title="wewremena">&#989;&#949;&#989;&#961;&#949;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#945;</span>
+(= <span class="grk" title="eirêmena">&#949;&#7984;&#961;&#951;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#945;</span>); <span class="grk" title="ns">&#957;&#962;</span>, whether original or arising by sound change from -<i>nty</i>,
+persists till the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>: <span class="grk" title="hantitychonsa">h&#945;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#964;&#965;&#967;&#972;&#957;&#963;&#945;</span> = <span class="grk" title="hê antitychousa">&#7969; &#7936;&#957;&#964;&#953;&#964;&#965;&#967;&#959;&#8166;&#963;&#945;</span>, <span class="grk" title="tons
+huions">&#964;&#8056;&#957;&#962; &#965;&#7985;&#972;&#957;&#962;</span> = <span class="grk" title="tous huious">&#964;&#959;&#8058;&#962; &#965;&#7985;&#959;&#973;&#962;</span>. The dialect of the Inachus valley seems to
+resemble Laconian more closely than does that of the rest of the
+Argolic area. Corinth and her colonies in the earliest inscriptions preserve
+&#989; and &#985; (= Latin Q) before &omicron; and &upsilon; sounds, and write &xi; and &psi; by <span class="grk" title="chs">&#967;&#963;</span>
+and <span class="grk" title="phs">&#966;&#963;</span>, the symbols which are used also for this purpose in old Attic.
+In the Corcyrean and Sicilian forms of the dialect, &lambda; before a dental
+appears as &nu;: <span class="grk" title="Phintias">&#934;&#953;&#957;&#964;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span> = <span class="grk" title="Philtias">&#934;&#953;&#955;&#964;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>; and in Sicilian the perfect-active
+was treated as a present: <span class="grk" title="dedoikô">&#948;&#949;&#948;&#959;&#943;&#954;&#969;</span> for <span class="grk" title="dedoika">&#948;&#941;&#948;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#945;</span>, &amp;c. From Megara
+has come lately an obscure inscription from the beginning of the 5th
+century; its colony Selinus has inscriptions from the middle of the
+same century; the inscriptions from Byzantium and its other Pontic
+colonies date only from Hellenistic times. In Crete, which shows a
+considerable variety of subdialects, the most important document is
+the great inscription from Gortyn containing twelve tables of family
+law, which was discovered in 1884. The local alphabet has no
+separate symbols for &chi; and &phi;, and these sounds are therefore written
+with &kappa; and &pi;. As in Argive the combination -<span class="grk" title="ns">&#957;&#962;</span> was kept both
+medially and finally except before words beginning with a consonant;
+-<i>ty</i>- was represented by &zeta;, later by -<span class="grk" title="tt">&#964;&#964;</span>-, as in Thessalian and Boeotian:
+<span class="grk" title="hopottoi">&#8001;&#960;&#972;&#964;&#964;&#959;&#953;</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="hoposoi">&#8001;&#960;&#972;&#963;&#959;&#953;</span>; and finally by
+-<span class="grk" title="tt">&#952;&#952;</span>-; &lambda; combined with a preceding
+vowel into an <i>au</i>-diphthong: <span class="grk" title="auka">&#945;&#8016;&#954;&#940;</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="alkê">&#7936;&#955;&#954;&#942;</span>, cp. the English
+pronunciation of <i>talk</i>, &amp;c. In Gortyn and some other towns -<span class="grk" title="st">&#963;&#952;</span>&mdash;was
+assimilated to&mdash;<span class="grk" title="tt">&#952;&#952;</span>, where &theta; must have been a spirant like the English
+<i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>; &zeta; of Attic Greek is represented initially by &delta;, medially
+by <span class="grk" title="dd">&#948;&#948;</span>, but in some towns by &tau; and <span class="grk" title="tt">&#964;&#964;</span>: <span class="grk" title="doos">&#948;&#959;&#972;&#962;</span> (= <span class="grk" title="zôos">&#950;&#969;&#972;&#962;</span>), <span class="grk" title="dikadden">&#948;&#953;&#954;&#940;&#948;&#948;&#949;&#957;</span>
+(= <span class="grk" title="dicazein">&#948;&#953;&#954;&#940;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>). Final consonants are generally assimilated to the
+beginning of the next word. In inflection there are many local
+peculiarities. In Melos and Thera some very old inscriptions have
+been found written in an alphabet without symbols for &phi;, &chi;, &phi;, &xi;,
+which are therefore written as &pi;h, &kappa;h or &#985;h, <span class="grk" title="ps, ks">&#960;&#963;, &#954;&#963;</span>. The contractions
+of &epsilon; + &epsilon; and of &omicron; + &omicron; are represented by E and O respectively. The
+old rock inscriptions of Thera are among the most archaic yet
+discovered. The most characteristic feature of Rhodian Doric
+is the infinitive in -<span class="grk" title="mein">&#956;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>: <span class="grk" title="domein">&#948;&#959;&#8166;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>, &amp;c. (= Attic <span class="grk" title="dounai">&#948;&#959;&#8166;&#957;&#945;&#953;</span>), which
+passed also to Gela and Agrigentum. The inscriptions from Cos
+are numerous, but too late to represent the earliest form of the
+dialect.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The dialects of N.W. Doric, Locrian, Phocian, Aetolian, with
+which go Elean and Achaean, present a more uncouth appearance
+than the other Doric dialects except perhaps Cretan. Only from
+Locris and Phocis come fairly old inscriptions; later a <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> was
+developed, in which the documents of the Aetolian league are
+written, and of which the most distinctive mark is the dative plural
+of consonant stems in -<span class="grk" title="ois">&#959;&#953;&#962;</span>: <span class="grk" title="archontois">&#7936;&#961;&#967;&#972;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#953;&#962;</span> (= Attic <span class="grk" title="archousi">&#7940;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;</span>), <span class="grk" title="agônois">&#7936;&#947;&#974;&#957;&#959;&#953;&#962;</span>
+(= Attic <span class="grk" title="agôsi">&#7936;&#947;&#8182;&#963;&#953;</span>), &amp;c. Phocian and the Locrian of Opus have also
+forms like Aeolic in -<span class="grk" title="essi">&#949;&#963;&#963;&#953;</span>. In place of the dative in -&#8179;, locatives in
+-<span class="grk" title="oi">&#959;&#953;</span> are used in Locrian and Phocian. Generally north of the Corinthian
+gulf the middle present participle from -<span class="grk" title="eô">&#949;&#969;</span>-verbs ends in-<span class="grk" title="eimenos">&#949;&#953;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>;
+similar forms are found also in Elean. Locrian changed &epsilon; before &rho;
+into &alpha;: <span class="grk" title="patara">&#960;&#945;&#964;&#940;&#961;&#945;</span> for <span class="grk" title="patera">&#960;&#945;&#964;&#941;&#961;&#945;</span>; cf. English <i>Kerr</i> and <i>Carr</i>, <i>sergeant</i> and
+<i>Sargeaunt</i>. <span class="grk" title="st">&#963;&#964;</span> appears for <span class="grk" title="st">&#963;&#952;</span>, and &#985; and &#989; are still much in use in
+the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Many thousands of inscriptions were found in
+the French excavations at Delphi, but nothing earlier than the 5th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In the older inscriptions the Aeolic influence&mdash;datives
+in -<span class="grk" title="essi">&#949;&#963;&#963;&#953;</span>, <span class="grk" title="onyma">&#8004;&#957;&#965;&#956;&#945;</span> for <span class="grk" title="onoma">&#8004;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#945;</span>&mdash;is better marked than later. In the
+Laws of the Labyad phratry (about 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the genitive is in <span class="grk" title="ou">&#959;&#965;</span>,
+but a form in -&omega; is also found, <span class="grk" title="woikô">&#989;&#959;&#943;&#954;&#969;</span>, which seems to be an old
+ablative fossilized as an adverb. The nom. pl. <span class="grk" title="dekatetores">&#948;&#949;&#954;&#945;&#964;&#941;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span> is used
+for the acc.; similar forms are found in Elean and Achaean.</p>
+
+<p>The more important of the older materials for Achaean come from
+the Achaean colonies of S. Italy, and being scanty give us only an
+imperfect view of the dialect, but it is clearly in its main features
+Doric. Much more remarkable is the Elean dialect known chiefly
+from inscriptions found at Olympia, some of which are as early as the
+beginning of the 6th century. The native dialect was replaced first
+by a Doric and then by the Attic <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span>, but under the Caesars the
+archaic dialect was restored. Many of its characteristics it shares
+with the dialects north of the Corinthian gulf, but it changes original
+&#275; to &alpha;: <span class="grk" title="ma">&#956;&#940;</span> = <span class="grk" title="mê">&#956;&#951;</span>, &amp;c.; &delta; was apparently a spirant, as in modern Greek
+(= <i>th</i> in English <i>the</i>, <i>thine</i>), and is represented by &zeta; in some of the
+earliest inscriptions. Final -&sigma; became -&rho;; this is found also in
+Laconian; -<i>ty</i>- became -<span class="grk" title="ss">&#963;&#963;</span>-, but was not simplified as in Attic to
+-&sigma;-: <span class="grk" title="ossa">&#8004;&#963;&#963;&#945;</span> = Attic <span class="grk" title="hosa">&#8004;&#963;&#945;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>As we have seen, Ionians, Aetolians and Dorians tended to level
+local peculiarities and make a generally intelligible dialect in which
+treaties and other important records were framed. The language of
+literature is always of necessity to some extent a <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span>: with some
+Greek writers the use of a <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> was especially necessary. The
+local dialect of Boeotia was not easily intelligible in other districts,
+and a writer like Pindar, whose patrons were mostly not Boeotians,
+had perforce to write in a dialect that they could understand. Hence
+he writes in a conventional Doric with Aeolic elements, which forms
+a strong contrast to that of Corinna, who kept more or less closely
+to the Boeotian dialect. For different literary purposes Greek had
+different <span class="grk" title="koinai">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#945;&#943;</span>. A poet who would write an epic must adopt a
+form of language modelled on that of Homer and Hesiod; Alcaeus
+and Sappho were the models for the love lyric, which was therefore
+Aeolic; Stesichorus was the founder of the triumphal ode, which, as
+he was a Dorian of Sicily, must henceforth be in Doric, though Pindar
+was an Aeolian, and its other chief representatives, Simonides and
+Bacchylides, were Ionians from Ceos. The choral ode of tragedy
+was always conventional Doric, and in the iambics also are Doric
+words like <span class="grk" title="draô">&#948;&#961;&#940;&#969;</span>, <span class="grk" title="laô">&#955;&#940;&#969;</span>, &amp;c. Elegy and epigram were founded on epic;
+the satirical iambics of Hipponax and his late disciple Herondas are
+Ionic. The first Greek prose was developed in Ionia, of which an
+excellent example has been preserved to us in Herodotus. Thucydides
+was not an Ionian, but he could not shake himself free of the
+tradition: he therefore writes <span class="grk" title="prassô, tassô">&#960;&#961;&#940;&#963;&#963;&#969;, &#964;&#940;&#963;&#963;&#969;</span>, &amp;c., with -<span class="grk" title="ss">&#963;&#963;</span>-, which
+was Ionic, but is never found in Attic inscriptions nor in the writers
+who imitate the language of common life&mdash;Aristophanes (when not
+parodying tragedy, or other forms of literature or dialect), Plato and
+the Orators (with the partial exception of Antiphon, who ordinarily
+has -<span class="grk" title="ss">&#963;&#963;</span>-, but in the one speech actually intended for the law-courts
+-<span class="grk" title="tt">&#964;&#964;</span>-). Similarly Hippocrates and his medical school in Cos wrote
+in Ionic, not, however, in the Ionic of Herodotus, but in a language
+more akin to the Ionic <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> of the inscriptions; and this dialect
+continued to be used in medicine later, much as doctors now use
+Latin for their prescriptions. The first literary document written
+in Attic prose is the treatise on the <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, which is
+generally printed amongst the minor works of Xenophon, but really
+belongs to about 425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> From the fragment of Aristophanes&rsquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span>
+<i>Banqueters</i> and from the first speech of Lysias &ldquo;Against Theomnestos&rdquo;
+it is clear that the Attic dialect had changed rapidly in the 6th and
+5th centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and that much of the phraseology of Solon&rsquo;s laws
+was no longer intelligible by 400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Among the most difficult of
+the literary dialects to trace is the earliest&mdash;the Homeric dialect.
+The Homeric question cannot be discussed here, and on that question
+it may be said <i>quot homines tot sententiae</i>. To the present writer,
+however, it seems probable that the poems were composed in Chios
+as tradition asserted; the language contains many Aeolisms, and
+the heroes sung are, except for the Athenians (very briefly referred
+to), and possibly Telamonian Ajax, not of the Ionic stock. Chios was
+itself an Ionicized Aeolic colony (Diodorus v. 81. 7). The hypothesis
+of a great poet writing on the basis of earlier Aeolic lays (<span class="grk" title="klea
+andrôn">&#954;&#955;&#941;&#945; &#7936;&#957;&#948;&#961;&#8182;&#957;</span>) in Chios seems to explain the main peculiarities of the
+Homeric language, which, however, was modified to some extent
+in later times first under Ionic and afterwards under Athenian
+influence.</p>
+
+<p>Of Dorian literature we know little. The works of Archimedes
+written in the Syracusan dialect were much altered in language by
+the late copyists. The most striking development of the late classical
+age in Doric lands is that of pastoral poetry, which, like Spenser, is
+&ldquo;writ in no language,&rdquo; but, on a basis of Syracusan and possibly
+Coan Doric, has in its structure many elements borrowed from the
+Aeolic love lyric and from epic.</p>
+
+<p>From the latter part of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Athens became ever
+more important as a literary centre, and Attic prose became the
+model for the later <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span>, which grew up as a consequence of the
+decay of the local dialects. For this decay there were several
+reasons. If the Athenian empire had survived the Peloponnesian
+War, Attic influence would no doubt soon have permeated the whole
+of that empire. This consummation was postponed. Attic became
+the court language of Macedon, and, when Alexander&rsquo;s conquests
+led to the foundation of great new towns, like Alexandria, filled with
+inhabitants from all parts of the Greek world, this dialect furnished
+a basis for common intercourse. Naturally the resultant dialect
+was not pure Attic. There were in it considerable traces of Ionic.
+In Attica itself the dialect was less uniform than elsewhere even in
+the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, because Athens was a centre of empire, literature
+and commerce. Like every other language which is not under
+the dominion of the schoolmaster, it borrowed the names of foreign
+objects which it imported from foreign lands, not only from those of
+Greek-speaking peoples, but also from Egypt, Persia, Lydia, Phoenicia,
+Thrace and elsewhere. The Ionians were great seafarers, and
+from them Athens borrowed words for seacraft and even for the tides:
+<span class="grk" title="amtôtis">&#7940;&#956;&#964;&#969;&#964;&#953;&#962;</span> &ldquo;ebb,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="rhachia">&#8165;&#945;&#967;&#943;&#945;</span> &ldquo;high tide,&rdquo; an Ionic word <span class="grk" title="rhêchiê">&#8165;&#951;&#967;&#943;&#951;</span> spelt in
+Attic fashion. From the Dorians it borrowed words connected with
+war and sport: <span class="grk" title="lochagos">&#955;&#959;&#967;&#945;&#947;&#972;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="kunagos">&#954;&#965;&#957;&#945;&#947;&#972;&#962;</span>, &amp;c. A soldier of fortune like
+Xenophon, who spent most of his life away from Athens, introduced
+not only strange words but strange grammatical constructions also
+into his literary compositions. With Aristotle, not a born Athenian
+but long resident in Athens, the <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> may be said to have begun.
+Some characteristics of Attic foreigners found it hard to acquire&mdash;its
+subtle use of particles and its accent. Hence in Hellenistic Greek
+particles are comparatively rare. According to Cicero, Theophrastus,
+who came from as near Attica as Eretria in Euboea, was easily
+detected by a market-woman as no Athenian after he had lived
+thirty years in Athens. Thoucritus, an Athenian, who was taken
+prisoner in the Peloponnesian War and lived for many years in
+Epirus as a slave, was unable to recover the Athenian accent on his
+return, and his family lay under the suspicion that they were an
+alien&rsquo;s children, as his son tells us in Demosthenes&rsquo; speech &ldquo;Against
+Eubulides.&rdquo; In the <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> there were several divisions, though the
+line between them is faint and irregular. There was a <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> of
+literary men like Polybius and of carefully prepared state documents,
+as at Magnesia or Pergamum; and a different <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> of the vulgar
+which is represented to us in its Egyptian form in the Pentateuch,
+in a later and at least partially Palestinian form in the Gospels.
+Still more corrupt is the language which we find in the ill-written
+and ill-spelt private letters found amongst the Egyptian papyri.
+Not out of the old dialects but out of this <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> arose modern Greek,
+with a variety of dialects no less bewildering than that of ancient
+Greek. In one place more rapidly, in another more slowly, the
+characteristics of modern Greek begin to appear. As we have seen,
+in Boeotia the vowels and diphthongs began to pass into the characteristic
+sounds of modern Greek four centuries before Christ.
+Dorian dialects illustrate early the passing of the old aspirate &theta;,
+the sound of which was like the final <i>t</i> in English <i>bit</i>, into a sound like
+the English <i>th</i> in <i>thin</i>, <i>pith</i>, which it still retains in modern Greek.
+The change of &gamma; between vowels into a <i>y</i> sound was charged by the
+comic poets against Hyperbolus the demagogue about 415 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Only when the Attic sound changes stood isolated amongst the Greek
+dialects did they give way in the <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> to Ionic. Thus the forms
+with -<span class="grk" title="ss">&#963;&#963;</span>- instead of -<span class="grk" title="tt">&#964;&#964;</span>- won the day, while modern Greek shows that
+sometimes the -<span class="grk" title="rr">&#961;&#961;</span>- which Attic shared with some Doric dialects and
+Arcadian was retained, and that sometimes the Ionic -<span class="grk" title="rs">&#961;&#963;</span>-, which
+was also Lesbian and partly Doric, took its place. In other cases,
+where Ionic and Attic did not agree, forms came in which were
+different from either: the genitives of masculine &#257; stems were now
+formed as in Doric with &#8113;, but the analogy of the other cases may
+have been the effective force. The form <span class="grk" title="naos">&#957;&#945;&#972;&#962;</span> &ldquo;temple,&rdquo; instead of
+Ionic <span class="grk" title="nêos">&#957;&#951;&#972;&#962;</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="neôs">&#957;&#949;&#974;&#962;</span>, can only be Doric.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the first five centuries of
+the Christian era came in the modern Greek characteristics of Itacism
+and vowel contraction, of the pronunciation of <span class="grk" title="mp">&#956;&#960;</span> and <span class="grk" title="nt">&#957;&#964;</span> as <i>mb</i>
+and <i>nd</i> and many other sound changes, the loss of the dative and the
+confusion of the 1st with the 3rd declension, the dropping of the -<span class="grk" title="mi">&#956;&#953;</span>
+conjugation, the loss of the optative and the assimilation of the
+imperfect and second aorist endings to those of the first aorist.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+There were meantime spasmodic attempts at the revival of the old
+language. Lucian wrote Attic dialogue with a facility almost equal
+to Plato; the old dialect was revived in the inscriptions of Sparta;
+Balbilla, a lady-in-waiting on Hadrian&rsquo;s empress, wrote epigrams
+in Aeolic, and there were other attempts of the same kind. But they
+were only <i>tours de force</i>, <span class="grk" title="kêpoi Adônidos">&#954;&#8134;&#960;&#959;&#953; &#7944;&#948;&#974;&#957;&#953;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>, whose flowers had no root
+in the spoken language and therefore could not survive. Even in
+the hands of a cultivated man like Plutarch the <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> of the 1st
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> looks entirely different from Attic Greek. Apart from
+non-Attic constructions, which are not very numerous, the difference
+consists largely in the new vocabulary of the philosophical schools
+since Aristotle, whose jargon had become part of the language of
+educated men in Plutarch&rsquo;s time, and made a difference in the
+language not unlike that which has been brought about in English
+by the development of the natural sciences. It is hardly necessary
+to say that these changes, whether of the <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> or of modern Greek,
+did not of necessity impair the powers of the language as an organ of
+expression; if elaborate inflection were a necessity for the highest
+literary merit, then we must prefer Cædmon to Milton and Cynewulf
+to Shakespeare.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>The Chief Characteristics of Greek.</i></p>
+
+<p>As is obvious from the foregoing account of the Greek dialects,
+it is not possible to speak of the early history of Greek as handed
+down to us as that of a single uniform tongue. From the earliest
+times it shows much variety of dialect accentuated by the geographical
+characteristics of the country, but arising, at least in part,
+from the fact that the Greeks came into the country in separate
+waves divided from one another by centuries. For the history of the
+language it is necessary to take as a beginning the form of the Indo-European
+language from which Greek descended, so far as it can be
+reconstructed from a comparison of the individual I.E. languages
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-European Languages</a></span>). The sounds of this language, so
+far as at present ascertained, were the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) 11 vowels: <i>a</i>, <i>&#257;</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>&#275;</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>&#299;</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>&#333;</i>, <i>u</i>, <i>&#363;</i>, <i>&#477;</i> (a short indistinct vowel).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) 14 diphthongs: <i>ai</i>, <i>au</i>, <i>ei</i>, <i>eu</i>, <i>oi</i>, <i>ou</i>, <i>&#257;i</i>, <i>&#257;u</i>, <i>&#275;i</i>, <i>&#275;u</i>, <i>&#333;i</i>, <i>&#333;u</i>, <i>&#477;i</i>, <i>&#477;u</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) 20 stop consonants.</p>
+
+<p>Labials: <i>p</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>ph</i>, <i>bh</i> (<i>ph</i> and <i>bh</i> being <i>p</i> and <i>b</i> followed by an
+audible breath, not <i>f</i> and <i>v</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Dentals: <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>th</i>, <i>dh</i> (<i>th</i> and <i>dh</i> <i>not</i> spirants like the two English
+sounds in <i>thin</i> and <i>then</i>, but aspirated <i>t</i> and <i>d</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Palatals: <i>&#489;</i>, <i>&#487;</i>, <i>&#489;h</i>, <i>&#487;h</i> (<i>kh</i> and <i>gh</i> aspirates as explained above).</p>
+
+<p>Velars: <i>q</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>qh</i>, <i>gh</i> (velars differ from palatals by being produced
+against the soft palate instead of the roof of the mouth).</p>
+
+<p>Labio-velars: <i>q&#7799;</i>, <i>q&#7799;</i>, <i>q&#7799;h</i>, <i>g&#7799;h</i> (these differ from the velars by being
+combined with a slight labial <i>w</i>-sound).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Spirants&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="list1">
+<p>Labial: <i>w</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Dental: <i>s</i>, <i>z</i>, post-dental <i>&#7779;</i>, <i>&#7827;</i>, interdental possibly þ, ð.</p>
+
+<p>Palatal: &chi; (Scotch ch), y.</p>
+
+<p>Velar: <i>x</i> (a deeply guttural &chi;, heard now in Swiss dialects), &#8488;.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Closely akin to <i>w</i> and <i>y</i> and often confused with them were
+the semi-vowels <i>&#7799;</i> and <i>&#7725;</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) Liquids: <i>l</i>, <i>r</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>) Nasals: <i>m</i> (labial), <i>n</i> (dental), <i>ñ</i> (palatal), &#626; (velar), the last
+three in combination with similar consonants.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) As far as the vowels are concerned, Greek retains the original
+state of things more accurately than any other language. The sounds
+of short <i>e</i> and short <i>o</i> in Attic and Ionic were close, so that <i>e</i> + <i>e</i>
+contracted to a long close e represented by <span class="grk" title="ei">&#949;&#953;</span>, <i>o</i> + <i>o</i> to a long close <i>o</i>
+represented by <span class="grk" title="oe">&#959;&#965;</span>. In these dialects <i>u</i>, both long and short, was
+modified to <i>ü</i>, and they changed the long <i>&#257;</i> to <i>&#275;</i>, though Attic has &#8113;
+after &epsilon;, &iota; and &rho;. In Greek &#477; appeared regularly as &alpha;, but under the
+influence of analogy often as &epsilon; and &omicron;.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The short diphthongs as a whole remained unchanged before a
+following consonant. Before a following vowel the diphthong was
+divided between the two syllables, the &iota; or &upsilon; forming a consonant at
+the beginning of the second syllable, which ultimately disappeared.
+Thus from a root <i>dheu</i>- &ldquo;run&rdquo; comes a verb <span class="grk" title="theô">&#952;&#941;&#969;</span> for <span class="grk" title="the-wô">&#952;&#949;-&#989;&#969;</span>, from
+an earlier *<span class="grk" title="theu-ô">&#952;&#949;&#965;-&#969;</span>. The corresponding adjective is <span class="grk" title="thoos">&#952;&#959;&#972;&#962;</span> &ldquo;swift,&rdquo;
+for <span class="grk" title="tho-wo-s">&#952;&#959;-&#989;&#959;-&#962;</span>, from an earlier *<span class="grk" title="thou-o-s">&#952;&#959;&#965;-&#959;-&#962;</span>. The only dialect which kept
+the whole diphthong in one syllable was Aeolic. The long diphthongs,
+except at the ends of words, were shortened in Attic. Some
+of these appear merely as long vowels, having lost their second
+element in the proethnic period. Apparent long diphthongs like
+those in <span class="grk" title="lêtourgia, sôzô">&#955;&#8131;&#964;&#959;&#965;&#961;&#947;&#943;&#945;, &#963;&#8097;&#950;&#969;</span> arise by contraction of two syllables.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The consonants suffered more extensive change. The voiced
+aspirates became unvoiced, so that <i>bh</i>, <i>dh</i>, <i>&#7713;h</i>, <i>gh</i>, <i>g&#7799;h</i> are confused
+with original <i>ph</i>, <i>th</i>, <i>&#489;h</i>, <i>qh</i>, <i>q&#7799;h</i>: I.E. *<i>bher&#333;</i> (Skt. <i>bhar&#257;mi</i>) is Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="pherô">&#966;&#941;&#961;&#969;</span>; I.E. *<i>dh&#363;mos</i> (Skt. <i>dh&#363;mas</i>), Gr. <span class="grk" title="thymos">&#952;&#8161;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>; I.E. *<i>&#487;himo</i>- (Skt.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span>
+<i>hima</i>-), Gr. <span class="grk" title="(dys)-chimo-s">(&#948;&#965;&#963;)-&#967;&#953;&#956;&#959;-&#962;</span>; I.E. *<i>stigh</i>- (Skt. <i>stigh</i>-), Gr. <span class="grk" title="stiches">&#963;&#964;&#943;&#967;&#949;&#962;</span>;
+I.E. <i>g&#7799;hen</i>- (Skt. <i>han</i>-), Gr. <span class="grk" title="theinô">&#952;&#949;&#943;&#957;&#969;</span> (probably), <span class="grk" title="phonos">&#966;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>. The palatal
+and velar series cannot be distinguished in Greek; for the differences
+between them resort must be had to languages of the <i>satem</i>-group,
+such as Sanskrit, Zend or Slavonic, where the palatals appear
+as sibilants (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-European Languages</a></span>). The labio-velar
+series present a great variety of forms in the different Greek dialects,
+and in the same dialect before different sounds. Thus in Attic before
+<i>o</i> vowels, nasals and liquids, the series appears as &pi;, &beta;, &phi;; before <i>e</i>
+and <i>i</i> vowels as &tau;, &beta; (&delta;), &theta;; in combination with <i>u</i>, which led to loss
+of the <i>&#7799;</i> by dissimilation, &kappa;, &gamma; &chi;. Thus <span class="grk" title="hepomai">&#7957;&#960;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span> corresponds to the
+Latin <i>sequo-r</i>, apart from the ending; <span class="grk" title="boûs">&#946;&#959;&#8166;&#962;</span> to Latin <i>bos</i> (borrowed
+from Sabine), English <i>cow</i>; <span class="grk" title="phonos">&#966;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> &ldquo;slaughter,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="epephnon">&#7957;&#960;&#949;&#966;&#957;&#959;&#957;</span>, old Irish
+<i>gonim</i>, &ldquo;I wound.&rdquo; Parallel to these forms with <i>p</i> are forms in the
+Italic languages except Latin and Faliscan, and in the Cymric
+group of the Celtic languages. The dental forms &tau;, &delta;, &theta; stand by
+themselves. Thus <span class="grk" title="tis">&#964;&#953;&#962;</span> (from the same root as <span class="grk" title="pou, poi, pothen">&#960;&#959;&#8166;, &#960;&#959;&#8150;, &#960;&#972;&#952;&#949;&#957;</span>, etc.)
+is parallel to the Latin <i>quis</i>, the Oscan <i>pis</i>, old Irish <i>cía</i>, Welsh <i>pwy</i>,
+&ldquo;who?&rdquo; &ldquo;what?&rdquo;; Attic <span class="grk" title="tettares">&#964;&#941;&#964;&#964;&#945;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>, Ionic <span class="grk" title="tesseres">&#964;&#941;&#963;&#963;&#949;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span> &ldquo;four&rdquo; is
+parallel to Latin <i>quattuor</i>, Oscan <span class="grk" title="petora">&#960;&#949;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#945;</span>, old Irish <i>cethir</i>, old Welsh
+<i>petguar</i>; <span class="grk" title="tisis">&#964;&#943;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> is from the same root as <span class="grk" title="poinê">&#960;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span>. For the voiced
+sound, &beta; is much more common than &delta; before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> sounds; thus
+<span class="grk" title="bios">&#946;&#943;&#959;&#962;</span> &ldquo;life,&rdquo; from the same root as Skt. <i>j&#299;vas</i>, Latin <i>v&#299;vus</i>; <span class="grk" title="bios">&#946;&#953;&#972;&#962;</span>
+&ldquo;bowstring,&rdquo; Skt. <i>jy&#257;</i>, &amp;c. In Arcado-Cyprian and Aeolic, &pi; and &beta;
+often precede <i>e</i> and <i>i</i> sounds. Thus parallel to Attic <span class="grk" title="tettares">&#964;&#941;&#964;&#964;&#945;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>
+Lesbian has <span class="grk" title="pessyres">&#960;&#941;&#963;&#963;&#965;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>, Homer <span class="grk" title="pisyres">&#960;&#943;&#963;&#965;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>, Boeotian <span class="grk" title="pettares">&#960;&#941;&#964;&#964;&#945;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>; Thessalian
+<span class="grk" title="bellomai">&#946;&#941;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>, Boeotian <span class="grk" title="beilomai">&#946;&#949;&#943;&#955;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span> alongside of Attic <span class="grk" title="boulomai">&#946;&#959;&#973;&#955;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>,
+Lesbian <span class="grk" title="bollomai">&#946;&#972;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>, Doric <span class="grk" title="bôlomai">&#946;&#974;&#955;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span> and also <span class="grk" title="dêlomai">&#948;&#942;&#955;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>. In Arcadian
+and Cyprian the form corresponding to <span class="grk" title="tis">&#964;&#953;&#962;</span> was <span class="grk" title="sis">&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, in Thessalian
+<span class="grk" title="kis">&#954;&#953;&#962;</span>, where the labialization was lost (see the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Q</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>A great variety of changes in the stopped consonants arose in
+combination with other sounds, especially <i>&#7725;</i> (a semivowel of the nature
+of English <i>y</i>), <i>&#7799;</i> (<i>w</i>) and <i>s</i>; -&tau;&#7725;-, -&theta;&#7725;- became first -&sigma;&sigma;- and later -&sigma;- in
+Attic Greek, -&tau;&tau;- in Boeotian (the precise pronunciation of -&sigma;&sigma;- and
+-&tau;&tau;- is uncertain): Attic <span class="grk" title="ho-posos">&#8001;-&#960;&#972;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span>, earlier <span class="grk" title="ho-possos">&#8001;-&#960;&#972;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span>, Boeotian <span class="grk" title="ho-pottos">&#8001;-&#960;&#972;&#964;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+from the same stem as the Latin <i>quot</i>, <i>quotiens</i>; Homeric <span class="grk" title="messos">&#956;&#941;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+Attic <span class="grk" title="mesos">&#956;&#941;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span> from *<span class="grk" title="methios">&#956;&#949;&#952;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>, Latin <i>medius</i>; -&kappa;&#7725;-, -&chi;&#7725;- became -&sigma;&sigma;-,
+Attic -&tau;&tau;-: <span class="grk" title="pissa">&#960;&#943;&#963;&#963;&#945;</span> &ldquo;pitch,&rdquo; Attic <span class="grk" title="pitta">&#960;&#943;&#964;&#964;&#945;</span> from *<span class="grk" title="píkia">&#960;&#943;&#954;&#7725;&#945;</span>, cp. Latin
+<i>pix</i>, <i>picis</i>, <span class="grk" title="elasson">&#7952;&#955;&#940;&#963;&#963;&#969;&#957;</span>, Attic <span class="grk" title="elatton">&#7952;&#955;&#940;&#964;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span> comparative to <span class="grk" title="elachus">&#7952;&#955;&#945;&#967;&#973;&#962;</span>. <span class="grk" title="di">&#948;&#7725;</span> and <span class="grk" title="gi">&#947;&#7725;</span>
+became &zeta;: <span class="grk" title="Zeus">&#918;&#949;&#973;&#962;</span> (Skt. Dy&#257;u&#7779;) <span class="grk" title="elpizo">&#7952;&#955;&#960;&#943;&#950;&#969;</span> from <span class="grk" title="elpis">&#7952;&#955;&#960;&#943;&#962;</span>, stem <span class="grk" title="èlpid">&#7952;&#955;&#960;&#953;&#948;</span>-
+&ldquo;hope,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="mastizo">&#956;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#943;&#950;&#969;</span> from <span class="grk" title="mastix">&#956;&#940;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#958;</span>, stem <span class="grk" title="mastig">&#956;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#8145;&#947;</span>- &ldquo;lash.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) The sound <i>&#7799;</i> was represented in the Greek alphabet by &#989;, the
+&ldquo;digamma,&rdquo; but in Attic and Ionic the sound was lost very early.
+In Aeolic, particularly Boeotian and Lesbian, it was persistent, and
+so also in many Doric dialects, especially at the beginning of words.
+When the Ionic alphabet was adopted by districts which had retained
+&#989;, it was represented by &beta;: <span class="grk" title="brodon">&#946;&#961;&#972;&#948;&#959;&#957;</span> Aeolic for <span class="grk" title="rodon">&#8165;&#972;&#948;&#959;&#957;</span>, <i>i.e.</i> <span class="grk" title="wrodon">&#989;&#961;&#972;&#948;&#959;&#957;</span>.
+In Attic it disappeared, leaving no trace; in Ionic it lengthened the
+preceding syllable; thus in Homer <span class="grk" title="hupodeisas">&#8017;&#960;&#959;&#948;&#949;&#943;&#963;&#945;&#962;</span> is scanned with &omicron; long
+because the root of the verb contained &#989;: <span class="grk" title="dwei">&#948;&#989;&#949;&#953;</span>-. Attic has <span class="grk" title="xenos">&#958;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+but Ionic <span class="grk" title="xeinos">&#958;&#949;&#8150;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> for <span class="grk" title="xenwos">&#958;&#941;&#957;&#989;&#959;&#962;</span>. Its combination with &tau; became -&sigma;&sigma;-,
+Attic and Boeotian -&tau;&tau;-, in <span class="grk" title="tesseres">&#964;&#941;&#963;&#963;&#949;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="tettares">&#964;&#941;&#964;&#964;&#945;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="pettares">&#960;&#941;&#964;&#964;&#945;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span> for I.E. <i>g&#7799;etu</i>-.</p>
+
+<p>But the most effective of all elements in changing the appearance
+of Greek words was the sound <i>s</i>. Before vowels at the beginning,
+or between vowels in the middle of words, it passed into an <i>h</i> sound,
+the &ldquo;rough breathing.&rdquo; Thus <span class="grk" title="hepta">&#7953;&#960;&#964;&#940;</span> is the same word as the Latin
+<i>septem</i>, English <i>seven</i>; <span class="grk" title="hal-s">&#7941;&#955;-&#962;</span> has the same stem as the Latin <i>sal</i>,
+English <i>sal-t</i>; <span class="grk" title="euo">&#949;&#8021;&#969;</span> for <span class="grk" title="euho">&#949;&#8016;h&#969;</span> is the same as the Latin <i>uro</i> (*<i>eusô</i>).
+Combined with <i>i</i> or <i>&#7799;</i> also it passes into <i>h</i>; <span class="grk" title="hymên">&#8017;&#956;&#942;&#957;</span>, Skt. <i>sy&#363;man</i>,
+&ldquo;band&rdquo;; <span class="grk" title="hêdus">&#7969;&#948;&#973;&#962;</span>, Doric <span class="grk" title="adus">&#7942;&#948;&#973;&#962;</span>, Latin <i>su&#257;(d)vis</i>, English <i>sweet</i>; cp.
+<span class="grk" title="oikoio">&#959;&#7988;&#954;&#959;&#953;&#959;</span> for *<span class="grk" title="woíkosio, nêos">&#989;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#7725;&#959;, &#957;&#951;&#972;&#962;</span>, Lesbian <span class="grk" title="nauos">&#957;&#945;&#8166;&#959;&#962;</span> &ldquo;temple,&rdquo; through <span class="grk" title="nawos">&#957;&#945;&#989;&#972;&#962;</span>
+from *<span class="grk" title="naswo-s">&#957;&#945;&#963;&#989;&#959;-&#962;</span> connected with <span class="grk" title="naiô">&#957;&#945;&#943;&#969;</span> &ldquo;dwell.&rdquo; Before nasals and
+liquids <i>s</i> was assimilated: <span class="grk" title="mei-daô">&#956;&#949;&#953;-&#948;&#940;&#969;</span>, Latin <i>mi-ru-s</i>, English <i>smile</i>;
+<span class="grk" title="nipha">&#957;&#943;&#966;&#945;</span>, Latin <i>nivem</i>, English <i>snow</i>; <span class="grk" title="lêgo">&#955;&#942;&#947;&#969;</span>, Latin <i>laxus</i>, English <i>slack</i>;
+<span class="grk" title="rheô">&#8165;&#941;&#969;</span> from *<i>sreu-&#333;</i> of the same origin as English <i>stream</i> (where <i>t</i> is a
+later insertion), imperfect <span class="grk" title="erreon">&#7956;&#8164;&#8165;&#949;&#959;&#957;</span> for *<i>esre&#7799;om</i>; cp. also <span class="grk" title="philommeidês">&#966;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#956;&#956;&#949;&#943;&#948;&#951;&#962;</span>,
+<span class="grk" title="aganniphos">&#7936;&#947;&#940;&#957;&#957;&#953;&#966;&#959;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="allêktos">&#7940;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#954;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>After nasals <i>s</i> is assimilated except finally; when assimilated, in all
+dialects except Aeolic the previous syllable is lengthened if not
+already long: Attic <span class="grk" title="eneima">&#7956;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#956;&#945;</span>, <span class="grk" title="emeina">&#7956;&#956;&#949;&#953;&#957;&#945;</span> for the first aorist *<i>enemsa</i>,
+*<i>emensa</i>; but <span class="grk" title="tons">&#964;&#972;&#957;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="tans">&#964;&#940;&#957;&#962;</span>, &amp;c., of the accusative pl. either remained
+or became in Aeolic <span class="grk" title="tois">&#964;&#959;&#943;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="tais">&#964;&#945;&#943;&#962;</span>, in Ionic and Attic <span class="grk" title="tous">&#964;&#959;&#973;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="tas">&#964;&#940;&#962;</span>, in Doric
+<span class="grk" title="tôs">&#964;&#974;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="tas">&#964;&#940;&#962;</span>; cp. <span class="grk" title="titheis">&#964;&#953;&#952;&#949;&#943;&#962;</span> for *<span class="grk" title="tithents">&#964;&#953;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="bas">&#946;&#940;&#962;</span> for *<span class="grk" title="bants, heis">&#946;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#962;, &#949;&#943;&#962;</span> &ldquo;one&rdquo; for
+*<i>sem-s</i>, then by analogy of the neuter *<i>sens</i>. Assimilation of &sigma; to
+preceding &rho; and &lambda; is a matter of dialect: Ionic <span class="grk" title="tharseo">&#952;&#945;&#961;&#963;&#941;&#969;</span>, but Attic
+<span class="grk" title="tharrô">&#952;&#945;&#961;&#961;&#8182;</span>, and so also the Doric of Thera: <span class="grk" title="ekelsa">&#7956;&#954;&#949;&#955;&#963;&#945;</span>, but <span class="grk" title="esteila">&#7956;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#955;&#945;</span> for
+*<span class="grk" title="ettelsa">&#7956;&#963;&#964;&#949;&#955;&#963;&#945;</span>. With nasals &#7725; affected the previous syllable: <span class="grk" title="tektainô">&#964;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#969;</span>
+(*<span class="grk" title="tekteio">&#964;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#7755;&#7725;&#969;</span>), where &#7755; is the nasal of the stem <span class="grk" title="tektôn">&#964;&#941;&#954;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>, itself forming a
+syllable (see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">N</a></span> for these so-called sonant nasals). Before
+&#7725; original <i>m</i> becomes <i>n</i>; hence <span class="grk" title="bainô">&#946;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#969;</span> with <i>n</i>, though from the same
+root as English <i>come</i>. Original &#7725; does not survive in Greek, but is
+represented by the aspirate at the beginning of words, <span class="grk" title="hagnos">&#7937;&#947;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span> = Skt.
+<i>yajnas</i>; medially after consonants it disappears, affecting the
+preceding consonant or syllable where a consonant precedes;
+between vowels it disappears. A sound of the same kind is
+indicated in Cyprian and some other dialects as a glide or transition
+sound between two vowels.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) The most remarkable feature in the treatment of the nasals is
+that when <i>n</i> or <i>m</i> forms a syllable by itself its consonant character
+disappears altogether and it is represented by the vowel &alpha; only:
+<span class="grk" title="tatos">&#964;&#945;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>, Latin <i>tentus</i>, &alpha;- negative particle, Latin <i>in</i>, English <i>un</i>;
+<span class="grk" title="ha-ploos">&#7937;-&#960;&#955;&#972;&#959;&#962;</span> has the same prefix as the Latin <i>sim-plex</i> (<i>s&#7747;</i>). The liquids
+in similar cases show <span class="grk" title="la">&#955;&#945;</span> or <span class="grk" title="al">&#945;&#955;</span> and <span class="grk" title="ra">&#961;&#945;</span> or <span class="grk" title="ar: te-tla-men, pe-paltai;
+edrakon, thrasys, tharsos">&#945;&#961;: &#964;&#941;-&#964;&#955;&#945;-&#956;&#949;&#957;, &#960;&#941;-&#960;&#945;&#955;&#964;&#945;&#953;; &#7956;&#948;&#961;&#945;&#954;&#959;&#957;, &#952;&#961;&#945;&#963;&#973;&#962;, &#952;&#940;&#961;&#963;&#959;&#962;</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The ends of words were modified in appearance by the loss of all
+stop-consonants and the change of final <i>m</i> to <i>n</i>, <span class="grk" title="edeixe">&#7956;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#958;&#949;</span>, Latin <i>dixit</i>;
+<span class="grk" title="zygon">&#950;&#965;&#947;&#972;&#957;</span>, Latin <i>iugum</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Accent.</i>&mdash;The vowel system of Greek has been so well preserved
+because it shows till late times very little in the way of stress accent.
+As in early Sanskrit the accent was predominantly a pitch accent
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Accent</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Noun System.</i>&mdash;The I.E. noun had three numbers, but the dual
+was limited to pairs, the two hands, the two horses in the chariot,
+and was so little in use that the original form of the oblique cases
+cannot be restored with certainty. Ionic has no dual. The I.E.
+noun had the following cases: Nominative, Accusative, Genitive,
+Ablative, Instrumental, Locative and Dative. The vocative was
+not properly a case, because it usually stands outside the syntactical
+construction of the sentence; when a distinctive form appears, it is
+the bare stem, and there is no form (separate from the nominative)
+for the plural. Greek has confused genitive and ablative (the distinction
+between them seems to have been derived from the pronouns),
+except for the solitary <span class="grk" title="woikô">&#989;&#959;&#943;&#954;&#969;</span> = <span class="grk" title="oikothen">&#959;&#7988;&#954;&#959;&#952;&#949;&#957;</span> in an inscription
+of Delphi. The instrumental, locative and dative are mixed in one
+case, partly for phonetic, partly for syntactical reasons. In Arcadian,
+Elean, Boeotian, and later widely in N. Greece, the locative -<span class="grk" title="oi">&#959;&#953;</span> is
+used for the dative. The masculine <i>&#257;</i>-stems make the nom. in
+most dialects in -<span class="grk" title="as">&#8113;&#962;</span>. The genitive is in -<span class="grk" title="ao">&#8113;&#959;</span> (with &omicron; borrowed from
+the <i>o</i>-stems), which remains in Homer and Boeotian, appears in
+Arcado-Cyprian as -<span class="grk" title="au">&#945;&#965;</span>, and with metathesis of quantity -<span class="grk" title="eô">&#949;&#969;</span> in
+Ionic. The Attic form in -<span class="grk" title="ou">&#959;&#965;</span> is borrowed directly from the <i>o</i>-stems.
+In the plural the &#8113; and -<i>o</i> stems follow the article in making their
+nominatives in -<span class="grk" title="ai">&#945;&#953;</span> and -<span class="grk" title="oi">&#959;&#953;</span> instead of the original -<i>&#257;s</i> and -<i>&#333;s</i>. The
+neuter plural was in origin a collective singular, and for this reason
+takes a singular verb; the plural of <span class="grk" title="zygon">&#950;&#965;&#947;&#972;&#957;</span> &ldquo;yoke&rdquo; was originally
+*<i>iug&#257;</i>, and declined like any other -<i>&#257;</i> stem. But through the influence
+of the masculine and feminine forms the neuter took the same oblique
+cases, and like its own singular made the accusative the same as the
+nominative. In the plural of -<i>&#257;</i> and -<i>&#333;</i> stems, the locative in -<span class="grk" title="aisi, -oisi">&#945;&#953;&#963;&#953;, -&#959;&#953;&#963;&#953;</span>
+was long kept apart from the instrumental-dative form in
+-<span class="grk" title="ais, -ois">&#945;&#953;&#962;, -&#959;&#953;&#962;</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Verb System.</i>&mdash;The verb system of Greek is more complete
+than that of any of the other I.E. languages. Its only rival, the early
+Vedic verb system, is already in decay when history begins, and
+when the classical period of Sanskrit arrives the moods have broken
+down, and the aorist, perfect, and imperfect tenses are syntactically
+confused. Throughout the Greek classical period the moods are
+maintained, but in the period of the <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> the optative occurs less
+and less and finally disappears. The original I.E. had two voices,
+an active and a middle, and to these Greek has added a third, the
+passive, distinguished from the middle in many verbs by separate
+forms for the future and aorist, made with a syllable -<span class="grk" title="thê-, timêthêsomai,
+etimêthên">&#952;&#951;-, &#964;&#953;&#956;&#951;&#952;&#942;&#963;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#953;, &#7952;&#964;&#953;&#956;&#942;&#952;&#951;&#957;</span>, though in this instance, <span class="grk" title="timêsomai">&#964;&#953;&#956;&#942;&#963;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#953;</span>, the future middle, is
+often used with a passive sense. Other forms which Greek has added
+to the original system are the pluperfect&mdash;in form a past of the
+perfect stem with aorist endings. It merely expressed the perfect
+action in past time, and, except as derived from the context, did not
+possess the notion of relative time (past at a time already past),
+which attaches to the Latin forms with the same name. The future
+optative was also a new formation, betraying its origin in the fact
+that it is almost entirely limited to <i>Oratio Obliqua</i>. The aorist
+imperatives were also new; the history of some of them, as the second
+sing. act. <span class="grk" title="pauson">&#960;&#945;&#8166;&#963;&#959;&#957;</span>, is not very clear. The whole verb system is affected
+by the distinction between -<i>&#333;</i> and -<i>mi</i> verbs; the former or thematic
+verbs have a so-called &ldquo;thematic vowel&rdquo; between the root and the
+personal suffix, while the -<i>mi</i> verbs attach the suffixes directly to
+the root. The distinction is really one between monosyllabic and
+disyllabic roots. The history of the personal endings is not altogether
+clear; the -<i>&#333;</i> verbs have in the present forms for the 2nd and 3rd
+person in -<span class="grk" title="eis">&#949;&#953;&#962;</span> and -<span class="grk" title="ei">&#949;&#953;</span>, which are not yet elucidated. In the middle,
+Greek does not entirely agree with Sanskrit in its personal endings,
+and the original forms cannot all be restored with certainty. The
+endings of the primary tenses differed from those of the secondary,
+but there has been a certain amount of confusion between them.</p>
+
+<p>The syntax of the verb is founded on the original I.E. distinction
+of the verb forms, not by time (tense), but by forms of action, progressive
+action (present and imperfect), consummated action (aorist),
+state arising from action, emphatic or repeated action (perfect).
+For the details of this see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Indo-European Languages</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;(i.) A grammar of Greek, which will deal fully
+with the whole material of the language, is at present a <i>desideratum</i>,
+and is hardly possible so long as new dialect material is being constantly
+added and while comparatively so little has been done on
+the syntax of the dialects. The greatest collection of material is
+to be found in the new edition of Kühner&rsquo;s <i>Griechische Grammatik,
+Laut- und Formenlehre</i>, by Blass (2 vols., 1890-1892); <i>Syntax</i>, by
+Gerth (2 vols., 1896, 1900). Blass&rsquo;s part is useful only for material,
+the explanations being entirely antiquated. The only full historical
+account of the language (sounds, forms and syntax) at present in
+existence is K. Brugmann&rsquo;s <i>Griechische Grammatik</i> (3rd ed., 1900).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span>
+Gustav Meyer&rsquo;s <i>Griechische Grammatik</i> (nothing on accent or syntax),
+which did excellent pioneer work when it first appeared in 1880, was
+hardly brought up to date in its 3rd edition (1896), but is still useful
+for the dialect and bibliographical material collected. See also
+H. Hirt, <i>Handbuch der griech. Laut- und Formenlehre</i> (1902). Of
+smaller grammars in English perhaps the most complete is that of
+J. Thompson (London, 1902). The grammar of Homer was handled
+by D. B. Monro (2nd ed., Oxford, 1891). The syntax has been treated
+in many special works, amongst which may be mentioned W. W.
+Goodwin, <i>Syntax of the Greek Moods and Tenses</i> (new ed., 1889);
+B. L. Gildersleeve and C. W. E. Miller, <i>Syntax of Classical Greek from
+Homer to Demosthenes</i>, pt. i. (New York, 1901&mdash;and following);
+J. M. Stahl, <i>Kritisch-historische Syntax des griechischen Verbums</i>
+(1907); F. E. Thompson, <i>Attic Greek Syntax</i> (1907). (ii.) The
+relations between Greek and the other I.E. languages are very well
+brought out in P. Kretschmer&rsquo;s <i>Einleitung in die Geschichte der
+griechischen Sprache</i> (Göttingen, 1896). For comparative grammar
+see K. Brugmann and B. Delbrück, <i>Grundriss der vergleichenden
+Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen</i> (the 2nd ed., begun 1897,
+is still incomplete) and Brugmann&rsquo;s <i>Kurze vergleichende Grammatik</i>
+(1902-1903); A. Meillet, <i>Introduction à l&rsquo;étude comparative des langues
+indo-européennes</i> (2nd ed., 1908). Greek compared with Latin and
+English: P. Giles, <i>A Short Manual of Comparative Philology for Classical
+Students</i> (2nd ed., 1901, with an appendix containing a brief account
+and specimens of the dialects); Riemann and Goelzer, <i>Grammaire
+comparative du Grec et du Latin</i> (1901), a parallel grammar in 2 vols.,
+specially valuable for syntax. (iii.) For the dialects two works have
+recently appeared, both covering in brief space the whole field:
+A. Thumb, <i>Handbuch der griechischen Dialekte</i> (with bibliographies
+for each dialect, 1909); C. D. Buck, <i>Introduction to the Study of the
+Greek Dialects, Grammar, Selected Inscriptions, Glossary</i> (Boston,
+1910). Works on a larger scale have been undertaken by R. Meister,
+by O. Hoffmann and by H. W. Smyth. For the <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> may be
+specially mentioned A. Thumb, <i>Die griech. Sprache in Zeitalter des
+Hellenismus</i> (1901); E. Mayser, <i>Grammatik der griechischen Papyri
+aus der Ptolemäerzeit: Laut- und Wortlehre</i> (1906); H. St J. Thackeray,
+<i>A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek</i>, vol. i. (1909); Blass,
+<i>Grammar of New Testament Greek</i>, trans. by Thackeray (1898); J. H.
+Moulton, <i>A Grammar of New Testament Greek. I. Prolegomena</i> (3rd
+ed., 1906). (iv.) For the development from the <span class="grk" title="koinê">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span> to modern
+Greek: A. N. Jannaris, <i>An Historical Greek Grammar, chiefly of the
+Attic Dialect, as written and spoken from Classical Antiquity down
+to the Present Time</i> (1901); G. N. Hatzidakis, <i>Einleitung in die
+neugriechische Grammatik</i> (1892); A. Thumb, <i>Handbuch der neugriechischen
+Volkssprache</i> (2nd ed. 1910). (v.) The inscriptions are
+collected in <i>Inscriptiones Graecae</i> in the course of publication by
+the Berlin Academy, those important for dialect in the <i>Sammlung
+der griech. Dialektinschriften</i>, edited by Collitz and Bechtel. The
+earlier parts of this collection are to some extent superseded by
+later volumes of the <i>Inscr. Graecae</i>, containing better readings and
+new inscriptions. A good selection (too brief) is Solmsen&rsquo;s <i>Inscriptiones
+Graecae ad inlustrandas dialectos selectae</i> (3rd ed., 1910). A
+serviceable lexicon for dialect words is van Herwerden&rsquo;s <i>Lexicon
+Graecum suppletorium et dialecticum</i> (2nd ed., much enlarged, 2 vols.
+1910). (vi.) The historical basis for the distribution of the Greek
+dialects is discussed at length in the histories of E. Meyer (<i>Geschichte
+des Altertums</i>, ii.) and G. Busolt (<i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i.); by Professor
+Ridgeway, <i>Early Age of Greece</i>, i. (1901), and P. Kretschmer
+in <i>Glotta</i>, i. 9 ff. See also A. Fick, <i>Die vorgriechischen Ortsnamen</i>
+(1905). (vii.) Bibliographies containing the new publications on
+Greek, with some account of their contents, appear from time
+to time in <i>Indogermanische Forschungen: Anzeiger</i> (Strassburg,
+Trübner), annually in <i>Glotta</i> (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck und
+Ruprecht), and <i>The Year&rsquo;s Work in Classical Studies</i> (London,
+Murray).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. Gi.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Thumb, <i>Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus</i>
+(1901), pp. 242-243.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Thumb, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 249.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 12, Slice 4, by Various
+
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+</body>
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+
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@@ -0,0 +1,17874 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 12, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 12, Slice 4
+       "Grasshopper" to "Greek Language"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: November 26, 2011 [EBook #38143]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 12 SLICE 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GREAT REBELLION: "The king's line was steadily rolled up
+      from left to right, the Parliamentary troopers captured his guns
+      and regiment after the regiment broke up." added 'the'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "The revenue accruing to the government in 1905 was
+      1,418,158 dr., as compared with 583,991 dr. in 1883. The increase
+      is mainly due to improved administration." 'accruing' amended from
+      'accuring'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "If we would judge fairly of tyranny, and of what
+      it contributed to the development of Greece ..." 'If' amended from
+      'It'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "It failed still more significantly to unite Greece
+      north of the Isthmus. It left Greece weaker and more divided than
+      it found it (see the concluding words of Xenophon's Hellenics)."
+      'significantly' amended from 'signally'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure to
+      grasp the principles of historical criticism, to understand the
+      nature of military operations, and to appreciate the importance of
+      chronology." 'to' amended from 'too'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "Four of Plutarch's Lives are concerned with this
+      period, viz. Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon and Pericles. From the
+      Aristides little can be gained." 'Plutarch's' amended from
+      'Plutatch's'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREECE: "It was evident, however, that nothing could be
+      gained by an appeal to arms, the powers not being prepared to apply
+      coercion to Turkey." 'It' amended from 'In'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREEK ART: "In the same graves with the pottery are
+      sometimes found plaques of gold or bronze, and towards the end of
+      the geometric age these sometimes bear scenes from mythology,
+      treated with the greatest simplicity." 'sometimes' amended from
+      'somtimes'.
+
+    ARTICLE GREEK LANGUAGE: "The ancestry of the Greek towns of Sicily
+      has been explained by Thucydides (vi. 2-5). Selinus, a colony of
+      Megara, betrays its origin in its dialect." 'betrays' amended from
+      'bewrays'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XII, SLICE IV
+
+        GRASSHOPPER to GREEK LANGUAGE
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  GRASSHOPPER                      GRAY, THOMAS
+  GRASS OF PARNASSUS               GRAY, WALTER DE
+  GRATE                            GRAY
+  GRATIAN                          GRAYLING
+  GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS            GRAYS THURROCK
+  GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE  GRAZ
+  GRATTAN, HENRY                   GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO
+  GRATTIUS [FALISCUS]              GREAT AWAKENING
+  GRAUDENZ                         GREAT BARRIER REEF
+  GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH             GREAT BARRINGTON
+  GRAVAMEN                         GREAT BASIN
+  GRAVE                            GREAT BEAR LAKE
+  GRAVEL                           GREAT CIRCLE
+  GRAVELINES                       GREAT FALLS
+  GRAVELOTTE                       GREAT HARWOOD
+  GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL          GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY
+  GRAVESEND                        GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE
+  GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO       GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS
+  GRAVINA                          GREAT REBELLION
+  GRAVITATION                      GREAT SALT LAKE
+  GRAVY                            GREAT SLAVE LAKE
+  GRAY, ASA                        GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN
+  GRAY, DAVID                      GREAVES, JOHN
+  GRAY, ELISHA                     GREBE
+  GRAY, HENRY PETERS               GRECO, EL
+  GRAY, HORACE                     GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897
+  GRAY, JOHN DE                    GREECE
+  GRAY, JOHN EDWARD                GREEK ART
+  GRAY, PATRICK GRAY               GREEK FIRE
+  GRAY, ROBERT                     GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF
+  GRAY, SIR THOMAS                 GREEK LANGUAGE
+
+
+
+
+GRASSHOPPER (Fr. _sauterelle_, Ital. _grillo_, Ger. _Grashupfer_,
+_Heuschrecke_, Swed. _Grashoppa_), names applied to orthopterous insects
+belonging to the families _Locustidae_ and _Acridiidae_. They are
+especially remarkable for their saltatory powers, due to the great
+development of the hind legs, which are much longer than the others and
+have stout and powerful thighs, and also for their stridulation, which
+is not always an attribute of the male only. The distinctions between
+the two families may be briefly stated as follows:--The _Locustidae_
+have very long thread-like antennae, four-jointed tarsi, a long
+ovipositor, the auditory organs on the tibiae of the first leg and the
+stridulatory organ in the wings; the _Acridiidae_ have short stout
+antennae, three-jointed tarsi, a short ovipositor, the auditory organs
+on the first abdominal segment, and the stridulatory organ between the
+posterior leg and the wing. The term "grasshopper" is almost synonymous
+with LOCUST (q.v.). Under both "grasshopper" and "locust" are included
+members of both families above noticed, but the majority belong to the
+_Acridiidae_ in both cases. In Britain the term is chiefly applicable to
+the large green grasshopper (_Locusta_ or _Phasgonura viridissima_)
+common in most parts of the south of England, and to smaller and much
+better-known species of the genera _Stenobothrus_, _Gomphocerus_ and
+_Tettix_, the latter remarkable for the great extension of the pronotum,
+which often reaches beyond the extremity of the body. All are vegetable
+feeders, and, as in all orthopterous insects, have an incomplete
+metamorphosis, so that their destructive powers are continuous from the
+moment of emergence from the egg till death. The migratory locust
+(_Pachytylus cinerascens_) may be considered only an exaggerated
+grasshopper, and the Rocky Mountain locust (_Caloptenus spretus_) is
+still more entitled to the name. In Britain the species are not of
+sufficient size, nor of sufficient numerical importance, to do any great
+damage. The colours of many of them assimilate greatly to those of their
+habitats; the green of the _Locusta viridissima_ is wonderfully similar
+to that of the herbage amongst which it lives, and those species that
+frequent more arid spots are protected in the same manner. Yet many
+species have brilliantly coloured under-wings (though scarcely so in
+English forms), and during flight are almost as conspicuous as
+butterflies. Those that belong to the _Acridiidae_ mostly lay their eggs
+in more or less cylindrical masses, surrounded by a glutinous secretion,
+in the ground. Some of the _Locustidae_ also lay their eggs in the
+ground, but others deposit them in fissures in trees and low plants, in
+which the female is aided by a long flattened ovipositor, or process at
+the extremity of the abdomen, whereas in the _Acridiidae_ there is only
+an apparatus of valves. The stridulation or "song" in the latter is
+produced by friction of the hind legs against portions of the wings or
+wing-covers. To a practised ear it is perhaps possible to distinguish
+the "song" of even closely allied species, and some are said to produce
+a sound differing by day and night.
+
+
+
+
+GRASS OF PARNASSUS, in botany, a small herbaceous plant known as
+_Parnassia palustris_ (natural order _Saxifragaceae_), found on wet
+moors and bogs in Britain but less common in the south. The white
+regular flower is rendered very attractive by a circlet of scales,
+opposite the petals, each of which bears a fringe of delicate filaments
+ending in a yellow knob. These glisten in the sunshine and look like a
+drop of honey. Honey is secreted by the base of each of the scales.
+
+[Illustration: Grass of Parnassus (_Parnassia palustris_). 1, one of the
+gland-bearing scales enlarged.]
+
+
+
+
+GRATE (from Lat. _crates_, a hurdle), the iron or steel receptacle for a
+domestic fire. When coal replaced logs and irons were found to be
+unsuitable for burning the comparatively small lumps, and for this
+reason and on account of the more concentrated heat of coal it became
+necessary to confine the area of the fire. Thus a basket or cage came
+into use, which, as knowledge of the scientific principles of heating
+increased, was succeeded by the small grate of iron and fire-brick set
+close into the wall which has since been in ordinary use in England. In
+the early part of the 19th century polished steel grates were
+extensively used, but the labour and difficulty of keeping them bright
+were considerable, and they were gradually replaced by grates with a
+polished black surface which could be quickly renewed by an application
+of black-lead. The most frequent form of the 18th-century grate was
+rather high from the hearth, with a small hob on each side. The brothers
+Adam designed many exceedingly elegant grates in the shape of movable
+baskets ornamented with the paterae and acanthus leaves, the swags and
+festoons characteristic of their manner. The modern dog-grate is a
+somewhat similar basket supported upon dogs or andirons, fixed or
+movable. In the closing years of the 19th century a "well-grate" was
+invented, in which the fire burns upon the hearth, combustion being
+aided by an air-chamber below.
+
+
+
+
+GRATIAN (FLAVIUS GRATIANUS AUGUSTUS), Roman emperor 375-383, son of
+Valentinian I. by Severa, was born at Sirmium in Pannonia, on the 18th
+of April (or 23rd of May) 359. On the 24th of August 367 he received
+from his father the title of Augustus. On the death of Valentinian (17th
+of November 375) the troops in Pannonia proclaimed his infant son (by a
+second wife Justina) emperor under the title of Valentinian II. (q.v.).
+Gratian acquiesced in their choice; reserving for himself the
+administration of the Gallic provinces, he handed over Italy, Illyria
+and Africa to Valentinian and his mother, who fixed their residence at
+Milan. The division, however, was merely nominal, and the real authority
+remained in the hands of Gratian. The eastern portion of the empire was
+under the rule of his uncle Valens. In May 378 Gratian completely
+defeated the Lentienses, the southernmost branch of the Alamanni, at
+Argentaria, near the site of the modern Colmar. When Valens met his
+death fighting against the Goths near Adrianople on the 9th of August in
+the same year, the government of the eastern empire devolved upon
+Gratian, but feeling himself unable to resist unaided the incursions of
+the barbarians, he ceded it to Theodosius (January 379). With Theodosius
+he cleared the Balkans of barbarians. For some years Gratian governed
+the empire with energy and success, but gradually he sank into
+indolence, occupied himself chiefly with the pleasures of the chase, and
+became a tool in the hands of the Frankish general Merobaudes and bishop
+Ambrose. By taking into his personal service a body of Alani, and
+appearing in public in the dress of a Scythian warrior, he aroused the
+contempt and resentment of his Roman troops. A Roman named Maximus took
+advantage of this feeling to raise the standard of revolt in Britain and
+invaded Gaul with a large army, upon which Gratian, who was then in
+Paris, being deserted by his troops, fled to Lyons, where, through the
+treachery of the governor, he was delivered over to one of the rebel
+generals and assassinated on the 25th of August 383.
+
+The reign of Gratian forms an important epoch in ecclesiastical history,
+since during that period orthodox Christianity for the first time became
+dominant throughout the empire. In dealing with pagans and heretics
+Gratian, who during his later years was greatly influenced by Ambrose,
+bishop of Milan, exhibited severity and injustice at variance with his
+usual character. He prohibited heathen worship at Rome; refused to wear
+the insignia of the pontifex maximus as unbefitting a Christian; removed
+the altar of Victory from the senate-house at Rome, in spite of the
+remonstrance of the pagan members of the senate, and confiscated its
+revenues; forbade legacies of real property to the Vestals; and
+abolished other privileges belonging to them and to the pontiffs. For
+his treatment of heretics see the church histories of the period.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Ammianus Marcellinus xxvii.-xxxi.; Aurelius Victor,
+  _Epit._ 47; Zosimus iv. vi.; Ausonius (Gratian's tutor), especially
+  the _Gratiarum actio pro consulatu_; Symmachus x. epp. 2 and 61;
+  Ambrose, _De fide_, prolegomena to _Epistolae_ 11, 17, 21, _Consolatio
+  de obitu Valentiniani_; H. Richter, _Das westromische Reich, besonders
+  unter den Kaisern Gratian, Valentinian II. und Maximus_ (1865); A. de
+  Broglie, _L'Eglise et l'empire romain au IV^e siecle_ (4th ed., 1882);
+  H. Schiller, _Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit_, iii., iv. 31-33;
+  Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch. 27; R. Gumpoltsberger, _Kaiser
+  Gratian_ (Vienna, 1879); T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (Oxford,
+  1892), vol. i.; Tillemont, _Hist. des empereurs_, v.; J. Wordsworth in
+  Smith's _Dictionary of Christian Biography_.     (J. H. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRATIANUS, FRANCISCUS, compiler of the _Concordia discordantium canonum_
+or _Decretum Gratiani_, and founder of the science of canon law, was
+born about the end of the 11th century at Chiusi in Tuscany or,
+according to another account, at Carraria near Orvieto. In early life he
+appears to have been received into the Camaldulian monastery of Classe
+near Ravenna, whence he afterwards removed to that of San Felice in
+Bologna, where he spent many years in the preparation of the
+_Concordia_. The precise date of this work cannot be ascertained, but
+it contains references to the decisions of the Lateran council of 1139,
+and there is fair authority for believing that it was completed while
+Pope Alexander III. was still simply professor of theology at
+Bologna,--in other words, prior to 1150. The labours of Gratian are said
+to have been rewarded with the bishopric of Chiusi, but if so he appears
+never to have been consecrated; at least his name is not in any
+authentic list of those who have occupied that see. The year of his
+death is unknown.
+
+  For some account of the _Decretum Gratiani_ and its history see CANON
+  LAW. The best edition is that of Friedberg (_Corpus juris canonici_,
+  Leipzig, 1879). Compare Schultze, _Zur Geschichte der Litteratur uber
+  das Decret Gratians_ (1870), _Die Glosse zum Decret Gratians_ (1872),
+  and _Geschichte der Quellen und Litteratur des kanonischen Rechts_ (3
+  vols., Stuttgart, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+GRATRY, AUGUSTE JOSEPH ALPHONSE (1805-1872), French author and
+theologian, was born at Lille on the 10th of March 1805. He was educated
+at the Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, and, after a period of mental
+struggle which he has described in _Souvenirs de ma jeunesse_, he was
+ordained priest in 1832. After a stay at Strassburg as professor of the
+Petit Seminaire, he was appointed director of the College Stanislas in
+Paris in 1842 and, in 1847, chaplain of the Ecole Normale Superieure. He
+became vicar-general of Orleans in 1861, professor of ethics at the
+Sorbonne in 1862, and, on the death of Barante, a member of the French
+Academy in 1867, where he occupied the seat formerly held by Voltaire.
+Together with M. Petetot, _cure_ of Saint Roch, he reconstituted the
+Oratory of the Immaculate Conception, a society of priests mainly
+devoted to education. Gratry was one of the principal opponents of the
+definition of the dogma of papal infallibility, but in this respect he
+submitted to the authority of the Vatican Council. He died at Montreux
+in Switzerland on the 6th of February 1872.
+
+  His chief works are: _De la connaissance de Dieu_, opposing Positivism
+  (1855); _La Logique_ (1856); _Les Sources, conseils pour la conduite
+  de l'esprit_ (1861-1862); _La Philosophie du credo_ (1861);
+  _Commentaire sur l'evangile de Saint Matthieu_ (1863); _Jesus-Christ,
+  lettres a M. Renan_ (1864); _Les Sophistes et la critique_ (in
+  controversy with E. Vacherot) (1864); _La Morale et la loi de
+  l'histoire_, setting forth his social views (1868); _Mgr. l'eveque
+  d'Orleans et Mgr. l'archeveque de Malines_ (1869), containing a clear
+  exposition of the historical arguments against the doctrine of papal
+  infallibility. There is a selection of Gratry's writings and
+  appreciation of his style by the Abbe Pichot, in _Pages choisies des
+  Grands Ecrivains_ series, published by Armand-Colin (1897). See also
+  the critical study by the oratorian A. Chauvin, _L'Abbe Gratry_
+  (1901); _Le Pere Gratry_ (1900), and _Les Derniers Jours du Pere
+  Gratry et son testament spirituel_, (1872), by Cardinal Adolphe
+  Perraud, Gratry's friend and disciple.
+
+
+
+
+GRATTAN, HENRY (1746-1820), Irish statesman, son of James Grattan, for
+many years recorder of Dublin, was born in Dublin on the 3rd of July
+1746. He early gave evidence of exceptional gifts both of intellect and
+character. At Trinity College, Dublin, where he had a distinguished
+career, he began a lifelong devotion to classical literature and
+especially to the great orators of antiquity. He was called to the Irish
+bar in 1772, but never seriously practised the law. Like Flood, with
+whom he was on terms of friendship, he cultivated his natural genius for
+eloquence by study of good models, including Bolingbroke and Junius. A
+visit to the English House of Lords excited boundless admiration for
+Lord Chatham, of whose style of oratory Grattan contributed an
+interesting description to _Baratariana_ (see FLOOD, HENRY). The
+influence of Flood did much to give direction to Grattan's political
+aims; and it was through no design on Grattan's part that when Lord
+Charlemont brought him into the Irish parliament in 1775, in the very
+session in which Flood damaged his popularity by accepting office,
+Grattan quickly superseded his friend in the leadership of the national
+party. Grattan was well qualified for it. His oratorical powers were
+unsurpassed among his contemporaries. He conspicuously lacked, indeed,
+the grace of gesture which he so much admired in Chatham; he had not the
+sustained dignity of Pitt; his powers of close reasoning were inferior
+to those of Fox and Flood. But his speeches were packed with epigram,
+and expressed with rare felicity of phrase; his terse and telling
+sentences were richer in profound aphorisms and maxims of political
+philosophy than those of any other statesman save Burke; he possessed
+the orator's incomparable gift of conveying his own enthusiasm to his
+audience and convincing them of the loftiness of his aims.
+
+The principal object of the national party was to set the Irish
+parliament free from constitutional bondage to the English privy
+council. By virtue of Poyning's Act, a celebrated statute of Henry VII.,
+all proposed Irish legislation had to be submitted to the English privy
+council for its approval under the great seal of England before being
+passed by the Irish parliament. A bill so approved might be accepted or
+rejected, but not amended. More recent English acts had further
+emphasized the complete dependence of the Irish parliament, and the
+appellate jurisdiction of the Irish House of Lords had also been
+annulled. Moreover, the English Houses claimed and exercised the power
+to legislate directly for Ireland without even the nominal concurrence
+of the parliament in Dublin. This was the constitution which Molyneux
+and Swift had denounced, which Flood had attacked, and which Grattan was
+to destroy. The menacing attitude of the Volunteer Convention at
+Dungannon greatly influenced the decision of the government in 1782 to
+resist the agitation no longer. It was through ranks of volunteers drawn
+up outside the parliament house in Dublin that Grattan passed on the
+16th of April 1782, amidst unparalleled popular enthusiasm, to move a
+declaration of the independence of the Irish parliament. "I found
+Ireland on her knees," Grattan exclaimed, "I watched over her with a
+paternal solicitude; I have traced her progress from injuries to arms,
+and from arms to liberty. Spirit of Swift, spirit of Molyneux, your
+genius has prevailed! Ireland is now a nation!" After a month of
+negotiation the claims of Ireland were conceded. The gratitude of his
+countrymen to Grattan found expression in a parliamentary grant of
+L100,000, which had to be reduced by one half before he would consent to
+accept it.
+
+One of the first acts of "Grattan's parliament" was to prove its loyalty
+to England by passing a vote for the support of 20,000 sailors for the
+navy. Grattan himself never failed in loyalty to the crown and the
+English connexion. He was, however, anxious for moderate parliamentary
+reform, and, unlike Flood, he favoured Catholic emancipation. It was,
+indeed, evident that without reform the Irish House of Commons would not
+be able to make much use of its newly won independence. Though now free
+from constitutional control it was no less subject than before to the
+influence of corruption, which the English government had wielded
+through the Irish borough owners, known as the "undertakers," or more
+directly through the great executive officers. "Grattan's parliament"
+had no control over the Irish executive. The lord lieutenant and his
+chief secretary continued to be appointed by the English ministers;
+their tenure of office depended on the vicissitudes of English, not
+Irish, party politics; the royal prerogative was exercised in Ireland on
+the advice of English ministers. The House of Commons was in no sense
+representative of the Irish people. The great majority of the people
+were excluded as Roman Catholics from the franchise; two-thirds of the
+members of the House of Commons were returned by small boroughs at the
+absolute disposal of single patrons, whose support was bought by a
+lavish distribution of peerages and pensions. It was to give stability
+and true independence to the new constitution that Grattan pressed for
+reform. Having quarrelled with Flood over "simple repeal" Grattan also
+differed from him on the question of maintaining the Volunteer
+Convention. He opposed the policy of protective duties, but supported
+Pitt's famous commercial propositions in 1785 for establishing free
+trade between Great Britain and Ireland, which, however, had to be
+abandoned owing to the hostility of the English mercantile classes. In
+general Grattan supported the government for a time after 1782, and in
+particular spoke and voted for the stringent coercive legislation
+rendered necessary by the Whiteboy outrages in 1785; but as the years
+passed without Pitt's personal favour towards parliamentary reform
+bearing fruit in legislation, he gravitated towards the opposition,
+agitated for commutation of tithes in Ireland, and supported the Whigs
+on the regency question in 1788. In 1792 he succeeded in carrying an
+Act conferring the franchise on the Roman Catholics; in 1794 in
+conjunction with William Ponsonby he introduced a reform bill which was
+even less democratic than Flood's bill of 1783. He was as anxious as
+Flood had been to retain the legislative power in the hands of men of
+property, for "he had through the whole of his life a strong conviction
+that while Ireland could best be governed by Irish hands, democracy in
+Ireland would inevitably turn to plunder and anarchy."[1] At the same
+time he desired to admit the Roman Catholic gentry of property to
+membership of the House of Commons, a proposal that was the logical
+corollary of the Relief Act of 1792. The defeat of Grattan's mild
+proposals helped to promote more extreme opinions, which, under French
+revolutionary influence, were now becoming heard in Ireland.
+
+The Catholic question had rapidly become of the first importance, and
+when a powerful section of the Whigs joined Pitt's ministry in 1794, and
+it became known that the lord-lieutenancy was to go to Lord Fitzwilliam,
+who shared Grattan's views, expectations were raised that the question
+was about to be settled in a manner satisfactory to the Irish Catholics.
+Such seems to have been Pitt's intention, though there has been much
+controversy as to how far Lord Fitzwilliam (q.v.) had been authorized to
+pledge the government. After taking Grattan into his confidence, it was
+arranged that the latter should bring in a Roman Catholic emancipation
+bill, and that it should then receive government support. But finally it
+appeared that the viceroy had either misunderstood or exceeded his
+instructions; and on the 19th of February 1795 Fitzwilliam was recalled.
+In the outburst of indignation, followed by increasing disaffection in
+Ireland, which this event produced, Grattan acted with conspicuous
+moderation and loyalty, which won for him warm acknowledgments from a
+member of the English cabinet.[2] That cabinet, however, doubtless
+influenced by the wishes of the king, was now determined firmly to
+resist the Catholic demands, with the result that the country rapidly
+drifted towards rebellion. Grattan warned the government in a series of
+masterly speeches of the lawless condition to which Ireland had been
+driven. But he could now count on no more than some forty followers in
+the House of Commons, and his words were unheeded. He retired from
+parliament in May 1797, and departed from his customary moderation by
+attacking the government in an inflammatory "Letter to the citizens of
+Dublin."
+
+At this time religious animosity had almost died out in Ireland, and men
+of different faiths were ready to combine for common political objects.
+Thus the Presbyterians of the north, who were mainly republican in
+sentiment, combined with a section of the Roman Catholics to form the
+organization of the United Irishmen, to promote revolutionary ideas
+imported from France; and a party prepared to welcome a French invasion
+soon came into existence. Thus stimulated, the increasing disaffection
+culminated in the rebellion of 1798, which was sternly and cruelly
+repressed. No sooner was this effected than the project of a legislative
+union between the British and Irish parliaments, which had been from
+time to time discussed since the beginning of the 18th century, was
+taken up in earnest by Pitt's government. Grattan from the first
+denounced the scheme with implacable hostility. There was, however, much
+to be said in its favour. The constitution of Grattan's parliament
+offered no security, as the differences over the regency question had
+made evident that in matters of imperial interest the policy of the
+Irish parliament and that of Great Britain would be in agreement; and at
+a moment when England was engaged in a life and death struggle with
+France it was impossible for the ministry to ignore the danger, which
+had so recently been emphasized by the fact that the independent
+constitution of 1782 had offered no safeguard against armed revolt. The
+rebellion put an end to the growing reconciliation between Roman
+Catholics and Protestants; religious passions were now violently
+inflamed, and the Orangemen and Catholics divided the island into two
+hostile factions. It is a curious circumstance, in view of the
+subsequent history of Irish politics, that it was from the Protestant
+Established Church, and particularly from the Orangemen, that the
+bitterest opposition to the union proceeded; and that the proposal found
+support chiefly among the Roman Catholic clergy and especially the
+bishops, while in no part of Ireland was it received with more favour
+than in the city of Cork. This attitude of the Catholics was caused by
+Pitt's encouragement of the expectation that Catholic emancipation, the
+commutation of tithes, and the endowment of the Catholic priesthood,
+would accompany or quickly follow the passing of the measure.
+
+When in 1799 the government brought forward their bill it was defeated
+in the Irish House of Commons. Grattan was still in retirement. His
+popularity had temporarily declined, and the fact that his proposals for
+parliamentary reform and Catholic emancipation had become the watchwords
+of the rebellious United Irishmen had brought upon him the bitter
+hostility of the governing classes. He was dismissed from the privy
+council; his portrait was removed from the hall of Trinity College; the
+Merchant Guild of Dublin struck his name off their rolls. But the
+threatened destruction of the constitution of 1782 quickly restored its
+author to his former place in the affections of the Irish people. The
+parliamentary recess had been effectually employed by the government in
+securing by lavish corruption a majority in favour of their policy. On
+the 15th of January 1800 the Irish parliament met for its last session;
+on the same day Grattan secured by purchase a seat for Wicklow; and at a
+late hour, while the debate was proceeding, he appeared to take his
+seat. "There was a moment's pause, an electric thrill passed through the
+House, and a long wild cheer burst from the galleries."[3] Enfeebled by
+illness, Grattan's strength gave way when he rose to speak, and he
+obtained leave to address the House sitting. Nevertheless his speech was
+a superb effort of oratory; for more than two hours he kept his audience
+spellbound by a flood of epigram, of sustained reasoning, of eloquent
+appeal. After prolonged debates Grattan, on the 26th of May, spoke
+finally against the committal of the bill, ending with an impassioned
+peroration in which he declared, "I will remain anchored here with
+fidelity to the fortunes of my country, faithful to her freedom,
+faithful to her fall."[4] These were the last words spoken by Grattan in
+the Irish parliament.
+
+The bill establishing the union was carried through its final stages by
+substantial majorities. The people remained listless, giving no
+indications of any eager dislike of the government policy. "There were
+absolutely none of the signs which are invariably found when a nation
+struggles passionately against what it deems an impending tyranny, or
+rallies around some institution which it really loves."[5] One of
+Grattan's main grounds of opposition to the union had been his dread of
+seeing the political leadership in Ireland pass out of the hands of the
+landed gentry; and he prophesied that the time would come when Ireland
+would send to the united parliament "a hundred of the greatest rascals
+in the kingdom."[6] Like Flood before him, Grattan had no leaning
+towards democracy; and he anticipated that by the removal of the centre
+of political interest from Ireland the evil of absenteeism would be
+intensified.
+
+For the next five years Grattan took no active part in public affairs;
+it was not till 1805 that he became a member of the parliament of the
+United Kingdom. He modestly took his seat on one of the back benches,
+till Fox brought him forward to a seat near his own, exclaiming, "This
+is no place for the Irish Demosthenes!" His first speech was on the
+Catholic question, and though some doubt had been felt lest Grattan,
+like Flood, should belie at Westminster the reputation made in Dublin,
+all agreed with the description of his speech by the Annual Register as
+"one of the most brilliant and eloquent ever pronounced within the walls
+of parliament." When Fox and Grenville came into power in 1806 Grattan
+was offered, but refused to accept, an office in the government. In the
+following year he showed the strength of his judgment and character by
+supporting, in spite of consequent unpopularity in Ireland, a measure
+for increasing the powers of the executive to deal with Irish disorder.
+Roman Catholic emancipation, which he continued to advocate with
+unflagging energy though now advanced in age, became complicated after
+1808 by the question whether a veto on the appointment of Roman Catholic
+bishops should rest with the crown. Grattan supported the veto, but a
+more extreme Catholic party was now arising in Ireland under the
+leadership of Daniel O'Connell, and Grattan's influence gradually
+declined. He seldom spoke in parliament after 1810, the most notable
+exception being in 1815, when he separated himself from the Whigs and
+supported the final struggle against Napoleon. His last speech of all,
+in 1819, contained a passage referring to the union he had so
+passionately resisted, which exhibits the statesmanship and at the same
+time the equable quality of Grattan's character. His sentiments with
+regard to the policy of the union remained, he said, unchanged; but "the
+marriage having taken place it is now the duty, as it ought to be the
+inclination, of every individual to render it as fruitful, as profitable
+and as advantageous as possible." In the following summer, after
+crossing from Ireland to London when out of health to bring forward the
+Catholic question once more, he became seriously ill. On his death-bed
+he spoke generously of Castlereagh, and with warm eulogy of his former
+rival, Flood. He died on the 6th of June 1820, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey close to the tombs of Pitt and Fox. His statue is in
+the outer lobby of the Houses of Parliament at Westminster. Grattan had
+married in 1782 Henrietta Fitzgerald, a lady descended from the ancient
+family of Desmond, by whom he had two sons and two daughters.
+
+The most searching scrutiny of his private life only increases the
+respect due to the memory of Grattan as a statesman and the greatest of
+Irish orators. His patriotism was untainted by self-seeking; he was
+courageous in risking his popularity for what his sound judgment showed
+him to be the right course. As Sydney Smith said with truth of Grattan
+soon after his death: "No government ever dismayed him. The world could
+not bribe him. He thought only of Ireland; lived for no other object;
+dedicated to her his beautiful fancy, his elegant wit, his manly
+courage, and all the splendour of his astonishing eloquence."[7]
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Henry Grattan, _Memoirs of the Life and Times of the
+  Right Hon. H. Grattan_ (5 vols., London, 1839-1846); _Grattan's
+  Speeches_ (ed. by H. Grattan, junr., 1822); _Irish Parl. Debates_; W.
+  E. H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_ (8 vols.,
+  London, 1878-1890) and _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_
+  (enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903). For the controversy concerning the
+  recall of Lord Fitzwilliam see, in addition to the foregoing, Lord
+  Rosebery, _Pitt_ (London, 1891); Lord Ashbourne, _Pitt: Some Chapters
+  of his Life_ (London, 1898); _The Pelham Papers (Brit. Mus. Add.
+  MSS._, 33118); _Carlisle Correspondence_; _Beresford Correspondence_;
+  _Stanhope Miscellanies_; for the Catholic question, W. J. Amhurst,
+  _History of Catholic Emancipation_ (2 vols., London, 1886); Sir Thomas
+  Wyse, _Historical Sketch of the late Catholic Association of Ireland_
+  (London, 1829); W. J. MacNeven, _Pieces of Irish History_ (New York,
+  1807) containing an account of the United Irishmen; for the volunteer
+  movement Thomas MacNevin, _History of the Volunteers of 1782_ (Dublin,
+  1845); _Proceedings of the Volunteer Delegates of Ireland 1784_ (Anon.
+  Pamph. Brit. Mus.). See also F. Hardy, _Memoirs of Lord Charlemont_
+  (London, 1812); Warden Flood, _Memoirs of Henry Flood_ (London, 1838);
+  Francis Plowden, _Historical Review of the State of Ireland_ (London,
+  1803); Alfred Webb, _Compendium of Irish Biography_ (Dublin, 1878);
+  Sir Jonah Barrington, _Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation_ (London,
+  1833); W. J. O'Neill Daunt, _Ireland and her Agitators_; Lord
+  Mountmorres, _History of the Irish Parliament_ (2 vols., London,
+  1792); Horace Walpole, _Memoirs of the Reign of George III._ (4 vols.,
+  London, 1845 and 1894); Lord Stanhope, _Life of William Pitt_ (4
+  vols., London, 1861); Thomas Davis, _Life of J. P. Curran_ (Dublin,
+  1846)--this contains a memoir of Grattan by D. O. Madden, and
+  Grattan's reply to Lord Clare on the question of the Union; Charles
+  Phillips, _Recollections of Curran and some of his Contemporaries_
+  (London, 1822); J. A. Froude, _The English in Ireland_ (London, 1881);
+  J. G. McCarthy, _Henry Grattan: an Historical Study_ (London, 1886);
+  Lord Mahon's _History of England_, vol. vii. (1858). With special
+  reference to the Union see _Castlereagh Correspondence_; _Cornwallis
+  Correspondence_; _Westmorland Papers_ (Irish State Paper Office).
+       (R. J. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] W. E. H. Lecky, _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_, i. 127
+    (enlarged edition, 2 vols., 1903).
+
+  [2] _Ibid._ i. 204.
+
+  [3] _Ibid._ i. 241.
+
+  [4] _Grattan's Speeches_, iv. 23.
+
+  [5] W. E. H. Lecky, _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_,
+    viii. 491. Cf. _Cornwallis Correspondence_, iii. 250.
+
+  [6] W. E. H. Lecky, _Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland_, i. 270.
+
+  [7] Sydney Smith's _Works_, ii. 166-167.
+
+
+
+
+GRATTIUS [FALISCUS], Roman poet, of the age of Augustus, author of a
+poem on hunting (_Cynegetica_), of which 541 hexameters remain. He was
+possibly a native of Falerii. The only reference to him in any ancient
+writer is incidental (Ovid, _Ex Ponto_, iv. 16. 33). He describes
+various kinds of game, methods of hunting, the best breeds of horses and
+dogs.
+
+  There are editions by R. Stern (1832); E. Bahrens in _Poetae Latini
+  Minores_ (i., 1879) and G. G. Curcio in _Poeti Latini Minori_ (i.,
+  1902), with bibliography; see also H. Schenkl, _Zur Kritik des G._
+  (1898). There is a translation by Christopher Wase (1654).
+
+
+
+
+GRAUDENZ (Polish _Grudziadz_), a town in the kingdom of Prussia,
+province of West Prussia, on the right bank of the Vistula, 18 m. S.S.W.
+of Marienwerder and 37 m. by rail N.N.E. of Thorn. Pop. (1885) 17,336,
+(1905) 35,988. It has two Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches,
+and a synagogue. It is a place of considerable manufacturing activity.
+The town possesses a museum and a monument to Guillaume Rene Courbiere
+(1733-1811), the defender of the town in 1807. It has fine promenades
+along the bank of the Vistula. Graudenz is an important place in the
+German system of fortifications, and has a garrison of considerable
+size.
+
+Graudenz was founded about 1250, and received civic rights in 1291. At
+the peace of Thorn in 1466 it came under the lordship of Poland. From
+1665 to 1759 it was held by Sweden, and in 1772 it came into the
+possession of Prussia. The fortress of Graudenz, which since 1873 has
+been used as a barracks and a military depot and prison, is situated on
+a steep eminence about 1-1/2 m. north of the town and outside its
+limits. It was completed by Frederick the Great in 1776, and was
+rendered famous through its defence by Courbiere against the French in
+1807.
+
+
+
+
+GRAUN, CARL HEINRICH (1701-1759), German musical composer, the youngest
+of three brothers, all more or less musical, was born on the 7th of May
+1701 at Wahrenbruck in Saxony. His father held a small government post
+and he gave his children a careful education. Graun's beautiful soprano
+voice secured him an appointment in the choir at Dresden. At an early
+age he composed a number of sacred cantatas and other pieces for the
+church service. He completed his studies under Johann Christoph Schmidt
+(1664-1728), and profited much by the Italian operas which were
+performed at Dresden under the composer Lotti. After his voice had
+changed to a tenor, he made his debut at the opera of Brunswick, in a
+work by Schurmann, an inferior composer of the day; but not being
+satisfied with the arias assigned him he re-wrote them, so much to the
+satisfaction of the court that he was commissioned to write an opera for
+the next season. This work, _Polydorus_ (1726), and five other operas
+written for Brunswick, spread his fame all over Germany. Other works,
+mostly of a sacred character, including two settings of the _Passion_,
+also belong to the Brunswick period. Frederick the Great, at that time
+crown prince of Prussia, heard the singer in Brunswick in 1735, and
+immediately engaged him for his private chapel at Rheinsberg. There
+Graun remained for five years, and wrote a number of cantatas, mostly to
+words written by Frederick himself in French, and translated into
+Italian by Boltarelli. On his accession to the throne in 1740, Frederick
+sent Graun to Italy to engage singers for a new opera to be established
+at Berlin. Graun remained a year on his travels, earning universal
+applause as a singer in the chief cities of Italy. After his return to
+Berlin he was appointed conductor of the royal orchestra
+(_Kapellmeister_) with a salary of 2000 thalers (L300). In this capacity
+he wrote twenty-eight operas, all to Italian words, of which the last,
+_Merope_ (1756), is perhaps the most perfect. It is probable that Graun
+was subjected to considerable humiliation from the arbitrary caprices of
+his royal master, who was never tired of praising the operas of Hasse
+and abusing those of his _Kapellmeister_. In his oratorio _The Death of
+Jesus_ Graun shows his skill as a contrapuntist, and his originality of
+melodious invention. In the Italian operas he imitates the florid style
+of his time, but even in these the recitatives occasionally show
+considerable dramatic power. Graun died on the 8th of August 1759, at
+Berlin, in the same house in which, thirty-two years later, Meyerbeer
+was born.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVAMEN. (from Lat. _gravare_, to weigh down; _gravis_, heavy), a
+complaint or grievance, the ground of a legal action, and particularly
+the more serious part of a charge against an accused person. In English
+the term is used chiefly in ecclesiastical cases, being the technical
+designation of a memorial presented from the Lower to the Upper House of
+Convocation, setting forth grievances to be redressed, or calling
+attention to breaches in church discipline.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVE. (1) (From a common Teutonic verb, meaning "to dig"; in O. Eng.
+_grafan_; cf. Dutch _graven_, Ger. _graben_), a place dug out of the
+earth in which a dead body is laid for burial, and hence any place of
+burial, not necessarily an excavation (see FUNERAL RITES and BURIAL).
+The verb "to grave," meaning properly to dig, is particularly used of
+the making of incisions in a hard surface (see ENGRAVING). (2) A title,
+now obsolete, of a local administrative official for a township in
+certain parts of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire; it also sometimes appears
+in the form "grieve," which in Scotland and Northumberland is used for
+sheriff (q.v.), and also for a bailiff or under-steward. The origin of
+the word is obscure, but it is probably connected with the German
+_graf_, count, and thus appears as the second part of many Teutonic
+titles, such as landgrave, burgrave and margrave. "Grieve," on the other
+hand, seems to be the northern representative of O.E. _gerefa_, reeve;
+cf. "sheriff" and "count." (3) (From the Lat. _gravis_, heavy), weighty,
+serious, particularly with the idea of dangerous, as applied to diseases
+and the like, of character or temperament as opposed to gay. It is also
+applied to sound, low or deep, and is thus opposed to "acute." In music
+the term is adopted from the French and Italian, and applied to a
+movement which is solemn or slow. (4) To clean a ship's bottom in a
+specially constructed dock, called a "graving dock." The origin of the
+word is obscure; according to the _New English Dictionary_ there is no
+foundation for the connexion with "greaves" or "graves," the refuse of
+tallow, in candle or soap-making, supposed to be used in "graving" a
+ship. It may be connected with an O. Fr. _grave_, mod. _greve_, shore.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS, the name given to deposits of rounded,
+subangular, water-worn stones, mingled with finer material such as sand
+and clay. The word "gravel" is adapted from the O. Fr. _gravele_, mod.
+_gravelle_, dim. of _grave_, coarse sand, sea-shore, Mod. Fr. _greve_.
+The deposits are produced by the attrition of rock fragments by moving
+water, the waves and tides of the sea and the flow of rivers. Extensive
+beds of gravel are forming at the present time on many parts of the
+British coasts where suitable rocks are exposed to the attack of the
+atmosphere and of the sea waves during storms. The flint gravels of the
+coast of the Channel, Norfolk, &c., are excellent examples. When the sea
+is rough the lesser stones are washed up and down the beach by each
+wave, and in this way are rounded, worn down and finally reduced to
+sand. These gravels are constantly in movement, being urged forward by
+the shore currents especially during storms. Large banks of gravel may
+be swept away in a single night, and in this way the coast is laid bare
+to the erosive action of the sea. Moreover, the movement of the gravel
+itself wears down the subjacent rocks. Hence in many places barriers
+have been erected to prevent the drift of the pebbles and preserve the
+land, while often it has been found necessary to protect the shores by
+masonry or cement work. Where the pebbles are swept along to a
+projecting cape they may be carried onwards and form a long spit or
+submarine bank, which is constantly reduced in size by the currents and
+tides which flow across it (e.g. Spurn Head at the mouth of the Humber).
+The Chesil Bank is the best instance in Britain of a great accumulation
+of pebbles constantly urged forward by storms in a definite direction.
+In the shallower parts of the North Sea considerable areas are covered
+with coarse sand and pebbles. In deeper water, however, as in the
+Atlantic, beyond the 100 fathom line pebbles are very rare, and those
+which are found are mostly erratics carried southward by floating
+icebergs, or volcanic rocks ejected by submarine volcanoes.
+
+In many parts of Britain, Scandinavia and North America there are marine
+gravels, in every essential resembling those of the sea-shore, at
+levels considerably above high tide. These gravels often lie In
+flat-topped terraces which may be traced for great distances along the
+coast. They are indications that the sea at one time stood higher than
+it does at present, and are known to geologists as "raised beaches." In
+Scotland such beaches are known 25, 50 and 100 ft. above the present
+shores. In exposed situations they have old shore cliffs behind them;
+although their deposits are mainly gravelly there is much fine sand and
+silt in the raised beaches of sheltered estuaries and near river mouths.
+
+River gravels occur most commonly in the middle and upper parts of
+streams where the currents in times of flood are strong enough to
+transport fairly large stones. In deltas and the lower portions of large
+rivers gravel deposits are comparatively rare and indicate periods when
+the volume of the stream was temporarily greatly increased. In the
+higher torrents also, gravels are rare because transport is so effective
+that no considerable accumulations can form. In most countries where the
+drainage is of a mature type, river gravels occur in the lower parts of
+the courses of the rivers as banks or terraces which lie some distance
+above the stream level. Individual terraces usually do not persist for a
+long space but are represented by a series of benches at about the same
+altitude. These were once continuous, and have been separated by the
+stream cutting away the intervening portions as it deepened and
+broadened its channel. Terraces of this kind often occur in successive
+series at different heights, and the highest are the oldest because they
+were laid down at a time when the stream flowed at their level and mark
+the various stages by which the valley has been eroded. While marine
+terraces are nearly always horizontal, stream terraces slope downwards
+along the course of the river.
+
+The extensive deposits of river gravels in many parts of England,
+France, Switzerland, North America, &c., would indicate that at some
+former time the rivers flowed in greater volume than at the present day.
+This is believed to be connected with the glacial epoch and the
+augmentation of the streams during those periods when the ice was
+melting away. Many changes in drainage have taken place since then;
+consequently wide sheets of glacial and fluvio-glacial gravel lie spread
+out where at present there is no stream. Often they are commingled with
+sand, and where there were temporary post-glacial lakes deposits of
+silt, brick clay and mud have been formed. These may be compared to the
+similar deposits now forming in Greenland, Spitzbergen and other
+countries which are at present in a glacial condition.
+
+As a rule gravels consist mainly of the harder kinds of stone because
+these alone can resist attrition. Thus the gravels formed from chalk
+consist almost entirely of flint, which is so hard that the chalk is
+ground to powder and washed away, while the flint remains little
+affected. Other hard rocks such as chert, quartzite, felsite, granite,
+sandstone and volcanic rocks very frequently are largely represented in
+gravels, while coal, limestone and shale are far less common. The size
+of the pebbles varies from a fraction of an inch to several feet; it
+depends partly on the fissility of the original rocks and partly on the
+strength of the currents of water; coarse gravels indicate the action of
+powerful eroding agents. In the Tertiary systems gravels occur on many
+horizons, e.g. the Woolwich and Reading beds, Oldhaven beds and Bagshot
+beds of the Eocene of the London basin. They do not essentially differ
+from recent gravel deposits. But in course of time the action of
+percolating water assisted by pressure tends to convert gravels into
+firm masses of conglomerate by depositing carbonate of lime, silica and
+other substances in their interstices. Gravels are not usually so
+fossiliferous as finer deposits of the same age, partly because their
+porous texture enables organic remains to be dissolved away by water,
+and partly because shells and other fossils are comparatively fragile
+and would be broken up during the accumulation of the pebbles. The rock
+fragments in conglomerates, however, sometimes contain fossils which
+have not been found elsewhere.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAVELINES (Flem. _Gravelinghe_), a fortified seaport town of northern
+France, in the department of Nord and arrondissement of Dunkirk, 15 m.
+S.W. of Dunkirk on the railway to Calais. Pop. (1906) town, 1858;
+commune, 6284. Gravelines is situated on the Aa, 1-1/4 m. from its mouth
+in the North Sea. It is surrounded by a double circuit of ramparts and
+by a tidal moat. The river is canalized and opens out beneath the
+fortifications into a floating basin. The situation of the port is one
+of the best in France on the North Sea, though its trade has suffered
+owing to the nearness of Calais and Dunkirk and the silting up of the
+channel to the sea. It is a centre for the cod and herring fisheries.
+Imports consist chiefly of timber from Northern Europe and coal from
+England, to which eggs and fruit are exported. Gravelines has
+paper-manufactories, sugar-works, fish-curing works, salt-refineries,
+chicory-roasting factories, a cannery for preserved peas and other
+vegetables and an important timber-yard. The harbour is accessible to
+vessels drawing 18 ft. at high tides. The greater part of the population
+of the commune of Gravelines dwells in the maritime quarter of
+Petit-Fort-Philippe at the mouth of the Aa, and in the village of Les
+Huttes (to the east of the town), which is inhabited by the fisher-folk.
+
+The canalization of the Aa by a count of Flanders about the middle of
+the 12th century led to the foundation of Gravelines (_grave-linghe_,
+meaning "count's canal."). In 1558 it was the scene of the signal
+victory of the Spaniards under the count of Egmont over the French. It
+finally passed from the Spaniards to the French by the treaty of the
+Pyrenees in 1659.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVELOTTE, a village of Lorraine between Metz and the French frontier,
+famous as the scene of the battle of the 18th of August 1870 between the
+Germans under King William of Prussia and the French under Marshal
+Bazaine (see METZ and FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). The battlefield extends from
+the woods which border the Moselle above Metz to Roncourt, near the
+river Orne. Other villages which played an important part in the battle
+of Gravelotte were Saint Privat, Amanweiler or Amanvillers and
+Sainte-Marie-aux-Chenes, all lying to the N. of Gravelotte.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVES, ALFRED PERCEVAL (1846-   ), Irish writer, was born in Dublin,
+the son of the bishop of Limerick. He was educated at Windermere
+College, and took high honours at Dublin University. In 1869 he entered
+the Civil Service as clerk in the Home Office, where he remained until
+he became in 1874 an inspector of schools. He was a constant contributor
+of prose and verse to the _Spectator_, _The Athenaeum_, _John Bull_, and
+_Punch_, and took a leading part in the revival of Irish letters. He was
+for several years president of the Irish Literary Society, and is the
+author of the famous ballad of "Father O'Flynn" and many other songs and
+ballads. In collaboration with Sir C. V. Stanford he published _Songs of
+Old Ireland_ (1882), _Irish Songs and Ballads_ (1893), the airs of which
+are taken from the Petrie MSS.; the airs of his _Irish Folk-Songs_
+(1897) were arranged by Charles Wood, with whom he also collaborated in
+_Songs of Erin_ (1901).
+
+His brother, Charles L. Graves (b. 1856), educated at Marlborough and at
+Christ Church, Oxford, also became well known as a journalist, author of
+two volumes of parodies, _The Hawarden Horace_ (1894) and _More Hawarden
+Horace_ (1896), and of skits in prose and verse. An admirable musical
+critic, his _Life and Letters of Sir George Grove_ (1903) is a model
+biography.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVESEND, a municipal and parliamentary borough, river-port and market
+town of Kent, England, on the right bank of the Thames opposite Tilbury
+Fort, 22 m. E. by S. of London by the South-Eastern & Chatham railway.
+Pop. (1901) 27,196. It extends about 2 m. along the river bank,
+occupying a slight acclivity which reaches its summit at Windmill Hill,
+whence extensive views are obtained of the river, with its windings and
+shipping. The older and lower part of the town is irregularly built,
+with narrow and inconvenient streets, but the upper and newer portion
+contains several handsome streets and terraces. Among several piers are
+the town pier, erected in 1832, and the terrace pier, built in 1845, at
+a time when local river-traffic by steamboat was specially prosperous.
+Gravesend is a favourite resort of the inhabitants of London, both for
+excursions and as a summer residence; it is also a favourite yachting
+centre. The principal buildings are the town-hall, the parish church of
+Gravesend, erected on the site of an ancient building destroyed by fire
+in 1727; Milton parish church, a Decorated and Perpendicular building
+erected in the time of Edward II.; and the county courts. Milton Mount
+College is a large institution for the daughters of Congregational
+ministers. East of the town are the earthworks designed to assist
+Tilbury Fort in obstructing the passage up river of an enemy's force.
+They were originally constructed on Vauban's system in the reign of
+Charles II. Rosherville Gardens, a popular resort, are in the western
+suburb of Rosherville, a residential quarter named after James Rosher,
+an owner of lime works. They were founded in 1843 by George Jones.
+Gravesend, which is within the Port of London, has some import trade in
+coal and timber, and fishing, especially of shrimps, is carried on
+extensively. The principal other industries are boat-building,
+ironfounding, brewing and soap-boiling. Fruit and vegetables are largely
+grown in the neighbourhood for the London market. Since 1867 Gravesend
+has returned a member to parliament, the borough including Northfleet to
+the west. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
+councillors. Area, 1259 acres.
+
+In the Domesday Survey "Gravesham" is entered among the bishop of
+Bayeux's lands, and a "hythe" or landing-place is mentioned. In 1401
+Henry IV. granted the men of Gravesend the sole right of conveying in
+their own vessels all persons travelling between London and Gravesend,
+and this right was confirmed by Edward IV. in 1462. In 1562 the town was
+granted a charter of incorporation by Elizabeth, which vested the
+government in 2 portreeves and 12 jurats, but by a later charter of 1568
+one portreeve was substituted for the two. Charles I. incorporated the
+town anew under the title of the mayor, jurats and inhabitants of
+Gravesend, and a further charter of liberties was granted by James II.
+in 1687. A Thursday market and fair on the 13th of October were granted
+to the men of Gravesend by Edward III. in 1367; Elizabeth's charters
+gave them a Wednesday market and fairs on the 24th of June and the 13th
+of October, with a court of pie-powder; by the charter of Charles I.
+Thursday and Saturday were made the market days, and these were changed
+again to Wednesday and Saturday by a charter of 1694, which also granted
+a fair on the 23rd of April; the fairs on these dates have died out, but
+the Saturday market is still held.
+
+From the beginning of the 17th century Gravesend was the chief station
+for East Indiamen; most of the ships outward bound from London stopped
+here to victual. A customs house was built in 1782. Queen Elizabeth
+established Gravesend as the point where the corporation of London
+should welcome in state eminent foreign visitors arriving by water.
+State processions by water from Gravesend to London had previously taken
+place, as in 1522, when Henry VIII. escorted the emperor Charles V. A
+similar practice was maintained until modern times; as when, on the 7th
+of March 1863, the princess Alexandra was received here by the prince of
+Wales (King Edward VII.) three days before their marriage. Gravesend
+parish church contains memorials to "Princess" Pocahontas, who died when
+preparing to return home from a visit to England in 1617, and was buried
+in the old church. A memorial pulpit from the state of Indiana, U.S.A.,
+made of Virginian wood, was provided in 1904, and a fund was raised for
+a stained-glass window by ladies of the state of Virginia.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVINA, GIOVANNI VINCENZO (1664-1718), Italian litterateur and
+jurisconsult, was born at Roggiano, a small town near Cosenza, in
+Calabria, on the 20th of January 1664. He was descended from a
+distinguished family, and under the direction of his maternal uncle,
+Gregorio Caloprese, who possessed some reputation as a poet and
+philosopher, received a learned education, after which he studied at
+Naples civil and canon law. In 1689 he came to Rome, where in 1695 he
+united with several others of literary tastes in forming the Academy of
+Arcadians. A schism occurred in the academy in 1711, and Gravina and his
+followers founded in opposition to it the Academy of Quirina. From
+Innocent XII. Gravina received the offer of various ecclesiastical
+honours, but declined them from a disinclination to enter the clerical
+profession. In 1699 he was appointed to the chair of civil law in the
+college of La Sapienza, and in 1703 he was transferred to the chair of
+canon law. He died at Rome on the 6th of January 1718. He was the
+adoptive father of Metastasio.
+
+  Gravina is the author of a number of works of great erudition, the
+  principal being his _Origines juris civilis_, completed in 3 vols.
+  (1713) and his _De Romano imperio_ (1712). A French translation of the
+  former appeared in 1775, of which a second edition was published in
+  1822. His collected works were published at Leipzig in 1737, and at
+  Naples, with notes by Mascovius, in 1756.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVINA, a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in the province of
+Bari, from which it is 63 m. S.W. by rail (29 m. direct), 1148 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1901) 18,197. The town is probably of medieval origin,
+though some conjecture that it occupies the site of the ancient Blera, a
+post station on the Via Appia. The cathedral is a basilica of the 15th
+century. The town is surrounded with walls and towers, and a castle of
+the emperor Frederick II. rises above the town, which later belonged to
+the Orsini, dukes of Gravina; just outside it are dwellings and a church
+(S. Michele) all hewn in the rock, and now abandoned.
+
+  Prehistoric remains in the district (remains of ancient settlements,
+  _tumuli_, &c.) are described by V. di Cicco in _Notizie degli scavi_
+  (1901), p. 217.
+
+
+
+
+GRAVITATION (from Lat. _gravis_, heavy), in physical science, that
+mutual action between masses of matter by virtue of which every such
+mass tends toward every other with a force varying directly as the
+product of the masses and inversely as the square of their distances
+apart. Although the law was first clearly and rigorously formulated by
+Sir Isaac Newton, the fact of the action indicated by it was more or
+less clearly seen by others. Even Ptolemy had a vague conception of a
+force tending toward the centre of the earth which not only kept bodies
+upon its surface, but in some way upheld the order of the universe. John
+Kepler inferred that the planets move in their orbits under some
+influence or force exerted by the sun; but the laws of motion were not
+then sufficiently developed, nor were Kepler's ideas of force
+sufficiently clear, to admit of a precise statement of the nature of the
+force. C. Huygens and R. Hooke, contemporaries of Newton, saw that
+Kepler's third law implied a force tending toward the sun which, acting
+on the several planets, varied inversely as the square of the distance.
+But two requirements necessary to generalize the theory were still
+wanting. One was to show that the law of the inverse square not only
+represented Kepler's third law, but his first two laws also. The other
+was to show that the gravitation of the earth, following one and the
+same law with that of the sun, extended to the moon. Newton's researches
+showed that the attraction of the earth on the moon was the same as that
+for bodies at the earth's surface, only reduced in the inverse square of
+the moon's distance from the earth's centre. He also showed that the
+total gravitation of the earth, assumed as spherical, on external
+bodies, would be the same as if the earth's mass were concentrated in
+the centre. This led at once to the statement of the law in its most
+general form.
+
+The law of gravitation is unique among the laws of nature, not only in
+its wide generality, taking the whole universe in its scope, but in the
+fact that, so far as yet known, it is absolutely unmodified by any
+condition or cause whatever. All other forms of action between masses of
+matter, vary with circumstances. The mutual action of electrified
+bodies, for example, is affected by their relative or absolute motion.
+But no conditions to which matter has ever been subjected, or under
+which it has ever been observed, have been found to influence its
+gravitation in the slightest degree. We might conceive the rapid motions
+of the heavenly bodies to result in some change either in the direction
+or amount of their gravitation towards each other at each moment; but
+such is not the case, even in the most rapidly moving bodies of the
+solar system. The question has also been raised whether the action of
+gravitation is absolutely instantaneous. If not, the action would not be
+exactly in the line adjoining the two bodies at the instant, but would
+be affected by the motion of the line joining them during the time
+required by the force to pass from one body to the other. The result of
+this would be seen in the motions of the planets around the sun; but the
+most refined observations show no such effect. It is also conceivable
+that bodies might gravitate differently at different temperatures. But
+the most careful researches have failed to show any apparent
+modification produced in this way except what might be attributed to the
+surrounding conditions. The most recent and exhaustive experiment was
+that of J. H. Poynting and P. Phillips (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 76A, p. 445).
+The result was that the change, if any, was less than 1/10 of the force
+for one degree change of temperature, a result too minute to be
+established by any measures.
+
+Another cause which might be supposed to modify the action of
+gravitation between two bodies would be the interposition of masses of
+matter between them, a cause which materially modifies the action of
+electrified bodies. The question whether this cause modifies gravitation
+admits of an easy test from observation. If it did, then a portion of
+the earth's mass or of that of any other planet turned away from the sun
+would not be subjected to the same action of the sun as if directly
+exposed to that action. Great masses, as those of the great planets,
+would not be attracted with a force proportional to the mass because of
+the hindrance or other effect of the interposed portions. But not the
+slightest modification due to this cause is shown. The general
+conclusion from everything we see is that a mass of matter in Australia
+attracts a mass in London precisely as it would if the earth were not
+interposed between the two masses.
+
+We must therefore regard the law in question as the broadest and most
+fundamental one which nature makes known to us.
+
+It is not yet experimentally proved that variation as the inverse square
+is absolutely true at all distances. Astronomical observations extend
+over too brief a period of time to show any attraction between different
+stars except those in each other's neighbourhood. But this proves
+nothing because, in the case of distances so great, centuries or even
+thousands of years of accurate observation will be required to show any
+action. On the other hand the enigmatical motion of the perihelion of
+Mercury has not yet found any plausible explanation except on the
+hypothesis that the gravitation of the sun diminishes at a rate slightly
+greater than that of the inverse square--the most simple modification
+being to suppose that instead of the exponent of the distance being
+exactly -2, it is -2.000 000 161 2.
+
+The argument is extremely simple in form. It is certain that, in the
+general average, year after year, the force with which Mercury is drawn
+toward the sun does vary from the exact inverse square of its distance
+from the sun. The most plausible explanation of this is that one or more
+masses of matter move around the sun, whose action, whether they are
+inside or outside the orbit of Mercury, would produce the required
+modification in the force. From an investigation of all the observations
+upon Mercury and the other three interior planets, Simon Newcomb found
+it almost out of the question that any such mass of matter could exist
+without changing either the figure of the sun itself or the motion of
+the planes of the orbits of either Mercury or Venus. The qualification
+"almost" is necessary because so complex a system of actions comes into
+play, and accurate observations have extended through so short a period,
+that the proof cannot be regarded as absolute. But the fact that careful
+and repeated search for a mass of matter sufficient to produce the
+desired effect has been in vain, affords additional evidence of its
+non-existence. The most obvious test of the reality of the required
+modifications would be afforded by two other bodies, the motions of
+whose pericentres should be similarly affected. These are Mars and the
+moon. Newcomb found an excess of motions in the perihelion of Mars
+amounting to about 5' per century. But the combination of observations
+and theory on which this is based is not sufficient fully to establish
+so slight a motion. In the case of the motion of the moon around the
+earth, assuming the gravitation of the latter to be subject to the
+modification in question, the annual motion of the moon's perigee
+should be greater by 1.5' than the theoretical motion. E. W. Brown is
+the first investigator to determine the theoretical motions with this
+degree of precision; and he finds that there is no such divergence
+between the actual and the computed motion. There is therefore as yet no
+ground for regarding any deviation from the law of inverse square as
+more than a possibility.     (S. N.)
+
+
+GRAVITATION CONSTANT AND MEAN DENSITY OF THE EARTH
+
+The law of gravitation states that two masses M1 and M2, distant d from
+each other, are pulled together each with a force G. M1M2/d^2, where G
+is a constant for all kinds of matter--the _gravitation constant_. The
+acceleration of M2 towards M1 or the force exerted on it by M1 per unit
+of its mass is therefore GM1/d^2. Astronomical observations of the
+accelerations of different planets towards the sun, or of different
+satellites towards the same primary, give us the most accurate
+confirmation of the distance part of the law. By comparing accelerations
+towards different bodies we obtain the ratios of the masses of those
+different bodies and, in so far as the ratios are consistent, we obtain
+confirmation of the mass part. But we only obtain the ratios of the
+masses to the mass of some one member of the system, say the earth. We
+do not find the mass in terms of grammes or pounds. In fact, astronomy
+gives us the product GM, but neither G nor M. For example, the
+acceleration of the earth towards the sun is about 0.6 cm/sec.^2 at a
+distance from it about 15 X 10^12 cm. The acceleration of the moon
+towards the earth is about 0.27 cm/sec.^2 at a distance from it about 4
+X 10^10 cm. If S is the mass of the sun and E the mass of the earth we
+have 0.6 = GS/(15 X 10^12)^2 and 0.27 = GE/(4 X 10^10)^2 giving us GS
+and GE, and the ratio S/E = 300,000 roughly; but we do not obtain either
+S or E in grammes, and we do not find G.
+
+The aim of the experiments to be described here may be regarded either
+as the determination of the mass of the earth in grammes, most
+conveniently expressed by its mass / its volume, that is by its "mean
+density" [Delta], or the determination of the "gravitation constant" G.
+Corresponding to these two aspects of the problem there are two modes of
+attack. Suppose that a body of mass m is suspended at the earth's
+surface where it is pulled with a force w vertically downwards by the
+earth--its weight. At the same time let it be pulled with a force p by a
+measurable mass M which may be a mountain, or some measurable part of
+the earth's surface layers, or an artificially prepared mass brought
+near m, and let the pull of M be the same as if it were concentrated at
+a distance d. The earth pull may be regarded as the same as if the earth
+were all concentrated at its centre, distant R.
+
+Then
+
+  w = G . (4/3)[pi]R^3[Delta]m/R^2 = G . (4/3)[pi]R[Delta]m,   (1)
+
+and
+
+  p = GMm/d^2  (2)
+
+By division
+
+               3M       w
+  [Delta] = --------- . --.
+            4[pi]Rd^2   p
+
+If then we can arrange to observe w/p we obtain [Delta], the mean
+density of the earth.
+
+But the same observations give us G also. For, putting m = w/g in (2),
+we get
+
+      d^2   p
+  G = --- . -- . g.
+       M    w
+
+In the second mode of attack the pull p between two artificially
+prepared measured masses M1, M2 is determined when they are a distance d
+apart, and since p = G . M1M2/d^2 we get at once G = pd^2/M1M2. But we
+can also deduce [Delta]. For putting w = mg in (1) we get
+
+                g      1
+  [Delta] = 3/4 -- . -----.
+                G    [pi]R
+
+Experiments of the first class in which the pull of a known mass is
+compared with the pull of the earth maybe termed experiments on the mean
+density of the earth, while experiments of the second class in which the
+pull between two known masses is directly measured may be termed
+experiments on the gravitation constant.
+
+We shall, however, adopt a slightly different classification for the
+purpose of describing methods of experiment, viz:--
+
+  1. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of a natural
+  mass as in the Schiehallion experiment.
+
+  2. Determination of the attraction between two artificial masses as in
+  Cavendish's experiment.
+
+  3. Comparison of the earth pull on a body with the pull of an
+  artificial mass as in experiments with the common balance.
+
+It is interesting to note that the possibility of gravitation
+experiments of this kind was first considered by Newton, and in both of
+the forms (1) and (2). In the _System of the World_ (3rd ed., 1737, p.
+40) he calculates that the deviation by a hemispherical mountain, of the
+earth's density and with radius 3 m., on a plumb-line at its side will
+be less than 2 minutes. He also calculates (though with an error in his
+arithmetic) the acceleration towards each other of two spheres each a
+foot in diameter and of the earth's density, and comes to the conclusion
+that in either case the effect is too small for measurement. In the
+_Principia_, bk. iii., prop. x., he makes a celebrated estimate that the
+earth's mean density is five or six times that of water. Adopting this
+estimate, the deviation by an actual mountain or the attraction of two
+terrestrial spheres would be of the orders calculated, and regarded by
+Newton as immeasurably small.
+
+Whatever method is adopted the force to be measured is very minute. This
+may be realized if we here anticipate the results of the experiments,
+which show that in round numbers [Delta] = 5.5 and G = 1/15,000,000 when
+the masses are in grammes and the distances in centimetres.
+
+Newton's mountain, which would probably have density about [Delta]/2
+would deviate the plumb-line not much more than half a minute. Two
+spheres 30 cm. in diameter (about 1 ft.) and of density 11 (about that
+of lead) just not touching would pull each other with a force rather
+less than 2 dynes, and their acceleration would be such that they would
+move into contact if starting 1 cm. apart in rather over 400 seconds.
+
+From these examples it will be realized that in gravitation experiments
+extraordinary precautions must be adopted to eliminate disturbing forces
+which may easily rise to be comparable with the forces to be measured.
+We shall not attempt to give an account of these precautions, but only
+seek to set forth the general principles of the different experiments
+which have been made.
+
+
+I. _Comparison of the Earth Pull with that of a Natural Mass._
+
+_Bouguer's Experiments._--The earliest experiments were made by Pierre
+Bouguer about 1740, and they are recorded in his _Figure de la terre_
+(1749). They were of two kinds. In the first he determined the length of
+the seconds pendulum, and thence _g_ at different levels. Thus at Quito,
+which may be regarded as on a table-land 1466 toises (a toise is about
+6.4 ft.) above sea-level, the seconds pendulum was less by 1/1331 than
+on the Isle of Inca at sea-level. But if there were no matter above the
+sea-level, the inverse square law would make the pendulum less by 1/1118
+at the higher level. The value of _g_ then at the higher level was
+greater than could be accounted for by the attraction of an earth ending
+at sea-level by the difference 1/1118-1/1331 = 1/6983, and this was put
+down to the attraction of the plateau 1466 toises high; or the
+attraction of the whole earth was 6983 times the attraction of the
+plateau. Using the rule, now known as "Young's rule," for the attraction
+of the plateau, Bouguer found that the density of the earth was 4.7
+times that of the plateau, a result certainly much too large.
+
+In the second kind of experiment he attempted to measure the horizontal
+pull of Chimborazo, a mountain about 20,000 ft. high, by the deflection
+of a plumb-line at a station on its south side. Fig. 1 shows the
+principle of the method. Suppose that two stations are fixed, one on the
+side of the mountain due south of the summit, and the other on the same
+latitude but some distance westward, away from the influence of the
+mountain. Suppose that at the second station a star is observed to pass
+the meridian, for simplicity we will say directly overhead, then a
+plumb-line will hang down exactly parallel to the observing telescope.
+If the mountain were away it would also hang parallel to the telescope
+at the first station when directed to the same star. But the mountain
+pulls the plumb-line towards it and the star appears to the north of the
+zenith and evidently mountain pull/earth pull = tangent of angle of
+displacement of zenith.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Bouguer's Plumb-line Experiment on the
+attraction of Chimborazo.]
+
+Bouguer observed the meridian altitude of several stars at the two
+stations. There was still some deflection at the second station, a
+deflection which he estimated as 1/14 that at the first station, and he
+found on allowing for this that his observations gave a deflection of 8
+seconds at the first station. From the form and size of the mountain he
+found that if its density were that of the earth the deflection should
+be 103 seconds, or the earth was nearly 13 times as dense as the
+mountain, a result several times too large. But the work was carried on
+under enormous difficulties owing to the severity of the weather, and no
+exactness could be expected. The importance of the experiment lay in its
+proof that the method was possible.
+
+_Maskelyne's Experiment._--In 1774 Nevil Maskelyne (_Phil. Trans._,
+1775, p. 495) made an experiment on the deflection of the plumb-line by
+Schiehallion, a mountain in Perthshire, which has a short ridge nearly
+east and west, and sides sloping steeply on the north and south. He
+selected two stations on the same meridian, one on the north, the other
+on the south slope, and by means of a zenith sector, a telescope
+provided with a plumb-bob, he determined at each station the meridian
+zenith distances of a number of stars. From a survey of the district
+made in the years 1774-1776 the geographical difference of latitude
+between the two stations was found to be 42.94 seconds, and this would
+have been the difference in the meridian zenith difference of the same
+star at the two stations had the mountain been away. But at the north
+station the plumb-bob was pulled south and the zenith was deflected
+northwards, while at the south station the effect was reversed. Hence
+the angle between the zeniths, or the angle between the zenith distances
+of the same star at the two stations was greater than the geographical
+42.94 seconds. The mean of the observations gave a difference of 54.2
+seconds, or the double deflection of the plumb-line was 54.2 - 42.94,
+say 11.26 seconds.
+
+The computation of the attraction of the mountain on the supposition
+that its density was that of the earth was made by Charles Hutton from
+the results of the survey (_Phil. Trans._, 1778, p. 689), a computation
+carried out by ingenious and important methods. He found that the
+deflection should have been greater in the ratio 17804 : 9933 say 9 : 5,
+whence the density of the earth comes out at 9/5 that of the mountain.
+Hutton took the density of the mountain at 2.5, giving the mean density
+of the earth 4.5. A revision of the density of the mountain from a
+careful survey of the rocks composing it was made by John Playfair many
+years later (_Phil. Trans._, 1811, p. 347), and the density of the earth
+was given as lying between 4.5588 and 4.867.
+
+Other experiments have been made on the attraction of mountains by
+Francesco Carlini (_Milano Effem. Ast._, 1824, p. 28) on Mt. Blanc in
+1821, using the pendulum method after the manner of Bouguer, by Colonel
+Sir Henry James and Captain A. R. Clarke (_Phil. Trans._, 1856, p. 591),
+using the plumb-line deflection at Arthur's Seat, by T. C. Mendenhall
+(_Amer. Jour. of Sci._ xxi. p. 99), using the pendulum method on
+Fujiyama in Japan, and by E. D. Preston (_U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey
+Rep._, 1893, p. 513) in Hawaii, using both methods.
+
+_Airy's Experiment._--In 1854 Sir G. B. Airy (_Phil. Trans._ 1856, p.
+297) carried out at Harton pit near South Shields an experiment which he
+had attempted many years before in conjunction with W. Whewell and R.
+Sheepshanks at Dolcoath. This consisted in comparing gravity at the top
+and at the bottom of a mine by the swings of the same pendulum, and
+thence finding the ratio of the pull of the intervening strata to the
+pull of the whole earth. The principle of the method may be understood
+by assuming that the earth consists of concentric spherical shells each
+homogeneous, the last of thickness h equal to the depth of the mine. Let
+the radius of the earth to the bottom of the mine be R, and the mean
+density up to that point be [Delta]. This will not differ appreciably
+from the mean density of the whole. Let the density of the strata of
+depth h be [delta]. Denoting the values of gravity above and below by
+g_a and g_b we have
+
+                [pi]R^3[Delta]
+  g_b = G (4/3) -------------- = G . (4/3) [pi]R[Delta],
+                     R^2
+
+and
+
+                [pi]R^3[Delta]
+  g_a = G (4/3) -------------- + G . 4[pi]h[delta]
+                  (R + h)^2
+
+(since the attraction of a shell h thick on a point just outside it is
+G . 4[pi](R + h)^2h[delta]/(R + h)^2 = G . 4[pi]h[delta]). Therefore
+
+                                /    2h   3h [delta] \
+  g_a = G . (4/3) [pi]R[Delta] ( 1 - -- + -- -------  ) nearly,
+                                \    R    R  [Delta] /
+
+whence
+
+  g_a       2h   3h [delta]
+  --- = 1 - -- + -- -------,
+  g_b       R    R  [Delta]
+
+and
+
+  [Delta]   3h   / /     2h   g_a \
+  ------- = --  / ( -1 + -- + ---  ).
+  [delta]   R  /   \     R    g_b /
+
+Stations were chosen in the same vertical, one near the pit bank,
+another 1250 ft. below in a disused working, and a "comparison" clock
+was fixed at each station. A third clock was placed at the upper station
+connected by an electric circuit to the lower station. It gave an
+electric signal every 15 seconds by which the rates of the two
+comparison clocks could be accurately compared. Two "invariable" seconds
+pendulums were swung, one in front of the upper and the other in front
+of the lower comparison clock after the manner of Kater, and these
+invariables were interchanged at intervals. From continuous observations
+extending over three weeks and after applying various corrections Airy
+obtained g_b/g_a = 1.00005185. Making corrections for the irregularity
+of the neighbouring strata he found [Delta]/[delta] = 2.6266. W. H.
+Miller made a careful determination of [delta] from specimens of the
+strata, finding it 2.5. The final result taking into account the
+ellipticity and rotation of the earth is [Delta] = 6.565.
+
+_Von Sterneck's Experiments._--(_Mitth. des K.U.K. Mil. Geog. Inst. zu
+Wien_, ii, 1882, p. 77; 1883, p. 59; vi., 1886, p. 97). R. von Sterneck
+repeated the mine experiment in 1882-1883 at the Adalbert shaft at
+Pribram in Bohemia and in 1885 at the Abraham shaft near Freiberg. He
+used two invariable half-seconds pendulums, one swung at the surface,
+the other below at the same time. The two were at intervals
+interchanged. Von Sterneck introduced a most important improvement by
+comparing the swings of the two invariables with the same clock which by
+an electric circuit gave a signal at each station each second. This
+eliminated clock rates. His method, of which it is not necessary to give
+the details here, began a new era in the determinations of local
+variations of gravity. The values which von Sterneck obtained for
+[Delta] were not consistent, but increased with the depth of the second
+station. This was probably due to local irregularities in the strata
+which could not be directly detected.
+
+All the experiments to determine [Delta] by the attraction of natural
+masses are open to the serious objection that we cannot determine the
+distribution of density in the neighbourhood with any approach to
+accuracy. The experiments with artificial masses next to be described
+give much more consistent results, and the experiments with natural
+masses are now only of use in showing the existence of irregularities
+in the earth's superficial strata when they give results deviating
+largely from the accepted value.
+
+
+II. _Determination of the Attraction between two Artificial Masses._
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Cavendish's Apparatus.
+
+h h, torsion rod hung by wire l g,; x, x, attracted balls hung from its
+ends; WW, attracting masses.]
+
+_Cavendish's Experiment_ (_Phil. Trans._, 1798, p. 469).--This
+celebrated experiment was planned by the Rev. John Michell. He completed
+an apparatus for it but did not live to begin work with it. After
+Michell's death the apparatus came into the possession of Henry
+Cavendish, who largely reconstructed it, but still adhered to Michell's
+plan, and in 1797-1798 he carried out the experiment. The essential
+feature of it consisted in the determination of the attraction of a lead
+sphere 12 in. in diameter on another lead sphere 2 in. in diameter, the
+distance between the centres being about 9 in., by means of a torsion
+balance. Fig. 2 shows how the experiment was carried out. A torsion rod
+hh 6 ft. long, tied from its ends to a vertical piece mg, was hung by a
+wire lg. From its ends depended two lead balls xx each 2 in. in
+diameter. The position of the rod was determined by a scale fixed near
+the end of the arm, the arm itself carrying a vernier moving along the
+scale. This was lighted by a lamp and viewed by a telescope T from the
+outside of the room containing the apparatus. The torsion balance was
+enclosed in a case and outside this two lead spheres WW each 12 in. in
+diameter hung from an arm which could turn round an axis Pp in the line
+of gl. Suppose that first the spheres are placed so that one is just in
+front of the right-hand ball x and the other is just behind the
+left-hand ball x. The two will conspire to pull the balls so that the
+right end of the rod moves forward. Now let the big spheres be moved
+round so that one is in front of the left ball and the other behind the
+right ball. The pulls are reversed and the right end moves backward. The
+angle between its two positions is (if we neglect cross attractions of
+right sphere on left ball and left sphere on right ball) four times as
+great as the deflection of the rod due to approach of one sphere to one
+ball.
+
+  The principle of the experiment may be set forth thus. Let 2a be the
+  length of the torsion rod, m the mass of a ball, M the mass of a large
+  sphere, d the distance between the centres, supposed the same on each
+  side. Let [theta] be the angle through which the rod moves round when
+  the spheres WW are moved from the first to the second of the positions
+  described above. Let [mu] be the couple required to twist the rod
+  through 1 radian. Then [mu][theta] = 4GMma/d^2. But [mu] can be found
+  from the time of vibration of the torsion system when we know its
+  moment of inertia I, and this can be determined. If T is the period
+  [mu] = 4[pi]^2I/T^2, whence G = [pi]^2d^2I[theta]/T^2Mma, or putting
+  the result in terms of the mean density of the earth [Delta] it is
+  easy to show that, if L, the length of the seconds pendulum, is put
+  for g/[pi]^2, and C for 2[pi]R, the earth's circumference, then
+
+                    L  Mma    T^2
+    [Delta] = (3/2) -- ---- -------.
+                    C  d^2I [theta]
+
+The original account by Cavendish is still well worth studying on
+account of the excellence of his methods. His work was undoubtedly very
+accurate for a pioneer experiment and has only really been improved upon
+within the last generation. Making various corrections of which it is
+not necessary to give a description, the result obtained (after
+correcting a mistake first pointed out by F. Baily) is [Delta] = 5.448.
+In seeking the origin of the disturbed motion of the torsion rod
+Cavendish made a very important observation. He found that when the
+masses were left in one position for a time the attracted balls crept
+now in one direction, now in another, as if the attraction were varying.
+Ultimately he found that this was due to convection currents in the case
+containing the torsion rod, currents produced by temperature
+inequalities. When a large sphere was heated the ball near it tended to
+approach and when it was cooled the ball tended to recede. Convection
+currents constitute the chief disturbance and the chief source of error
+in all attempts to measure small forces in air at ordinary pressure.
+
+_Reich's Experiments_ (_Versuche uber die mittlere Dichtigkeit der Erde
+mittelst der Drehwage_, Freiberg, 1838; "Neue Versuche mit der
+Drehwage," _Leipzig Abh. Math. Phys._ i., 1852, p. 383).--In 1838 F.
+Reich published an account of a repetition of the Cavendish experiment
+carried out on the same general lines, though with somewhat smaller
+apparatus. The chief differences consisted in the methods of measuring
+the times of vibration and the deflection, and the changes were hardly
+improvements. His result after revision was [Delta] = 5.49. In 1852 he
+published an account of further work giving as result [Delta]= 5.58. It
+is noteworthy that in his second paper he gives an account of
+experiments suggested by J. D. Forbes in which the deflection was not
+observed directly, but was deduced from observations of the time of
+vibration when the attracting masses were in different positions.
+
+  Let T1 be the time of vibration when the masses are in one of the
+  usual attracting positions. Let d be the distance between the centres
+  of attracting mass and attracted ball, and [delta] the distance
+  through which the ball is pulled. If a is the half length of the
+  torsion rod and [theta] the deflection, [delta] = a[theta]. Now let
+  the attracting masses be put one at each end of the torsion rod with
+  their centres in the line through the centres of the balls and d from
+  them, and let T2 be the time of vibration. Then it is easy to show
+  that
+
+    [delta]/d = a[theta]/d = (T1 - T2)/(T1 + T2).
+
+  This gives a value of [theta] which may be used in the formula. The
+  experiments by this method were not consistent, and the mean result
+  was [Delta] = 6.25.
+
+_Baily's Experiment_ (_Memoirs of the Royal Astron. Soc._ xiv.).--In
+1841-1842 Francis Baily made a long series of determinations by
+Cavendish's method and with apparatus nearly of the same dimensions. The
+attracting masses were 12-in. lead spheres and as attracted balls he
+used various masses, lead, zinc, glass, ivory, platinum, hollow brass,
+and finally the torsion rod alone without balls. The suspension was also
+varied, sometimes consisting of a single wire, sometimes being bifilar.
+There were systematic errors running through Baily's work, which it is
+impossible now wholly to explain. These made the resulting value of
+[Delta] show a variation with the nature of the attracted masses and a
+variation with the temperature. His final result [Delta] = 5.6747 is not
+of value compared with later results.
+
+_Cornu and Baille's Experiment_ (_Comptes rendus_, lxxvi., 1873, p. 954;
+lxxxvi., 1878, pp. 571, 699, 1001; xcvi., 1883, p. 1493).--In 1870 MM.
+A. Cornu and J. Baille commenced an experiment by the Cavendish method
+which was never definitely completed, though valuable studies of the
+behaviour of the torsion apparatus were made. They purposely departed
+from the dimensions previously used. The torsion balls were of copper
+about 100 gm. each, the rod was 50 cm. long, and the suspending wire was
+4 metres long. On each side of each ball was a hollow iron sphere. Two
+of these were filled with mercury weighing 12 kgm., the two spheres of
+mercury constituting the attracting masses. When the position of a mass
+was to be changed the mercury was pumped from the sphere on one side to
+that on the other side of a ball. To avoid counting time a method of
+electric registration on a chronograph was adopted. A provisional result
+was [Delta] = 5.56.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of a Section of Professor Boys's
+Apparatus.]
+
+_Boys's Experiment_ (_Phil. Trans._, A., 1895, pt. i., p. 1).--Professor
+C. V. Boys having found that it is possible to draw quartz fibres of
+practically any degree of fineness, of great strength and true in their
+elasticity, determined to repeat the Cavendish experiment, using his
+newly invented fibres for the suspension of the torsion rod. He began by
+an inquiry as to the best dimensions for the apparatus. He saw that if
+the period of vibration is kept constant, that is, if the moment of
+inertia I is kept proportional to the torsion couple per radian [mu],
+then the deflection remains the same however the linear dimensions are
+altered so long as they are all altered in the same proportion. Hence we
+are driven to conclude that the dimensions should be reduced until
+further reduction would make the linear quantities too small to be
+measured with exactness, for reduction in the apparatus enables
+variations in temperature and the consequent air disturbances to be
+reduced, and the experiment in other ways becomes more manageable.
+Professor Boys took as the exactness to be sought for 1 in 10,000. He
+further saw that reduction in length of the torsion rod with given balls
+is an advantage. For if the rod be halved the moment of inertia is
+one-fourth, and if the suspending fibre is made finer so that the
+torsion couple per radian is also one-fourth the time remains the same.
+But the moment of the attracting force is halved only, so that the
+deflection against one-fourth torsion is doubled. In Cavendish's
+arrangement there would be an early limit to the advantage in reduction
+of rod in that the mass opposite one ball would begin seriously to
+attract the other ball. But Boys avoided this difficulty by suspending
+the balls from the ends of the torsion rod at different levels and by
+placing the attracting masses at these different levels. Fig. 3
+represents diagrammatically a vertical section of the arrangement used
+on a scale of about 1/10. The torsion rod was a small rectangular mirror
+about 2.4 cm. wide hung by a quartz fibre about 43 cm. long. From the
+sides of this mirror the balls were hung by quartz fibres at levels
+differing by 15 cm. The balls were of gold either about 5 mm. in
+diameter and weighing about 1.3 gm. or about 6.5 mm. in diameter and
+weighing 2.65 gm. The attracting masses were lead spheres, about 10 cm.
+in diameter and weighing about 7.4 kgm. each. These were suspended from
+the top of the case which could be rotated round the central tube, and
+they were arranged so that the radius to the centre from the axis of the
+torsion system made 65 deg. with the torsion rod, the position in which
+the moment of the attraction was a maximum. The torsion rod mirror
+reflected a distant scale by which the deflection could be read. The
+time of vibration was recorded on a chronograph. The result of the
+experiment, probably the best yet made, was [Delta] = 5.527; G = 6.658 X
+10^-8.
+
+_Braun's Experiment_ (_Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-naturw. Cl._
+64, p. 187, 1896).--In 1896 Dr K. Braun, S.J., gave an account of a very
+careful and excellent repetition of the Cavendish experiment with
+apparatus much smaller than was used in the older experiments, yet much
+larger than that used by Boys. A notable feature of the work consisted
+in the suspension of the torsion apparatus in a receiver exhausted to
+about 4 mm. of mercury, a pressure at which convection currents almost
+disappear while "radiometer" forces have hardly begun. For other
+ingenious arrangements the original paper or a short abstract in
+_Nature_, lvi., 1897, p. 127, may be consulted. The attracted balls
+weighed 54 gm. each and were 25 cm. apart. The attracting masses were
+spheres of mercury each weighing 9 kgm. and brought into position
+outside the receiver. Braun used both the deflection method and the time
+of vibration method suggested to Reich by Forbes. The methods gave
+almost identical results and his final values are to three decimal
+places the same as those obtained by Boys.
+
+_G. K. Burgess's Experiment_ (_Theses presentees a la faculte des
+sciences de Paris pour obtenir le titre de docteur de l'universite de
+Paris_, 1901).--This was a Cavendish experiment in which the torsion
+system was buoyed up by a float in a mercury bath. The attracted masses
+could thus be made large, and yet the suspending wire could be kept
+fine. The torsion beam was 12 cm. long, and the attracted balls were
+lead spheres each 2 kgm. From the centre of the beam depended a vertical
+steel rod with a varnished copper hollow float at its end, entirely
+immersed in mercury. The surface of the mercury was covered with dilute
+sulphuric acid to remove irregularities due to varying surface tension
+acting on the steel rod. The size of the float was adjusted so that the
+torsion fibre of quartz 35 cm. long had only to carry a weight of 5 to
+10 gm. The time of vibration was over one hour. The torsion couple per
+radian was determined by preliminary experiments. The attracting masses
+were each 10 kgm. turning in a circle 18 cm. in diameter. The results
+gave [Delta] = 5.55 and G = 6.64 X 10^-8.
+
+_Eotvos's Experiment_ (_Ann. der Physik und Chemie_, 1896, 59, P.
+354).--In the course of investigations on local variations of gravity by
+means of the torsion balance, R. Eotvos devised a method for determining
+G somewhat like the vibration method used by Reich and Braun. Two
+pillars were built up of lead blocks 30 cm. square in cross section, 60
+cm. high and 30 cm. apart. A torsion rod somewhat less than 30 cm. long
+with small weights at the ends was enclosed in a double-walled brass
+case of as little depth as possible, a device which secured great
+steadiness through freedom from convection currents. The suspension was
+a platinum wire about 150 cm. long. The torsion rod was first set in the
+line joining the centres of the pillars and its time of vibration was
+taken. Then it was set with its length perpendicular to the line joining
+the centres and the time again taken. From these times Eotvos was able
+to deduce G = 6.65 X 10^-8 whence [Delta] = 5.53. This is only a
+provisional value. The experiment was only as it were a by-product in
+the course of exceedingly ingenious work on the local variation in
+gravity for which the original paper should be consulted.
+
+_Wilsing's Experiment_ (_Publ. des astrophysikalischen Observ. zu
+Potsdam_, 1887, No. 22, vol. vi. pt. ii.; pt. iii. p. 133).--We may
+perhaps class with the Cavendish type an experiment made by J. Wilsing,
+in which a vertical "double pendulum" was used in place of a horizontal
+torsion system. Two weights each 540 gm. were fixed at the ends of a rod
+1 metre long. A knife edge was fixed on the rod just above its centre of
+gravity, and this was supported so that the rod could vibrate about a
+vertical position. Two attracting masses, cast-iron cylinders each 325
+kgm., were placed, say, one in front of the top weight on the pendulum
+and the other behind the bottom weight, and the position of the rod was
+observed in the usual mirror and scale way. Then the front attracting
+mass was dropped to the level of the lower weight and the back mass was
+raised to that of the upper weight, and the consequent deflection of the
+rod was observed. By taking the time of vibration of the pendulum first
+as used in the deflection experiment and then when a small weight was
+removed from the upper end a known distance from the knife edge, the
+restoring couple per radian deflection could be found. The final result
+gave [Delta] = 5.579.
+
+_J. Joly's suggested Experiment_ (_Nature_ xli., 1890, p. 256).--Joly
+has suggested that G might be determined by hanging a simple pendulum in
+a vacuum, and vibrating outside the case two massive pendulums each with
+the same time of swing as the simple pendulum. The simple pendulum would
+be set swinging by the varying attraction and from its amplitude after a
+known number of swings of the outside pendulums G could be found.
+
+
+III. _Comparison of the Earth Pull on a body with the Pull of an
+Artificial Mass by Means of the Common Balance._
+
+The principle of the method is as follows:--Suppose a sphere of mass m
+and weight w to be hung by a wire from one arm of a balance. Let the
+mass of the earth be E and its radius be R. Then w = GEm/R^2. Now
+introduce beneath m a sphere of mass M and let d be the distance of its
+centre from that of m. Its pull increases the apparent weight of m say
+by [delta]w. Then [delta]w = GMm/d^2. Dividing we obtain [delta]w/w =
+MR^2/Ed^2, whence E = MR^2w/d^2[delta]w; and since g = GE/R^2, G can be
+found when E is known.
+
+_Von Jolly's Experiment_ (_Abhand. der k. bayer. Akad. der Wiss._ 2 Cl.
+xiii. Bd. 1 Abt. p. 157, and xiv. Bd. 2 Abt. p. 3).--In the first of
+these papers Ph. von Jolly described an experiment in which he sought to
+determine the decrease in weight with increase of height from the
+earth's surface, an experiment suggested by Bacon (_Nov. Org._ Bk. 2,
+S36), in the form of comparison of rates of two clocks at different
+levels, one driven by a spring, the other by weights. The experiment in
+the form carried out by von Jolly was attempted by H. Power, R. Hooke,
+and others in the early days of the Royal Society (Mackenzie, _The Laws
+of Gravitation_). Von Jolly fixed a balance at the top of his laboratory
+and from each pan depended a wire supporting another pan 5 metres below.
+Two 1-kgm. weights were first balanced in the upper pans and then one
+was moved from an upper to the lower pan on the same side. A gain of 1.5
+mgm. was observed after correction for greater weight of air displaced
+at the lower level. The inverse square law would give a slightly greater
+gain and the deficiency was ascribed to the configuration of the land
+near the laboratory. In the second paper a second experiment was
+described in which a balance was fixed at the top of a tower and
+provided as before with one pair of pans just below the arms and a
+second pair hung from these by wires 21 metres below. Four glass globes
+were prepared equal in weight and volume. Two of these were filled each
+with 5 kgm. of mercury and then all were sealed up. The two heavy globes
+were then placed in the upper pans and the two light ones in the lower.
+The two on one side were now interchanged and a gain in weight of about
+31.7 mgm. was observed. Air corrections were eliminated by the use of
+the globes of equal volume. Then a lead sphere about 1 metre radius was
+built up of blocks under one of the lower pans and the experiment was
+repeated. Through the attraction of the lead sphere on the mass of
+mercury when below the gain was greater by 0.589 mgm. This result gave
+[Delta] = 5.692.
+
+_Experiment of Richarz and Krigar-Menzel_ (_Anhang zu den Abhand. der k.
+preuss. Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin_, 1898).--In 1884 A. Konig and F.
+Richarz proposed a similar experiment which was ultimately carried out
+by Richarz and O. Krigar-Menzel. In this experiment a balance was
+supported somewhat more than 2 metres above the floor and with scale
+pans above and below as in von Jolly's experiment. Weights each 1 kgm.
+were placed, say, in the top right pan and the bottom left pan. Then
+they were shifted to the bottom right and the top left, the result
+being, after corrections for change in density of air displaced through
+pressure and temperature changes, a gain in weight of 1.2453 mgm. on the
+right due to change in level of 2.2628 metres. Then a rectangular column
+of lead 210 cm. square cross section and 200 cm. high was built up under
+the balance between the pairs of pans. The column was perforated with
+two vertical tunnels for the passage of the wires supporting the lower
+pans. On repeating the weighings there was now a decrease on the right
+when a kgm. was moved on that side from top to bottom while another was
+moved on the left from bottom to top. This decrease was 0.1211 mgm.
+showing a total change due to the lead mass of 1.2453 + 0.1211 = 1.3664
+mgm. and this is obviously four times the attraction of the lead mass on
+one kgm. The changes in the positions of the weights were made
+automatically. The results gave [Delta] = 5.05 and G = 6.685 X 10^-8.
+
+_Poynting's Experiment_ (_Phil. Trans._, vol. 182, A, 1891, P. 565).--In
+1878 J. H. Poynting published an account of a preliminary experiment
+which he had made to show that the common balance was available for
+gravitational work. The experiment was on the same lines as that of von
+Jolly but on a much smaller scale. In 1891 he gave an account of the
+full experiment carried out with a larger balance and with much greater
+care. The balance had a 4-ft. beam. The scale pans were removed, and
+from the two arms were hung lead spheres each weighing about 20 kgm. at
+a level about 120 cm. below the beam. The balance was supported in a
+case above a horizontal turn-table with axis vertically below the
+central knife edge, and on this turn-table was a lead sphere weighing
+150 kgm.--the attracting mass. The centre of this sphere was 30 cm.
+below the level of the centres of the hanging weights. The turn-table
+could be rotated between stops so that the attracting mass was first
+immediately below the hanging weight on one side, and then immediately
+under that on the other side. On the same turn-table but at double the
+distance from the centre was a second sphere of half the weight
+introduced merely to balance the larger sphere and keep the centre of
+gravity at the centre of the turn-table. Before the introduction of this
+sphere errors were introduced through the tilting of the floor of the
+balance room when the turn-table was rotated. Corrections of course had
+to be made for the attraction of this second sphere. The removal of the
+large mass from left to right made an increase in weight on that side of
+about 1 mgm. determined by riders in a special way described in the
+paper. To eliminate the attraction on the beam and the rods supporting
+the hanging weights another experiment was made in which these weights
+were moved up the rods through 30 cm. and on now moving the attracting
+sphere from left to right the gain on the right was only about 1/2 mgm.
+The difference, 4/5 mgm., was due entirely to change in distance of the
+attracted masses. After all corrections the results gave [Delta] = 5.493
+and G = 6.698 X 10^-8.
+
+_Final Remarks._--The earlier methods in which natural masses were used
+have disadvantages, as already pointed out, which render them now quite
+valueless. Of later methods the Cavendish appears to possess advantages
+over the common balance method in that it is more easy to ward off
+temperature variations, and so avoid convection currents, and probably
+more easy to determine the actual value of the attracting force. For the
+present the values determined by Boys and Braun may be accepted as
+having the greatest weight and we therefore take
+
+  _Mean density of the earth_ [Delta] = 5.527
+  _Constant of gravitation_ G = 6.658 X 10^-8.
+
+Probably [Delta] = 5.53 and G = 6.66 X 10^-8 are correct to 1 in 500.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J. H. Poynting, _The Mean Density of the Earth_ (1894),
+  gives an account of all work up to the date of publication with a
+  bibliography; A. Stanley Mackenzie, _The Laws of Gravitation_ (1899),
+  gives annotated extracts from various papers, some historical notes
+  and a bibliography. _A Bibliography of Geodesy, Appendix 8, Report for
+  1902 of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey_ includes a very complete
+  bibliography of gravitational work.     (J. H. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAVY, a word usually confined to the natural juices which come from
+meat during cooking. In early uses (in the _New English Dictionary_ the
+quotations date from the end of the 14th to the beginning of the 16th
+centuries) it meant a sauce of broth flavoured with spices and almonds.
+The more modern usage seems to date from the end of the 16th century.
+The word is obscure in origin. It has been connected with "graves" or
+"greaves," the refuse of tallow in the manufacture of soap or candles.
+The more probable derivation is from the French. In Old French the word
+is almost certainly _grane_, and is derived from _grain_, "something
+used in cooking." The word was early read and spelled with a u or v
+instead of n, and the corruption was adopted in English.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, ASA (1810-1888), American botanist, was born at Paris, Oneida
+county, N.Y., on the 18th of November 1810. He was the son of a farmer,
+and received no formal education except at the Fairfield (N.Y.) academy
+and the Fairfield medical school. From Dr James Hadley, the professor of
+chemistry and _materia medica_ he obtained his first instruction in
+science (1825-1826). In the spring of 1827 he first began to collect and
+identify plants. His formal education, such as it was, ended in February
+1831, when he took the degree of M.D. His first contribution to
+descriptive botany appeared in 1835, and thereafter an uninterrupted
+series of contributions to systematic botany flowed from his pen for
+fifty-three years. In 1836 his first botanical text-book appeared under
+the title _Elements of Botany_, followed in 1839 by his _Botanical
+Text-Book for Colleges, Schools, and Private Students_ which developed
+into his _Structural Botany_. He published later _First Lessons in
+Botany and Vegetable Physiology_ (1857); _How Plants Grow_ (1858);
+_Field, Forest, and Garden_ Botany (1869); _How Plants Behave_ (1872).
+These books served the purpose of developing popular interest in
+botanical studies. His most important work, however, was his _Manual of
+the Botany of the Northern United States_, the first edition of which
+appeared in 1847. This manual has passed through a large number of
+editions, is clear, accurate and compact to an extraordinary degree, and
+within its geographical limits is an indispensable book for the student
+of American botany.
+
+Throughout his life Gray was a diligent writer of reviews of books on
+natural history subjects. Often these reviews were elaborate essays, for
+which the books served merely as texts; often they were clear and just
+summaries of extensive works; sometimes they were sharply critical,
+though never ill-natured or unfair; always they were interesting, lively
+and of literary as well as scientific excellence. The greater part of
+Gray's strictly scientific labour was devoted to a _Flora_ of North
+America, the plan of which originated with his early teacher and
+associate, John Torrey of New York. The second volume of Torrey and
+Gray's _Flora_ was completed in 1843; but for forty years thereafter
+Gray gave up a large part of his time to the preparation of his
+_Synoptical Flora_ (1878). He lived at the period when the flora of
+North America was being discovered, described and systematized; and his
+enthusiastic labours in this fresh field placed him at the head of
+American botanists and on a level with the most famous botanists of the
+world. In 1856 he published a paper on the distribution of plants under
+the title _Statistics of the Flora of the Northern United States_; and
+this paper was followed in 1859 by a memoir on the botany of Japan and
+its relations to that of North America, a paper of which Sir J. D.
+Hooker said that "in point of originality and far-reaching results [it]
+was its author's _opus magnum_." It was Gray's study of plant
+distribution which led to his intimate correspondence with Charles
+Darwin during the years in which Darwin was elaborating the doctrines
+that later became known as Darwinism. From 1855 to 1875 Gray was both a
+keen critic and a sympathetic exponent of the Darwinian principles. His
+religious views were those of the Evangelical bodies in the Protestant
+Church; so that, when Darwinism was attacked as equivalent to atheism,
+he was in position to answer effectively the unfounded allegation that
+it was fatal to the doctrine of design. He taught that "the most
+puzzling things of all to the old-school teleologists are the
+_principia_ of the Darwinian." He openly avowed his conviction that the
+present species are not special creations, but rather derived from
+previously existing species; and he made his avowal with frank courage,
+when this truth was scarcely recognized by any naturalists, and when to
+the clerical mind evolution meant atheism.
+
+In 1842 Gray accepted the Fisher professorship of natural history in
+Harvard University. On his accession to this chair the university had no
+herbarium, no botanical library, few plants of any value, and but a
+small garden, which for lack of money had never been well stocked or
+well arranged. He soon brought together, chiefly by widespread
+exchanges, a valuable herbarium and library, and arranged the garden;
+and thereafter the development of these botanical resources was part of
+his regular labours. The herbarium soon became the largest and most
+valuable in America, and on account of the numerous type specimens it
+contains it is likely to remain a collection of national importance.
+Nothing of what Gray did for the botanical department of the university
+has been lost; on the contrary, his labours were so well directed that
+everything he originated and developed has been enlarged, improved and
+placed on stable foundations. He himself made large contributions to the
+establishment by giving it all his own specimens, many books and no
+little money, and by his will he gave it the royalties on his books.
+During his long connexion with the university he brought up two
+generations of botanists and he always took a strong personal interest
+in the researches and the personal prospects of the young men who had
+studied under him. His scientific life was mainly spent in the herbarium
+and garden in Cambridge; but his labours there were relieved by numerous
+journeys to different parts of the United States and to Europe, all of
+which contributed to his work on the Synoptical Flora. He lived to a
+good age--long enough, indeed, to receive from learned societies at home
+and abroad abundant evidence of their profound respect for his
+attainments and services. He died at Cambridge, Mass., on the 30th of
+January 1888.
+
+  His _Letters_ (1893) were edited by his wife; and his _Scientific
+  Papers_ (1888) by C. S. Sargent.     (C. W. E.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861), Scottish poet, the son of a hand-loom weaver,
+was born at Merkland, near Glasgow, on the 29th of January 1838. His
+parents resolved to educate him for the church, and through their
+self-denial and his own exertions as a pupil teacher and private tutor
+he was able to complete a course of four sessions at the university of
+Glasgow. He began to write poetry for _The Glasgow Citizen_ and began
+his idyll on the Luggie, the little stream that ran through Merkland.
+His most intimate companion at this time was Robert Buchanan, the poet;
+and in May 1860 the two agreed to proceed to London, with the idea of
+finding literary employment. Shortly after his arrival in London Gray
+introduced himself to Monckton Milnes, afterwards Lord Houghton, with
+whom he had previously corresponded. Lord Houghton tried to persuade him
+to return to Scotland, but Gray insisted on staying in London. He was
+unsuccessful in his efforts to place Gray's poem, "The Luggie," in _The
+Cornhill Magazine_, but gave him some light literary work. He also
+showed him great kindness when a cold which had seized him assumed the
+serious form of consumption, and sent him to Torquay; but as the disease
+made rapid progress, an irresistible longing seized Gray to return to
+Merkland, where he arrived in January 1861, and died on the 3rd of
+December following, having the day before had the gratification of
+seeing a printed specimen copy of his poem "The Luggie," published
+eventually by the exertions of Sydney Dobell. He was buried in the Auld
+Aisle Churchyard, Kirkintilloch, where in 1865 a monument was erected by
+"friends far and near" to his memory.
+
+"The Luggie," the principal poem of Gray, is a kind of reverie in which
+the scenes and events of his childhood and his early aspirations are
+mingled with the music of the stream which he celebrates. The series of
+sonnets, "In the Shadows," was composed during the latter part of his
+illness. Most of his poems necessarily bear traces of immaturity, and
+lines may frequently be found in them which are mere echoes from
+Thomson, Wordsworth or Tennyson, but they possess, nevertheless,
+distinct individuality, and show a real appreciation of natural beauty.
+
+  _The Luggie and other Poems_, with an introduction by R. Monckton
+  Milnes, and a brief memoir by James Hedderwick, was published in 1862;
+  and a new and enlarged edition of Gray's _Poetical Works_, edited by
+  Henry Glassford Bell, appeared in 1874. See also _David Gray and other
+  Essays_, by Robert Buchanan (1868), and the same writer's poem on
+  David Gray, in _Idyls and Legends of Inverburn_.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901), American electrician, was born in Barnesville,
+Belmont county, Ohio, on the 2nd of August 1835. He worked as a
+carpenter and in a machine shop, reading in physical science at the
+same time, and for five years studied at Oberlin College, where he
+taught for a time. He then investigated the subject of telegraphy, and
+in 1867 patented a telegraphic switch and annunciator. Experimenting in
+the transmittal of electro-tones and of musical tones by wire, he
+utilized in 1874 animal tissues in his receivers, and filed, on the 14th
+of February 1876, a caveat for the invention of a telephone, only a few
+hours after the filing of an application for a patent by Alexander
+Graham Bell. (See TELEPHONE.) The caveat was disregarded; letters patent
+No. 174,465 were granted to Bell, whose priority of invention was upheld
+in 1888 by the United States Supreme Court (see _Molecular Telephone
+Co._ v. _American Bell Telephone Co._, 126 U.S. 1). Gray's experiments
+won for him high praise and the decoration of the Legion of Honour at
+the Paris Exposition of 1878. He was for a time a manufacturer of
+electrical apparatus, particularly of his own inventions; and was chief
+electrical expert of the Western Electric Company of Chicago. At the
+Columbian Exposition of 1893 Gray was chairman of the International
+Congress of Electricians. He died at Newtonville, Massachusetts, on the
+21st of January 1901. Among his later inventions were appliances for
+multiplex telegraphy and the telautograph, a machine for the electric
+transmission of handwriting. He experimented in the submarine use of
+electric bells for signalling.
+
+  Gray wrote, besides scientific addresses and many monographs,
+  _Telegraphy and Telephony_ (1878) and _Electricity and Magnetism_
+  (1900).
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-1877). American portrait and genre painter, was
+born in New York on the 23rd of June 1819. He was a pupil of Daniel
+Huntington there, and subsequently studied in Rome and Florence. Elected
+a member of the National Academy of Design in 1842, he succeeded
+Huntington as president in 1870, holding the position until 1871. The
+later years of his life were devoted to portrait work. He was strongly
+influenced by the old Italian masters, painting in mellow colour with a
+classical tendency. One of his notable canvases was an allegorical
+composition called "The Birth of our Flag" (1875). He died in New York
+City on the 12th of November 1877.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, HORACE (1828-1902), American jurist, was born in Boston,
+Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1828. He graduated at Harvard in
+1845; was admitted to the bar in 1851, and in 1854-1861 was reporter to
+the Supreme Court of Massachusetts. He practised law, first in
+partnership with Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar, and later with Wilder Dwight
+(1823-1862) and Charles F. Blake; was appointed associate justice of the
+state Supreme Court on the 23rd of August 1864, becoming chief-justice
+on the 5th of September 1873; and was associate justice of the Supreme
+Court of the United States from December 1881 to August 1902, resigning
+only a few weeks before his death at Nahant, Mass., on the 15th of
+September 1902. Gray had a fine sense of the dignity of the bench, and a
+taste for historical study. His judgments were unmistakably clear and
+contained the essence of earlier opinions. A great case lawyer, he was a
+much greater judge, the variety of his knowledge and his contributions
+to admiralty and prize law and to testamentary law being particularly
+striking; in constitutional law he was a "loose" rather than a "strict"
+constructionist.
+
+  See Francis C. Lowell, "Horace Gray," in _Proceedings of the American
+  Academy_, vol. 39, pp. 627-637 (Boston, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214), bishop of Norwich, entered Prince John's
+service, and at his accession (1199) was rapidly promoted in the church
+till he became bishop of Norwich in September 1200. King John's attempt
+to force him into the primacy in 1205 started the king's long and fatal
+quarrel with Pope Innocent III. De Gray was a hard-working royal
+official, in finance, in justice, in action, using his position to
+enrich himself and his family. In 1209 he went to Ireland to govern it
+as justiciar. He adopted a forward policy, attempting to extend the
+English frontier northward and westward, and fought a number of
+campaigns on the Shannon and in Fermanagh. But in 1212 he suffered a
+great defeat. He assimilated the coinage of Ireland to that of England,
+and tried to effect a similar reform in Irish law. De Gray was a good
+financier, and could always raise money: this probably explains the
+favour he enjoyed from King John. In 1213 he is found with 500 knights
+at the great muster at Barham Downs, when Philip Augustus was
+threatening to invade England. After John's reconciliation with Innocent
+he was one of those exempted from the general pardon, and was forced to
+go in person to Rome to obtain it. At Rome he so completely gained over
+Innocent that the pope sent him back with papal letters recommending his
+election to the bishopric of Durham (1213); but he died at St Jean
+d'Audely in Poitou on his homeward journey (October 1214).
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800-1875), English naturalist, born at Walsall,
+Staffordshire, in 1800, was the eldest of the three sons of S. F. Gray,
+of that town, druggist and writer on botany, and author of the
+_Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia_, &c., his grandfather being S. F.
+Gray, who translated the _Philosophia Botanica_ of Linnaeus for the
+_Introduction to Botany_ of James Lee (1715-1795). Gray studied at St
+Bartholomew's and other hospitals for the medical profession, but at an
+early age was attracted to the pursuit of botany. He assisted his father
+by collecting notes on botany and comparative anatomy and zoology in Sir
+Joseph Banks's library at the British Museum, aided by Dr W. E. Leach,
+assistant keeper, and the systematic synopsis of the _Natural
+Arrangement of British Plants_, 2 vols., 1821, was prepared by him, his
+father writing the preface and introduction only. In consequence of his
+application for membership of the Linnaean Society being rejected in
+1822, he turned to the study of zoology, writing on zoophytes, shells,
+_Mollusca_ and _Papilionidae_, still aided by Dr Leach at the British
+Museum. In December 1824 he obtained the post of assistant in that
+institution; and from that date to December 1839, when J. G. Children
+retired from the keepership, he had so zealously applied himself to the
+study, classification and improvement of the national collection of
+zoology that he was selected as the fittest person to be entrusted with
+its charge. Immediately on his appointment as keeper, he took in hand
+the revision of the systematic arrangement of the collections;
+scientific catalogues followed in rapid succession; the department was
+raised in importance; its poverty as well as its wealth became known,
+and whilst increased grants, donations and exchanges made good many
+deficiencies, great numbers of students, foreign as well as English,
+availed themselves of its resources to enlarge the knowledge of zoology
+in all its branches. In spite of numerous obstacles, he worked up the
+department, within a few years of his appointment as keeper, to such a
+state of excellence as to make it the rival of the cabinets of Leiden,
+Paris and Berlin; and later on it was raised under his management to the
+dignity of the largest and most complete zoological collection in the
+world. Although seized with paralysis in 1870, he continued to discharge
+the functions of keeper of zoology, and to contribute papers to the
+_Annals of Natural History_, his favourite journal, and to the
+transactions of a few of the learned societies; but at Christmas 1874,
+having completed half a century of official work, he resigned office,
+and died in London on the 7th of March 1875.
+
+Gray was an exceedingly voluminous writer, and his interests were not
+confined to natural history only, for he took an active part in
+questions of public importance of his day, such as slave emancipation,
+prison discipline, abolition of imprisonment for debt, sanitary and
+municipal organizations, the decimal system, public education, extension
+of the opening of museums, &c. He began to publish in 1820, and
+continued till the year of his death.
+
+  The titles of the books, memoirs and miscellaneous papers written by
+  him, accompanied by a few notes, fill a privately printed list of 56
+  octavo pages with 1162 entries.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6TH BARON (d. 1612), was descended from Sir Andrew
+Gray (c. 1390-1469) of Broxmouth and Foulis, who was created a Scottish
+peer as Lord Gray, probably in 1445. Andrew was a leading figure in
+Scottish politics during the reigns of James I. and his two successors,
+and visited England as a hostage, a diplomatist and a pilgrim. The 2nd
+Lord Gray was his grandson Andrew (d. 1514), and the 4th lord was the
+latter's grandson Patrick (d. 1582), a participant in Scottish politics
+during the stormy time of Mary, queen of Scots. Patrick's son, Patrick,
+the 5th lord (d. 1609), married Barbara, daughter of William, 2nd Lord
+Ruthven, and their son Patrick, known as the "Master of Gray," is the
+subject of this article. Educated at Glasgow University and brought up
+as a Protestant, young Patrick was married early in life to Elizabeth
+Lyon, daughter of Lord Glamis, whom he repudiated almost directly; and
+afterwards went to France, where he joined the friends of Mary, queen of
+Scots, became a Roman Catholic, and assisted the French policy of the
+Guises in Scotland. He returned and took up his residence again in
+Scotland in 1583, and immediately began a career of treachery and
+intrigue, gaining James's favour by disclosing to him his mother's
+secrets, and acting in agreement with James Stewart, earl of Arran, in
+order to keep Mary a prisoner in England. In 1584 he was sent as
+ambassador to England, to effect a treaty between James and Elizabeth
+and to exclude Mary. His ambition incited him at the same time to
+promote a plot to secure the downfall of Arran. This was supported by
+Elizabeth, and was finally accomplished by letting loose the lords
+banished from Scotland for their participation in the rebellion called
+the Raid of Ruthven, who, joining Gray, took possession of the king's
+person at Stirling in 1585, the league with England being ratified by
+the parliament in December. Gray now became the intermediary between the
+English government and James on the great question of Mary's execution,
+and in 1587 he was despatched on an embassy to Elizabeth, ostensibly to
+save Mary's life. Gray had, however, previously advised her secret
+assassination and had endeavoured to overcome all James's scruples; and
+though he does not appear to have carried treachery so far as to advise
+her death on this occasion, no representations made by him could have
+had any force or weight. The execution of Mary caused his own downfall
+and loss of political power in Scotland; and after his return he was
+imprisoned on charges of plots against Protestantism, of endeavouring to
+prevent the king's marriage, and of having been bribed to consent to
+Mary's death. He pleaded guilty of sedition and of having obstructed the
+king's marriage, and was declared a traitor; but his life was spared by
+James and he was banished from the country, but permitted to return in
+1589, when he was restored to his office of master of the wardrobe to
+which he had been appointed in 1585. His further career was marked by
+lawlessness and misconduct. In 1592, together with the 5th Lord
+Bothwell, he made an unsuccessful attempt to seize the king at Falkland,
+and the same year earned considerable discredit by bringing groundless
+accusations against the Presbyterian minister, Robert Bruce; while after
+the king's accession to the English throne he was frequently summoned
+before the authorities on account of his conduct. Notwithstanding, he
+never lost James's favour. In 1609 he succeeded his father as 6th Baron
+Gray, and died in 1612.
+
+Gray was an intimate friend of Sir Philip Sidney, but, if one of the
+ablest, handsomest and most fascinating, he was beyond doubt one of the
+most unscrupulous men of his day. He married as his second wife in 1585
+Mary Stewart, daughter of Robert, earl of Orkney, and had by her,
+besides six daughters, a son, Andrew (d. 1663), who succeeded him as 7th
+Baron Gray. Andrew, who served for a long time in the French army, was a
+supporter, although not a very prominent one, of Charles I. and
+afterwards of Charles II. He was succeeded as 8th Lord Gray by Patrick
+(d. 1711), a son of his daughter Anne, and Patrick's successor was his
+kinsman and son-in-law John (d. 1724). On the extinction of John's
+direct line in 1878 the title of Lord Gray, passed to George Stuart,
+earl of Moray. In 1606 Gray had been ranked sixth among the Scottish
+baronies.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Article in _Dict. of Nat. Biog._, and authorities there
+  quoted; Gray's relation concerning the surprise at Stirling
+  (_Bannatyne Club Publns._ i. 131, 1827); Andrew Lang, _History of
+  Scotland_, vol. ii. (1902); Peter Gray, _The Descent and Kinship of
+  Patrick, Master of Gray_ (1903); _Gray Papers_ (Bannatyne Club, 1835);
+  _Hist. MSS. Comm., Marq. of Salisbury's MSS._
+
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872), first bishop of Cape Town and metropolitan of
+South Africa, was born at Bishop Wearmouth, Durham, and was the son of
+Robert Gray, bishop of Bristol. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and
+took orders in 1833. After holding the livings of Whitworth, Durham,
+1834-1845, and Stockton-on-Tees, 1845-1847, he was consecrated bishop of
+Cape Town in 1847; the bishopric having been endowed through the
+liberality of Miss (afterwards Baroness) Burdett-Coutts. Until 1853 he
+was a suffragan of Canterbury, but in that year he formally resigned his
+see and was reappointed by letters patent metropolitan of South Africa
+in view of the contemplated establishment of the suffragan dioceses of
+Graham's Town and Natal. In that capacity his coercive jurisdiction was
+twice called in question, and in each case the judicial committee of the
+privy council decided against him. The best-known case is that of Bishop
+Colenso, whom Gray deposed and excommunicated in 1863. The spiritual
+validity of the sentence was upheld by the convocation of Canterbury and
+the Pan-Anglican synod of 1867, but legally Colenso remained bishop of
+Natal. The privy council decisions declared, in effect, that the
+Anglican body in South Africa was on the footing of a voluntary
+religious society. Gray, accepting this position, obtained its
+recognition by the mother church as the Church of the Province of South
+Africa, in full communion with the Church of England. The first
+provincial synod was held in 1870. During his episcopate Bishop Gray
+effected a much-needed organization of the South African church, to
+which he added five new bishoprics, all carved out of the original
+diocese of Cape Town. It was also chiefly owing to his suggestions that
+the universities' mission to Central Africa was founded.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369), English chronicler, was a son of Sir
+Thomas Gray, who was taken prisoner by the Scots at Bannockburn and who
+died about 1344. The younger Thomas was present at the battle of
+Neville's Cross in 1346; in 1355, whilst acting as warden of Norham
+Castle, he was made a prisoner, and during his captivity in Edinburgh
+Castle he devoted his time to studying the English chroniclers, Gildas,
+Bede, Ranulf Higdon and others. Released in 1357 he was appointed warden
+of the east marches towards Scotland in 1367, and he died about 1369.
+Gray's work, the _Scalacronica_ (so called, perhaps, from the
+scaling-ladder in the crest of the Grays), is a chronicle of English
+history from the earliest times to about the year 1362. It is, however,
+only valuable for the reigns of Edward I. and Edward II. and part of
+that of Edward III., being especially so for the account of the wars
+between England and Scotland, in which the author's father and the
+author himself took part. Writing in Norman-French, Gray tells of
+Wallace and Bruce, of the fights at Bannockburn, Byland and Dupplin, and
+makes some mention of the troubles in England during the reign of Edward
+II. He also narrates the course of the war in France between 1355 and
+1361; possibly he was present during some of these campaigns.
+
+  The _Scalacronica_ was summarized by John Leland in the 16th century;
+  the part dealing with the period from 1066 to the end, together with
+  the prologue, was edited for the Maitland Club by J. Stevenson (1836);
+  and the part from 1274 to 1362 was translated into English by Sir
+  Herbert Maxwell (Glasgow, 1907). In the extant manuscript, which is in
+  Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, there is a gap extending from about
+  1340 to 1355, and Gray's account of this period is only known from
+  Leland's summary.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771), English poet, the fifth and sole surviving
+child of Philip and Dorothy Gray, was born in London on the 26th of
+December 1716. His mother's maiden name was Antrobus, and in partnership
+with her sister Mary she kept a millinery shop in Cornhill. This and the
+house connected with it were the property of Philip Gray, a
+money-scrivener, who married Dorothy in 1706 and lived with her in the
+house, the sisters renting the shop from him and supporting themselves
+by its profits. Philip Gray had impaired the fortune which he inherited
+from his father, a wealthy London merchant; yet he was sufficiently
+well-to-do, and at the close of his life was building a house upon some
+property of his own at Wanstead. But he was selfish and brutal, and in
+1735 his wife took some abortive steps to obtain a separation from him.
+At this date she had given birth to twelve children, of whom Thomas was
+the only survivor. He owed his life as well as his education to this
+"careful, tender mother," as he calls her. The child was suffocating
+when she opened one of his veins with her own hand. He went at her
+expense to Eton in 1727, and was confided to the care of her brother,
+William Antrobus, one of the assistant-masters, during some part at
+least of his school-life.
+
+At Eton Gray's closest friends were Horace Walpole, Richard West (son of
+the lord chancellor of Ireland and grandson of the famous Bishop
+Burnet), and Thomas Ashton, afterwards fellow of Eton. This little
+coterie was dubbed "the Quadruple Alliance"; its members were studious
+and literary, and took little part in the amusements of their fellows.
+In 1734 Gray matriculated at Peterhouse, Cambridge, of which his uncle,
+Robert Antrobus, had been a fellow. At Cambridge he had once more the
+companionship of Walpole and Ashton who were at King's, but West went to
+Christchurch, Oxford. Gray made at this time the firmest and most
+constant friendship of his life with Thomas Wharton (not the poet
+Warton) of Pembroke College. He was maintained by his mother, and his
+straitened means were eked out by certain small exhibitions from his
+college. His conspicuous abilities and known devotion to study perhaps
+atoned in the eyes of the authorities for his indifference to the
+regular routine of study; for mathematics in particular he had an
+aversion which was the one exception to his almost limitless curiosity
+in other directions. During his first Cambridge period he learnt Italian
+"like any dragon," and made translations from Guarini, Dante and Tasso,
+some of which have been preserved. In September 1738 he is in the agony
+of leaving college, nor can we trace his movements with any certainty
+for a while, though it may be conjectured that he spent much time with
+Horace Walpole, and made in his company some fashionable acquaintances
+in London. On the 29th of March 1739, he started with Walpole for a long
+continental tour, for the expenses of which it is probable that his
+father, for once, came in some measure to his assistance. In Paris, Gray
+visited the great with his friend, studied the picture-galleries, went
+to tragedies, comedies, operas and cultivated there that taste for the
+French classical dramatists, especially Racine, whom he afterwards tried
+to imitate in the fragmentary "Agrippina." It is characteristic of him
+that he travels through France with Caesar constantly in his hands, ever
+noting and transcribing. In the same way, in crossing the Alps and in
+Piedmont, he has "Livy in the chaise with him and Silius Italicus too."
+In Italy he made a long sojourn, principally at Florence, where
+Walpole's lifelong correspondent, Horace Mann, was British envoy, and
+received and treated the travellers most hospitably. But Rome and Naples
+are also described in Gray's letters, sometimes vividly, always
+amusingly, and in his notes are almost catalogued. Herculaneum, an
+object of intense interest to the young poet and antiquary, had been
+discovered the year before. At length in April 1741 Gray and Walpole set
+out northwards for Reggio. Here they quarrelled. Gray, "never a boy,"
+was a student, and at times retiring; Walpole, in his way a student too,
+was at this time a very social being, somewhat too frivolous, and, what
+was worse, too patronizing. He good-humouredly said at a later date,
+"Gray loves to find fault," and this fault-finding was expressed, no
+doubt with exaggeration, in a letter to Ashton, who violated Gray's
+confidence. The rupture followed, and with two friends, John Chute of
+the Vyne, Hampshire, and the young Francis Whithed, Gray went to Venice
+to see the doge wed the Adriatic on Ascension Day. Thence he returned
+home attended only by a _laquais de voyage_, visiting once more the
+Grande Chartreuse where he left in the album of the brotherhood those
+beautiful alcaics, _O Tu severa Religio loci_, which reveal his
+characteristic melancholy (enhanced by solitude and estrangement) and
+that sense of the glory as distinct from the horror of mountain scenery
+to which perhaps he was the first of Englishmen to give adequate
+expression. On the 18th of September 1741 we find him in London,
+astonishing the street boys with his deep ruffles, large bag-wig and
+long sword, and "mortified" under the hands of the English barber. On
+the 6th of November his father died; Philip Gray had, it is evident,
+been less savage and niggardly at last to those who were dependent upon
+him, and his death left his wife and son some measure of assured peace
+and comfort.
+
+London was Gray's headquarters for more than a year, with occasional
+visits to Stoke Poges, to which his mother and Mary Antrobus had retired
+from business to live with their sister, Mrs Rogers. At Stoke he heard
+of the death of West, to whom he had sent the "Ode on Spring," which was
+returned to him unopened. It was an unexpected blow, shocking in all its
+circumstances, especially if we believe the story that his friend's
+frail life was brought to a close by the discovery that the mother whom
+he tenderly loved had been an unfaithful wife, and, as some say,
+poisoned her husband. About this tragedy Gray preserved a mournful
+silence, broken only by the pathetic sonnet, and some Latin lines, in
+which he laments his loss. The year 1742, was, for him, fruitful in
+poetic effort, of which, however, much was incomplete. The "Agrippina,"
+the _De principiis Cogitandi_, the splenetic "Hymn to Ignorance" in
+which he contemplates his return to the university, remain fragments;
+but besides the two poems already mentioned, the "Ode on a Distant
+Prospect of Eton College" and the "Hymn to Adversity," perhaps the most
+faultless of his poems, were written before the close of the summer.
+After hesitating between Trinity Hall and Peterhouse, he returned to the
+latter, probably as a fellow-commoner. He had hitherto neglected to read
+for a degree; he proceeded to that of LL.B. in 1744. In 1745 a
+reconciliation with Walpole, long desired probably on both sides, was
+effected through the kind offices of Chute's sister. In 1746 he spent
+his time between Cambridge, Stoke and London; was much with Walpole;
+graphically describes the trial of the Scottish rebel lords, and studied
+Greek with avidity; but "the muse," which by this time perhaps had
+stimulated him to begin the "Elegy," "has gone, and left him in much
+worse company." In town he finds his friends Chute and Whithed returned
+to England, and "flaunts about" in public places with them. The year
+1747 produced only the ode on Walpole's cat, and we gather that he is
+mainly engaged in reading with a very critical eye, and interesting
+himself more in the troubles of Pembroke College, in which he almost
+seems to live, than in the affairs of Peterhouse. In this year also be
+made the acquaintance of Mason, his future biographer. In 1748 he first
+came before the public, but anonymously, in Dodsley's _Miscellany_, in
+which appeared the Eton ode, the ode on spring, and that on the cat. In
+the same year he sent to Wharton the beginning of the didactic poem,
+"The Alliance of Education and Government," which remains a fragment.
+His aunt, Mary Antrobus, died in 1749.
+
+There is little to break the monotony of his days till 1750, when from
+Stoke he sent Walpole "a thing to which he had at last put an end." The
+"thing" was the "Elegy." It was shown about in manuscript by his
+admiring friend; it was impudently pirated, and Gray had it printed by
+Dodsley in self-defence. Even thus it had "a pinch or two in its
+cradle," of which it long bore the marks. The publication led to the one
+incident in Gray's life which has a touch of romance. At Stokehouse had
+come to live the widowed Lady Cobham, who learnt that the author of the
+"Elegy" was her neighbour. At her instance, Lady Schaub, her visitor,
+and Miss Speed, her protegee, paid him a call; the poet was out, and his
+quiet mother and aunts were somewhat flustered at the apparition of
+these women of fashion, whose acquaintance Gray had already made in
+town. Hence the humorous "Long Story." A platonic affection sprang up
+between Gray and Miss Speed; rumour, upon the death of Lady Cobham, said
+that they were to be married, but the lady escaped this mild destiny to
+become the Baroness de la Peyriere, afterwards Countess Viry, and a
+dangerous political _intriguante_.
+
+In 1753 all Gray's completed poems, except the sonnet on the death of
+West, were published by Dodsley in a handsome volume illustrated by
+Richard Bentley, the son of the celebrated master of Trinity. To these
+designs we owe the verses to the artist which were posthumously
+published from a MS. torn at the end. In the same year Gray's mother
+died and was buried in the churchyard at Stoke Poges, the scene of the
+"Elegy," in the same grave with Mary Antrobus. A visit to his friend Dr
+Wharton at Durham later in the year revives his earlier impressions of
+that bolder scenery which is henceforth to be in the main the framework
+of his muse. Already in 1752 he had almost completed "The Progress of
+Poesy," in which, and in "The Bard," the imagery is largely furnished
+forth by mountain and torrent. The latter poem long held fire; Gray was
+stimulated to finish it by hearing the blind Welsh harper Parry at
+Cambridge. Both odes were the first-fruits of the press which Walpole
+had set up at Strawberry Hill, and were printed together there in 1757.
+They are genuinely Pindaric, that is, with corresponding strophes,
+antistrophes and epodes. As the Greek motto prefixed to them implies,
+they were vocal to the intelligent only; and these at first were few.
+But the odes, if they did not attain the popularity of the "Elegy,"
+marked an epoch in the history of English poetry, and the influence of
+"The Bard" may be traced even in that great but very fruitful imposture,
+the pseudo-Ossian of Macpherson. Gray yields to the impulse of the
+Romantic movement; he has long been an admirer of ballad poetry; before
+he wrote "The Bard" he had begun to study Scandinavian literature, and
+the two "Norse Odes," written in 1761, were in style and metrical form
+strangely anticipative of Coleridge and Scott. Meanwhile his Cambridge
+life had been vexed by the freaks of the fellow-commoners of Peterhouse,
+a peculiarly riotous set. He had suffered great inconvenience for a time
+by the burning of his property in Cornhill, and so nervous was he on the
+subject of fire that he had provided himself with a rope-ladder by which
+he might descend from his college window. Under this window a
+hunting-party of these rude lads raised in the early morning the cry of
+fire; the poet's night-capped head appeared and was at once withdrawn.
+This, or little more than this, was the simple fact out of which arose
+the legend still current at Cambridge. The servile authorities of
+Peterhouse treated Gray's complaints with scant respect, and he migrated
+to Pembroke College. "I left my lodgings," he said, "because the rooms
+were noisy, and the people of the house dirty."
+
+In 1758 died Mrs Rogers, and Gray describes himself as employed at Stoke
+in "dividing nothing" between himself and the surviving aunt, Mrs
+Oliffe, whom he calls "the spawn of Cerberus and the Dragon of Wantley."
+In 1759 he availed himself of the MS. treasures of the British Museum,
+then for the first time open to the public, made a very long sojourn in
+town, and in 1761 witnessed the coronation of George III., of which to
+his friend Brown of Pembroke he wrote a very vivacious account. In his
+last years he revealed a craving for a life less sedentary than
+heretofore. He visited various picturesque districts of Great Britain,
+exploring great houses and ruined abbeys; he was the pioneer of the
+modern tourist, noting and describing in the spirit now of the poet, now
+of the art-critic, now of the antiquary. In 1762 he travelled in
+Yorkshire and Derbyshire; in 1764 in the Lowlands of Scotland, and
+thence went to Southampton and its neighbourhood. In 1765 he revisits
+Scotland; he is the guest of Lord Strathmore at Glamis; and revels in
+"those monstrous creatures of God," the Highland mountains. His most
+notable achievement in this direction was his journey among the English
+lakes, of which he wrote an interesting account to Wharton; and even in
+1770, the year before his death, he visited with his young friend Norton
+Nicholls "five of the most beautiful counties of the kingdom," and
+descended the Wye for 40 m. In all these quests he displays a physical
+energy which surprises and even perplexes us. His true academic status
+was worthily secured in 1768, when the duke of Grafton offered him the
+professorship of modern history which in 1762 he had vainly endeavoured
+to obtain from Bute. He wrote in 1769 the "Installation Ode" upon the
+appointment of Grafton as chancellor of the university. It was almost
+the only instance in which he successfully executed a task, not, in the
+strictest sense, self-imposed; the great founders of the university are
+tactfully memorized and pass before us in a kind of heraldic splendour.
+He bore with indifference the taunts to which, from Junius and others,
+he was exposed for this tribute to his patron. He was contemplating a
+journey to Switzerland to visit his youthful friend de Bonstetten when,
+in the summer of 1771, he was conscious of a great decline in his
+physical powers. He was seized with a sudden illness when dining in his
+college hall, and died of gout in the stomach on the 30th of July 1771.
+His last moments were attended by his cousin Mary Antrobus, postmistress
+through his influence at Cambridge and daughter of his Eton tutor; and
+he was laid beside his beloved mother in the churchyard of Stoke Poges.
+
+Owing to his shyness and reserve he had few intimate friends, but to
+these his loss was irreparable; for to them he revealed himself either
+in boyish levity and banter, or wise and sympathetic counsel and tender
+and yet manly consolation; to them he imparted his quiet but keen
+observation of passing events or the stores of his extensive reading in
+literature ancient, medieval or modern; and with Proteus-like variety he
+writes at one time as a speculative philosopher, at another as a critic
+in art or music, at another as a meteorologist and nature-lover. His
+friendship with the young, after his migration to Pembroke College, is a
+noteworthy trait in his character. With Lord Strathmore and the Lyons
+and with William Palgrave he conversed as an elder brother, and Norton
+Nicholls of Trinity Hall lost in him a second father, who had taught him
+to think and feel. The brilliant young foreigner, de Bonstetten, looked
+back after a long and chequered career with remembrance still vivid to
+the days in which the poet so soon to die taught him to read Shakespeare
+and Milton in the monastic gloom of Cambridge. With the elderly
+"Levites" of the place he was less in sympathy; they dreaded his
+sarcastic vein; they were conscious that he laughed at them, and in the
+polemics of the university he was somewhat of a free lance, fighting for
+his own hand. Lampoons of his were privately circulated with effect, and
+that he could be the fiercest of satirists the "Cambridge Courtship" on
+the candidature of Lord Sandwich for the office of high steward, and the
+verses on Lord Holland's mimic ruins at Westgate, sufficiently prove.
+The faculty which he displayed in humour and satire was denied to his
+more serious muse; there all was the fruit of long delay; of that higher
+inspiration he had a thin but very precious vein, and the sublimity
+which he undoubtedly attained was reached by an effort of which captious
+and even sympathetic criticism can discover the traces. In his own time
+he was regarded as an innovator, for like Collins he revived the poetic
+diction of the past, and the adverse judgments of Johnson and others
+upon his work are in fact a defence of the current literary traditions.
+Few men have published so little to so much effect; few have attained to
+fame with so little ambition. His favourite maxim was "to be employed is
+to be happy," but he was always employed in the first instance for the
+satisfaction of his own soul, and to this end and no other he made
+himself one of the best Greek scholars at Cambridge in the interval
+between Bentley and Porson. His genius was receptive rather than
+creative, and it is to be regretted that he lacked energy to achieve
+that history of English poetry which he once projected, and for which he
+possessed far more knowledge and insight than the poet Thomas Warton, to
+whom he resigned the task. He had a fine taste in music, painting and
+architecture; and his correspondence includes a wide survey of such
+European literature as was accessible to him, with criticisms, sometimes
+indeed a little limited and insular, yet of a singularly fresh and
+modern cast. In person he was below the middle height, but well-made,
+and his face, in which the primness of his features was redeemed by his
+flashing eyes, was the index of his character. There was a touch of
+affectation in his demeanour, and he was sometimes reticent and
+secretive even to his best friends. He was a refined Epicurean in his
+habits, and a deist rather than a Christian in his religious beliefs;
+but his friend, Mrs Bonfoy, had "taught him to pray" and he was keenly
+alive to the dangers of a flippant scepticism. In a beautiful alcaic
+stanza he pronounces the man supremely happy who in the depths of the
+heart is conscious of the "fount of tears," and his characteristic
+melancholy, except in the few hours when it was indeed black, was not a
+pitiable state; rather, it was one secret of the charm both of the man
+and of the poet.
+
+  A very complete bibliography of Gray will be found in Dr. Bradshaw's
+  edition of the poems in the Aldine series. Dodsley published ten of
+  the poems, exclusive of the "Long Story," in 1768. Mason's _Life of
+  Gray_ (1778) included the poems and some hitherto unpublished
+  fragments, with a selection from his letters, much garbled. Mathias in
+  1814 reprinted Mason's edition and added much from Gray's MS.
+  commentaries together with some more of his translations. The most
+  exhaustive edition of Gray's writings was achieved by the Rev. John
+  Mitford, who first did justice to the correspondence with Wharton and
+  Norton Nicholls (5 vols., Pickering, 1836-1843; correspondence of Gray
+  and Mason, Bentley, 1853); see also the edition of the works by Edmund
+  Gosse (4 vols., 1884); the Life by the same in Eng. Men of Letters
+  (2nd ed., 1889); some further relics are given in _Gray and His
+  Friends_ by D. C. Tovey (Cambridge, 1890); and a new edition of the
+  letters copiously annotated by D. C. Tovey is in the Standard Library
+  (1900-1907). Nicholl's _Illustrations_, vol. vi. p. 805, quoted by
+  Professor Kittredge in the _Nation_, Sept. 12th, 1900, gives the true
+  story of Gray's migration to Pembroke College. Matthew Arnold's essay
+  on Gray in Ward's _English Poets_ is one of the minor classics of
+  literary criticism.     (D. C. To.)
+
+
+
+
+GRAY (or GREY), WALTER DE (d. 1255), English prelate and statesman, was
+a nephew of John de Gray, bishop of Norwich, and was educated at Oxford.
+He owed his early and rapid preferment in church and state to the favour
+of King John, becoming the king's chancellor in 1205, and being chosen
+bishop of Lichfield in 1210. He was, however, not allowed to keep this
+bishopric, but he became bishop of Worcester in 1214, resigning his
+office as chancellor in the same year. Gray was with John when the king
+signed Magna Carta in June 1215; soon after this event he left England
+on the king's business, and it was during his absence that he was forced
+into the archbishopric of York, owing his election to the good offices
+of John and of Pope Innocent III. He took a leading part in public
+affairs during the minority of Henry III., and was regarded with much
+favour by this king, who employed him on important errands to foreign
+potentates, and left him as guardian of England when he went to France
+in 1242. Afterwards the archbishop seems to have been less favourably
+disposed towards Henry, and for a time he absented himself from public
+business; however, in 1255, he visited London to attend a meeting of
+parliament, and died at Fulham on the 1st of May 1255. Gray was always
+anxious to assert his archiepiscopal authority over Scotland, and to
+maintain it against the archbishop of Canterbury, but in neither case
+was he very successful. He built the south transept of the minster at
+York and bought for his see the village, afterwards called Bishopthorpe,
+which is still the residence of the archbishop of York. He was also
+generous to the church at Ripon. Gray was regarded by his contemporaries
+as an avaricious, but patriotic man.
+
+
+
+
+GRAY, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Haute-Saone, situated on the declivity of a hill on the
+left bank of the Saone, 36 m. S.W. of Vesoul by the Eastern railway.
+Pop. (1906) 5742. The streets of the town are narrow and steep, but it
+possesses broad and beautiful quays and has a busy port. Three bridges,
+one dating from the 18th century, unite it to suburbs on the right bank
+of the river, on which is the railway-station from which lines branch
+off to Auxonne, Dijon, Besancon and Culmont-Chalindrey. The principal
+buildings are the Gothic church, restored in the style of the
+Renaissance but with a modern portal, and the hotel de ville, built by
+the Spaniards in 1568. The latter building has a handsome facade
+decorated with columns of red granite. Gray is the seat of a subprefect
+and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of
+commerce, a communal college and a small museum. It has large
+flour-mills; among the other industries is the manufacture of machinery
+and iron goods. There is also a considerable transit traffic in goods
+from the south of France and the colonies, and trade in iron, corn,
+provisions, vegetables, wine, wood, &c., much of which is carried by
+river. Gray was founded in the 7th century. Its fortifications were
+destroyed by Louis XIV. During the Franco-German War General von Werder
+concentrated his army corps in the town and held it for a month, making
+it the _point d'appui_ of movements towards Dijon and Langres, as well
+as towards Besancon.
+
+Gray gave its name to the distinguished English family of de Gray, Gray
+or Grey, Anschitel de Gray being mentioned as an Oxfordshire tenant in
+Domesday.
+
+
+
+
+GRAYLING (_Thymallus_), fishes belonging to the family _Salmonidae_. The
+best known are the "poisson bleu" of the Canadian voyageurs, and the
+European species, _Thymallus vulgaris_ (the _Asch_ or _Asche_ of
+Germany, _ombre_ of France, and _temola_ of Upper Italy). This latter
+species is esteemed on account of its agreeable colours (especially of
+the dorsal fin), its well-flavoured flesh, and the sport it affords to
+anglers. The grayling differ from the genus _Salmo_ in the smaller mouth
+with comparatively feeble dentition, in the larger scales, and
+especially in the much greater development of the dorsal fin, which
+contains 20 to 24 rays. These beautiful fishes, of which five or six
+species are known, inhabit the fresh waters of Europe, Siberia and the
+northern parts of North America. The European species, _T. vulgaris_ or
+_vexillifer_, attains, though rarely, a length of 2 ft. The colours
+during life are remarkably changeable and iridescent; small dark spots
+are sometimes present on the body; the very high dorsal fin is
+beautifully marked with purplish bands and ocelli. In England and
+Scotland the grayling appears to have had originally a rather irregular
+distribution, but it has now been introduced into a great number of
+rivers; it is not found in Ireland. It is more generally distributed in
+Scandinavia and Russia, and the mountain streams of central Europe
+southwards to the Alpine water of Upper Italy. Specimens attaining to a
+weight of 4 lb. are very scarce.
+
+
+
+
+GRAYS THURROCK, or GRAYS, an urban district in the south-eastern
+parliamentary division of Essex, England, on the Thames, 20 m. E. by S.
+from London by the London, Tilbury & Southend railway. Pop. (1901)
+13,834. The church of St Peter and St Paul, wholly rebuilt, retains some
+Norman work. The town takes its name from a family of Gray who held the
+manor for three centuries from 1149. There are an endowed and two
+training ship schools. Roman remains have been found in the vicinity;
+and the geological formations exhibiting the process of silting up of a
+former river channel are exposed in the quarries, and contain large
+mammalian remains. The town has trade in bricks, lime and cement.
+
+
+
+
+GRAZ [GRATZ], the capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland of Styria,
+140 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 138,370. It is picturesquely
+situated on both banks of the Mur, just where this river enters a broad
+and fertile valley, and the beauty of its position has given rise to the
+punning French description, _La Ville des graces sur la riviere de
+l'amour_. The main town lies on the left bank of the river at the foot
+of the Schlossberg (1545 ft.) which dominates the town. The beautiful
+valley traversed by the Mur, known as the Grazer Feld and bounded by the
+Wildonerberge, extends to the south; to the S.W. rise the Bacher Gebirge
+and the Koralpen; to the N. the Schockel (4745 ft.), and to the N.W. the
+Alps of Upper Styria. On the Schlossberg, which can be ascended by a
+cable tramway, beautiful parks have been laid out, and on its top is the
+bell-tower, 60 ft. high, and the quaint clock-tower, 52 ft. high, which
+bears a gigantic clock-dial. At the foot of the Schlossberg is the
+Stadt-Park.
+
+Among the numerous churches of the city the most important is the
+cathedral of St Aegidius, a Gothic building erected by the emperor
+Frederick III. in 1450-1462 on the site of a previous church mentioned
+as early as 1157. It has been several times modified and redecorated,
+more particularly in 1718. The present copper spire dates from 1663. The
+interior is richly adorned with stained-glass windows of modern date,
+costly shrines, paintings and tombs. In the immediate neighbourhood of
+the cathedral is the mausoleum church erected by the emperor Ferdinand
+II. Worthy of mention also are the parish church, a Late Gothic
+building, finished in 1520, and restored in 1875, which possesses an
+altar piece by Tintoretto; the Augustinian church, appropriated to the
+service of the university since 1827; the small Leech Kirche, an
+interesting building in Early Gothic style, dating from the 13th
+century, and the Herz Jesu-Kirche, a building in Early Gothic style,
+finished in 1891, with a tower 360 ft. high. Of the secular buildings
+the most important is the Landhaus, where the local diet holds its
+sittings, erected in the 16th century in the Renaissance style. It
+possesses an interesting portal and a beautiful arcaded court, and
+amongst the curiosities preserved here is the Styrian hat. In its
+neighbourhood is the Zeughaus or arsenal, built in 1644, which contains
+a very rich collection of weapons of the 15th-17th centuries, and which
+is maintained exactly in the same condition as it was 250 years ago. The
+town hall, built in 1807, and rebuilt in 1892 in the German Renaissance
+style, and the imperial castle, dating from the 11th century, now used
+as government offices, are also worth notice.
+
+At the head of the educational institutions is the university founded in
+1586 by the Austrian archduke Charles Francis, and restored in 1817
+after an interruption of 45 years. It is now housed in a magnificent
+building, finished in 1895, and is endowed with numerous scientific
+laboratories and a rich library. It had in 1901 a teaching staff of 161
+professors and lecturers, and 1652 students, including many Italians
+from the Kustenland and Dalmatia. The Joanneum Museum, founded in 1811
+by the archduke John Baptist, has become very rich in many departments,
+and an additional huge building in the rococo style was erected in 1895
+for its accommodation. The technical college, founded in 1814 by the
+archduke John Baptist, had in 1901 about 400 pupils.
+
+An active trade, fostered by abundant railway communications, is
+combined with manufactures of iron and steel wares, paper, chemicals,
+vinegar, physical and optical instruments, besides artistic printing and
+lithography. The extensive workshops of the Southern railway are at
+Graz, and since the opening of the railway to the rich coal-fields of
+Koflach the number of industrial establishments has greatly increased.
+
+Amongst the numerous interesting places in the neighbourhood are: the
+Hilmteich, with the Hilmwarte, about 100 ft. high; and the Rosenberg
+(1570 ft.), whence the ascent of the Platte (2136 ft.) with extensive
+view is made. At the foot of the Rosenberg is Maria Grun, with a large
+sanatorium. All these places are situated to the N. of Graz. On the left
+bank of the Mur is the pilgrimage church of Maria Trost, built in 1714;
+on the right bank is the castle of Eggenberg, built in the 17th century.
+To the S.W. is the Buchkogel (2150 ft.), with a magnificent view, and a
+little farther south is the watering-place of Tobelbad.
+
+_History._--Graz may possibly have been a Roman site, but the first
+mention of it under its present name is in a document of A.D. 881, after
+which it became the residence of the rulers of the surrounding district,
+known later as Styria. Its privileges were confirmed by King Rudolph I.
+in 1281. Surrounded with walls and fosses in 1435, it was able in 1481
+to defend itself against the Hungarians under Matthias Corvinus, and in
+1529 and 1532 the Turks attacked it with as little success. As early as
+1530 the Lutheran doctrine was preached in Graz by Seifried and Jacob
+von Eggenberg, and in 1540 Eggenberg founded the Paradies or Lutheran
+school, in which Kepler afterwards taught. But the archduke Charles
+burned 20,000 Protestant books in the square of the present lunatic
+asylum, and succeeded by his oppressive measures in bringing the city
+again under the authority of Rome. From the earlier part of the 15th
+century Graz was the residence of one branch of the family of Habsburg,
+a branch which succeeded to the imperial throne in 1619 in the person of
+Ferdinand II. New fortifications were constructed in the end of the 16th
+century by Franz von Poppendorf, and in 1644 the town afforded an asylum
+to the family of Ferdinand III. The French were in possession of the
+place in 1797 and again in 1805; and in 1809 Marshal Macdonald having,
+in accordance with the terms of the peace of Vienna, entered the citadel
+which he had vainly besieged, blew it all up with the exception of the
+bell-tower and the citizens' or clock tower. It benefited greatly during
+the 19th century from the care of the archduke John and received
+extended civic privileges in 1860.
+
+  See Ilwof and Peters, _Graz, Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt_
+  (Graz, 1875); G. Fels, _Graz und seine Umgebung_ (Graz, 1898); L.
+  Mayer, _Die Stadt der Grazien_ (Graz, 1897), and Hofrichter,
+  _Ruckblicke in die Vergangenheit von Graz_ (Graz, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+GRAZZINI, ANTONIO FRANCESCO (1503-1583), Italian author, was born at
+Florence on the 22nd of March 1503, of good family both by his father's
+and mother's side. Of his youth and education all record appears to be
+lost, but he probably began early to practise as an apothecary. In 1540
+he was one of the founders of the Academy of the Humid (degli Umidi)
+afterwards called "della Fiorentina," and later took a prominent part in
+the establishment of the more famous Accademia della Crusca. In both
+societies he was known as _Il Lasca_ or _Leuciscus_, and this pseudonym
+is still frequently substituted for his proper name. His temper was what
+the French happily call a difficult one, and his life was consequently
+enlivened or disturbed by various literary quarrels. His Humid brethren
+went so far as to expel him for a time from the society--the chief
+ground of offence being apparently his ruthless criticism of the
+"Arameans," a party of the academicians who maintained that the
+Florentine or Tuscan tongue was derived from the Hebrew, the Chaldee, or
+some other branch of the Semitic. He was readmitted in 1566, when his
+friend Salviati was "consul" of the academy. His death took place on the
+18th of February 1583. Il Lasca ranks as one of the great masters of
+Tuscan prose. His style is copious and flexible; abundantly idiomatic,
+but without any affectation of being so, it carries with it the force
+and freshness of popular speech, while it lacks not at the same time a
+flavour of academic culture. His principal works are _Le Cene_ (1756), a
+collection of stories in the manner of Boccaccio, and a number of prose
+comedies, _La Gelosia_ (1568), _La Spiritata_ (1561), _I Parentadi_, _La
+Arenga_, _La Sibilla_, _La Pinzochera_, _L' Arzigogolo_. The stories,
+though of no special merit as far as the plots are concerned, are told
+with verve and interest. A number of miscellaneous poems, a few letters
+and _Four Orations to the Cross_ complete the list of Grazzini's extant
+works.
+
+  He also edited the works of Berni, and collected _Tutti i trionfi,
+  larri, mascherate, e canti carnascialaschi, andati per Firenze dal
+  tempo del magnifico Lorenzo de' Medici fino all' anno 1559_. In 1868
+  Adamo Rossi published in his _Ricerche per le biblioteche di Perugia_
+  three "novelle" by Grazzini, from a MS. of the 16th century in the
+  "Comunale" of Perugia: and in 1870 a small collection of those poems
+  which have been left unpublished by previous editors appeared at
+  Poggibonsi, _Alcune Poesie inedite_. See Pietro Fanfani's "Vita del
+  Lasca," prefixed to his edition of the _Opere di A. Grazzini_
+  (Florence, 1857).
+
+
+
+
+GREAT AWAKENING, the name given to a remarkable religious revival
+centring in New England in 1740-1743, but covering all the American
+colonies in 1740-1750. The word "awakening" in this sense was frequently
+(and possibly first) used by Jonathan Edwards at the time of the
+Northampton revival of 1734-1735, which spread through the Connecticut
+Valley and prepared the way for the work in Rhode Island, Massachusetts
+and Connecticut (1740-1741) of George Whitefield, who had previously
+been preaching in the South, especially at Savannah, Georgia. He, his
+immediate follower, Gilbert Tennent (1703-1764), other clergymen, such
+as James Davenport, and many untrained laymen who took up the work,
+agreed in the emotional and dramatic character of their preaching, in
+rousing their hearers to a high pitch of excitement, often amounting to
+frenzy, in the undue stress they put upon "bodily effects" (the physical
+manifestations of an abnormal psychic state) as proofs of conversion,
+and in their unrestrained attacks upon the many clergymen who did not
+join them and whom they called "dead men," unconverted, unregenerate and
+careless of the spiritual condition of their parishes. Jonathan Edwards,
+Benjamin Colman (1675-1747), and Joseph Bellamy, recognized the
+viciousness of so extreme a position. Edwards personally reprimanded
+Whitefield for presuming to say of any one that he was unconverted, and
+in his _Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival of Religion_ devoted
+much space to "showing what things are to be corrected, or avoided, in
+promoting this work." Edwards' famous sermon at Enfield in 1741 so
+affected his audience that they cried and groaned aloud, and he found
+it necessary to bid them be still that he might go on; but Davenport
+and many itinerants provoked and invited shouting and even writhing, and
+other physical manifestations. At its May session in 1742 the General
+Court of Massachusetts forbade itinerant preaching save with full
+consent from the resident pastor; in May 1743 the annual ministerial
+convention, by a small plurality, declared against "several errors in
+doctrine and disorders in practice which have of late obtained in
+various parts of the land," against lay preachers and disorderly revival
+meetings; in the same year Charles Chauncy, who disapproved of the
+revival, published _Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Religion in New
+England_; and in 1744-1745 Whitefield, upon his second tour in New
+England, found that the faculties of Harvard and Yale had officially
+"testified" and "declared" against him and that most pulpits were closed
+to him. Some separatist churches were formed as a result of the
+Awakening; these either died out or became Baptist congregations. To the
+reaction against the gross methods of the revival has been ascribed the
+religious apathy of New England during the last years of the 18th
+century; but the martial and political excitement, beginning with King
+George's War (i.e. the American part of the War of the Austrian
+Succession) and running through the American War of Independence and the
+founding of the American government, must be reckoned at the least as
+contributing causes.
+
+  See Joseph Tracy, _The Great Awakening_ (Boston, 1842); Samuel P.
+  Hayes, "An Historical Study of the Edwardean Revivals," in _The
+  American Journal of Psychology_, vol. 13 (Worcester, Mass., 1902); and
+  Frederick M. Davenport, _Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals_ (New
+  York, 1905), especially chapter viii. pp. 94-131.     (R. We.)
+
+
+
+
+GREAT BARRIER REEF, a vast coral reef extending for 1200 m. along the
+north-east coast of Australia (q.v.). The channel within it is protected
+from heavy seas by the reef, and is a valuable route of communication
+for coasting steamers. The reef itself is also traversed by a number of
+navigable passages.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT BARRINGTON, a township of Berkshire county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
+on the Housatonic river, in the Berkshire hills, about 25 m. S.W. of
+Pittsfield. Pop. (1890) 4612; (1900) 5854, of whom 1187 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 5926. Its area is about 45 sq. m. The
+township is traversed by a branch of the New York, New Haven & Hartford
+railroad, and the Berkshire Street railway (controlled by the N.Y., N.H.
+& H.) has its southern terminus here. Within the township are three
+villages--Great Barrington (the most important), Housatonic and Van
+Deusenville; the first two are about 5 m. apart. The village of Great
+Barrington, among the hills, is well known as a summer resort. The
+Congregational church with its magnificent organ (3954 pipes) is worthy
+of mention. There is a public library in the village of Great Barrington
+and another in the village of Housatonic. Monument Mt. (1710 ft.),
+partly in Stockbridge, commands a fine view of the Berkshires and the
+Housatonic Valley. The Sedgwick School (for boys) was removed from
+Hartford, Connecticut, to Great Barrington in 1869. There are various
+manufactures, including cotton-goods (in the village of Housatonic), and
+electric meters, paper, knit goods and counterpanes (in the village of
+Great Barrington); and marble and blue stone are quarried here; but the
+township is primarily given over to farming. The fair of the Housatonic
+Agricultural Society is held here annually during September; and the
+district court of South Berkshire sits here. The township was
+incorporated in 1761, having been, since 1743, the "North Parish of
+Sheffield"; the township of Sheffield, earlier known as the "Lower
+Housatonic Plantation" was incorporated in 1733. Great Barrington was
+named in honour of John Shute (1678-1734), Viscount Barrington of
+Ardglass (the adjective "Great" being added to distinguish it from
+another township of the same name). In 1761-1787 it was the shire-town.
+Great Barrington was a centre of the disaffection during Shays's
+rebellion, and on the 12th of September 1786 a riot here prevented the
+sitting of court. Samuel Hopkins, one of the most eminent of American
+theologians, was pastor here in 1743-1769; General Joseph Dwight
+(1703-1765), a merchant, lawyer and brigadier-general of Massachusetts
+militia, who took part in the Louisburg expedition in 1745 and later in
+the French and Indian War, lived here from 1758 until his death; and
+William Cullen Bryant lived here as a lawyer and town clerk in
+1816-1825.
+
+  See C. J. Taylor, _History of Great Barrington_ (Great Barrington,
+  1882).
+
+
+
+
+GREAT BASIN, an area in the western Cordilleran region of the United
+States of America, about 200,000 sq. m. in extent, characterized by
+wholly interior drainage, a peculiar mountain system and extreme
+aridity. Its form is approximately that of an isosceles triangle, with
+the sharp angle extending into Lower California, W. of the Colorado
+river; the northern edge being formed by the divide of the drainage
+basin of the Columbia river, the eastern by that of the Colorado, the
+western by the central part of the Sierra Nevada crest, and by other
+high mountains. The N. boundary and much of the E. is not conspicuously
+uplifted, being plateau, rather than mountain. The W. half of Utah, the
+S.W. corner of Wyoming, the S.E. corner of Idaho, a large area in S.E.
+Oregon, much of S. California, a strip along the E. border of the
+last-named state, and almost the whole of Nevada are embraced within the
+limits of the Great Basin.
+
+The Great Basin is not, as its name implies, a topographic cup. Its
+surface is of varied character, with many independent closed basins
+draining into lakes or "playas," none of which, however, has outlet to
+the sea. The mountain chains, which from their peculiar geologic
+character are known as of the "Basin Range type" (not exactly
+conterminous in distribution with the Basin), are echeloned in short
+ranges running from N. to S. Many of them are fault block mountains, the
+crust having been broken and the blocks tilted so that there is a steep
+face on one side and a gentle slope on the other. This is the Basin
+Range type of mountain. These mountains are among the most recent in the
+continent, and some of them, at least, are still growing. In numerous
+instances clear evidence of recent movements along the fault planes has
+been discovered; and frequent earthquakes testify with equal force to
+the present uplift of the mountain blocks. The valleys between the
+tilted mountain blocks are smooth and often trough-like, and are often
+the sites of shallow salt lakes or playas. By the rain wash and wind
+action detritus from the mountains is carried to these valley floors,
+raising their level, and often burying low mountain spurs, so as to
+cause neighbouring valleys to coalesce. The plateau "lowlands" in the
+centre of the Basin are approximately 5000 ft. in altitude. Southward
+the altitude falls, Death valley and Coahuila valley being in part below
+the level of the sea. The whole Basin is marked by three features of
+elevation--the Utah basin, the Nevada basin and, between them, the
+Nevada plateau.
+
+Over the lowlands of the Basin, taken generally, there is an average
+precipitation of perhaps 6-7 in., while in the Oregon region it is twice
+as great, and in the southern parts even less. The mountains receive
+somewhat more. The annual evaporation from water surfaces is from 60 to
+150 in. (60 to 80 on the Great Salt Lake). The reason for the arid
+climate differs in different sections. In the north it is due to the
+fact that the winds from the Pacific lose most of their moisture,
+especially in winter, on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada; in the
+south it is due to the fact that the region lies in a zone of calms, and
+light, variable winds. Precipitation is largely confined to local
+showers, often of such violence as to warrant the name "cloud bursts,"
+commonly applied to the heavy down-pours of this desert region. It is
+these heavy rains, of brief duration, when great volumes of water
+rapidly run off from the barren slopes, that cause the deep channels, or
+arroyas, which cross the desert. Permanent streams are rare. Many
+mountains are quite without perennial streams, and some lack even
+springs. Few of the mountain creeks succeed in reaching the arid plains,
+and those that do quickly disappear by evaporation or by seepage into
+the gravels. In the N.W. there are many permanent lakes without outlet
+fed by the mountain streams; others, snow fed, occur among the Sierra
+Nevada; and some in the larger mountain masses of the middle region.
+Almost all are saline. The largest of all, Great Salt Lake, is
+maintained by the waters of the Wasatch and associated plateaus. No
+lakes occur south of Owens in the W. and Sevier in the E. (39 deg.);
+evaporation below these limits is supreme. Most of the small closed
+basins, however, contain "playas," or alkali mud flats, that are
+overflowed when the tributary streams are supplied with storm water.
+
+Save where irrigation has reclaimed small areas, the whole region is a
+vast desert, though locally only some of the interior plains are known
+as "deserts." Such are the Great Salt Lake and Carson deserts in the
+north, the Mohave and Colorado and Amargosa (Death Valley) deserts of
+the south-west. Straggling forests, mainly of conifers, characterize the
+high plateaus of central Utah. The lowlands and the lower mountains,
+especially southward, are generally treeless. Cottonwoods line the
+streams, salt-loving vegetation margins the bare playas, low bushes and
+scattered bunch-grass grow over the lowlands, especially in the north.
+Gray desert plants, notably cactuses and other thorny plants, partly
+replace in the south the bushes of the north. Except on the scattered
+oases, where irrigation from springs and mountain streams has reclaimed
+small patches, the desert is barren and forbidding in the extreme. There
+are broad plains covered with salt and alkali, and others supporting
+only scattered bunch grass, sage bush, cactus and other arid land
+plants. There are stony wastes, or alluvial fans, where mountain streams
+emerge upon the plains, in time of flood, bringing detritus in their
+torrential courses from the mountain canyons and depositing it along the
+mountain base. The barrenness extends into the mountains themselves,
+where there are bare rock cliffs, stony slopes and a general absence of
+vegetation. With increasing altitude vegetation becomes more varied and
+abundant, until the tree limit is reached; then follows a forest belt,
+which in the highest mountains is limited above by cold as it is below
+by aridity.
+
+The successive explorations of B. L. E. Bonneville, J. C. Fremont and
+Howard Stansbury (1806-1863) furnished a general knowledge of the
+hydrographic features and geological lacustrine history of the Great
+Basin, and this knowledge was rounded out by the field work of the U.S.
+Geological Survey from 1879 to 1883, under the direction of Grove Karl
+Gilbert. The mountains are composed in great part of Paleozoic strata,
+often modified by vulcanism and greatly denuded and sculptured by wind
+and water erosion. The climate in late geologic time was very different
+from that which prevails to-day. In the Pleistocene period many large
+lakes were formed within the Great Basin; especially, by the fusion of
+small catchment basins, two great confluent bodies of water--Lake
+Lahontan (in the Nevada basin) and Lake Bonneville (in the Utah basin).
+The latter, the remnants of which are represented to-day by Great Salt,
+Sevier and Utah Lakes, had a drainage basin of some 54,000 sq. m.
+
+  See G. K. Gilbert in Wheeler Survey, _U.S. Geographical Survey West of
+  the Hundredth Meridian_, vol. iii.; Clarence King and others in the
+  _Report of the Fortieth Parallel Survey_ (U.S. Geol. Exploration of
+  the Fortieth Parallel); G. K. Gilbert's _Lake Bonneville_ (U.S.
+  Geological Survey, _Monographs_, No. 1, 1890), also I. C. Russell's
+  _Lake Lahontan_ (Same, No. 11, 1885), with references to other
+  publications of the Survey. For reference to later geological
+  literature, and discussion of the Basin Ranges, see J. E. Spurr,
+  _Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer._ vol. 12, 1901, p. 217; and G. D. Louderback,
+  same, vol. 15, 1904, p. 280; also general bibliographies issued by the
+  U.S. Geol. Survey (e.g. _Bull._ 301, 372 and 409).
+
+
+
+
+GREAT BEAR LAKE, an extensive sheet of fresh water in the north-west of
+Canada, between 65 deg. and 67 deg. N., and 117 deg. and 123 deg. W. It
+is of very irregular shape, has an estimated area of 11,200 sq. m., a
+depth of 270 ft., and is upwards of 200 ft. above the sea. It is 175 m.
+in length, and from 25 to 45 in breadth, though the greatest distance
+between its northern and southern arms is about 180 m. The Great Bear
+river discharges its waters into the Mackenzie river. It is full of
+fish, and the neighbouring country, though barren and uncultivated,
+contains quantities of game.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT CIRCLE. The circle in which a sphere is cut by a plane is called a
+"great circle," when the cutting plane passes through the centre of
+sphere. Treating the earth as a sphere, the meridians of longitude are
+all great circles. Of the parallels of latitude, the equator only is a
+great circle. The shortest line joining any two points is an arc of a
+great circle. For "great circle sailing" see NAVIGATION.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Cascade county, Montana,
+U.S.A., 99 m. (by rail) N.E. of Helena, on the S. bank of the Missouri
+river, opposite the mouth of the Sun river, at an altitude of about 3300
+ft. It is 10 m. above the Great Falls of the Missouri, from which it
+derives its name. Pop. (1890) 3979; (1900) 14,930, of whom 4692 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 13,948. It has an area of about 8 sq. m. It
+is served by the Great Northern and the Billings & Northern (Chicago,
+Burlington & Quincy system) railways. The city has a splendid park
+system of seven parks (about 530 acres) with 15 m. of boulevards.[1]
+Among the principal buildings are a city hall, court house, high school,
+commercial college, Carnegie library, the Columbus Hospital and Training
+School for Nurses (under the supervision of the Sisters of Charity), and
+the Montana Deaconess hospital. There is a Federal land office in the
+city. Great Falls lies in the midst of a region exceptionally rich in
+minerals--copper, gold, silver, lead, iron, gypsum, limestone, sapphires
+and bituminous coal being mined in the neighbourhood. Much grain is
+grown in the vicinity, and the city is an important shipping point for
+wool, live-stock and cereals. Near Great Falls the Missouri river,
+within 7-1/2 m., contracts from a width of about 900 to 300 yds. and
+falls more than 500 ft., the principal falls being the Black Eagle Falls
+(50 ft.), from which power is derived for the city's street railway and
+lighting plant, the beautiful Rainbow Falls (48 ft.) and Great Falls (92
+ft.). Giant Spring Fall, about 20 ft. high, is a cascade formed by a
+spring on the bank of the river near Rainbow Falls. The river furnishes
+very valuable water-power, partly utilized by large manufacturing
+establishments, including flour mills, plaster mills, breweries, iron
+works, mining machinery shops, and smelting and reduction works. The
+Boston & Montana copper smelter is one of the largest in the world; it
+has a chimney stack 506 ft. high, and in 1908 employed 1200 men in the
+smelter and 2500 in its mining department. Great Falls ranked second (to
+Anaconda) among the cities of the state in the value of the factory
+product of 1905, which was $13,291,979, showing an increase of 42.4%
+since 1900. The city owns and operates its water-supply system. Great
+Falls was settled in 1884, and was chartered as a city in 1888.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Great Falls was a pioneer among the cities of the state in the
+    development of a park system. When the city was first settled its
+    site was a "barren tract of sand, thinly covered with buffalo-grass
+    and patches of sage brush." The first settler, Paris Gibson, of
+    Minneapolis, began the planting of trees, which, though not
+    indigenous, grew well. The city's sidewalks are bordered by strips of
+    lawn, in which there is a row of trees, and the city maintains a
+    large nursery where trees are grown for this purpose. A general state
+    law (1901) placing the parking of cities on a sound financial basis
+    is due very largely to the impulse furnished by Great Falls. See an
+    article, "Great Falls, the Pioneer Park City of Montana," by C. H.
+    Forbes-Lindsay, in the _Craftsman_ for November 1908.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT HARWOOD, an urban district in the Darwen parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, 4-1/2 m. N.E. of Blackburn, on the Lancashire and
+Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901) 12,015. It is of modern growth, a
+township of cotton operatives, with large collieries in the vicinity. An
+agricultural society is also maintained.
+
+
+
+
+GREATHEAD, JAMES HENRY (1844-1896), British engineer, was born at
+Grahamstown, Cape Colony, on the 6th of August 1844. He migrated to
+England in 1859, and in 1864 was a pupil of P. W. Barlow, from whom he
+became acquainted with the shield system of tunnelling with which his
+name is especially associated. Barlow, indeed, had a strong belief in
+the shield, and was the author of a scheme for facilitating the traffic
+of London by the construction of underground railways running in
+cast-iron tubes constructed by its aid. To show what the method could
+do, it was resolved to make a subway under the Thames near the Tower,
+but the troubles encountered by Sir M. I. Brunel in the Thames Tunnel,
+where also a shield was employed, made engineers hesitate to undertake
+the subway, even though it was of very much smaller dimensions (6 ft. 7
+in. internal diameter) than the tunnel. At this juncture Greathead came
+forward and offered to take up the contract; and he successfully carried
+it through in 1869 without finding any necessity to resort to the use of
+compressed air, which Barlow in 1867 had suggested might be employed in
+water-bearing strata. After this he began to practise on his own
+account, and mainly divided his time between railway construction and
+taking out patents for improvements in his shield, and for other
+inventions such as the "Ejector" fire-hydrant. Early in the 'eighties he
+began to work in conjunction with a company whose aim was to introduce
+into London from America the Hallidie system of cable traction, and in
+1884 an act of Parliament was obtained authorizing what is now the City
+& South London Railway--a tube-railway to be worked by cables. This was
+begun in 1886, and the tunnels were driven by means of the Greathead
+shield, compressed air being used at those points where water-bearing
+gravel was encountered. During the progress of the works electrical
+traction became so far developed as to be superior to cables; the idea
+of using the latter was therefore abandoned, and when the railway was
+opened in 1890 it was as an electrical one. Greathead was engaged in two
+other important underground lines in London--the Waterloo & City and the
+Central London. He lived to see the tunnels of the former completed
+under the Thames, but the latter was scarcely begun at the time of his
+death, which happened at Streatham, in the south of London, on the 21st
+of October 1896.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA, THE. The connected string of five
+fresh-water inland seas, Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and
+Ontario, lying in the interior of North America, between the Dominion of
+Canada on the north and the United States of America on the south, and
+forming the head-waters of the St Lawrence river system, are
+collectively and generally known as "The Great Lakes." From the head of
+lake Superior these lakes are navigable to Buffalo, at the foot of lake
+Erie, a distance of 1023 m., for vessels having a draught of 20 ft.;
+from Buffalo to Kingston, 191 m. farther, the draught is limited, by the
+depth in the Welland canal, to 14 ft.; lake Superior, the largest and
+most westerly of the lakes, empties, through the river St Mary, 55 m.
+long, into lake Huron. From Point Iroquois, which may be considered the
+foot of the lake, to Sault Ste Marie, St Mary's Falls, St Mary's Rapids
+or the Soo, as it is variously called, a distance of 14 m., there is a
+single channel, which has been dredged by the United States government,
+at points which required deepening, to give a minimum width of 800 ft.
+and a depth of 23 ft. at mean stage water. Below the Sault, the river,
+on its course to lake Huron, expands into several lakes, and is divided
+by islands into numerous contracted passages. There are two navigated
+channels; the older one, following the international boundary-line by
+way of lake George, has a width of 150 to 300 ft., and a depth of 17
+ft.; it is buoyed but not lighted, and is not capable of navigation by
+modern large freighters; the other, some 12 m. shorter, an artificial
+channel dredged by the United States government in their own territory,
+has a minimum width of 300 ft. and depth of 20 ft. It is elaborately
+lighted throughout its length. A third channel, west of all the islands,
+was designed for steamers bound down, the older channel being reserved
+for upbound boats.
+
+Between lake Superior and lake Huron there is a fall of 20 ft. of which
+the Sault, in a distance of 1/2 m., absorbs from 18 to 19-1/2 ft., the
+height varying as the lakes change in level. The enormous growth of
+inter-lake freight traffic has justified the construction of three
+separate locks, each overcoming the rapids by a single lift--two side by
+side on the United States and one on the Canadian side of the river.
+These locks, the largest in the world, are all open to Canadian and
+United States vessels alike, and are operated free from all taxes or
+tolls on shipping. The Canadian ship canal, opened to traffic on the 9th
+of September 1895, was constructed through St Mary Island, on the north
+side of the rapids, by the Canadian government, at a cost of $3,684,227,
+to facilitate traffic and to secure to Canadian vessels an entrance to
+lake Superior without entering United States territory. The canal is
+5967 ft. long between the extremities of the entrance piers, has one
+lock 900 ft. long and 60 ft. wide, with a depth on the sills at the
+lowest known water-level of 20-1/2 ft. The approaches to the canal are
+dredged to 18 ft. deep, and are well buoyed and lighted. On the United
+States side of the river the length of the canal is 1-2/3 m., the
+channel outside the locks having a width varying from 108 to 600 ft. and
+depth of 25 ft. The locks of 1855 were closed in 1886, to give place to
+the Poe lock. The Weitzel lock, opened to navigation on the 1st of
+September 1881, was built south of the old locks, the approach being
+through the old canal. Its chamber is 515 ft. long between lock gates,
+and 80 ft. wide, narrowing to 60 ft. at the gates. The length of the
+masonry walls is 717 ft., height 39-1/2 ft., with 17 ft. over mitre
+sills at mean stage of water. The Poe lock, built because the Weitzel
+lock, large and fully equipped as it is, was insufficient for the
+rapidly growing traffic, was opened on the 3rd of August 1896. Its
+length between gates is 800 ft.; width 100 ft.; length of masonry walls
+1100 ft.; height 43-1/2 to 45 ft., with 22 ft. on the mitre sill at mean
+stage.
+
+The expenditure by the United States government on the canal, with its
+several locks, and on improving the channel through the river,
+aggregated fourteen million dollars up to the end of 1906.[1] Plans were
+prepared in 1907 for a third United States lock with a separate canal
+approach.
+
+The canals are closed every winter, the average date of opening up to
+1893 being the 1st of May, and of closing the 1st of December. The
+pressure of business since that time, aided possibly by some slight
+climatic modification, has extended the season, so that the average date
+of opening is now ten days earlier and of closing twelve days later. The
+earliest opening was in 1902 on the 1st of April, and the latest closing
+in 1904 on the 20th of December.
+
+  The table below gives the average yearly commerce for periods of five
+  years, and serves to show the rapid increase in freight growth.
+
+_Statement of the commerce through the several Sault Ste Marie canals,
+averaged for every five years._[2]
+
+  +------------+--------+------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+---------+------------+---------+------------+
+  |            |  Pass- | Registered | Passen-|   Coal.   |   Flour.  |   Wheat.   |   Other    |  General   |  Salt.  | Iron Ore.  | Lumber. |   Total    |
+  |   Years.   |  ages. |  Tonnage.  |  gers. | Net Tons. |  Barrels. |  Bushels.  |  Grains.   |Merchandise.| Barrels.|  Net Tons. |  M. ft. |  Freight.  |
+  |            |        |            |        |           |           |            |  Bushels.  |  Net Tons. |         |            |   B.M.  |  Net Tons. |
+  +------------+--------+------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+---------+------------+---------+------------+
+  | 1855-1859* |    387 |    192,207 |  6,206 |     4,672 |    19,555 |    None.   |     34,612 |     2,249  |   1,248 |     27,206 |     320 |     55,797 |
+  | 1880-1884  |  4,457 |  2,267,166 | 34,607 |   463,431 |   681,726 |  5,435,601 |    936,346 |    81,966  | 107,225 |    867,999 |  79,144 |  2,184,731 |
+  | 1885-1889  |  7,908 |  4,901,105 | 29,434 | 1,398,441 | 1,838,325 | 18,438,085 |  1,213,815 |    74,447  | 175,725 |  2,497,403 | 197,605 |  5,441,297 |
+  | 1890-1894  | 11,965 |  9,912,589 | 24,609 | 2,678,805 | 5,764,766 | 34,875,971 |  1,738,706 |    87,540  | 231,178 |  4,939,909 | 510,482 | 10,627,349 |
+  | 1895-1899  | 18,352 | 18,451,447 | 40,289 | 3,270,842 | 8,319,699 | 57,227,269 | 23,349,134 |   164,426  | 282,156 | 10,728,075 | 832,968 | 19,354,974 |
+  | 1900-1904  | 19,374 | 26,199,795 | 54,093 | 5,457,019 | 7,021,839 | 56,269,265 | 26,760,533 |   646,277  | 407,263 | 20,020,487 | 999,944 | 31,245,565 |
+  | 1906 alone | 22,155 | 41,098,324 | 63,033 | 8,739,630 | 6,495,350 | 84,271,358 | 54,343,155 | 1,134,851  | 468,162 | 35,357,042 | 900,631 | 51,751,080 |
+  +------------+--------+------------+--------+-----------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+---------+------------+---------+------------+
+  * The first five years of operation.
+
+Around the canals have grown up two thriving towns, one on the Michigan,
+the other on the Ontario side of the river, with manufactories driven by
+water-power derived from the Sault. The outlet of lake Michigan, the
+only lake of the series lying wholly in United States territory, is at
+the Strait of Mackinac, near the point where the river St Mary reaches
+lake Huron. With lake Michigan are connected the Chicago Sanitary and
+Ship canal, the Illinois and Michigan, and the Illinois and Mississippi
+canals, for which see Illinois. With lake Huron is always included
+Georgian Bay as well as the channel north of Manitoulin Island. As it is
+principally navigated as a connecting waterway between lakes Superior
+and Michigan and lake Erie it has no notable harbours on it. It empties
+into lake Erie through the river St Clair, lake St Clair and the river
+Detroit. On these connecting waters are several important manufacturing
+and shipping towns, and through this chain passes nearly all the traffic
+of the lakes, both that to and from lake Michigan ports, and also that
+of lake Superior. The tonnage of a single short season of navigation
+exceeds in the aggregate 60,000,000 tons. Extensive dredging and
+embankment works have been carried on by the United States government in
+lake St Clair and the river Detroit, and a 20-ft. channel now exists,
+which is being constantly improved. Lake St Clair is nearly circular, 25
+m. in diameter, with the north-east quadrant filled by the delta of the
+river St Clair. It has a very flat bottom with a general depth of only
+21 ft., shoaling very gradually, usually to reed beds that line the low
+swampy shores. To enter the lake from river St Clair two channels have
+been provided, with retaining walls of cribwork, one for upward, the
+other for downward bound vessels. Much dredging has also been necessary
+at the outlet of the lake into river Detroit. A critical point in that
+river is at Limekiln crossing, a cut dredged through limestone rock
+above the Canadian town of Amherstburg. The normal depth here before
+improvement was 12-1/2-15 ft.; by a project of 1902 a channel 600 ft.
+wide and 21 ft. deep was planned; there are separate channels for up-
+and down-bound vessels. To prevent vessels from crowding together in the
+cut, the Canadian government maintains a patrol service here, while the
+United States government maintains a similar patrol in the St Mary
+channel.
+
+The Grand Trunk railway opened in 1891 a single track tunnel under the
+river St Clair, from Sarnia to Port Huron. It is 6026 ft. long, a
+cylinder 20 ft. in diameter, lined with cast iron in flanged sections. A
+second tunnel was undertaken between Detroit and Windsor, under the
+river Detroit.
+
+From Buffalo, at the foot of lake Erie, the river Niagara runs
+northwards 36 m. into lake Ontario. To overcome the difference of 327
+ft. in level between lakes Erie and Ontario, the Welland canal,
+accommodating vessels of 255 ft. in length, with a draught of 14 ft.,
+was built, and is maintained by Canada. The Murray canal extends from
+Presqu'ile Bay, on the north shore of lake Ontario, a distance of 6-1/2
+m., to the headquarters of the Bay of Quinte. Trent canal is a term
+applied to a series of water stretches in the interior of Ontario which
+are ultimately designed to connect lake Huron and lake Ontario. At
+Peterboro a hydraulic balance-lock with a lift of 65 ft., 140 ft. in
+length and 33 ft. clear in width, allowing a draught of 8 ft., has been
+constructed. The ordinary locks are 134 by 33 ft. with a draught of 6
+ft. When the whole route of 200 m. is completed, there will not be more
+than 15 m. of actual canal, the remaining portion of the waterway being
+through lakes and rivers. For the Erie canal, between that lake and the
+Hudson river, see ERIE and NEW YORK.
+
+The population of the states and provinces bordering on the Great Lakes
+is estimated to be over 35,000,000. In Pennsylvania and Ohio, south of
+lake Erie, there are large coal-fields. Surrounding lake Michigan and
+west of lake Superior are vast grain-growing plains, and the prairies of
+the Canadian north-west are rapidly increasing the area and quantity of
+wheat grown; while both north and south of lake Superior are the most
+extensive iron mines in the world, from which 35 million tons of ore
+were shipped in 1906. The natural highway for the shipment of all these
+products is the Great Lakes, and over them coal is distributed westwards
+and grain and iron ore are concentrated eastwards. The great quantity of
+coarse freights, that could only be profitably carried long distances by
+water, has revolutionized the type of vessel used for its
+transportation, making large steamers imperative, consolidating
+interests and cheapening methods. It is usual for the vessels in the
+grain trade and in the iron-ore trade to make their up trips empty; but
+in consequence of the admirable facilities provided at terminal points,
+they make very fast time, and carry freight very cheaply. The cost of
+freight per ton-mile fell from 23/100 cent in 1887 to 8/100 cent in
+1898; since then the rate has slightly risen, but keeps well below 1/10
+cent per ton-mile.
+
+The traffic on the lakes may be divided into three classes, passenger,
+package freight and bulk freight. Of passenger boats the largest are 380
+ft. long by 44 ft. beam, having a speed of over 20 m. an hour, making
+the round trip between Buffalo and Chicago 1800 m., or Buffalo and
+Duluth 2000 m., every week. They carry no freight. The Canadian Pacific
+railway runs a line of fine Tyne-built passenger and freight steamers
+between Owen Sound and Fort William, and these two lines equal in
+accommodation transatlantic passenger steamers. On lake Michigan many
+fine passenger boats run out of Chicago, and on lake Ontario there are
+several large and fast Canadian steamers on routes radiating from
+Toronto. The package freight business, that is, the transportation of
+goods in enclosed parcels, is principally local; all the through
+business of this description is controlled by lines run by the great
+trunk railways, and is done in boats limited in beam to 50 ft. to admit
+them through bridges over the rivers at Chicago and Buffalo. By far the
+greatest number of vessels on the lakes are bulk freighters, and the
+conditions of the service have developed a special type of vessel.
+Originally sailing vessels were largely used, but these have practically
+disappeared, giving place to steamers, which have grown steadily in size
+with every increase in available draught. In 1894 there was no vessel on
+the lakes with a capacity of over 5000 tons; in 1906 there were 254
+vessels of a greater capacity, 12 of them carrying over 12,000 tons
+each. For a few years following 1890 many large barges were built,
+carrying up to 8000 tons each, intended to be towed by a steamer. It was
+found, however, that the time lost by one boat of the pair having to
+wait for the other made the plan unprofitable and no more were built.
+Following 1888 some 40 whale-back steamers and barges, having oval
+cross-sections without frames or decks, were built, but experience
+failed to demonstrate any advantage in the type, and their construction
+has ceased. The modern bulk freighter is a vessel 600 ft. long, 58 ft.
+beam, capable of carrying 14,000 tons on 20 ft. draught, built with a
+midship section practically rectangular, the coefficient frequently as
+high as .98, with about two-thirds of the entire length absolutely
+straight, giving a block coefficient up to .87. The triple-expansion
+machinery and boilers, designed to drive the boat at a speed of 12 m. an
+hour, are in the extreme stern, and the pilot house and quarters in the
+extreme bow, leaving all the cargo space together. Hatches are spaced at
+multiples of 12 ft. throughout the length and are made as wide as
+possible athwartships to facilitate loading and unloading. The vessels
+are built on girder frames and fitted with double bottoms for strength
+and water ballast. This type of vessel can be loaded in a few minutes,
+and unloaded by self-filling grab buckets up to ten tons capacity,
+worked hydraulically, in six or eight hours. The bulk freight generally
+follows certain well-defined routes; iron ore is shipped east from ports
+on both sides of lake Superior and on the west side of lake Michigan to
+rail shipping points on the south shore of lake Erie. Wheat and other
+grains from Duluth find their way to Buffalo, as do wheat, corn (maize)
+and other grains from Chicago. Wheat from the Canadian north-west is
+distributed from Fort William and Port Arthur to railway terminals on
+Georgian Bay, to Buffalo, and to Port Colborne for trans-shipment to
+canal barges for Montreal, and coal is distributed from lake Erie to all
+western points. The large shipping trade is assisted by both governments
+by a system of aids to navigation that mark every channel and danger.
+There are also life-saving stations at all dangerous points.
+
+The Great Lakes never freeze over completely, but the harbours and often
+the connecting rivers are closed by ice. The navigable season at the
+Sault is about 7-1/2 months; in lake Erie it is somewhat longer. The
+season of navigation has been slightly lengthened since 1905, by using
+powerful tugs as ice-breakers in the spring and autumn, the Canadian
+government undertaking the service at Canadian terminal ports, chiefly
+at Fort William and Port Arthur, the most northerly ports, where the
+season is naturally shortest, and the Lake Carriers' Association, a
+federation of the freighting steamship owners, acting in the river St
+Mary. Car ferries run through the winter across lake Michigan and the
+Strait of Mackinac, across the rivers St Clair and Detroit, and across
+the middle of lakes Erie and Ontario. The largest of these steamers is
+350 ft. long by 56 ft. wide, draught 14 ft., horse power 3500, speed 13
+knots. She carries on four tracks 30 freight cars, with 1350 tons of
+freight. Certain passenger steamers run on lake Michigan, from Chicago
+north, all the winter.
+
+The level of the lakes varies gradually, and is affected by the general
+character of the season, and not by individual rainfalls. The variations
+of level of the several lakes do not necessarily synchronize. There is
+an annual fluctuation of about 1 ft. in the upper lakes, and in some
+seasons over 2 ft. in the lower lakes; the lowest point being at the end
+of winter and the highest in midsummer. In lake Michigan the level has
+ranged from a maximum in the years 1859, 1876 and 1886, to a minimum
+nearly 5 ft. lower in 1896. In lake Ontario there is a range of 5-1/2 ft.
+between the maximum of May 1870 and the minimum of November 1895. In
+consequence of the shallowness of lake Erie, its level is seriously
+disturbed by a persistent storm; a westerly gale lowers the water at its
+upper end exceptionally as much as 7 ft., seriously interfering with the
+navigation of the river Detroit, while an easterly gale produces a
+similar effect at Buffalo. (For physiographical details see articles on
+the several lakes, and UNITED STATES.)
+
+There is geological evidence to show that the whole basin of the lakes
+has in recent geological times gradually changed in level, rising to the
+north and subsiding southwards; and it is claimed that the movement is
+still in gradual progress, the rate assigned being .42 ft. per 100 m.
+per century. The maintenance of the level of the Great Lakes is a matter
+of great importance to the large freight boats, which always load to the
+limit of depth at critical points in the dredged channels or in the
+harbours. Fears have been entertained that the water power canals at
+Sault Ste Marie, the drainage canal at Chicago and the dredged channel
+in the river Detroit will permanently lower the levels respectively of
+lake Superior and of the Michigan-Huron-Erie group. An international
+deep-waterway commission exists for the consideration of this question,
+and army engineers appointed by the United States government have worked
+on the problem.[3] Wing dams in the rivers St Mary and Niagara, to
+retard the discharges, have been proposed as remedial measures. The
+Great Lakes are practically tideless, though some observers claim to
+find true tidal pulsations, said to amount to 3-1/2 in. at spring tide
+at Chicago. Secondary undulations of a few minutes in period, ranging
+from 1 to 4 in., are well marked.
+
+The Great Lakes are well stocked with fish of commercial value. These
+are largely gathered from the fishermen by steam tenders, and taken
+fresh or in frozen condition to railway distributing points. In lakes
+Superior and Huron salmon-trout (_Salvelinus namaycush_, Walb) are
+commercially most important. They ordinarily range from 10 to 50 lb. in
+weight, and are often larger. In Georgian Bay the catches of whitefish
+(_Coregonus clupeiformis_, Mitchill) are enormous. In lake Erie
+whitefish, lesser whitefish, erroneously called lake-herring (_C.
+artedi_, Le Sueur), and sturgeon (_Acipenser rubicundus_, Le Sueur) are
+the most common. There is good angling at numerous points on the lakes
+and their feeders. The river Nipigon, on the north shore of lake
+Superior, is famous as a stream abounding in speckled trout (_Salvelinus
+fontinalis_, Mitchill) of unusual size. Black bass (_Micropterus_) are
+found from Georgian Bay to Montreal, and the maskinonge (_Esox
+nobilior_, Le Sueur), plentiful in the same waters, is a very game fish
+that often attains a weight of 70 lb.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--E. Channing and M. F. Lansing, _Story of the Great
+  Lakes_ (New York, 1909), for an account of the lakes in history; and
+  for shipping, &c., J. O. Curwood, _The Great Lakes_ (New York, 1909);
+  _U.S. Hydrographic office publication_, No 108, "Sailing directions
+  for the Great Lakes," Navy Department (Washington, 1901, seqq.);
+  _Bulletin No. 17_, "Survey of Northern and North-western Lakes," Corps
+  of Engineers, U.S. War Department, U.S. Lake Survey Office (Detroit,
+  Mich., 1907); _Annual reports of Canadian Department of Marine and
+  Fisheries_ (Ottawa, 1868 seqq.).     (W. P. A.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals. Col.
+    Chas. E. L. B. Davis, U.S.A., engineer in charge, 1907.
+
+  [2] Statistical report of lake commerce passing through canals,
+    published annually by the U.S. engineer officer in charge.
+
+  [3] Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, in _Report of War
+    Department, U.S._ 1898, p. 3776.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS, the ancient Oriental-Greek-Roman deity
+commonly known as Cybele (q.v.) in Greek and Latin literature from the
+time of Pindar. She was also known under many other names, some of which
+were derived from famous places of worship: as Dindymene from Mt.
+Dindymon, Mater Idaea from Mt. Ida, Sipylene from Mt. Sipylus, Agdistis
+from Mt. Agdistis or Agdus, Mater Phrygia from the greatest stronghold
+of her cult; while others were reflections of her character as a great
+nature goddess: e.g. Mountain Mother, Great Mother of the Gods, Mother
+of all Gods and all Men. As the great Mother deity whose worship
+extended throughout Asia Minor she was known as Ma or Ammas. Cybele is
+her favourite name in ancient and modern literature, while Great Mother
+of the Gods, or Great Idaean Mother of the Gods (_Mater Deum Magna_,
+_Mater Deum Magna Idaea_), the most frequently recurring epigraphical
+title, was her ordinary official designation.
+
+The legends agree in locating the rise of the worship of the Great
+Mother in Asia Minor, in the region of loosely defined geographical
+limits which comprised the Phrygian empire of prehistoric times, and was
+more extensive than the Roman province of Phrygia (Diod. Sic. iii. 58;
+Paus. vii. 17; Arnob. v. 5; Firm. Mat. _De error._, 3; Ovid, _Fasti_,
+iv. 223 ff.; Sallust. Phil. _De diis et mundo_, 4; Jul. _Or._ v. 165
+ff.). Her best-known early seats of worship were Mt. Ida, Mt. Sipylus,
+Cyzicus, Sardis and Pessinus, the last-named city, in Galatia near the
+borders of Roman Phrygia, finally becoming the strongest centre of the
+cult. She was known to the Romans and Greeks as essentially Phrygian,
+and all Phrygia was spoken of as sacred to her (Schol. Apollon. Rhod.
+_Argonautica_, i. 1126). It is probable, however, that the Phrygian
+race, which invaded Asia Minor from the north in the 9th century B.C.,
+found a great nature goddess already universally worshipped there, and
+blended her with a deity of their own. The Asiatic-Phrygian worship thus
+evolved was further modified by contact with the Syrians and
+Phoenicians, so that it acquired strong Semitic characteristics. The
+Great Mother known to the Greeks and Romans was thus merely the Phrygian
+form of the nature deity of all Asia Minor.
+
+From Asia Minor the cult of the Great Mother spread first to Greek
+territory. It found its way into Thrace at an early date, was known in
+Boeotia by Pindar in the 6th century, and entered Attica near the
+beginning of the 4th century (Grant Showerman, _The Great Mother of the
+Gods_, _Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin_, No. 43, Madison,
+1901). At Peiraeus, where it probably arrived by way of the Aegean
+islands, it existed privately in a fully developed state, that is,
+accompanied by the worship of Attis, at the beginning of the 4th
+century, and publicly two centuries later (D. Comparetti, _Annales_,
+1862, pp. 23 ff.). The Greeks from the first saw in the Great Mother a
+resemblance to their own Rhea, and finally identified the two
+completely, though the Asiatic peculiarities of the cult were never
+universally popular with them (Showerman, p. 294). In her less Asiatic
+aspect, i.e. without Attis, she was sometimes identified with Gaia and
+Demeter. It was in this phase that she was worshipped in the Metroon at
+Athens. In reality, the Mother Goddess appears under three aspects:
+Rhea, the Homeric and Hesiodic goddess of Cretan origin; the Phrygian
+Mother, with Attis; and the Greek Great Mother, a modified form of the
+Phrygian Mother, to be explained as the original goddess of the
+Phrygians of Europe, communicated to the Greek stock before the Phrygian
+invasion of Asia Minor and consequent mingling with Asiatic stocks (cf.
+Showerman, p. 252).
+
+In 204 B.C., in obedience to the Sibylline prophecy which said that
+whenever an enemy from abroad should make war on Italy he could be
+expelled and conquered if the Idaean Mother were brought to Rome from
+Pessinus, the cult of the Great Mother, together with her sacred symbol,
+a small meteoric stone reputed to have fallen from the heavens, was
+transferred to Rome and established in a temple on the Palatine (Livy
+xxix. 10-14). Her identification by the Romans with Maia, Ops, Rhea,
+Tellus and Ceres contributed to the establishment of her worship on a
+firm footing. By the end of the Republic it had attained prominence, and
+under the Empire it became one of the three most important cults in the
+Roman world, the other two being those of Mithras and Isis. Epigraphic
+and numismatic evidence prove it to have penetrated from Rome as a
+centre to the remotest provinces (Showerman, pp. 291-293). During the
+brief revival of paganism under Eugenius in A.D. 394, occurred the last
+appearance of the cult in history. Besides the temple on the Palatine,
+there existed minor shrines of the Great Mother near the present church
+of St Peter, on the Sacra Via on the north slope of the Palatine, near
+the junction of the Almo and the Tiber, south of the city (_ibid._
+311-314).
+
+In all her aspects, Roman, Greek and Oriental, the Great Mother was
+characterized by essentially the same qualities. Most prominent among
+them was her universal motherhood. She was the great parent of gods and
+men, as well as of the lower orders of creation. "The winds, the sea,
+the earth and the snowy seat of Olympus are hers, and when from her
+mountains she ascends into the great heavens, the son of Cronus himself
+gives way before her" (Apollon. Rhod. _Argonautica_, i. 1098). She was
+known as the All-begetter, the All-nourisher, the Mother of all the
+Blest. She was the great, fruitful, kindly earth itself. Especial
+emphasis was placed upon her maternity over wild nature. She was called
+the Mountain Mother; her sanctuaries were almost invariably upon
+mountains, and frequently in caves, the name Cybele itself being by some
+derived from the latter; lions were her faithful companions. Her
+universal power over the natural world finds beautiful expression in
+Apollonius Rhodius, _Argonautica_, i. 1140 ff. She was also a chaste and
+beautiful deity. Her especial affinity with wild nature was manifested
+by the orgiastic character of her worship. Her attendants, the
+Corybantes, were wild, half demonic beings. Her priests, the Galli, were
+eunuchs attired in female garb, with long hair fragrant with ointment.
+Together with priestesses, they celebrated her rites with flutes, horns,
+castanets, cymbals and tambourines, madly yelling and dancing until
+their frenzied excitement found its culmination in self-scourging,
+self-laceration or exhaustion. Self-emasculation sometimes accompanied
+this delirium of worship on the part of candidates for the priesthood
+(Showerman, pp. 234-239). The _Attis_ of Catullus (lxiii.) is a
+brilliant treatment of such an episode.
+
+Though her cult sometimes existed by itself, in its fully developed state
+the worship of the Great Mother was accompanied by that of Attis (q.v.).
+The cult of Attis never existed independently. Like Adonis and Aphrodite,
+Baal and Astarte, &c., the two formed a duality representing the relations
+of Mother Nature to the fruits of the earth. There is no positive evidence
+to prove the existence of the cult publicly in this phase in Greece before
+the 2nd century B.C., nor in Rome before the Empire, though it may have
+existed in private (Showerman, "Was Attis at Rome under the Republic?" in
+_Transactions of the American Philological Association_, vol. 31, 1900,
+pp. 46-59; Cumont, s.v. "Attis," De Ruggiero's _Dizionario epigrafico_ and
+Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, Supplement; Hepding, _Attis, seine
+Mythen und seine Kult_, Giessen, 1903, p. 142).
+
+The philosophers of the late Roman Empire interpreted the Attis legend
+as symbolizing the relations of Mother Earth to her children the fruits.
+Porphyrius says that Attis signified the flowers of spring time, and was
+cut off in youth because the flower falls before the fruit (Augustine,
+_De civ. Dei_, vii. 25). Maternus (_De error._ 3) interprets the love of
+the Great Mother for Attis as the love of the earth for her fruits; his
+emasculation as the cutting of the fruits; his death as their
+preservation; and his resurrection as the sowing of the seed again.
+
+At Rome the immediate direction of the cult of the Great Mother devolved
+upon the high priest, _Archigallus_, called Attis, a high priestess,
+_Sacerdos Maxima_, and its support was derived, at least in part, from a
+popular contribution, the _stips_. Besides other priests, priestesses
+and minor officials, such as musicians, curator, &c., there were certain
+colleges connected with the administration of the cult, called
+_cannophori_ (reed-bearers) and _dendrophori_ (branch-bearers). The
+Quindecimvirs exercised a general supervision over this cult, as over
+all other authorized cults, and it was, at least originally, under the
+special patronage of a club or sodality (Showerman, pp. 269-276). Roman
+citizens were at first forbidden to take part in its ceremonies, and the
+ban was not removed until the time of the Empire.
+
+The main public event in the worship of the Great Mother was the annual
+festival, which took place originally on the 4th of April, and was
+followed on the 5th by the Megalesia, games instituted in her honour on
+the introduction of the cult. Under the Empire, from Claudius on, the
+Megalesia lasted six days, April 4-10, and the original one day of the
+religious festival became an annual cycle of festivals extending from
+the 15th to the 27th of March, in the following order. (1) The 15th of
+March, _Canna intrat_--the sacrifice of a six-year-old bull in behalf of
+the mountain fields, the high priest, a priestess and the _cannophori_
+officiating, the last named carrying reeds in procession in
+commemoration of the exposure of the infant Attis on the reedy banks of
+the stream Gallus in Phrygia. (This may have been originally a phallic
+procession. Cf. Showerman, _American Journal of Philol._ xxvii. 1;
+_Classical Journal_ i. 4.) (2) The 22nd of March, _Arbor intrat_--the
+bearing in procession of the sacred pine, emblem of Attis'
+self-mutilation, death and immortality, to the temple on the Palatine,
+the symbol of the Mother's cave, by the _dendrophori_, a gild of workmen
+who made the Mother, among other deities, a patron. (3) The 24th of
+March, _Dies sanguinis_--a day of mourning, fasting and abstinence,
+especially sexual, commemorating the sorrow of the Mother for Attis, her
+abstinence from food and her chastity. The frenzied dance and
+self-laceration of the priests in commemoration of Attis' deed, and the
+submission to the act of consecration by candidates for the priesthood,
+was a special feature of the day. The _taurobolium_ (q.v.) was often
+performed on this day, on which probably took place the initiation of
+mystics. (4) The 25th of March, _Hilaria_--one of the great festal days
+of Rome, celebrated by all the people. All mourning was put off, and
+good cheer reigned in token of the return of the sun and spring, which
+was symbolized by the renewal of Attis' life. (5) The 26th of March,
+_Requietio_--a day of rest and quiet. (6) The 27th of March,
+_Lavatio_--the crowning ceremony of the cycle. The silver statue of the
+goddess, with the sacred meteoric stone, the _Acus_, set in its head,
+was borne in gorgeous procession and bathed in the Almo, the remainder
+of the day being given up to rejoicing and entertainment, especially
+dramatic representation of the legend of the deities of the day. Other
+ceremonies, not necessarily connected with the annual festival, were the
+taurobolium (q.v.), the sacrifice of a bull, and the _criobolium_
+(q.v.), the sacrifice of a ram, the latter being the analogue of the
+former, instituted for the purpose of giving Attis special recognition.
+The baptism of blood, which was the feature of these ceremonies, was
+regarded as purifying and regenerating (Showerman, _Great Mother_, pp.
+277-284).
+
+The Great Mother figures in the art of all periods both in Asia and
+Europe, but is especially prominent in the art of the Empire. No work of
+the first class, however, was inspired by her. She appears on coins, in
+painting and in all forms of sculpture, usually with mural crown and
+veil, well draped, seated on a throne, and accompanied by two lions.
+Other attributes which often appear are the patera, tympanum, cymbals,
+sceptre, garlands and fruits. Attis and his attributes, the pine,
+Phrygian cap, pedum, syrinx and torch, also appear. The Cybele of
+Formia, now at Copenhagen, is one of the most famous representations of
+the goddess. The Niobe of Mt. Sipylus is really the Mother. In
+literature she is the subject of frequent mention, but no work of
+importance, with the exception of Catullus lxiii., is due to her
+inspiration. Her importance in the history of religion is very great.
+Together with Isis and Mithras, she was a great enemy, and yet a great
+aid to Christianity. The gorgeous rites of her worship, its mystic
+doctrine of communion with the divine through enthusiasm, its promise of
+regeneration through baptism of blood in the taurobolium, were features
+which attracted the masses of the people and made it a strong rival of
+Christianity; and its resemblance to the new religion, however
+superficial, made it, in spite of the scandalous practices which grew up
+around it, a stepping-stone to Christianity when the tide set in against
+paganism.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Grant Showerman, "The Great Mother of the Gods,"
+  _Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin_, No. 43; _Philology and
+  Literature Series_, vol. i. No. 3 (Madison, 1901); Hugo Hepding,
+  _Attis, seine Mythen und seine Kult_ (Giessen, 1903); Rapp, _Roscher's
+  Ausfuhrliches Lexicon der griechischen und romischen Mythologie s.v._
+  "Kybele"; Drexler, _ibid._ s.v. "Meter." See ROMAN RELIGION, GREEK
+  RELIGION, ATTIS, CORYBANTES; for the great "Hittite" portrayal of the
+  Nature Goddess at Pteria, see PTERIA.     (G. Sn.)
+
+
+
+
+GREAT REBELLION (1642-52), a generic name for the civil wars in England
+and Scotland, which began with the raising of King Charles I.'s standard
+at Nottingham on the 22nd of August 1642, and ended with the surrender
+of Dunottar Castle to the Parliament's troops in May 1652. It is usual
+to classify these wars into the First Civil War of 1642-46, and the
+Second Civil War of 1648-52. During most of this time another civil war
+was raging in Ireland. Its incidents had little or no connexion with
+those of the Great Rebellion, but its results influenced the struggle in
+England to a considerable extent.
+
+1. _First Civil War (1642-46)._--It is impossible rightly to understand
+the events of this most national of all English wars without some
+knowledge of the motive forces on both sides. On the side of the king
+were enlisted the deep-seated loyalty which was the result of two
+centuries of effective royal protection, the pure cavalier spirit
+foreshadowing the courtier era of Charles II., but still strongly tinged
+with the old feudal indiscipline, the militarism of an expert soldier
+nobility, well represented by Prince Rupert, and lastly a widespread
+distrust of extreme Puritanism, which appeared unreasonable to Lord
+Falkland and other philosophic statesmen and intolerable to every other
+class of Royalists. The foot of the Royal armies was animated in the
+main by the first and last of these motives; in the eyes of the sturdy
+rustics who followed their squires to the war the enemy were rebels and
+fanatics. To the cavalry, which was composed largely of the higher
+social orders, the rebels were, in addition, bourgeois, while the
+soldiers of fortune from the German wars felt all the regular's contempt
+for citizen militia. Thus in the first episodes of the First Civil War
+moral superiority tended to be on the side of the king. On the other
+side, the causes of the quarrel were primarily and apparently political,
+ultimately and really religious, and thus the elements of resistance in
+the Parliament and the nation were at first confused, and, later, strong
+and direct. Democracy, moderate republicanism and the simple desire for
+constitutional guarantees could hardly make head of themselves against
+the various forces of royalism, for the most moderate men of either
+party were sufficiently in sympathy to admit compromise. But the
+backbone of resistance was the Puritan element, and this waging war at
+first with the rest on the political issue soon (as the Royalists
+anticipated) brought the religious issue to the front. The Presbyterian
+system, even more rigid than that of Laud and the bishops--whom no man
+on either side supported save Charles himself--was destined to be
+supplanted by the Independents and their ideal of free conscience, but
+for a generation before the war broke out it had disciplined and trained
+the middle classes of the nation (who furnished the bulk of the rebel
+infantry, and later of the cavalry also) to centre their whole
+will-power on the attainment of their ideals. The ideals changed during
+the struggle, but not the capacity for striving for them, and the men
+capable of the effort finally came to the front and imposed their ideals
+on the rest by the force of their trained wills.
+
+Material force was throughout on the side of the Parliamentary party.
+They controlled the navy, the nucleus of an army which was in process of
+being organized for the Irish war, and nearly all the financial
+resources of the country. They had the sympathies of most of the large
+towns, where the trained bands, drilled once a month, provided cadres
+for new regiments. Further, by recognizing the inevitable, they gained a
+start in war preparations which they never lost. The earls of Warwick,
+Essex and Manchester and other nobles and gentry of their party
+possessed great wealth and territorial influence. Charles, on the other
+hand, although he could, by means of the "press" and the
+lords-lieutenant, raise men without authority from Parliament, could not
+raise taxes to support them, and was dependent on the financial support
+of his chief adherents, such as the earls of Newcastle and Derby. Both
+parties raised men when and where they could, each claiming that the law
+was on its side--for England was already a law-abiding nation--and
+acting in virtue of legal instruments. These were, on the side of the
+Parliament, its own recent "Militia Ordinance"; on that of the king, the
+old-fashioned "Commissions of Array." In Cornwall the Royalist leader,
+Sir Ralph Hopton, indicted the enemy before the grand jury of the county
+as disturbers of the peace, and had the _posse comitatus_ called out to
+expel them. The local forces in fact were everywhere employed by
+whichever side could, by producing valid written authority, induce them
+to assemble.
+
+2. _The Royalist and Parliamentarian Armies._--This thread of local
+feeling and respect for the laws runs through the earlier operations of
+both sides almost irrespective of the main principles at stake. Many a
+promising scheme failed because of the reluctance of the militiamen to
+serve beyond the limits of their own county, and, as the offensive lay
+with the king, his cause naturally suffered far more therefrom than that
+of the enemy. But the real spirit of the struggle was very different.
+Anything which tended to prolong the struggle, or seemed like want of
+energy and avoidance of a decision, was bitterly resented by the men of
+both sides, who had their hearts in the quarrel and had not as yet
+learned by the severe lesson of Edgehill that raw armies cannot bring
+wars to a speedy issue. In France and Germany the prolongation of a war
+meant continued employment for the soldiers, but in England "we never
+encamped or entrenched ... or lay fenced with rivers or defiles. Here
+were no leaguers in the field, as at the story of Nuremberg,[1] neither
+had our soldiers any tents or what they call heavy baggage. 'Twas the
+general maxim of the war--Where is the enemy? Let us go and fight them.
+Or ... if the enemy was coming ... Why, what should be done! Draw out
+into the fields and fight them." This passage from the _Memoirs of a
+Cavalier_, ascribed to Defoe, though not contemporary evidence, is an
+admirable summary of the character of the Civil War. Even when in the
+end a regular professional army is evolved--exactly as in the case of
+Napoleon's army--the original decision-compelling spirit permeated the
+whole organization. From the first the professional soldiers of fortune,
+be their advice good or bad, are looked upon with suspicion, and nearly
+all those Englishmen who loved war for its own sake were too closely
+concerned for the welfare of their country to attempt the methods of the
+Thirty Years' War in England. The formal organization of both armies was
+based on the Swedish model, which had become the pattern of Europe after
+the victories of Gustavus Adolphus, and gave better scope for the
+_moral_ of the individual than the old-fashioned Spanish and Dutch
+formations in which the man in the ranks was a highly finished
+automaton.
+
+3. _Campaign of 1642._--When the king raised his standard at Nottingham
+on the 22nd of August 1642, war was already in progress on a small scale
+in many districts, each side endeavouring to secure, or to deny to the
+enemy, fortified country-houses, territory, and above all arms and
+money. Peace negotiations went on in the midst of these minor events
+until there came from the Parliament an ultimatum so aggressive as to
+fix the warlike purpose of the still vacillating court at Nottingham,
+and, in the country at large, to convert many thousands of waverers to
+active Royalism. Ere long Charles--who had hitherto had less than 1500
+men--was at the head of an army which, though very deficient in arms and
+equipment, was not greatly inferior in numbers or enthusiasm to that of
+the Parliament. The latter (20,000 strong exclusive of detachments) was
+organized during July, August and September about London, and moved
+thence to Northampton under the command of Robert, earl of Essex.
+
+At this moment the military situation was as follows. Lord Hertford in
+south Wales, Sir Ralph Hopton in Cornwall, and the young earl of Derby
+in Lancashire, and small parties in almost every county of the west and
+the midlands, were in arms for the king. North of the Tees, the earl of
+Newcastle, a great territorial magnate, was raising troops and supplies
+for the king, while Queen Henrietta Maria was busy in Holland arranging
+for the importation of war material and money. In Yorkshire opinion was
+divided, the royal cause being strongest in York and the North Riding,
+that of the Parliamentary party in the clothing towns of the West Riding
+and also in the important seaport of Hull. The Yorkshire gentry made an
+attempt to neutralize the county, but a local struggle soon began, and
+Newcastle thereupon prepared to invade Yorkshire. The whole of the south
+and east as well as parts of the midlands and the west and the important
+towns of Bristol and Gloucester were on the side of the Parliament. A
+small Royalist force was compelled to evacuate Oxford on the 10th of
+September.
+
+On the 13th of September the main campaign opened. The king--in order to
+find recruits amongst his sympathizers and arms in the armouries of the
+Derbyshire and Staffordshire trained bands, and also to be in touch with
+his disciplined regiments in Ireland by way of Chester--moved westward
+to Shrewsbury, Essex following suit by marching from Northampton to
+Worcester. Near the last-named town a sharp cavalry engagement (Powick
+Bridge) took place on the 23rd between the advanced cavalry of Essex's
+army and a force under Prince Rupert which was engaged in protecting the
+retirement of the Oxford detachment. The result of the fight was the
+instantaneous overthrow of the rebel cavalry, and this gave the Royalist
+troopers a confidence in themselves and in their brilliant leader which
+was not destined to be shaken until they met Cromwell's Ironsides.
+Rupert soon withdrew to Shrewsbury, where he found many Royalist
+officers eager to attack Essex's new position at Worcester. But the road
+to London now lay open and it was decided to take it. The intention was
+not to avoid a battle, for the Royalist generals desired to fight Essex
+before he grew too strong, and the temper of both sides made it
+impossible to postpone the decision; in Clarendon's words, "it was
+considered more counsellable to march towards London, it being morally
+sure that the earl of Essex would put himself in their way," and
+accordingly the army left Shrewsbury on the 12th of October, gaining two
+days' start of the enemy, and moved south-east via Bridgnorth,
+Birmingham and Kenilworth. This had the desired effect. Parliament,
+alarmed for its own safety, sent repeated orders to Essex to find the
+king and bring him to battle. Alarm gave place to determination when it
+was discovered that Charles was enlisting papists and seeking foreign
+aid. The militia of the home counties was called out, a second army
+under the earl of Warwick was formed round the nucleus of the London
+trained bands, and Essex, straining every nerve to regain touch with the
+enemy, reached Kineton, where he was only 7 m. from the king's
+headquarters at Edgecote, on the 22nd.
+
+4. _Battle of Edgehill._--Rupert promptly reported the enemy's presence,
+and his confidence dominated the irresolution of the king and the
+caution of Lord Lindsey, the nominal commander-in-chief. Both sides had
+marched widely dispersed in order to live, and the rapidity with which,
+having the clearer purpose, the Royalists drew together helped
+considerably to neutralize Essex's superior numbers. During the morning
+of the 23rd the Royalists formed in battle order on the brow of Edgehill
+facing towards Kineton. Essex, experienced soldier as he was, had
+distrusted his own raw army too much to force a decision earlier in the
+month, when the king was weak; he now found Charles in a strong position
+with an equal force to his own 14,000, and some of his regiments were
+still some miles distant. But he advanced beyond Kineton, and the enemy
+promptly left their strong position and came down to the foot of the
+hill, for, situated as they were, they had either to fight wherever they
+could induce the enemy to engage, or to starve in the midst of hostile
+garrisons. Rupert was on the right of the king's army with the greater
+part of the horse, Lord Lindsey and Sir Jacob Astley in the centre with
+the foot, Lord Wilmot (with whom rode the earl of Forth, the principal
+military adviser of the king) with a smaller body of cavalry on the
+left. In rear of the centre were the king and a small reserve. Essex's
+order was similar. Rupert charged as soon as his wing was deployed, and
+before the infantry of either side was ready. Taking ground to his right
+front and then wheeling inwards at full speed he instantly rode down the
+Parliamentary horse opposed to him. Some infantry regiments of Essex's
+left centre shared the same fate as their cavalry. On the other wing
+Forth and Wilmot likewise swept away all that they could see of the
+enemy's cavalry, and the undisciplined Royalists of both wings pursued
+the fugitives in wild disorder up to Kineton, where they were severely
+handled by John Hampden's infantry brigade (which was escorting the
+artillery and baggage of Essex's army). Rupert brought back only a few
+rallied squadrons to the battlefield, and in the meantime affairs there
+had gone badly for the king. The right and centre of the Parliamentary
+foot (the left having been brought to a halt by Rupert's charge)
+advanced with great resolution, and being at least as ardent as, and
+much better armed than, Lindsey's men, engaged them fiercely and slowly
+gained ground. Only the best regiments on either side, however,
+maintained their order, and the decision of the infantry battle was
+achieved mainly by a few Parliamentary squadrons. One regiment of
+Essex's right wing only had been the target of Wilmot's charge, the
+other two had been at the moment invisible, and, as every Royalist troop
+on the ground, even the king's guards, had joined in the mad ride to
+Kineton, these, Essex's life-guard, and some troops that had rallied
+from the effect of Rupert's charge--amongst them Captain Oliver
+Cromwell's--were the only cavalry still present. All these joined with
+decisive effect in the attack on the left of the royal infantry. The
+king's line was steadily rolled up from left to right, the Parliamentary
+troopers captured his guns and regiment after regiment broke up. Charles
+himself stood calmly in the thick of the fight, but he had not the skill
+to direct it. The royal standard was taken and retaken, Lindsey and Sir
+Edmund Verney, the standard-bearer, being killed. By the time that
+Rupert returned both sides were incapable of further effort and
+disillusioned as to the prospect of ending the war at a blow.
+
+On the 24th Essex retired, leaving Charles to claim the victory and to
+reap its results. Banbury and Oxford were reoccupied by the Royalists,
+and by the 28th Charles was marching down the Thames valley on London.
+Negotiations were reopened, and a peace party rapidly formed itself in
+London and Westminster. Yet field fortifications sprang up around
+London, and when Rupert stormed and sacked Brentford on the 12th of
+November the trained bands moved out at once and took up a position at
+Turnham Green, barring the king's advance. Hampden, with something of
+the fire and energy of his cousin Cromwell, urged Essex to turn both
+flanks of the Royal army via Acton and Kingston, but experienced
+professional soldiers urged him not to trust the London men to hold
+their ground while the rest manoeuvred. Hampden's advice was undoubtedly
+premature. A Sedan or Worcester was not within the power of the
+Parliamentarians of 1642, for, in Napoleon's words, "one only manoeuvres
+around a fixed point," and the city levies at that time were certainly
+not, _vis-a-vis_ Rupert's cavalry, a fixed point. As a matter of fact,
+after a slight cannonade at Turnham Green on the 13th, Essex's
+two-to-one numerical superiority of itself compelled the king to retire
+to Reading. Turnham Green has justly been called the Valmy of the
+English Civil War. Like Valmy, without being a battle, it was a victory,
+and the tide of invasion came thus far, ebbed, and never returned.
+
+5. _The Winter of 1642-43._--In the winter, while Essex lay inactive at
+Windsor, Charles by degrees consolidated his position in the region of
+Oxford. The city was fortified as a reduit for the whole area, and
+Reading, Wallingford, Abingdon, Brill, Banbury and Marlborough
+constituted a complete defensive ring which was developed by the
+creation of smaller posts from time to time. In the north and west,
+winter campaigns were actively carried on. "It is summer in Yorkshire,
+summer in Devon, and cold winter at Windsor," said one of Essex's
+critics. At the beginning of December Newcastle crossed the Tees,
+defeated Hotham, the Parliamentary commander in the North Riding, then
+joining hands with the hard-pressed Royalists at York, established
+himself between that city and Pontefract. Lord Fairfax and his son Sir
+Thomas, who commanded for the Parliament in Yorkshire, had to retire to
+the district between Hull and Selby, and Newcastle was free to turn his
+attention to the Puritan "clothing towns" of the West Riding--Leeds,
+Halifax and Bradford. The townsmen, however, showed a determined front,
+the younger Fairfax with a picked body of cavalry rode through
+Newcastle's lines into the West Riding to help them, and about the end
+of January 1643 the earl gave up the attempt to reduce the towns. He
+continued his march southward, however, and gained ground for the king
+as far as Newark, so as to be in touch with the Royalists of
+Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Leicestershire (who, especially about
+Newark and Ashby-de-la-Zouch, were strong enough to neutralize the local
+forces of the Parliament), and to prepare the way for the further
+advance of the army of the north when the queen's convoy should arrive
+from over-seas.
+
+In the west Sir Ralph Hopton and his friends, having obtained a true
+bill from the grand jury against the Parliamentary disturbers of the
+peace, placed themselves at the head of the county militia and drove the
+rebels from Cornwall, after which they raised a small force for general
+service and invaded Devonshire (November 1642). Subsequently a
+Parliamentary army under the earl of Stamford was withdrawn from south
+Wales to engage Hopton, who had to retire into Cornwall. There, however,
+the Royalist general was free to employ the militia again, and thus
+reinforced he won a victory over a part of Stamford's forces at Bradock
+Down near Liskeard (January 19, 1643) and resumed the offensive. About
+the same time Hertford, no longer opposed by Stamford, brought over the
+South Wales Royalists to Oxford, and the fortified area around that
+place was widened by the capture of Cirencester on the 2nd of February.
+Gloucester and Bristol were now the only important garrisons of the
+Roundheads in the west. In the midlands, in spite of a Parliamentary
+victory won by Sir William Brereton at Nantwich on the 28th of January,
+the Royalists of Shropshire, Staffordshire and Leicestershire soon
+extended their influence through Ashby-de-la-Zouch into Nottinghamshire
+and joined hands with their friends at Newark. Further, around Chester a
+new Royalist army was being formed under Lord Byron, and all the efforts
+of Brereton and of Sir John Gell, the leading supporter of the
+Parliament in Derbyshire, were required to hold their own, even before
+Newcastle's army was added to the list of their enemies. Lord Brooke,
+who commanded for the Parliament in Warwickshire and Staffordshire and
+was looked on by many as Essex's eventual successor, was killed in
+besieging Lichfield cathedral on the 2nd of March, and, though the
+cathedral soon capitulated, Gell and Brereton were severely handled in
+the indecisive battle of Hopton Heath near Stafford on the 19th of
+March, and Prince Rupert, after an abortive raid on Bristol (March 7),
+marched rapidly northward, storming Birmingham en route, and recaptured
+Lichfield cathedral. He was, however, soon recalled to Oxford to take
+part in the main campaign. The position of affairs for the Parliament
+was perhaps at its worst in January. The Royalist successes of November
+and December, the ever-present dread of foreign intervention, and the
+burden of new taxation which the Parliament now found itself compelled
+to impose, disheartened its supporters. Disorders broke out in London,
+and, while the more determined of the rebels began thus early to think
+of calling in the military assistance of the Scots, the majority were
+for peace on any conditions. But soon the position improved somewhat;
+Stamford in the west and Brereton and Gell in the midlands, though hard
+pressed, were at any rate in arms and undefeated, Newcastle had failed
+to conquer the West Riding, and Sir William Waller, who had cleared
+Hampshire and Wiltshire of "malignants," entered Gloucestershire early
+in March, destroyed a small Royalist force at Highnam (March 24), and
+secured Bristol and Gloucester for the Parliament. Finally, some of
+Charles's own intrigues opportunely coming to light, the waverers,
+seeing the impossibility of plain dealing with the court, rallied again
+to the party of resistance, and the series of negotiations called by the
+name of the Treaty of Oxford closed in April with no more result than
+those which had preceded Edgehill and Turnham Green. About this time
+too, following and improving upon the example of Newcastle in the north,
+Parliament ordered the formation of the celebrated "associations" or
+groups of counties banded together by mutual consent for defence. The
+most powerful and best organized of these was that of the eastern
+counties (headquarters Cambridge), where the danger of attack from the
+north was near enough to induce great energy in the preparations for
+meeting it, and at the same time too distant effectively to interfere
+with these preparations. Above all, the Eastern Association was from the
+first guided and inspired by Colonel Cromwell.
+
+6. _The Plan of Campaign, 1643._--The king's plan of operations for the
+next campaign, which was perhaps inspired from abroad, was more
+elaborate than the simple "point" of 1642. The king's army, based on the
+fortified area around Oxford, was counted sufficient to use up Essex's
+forces. On either hand, therefore, in Yorkshire and in the west, the
+Royalist armies were to fight their way inwards towards London, after
+which all three armies, converging on that place in due season, were to
+cut off its supplies and its sea-borne revenue and to starve the
+rebellion into surrender. The condition of this threefold advance was of
+course that the enemy should not be able to defeat the armies in detail,
+i.e. that he should be fixed and held in the Thames valley; this
+secured, there was no purely military objection against operating in
+separate armies from the circumference towards the centre. It was on the
+rock of local feeling that the king's plan came to grief. Even after the
+arrival of the queen and her convoy, Newcastle had to allow her to
+proceed with a small force, and to remain behind with the main body,
+because of Lancashire and the West Riding, and above all because the
+port of Hull, in the hands of the Fairfaxes, constituted a menace that
+the Royalists of the East Riding refused to ignore. Hopton's advance
+too, undertaken without the Cornish levies, was checked in the action of
+Sourton Down (Dartmoor) on the 25th of April, and on the same day Waller
+captured Hereford. Essex had already left Windsor to undertake the siege
+of Reading, the most important point in the circle of fortresses round
+Oxford, which after a vain attempt at relief surrendered to him on the
+26th of April. Thus the opening operations were unfavourable, not indeed
+so far as to require the scheme to be abandoned, but at least delaying
+the development until the campaigning season was far advanced.
+
+7. _Victories of Hopton._--But affairs improved in May. The queen's
+long-expected convoy arrived at Woodstock on the 13th. The earl of
+Stamford's army, which had again entered Cornwall, was attacked in its
+selected position at Stratton and practically annihilated by Hopton (May
+16). This brilliant victory was due above all to Sir Bevil Grenville and
+the lithe Cornishmen, who, though but 2400 against 5400 and destitute of
+artillery, stormed "Stamford Hill," killed 300 of the enemy, and
+captured 1700 more with all their guns, colours and baggage. Devon was
+at once overrun by the victors. Essex's army, for want of material
+resources, had had to be content with the capture of Reading, and a
+Royalist force under Hertford and Prince Maurice (Rupert's brother)
+moved out as far as Salisbury to hold out a hand to their friends in
+Devonshire, while Waller, the only Parliamentary commander left in the
+field in the west, had to abandon his conquests in the Severn valley to
+oppose the further progress of his intimate friend and present enemy,
+Hopton. Early in June Hertford and Hopton united at Chard and rapidly
+moved, with some cavalry skirmishing, towards Bath, where Waller's army
+lay. Avoiding the barrier of the Mendips, they moved round via Frome to
+the Avon. But Waller, thus cut off from London and threatened with
+investment, acted with great skill, and some days of manoeuvres and
+skirmishing followed, after which Hertford and Hopton found themselves
+on the north side of Bath facing Waller's entrenched position on the top
+of Lansdown Hill. This position the Royalists stormed on the 5th of
+July. The battle of Lansdown was a second Stratton for the Cornishmen,
+but this time the enemy was of different quality and far differently
+led, and they had to mourn the loss of Sir Bevil Grenville and the
+greater part of their whole force. At dusk both sides stood on the flat
+summit of the hill, still firing into one another with such energy as
+was not yet expended, and in the night Waller drew off his men into
+Bath. "We were glad they were gone," wrote a Royalist officer, "for if
+they had not, I know who had within the hour." Next day Hopton was
+severely injured by the explosion of a wagon containing the reserve
+ammunition, and the Royalists, finding their victory profitless, moved
+eastward to Devizes, closely followed by the enemy. On the 10th of July
+Sir William Waller took post on Roundway Down, overlooking Devizes, and
+captured a Royalist ammunition column from Oxford. On the 11th he came
+down and invested Hopton's foot in Devizes itself, while the Royalist
+cavalry, Hertford and Maurice with them, rode away towards Salisbury.
+But although the siege was pressed with such vigour that an assault was
+fixed for the evening of the 13th, the Cornishmen, Hopton directing the
+defence from his bed, held out stubbornly, and on the afternoon of July
+13th Prince Maurice's horsemen appeared on Roundway Down, having ridden
+to Oxford, picked up reinforcements there, and returned at full speed to
+save their comrades. Waller's army tried its best, but some of its
+elements were of doubtful quality and the ground was all in Maurice's
+favour. The battle did not last long. The combined attack of the Oxford
+force from Roundway and of Hopton's men from the town practically
+annihilated Waller's army. Very soon afterwards Rupert came up with
+fresh Royalist forces, and the combined armies moved westward. Bristol,
+the second port of the kingdom, was their objective, and in four days
+from the opening of the siege it was in their hands (July 26), Waller
+with the beaten remnant of his army at Bath being powerless to
+intervene. The effect of this blow was felt even in Dorsetshire. Within
+three weeks of the surrender Prince Maurice with a body of fast-moving
+cavalry overran that county almost unopposed.
+
+8. _Adwalton Moor._--Newcastle meanwhile had resumed operations against
+the clothing towns, this time with success. The Fairfaxes had been
+fighting in the West Riding since January with such troops from the Hull
+region as they had been able to bring across Newcastle's lines. They and
+the townsmen together were too weak for Newcastle's increasing forces,
+and an attempt was made to relieve them by bringing up the Parliament's
+forces in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, Lincolnshire and the Eastern
+Association. But local interests prevailed again, in spite of Cromwell's
+presence, and after assembling at Nottingham, the midland rebels quietly
+dispersed to their several counties (June 2). The Fairfaxes were left to
+their fate, and about the same time Hull itself narrowly escaped capture
+by the queen's forces through the treachery of Sir John Hotham, the
+governor, and his son, the commander of the Lincolnshire
+Parliamentarians. The latter had been placed under arrest at the
+instance of Cromwell and of Colonel Hutchinson, the governor of
+Nottingham Castle; he escaped to Hull, but both father and son were
+seized by the citizens and afterwards executed. More serious than an
+isolated act of treachery was the far-reaching Royalist plot that had
+been detected in Parliament itself, for complicity in which Lord Conway,
+Edmund Waller the poet, and several members of both Houses were
+arrested. The safety of Hull was of no avail for the West Riding towns,
+and the Fairfaxes underwent a decisive defeat at Adwalton (Atherton)
+Moor near Bradford on the 30th of June. After this, by way of
+Lincolnshire, they escaped to Hull and reorganized the defence of that
+place. The West Riding perforce submitted.
+
+The queen herself with a second convoy and a small army under Henry
+(Lord) Jermyn soon moved via Newark, Ashby-de-la-Zouch, Lichfield and
+other Royalist garrisons to Oxford, where she joined her husband on the
+14th of July. But Newcastle (now a marquis) was not yet ready for his
+part in the programme. The Yorkshire troops would not march on London
+while the enemy was master of Hull, and by this time there was a solid
+barrier between the royal army of the north and the capital. Roundway
+Down and Adwalton Moor were not after all destined to be fatal, though
+peace riots in London, dissensions in the Houses, and quarrels amongst
+the generals were their immediate consequences. A new factor had arisen
+in the war--the Eastern Association.
+
+9. _Cromwell and the Eastern Association._--This had already intervened
+to help in the siege of Reading and had sent troops to the abortive
+gathering at Nottingham, besides clearing its own ground of
+"malignants." From the first Cromwell was the dominant influence. Fresh
+from Edgehill, he had told Hampden, "You must get men of a spirit that
+is likely to go as far as gentlemen will go," not "old decayed
+serving-men, tapsters and such kind of fellows to encounter gentlemen
+that have honour and courage and resolution in them," and in January
+1643 he had gone to his own county to "raise such men as had the fear of
+God before them and made some conscience of what they did." These men,
+once found, were willing, for the cause, to submit to a rigorous
+training and an iron discipline such as other troops, fighting for
+honour only or for profit only, could not be brought to endure.[2] The
+result was soon apparent. As early as the 13th of May, Cromwell's
+regiment of horse--recruited from the horse-loving yeomen of the eastern
+counties--demonstrated its superiority in the field in a skirmish near
+Grantham, and in the irregular fighting in Lincolnshire during June and
+July (which was on the whole unfavourable to the Parliament), as
+previously in pacifying the Eastern Association itself, these Puritan
+troopers distinguished themselves by long and rapid marches that may
+bear comparison with almost any in the history of the mounted arm. When
+Cromwell's second opportunity came at Gainsborough on the 28th of July,
+the "Lincolneer" horse who were under his orders were fired by the
+example of Cromwell's own regiment, and Cromwell, directing the whole
+with skill, and above all with energy, utterly routed the Royalist horse
+and killed their general, Charles Cavendish.
+
+In the meantime the army of Essex had been inactive. After the fall of
+Reading a serious epidemic of sickness had reduced it to impotence. On
+the 18th of June the Parliamentary cavalry was routed and John Hampden
+mortally wounded at Chalgrove Field near Chiselhampton, and when at last
+Essex, having obtained the desired reinforcements, moved against Oxford
+from the Aylesbury side, he found his men demoralized by inaction, and
+before the menace of Rupert's cavalry, to which he had nothing to
+oppose, he withdrew to Bedfordshire (July). He made no attempt to
+intercept the march of the queen's convoys, he had permitted the Oxford
+army, which he should have held fast, to intervene effectually in the
+midlands, the west, and the south-west, and Waller might well complain
+that Essex, who still held Reading and the Chilterns, had given him
+neither active nor passive support in the critical days preceding
+Roundway Down. Still only a few voices were raised to demand his
+removal, and he was shortly to have an opportunity of proving his skill
+and devotion in a great campaign and a great battle. The centre and the
+right of the three Royalist armies had for a moment (Roundway to
+Bristol) united to crush Waller, but their concentration was
+short-lived. Plymouth was to Hopton's men what Hull was to
+Newcastle's--they would not march on London until the menace to their
+homes was removed. Further, there were dissensions among the generals
+which Charles was too weak to crush, and consequently the original plan
+reappears--the main Royalist army to operate in the centre, Hopton's
+(now Maurice's) on the right, Newcastle on the left towards London.
+While waiting for the fall of Hull and Plymouth, Charles naturally
+decided to make the best use of his time by reducing Gloucester, the one
+great fortress of the Parliament in the west.
+
+10. _Siege and Relief of Gloucester._--This decision quickly brought on
+a crisis. While the earl of Manchester (with Cromwell as his
+lieutenant-general) was appointed to head the forces of the Eastern
+Association against Newcastle, and Waller was given a new army
+wherewith again to engage Hopton and Maurice, the task of saving
+Gloucester from the king's army fell to Essex, who was heavily
+reinforced and drew his army together for action in the last days of
+August. Resort was had to the press-gang to fill the ranks, recruiting
+for Waller's new army was stopped, and London sent six regiments of
+trained bands to the front, closing the shops so that every man should
+be free to take his part in what was thought to be the supreme trial of
+strength.
+
+On the 26th, all being ready, Essex started. Through Aylesbury and round
+the north side of Oxford to Stow-on-the-Wold the army moved resolutely,
+not deterred by want of food and rest, or by the attacks of Rupert's and
+Wilmot's horse on its flank. On the 5th of September, just as Gloucester
+was at the end of its resources, the siege was suddenly raised and the
+Royalists drew off to Painswick, for Essex had reached Cheltenham and
+the danger was over. Then, the field armies being again face to face and
+free to move, there followed a series of skilful manoeuvres in the
+Severn and Avon valleys, at the end of which the Parliamentary army
+gained a long start on its homeward road via Cricklade, Hungerford and
+Reading. But the Royalist cavalry under Rupert, followed rapidly by
+Charles and the main body from Evesham, strained every nerve to head off
+Essex at Newbury, and after a sharp skirmish on Aldbourne Chase on the
+18th of September succeeded in doing so. On the 19th the whole Royal
+army was drawn up, facing west, with its right on Newbury and its left
+on Enborne Heath. Essex's men knew that evening that they would have to
+break through by force--there was no suggestion of surrender.
+
+11. _First Battle of Newbury, September 20, 1643._--The ground was
+densely intersected by hedges except in front of the Royalists' left
+centre (Newbury Wash) and left (Enborne Heath), and, practically,
+Essex's army was never formed in line of battle, for each unit was
+thrown into the fight as it came up its own road or lane. On the left
+wing, in spite of the Royalist counter-strokes, the attack had the best
+of it, capturing field after field, and thus gradually gaining ground to
+the front. Here Lord Falkland was killed. On the Reading road itself
+Essex did not succeed in deploying on to the open ground on Newbury
+Wash, but victoriously repelled the royal horse when it charged up to
+the lanes and hedges held by his foot. On the extreme right of the
+Parliamentary army, which stood in the open ground of Enborne Heath,
+took place a famous incident. Here two of the London regiments, fresh to
+war as they were, were exposed to a trial as severe as that which broke
+down the veteran Spanish infantry at Rocroi in this same year. Rupert
+and the Royalist horse again and again charged up to the squares of
+pikes, and between each charge his guns tried to disorder the Londoners,
+but it was not until the advance of the royal infantry that the trained
+bands retired, slowly and in magnificent order, to the edge of the
+heath. The result of it all was that Essex's army had fought its hardest
+and failed to break the opposing line. But the Royalists had suffered so
+heavily, and above all the valour displayed by the rebels had so
+profoundly impressed them, that they were glad to give up the disputed
+road and withdraw into Newbury. Essex thereupon pursued his march,
+Reading was reached on the 22nd after a small rearguard skirmish at
+Aldermaston, and so ended one of the most dramatic episodes of English
+history.
+
+12. _Hull and Winceby._--Meanwhile the siege of Hull had commenced. The
+Eastern Association forces under Manchester promptly moved up into
+Lincolnshire, the foot besieging Lynn (which surrendered on the 16th of
+September) while the horse rode into the northern part of the county to
+give a hand to the Fairfaxes. Fortunately the sea communications of Hull
+were open. On the 18th of September part of the cavalry in Hull was
+ferried over to Barton, and the rest under Sir Thomas Fairfax went by
+sea to Saltfleet a few days later, the whole joining Cromwell near
+Spilsby. In return the old Lord Fairfax, who remained in Hull, received
+infantry reinforcements and a quantity of ammunition and stores from the
+Eastern Association. On the 11th of October Cromwell and Fairfax
+together won a brilliant cavalry action at Winceby, driving the
+Royalist horse in confusion before them to Newark, and on the same day
+Newcastle's army around Hull, which had suffered terribly from the
+hardships of continuous siege work, was attacked by the garrison and so
+severely handled that next day the siege was given up. Later, Manchester
+retook Lincoln and Gainsborough, and thus Lincolnshire, which had been
+almost entirely in Newcastle's hands before he was compelled to
+undertake the siege of Hull, was added in fact as well as in name to the
+Eastern Association.
+
+Elsewhere, in the reaction after the crisis of Newbury, the war
+languished. The city regiments went home, leaving Essex too weak to hold
+Reading, which the Royalists reoccupied on the 3rd of October. At this
+the Londoners offered to serve again, and actually took part in a minor
+campaign around Newport Pagnell, which town Rupert attempted to fortify
+as a menace to the Eastern Association and its communications with
+London. Essex was successful in preventing this, but his London
+regiments again went home, and Sir William Waller's new army in
+Hampshire failed lamentably in an attempt on Basing House (November 7),
+the London trained bands deserting _en bloc_. Shortly afterwards Arundel
+surrendered to a force under Sir Ralph, now Lord Hopton (December 9).
+
+13. _The "Irish Cessation" and the Solemn League and
+Covenant._--Politically, these months were the turning-point of the war.
+In Ireland, the king's lieutenant, by order of his master, made a truce
+with the Irish rebels (Sept. 15). Charles's chief object was to set free
+his army to fight in England, but it was believed universally that Irish
+regiments--in plain words, papists in arms--would shortly follow. Under
+these circumstances his act united against him nearly every class in
+Protestant England, above all brought into the English quarrel the armed
+strength of Presbyterian Scotland. Yet Charles, still trusting to
+intrigue and diplomacy to keep Scotland in check, deliberately rejected
+the advice of Montrose, his greatest and most faithful lieutenant, who
+wished to give the Scots employment for their army at home. Only ten
+days after the "Irish cessation," the Parliament at Westminster swore to
+the Solemn League and Covenant, and the die was cast. It is true that
+even a semblance of Presbyterian theocracy put the "Independents" on
+their guard and definitely raised the question of freedom of conscience,
+and that secret negotiations were opened between the Independents and
+Charles on that basis, but they soon discovered that the king was merely
+using them as instruments to bring about the betrayal of Aylesbury and
+other small rebel posts. All parties found it convenient to interpret
+the Covenant liberally for the present, and at the beginning of 1644 the
+Parliamentary party showed so united a front that even Pym's death
+(December 8, 1643) hardly affected its resolution to continue the
+struggle.
+
+The troops from Ireland, thus obtained at the cost of an enormous
+political blunder, proved to be untrustworthy after all. Those serving
+in Hopton's army were "mutinous and shrewdly infected with the
+rebellious humour of England." When Waller's Londoners surprised[3] and
+routed a Royalist detachment at Alton (December 13, 1643), half the
+prisoners took the Covenant. Hopton had to retire, and on the 6th of
+January 1644 Waller recaptured Arundel. Byron's Cheshire army was in no
+better case. Newcastle's retreat from Hull and the loss of Gainsborough
+had completely changed the situation in the midlands, Brereton was
+joined by the younger Fairfax from Lincolnshire, and the Royalists were
+severely defeated for a second time at Nantwich (January 25). As at
+Alton, the majority of the prisoners (amongst them Colonel George Monk)
+took the Covenant and entered the Parliamentary army. In Lancashire, as
+in Cheshire, Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire, the cause
+of the Parliament was in the ascendant. Resistance revived in the West
+Riding towns, Lord Fairfax was again in the field in the East Riding,
+and even Newark was closely besieged by Sir John Meldrum. More important
+news came in from the north. The advanced guard of the Scottish army had
+passed the Tweed on the 19th of January, and the marquis of Newcastle
+with the remnant of his army would soon be attacked in front and rear at
+once.
+
+14. _Newark and Cheriton (March 1644)._--As in 1643, Rupert was soon on
+his way to the north to retrieve the fortunes of his side. Moving by the
+Welsh border, and gathering up garrisons and recruits snowball-wise as
+he marched, he went first to Cheshire to give a hand to Byron, and then,
+with the utmost speed, he made for Newark. On the 20th of March 1644 he
+bivouacked at Bingham, and on the 21st he not only relieved Newark but
+routed the besiegers' cavalry. On the 22nd Meldrum's position was so
+hopeless that he capitulated on terms. But, brilliant soldier as he was,
+the prince was unable to do more than raid a few Parliamentary posts
+around Lincoln, after which he had to return his borrowed forces to
+their various garrisons and go back to Wales--laden indeed with captured
+pikes and muskets--to raise a permanent field army. But Rupert could not
+be in all places at once. Newcastle was clamorous for aid. In
+Lancashire, only the countess of Derby, in Lathom House, held out for
+the king, and her husband pressed Rupert to go to her relief. Once, too,
+the prince was ordered back to Oxford to furnish a travelling escort for
+the queen, who shortly after this gave birth to her youngest child and
+returned to France. The order was countermanded within a few hours, it
+is true, but Charles had good reason for avoiding detachments from his
+own army. On the 29th of March, Hopton had undergone a severe defeat at
+Cheriton near New Alresford. In the preliminary manoeuvres and in the
+opening stages of the battle the advantage lay with the Royalists, and
+the earl of Forth, who was present, was satisfied with what had been
+achieved and tried to break off the action. But Royalist indiscipline
+ruined everything. A young cavalry colonel charged in defiance of
+orders, a fresh engagement opened, and at the last moment Waller
+snatched a victory out of defeat. Worse than this was the news from
+Yorkshire and Scotland. Charles had at last assented to Montrose's plan
+and promised him the title of marquis, but the first attempt to raise
+the Royalist standard in Scotland gave no omen of its later triumphs. In
+Yorkshire Sir Thomas Fairfax, advancing from Lancashire through the West
+Riding, joined his father. Selby was stormed on the 11th of April, and
+thereupon Newcastle, who had been manoeuvring against the Scots in
+Durham, hastily drew back, sent his cavalry away, and shut himself up
+with his foot in York. Two days later the Scottish general, Alexander
+Leslie, Lord Leven, joined the Fairfaxes and prepared to invest that
+city.
+
+15. _Plans of Campaign for 1644._--The original plan of the
+Parliamentary "Committee of Both Kingdoms," which directed the military
+and civil policy of the allies after the fashion of a modern cabinet,
+was to combine Essex's and Manchester's armies in an attack upon the
+king's army, Aylesbury being appointed as the place of concentration.
+Waller's troops were to continue to drive back Hopton and to reconquer
+the west, Fairfax and the Scots to invest Newcastle's army, while in the
+midlands Brereton and the Lincolnshire rebels could be counted upon to
+neutralize, the one Byron, the others the Newark Royalists. But Waller,
+once more deserted by his trained bands, was unable to profit by his
+victory of Cheriton, and retired to Farnham. Manchester, too, was
+delayed because the Eastern Association was still suffering from the
+effects of Rupert's Newark exploit--Lincoln, abandoned by the rebels on
+that occasion, was not reoccupied till the 6th of May. Moreover, Essex
+found himself compelled to defend his conduct and motives to the
+Committee of Both Kingdoms, and as usual was straitened for men and
+money. But though there were grave elements of weakness on the other
+side, the Royalists considered their own position to be hopeless. Prince
+Maurice was engaged in the fruitless siege of Lyme Regis, Gloucester was
+again a centre of activity and counterbalanced Newark, and the situation
+in the north was practically desperate. Rupert himself came to Oxford
+(April 25) to urge that his new army should be kept free to march to aid
+Newcastle, who was now threatened--owing to the abandonment of the
+enemy's original plan--by Manchester as well as Fairfax and Leven. There
+was no further talk of the concentric advance of three armies on London.
+The fiery prince and the methodical earl of Brentford (Forth) were at
+one at least in recommending that the Oxford area with its own garrison
+and a mobile force in addition should be the pivot of the field armies'
+operations. Rupert, needing above all adequate time for the development
+of the northern offensive, was not in favour of abandoning any of the
+barriers to Essex's advance. Brentford, on the other hand, thought it
+advisable to contract the lines of defence, and Charles, as usual
+undecided, agreed to Rupert's scheme and executed Brentford's. Reading,
+therefore, was dismantled early in May, and Abingdon given up shortly
+afterwards.
+
+16. _Cropredy Bridge._--It was now possible for the enemy to approach
+Oxford, and Abingdon was no sooner evacuated than (May 26) Waller's and
+Essex's armies united there--still, unfortunately for their cause, under
+separate commanders. From Abingdon Essex moved direct on Oxford, Waller
+towards Wantage, where he could give a hand to Massey, the energetic
+governor of Gloucester. Affairs seemed so bad in the west (Maurice with
+a whole army was still vainly besieging the single line of low
+breastworks that constituted the fortress of Lyme) that the king
+despatched Hopton to take charge of Bristol. Nor were things much better
+at Oxford; the barriers of time and space and the supply area had been
+deliberately given up to the enemy, and Charles was practically forced
+to undertake extensive field operations with no hope of success save in
+consequence of the enemy's mistakes. The enemy, as it happened, did not
+disappoint him. The king, probably advised by Brentford, conducted a
+skilful war of manoeuvre in the area defined by Stourbridge, Gloucester,
+Abingdon and Northampton, at the end of which Essex, leaving Waller to
+the secondary work, as he conceived it, of keeping the king away from
+Oxford and reducing that fortress, marched off into the west with most
+of the general service troops to repeat at Lyme Regis his Gloucester
+exploit of 1643. At one moment, indeed, Charles (then in Bewdley) rose
+to the idea of marching north to join Rupert and Newcastle, but he soon
+made up his mind to return to Oxford. From Bewdley, therefore, he moved
+to Buckingham--the distant threat on London producing another evanescent
+citizen army drawn from six counties under Major-General Browne--and
+Waller followed him closely. When the king turned upon Browne's motley
+host, Waller appeared in time to avert disaster, and the two armies
+worked away to the upper Cherwell. Brentford and Waller were excellent
+strategists of the 17th century type, and neither would fight a pitched
+battle without every chance in his favour. Eventually on the 29th of
+June the Royalists were successful in a series of minor fights about
+Cropredy Bridge, and the result was, in accordance with continental
+custom, admitted to be an important victory, though Waller's main army
+drew off unharmed. In the meantime, Essex had relieved Lyme (June 15)
+and occupied Weymouth, and was preparing to go farther. The two rebel
+armies were now indeed separate. Waller had been left to do as best he
+could, and a worse fate was soon to overtake the cautious earl.
+
+17. _Campaign of Marston Moor._--During these manoeuvres the northern
+campaign had been fought to an issue. Rupert's courage and energy were
+more likely to command success in the English Civil War than all the
+conscientious caution of an Essex or a Brentford. On the 16th of May he
+left Shrewsbury to fight his way through hostile country to Lancashire,
+where he hoped to re-establish the Derby influence and raise new forces.
+Stockport was plundered on the 25th, the besiegers of Lathom House
+utterly defeated at Bolton on the 28th. Soon afterwards he received a
+large reinforcement under General Goring, which included 5000 of
+Newcastle's cavalry. The capture of the almost defenceless town of
+Liverpool--undertaken as usual to allay local fears--did not delay
+Rupert more than three or four days, and he then turned towards the
+Yorkshire border with greatly augmented forces. On the 14th of June he
+received a despatch from the king, the gist of which was that there was
+a time-limit imposed on the northern enterprise. If York were lost or
+did not need his help, Rupert was to make all haste southward via
+Worcester. "If York be relieved and you beat the rebels' armies of both
+kingdoms, then, but otherways not, I may possibly make a shift upon the
+defensive to spin out time until you come to assist me."
+
+Charles did manage to "spin out time." But it was of capital importance
+that Rupert had to do his work upon York and the allied army in the
+shortest possible time, and that, according to the despatch, there were
+only two ways of saving the royal cause, "having relieved York by
+beating the Scots," or marching with all speed to Worcester. Rupert's
+duty, interpreted through the medium of his temperament, was clear
+enough. Newcastle still held out, his men having been encouraged by a
+small success on the 17th of June, and Rupert reached Knaresborough on
+the 30th. At once Leven, Fairfax and Manchester broke up the siege of
+York and moved out to meet him. But the prince, moving still at high
+speed, rode round their right flank via Boroughbridge and Thornton
+Bridge and entered York on the north side. Newcastle tried to dissuade
+Rupert from fighting, but his record as a general was scarcely
+convincing as to the value of his advice. Rupert curtly replied that he
+had orders to fight, and the Royalists moved out towards Marston Moor
+(q.v.) on the morning of July 2, 1644. The Parliamentary commanders,
+fearing a fresh manoeuvre, had already begun to retire towards
+Tadcaster, but as soon as it became evident that a battle was impending
+they turned back. The battle of Marston Moor began about four in the
+afternoon. It was the first real trial of strength between the best
+elements on either side, and it ended before night with the complete
+victory of the Parliamentary armies. The Royalist cause in the north
+collapsed once for all, Newcastle fled to the continent, and only
+Rupert, resolute as ever, extricated 6000 cavalry from the _debacle_ and
+rode away whence he had come, still the dominant figure of the war.
+
+18. _Independency._--The victory gave the Parliament entire control of
+the north, but it did not lead to the definitive solution of the
+political problem, and in fact, on the question of Charles's place in a
+new Constitution, the victorious generals quarrelled even before York
+had surrendered. Within three weeks of the battle the great army was
+broken up. The Yorkshire troops proceeded to conquer the isolated
+Royalist posts in their county, the Scots marched off to besiege
+Newcastle-on-Tyne and to hold in check a nascent Royalist army in
+Westmorland. Rupert in Lancashire they neglected entirely. Manchester
+and Cromwell, already estranged, marched away into the Eastern
+Association. There, for want of an enemy to fight, their army was forced
+to be idle, and Cromwell and the ever-growing Independent element
+quickly came to suspect their commander of lukewarmness in the cause.
+Waller's army, too, was spiritless and immobile. On the 2nd of July,
+despairing of the existing military system, he made to the Committee of
+Both Kingdoms the first suggestion of the New Model,--"My lords," he
+wrote, "till you have an army merely your own, that you may command, it
+is ... impossible to do anything of importance." Browne's trained band
+army was perhaps the most ill-behaved of all--once the soldiers
+attempted to murder their own general. Parliament in alarm set about the
+formation of a new general service force (July 12), but meantime both
+Waller's and Browne's armies (at Abingdon and Reading respectively)
+ignominiously collapsed by mutiny and desertion. It was evident that the
+people at large, with their respect for the law and their anxiety for
+their own homes, were tired of the war. Only those men--such as
+Cromwell--who has set their hearts on fighting out the quarrel of
+conscience, kept steadfastly to their purpose. Cromwell himself had
+already decided that the king himself must be deprived of his authority,
+and his supporters were equally convinced. But they were relatively few.
+Even the Eastern Association trained bands had joined in the
+disaffection in Waller's army, and that unfortunate general's suggestion
+of a professional army, with all its dangers, indicated the only means
+of enforcing a peace such as Cromwell and his friends desired. There
+was this important difference, however, between Waller's idea and
+Cromwell's achievement--that the professional soldiers of the New Model
+were disciplined, led, and in all things inspired by "godly" officers.
+Godliness, devotion to the cause, and efficiency were indeed the only
+criteria Cromwell applied in choosing officers. Long before this he had
+warned the Scottish major-general Lawrence Crawford that the precise
+colour of a man's religious opinions mattered nothing compared with his
+devotion to them, and had told the committee of Suffolk, "I had rather
+have a plain russet-coated captain that knows what he fights for and
+loves what he knows than that which you call a 'gentleman' and is
+nothing else. I honour a gentleman that is so indeed ... but seeing it
+was necessary the work must go on, better plain men than none." If "men
+of honour and birth" possessed the essentials of godliness, devotion,
+and capacity, Cromwell preferred them, and as a fact only seven out of
+thirty-seven of the superior officers of the original New Model were not
+of gentle birth.
+
+19. _Lostwithiel._--But all this was as yet in the future. Essex's
+military promenade in the west of England was the subject of immediate
+interest. At first successful, this general penetrated to Plymouth,
+whence, securely based as he thought, he could overrun Devon.
+Unfortunately for him he was persuaded to overrun Cornwall as well. At
+once the Cornishmen rose, as they had risen under Hopton, and the king
+was soon on the march from the Oxford region, disregarding the armed
+mobs under Waller and Browne. Their state reflected the general
+languishing of the war spirit on both sides, not on one only, as Charles
+discovered when he learned that Lord Wilmot, the lieutenant-general of
+his horse, was in correspondence with Essex. Wilmot was of course placed
+under arrest, and was replaced by the dissolute General Goring. But it
+was unpleasantly evident that even gay cavaliers of the type of Wilmot
+had lost the ideals for which they fought, and had come to believe that
+the realm would never be at peace while Charles was king. Henceforward
+it will be found that the Royalist foot, now a thoroughly professional
+force, is superior in quality to the once superb cavalry, and that not
+merely because its opportunities for plunder, &c., are more limited.
+Materially, however, the immediate victory was undeniably with the
+Royalists. After a brief period of manoeuvre, the Parliamentary army,
+now far from Plymouth found itself surrounded and starving at
+Lostwithiel, on the Fowey river, without hope of assistance. The horse
+cut its way out through the investing circle of posts, Essex himself
+escaped by sea, but Major-General Skippon, his second in command, had to
+surrender with the whole of the foot on the 2nd of September. The
+officers and men were allowed to go free to Portsmouth, but their arms,
+guns and munitions were the spoil of the victors. There was now no
+trustworthy field force in arms for the Parliament south of the Humber,
+for even the Eastern Association army was distracted by its religious
+differences, which had now at last come definitely to the front and
+absorbed the political dispute in a wider issue. Cromwell already
+proposed to abolish the peerage, the members of which were inclined to
+make a hollow peace, and had ceased to pay the least respect to his
+general, Manchester, whose scheme for the solution of the quarrel was an
+impossible combination of Charles and Presbyterianism. Manchester for
+his part sank into a state of mere obstinacy, refusing to move against
+Rupert, even to besiege Newark, and actually threatened to hang Colonel
+Lilburne for capturing a Royalist castle without orders.
+
+20. _Operations of Essex's, Waller's and Manchester's Armies._--After
+the success of Lostwithiel there was little to detain Charles's main
+army in the extreme west, and meanwhile Banbury, a most important point
+in the Oxford circle, and Basing House (near Basingstoke) were in danger
+of capture. Waller, who had organized a small force of reliable troops,
+had already sent cavalry into Dorsetshire with the idea of assisting
+Essex, and he now came himself with reinforcements to prevent, so far as
+lay in his power, the king's return to the Thames valley. Charles was
+accompanied of course only by his permanent forces and by parts of
+Prince Maurice's and Hopton's armies--the Cornish levies had as usual
+scattered as soon as the war receded from their borders. Manchester
+slowly advanced to Reading, Essex gradually reorganized his broken army
+at Portsmouth, while Waller, far out to the west at Shaftesbury,
+endeavored to gain the necessary time and space for a general
+concentration in Wiltshire, where Charles would be far from Oxford and
+Basing and, in addition, outnumbered by two to one. But the work of
+rearming Essex's troops proceeded slowly for want of money, and
+Manchester peevishly refused to be hurried either by his more vigorous
+subordinates or by the Committee of Both Kingdoms, saying that the army
+of the Eastern Association was for the guard of its own employers and
+not for general service. He pleaded the renewed activity of the Newark
+Royalists as his excuse, forgetting that Newark would have been in his
+hands ere this had he chosen to move thither instead of lying idle for
+two months. As to the higher command, things had come to such a pass
+that, when the three armies at last united, a council of war, consisting
+of three army commanders, several senior officers, and two civilian
+delegates from the Committee, was constituted. When the vote of the
+majority had determined what was to be done, Essex, as lord general of
+the Parliament's first army, was to issue the necessary orders for the
+whole. Under such conditions it was not likely that Waller's hopes of a
+great battle at Shaftesbury would be realized. On the 8th of October he
+fell back, the royal army following him step by step and finally
+reaching Whitchurch on the 20th of October. Manchester arrived at
+Basingstoke on the 17th, Waller on the 19th, and Essex on the 21st.
+Charles had found that he could not relieve Basing (a mile or two from
+Basingstoke) without risking a battle with the enemy between himself and
+Oxford;[4] he therefore took the Newbury road and relieved Donnington
+Castle near Newbury on the 22nd. Three days later Banbury too was
+relieved by a force which could now be spared from the Oxford garrison.
+But for once the council of war on the other side was for fighting a
+battle, and the Parliamentary armies, their spirits revived by the
+prospect of action and by the news of the fall of Newcastle and the
+defeat of a sally from Newark, marched briskly. On the 26th they
+appeared north of Newbury on the Oxford road. Like Essex in 1643,
+Charles found himself headed off from the shelter of friendly
+fortresses, but beyond this fact there is little similarity between the
+two battles of Newbury, for the Royalists in the first case merely drew
+a barrier across Essex's path. On the present occasion the eager
+Parliamentarians made no attempt to force the king to attack them; they
+were well content to attack him in his chosen position themselves,
+especially as he was better off for supplies and quarters than they.
+
+21. _Second Newbury._--The second battle of Newbury is remarkable as
+being the first great manoeuvre-battle (as distinct from "pitched"
+battle) of the Civil War. A preliminary reconnaissance by the
+Parliamentary leaders (Essex was not present, owing to illness)
+established the fact that the king's infantry held a strong line of
+defence behind the Lambourn brook from Shaw (inclusive) to Donnington
+(exclusive), Shaw House and adjacent buildings being held as an advanced
+post. In rear of the centre, in open ground just north of Newbury, lay
+the bulk of the royal cavalry. In the left rear of the main line, and
+separated from it by more than a thousand yards, lay Prince Maurice's
+corps at Speen, advanced troops on the high ground west of that village,
+but Donnington Castle, under its energetic governor Sir John Boys,
+formed a strong post covering this gap with artillery fire. The
+Parliamentary leaders had no intention of flinging their men away in a
+frontal attack on the line of the Lambourn, and a flank attack from the
+east side could hardly succeed owing to the obstacle presented by the
+confluence of the Lambourn and the Kennet, hence they decided on a wide
+turning movement via Chieveley, Winterbourne and Wickham Heath, against
+Prince Maurice's position--a decision which, daring and energetic as it
+was, led only to a modified success, for reasons which will appear. The
+flank march, out of range of the castle, was conducted with punctuality
+and precision. The troops composing it were drawn from all three armies
+and led by the best fighting generals, Waller, Cromwell, and Essex's
+subordinates Balfour and Skippon. Manchester at Clay Hill was to stand
+fast until the turning movement had developed, and to make a vigorous
+holding attack on Shaw House as soon as Waller's guns were heard at
+Speen. But there was no commander-in-chief to co-ordinate the movements
+of the two widely separated corps, and consequently no co-operation.
+Waller's attack was not unexpected, and Prince Maurice had made ready to
+meet him. Yet the first rush of the rebels carried the entrenchments of
+Speen Hill, and Speen itself, though stoutly defended, fell into their
+hands within an hour, Essex's infantry recapturing here some of the guns
+they had had to surrender at Lostwithiel. But meantime Manchester, in
+spite of the entreaties of his staff, had not stirred from Clay Hill. He
+had made one false attack already early in the morning, and been
+severely handled, and he was aware of his own deficiencies as a general.
+A year before this he would have asked for and acted upon the advice of
+a capable soldier, such as Cromwell or Crawford, but now his mind was
+warped by a desire for peace on any terms, and he sought only to avoid
+defeat pending a happy solution of the quarrel. Those who sought to gain
+peace through victory were meanwhile driving Maurice back from hedge to
+hedge towards the open ground at Newbury, but every attempt to emerge
+from the lanes and fields was repulsed by the royal cavalry, and indeed
+by every available man and horse, for Charles's officers had gauged
+Manchester's intentions, and almost stripped the front of its defenders
+to stop Waller's advance. Nightfall put an end to the struggle around
+Newbury, and then--too late--Manchester ordered the attack on Shaw
+House. It failed completely in spite of the gallantry of his men, and
+darkness being then complete it was not renewed. In its general course
+the battle closely resembled that of Freiburg (q.v.), fought the same
+year on the Rhine. But, if Waller's part in the battle corresponded in a
+measure to Turenne's, Manchester was unequal to playing the part of
+Conde, and consequently the results, in the case of the French won by
+three days' hard fighting, and even then comparatively small, were in
+the case of the English practically nil. During the night the royal army
+quietly marched away through the gap between Waller's and Manchester's
+troops. The heavy artillery and stores were left in Donnington Castle,
+Charles himself with a small escort rode off to the north-west to meet
+Rupert, and the main body gained Wallingford unmolested. An attempt at
+pursuit was made by Waller and Cromwell with all the cavalry they could
+lay hands on, but it was unsupported, for the council of war had decided
+to content itself with besieging Donnington Castle. A little later,
+after a brief and half-hearted attempt to move towards Oxford, it
+referred to the Committee for further instructions. Within the month
+Charles, having joined Rupert at Oxford and made him general of the
+Royalist forces vice Brentford, reappeared in the neighbourhood of
+Newbury. Donnington Castle was again relieved (November 9) under the
+eyes of the Parliamentary army, which was in such a miserable condition
+that even Cromwell was against fighting, and some manoeuvres followed,
+in the course of which Charles relieved Basing House and the
+Parliamentary armies fell back, not in the best order, to Reading. The
+season for field warfare was now far spent, and the royal army retired
+to enjoy good quarters and plentiful supplies around Oxford.
+
+22. _The Self-denying Ordinance._--On the other side, the dissensions
+between the generals had become flagrant and public, and it was no
+longer possible for the Houses of Parliament to ignore the fact that the
+army must be radically reformed. Cromwell and Waller from their places
+in parliament attacked Manchester's conduct, and their attack ultimately
+became, so far as Cromwell was concerned, an attack on the Lords, most
+of whom held the same views as Manchester, and on the Scots, who
+attempted to bring Cromwell to trial as an "incendiary." At the crisis
+of their bitter controversy Cromwell suddenly proposed to stifle all
+animosities by the resignation of all officers who were members of
+either House, a proposal which affected himself not less than Essex and
+Manchester. The first "self-denying ordinance" was moved on the 9th of
+December, and provided that "no member of either house shall have or
+execute any office or command ...," &c. This was not accepted by the
+Lords, and in the end a second "self-denying ordinance" was agreed to
+(April 3, 1645), whereby all the persons concerned were to resign, but
+without prejudice to their reappointment. Simultaneously with this, the
+formation of the New Model was at last definitely taken into
+consideration. The last exploit of Sir William Waller, who was not
+re-employed after the passing of the ordinance, was the relief of
+Taunton, then besieged by General Goring's army. Cromwell served as his
+lieutenant-general on this occasion, and we have Waller's own testimony
+that he was in all things a wise, capable and respectful subordinate.
+Under a leader of the stamp of Waller, Cromwell was well satisfied to
+obey, knowing the cause to be in good hands.
+
+23. _Decline of the Royalist Cause._--A raid of Goring's horse from the
+west into Surrey and an unsuccessful attack on General Browne at
+Abingdon were the chief enterprises undertaken on the side of the
+Royalists during the early winter. It was no longer "summer in Devon,
+summer in Yorkshire" as in January 1643. An ever-growing section of
+Royalists, amongst whom Rupert himself was soon to be numbered, were for
+peace; many scores of loyalist gentlemen, impoverished by the loss of
+three years' rents of their estates and hopeless of ultimate victory,
+were making their way to Westminster to give in their submission to the
+Parliament and to pay their fines. In such circumstances the old
+decision-seeking strategy was impossible. The new plan, suggested
+probably by Rupert, had already been tried with strategical success in
+the summer campaign of 1644. As we have seen, it consisted essentially
+in using Oxford as the centre of a circle and striking out radially at
+any favourable target--"manoeuvring about a fixed point," as Napoleon
+called it. It was significant of the decline of the Royalist cause that
+the "fixed point" had been in 1643 the king's field army, based indeed
+on its great entrenched camp, Banbury-Cirencester-Reading-Oxford, but
+free to move and to hold the enemy wherever met, while now it was the
+entrenched camp itself, weakened by the loss or abandonment of its outer
+posts, and without the power of binding the enemy if they chose to
+ignore its existence, that conditioned the scope and duration of the
+single remaining field army's enterprises.
+
+24. _The New Model Ordinance._--For the present, however, Charles's
+cause was crumbling more from internal weakness than from the blows of
+the enemy. Fresh negotiations for peace which opened on the 29th of
+January at Uxbridge (by the name of which place they are known to
+history) occupied the attention of the Scots and their Presbyterian
+friends, the rise of Independency and of Cromwell was a further
+distraction, and over the new army and the Self-denying Ordinance the
+Lords and Commons were seriously at variance. But in February a fresh
+mutiny in Waller's command struck alarm into the hearts of the
+disputants. The "treaty" of Uxbridge came to the same end as the treaty
+of Oxford in 1643, and a settlement as to army reform was achieved on
+the 15th of February. Though it was only on the 25th of March that the
+second and modified form of the ordinance was agreed to by both Houses,
+Sir Thomas Fairfax and Philip Skippon (who were not members of
+parliament) had been approved as lord general and major-general (of the
+infantry) respectively of the new army as early as the 21st of January.
+The post of lieutenant-general and cavalry commander was for the moment
+left vacant, but there was little doubt as to who would eventually
+occupy it.
+
+25. _Victories of Montrose._--In Scotland, meanwhile, Montrose was
+winning victories which amazed the people of the two kingdoms.
+Montrose's royalism differed from that of Englishmen of the 17th century
+less than from that of their forefathers under Henry VIII. and
+Elizabeth. To him the king was the protector of his people against
+Presbyterian theocracy, scarcely less offensive to him than the
+Inquisition itself, and the feudal oppression of the great nobles.
+Little as this ideal corresponded to the Charles of reality, it inspired
+in Montrose not merely romantic heroism but a force of leadership which
+was sufficient to carry to victory the nobles and gentry, the wild
+Highlanders and the experienced professional soldiers who at various
+times and places constituted his little armies. His first unsuccessful
+enterprise has been mentioned above. It seemed, in the early stages of
+his second attempt (August 1644), as if failure were again inevitable,
+for the gentry of the northern Lowlands were overawed by the prevailing
+party and resented the leadership of a lesser noble, even though he were
+the king's lieutenant over all Scotland. Disappointed of support where
+he most expected it, Montrose then turned to the Highlands. At Blair
+Athol he gathered his first army of Royalist clansmen, and good fortune
+gave him also a nucleus of trained troops. A force of disciplined
+experienced soldiers (chiefly Irish Macdonalds and commanded by Alastair
+of that name) had been sent over from Ireland earlier in the year, and,
+after ravaging the glens of their hereditary enemies the Campbells, had
+attempted without success, now here, now there, to gather the other
+clans in the king's name. Their hand was against every man's, and when
+he finally arrived in Badenoch, Alastair Macdonald was glad to protect
+himself by submitting to the authority of the king's lieutenant.
+
+There were three hostile armies to be dealt with,
+besides--ultimately--the main covenanting army far away in England. The
+duke of Argyll, the head of the Campbells, had an army of his own clan
+and of Lowland Covenanter levies, Lord Elcho with another Lowland army
+lay near Perth, and Lord Balfour of Burleigh was collecting a third
+(also composed of Lowlanders) at Aberdeen. Montrose turned upon Elcho
+first, and found him at Tippermuir near Perth on the 1st of September
+1644. The Royalists were about 3000 strong and entirely foot, only
+Montrose himself and two others being mounted, while Elcho had about
+7000 of all arms. But Elcho's townsmen found that pike and musket were
+clumsy weapons in inexperienced hands, and, like Mackay's regulars at
+Killiecrankie fifty years later, they wholly failed to stop the rush of
+the Highland swordsmen. Many hundreds were killed in the pursuit, and
+Montrose slept in Perth that night, having thus accounted for one of his
+enemies. Balfour of Burleigh was to be his next victim, and he started
+for Aberdeen on the 4th. As he marched, his Highlanders slipped away to
+place their booty in security. But the Macdonald regulars remained with
+him, and as he passed along the coast some of the gentry came in, though
+the great western clan of the Gordons was at present too far divided in
+sentiment to take his part. Lord Lewis Gordon and some Gordon horse were
+even in Balfour's army. On the other hand, the earl of Airlie brought in
+forty-four horsemen, and Montrose was thus able to constitute two wings
+of cavalry on the day of battle. The Covenanters were about 2500 strong
+and drawn up on a slope above the How Burn[5] just outside Aberdeen
+(September 13, 1644). Montrose, after clearing away the enemy's
+skirmishers, drew up his army in front of the opposing line, the foot in
+the centre, the forty-four mounted men, with musketeers to support them,
+on either flank. The hostile left-wing cavalry charged piecemeal, and
+some bodies of troops did not engage at all. On the other wing, however,
+Montrose was for a moment hard pressed by a force of the enemy that
+attempted to work round to his rear. But he brought over the small band
+of mounted men that constituted his right wing cavalry, and also some
+musketeers from the centre, and destroyed the assailants, and when the
+ill-led left wing of the Covenanters charged again, during the absence
+of the cavalry, they were mown down by the close-range volleys of
+Macdonald's musketeers. Shortly afterwards the centre of Balfour's army
+yielded to pressure and fled in disorder. Aberdeen was sacked by order
+of Montrose, whose drummer had been murdered while delivering a message
+under a flag of truce to the magistrates.
+
+26. _Inverlochy._--Only Argyll now remained to be dealt with. The
+Campbells were fighting men from birth, like Montrose's own men, and had
+few townsmen serving with them. Still there were enough of the latter
+and of the impedimenta of regular warfare with him to prevent Argyll
+from overtaking his agile enemy, and ultimately after a "hide-and-seek"
+in the districts of Rothiemurchus, Blair Athol, Banchory and
+Strathbogie, Montrose stood to fight at Fyvie Castle, repulsed Argyll's
+attack on that place and slipped away again to Rothiemurchus. There he
+was joined by Camerons and Macdonalds from all quarters for a grand raid
+on the Campbell country; he himself wished to march into the Lowlands,
+well knowing that he could not achieve the decision in the Grampians,
+but he had to bow, not for the first time nor the last, to local
+importunity. The raid was duly executed, and the Campbells' boast, "It's
+a far cry to Loch Awe," availed them little. In December and January the
+Campbell lands were thoroughly and mercilessly devastated, and Montrose
+then retired slowly to Loch Ness, where the bulk of his army as usual
+dispersed to store away its plunder. Argyll, with such Highland and
+Lowland forces as he could collect after the disaster, followed Montrose
+towards Lochaber, while the Seaforths and other northern clans marched
+to Loch Ness. Caught between them, Montrose attacked the nearest. The
+Royalists crossed the hills into Glen Roy, worked thence along the
+northern face of Ben Nevis, and descended like an avalanche upon
+Argyll's forces at Inverlochy (February 2, 1645). As usual, the Lowland
+regiments gave way at once--Montrose had managed in all this to keep
+with him a few cavalry--and it was then the turn of the Campbells.
+Argyll escaped in a boat, but his clan, as a fighting force, was
+practically annihilated, and Montrose, having won four victories in
+these six winter months, rested his men and exultingly promised Charles
+that he would come to his assistance with a brave army before the end of
+the summer.
+
+27. _Organization of the New Model Army._--To return to the New Model.
+Its first necessity was regular pay; its first duty to serve wherever it
+might be sent. Of the three armies that had fought at Newbury only one,
+Essex's, was in a true sense a general service force, and only one,
+Manchester's, was paid with any regularity. Waller's army was no better
+paid than Essex's and no more free from local ties than Manchester's. It
+was therefore broken up early in April, and only 600 of its infantry
+passed into the New Model. Essex's men, on the other hand, wanted but
+regular pay and strict officers to make them excellent soldiers, and
+their own major-general, Skippon, managed by tact and his personal
+popularity to persuade the bulk of the men to rejoin. Manchester's army,
+in which Cromwell had been the guiding influence from first to last, was
+naturally the backbone of the New Model. Early in April Essex,
+Manchester, and Waller resigned their commissions, and such of their
+forces as were not embodied in the new army were sent to do local
+duties, for minor armies were still maintained, General Poyntz's in the
+north midlands, General Massey's in the Severn valley, a large force in
+the Eastern Association, General Browne's in Buckinghamshire, &c.,
+besides the Scots in the north.
+
+The New Model originally consisted of 14,400 foot and 7700 horse and
+dragoons. Of the infantry only 6000 came from the combined armies, the
+rest being new recruits furnished by the press.[6] Thus there was
+considerable trouble during the first months of Fairfax's command, and
+discipline had to be enforced with unusual sternness. As for the enemy,
+Oxford was openly contemptuous of "the rebels' new brutish general" and
+his men, who seemed hardly likely to succeed where Essex and Waller had
+failed. But the effect of the Parliament's having "an army all its own"
+was soon to be apparent.
+
+28. _First Operations of 1645._--On the Royalist side the campaign of
+1645 opened in the west, whither the young prince of Wales (Charles II.)
+was sent with Hyde (later earl of Clarendon), Hopton and others as his
+advisers. General (Lord) Goring, however, now in command of the Royalist
+field forces in this quarter, was truculent, insubordinate and
+dissolute, though on the rare occasions when he did his duty he
+displayed a certain degree of skill and leadership, and the influence of
+the prince's counsellors was but small. As usual, operations began with
+the sieges necessary to conciliate local feeling. Plymouth and Lyme were
+blocked up, and Taunton again invested. The reinforcement thrown into
+the last place by Waller and Cromwell was dismissed by Blake (then a
+colonel in command of the fortress and afterwards the great admiral of
+the Commonwealth), and after many adventures rejoined Waller and
+Cromwell. The latter generals, who had not yet laid down their
+commissions, then engaged Goring for some weeks, but neither side having
+infantry or artillery, and both finding subsistence difficult in
+February and March and in country that had been fought over for two
+years past, no results were to be expected. Taunton still remained
+unrelieved, and Goring's horse still rode all over Dorsetshire when the
+New Model at last took the field.
+
+29. _Rupert's Northern March._--In the midlands and Lancashire the
+Royalist horse, as ill-behaved even as Goring's men, were directly
+responsible for the ignominious failure with which the king's main army
+began its year's work. Prince Maurice was joined at Ludlow by Rupert and
+part of his Oxford army early in March, and the brothers drove off
+Brereton from the siege of Beeston Castle and relieved the pressure on
+Lord Byron in Cheshire. So great was the danger of Rupert's again
+invading Lancashire and Yorkshire that all available forces in the
+north, English and Scots, were ordered to march against him. But at this
+moment the prince was called back to clear his line of retreat on
+Oxford. The Herefordshire and Worcestershire peasantry, weary of
+military exactions, were in arms, and though they would not join the
+Parliament, and for the most part dispersed after stating their
+grievances, the main enterprise was wrecked. This was but one of many
+ill-armed crowds--"Clubmen" as they were called--that assembled to
+enforce peace on both parties. A few regular soldiers were sufficient to
+disperse them in all cases, but their attempt to establish a third party
+in England was morally as significant as it was materially futile. The
+Royalists were now fighting with the courage of despair, those who still
+fought against Charles did so with the full determination to ensure the
+triumph of their cause, and with the conviction that the only possible
+way was the annihilation of the enemy's armed forces, but the majority
+were so weary of the war that the earl of Manchester's Presbyterian
+royalism--which had contributed so materially to the prolongation of the
+struggle--would probably have been accepted by four-fifths of all
+England as the basis of a peace. It was, in fact, in the face of almost
+universal opposition that Fairfax and Cromwell and their friends at
+Westminster guided the cause of their weaker comrades to complete
+victory.
+
+30. _Cromwell's Raid._--Having without difficulty rid himself of the
+Clubmen, Rupert was eager to resume his march into the north. It is
+unlikely that he wished to join Montrose, though Charles himself
+favoured that plan, but he certainly intended to fight the Scottish
+army, more especially as after Inverlochy it had been called upon to
+detach a large force to deal with Montrose. But this time there was no
+Royalist army in the north to provide infantry and guns for a pitched
+battle, and Rupert had perforce to wait near Hereford till the main
+body, and in particular the artillery train, could come from Oxford and
+join him. It was on the march of the artillery train to Hereford that
+the first operations of the New Model centred. The infantry was not yet
+ready to move, in spite of all Fairfax's and Skippon's efforts, and it
+became necessary to send the cavalry by itself to prevent Rupert from
+gaining a start. Cromwell, then under Waller's command, had come to
+Windsor to resign his commission as required by the Self-denying
+Ordinance. Instead, he was placed at the head of a brigade of his own
+old soldiers, with orders to stop the march of the artillery train. On
+the 23rd of April he started from Watlington north-westward. At dawn on
+the 24th he routed a detachment of Royalist horse at Islip. On the same
+day, though he had no guns and only a few firearms in the whole force,
+he terrified the governor of Bletchingdon House into surrender. Riding
+thence to Witney, Cromwell won another cavalry fight at
+Bampton-in-the-Bush on the 27th, and attacked Faringdon House, though
+without success, on the 29th. Thence he marched at leisure to Newbury.
+He had done his work thoroughly. He had demoralized the Royalist
+cavalry, and, above all, had carried off every horse on the countryside.
+To all Rupert's entreaties Charles could only reply that the guns could
+not be moved till the 7th of May, and he even summoned Goring's cavalry
+from the west to make good his losses.
+
+31. _Civilian Strategy._--Cromwell's success thus forced the king to
+concentrate his various armies in the neighbourhood of Oxford, and the
+New Model had, so Fairfax and Cromwell hoped, found its target. But the
+Committee of Both Kingdoms on the one side, and Charles, Rupert and
+Goring on the other, held different views. On the 1st of May Fairfax,
+having been ordered to relieve Taunton, set out from Windsor for the
+long march to that place; meeting Cromwell at Newbury on the 2nd, he
+directed the lieutenant-general to watch the movements of the king's
+army, and himself marched on to Blandford, which he reached on the 7th
+of May. Thus Fairfax and the main army of the Parliament were marching
+away in the west while Cromwell's detachment was left, as Waller had
+been left the previous year, to hold the king as best he could. On the
+very evening that Cromwell's raid ended, the leading troops of Goring's
+command destroyed part of Cromwell's own regiment near Faringdon, and on
+the 3rd Rupert and Maurice appeared with a force of all arms at Burford.
+Yet the Committee of Both Kingdoms, though aware on the 29th of Goring's
+move, only made up its mind to stop Fairfax on the 3rd, and did not send
+off orders till the 5th. These orders were to the effect that a
+detachment was to be sent to the relief of Taunton, and that the main
+army was to return. Fairfax gladly obeyed, even though a siege of Oxford
+and not the enemy's field army was the objective assigned him. But long
+before he came up to the Thames valley the situation was again changed.
+Rupert, now in possession of the guns and their teams, urged upon his
+uncle the resumption of the northern enterprise, calculating that with
+Fairfax in Somersetshire, Oxford was safe. Charles accordingly marched
+out of Oxford on the 7th towards Stow-on-the-Wold, on the very day, as
+it chanced, that Fairfax began his return march from Blandford. But
+Goring and most of the other generals were for a march into the west, in
+the hope of dealing with Fairfax as they had dealt with Essex in 1644.
+The armies therefore parted as Essex and Waller had parted at the same
+place in 1644, Rupert and the king to march northward, Goring to return
+to his independent command in the west. Rupert, not unnaturally wishing
+to keep his influence with the king and his authority as general of the
+king's army unimpaired by Goring's notorious indiscipline, made no
+attempt to prevent the separation, which in the event proved wholly
+unprofitable. The flying column from Blandford relieved Taunton long
+before Goring's return to the west, and Colonel Weldon and Colonel
+Graves, its commanders, set him at defiance even in the open country. As
+for Fairfax, he was out of Goring's reach preparing for the siege of
+Oxford.
+
+32. _Charles in the Midlands._--On the other side also the generals were
+working by data that had ceased to have any value. Fairfax's siege of
+Oxford, ordered by the Committee on the 10th of May, and persisted in
+after it was known that the king was on the move, was the second great
+blunder of the year and was hardly redeemed, as a military measure, by
+the visionary scheme of assembling the Scots, the Yorkshiremen, and the
+midland forces to oppose the king. It is hard to understand how, having
+created a new model army "all its own" for general service, the
+Parliament at once tied it down to a local enterprise, and trusted an
+improvised army of local troops to fight the enemy's main army. In
+reality the Committee seems to have been misled by false information to
+the effect that Goring and the governor of Oxford were about to declare
+for the Parliament, but had they not despatched Fairfax to the relief of
+Taunton in the first instance the necessity for such intrigues would not
+have arisen. However, Fairfax obeyed orders, invested Oxford, and, so
+far as he was able without a proper siege train, besieged it for two
+weeks, while Charles and Rupert ranged the midlands unopposed. At the
+end of that time came news so alarming that the Committee hastily
+abdicated their control over military operations and gave Fairfax a
+free hand. "Black Tom" gladly and instantly abandoned the siege and
+marched northward to give battle to the king.
+
+Meanwhile Charles and Rupert were moving northward. On the 11th of May
+they reached Droitwich, whence after two days' rest they marched against
+Brereton. The latter hurriedly raised the sieges he had on hand, and
+called upon Yorkshire and the Scottish army there for aid. But only the
+old Lord Fairfax and the Yorkshiremen responded. Leven had just heard of
+new victories won by Montrose, and could do no more than draw his army
+and his guns over the Pennine chain into Westmorland in the hope of
+being in time to bar the king's march on Scotland via Carlisle.
+
+33. _Dundee._--After the destruction of the Campbells at Inverlochy,
+Montrose had cleared away the rest of his enemies without difficulty. He
+now gained a respectable force of cavalry by the adhesion of Lord Gordon
+and many of his clan, and this reinforcement was the more necessary as
+detachments from Leven's army under Baillie and Hurry--disciplined
+infantry and cavalry--were on the march to meet him. The Royalists
+marched by Elgin and through the Gordon country to Aberdeen, and thence
+across the Esk to Coupar-Angus, where Baillie and Hurry were encountered.
+A war of manoeuvre followed, in which they thwarted every effort of the
+Royalists to break through into the Lowlands, but in the end retired into
+Fife. Montrose thereupon marched into the hills with the intention of
+reaching the upper Forth and thence the Lowlands, for he did not disguise
+from himself the fact that there, and not in the Highlands, would the
+quarrel be decided, and was sanguine--over-sanguine, as the event
+proved--as to the support he would obtain from those who hated the kirk
+and its system. But he had called to his aid the semi-barbarous
+Highlanders, and however much the Lowlands resented a Presbyterian
+inquisition, they hated and feared the Highland clans beyond all else. He
+was equally disappointed in his own army. For a war of positions the
+Highlanders had neither aptitude nor inclination, and at Dunkeld the
+greater part of them went home. If the small remnant was to be kept to
+its duty, plunder must be found, and the best objective was the town of
+Dundee. With a small force of 750 foot and horse Montrose brilliantly
+surprised that place on the 4th of April, but Baillie and Hurry were not
+far distant, and before Montrose's men had time to plunder the prize they
+were collected to face the enemy. His retreat from Dundee was considered
+a model operation by foreign students of the art of war (then almost as
+numerous as now), and what surprised them most was that Montrose could
+rally his men after a sack had begun. The retreat itself was remarkable
+enough. Baillie moved parallel to Montrose on his left flank towards
+Arbroath, constantly heading him off from the hills and attempting to pin
+him against the sea. Montrose, however, halted in the dark so as to let
+Baillie get ahead of him and then turned sharply back, crossed Baillie's
+track, and made for the hills. Baillie soon realized what had happened
+and turned back also, but an hour too late. By the 6th the Royalists were
+again safe in the broken country of the Esk valley. But Montrose
+cherished no illusions as to joining the king at once; all he could do,
+he now wrote, was to neutralize as many of the enemy's forces as
+possible.
+
+34. _Auldearn._--For a time he wandered in the Highlands seeking
+recruits. But soon he learned that Baillie and Hurry had divided their
+forces, the former remaining about Perth and Stirling to observe him,
+the latter going north to suppress the Gordons. Strategy and policy
+combined to make Hurry the objective of the next expedition. But the
+soldier of fortune who commanded the Covenanters at Aberdeen was no mean
+antagonist. Marching at once with a large army (formed on the nucleus of
+his own trained troops and for the rest composed of clansmen and
+volunteers) Hurry advanced to Elgin, took contact with Montrose there,
+and, gradually and skilfully retiring, drew him into the hostile country
+round Inverness. Montrose fell into the trap, and Hurry took his
+measures to surprise him at Auldearn so successfully that (May 9)
+Montrose, even though the indiscipline of some of Hurry's young
+soldiers during the night march gave him the alarm, had barely time to
+form up before the enemy was upon him. But the best strategy is of no
+avail when the battle it produces goes against the strategist, and
+Montrose's tactical skill was never more conspicuous than at Auldearn.
+Alastair Macdonald with most of the Royalist infantry and the Royal
+standard was posted to the right (north) of the village to draw upon
+himself the weight of Hurry's attack; only enough men were posted in the
+village itself to show that it was occupied, and on the south side, out
+of sight, was Montrose himself with a body of foot and all the Gordon
+horse. It was the prototype, on a small scale, of Austerlitz. Macdonald
+resisted sturdily while Montrose edged away from the scene of action,
+and at the right moment and not before, though Macdonald had been driven
+back on the village and was fighting for life amongst the gardens and
+enclosures, Montrose let loose Lord Gordon's cavalry. These, abandoning
+for once the pistol tactics of their time, charged home with the sword.
+The enemy's right wing cavalry was scattered in an instant, the nearest
+infantry was promptly ridden down, and soon Hurry's army had ceased to
+exist.
+
+35. _Campaign of Naseby._--If the news of Auldearn brought Leven to the
+region of Carlisle, it had little effect on his English allies. Fairfax
+was not yet released from the siege of Oxford, in spite of the protests
+of the Scottish representatives in London. Massey, the active and
+successful governor of Gloucester, was placed in command of a field
+force on the 25th of May, but he was to lead it against, not the king,
+but Goring. At that moment the military situation once more changed
+abruptly. Charles, instead of continuing his march on to Lancashire,
+turned due eastward towards Derbyshire. The alarm at Westminster when
+this new development was reported was such that Cromwell, in spite of
+the Self-Denying Ordinance, was sent to raise an army for the defence of
+the Eastern Association. Yet the Royalists had no intentions in that
+direction. Conflicting reports as to the condition of Oxford reached the
+royal headquarters in the last week of May, and the eastward march was
+made chiefly to "spin out time" until it could be known whether it would
+be necessary to return to Oxford, or whether it was still possible to
+fight Leven in Yorkshire--his move into Westmorland was not yet
+known--and invade Scotland by the easy east coast route.
+
+Goring's return to the west had already been countermanded and he had
+been directed to march to Harborough, while the South Wales Royalists
+were also called in towards Leicester. Later orders (May 26) directed
+him to Newbury, whence he was to feel the strength of the enemy's
+positions around Oxford. It is hardly necessary to say that Goring found
+good military reasons for continuing his independent operations, and
+marched off towards Taunton regardless of the order. He redressed the
+balance there for the moment by overawing Massey's weak force, and his
+purse profited considerably by fresh opportunities for extortion, but he
+and his men were not at Naseby. Meanwhile the king, at the geographical
+centre of England, found an important and wealthy town at his mercy.
+Rupert, always for action, took the opportunity, and Leicester was
+stormed and thoroughly pillaged on the night of the 30th-31st of May.
+There was the usual panic at Westminster, but, unfortunately for
+Charles, it resulted in Fairfax being directed to abandon the siege of
+Oxford and given _carte blanche_ to bring the Royal army to battle
+wherever it was met. On his side the king had, after the capture of
+Leicester, accepted the advice of those who feared for the safety of
+Oxford--Rupert, though commander-in-chief, was unable to insist on the
+northern enterprise--and had marched to Daventry, where he halted to
+throw supplies into Oxford. Thus Fairfax in his turn was free to move,
+thanks to the insubordination of Goring, who would neither relieve
+Oxford nor join the king for an attack on the New Model. The
+Parliamentary general moved from Oxford towards Northampton so as to
+cover the Eastern Association. On the 12th of June the two armies were
+only a few miles apart, Fairfax at Kislingbury, Charles at Daventry,
+and, though the Royalists turned northward again on the 13th to resume
+the Yorkshire project under the very eyes of the enemy, Fairfax followed
+close. On the night of the 13th Charles slept at Lubenham, Fairfax at
+Guilsborough. Cromwell, just appointed lieutenant-general of the New
+Model, had ridden into camp on the morning of the 13th with fresh
+cavalry from the eastern counties, Colonel Rossiter came up with more
+from Lincolnshire on the morning of the battle, and it was with an
+incontestable superiority of numbers and an overwhelming moral advantage
+that Fairfax fought at Naseby (q.v.) on the 14th of June. The result of
+the battle, this time a decisive battle, was the annihilation of the
+Royal army. Part of the cavalry escaped, a small fraction of it in
+tolerable order, but the guns and the baggage train were taken, and,
+above all, the splendid Royal infantry were killed or taken prisoners to
+a man.
+
+36. _Effects of Naseby._--After Naseby, though the war dragged on for
+another year, the king never succeeded in raising an army as good as, or
+even more numerous than, that which Fairfax's army had so heavily
+outnumbered on the 14th of June. That the fruits of the victory could
+not be gathered in a few weeks was due to a variety of hindrances rather
+than to direct opposition--to the absence of rapid means of
+communication, the paucity of the forces engaged on both sides
+relatively to the total numbers under arms, and from time to time to the
+political exigencies of the growing quarrel between Presbyterians and
+Independents. As to the latter, within a few days of Naseby, the Scots
+rejoiced that the "back of the malignants was broken," and demanded
+reinforcements as a precaution against "the insolence of others," i.e.
+Cromwell and the Independents--"to whom alone the Lord has given the
+victory of that day." Leven had by now returned to Yorkshire, and a
+fortnight after Naseby, after a long and honourable defence by Sir
+Thomas Glemham, Carlisle fell to David Leslie's besieging corps.
+Leicester was reoccupied by Fairfax on the 18th, and on the 20th Leven's
+army, moving slowly southward, reached Mansfield. This move was
+undertaken largely for political reasons, i.e. to restore the
+Presbyterian balance as against the victorious New Model. Fairfax's army
+was intended by its founders to be a specifically English army, and
+Cromwell for one would have employed it against the Scots almost as
+readily as against malignants. But for the moment the advance of the
+northern army was of the highest military importance, for Fairfax was
+thereby set free from the necessity of undertaking sieges. Moreover, the
+publication of the king's papers taken at Naseby gave Fairfax's troops a
+measure of official and popular support which a month before they could
+not have been said to possess, for it was now obvious that they
+represented the armed force of England against the Irish, Danes, French,
+Lorrainers, &c., whom Charles had for three years been endeavouring to
+let loose on English soil. Even the Presbyterians abandoned for the time
+any attempt to negotiate with the king, and advocated a vigorous
+prosecution of the war.
+
+37. _Fairfax's Western Campaign._--This, in the hands of Fairfax and
+Cromwell, was likely to be effective. While the king and Rupert, with
+the remnant of their cavalry, hurried into South Wales to join Sir
+Charles Gerard's troops and to raise fresh infantry, Fairfax decided
+that Goring's was the most important Royalist army in the field, and
+turned to the west, reaching Lechlade on the 26th, less than a fortnight
+after the battle of Naseby. One last attempt was made to dictate the
+plan of campaign from Westminster, but the Committee refused to pass on
+the directions of the Houses, and he remained free to deal with Goring
+as he desired. Time pressed; Charles in Monmouthshire and Rupert at
+Bristol were well placed for a junction with Goring, which would have
+given them a united army 15,000 strong. Taunton, in spite of Massey's
+efforts to keep the field, was again besieged, and in Wilts and Dorset
+numerous bands of Clubmen were on foot which the king's officers were
+doing their best to turn into troops for their master. But the process
+of collecting a fresh royal army was slow, and Goring and his
+subordinate, Sir Richard Grenville, were alienating the king's most
+devoted adherents by their rapacity, cruelty and debauchery. Moreover,
+Goring had no desire to lose the independent command he had extorted at
+Stow-on-the-Wold in May. Still, it was clear that he must be disposed
+of as quickly as possible, and Fairfax requested the Houses to take
+other measures against the king (June 26). This they did by paying up
+the arrears due to Leven's army and bringing it to the Severn valley. On
+the 8th of July Leven reached Alcester, bringing with him a
+Parliamentarian force from Derbyshire under Sir John Gell. The design
+was to besiege Hereford.
+
+38. _Langport._--By that time Fairfax and Goring were at close quarters.
+The Royalist general's line of defence faced west along the Yeo and the
+Parrett between Yeovil and Bridgwater, and thus barred the direct route
+to Taunton. Fairfax, however, marched from Lechlade via Marlborough and
+Blandford--hindered only by Clubmen--to the friendly posts of Dorchester
+and Lyme, and with these as his centre of operations he was able to turn
+the headwaters of Goring's river-line via Beaminster and Crewkerne. The
+Royalists at once abandoned the south and west side of the rivers--the
+siege of Taunton had already been given up--and passed over to the north
+and east bank. Bridgwater was the right of this second line as it had
+been the left of the first; the new left was at Ilchester. Goring could
+thus remain in touch with Charles in south Wales through Bristol, and
+the siege of Taunton having been given up there was no longer any
+incentive for remaining on the wrong side of the water-line. But his
+army was thoroughly demoralized by its own licence and indiscipline, and
+the swift, handy and resolute regiments of the New Model made short work
+of its strong positions. On the 7th of July, demonstrating against the
+points of passage between Ilchester and Langport, Fairfax secretly
+occupied Yeovil. The post at that place, which had been the right of
+Goring's first position, had, perhaps rightly, been withdrawn to
+Ilchester when the second position was taken up, and Fairfax repaired
+the bridge without interruption. Goring showed himself unequal to the
+new situation. He might, if sober, make a good plan when the enemy was
+not present to disturb him, and he certainly led cavalry charges with
+boldness and skill. But of strategy in front of the enemy he was
+incapable. On the news from Yeovil he abandoned the line of the Yeo as
+far as Langport without striking a blow, and Fairfax, having nothing to
+gain by continuing his detour through Yeovil, came back and quietly
+crossed at Long Sutton, west of Ilchester (July 9). Goring had by now
+formed a new plan. A strong rearguard was posted at Langport and on high
+ground east and north-east of it to hold Fairfax, and he himself with
+the cavalry rode off early on the 8th to try and surprise Taunton. This
+place was no longer protected by Massey's little army, which Fairfax had
+called up to assist his own. But Fairfax, who was not yet across Long
+Sutton bridge, heard of Goring's raid in good time, and sent Massey
+after him with a body of horse. Massey surprised a large party of the
+Royalists at Ilminster on the 9th, wounded Goring himself, and pursued
+the fugitives up to the south-eastern edge of Langport. On the 10th
+Fairfax's advanced guard, led by Major Bethel of Cromwell's own
+regiment, brilliantly stormed the position of Goring's rearguard east of
+Langport, and the cavalry of the New Model, led by Cromwell himself,
+swept in pursuit right up to the gates of Bridgwater, where Goring's
+army, dismayed and on the point of collapse, was more or less rallied.
+Thence Goring himself retired to Barnstaple. His army, under the
+regimental officers, defended itself in Bridgwater resolutely till the
+23rd of July, when it capitulated. The fall of Bridgwater gave Fairfax
+complete control of Somerset and Dorset from Lyme to the Bristol
+channel. Even in the unlikely event of Goring's raising a fresh army, he
+would now have to break through towards Bristol by open force, and a
+battle between Goring and Fairfax could only have one result. Thus
+Charles had perforce to give up his intention of joining Goring--his
+recruiting operations in south Wales had not been so successful as he
+hoped, owing to the apathy of the people and the vigour of the local
+Parliamentary leaders--and to resume the northern enterprise begun in
+the spring.
+
+39. _Schemes of Lord Digby._--This time Rupert would not be with him.
+The prince, now despairing of success and hoping only for a peace on the
+best terms procurable, listlessly returned to his governorship of
+Bristol and prepared to meet Fairfax's impending attack. The influence
+of Rupert was supplanted by that of Lord Digby. As sanguine as Charles
+and far more energetic, he was for the rest of the campaign the guiding
+spirit of the Royalists, but being a civilian he proved incapable of
+judging the military factors in the situation from a military
+standpoint, and not only did he offend the officers by constituting
+himself a sort of confidential military secretary to the king, but he
+was distrusted by all sections of Royalists for his reckless optimism.
+The resumption of the northern enterprise, opposed by Rupert and
+directly inspired by Digby, led to nothing. Charles marched by
+Bridgnorth, Lichfield and Ashbourne to Doncaster, where on the 18th of
+August he was met by great numbers of Yorkshire gentlemen with promises
+of fresh recruits. For a moment the outlook was bright, for the
+Derbyshire men with Gell were far away at Worcester with Leven, the
+Yorkshire Parliamentarians engaged in besieging Scarborough Castle,
+Pontefract and other posts. But two days later he heard that David
+Leslie with the cavalry of Leven's army was coming up behind him, and
+that, the Yorkshire sieges being now ended, Major-General Poyntz's force
+lay in his front. It was now impossible to wait for the new levies, and
+reluctantly the king turned back to Oxford, raiding Huntingdonshire and
+other parts of the hated Eastern Association _en route_.
+
+40. _Montrose's Last Victories._--David Leslie did not pursue him.
+Montrose, though the king did not yet know it, had won two more battles,
+and was practically master of all Scotland. After Auldearn he had turned
+to meet Baillie's army in Strathspey, and by superior mobility and skill
+forced that commander to keep at a respectful distance. He then turned
+upon a new army which Lindsay, titular earl of Crawford, was forming in
+Forfarshire, but that commander betook himself to a safe distance, and
+Montrose withdrew into the Highlands to find recruits (June). The
+victors of Auldearn had mostly dispersed on the usual errand, and he was
+now deserted by most of the Gordons, who were recalled by the chief of
+their clan, the marquess of Huntly, in spite of the indignant
+remonstrances of Huntly's heir, Lord Gordon, who was Montrose's warmest
+admirer. Baillie now approached again, but he was weakened by having to
+find trained troops to stiffen Lindsay's levies, and a strong force of
+the Gordons had now been persuaded to rejoin Montrose. The two armies
+met in battle near Alford on the Don; little can be said of the
+engagement save that Montrose had to fight cautiously and tentatively as
+at Aberdeen, not in the decision-forcing spirit of Auldearn, and that in
+the end Baillie's cavalry gave way and his infantry was cut down as it
+stood. Lord Gordon was amongst the Royalist dead (July 2). The plunder
+was put away in the glens before any attempt was made to go forward, and
+thus the Covenanters had leisure to form a numerous, if not very
+coherent, army on the nucleus of Lindsay's troops. Baillie, much against
+his will, was continued in the command, with a council of war (chiefly
+of nobles whom Montrose had already defeated, such as Argyll, Elcho and
+Balfour) to direct his every movement. Montrose, when rejoined by the
+Highlanders, moved to meet him, and in the last week of July and the
+early part of August there were manoeuvres and minor engagements round
+Perth. About the 7th of August Montrose suddenly slipped away into the
+Lowlands, heading for Glasgow. Thereupon another Covenanting army began
+to assemble in Clydesdale. But it was clear that Montrose could beat
+mere levies, and Baillie, though without authority and despairing of
+success, hurried after him. Montrose then, having drawn Baillie's
+Fifeshire militia far enough from home to ensure their being
+discontented, turned upon them on the 14th of August near Kilsyth.
+Baillie protested against fighting, but his aristocratic masters of the
+council of war decided to cut off Montrose from the hills by turning his
+left wing. The Royalist general seized the opportunity, and his advance
+caught them in the very act of making a flank march (August 15). The
+head of the Covenanters' column was met and stopped by the furious
+attack of the Gordon infantry, and Alastair Macdonald led the men of his
+own name and the Macleans against its flank. A breach was made in the
+centre of Baillie's army at the first rush, and then Montrose sent in
+the Gordon and Ogilvy horse. The leading half of the column was
+surrounded, broken up and annihilated. The rear half, seeing the fate of
+its comrades, took to flight, but in vain, for the Highlanders pursued
+_a outrance_. Only about one hundred Covenanting infantry out of six
+thousand escaped. Montrose was now indeed the king's lieutenant in all
+Scotland.
+
+41. _Fall of Bristol._--But Charles was in no case to resume his
+northern march. Fairfax and the New Model, after reducing Bridgwater,
+had turned back to clear away the Dorsetshire Clubmen and to besiege
+Sherborne Castle. On the completion of this task, it had been decided to
+besiege Bristol, and on the 23rd of August--while the king's army was
+still in Huntingdon, and Goring was trying to raise a new army to
+replace the one he had lost at Langport and Bridgwater--the city was
+invested. In these urgent circumstances Charles left Oxford for the west
+only a day or two after he had come in from the Eastern Association
+raid. Calculating that Rupert could hold out longest, he first moved to
+the relief of Worcester, around which place Leven's Scots, no longer
+having Leslie's cavalry with them to find supplies, were more occupied
+with plundering their immediate neighbourhood for food than with the
+siege works. Worcester was relieved on the 1st of September by the king.
+David Leslie with all his cavalry was already on the march to meet
+Montrose, and Leven had no alternative but to draw off his infantry
+without fighting. Charles entered Worcester on the 8th, but he found
+that he could no longer expect recruits from South Wales. Worse was to
+come. A few hours later, on the night of the 9th-10th, Fairfax's army
+stormed Bristol. Rupert had long realized the hopelessness of further
+fighting--the very summons to surrender sent in by Fairfax placed the
+fate of Bristol on the political issue,--the lines of defence around the
+place were too extensive for his small force, and on the 11th he
+surrendered on terms. He was escorted to Oxford with his men, conversing
+as he rode with the officers of the escort about peace and the future of
+his adopted country. Charles, almost stunned by the suddenness of the
+catastrophe, dismissed his nephew from all his offices and ordered him
+to leave England, and for almost the last time called upon Goring to
+rejoin the main army--if a tiny force of raw infantry and disheartened
+cavalry can be so called--in the neighbourhood of Raglan. But before
+Goring could be brought to withdraw his objections Charles had again
+turned northward towards Montrose. A weary march through the Welsh hills
+brought the Royal army on the 22nd of September to the neighbourhood of
+Chester. Charles himself with one body entered the city, which was
+partially invested by the Parliamentarian colonel Michael Jones, and the
+rest under Sir Marmaduke Langdale was sent to take Jones's lines in
+reverse. But at the opportune moment Poyntz's forces, which had followed
+the king's movements since he left Doncaster in the middle of August,
+appeared in rear of Langdale, and defeated him in the battle of Rowton
+Heath (September 24), while at the same time a sortie of the king's
+troops from Chester was repulsed by Jones. Thereupon the Royal army
+withdrew to Denbigh, and Chester, the only important seaport remaining
+to connect Charles with Ireland, was again besieged.
+
+42. _Philiphaugh._--Nor was Montrose's position, even after Kilsyth,
+encouraging, in spite of the persistent rumours of fighting in
+Westmorland that reached Charles and Digby. Glasgow and Edinburgh were
+indeed occupied, and a parliament summoned in the king's name. But
+Montrose had now to choose between Highlanders and Lowlanders. The
+former, strictly kept away from all that was worth plundering, rapidly
+vanished, even Alastair Macdonald going with the rest. Without the
+Macdonalds and the Gordons, Montrose's military and political
+resettlement of Scotland could only be shadowy, and when he demanded
+support from the sturdy middle classes of the Lowlands, it was not
+forgotten that he had led Highlanders to the sack of Lowland towns. Thus
+his new supporters could only come from amongst the discontented and
+undisciplined Border lords and gentry, and long before these moved to
+join him the romantic conquest of Scotland was over. On the 6th of
+September David Leslie had recrossed the frontier with his cavalry and
+some infantry he had picked up on the way through northern England.
+Early on the morning of the 13th he surprised Montrose at Philiphaugh
+near Selkirk. The king's lieutenant had only 650 men against 4000, and
+the battle did not last long. Montrose escaped with a few of his
+principal adherents, but his little army was annihilated. Of the veteran
+Macdonald infantry, 500 strong that morning, 250 were killed in the
+battle and the remainder put to death after accepting quarter. The
+Irish, even when they bore a Scottish name, were, by Scotsmen even more
+than Englishmen, regarded as beasts to be knocked on the head. After
+Naseby the Irishwomen found in the king's camp were branded by order of
+Fairfax; after Philiphaugh more than 300 women, wives or followers of
+Macdonald's men, were butchered. Montrose's Highlanders at their worst
+were no more cruel than the sober soldiers of the kirk.
+
+43. _Digby's Northern Expedition._--Charles received the news of
+Philiphaugh on the 28th of September, and gave orders that the west
+should be abandoned, the prince of Wales should be sent to France, and
+Goring should bring up what forces he could to the Oxford region. On the
+4th of October Charles himself reached Newark (whither he had marched
+from Denbigh after revictualling Chester and suffering the defeat of
+Rowton Heath). The intention to go to Montrose was of course given up,
+at any rate for the present, and he was merely waiting for Goring and
+the Royalist militia of the west--each in its own way a broken reed to
+lean upon. A hollow reconciliation was patched up between Charles and
+Rupert, and the court remained at Newark for over a month. Before it set
+out to return to Oxford another Royalist force had been destroyed. On
+the 14th of October, receiving information that Montrose had raised a
+new army, the king permitted Langdale's northern troops to make a fresh
+attempt to reach Scotland. At Langdale's request Digby was appointed to
+command in this enterprise, and, civilian though he was, and disastrous
+though his influence had been to the discipline of the army, he led it
+boldly and skilfully. His immediate opponent was Poyntz, who had
+followed the king step by step from Doncaster to Chester and back to
+Welbeck, and he succeeded on the 15th in surprising Poyntz's entire
+force of foot at Sherburn. Poyntz's cavalry were soon after this
+reported approaching from the south, and Digby hoped to trap them also.
+At first all went well and body after body of the rebels was routed. But
+by a singular mischance the Royalist main body mistook the Parliamentary
+squadrons in flight through Sherburn for friends, and believing all was
+lost took to flight also. Thus Digby's cavalry fled as fast as Poyntz's
+and in the same direction, and the latter, coming to their senses first,
+drove the Royalist horse in wild confusion as far as Skipton. Lord Digby
+was still sanguine, and from Skipton he actually penetrated as far as
+Dumfries. But whether Montrose's new army was or was not in the
+Lowlands, it was certain that Leven and Leslie were on the Border, and
+the mad adventure soon came to an end. Digby, with the mere handful of
+men remaining to him, was driven back into Cumberland, and on the 24th
+of October, his army having entirely disappeared, he took ship with his
+officers for the Isle of Man. Poyntz had not followed him beyond
+Skipton, and was now watching the king from Nottingham, while Rossiter
+with the Lincoln troops was posted at Grantham. The king's chances of
+escaping from Newark were becoming smaller day by day, and they were not
+improved by a violent dispute between him and Rupert, Maurice, Lord
+Gerard and Sir Richard Willis, at the end of which these officers and
+many others rode away to ask the Parliament for leave to go over-seas.
+The pretext of the quarrel mattered little, the distinction between the
+views of Charles and Digby on the one hand and Rupert and his friends on
+the other was fundamental--to the latter peace had become a political as
+well as a military necessity. Meanwhile south Wales, with the single
+exception of Raglan Castle, had been overrun by the Parliamentarians.
+Everywhere the Royalist posts were falling. The New Model, no longer
+fearing Goring, had divided, Fairfax reducing the garrisons of Dorset
+and Devon, Cromwell those of Hampshire. Amongst the latter was the
+famous Basing House, which was stormed at dawn on the 14th of October
+and burnt to the ground. Cromwell, his work finished, returned to
+headquarters, and the army wintered in the neighbourhood of Crediton.
+
+44. _End of the First War._--The military events of 1646 call for no
+comment. The only field army remaining to the king was Goring's, and
+though Hopton, who sorrowfully accepted the command after Goring's
+departure, tried at the last moment to revive the memories and the local
+patriotism of 1643, it was of no use to fight against the New Model with
+the armed rabble that Goring turned over to him. Dartmouth surrendered
+on January 18, Hopton was defeated at Torrington on February 16, and
+surrendered the remnant of his worthless army on March 14. Exeter fell
+on April 13. Elsewhere, Hereford was taken on December 17, 1645, and the
+last battle of the war was fought and lost at Stow-on-the-Wold by Lord
+Astley on March 21, 1646. Newark and Oxford fell respectively on May 6
+and June 24. On August 31 Montrose escaped from the Highlands. On the
+19th of the same month Raglan Castle surrendered, and the last Royalist
+post of all, Harlech Castle, maintained the useless struggle until March
+13, 1647. Charles himself, after leaving Newark in November 1645, had
+spent the winter in and around Oxford, whence, after an adventurous
+journey, he came to the camp of the Scottish army at Southwell on May 5,
+1646.
+
+45. _Second Civil War (1648-52)._--The close of the First Civil War left
+England and Scotland in the hands potentially of any one of the four
+parties or any combination of two or more that should prove strong enough
+to dominate the rest. Armed political Royalism was indeed at an end, but
+Charles, though practically a prisoner, considered himself and was, almost
+to the last, considered by the rest as necessary to ensure the success of
+whichever amongst the other three parties could come to terms with him.
+Thus he passed successively into the hands of the Scots, the Parliament
+and the New Model, trying to reverse the verdict of arms by coquetting
+with each in turn. The Presbyterians and the Scots, after Cornet Joyce of
+Fairfax's horse seized upon the person of the king for the army (June 3,
+1647), began at once to prepare for a fresh civil war, this time against
+Independency, as embodied in the New Model--henceforward called the
+Army--and after making use of its sword, its opponents attempted to
+disband it, to send it on foreign service, to cut off its arrears of pay,
+with the result that it was exasperated beyond control, and, remembering
+not merely its grievances but also the principle for which it had fought,
+soon became the most powerful political party in the realm. From 1646 to
+1648 the breach between army and parliament widened day by day until
+finally the Presbyterian party, combined with the Scots and the remaining
+Royalists, felt itself strong enough to begin a second civil war.
+
+46. _The English War._--In February 1648 Colonel Poyer, the
+Parliamentary governor of Pembroke Castle, refused to hand over his
+command to one of Fairfax's officers, and he was soon joined by some
+hundreds of officers and men, who mutinied, ostensibly for arrears of
+pay, but really with political objects. At the end of March, encouraged
+by minor successes, Poyer openly declared for the king. Disbanded
+soldiers continued to join him in April, all South Wales revolted, and
+eventually he was joined by Major-General Laugharne, his district
+commander, and Colonel Powel. In April also news came that the Scots
+were arming and that Berwick and Carlisle had been seized by the English
+Royalists. Cromwell was at once sent off at the head of a strong
+detachment to deal with Laugharne and Poyer. But before he arrived
+Laugharne had been severely defeated by Colonel Horton at St Fagans (May
+8). The English Presbyterians found it difficult to reconcile their
+principles with their allies when it appeared that the prisoners taken
+at St Fagans bore "We long to see our King" on their hats; very soon in
+fact the English war became almost purely a Royalist revolt, and the war
+in the north an attempt to enforce a mixture of Royalism and
+Presbyterianism on Englishmen by means of a Scottish army. The former
+were disturbers of the peace and no more. Nearly all the Royalists who
+had fought in the First Civil War had given their parole not to bear
+arms against the Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, foremost
+amongst them the old Lord Astley, who had fought the last battle for the
+king in 1646, refused to break their word by taking any part in the
+second war. Those who did so, and by implication those who abetted them
+in doing so, were likely to be treated with the utmost rigour if
+captured, for the army was in a less placable mood in 1648 than in 1645,
+and had already determined to "call Charles Stuart, that man of blood,
+to an account for the blood he had shed." On the 21st of May Kent rose
+in revolt in the king's name. A few days later a most serious blow to
+the Independents was struck by the defection of the navy, from command
+of which they had removed Vice-Admiral Batten, as being a Presbyterian.
+Though a former lord high admiral, the earl of Warwick, also a
+Presbyterian, was brought back to the service, it was not long before
+the navy made a purely Royalist declaration and placed itself under the
+command of the prince of Wales. But Fairfax had a clearer view and a
+clearer purpose than the distracted Parliament. He moved quickly into
+Kent, and on the evening of June 1 stormed Maidstone by open force,
+after which the local levies dispersed to their homes, and the more
+determined Royalists, after a futile attempt to induce the City of
+London to declare for them, fled into Essex. In Cornwall,
+Northamptonshire, North Wales and Lincolnshire the revolt collapsed as
+easily. Only in South Wales, Essex and the north of England was there
+serious fighting. In the first of these districts Cromwell rapidly
+reduced all the fortresses except Pembroke, where Laugharne, Poyer and
+Powel held out with the desperate courage of deserters. In the north,
+Pontefract was surprised by the Royalists, and shortly afterwards
+Scarborough Castle declared for the king. Fairfax, after his success at
+Maidstone and the pacification of Kent, turned northward to reduce
+Essex, where, under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir
+Charles Lucas, the Royalists were in arms in great numbers. He soon
+drove the enemy into Colchester, but the first attack on the town was
+repulsed and he had to settle down to a long and wearisome siege _en
+regle_. A Surrey rising, remembered only for the death of the young and
+gallant Lord Francis Villiers in a skirmish at Kingston (July 7),
+collapsed almost as soon as it had gathered force, and its leaders, the
+duke of Buckingham and the earl of Holland, escaped, after another
+attempt to induce London to declare for them, to St Albans and St Neots,
+where Holland was taken prisoner. Buckingham escaped over-seas.
+
+47. _Lambert in the North._--By the 10th of July therefore the military
+situation was well defined. Cromwell held Pembroke, Fairfax Colchester,
+Lambert Pontefract under siege; elsewhere all serious local risings had
+collapsed, and the Scottish army had crossed the Border. It is on the
+adventures of the latter that the interest of the war centres. It was by
+no means the veteran army of Leven, which had long been disbanded. For
+the most part it consisted of raw levies, and as the kirk had refused to
+sanction the enterprise of the Scottish parliament, David Leslie and
+thousands of experienced officers and men declined to serve. The duke of
+Hamilton proved to be a poor substitute for Leslie; his army, too, was
+so ill provided that as soon as England was invaded it began to plunder
+the countryside for the bare means of sustenance. Major-General Lambert,
+a brilliant young general of twenty-nine, was more than equal to the
+situation. He had already left the sieges of Pontefract and Scarborough
+to Colonel Rossiter, and hurried into Cumberland to deal with the
+English Royalists under Sir Marmaduke Langdale. With his cavalry he got
+into touch with the enemy about Carlisle and slowly fell back, fighting
+small rearguard actions to annoy the enemy and gain time, to Bowes and
+Barnard Castle. Langdale did not follow him into the mountains, but
+occupied himself in gathering recruits and supplies of material and food
+for the Scots. Lambert, reinforced from the midlands, reappeared early
+in June and drove him back to Carlisle with his work half finished.
+About the same time the local horse of Durham and Northumberland were
+put into the field by Sir A. Hesilrige, governor of Newcastle, and under
+the command of Colonel Robert Lilburne won a considerable success (June
+30) at the river Coquet. This reverse, coupled with the existence of
+Langdale's force on the Cumberland side, practically compelled Hamilton
+to choose the west coast route for his advance, and his army began
+slowly to move down the long _couloir_ between the mountains and the
+sea. The campaign which followed is one of the most brilliant in English
+history.
+
+48. _Campaign of Preston._--On the 8th of July the Scots, with Langdale
+as advanced guard, were about Carlisle, and reinforcements from Ulster
+were expected daily. Lambert's horse were at Penrith, Hexham and
+Newcastle, too weak to fight and having only skilful leading and
+rapidity of movement to enable them to gain time. Far away to the south
+Cromwell was still tied down before Pembroke, Fairfax before Colchester.
+Elsewhere the rebellion, which had been put down by rapidity of action
+rather than sheer weight of numbers, smouldered, and Prince Charles and
+the fleet cruised along the Essex coast. Cromwell and Lambert, however,
+understood each other perfectly, while the Scottish commanders
+quarrelled with Langdale and each other. Appleby Castle surrendered to
+the Scots on the 31st of July, whereat Lambert, who was still hanging on
+to the flank of the Scottish advance, fell back from Barnard Castle to
+Richmond so as to close Wensleydale against any attempt of the invaders
+to march on Pontefract. All the restless energy of Langdale's horse was
+unable to dislodge him from the passes or to find out what was behind
+that impenetrable cavalry screen. The crisis was now at hand. Cromwell
+had received the surrender of Pembroke on the 11th, and had marched off,
+with his men unpaid, ragged and shoeless, at full speed through the
+midlands. Rains and storms delayed his march, but he knew that Hamilton
+in the broken ground of Westmorland was still worse off. Shoes from
+Northampton and stockings from Coventry met him at Nottingham, and,
+gathering up the local levies as he went, he made for Doncaster, where
+he arrived on the 8th of August, having gained six days in advance of
+the time he had allowed himself for the march. He then called up
+artillery from Hull, exchanged his local levies for the regulars who
+were besieging Pontefract, and set off to meet Lambert. On the 12th he
+was at Wetherby, Lambert with horse and foot at Otley, Langdale at
+Skipton and Gargrave, Hamilton at Lancaster, and Sir George Monro with
+the Scots from Ulster and the Carlisle Royalists (organized as a
+separate command owing to friction between Monro and the generals of the
+main army) at Hornby. On the 13th, while Cromwell was marching to join
+Lambert at Otley, the Scottish leaders were still disputing as to
+whether they should make for Pontefract or continue through Lancashire
+so as to join Lord Byron and the Cheshire Royalists.
+
+49. _Preston Fight._--On the 14th Cromwell and Lambert were at Skipton,
+on the 15th at Gisburn, and on the 16th they marched down the valley of
+the Ribble towards Preston with full knowledge of the enemy's
+dispositions and full determination to attack him. They had with them
+horse and foot not only of the army, but also of the militia of
+Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland and Lancashire, and withal were heavily
+outnumbered, having only 8600 men against perhaps 20,000 of Hamilton's
+command. But the latter were scattered for convenience of supply along
+the road from Lancaster, through Preston, towards Wigan, Langdale's corps
+having thus become the left flank guard instead of the advanced guard.
+Langdale called in his advanced parties, perhaps with a view to resuming
+the duties of advanced guard, on the night of the 13th, and collected
+them near Longridge. It is not clear whether he reported Cromwell's
+advance, but, if he did, Hamilton ignored the report, for on the 17th
+Monro was half a day's march to the north, Langdale east of Preston, and
+the main army strung out on the Wigan road, Major-General Baillie with a
+body of foot, the rear of the column, being still in Preston. Hamilton,
+yielding to the importunity of his lieutenant-general, the earl of
+Callendar, sent Baillie across the Ribble to follow the main body just as
+Langdale, with 3000 foot and 500 horse only, met the first shock of
+Cromwell's attack on Preston Moor. Hamilton, like Charles at Edgehill,
+passively shared in, without directing, the battle, and, though
+Langdale's men fought magnificently, they were after four hours' struggle
+driven to the Ribble. Baillie attempted to cover the Ribble and Darwen
+bridges on the Wigan road, but Cromwell had forced his way across both
+before nightfall. Pursuit was at once undertaken, and not relaxed until
+Hamilton had been driven through Wigan and Winwick to Uttoxeter and
+Ashbourne. There, pressed furiously in rear by Cromwell's horse and held
+up in front by the militia of the midlands, the remnant of the Scottish
+army laid down its arms on the 25th of August. Various attempts were made
+to raise the Royalist standard in Wales and elsewhere, but Preston was
+the death-blow. On the 28th of August, starving and hopeless of relief,
+the Colchester Royalists surrendered to Lord Fairfax. The victors in the
+Second Civil War were not merciful to those who had brought war into the
+land again. On the evening of the surrender of Colchester, Sir Charles
+Lucas and Sir George Lisle were shot. Laugharne, Poyer and Powel were
+sentenced to death, but Poyer alone was executed on the 25th of April
+1649, being the victim selected by lot. Of five prominent Royalist peers
+who had fallen into the hands of the Parliament, three, the duke of
+Hamilton, the earl of Holland, and Lord Capel, one of the Colchester
+prisoners and a man of high character, were beheaded at Westminster on
+the 9th of March. Above all, after long hesitations, even after renewal
+of negotiations, the army and the Independents "purged" the House of
+their ill-wishers, and created a court for the trial and sentence of the
+king. The more resolute of the judges nerved the rest to sign the
+death-warrant, and Charles was beheaded at Whitehall on the 30th of
+January.
+
+50. _Cromwell in Ireland._--The campaign of Preston was undertaken under
+the direction of the Scottish parliament, not the kirk, and it needed
+the execution of the king to bring about a union of all Scottish parties
+against the English Independents. Even so, Charles II. in exile had to
+submit to long negotiations and hard conditions before he was allowed to
+put himself at the head of the Scottish armies. The marquis of Huntly
+was executed for taking up arms for the king on the 22nd of March 1649.
+Montrose, under Charles's directions, made a last attempt to rally the
+Scottish Royalists early in 1650. But Charles merely used Montrose as a
+threat to obtain better conditions for himself from the Covenanters, and
+when the noblest of all the Royalists was defeated (Carbisdale, April
+27), delivered up to his pursuers (May 4), and executed (May 21, 1650),
+he was not ashamed to give way to the demands of the Covenanters, and to
+place himself at the head of Montrose's executioners. His father,
+whatever his faults, had at least chosen to die for an ideal, the Church
+of England. Charles II. now proposed to regain the throne by allowing
+Scotland to impose Presbyterianism on England, and dismissed all the
+faithful Cavaliers who had followed him to exile. Meanwhile, Ireland, in
+which a fresh war, with openly anti-English and anti-Protestant objects,
+had broken out in 1648, was thoroughly reduced to order by Cromwell, who
+beat down all resistance by his skill, and even more by his ruthless
+severity, in a brief campaign of nine months (battle of Rathmines near
+Dublin, won by Colonel Michael Jones, August 2, 1649; storming of
+Drogheda, September 11, and of Wexford, October 11, by Cromwell; capture
+of Kilkenny, March 28, 1650, and of Clonmel, May 10). Cromwell returned
+to England at the end of May 1650, and on June 26 Fairfax, who had been
+anxious and uneasy since the execution of the king, resigned the
+command-in-chief of the army to his lieutenant-general. The pretext,
+rather than the reason, of Fairfax's resignation was his unwillingness
+to lead an English army to reduce Scotland.
+
+51. _The Invasion of Scotland._--This important step had been resolved
+upon as soon as it was clear that Charles II. would come to terms with
+the Covenanters. From this point the Second Civil War becomes a war of
+England against Scotland. Here at least the Independents carried the
+whole of England with them. No Englishman cared to accept a settlement
+at the hands of a victorious foreign army, and on the 28th of June, five
+days after Charles II. had sworn to the Covenant, the new lord-general
+was on his way to the Border to take command of the English army. About
+the same time a new militia act was passed that was destined to give
+full and decisive effect to the national spirit of England in the great
+final campaign of the war. Meanwhile the motto _frappez fort, frappez
+vite_ was carried out at once by the regular forces. On the 19th of July
+1650 Cromwell made the final arrangements at Berwick-on-Tweed.
+Major-General Harrison, a gallant soldier and an extreme Independent,
+was to command the regular and auxiliary forces left in England, and to
+secure the Commonwealth against Royalists and Presbyterians. Cromwell
+took with him Fleetwood as lieutenant-general and Lambert as
+major-general, and his forces numbered about 10,000 foot and 5000 horse.
+His opponent David Leslie (his comrade of Marston Moor) had a much
+larger force, but its degree of training was inferior, it was more than
+tainted by the political dissensions of the people at large, and it was,
+in great part at any rate, raised by forced enlistment. On the 22nd of
+July Cromwell crossed the Tweed. He marched on Edinburgh by the sea
+coast, through Dunbar, Haddington and Musselburgh, living almost
+entirely on supplies landed by the fleet which accompanied him--for the
+country itself was incapable of supporting even a small army--and on the
+29th he found Leslie's army drawn up and entrenched in a position
+extending from Leith to Edinburgh.
+
+52. _Operations around Edinburgh._--The same day a sharp but indecisive
+fight took place on the lower slopes of Arthur's Seat, after which
+Cromwell, having felt the strength of Leslie's line, drew back to
+Musselburgh. Leslie's horse followed him up sharply, and another action
+was fought, after which the Scots assaulted Musselburgh without success.
+Militarily Leslie had the best of it in these affairs, but it was
+precisely this moment that the kirk party chose to institute a searching
+three days' examination of the political and religious sentiments of his
+army. The result was that the army was "purged" of 80 officers and 3000
+soldiers as it lay within musket shot of the enemy. Cromwell was more
+concerned, however, with the supply question than with the distracted
+army of the Scots. On the 6th of August he had to fall back as far as
+Dunbar to enable the fleet to land supplies in safety, the port of
+Musselburgh being unsafe in the violent and stormy weather which
+prevailed. He soon returned to Musselburgh and prepared to force Leslie
+to battle. In preparation for an extended manoeuvre three days' rations
+were served out. Tents were also issued, perhaps for the first time in
+the civil wars, for it was a regular professional army, which had to be
+cared for, made comfortable and economized, that was now carrying on the
+work of the volunteers of the first war. Even after Cromwell started on
+his manoeuvre, the Scottish army was still in the midst of its political
+troubles, and, certain though he was that nothing but victory in the
+field would give an assured peace, he was obliged to intervene in the
+confused negotiations of the various Scottish parties. At last, however,
+Charles II. made a show of agreeing to the demands of his strange
+supporters, and Leslie was free to move. Cromwell had now entered the
+hill country, with a view to occupying Queensferry and thus blocking up
+Edinburgh. Leslie had the shorter road and barred the way at
+Corstorphine Hill (August 21). Cromwell, though now far from his base,
+manoeuvred again to his right, Leslie meeting him once more at Gogar
+(August 27). The Scottish lines at that point were strong enough to
+dismay even Cromwell, and the manoeuvre on Queensferry was at last given
+up. It had cost the English army severe losses in sick, and much
+suffering in the autumn nights on the bleak hillsides.
+
+53. _Dunbar._--On the 28th Cromwell fell back on Musselburgh, and on the
+31st, after embarking his non-effective men, to Dunbar. Leslie followed
+him up, and wished to fight a battle at Dunbar on Sunday, the 1st of
+September. But again the kirk intervened, this time to forbid Leslie to
+break the Sabbath, and the unfortunate Scottish commander could only
+establish himself on Doon Hill (see DUNBAR) and send a force to
+Cockburnspath to bar the Berwick road. He had now 23,000 men to
+Cromwell's 11,000, and proposed, _faute de mieux_, to starve Cromwell
+into surrender. But the English army was composed of "ragged soldiers
+with bright muskets," and had a great captain of undisputed authority at
+their head. Leslie's, on the other hand, had lost such discipline as it
+had ever possessed, and was now, under outside influences, thoroughly
+disintegrated. Cromwell wrote home, indeed, that he was "upon an
+engagement very difficult," but, desperate as his position seemed, he
+felt the pulse of his opponent and steadily refused to take his army
+away by sea. He had not to wait long. It was now the turn of Leslie's
+men on the hillside to endure patiently privation and exposure, and
+after one night's bivouac, Leslie, too readily inferring that the enemy
+was about to escape by sea, came down to fight. The battle of Dunbar
+(q.v.) opened in the early morning of the 3rd of September. It was the
+most brilliant of all Oliver's victories. Before the sun was high in the
+heavens the Scottish army had ceased to exist.
+
+54. _Royalism in Scotland._--After Dunbar it was easy for the victorious
+army to overrun southern Scotland, more especially as the dissensions of
+the enemy were embittered by the defeat of which they had been the prime
+cause. The kirk indeed put Dunbar to the account of its own remissness
+in not purging their army more thoroughly, but, as Cromwell wrote on the
+4th of September, the kirk had "done its do." "I believe their king will
+set up on his own score," he continued, and indeed, now that the army of
+the kirk was destroyed and they themselves were secure behind the Forth
+and based on the friendly Highlands, Charles and the Cavaliers were in a
+position not only to defy Cromwell, but also to force the Scottish
+national spirit of resistance to the invader into a purely Royalist
+channel. Cromwell had only received a few drafts and reinforcements from
+England, and for the present he could but block up Edinburgh Castle
+(which surrendered on Christmas eve), and try to bring up adequate
+forces and material for the siege of Stirling--an attempt which was
+frustrated by the badness of the roads and the violence of the weather.
+The rest of the early winter of 1650 was thus occupied in semi-military,
+semi-political operations between detachments of the English army and
+certain armed forces of the kirk party which still maintained a
+precarious existence in the western Lowlands, and in police work against
+the moss-troopers of the Border counties. Early in February 1651, still
+in the midst of terrible weather, Cromwell made another resolute but
+futile attempt to reach Stirling. This time he himself fell sick, and
+his losses had to be made good by drafts of recruits from England, many
+of whom came most unwillingly to serve in the cold wet bivouacs that the
+newspapers had graphically reported.[7]
+
+55. _The English Militia._--About this time there occurred in England
+two events which had a most important bearing on the campaign. The first
+was the detection of a widespread Royalist-Presbyterian conspiracy--how
+widespread no one knew, for those of its promoters who were captured and
+executed certainly formed but a small fraction of the whole number.
+Harrison was ordered to Lancashire in April to watch the north Welsh,
+Isle of Man and Border Royalists, and military precautions were taken in
+various parts of England. The second was the revival of the militia.
+Since 1644 there had been no general employment of local forces, the
+quarrel having fallen into the hands of the regular armies by force of
+circumstances. The New Model, though a national army, resembled
+Wellington's Peninsular army more than the soldiers of the French
+Revolution and the American Civil War. It was now engaged in prosecuting
+a war of aggression against the hereditary foe over the Border--strictly
+the task of a professional army with a national basis. The militia was
+indeed raw and untrained. Some of the Essex men "fell flat on their
+faces on the sound of a cannon." In the north of England Harrison
+complained to Cromwell of the "badness" of his men, and the lord general
+sympathized, having "had much such stuff" sent him to make good the
+losses in trained men. Even he for a moment lost touch with the spirit
+of the people. His recruits were unwilling drafts for foreign service,
+but in England the new levies were trusted to defend their homes, and
+the militia was soon triumphantly to justify its existence on the day of
+Worcester.
+
+56. _Inverkeithing._--While David Leslie organized and drilled the
+king's new army beyond the Forth, Cromwell was, slowly and with frequent
+relapses, recovering from his illness. The English army marched to
+Glasgow in April, then returned to Edinburgh. The motives of the march
+and that of the return are alike obscure, but it may be conjectured
+that, the forces in England under Harrison having now assembled in
+Lancashire, the Edinburgh-Newcastle-York road had to be covered by the
+main army. Be this as it may, Cromwell's health again broke down and his
+life was despaired of. Only late in June were operations actively
+resumed between Stirling and Linlithgow. At first Cromwell sought
+without success to bring Leslie to battle, but he stormed Callendar
+House near Falkirk on July 13, and on the 16th of July he began the
+execution of a brilliant and successful manoeuvre. A force from
+Queensferry, covered by the English fleet, was thrown across the Firth
+of Forth to Northferry. Lambert followed with reinforcements, and
+defeated a detachment of Leslie's army at Inverkeithing on the 20th.
+Leslie drew back at once, but managed to find a fresh strong position in
+front of Stirling, whence he defied Cromwell again. At this juncture
+Cromwell prepared to pass his whole army across the firth. His
+contemplated manoeuvre of course gave up to the enemy all the roads into
+England, and before undertaking it the lord general held a consultation
+with Harrison, as the result of which that officer took over the direct
+defence of the whole Border. But his mind was made up even before this,
+for on the day he met Harrison at Linlithgow three-quarters of his whole
+army had already crossed into Fife. Burntisland, surrendered to Lambert
+on the 29th, gave Cromwell a good harbour upon which to base his
+subsequent movements. On the 30th of July the English marched upon
+Perth, and the investment of this place, the key to Leslie's supply
+area, forced the crisis at once. Whether Leslie would have preferred to
+manoeuvre Cromwell from his vantage-ground or not is immaterial; the
+young king and the now predominant Royalist element at headquarters
+seized the long-awaited opportunity at once, and on the 31st, leaving
+Cromwell to his own devices, the Royal army marched southward to raise
+the Royal standard in England.
+
+57. _The Third Scottish Invasion of England._--Then began the last and
+most thrilling campaign of the Great Rebellion. Charles II. expected
+complete success. In Scotland, _vis-a-vis_ the extreme Covenanters, he
+was a king on conditions, and he was glad enough to find himself in
+England with some thirty solidly organized regiments under Royalist
+officers and with no regular army in front of him. He hoped, too, to
+rally not merely the old faithful Royalists, but also the overwhelming
+numerical strength of the English Presbyterians to his standard. His
+army was kept well in hand, no excesses were allowed, and in a week the
+Royalists covered 150 m.--in marked contrast to the duke of Hamilton's
+ill-fated expedition of 1648. On the 8th of August the troops were given
+a well-earned rest between Penrith and Kendal.
+
+But the Royalists were mistaken in supposing that the enemy was taken
+aback by their new move. Everything had been foreseen both by Cromwell
+and by the Council of State in Westminster. The latter had called out
+the greater part of the militia on the 7th. Lieutenant-General Fleetwood
+began to draw together the midland contingents at Banbury, the London
+trained bands turned out for field service no fewer than 14,000 strong.
+Every suspected Royalist was closely watched, and the magazines of arms
+in the country-houses of the gentry were for the most part removed into
+the strong places. On his part Cromwell had quietly made his
+preparations. Perth passed into his hands on the 2nd of August, and he
+brought back his army to Leith by the 5th. Thence he despatched Lambert
+with a cavalry corps to harass the invaders. Harrison was already at
+Newcastle picking the best of the county mounted troops to add to his
+own regulars. On the 9th Charles was at Kendal, Lambert hovering in his
+rear, and Harrison marching swiftly to bar his way at the Mersey.
+Fairfax emerged for a moment from his retirement to organize the
+Yorkshire levies, and the best of these as well as of the Lancashire,
+Cheshire and Staffordshire militias were directed upon Warrington, which
+point Harrison reached on the 15th, a few hours in front of Charles's
+advanced guard. Lambert too, slipping round the left flank of the enemy,
+joined Harrison, and the English fell back (16th), slowly and without
+letting themselves be drawn into a fight, along the London road.
+
+58. _Campaign of Worcester._--Cromwell meanwhile, leaving Monk with the
+least efficient regiments to carry on the war in Scotland, had reached
+the Tyne in seven days, and thence, marching 20 m. a day in extreme
+heat--with the country people carrying their arms and equipment--the
+regulars entered Ferrybridge on the 19th, at which date Lambert,
+Harrison and the north-western militia were about Congleton.[8] It
+seemed probable that a great battle would take place between Lichfield
+and Coventry about the 25th or 26th of August, and that Cromwell,
+Harrison, Lambert and Fleetwood would all take part in it. But the scene
+and the date of the _denouement_ were changed by the enemy's movements.
+Shortly after leaving Warrington the young king had resolved to abandon
+the direct march on London and to make for the Severn valley, where his
+father had found the most constant and the most numerous adherents in
+the first war, and which had been the centre of gravity of the English
+Royalist movement of 1648. Sir Edward Massey, formerly the Parliamentary
+governor of Gloucester, was now with Charles, and it was hoped that he
+would induce his fellow-Presbyterians to take arms. The military quality
+of the Welsh border Royalists was well proved, that of the
+Gloucestershire Presbyterians not less so, and, based on Gloucester and
+Worcester as his father had been based on Oxford, Charles II. hoped, not
+unnaturally, to deal with an Independent minority more effectually than
+Charles I. had done with a Parliamentary majority of the people of
+England. But even the pure Royalism which now ruled in the invading army
+could not alter the fact that it was a Scottish army, and it was not an
+Independent faction but all England that took arms against it. Charles
+arrived at Worcester on the 22nd of August, and spent five days in
+resting the troops, preparing for further operations, and gathering and
+arming the few recruits who came in. It is unnecessary to argue that the
+delay was fatal; it was a necessity of the case foreseen and accepted
+when the march to Worcester had been decided upon, and had the other
+course, that of marching on London via Lichfield, been taken the battle
+would have been fought three days earlier with the same result. As
+affairs turned out Cromwell merely shifted the area of his concentration
+two marches to the south-west, to Evesham. Early on the 28th Lambert
+surprised the passage of the Severn at Upton, 6 m. below Worcester, and
+in the action which followed Massey was severely wounded. Fleetwood
+followed Lambert. The enemy was now only 16,000 strong and disheartened
+by the apathy with which they had been received in districts formerly
+all their own. Cromwell, for the first and last time in his military
+career, had a two-to-one numerical superiority.
+
+59. _The "Crowning Mercy."_--He took his measures deliberately. Lilburne
+from Lancashire and Major Mercer with the Worcestershire horse were to
+secure Bewdley Bridge on the enemy's line of retreat. Lambert and
+Fleetwood were to force their way across the Teme (a little river on
+which Rupert had won his first victory in 1642) and attack St John's,
+the western suburb of Worcester. Cromwell himself and the main army were
+to attack the town itself. On the 3rd of September, the anniversary of
+Dunbar, the programme was carried out exactly. Fleetwood forced the
+passage of the Teme, and the bridging train (which had been carefully
+organized for the purpose) bridged both the Teme and the Severn. Then
+Cromwell on the left bank and Fleetwood on the right swept in a
+semicircle 4 m. long up to Worcester. Every hedgerow was contested by
+the stubborn Royalists, but Fleetwood's men would not be denied, and
+Cromwell's extreme right on the eastern side of the town repelled, after
+three hours' hard fighting, the last desperate attempt of the Royalists
+to break out. It was indeed, as a German critic[9] has pointed out, the
+prototype of Sedan. Everywhere the defences were stormed as darkness
+came on, regulars and militia fighting with equal gallantry, and the few
+thousands of the Royalists who escaped during the night were easily
+captured by Lilburne and Mercer, or by the militia which watched every
+road in Yorkshire and Lancashire. Even the country people brought in
+scores of prisoners, for officers and men alike, stunned by the
+suddenness of the disaster, offered no resistance. Charles escaped after
+many adventures, but he was one of the few men in his army who regained
+a place of safety. The Parliamentary militia were sent home within a
+week. Cromwell, who had ridiculed "such stuff" six months ago, knew them
+better now. "Your new raised forces," he wrote to the House, "did
+perform singular good service, for which they deserve a very high
+estimation and acknowledgment." Worcester resembled Sedan in much more
+than outward form. Both were fought by "nations in arms," by citizen
+soldiers who had their hearts in the struggle, and could be trusted not
+only to fight their hardest but to march their best. Only with such
+troops would a general dare to place a deep river between the two halves
+of his army or to send away detachments beforehand to reap the fruits of
+victory, in certain anticipation of winning the victory with the
+remainder. The sense of duty, which the raw militia possessed in so high
+a degree, ensured the arrival and the action of every column at the
+appointed time and place. The result was, in brief, one of those rare
+victories in which a pursuit is superfluous--a "crowning mercy," as
+Cromwell called it. There is little of note in the closing operations.
+Monk had completed his task by May 1652; and Scotland, which had twice
+attempted to impose its will on England, found itself reduced to the
+position of an English province under martial law. The details of its
+subjection are uninteresting after the tremendous climax of Worcester.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Earl of Clarendon, _The History of the Rebellion_
+  (Oxford, 1702-1704, ed. W. D. Macray, Oxford, 1888); R. Baillie,
+  _Letters and Journals_ (Bannatyne Society, 1841); T. Carlyle,
+  _Cromwell's Letters and Speeches_ (new edition, S. C. Lomas, London,
+  1904); _Fairfax Correspondence_ (ed. R. Bell, London, 1849); E.
+  Borlace, _History of the Irish Rebellion_ (London, 1675); R. Bellings,
+  _Fragmentum historicum, or the ... War in Ireland_ (London, 1772); J.
+  Heath, _Chronicle of the late Intestine War_ (London, 1676); _Military
+  Memoir of Colonel Birch_ (Camden Society, new series, vol. vii.,
+  1873); _Autobiography of Captain John Hodgson_ (edition of 1882);
+  Papers on the earl of Manchester, Camden Society, vol. viii., and
+  _English Historical Review_, vol. iii.; J. Ricraft, _Survey of
+  England's Champions_ (1647, reprinted, London, 1818); ed. E.
+  Warburton, _Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers_ (London,
+  1849); J. Vicars, _Jehovah-Jireh_ (1644), and _England's Worthies_
+  (1647), the latter reprinted in 1845: Anthony a Wood, _History and
+  Antiquities of the University of Oxford_ (ed. J. Gutch, Oxford,
+  1792-1795); Margaret, duchess of Newcastle, Life of _William
+  Cavendish, duke of Newcastle_ (ed. C. H. Firth, London, 1886); Lucy
+  Hutchinson, _Memoir of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson_ (ed. C. H.
+  Firth, Oxford, 1896); _Memoirs of Edward Ludlow_ (ed. C. H. Firth,
+  Oxford, 1892); S. Ashe and W. Goode, _The Services of the Earl of
+  Manchester's Army_ (London, 1644); H. Cary, _Memorials of the Great
+  Civil War_ (London, 1842); Patrick Gordon, _Passages from the Diary of
+  Patrick Gordon_ (Spalding Club, Aberdeen, 1859); J. Gwynne, _Military
+  Memoirs of the Civil War_ (ed. Sir W. Scott, Edinburgh, 1822);
+  _Narratives of Hamilton's Expedition_, 1648 (C. H. Firth, Scottish
+  Historical Society, Edinburgh, 1904); Lord Hopton, _Bellum Civile_
+  (Somerset Record Society, London, 1902); _Irish War of 1641_ (Camden
+  Society, old series, vol. xiv., 1841); _Iter Carolinum, Marches of
+  Charles I. 1641-1649_ (London, 1660); Hugh Peters, _Reports from the
+  Armies of Fairfax and Cromwell_ (London, 1645-1646); "Journal of the
+  Marches of Prince Rupert" (ed. C. H. Firth, _Engl. Historical Review_,
+  1898); J. Sprigge, _Anglia Rediviva_ (London, 1847, reprinted Oxford,
+  1854); R. Symonds, _Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army, 1644-1645_
+  (ed. C. E. Long, Camden Society, old series, 1859); J. Corbet, _The
+  Military Government of Gloucester_ (London, 1645); M. Carter,
+  _Expeditions of Kent, Essex and Colchester_ (London, 1650); _Tracts
+  relating to the Civil War in Lancashire_ (ed. G. Ormerod, Chetham
+  Society, London, 1844); _Discourse of the War in Lancashire_ (ed. W.
+  Beament, Chetham Society, London, 1864); Sir M. Langdale, _The late
+  Fight at Preston_ (London, 1648); _Journal of the Siege of Lathom
+  House_ (London, 1823); J. Rushworth, _The Storming of Bristol_
+  (London, 1645); S. R. Gardiner _History of the Great Civil War_
+  (London, 1886); and _History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_
+  (London, 1903); C. H. Firth, _Oliver Cromwell_ (New York and London,
+  1900); _Cromwell's Army_ (London, 1902); "The Raising of the
+  Ironsides," _Transactions R. Hist. Society_, 1899 and 1901; papers in
+  _English Historical Review_, and memoirs of the leading personages of
+  the period in _Dictionary of National Biography_; T. S. Baldock,
+  _Cromwell as a Soldier_ (London, 1899); F. Hoenig, _Oliver Cromwell_
+  (Berlin, 1887-1889); Sir J. Maclean, _Memoirs of the Family of Poyntz_
+  (Exeter, 1886); Sir C. Markham, _Life of Fairfax_ (London, 1870); M.
+  Napier, _Life and Times of Montrose_ (Edinburgh, 1840); W. B.
+  Devereux, _Lives of the Earls of Essex_ (London, 1853); W. G. Ross,
+  _Mil. Engineering in the Civil War_ (R. E. Professional Papers, 1887);
+  "The Battle of Naseby," _English Historical Review_, 1888; _Oliver
+  Cromwell and his Ironsides_ (Chatham, 1869); F. N. Maude, _Cavalry,
+  its Past and Future_ (London, 1903); E. Scott, _Rupert, Prince
+  Palatine_ (London, 1899); M. Stace, _Cromwelliana_ (London, 1870); C.
+  S. Terry, _Life and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven_
+  (London, 1899); Madame H. de Witt, _The Lady of Lathom_ (London,
+  1869); F. Maseres, _Tracts relating to the Civil War_ (London, 1815);
+  P. A. Charrier, _Cromwell_ (London, 1905), also paper in _Royal United
+  Service Institution Journal_, 1906; T. Arnold and W. G. Ross,
+  "Edgehill," _English Historical Review_, 1887; _The History of Basing
+  House_ (Basingstoke, 1869); E. Broxap, "The Sieges of Hull," _English
+  Historical Review_, 1905; J. Willis Bund, _The Civil War in
+  Worcestershire_ (Birmingham, 1905); C. Coates, _History of Reading_
+  (London, 1802); F. Drake, _Eboracum: History of the City of York_
+  (London, 1736); N. Drake, _Siege of Pontefract Castle_ (Surtees
+  Society Miscellanea, London, 1861); G. N. Godwin, _The Civil War in
+  Hampshire_ (2nd ed., London, 1904); J. F. Hollings, _Leicester during
+  the Civil War_ (Leicester, 1840); R. Holmes, _Sieges of Pontefract
+  Castle_ (Pontefract, 1887); A. Kingston, _East Anglia and the Civil
+  War_ (London, 1897); H. E. Maiden, "Maidstone, 1648," _English Hist.
+  Review_, 1892; W. Money, _Battles of Newbury_ (Newbury, 1884); J. R.
+  Phillips, _The Civil War in Wales and the Marches_ (London, 1874); G.
+  Rigaud, _Lines round Oxford_ (1880); G. Roberts, _History of Lyme_
+  (London, 1834); [R. Robinson] _Sieges of Bristol_ (Bristol, 1868); [J.
+  H. Round] _History of Colchester Castle_ (Colchester, 1882) and "The
+  Case of Lucas and Lisle," _Transactions of R. Historical Society_,
+  1894; R. R. Sharpe, _London and the Kingdom_ (London, 1894); I.
+  Tullie, _Siege of Carlisle_ (1840); E. A. Walford, "Edgehill,"
+  _English Hist. Review_, 1905; J. Washbourne, _Bibliotheca
+  Gloucestrensis_ (Gloucester, 1825); J. Webb, _Civil War in
+  Herefordshire_(London, 1879).     (C. F. A.)
+
+  FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Gustavus Adolphus before the battle of the Alte Veste (see THIRTY
+    YEARS' WAR).
+
+  [2] "Making not money but that which they took to be the public
+    felicity to be their end they were the more engaged to be valiant"
+    (Baxter).
+
+  [3] For the third time within the year the London trained bands
+    turned out in force. It was characteristic of the early years of the
+    war that imminent danger alone called forth the devotion of the
+    citizen soldier. If he was employed in ordinary times (e.g. at Basing
+    House) he would neither fight nor march with spirit.
+
+  [4] Charles's policy was still, as before Marston Moor, to "spin out
+    time" until Rupert came back from the north.
+
+  [5] The ground has been entirely built over for many years.
+
+  [6] The Puritans had by now disappeared almost entirely from the
+    ranks of the infantry. _Per contra_ the officers and sergeants and
+    the troopers of the horse were the sternest Puritans of all, the
+    survivors of three years of a disheartening war.
+
+  [7] The tents were evidently issued for regular marches, not for
+    cross-country manoeuvres against the enemy. These manoeuvres, as we
+    have seen, often took several days. The _bon general ordinaire_ of
+    the 17th and 18th centuries framed his manoeuvres on a smaller scale
+    so as not to expose his expensive and highly trained soldiers to
+    discomfort and the consequent temptation to desert.
+
+  [8] The lord general had during his march thrown out successively two
+    flying columns under Colonel Lilburne to deal with the Lancashire
+    Royalists under the earl of Derby. Lilburne entirely routed the enemy
+    at Wigan on the 25th of August.
+
+  [9] Fritz Hoenig, _Cromwell_.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT SALT LAKE, a shallow body of highly concentrated brine in the N.W.
+part of Utah, U.S.A., lying between 118.8 deg. and 113.2 deg. W. long,
+and between 40.7 deg. and 41.8 deg. lat. Great Salt Lake is 4218 ft.
+above sea-level. It has no outlet, and is fed chiefly by the Jordan, the
+Weber and the Bear rivers, all draining the mountainous country to the
+E. and S.E. The irregular outline of the lake has been compared to the
+roughly drawn hand, palm at the S., thumb (exaggerated in breadth)
+pointing N.E., and the fingers (crowded together and drawn too small)
+reaching N.
+
+No bathymetric survey of the lake has been made, but the maximum depth
+is 60 ft. and the mean depth less than 20 ft., possibly as little as 13
+ft. The lake in 1906 was approximately 75 m. long., from N.W. to S.E.,
+and had a maximum width of 50 m. and an area of 1750 sq. m. This area is
+not constant, as the water is very shallow at the margins, and the
+relation between supply from precipitation, &c., and loss by evaporation
+is variable, there being an annual difference in the height of the water
+of 15-18 in. between June (highest) and November (lowest), and besides a
+difference running through longer cycles: in 1850 the water was lower
+and the lake smaller than by any previous observations (the area and
+general outline were nearly the same again in 1906); then the water rose
+until 1873; and between 1886 and 1902 the fall in level was 11.6 ft. The
+range of rise and fall from 1845 to 1886 was 13 ft., this being the rise
+in 1865-1886. With the fall of water there is an increase in the
+specific gravity, which in 1850 was 1.17, and in September 1901 was
+1.179; in 1850 the proportion of solids by weight was 22.282%, in
+September 1901 it was 25.221; at the earlier of these dates the solids
+in a litre of water weighed 260.69 grams, at the latter date 302.122
+grams. The exact cause of this cyclic variation is unknown: the low
+level of 1906 is usually regarded as the result of extensive irrigation
+and ploughing in the surrounding country, which have robbed the lake, in
+part, of its normal supply of water. It is also to be noted that the
+rise and fall of the lake level have been coincident, respectively, with
+continued wet and dry cycles. That the lake will soon dry up entirely
+seems unlikely, as there is a central trough, 25 to 30 m. wide, about 40
+ft. deep, running N.W. and S.E. The area and shore-line of the lake are
+evidently affected by a slight surface tilt, for during the same
+generation that has seen the recent fall of the lake level the
+shore-line is in many cases 2 m. from the old, and fences may be seen a
+mile or more out in the lake. The lake bed is for the most part clear
+sand along the margin, and in deeper water is largely coated with crusts
+of salt, soda and gypsum.
+
+The lake is a novel and popular bathing resort, the specific gravity of
+the water being so great that one cannot sink or entirely submerge
+oneself. There are well-equipped bathing pavilions at Garfield and
+Saltair on the S. shore of the lake about 20 m. from Salt Lake City. The
+bathing is invigorating; it must be followed by a freshwater bath
+because of the incrustation of the body from the briny water. The large
+amount of salt in the water makes both fauna and flora of the lake
+scanty; there are a few algae, the larvae of an _Ephydra_ and of a
+_Tipula_ fly, specimens of what seems to be _Corixa decolor_, and in
+great quantities, so as to tint the surface of the water, the brine
+shrimp, _Artemia salina_ (or _gracilis_ or _fertilis_), notable
+biologically for the rarity of males, for the high degree of
+parthenogenesis and for apparent interchangeableness with the
+_Branchipus_.
+
+The lake is of interest for its generally mountainous surroundings, save
+to the N.W., where it skirts the Great Salt Lake Desert, for the
+mountainous peninsula, the Promontory, lying between thumb and fingers
+of the hand, shaped like and resembling in geological structure the two
+islands S. of it, Fremont and Antelope,[1] and the Oquirrh range S. of
+the lake. The physiography of the surrounding country shows clearly that
+the basin occupied by Great Salt Lake is one of many left by the drying
+up of a large Pleistocene lake, which has been called lake Bonneville.
+Well-defined wave-cut cliffs and terraces show two distinct shore-lines
+of this early lake, one the "Bonneville Shore-line," about 1000 ft.
+above Great Salt Lake, and the other, the "Provo Shoreline," about 625
+ft. higher than the present lake. These shorelines and the presence of
+two alluvial deposits, the lower and the larger of yellow clay 90 ft.
+deep, and, separated from it by a plane of erosion, the other, a deposit
+of white marl, 10-20 ft. deep, clearly prove the main facts as to lake
+Bonneville: a dry basin was first occupied by the shallow waters of a
+small lake; then, during a long period of excessive moisture (or cold),
+the waters rose and spread over an area nearly as large as lake Huron
+with a maximum depth of 1000 ft.; a period of great dryness followed, in
+which the lake disappeared; then came a second, shorter, but more
+intense period of moisture, and in this time the lake rose, covered a
+larger area than before, including W. Utah and a little of S. Idaho and
+of E. Nevada, about 19,750 sq. m., had a very much broken shore-line of
+2550 m. and a maximum depth of 1050 ft. and a mean depth of 800 ft.,
+overflowed the basin at the N., and by a tributary stream through Red
+Rock Pass at the N. end of the Cache valley poured its waters into the
+Columbia river system. The great lake was then gradually reduced by
+evaporation, leaving only shallow bodies of salt water, of which Great
+Salt Lake is the largest. The cause of the climatic variations which
+brought about this complex history of the Salt Lake region is not known;
+but it is worthy of note that the periods of highest water levels were
+coincident with a great expansion of local valley glaciers, some of
+which terminated in the waters of lake Bonneville.
+
+Industrially Great Salt Lake is of a certain importance. In early days
+it was the source of the salt supply of the surrounding country; and the
+manufacture of salt is now an important industry. The brine is pumped
+into conduits, carried to large ponds and there evaporated by the sun;
+during late years the salt has been refined here, being purified of the
+sulphates and magnesium compounds which formerly rendered it
+efflorescent and of a low commercial grade. Mirabilite, or Glauber's
+salt, is commercially valuable, occurring in such quantities in parts of
+the lake that one may wade knee-deep in it; it separates from the brine
+at a temperature between 30 deg. and 20 deg. F. The lake is crossed E.
+and W. by the Southern Pacific railway's so-called "Lucin Cut-off,"
+which runs from Ogden to Lucin on a trestle with more than 20 m. of
+"fill"; the former route around the N. end of the lake was 43 m. long.
+
+Great Salt Lake was first described in 1689 by Baron La Hontan, who had
+merely heard of it from the Indians. "Jim" Bridger, a famous mountaineer
+and scout, saw the lake in 1824, apparently before any other white man.
+Captain Bonneville described the lake and named it after himself, but
+the name was transferred to the great Pleistocene lake. John C. Fremont
+gave the first description of any accuracy in his _Report_ of 1845. But
+comparatively little was known of it before the Mormon settlement in
+1847. In 1850 Captain Howard Stansbury completed a survey, whose results
+were published in 1852. The most extensive and important studies of the
+region, however, are those by Grove Karl Gilbert of the United States
+Geological Survey, who in 1879-1890 studied especially the earlier and
+greater lake.
+
+  See J. E. Talmage, _The Great Salt Lake, Present and Past_ (Salt Lake
+  City, 1900); and Grove Karl Gilbert, _Lake Bonneville_, monograph 1 of
+  United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1890), containing (pp.
+  12-19) references to the earlier literature.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Besides these islands there are a few small islands farther N.,
+    and W. of Antelope, Stansbury Island, which, like Antelope and
+    Fremont Islands, is connected with the mainland by a bar sometimes
+    uncovered, and rarely in more than a foot of water.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT SLAVE LAKE (ATHAPUSCOW), a lake of Mackenzie district, Canada. It
+is situated between 60 deg. 50' and 62 deg. 55' N. and 108 deg. 40' and
+117 deg. W., at an altitude of 391 ft. above the sea. It is 325 m. long,
+from 15 to 50 m. wide, and includes an area of 9770 sq. m. The water is
+very clear and deep. Its coast line is irregular and deeply indented by
+large bays, and its north-eastern shores are rugged and mountainous. The
+western shores are well wooded, chiefly with spruce, but the northern
+and eastern are dreary and barren. It is navigable from about the 1st of
+July to the end of October. The Yellow-knife, Hoarfrost, Lockhart
+(discharging the waters of Aylmer, Clinton-Colden and Artillery Lakes),
+Tchzudezeth, Du Rocher, Hay (400 m. in length), and Slave rivers empty
+into Great Slave Lake. The bulk of its water empties by the Mackenzie
+river into the Arctic Ocean, but a small portion finds its way by the
+Ark-i-linik river into Hudson's Bay. It was discovered in 1771 by Samuel
+Hearne.
+
+
+
+
+GREAT SOUTHERN OCEAN, the name given to the belt of water which extends
+almost continuously round the globe between the parallel of 40 deg. S.
+and the Antarctic Circle (66-1/2 deg. S.). The fact that the southern
+extremity of South America is the only land extending into this belt
+gives it special physical importance in relation to tides and currents,
+and its position with reference to the Antarctic Ocean and continent
+makes it convenient to regard it as a separate ocean from which the
+Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans may be said to radiate. (See OCEAN.)
+
+
+
+
+GREAVES, JOHN (1602-1652), English mathematician and antiquary, was the
+eldest son of John Greaves, rector of Colemore, near Alresford in
+Hampshire. He was educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and in 1630 was
+chosen professor of geometry in Gresham College, London. After
+travelling in Europe, he visited the East in 1637, where he collected a
+considerable number of Arabic, Persian and Greek manuscripts, and made a
+more accurate survey of the pyramids of Egypt than any traveller who had
+preceded him. On his return to Europe he visited a second time several
+parts of Italy, and during his stay at Rome instituted inquiries into
+the ancient weights and measures. In 1643 he was appointed to the
+Savilian professorship of astronomy at Oxford, but he was deprived of
+his Gresham professorship for having neglected its duties. In 1645 he
+essayed a reformation of the calendar, but his plan was not adopted. In
+1648 he lost both his fellowship and his Savilian chair on account of
+his adherence to the royalist party. But his private fortune more than
+sufficed for all his wants till his death on the 8th of October 1652.
+
+  Besides his papers in the _Philosophical Transactions_, the principal
+  works of Greaves are _Pyramidographia, or a Description of the
+  Pyramids in Egypt_ (1646); _A Discourse on the Roman Foot and_
+  _Denarius_ (1649); and _Elementa linguae Persicae_ (1649). His
+  miscellaneous works were published in 1737 by Dr Thomas Birch, with a
+  biographical notice of the author. See also Smith's _Vita quorundam
+  erudit. virorum_ and Ward's _Gresham Professors_.
+
+
+
+
+GREBE (Fr. _grebe_), the generally accepted name for all the birds of
+the family _Podicipedidae_,[1] belonging to the group _Pygopodes_ of
+Illiger, members of which inhabit almost all parts of the world. Some
+systematic writers have distributed them into several so-called genera,
+but, with one exception, these seem to be insufficiently defined, and
+here it will be enough to allow but two--Latham's _Podiceps_ and the
+_Centropelma_ of Sclater and Salvin. Grebes are at once distinguishable
+from all other water-birds by their rudimentary tail and the peculiar
+structure of their feet, which are not only placed far behind, but have
+the tarsi flattened and elongated toes furnished with broad lobes of
+skin and flat blunt nails.
+
+[Illustration: Great Crested Grebe.]
+
+In Europe are five well-marked species of _Podiceps_, the commonest and
+smallest of which is the very well-known dab-chick of English ponds, _P.
+fluviatilis_ or _minor_, the little grebe of ornithologists, found
+throughout the British Islands, and with a wide range in the old world.
+Next in size are two species known as the eared and horned grebes, the
+former of which, _P. nigricollis_, is a visitor from the south, only
+occasionally showing itself in Britain and very rarely breeding, while
+the latter, _P. auritus_, has a more northern range, breeding
+plentifully in Iceland, and is a not uncommon winter-visitant. Then
+there is the larger red-necked grebe, _P. griseigena_, also a northern
+bird, and a native of the subarctic parts of both Europe and America,
+while lastly the great crested grebe, _P. cristatus_ or gaunt--known as
+the loon on the meres and broads of East Anglia and some other parts of
+England, is also widely spread over the old world. North America is
+credited with seven species of grebes, of which two (_P. griseigena_ and
+_P. auritus_) are admitted to be specifically inseparable from those
+already named, and two (_P. occidentalis_ and _P. californicus_) appear
+to be but local forms; the remaining two (_P. dominicus_ and _P.
+ludovicianus_) may, however, be accounted good species, and the last
+differs so much from other grebes that many systematists make it the
+type of a distinct genus, _Podilymbus_. South America seems to possess
+four or five more species, one of which, the _P. micropterus_ of Gould
+(_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1858, p. 220), has been deservedly separated
+from the genus _Podiceps_ under the name _Centropelma_ by Sclater and
+Salvin (_Exot. Ornithology_, p. 189, pl. xcv.), owing to the form of its
+bill, and the small size of its wings, which renders it absolutely
+flightless. Lake Titicaca in Bolivia is, so far as is known at present,
+its only habitat. Grebes in general, though averse from taking wing,
+have much greater power of flight than would seem possible on
+examination of their alar organs, and are capable of prolonged aerial
+journeys. Their plumage is short and close. Above it is commonly of some
+shade of brown, but beneath it is usually white, and so glossy as to be
+in much request for muffs and the trimming of ladies' dresses. Some
+species are remarkable for the crests or tippets, generally of a
+golden-chestnut colour, they assume in the breeding season. _P. auritus_
+is particularly remarkable in this respect, and when in its full nuptial
+attire presents an extraordinary aspect, the head (being surrounded, as
+it were, by a _nimbus_ or aureole, such as that with which painters
+adorn saintly characters), reflecting the rays of light, glitters with a
+glory that passes description. All the species seem to have similar
+habits of nidification. Water-weeds are pulled from the bottom of the
+pool, and piled on a convenient foundation, often a seminatant growth of
+bogbean (_Menyanthes_), till they form a large mass, in the centre of
+which a shallow cup is formed, and the eggs, with a chalky white shell
+almost equally pointed at each end, are laid--the parent covering them,
+whenever she has time to do so, before leaving the nest. Young grebes
+are beautiful objects, clothed with black, white and brown down,
+disposed in streaks and their bill often brilliantly tinted. When taken
+from the nest and placed on dry ground, it is curious to observe the way
+in which they progress--using the wings almost as fore-feet, and
+suggesting the notion that they must be quadrupeds instead of birds.
+     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Often, but erroneously, written _Podicipidae_. The word
+    _Podiceps_ being a contracted form of _Podicipes_ (cf. Gloger,
+    _Journal fur Ornithologie_, 1854, p. 430, note), a combination of
+    _podex_, _podicis_ and _pes_, _pedis_, its further compounds must be
+    in accordance with its derivation.
+
+
+
+
+GRECO, EL, the name commonly given to Dominico Theotocopuli (d. 1614),
+Cretan painter, architect and sculptor. He was born in Crete, between
+1545 and 1550, and announces his Cretan origin by his signature in Greek
+letters on his most important pictures, especially on the "St Maurice"
+in the Escorial. He appears to have studied art first of all in Venice,
+and on arriving in Rome in 1570 is described as having been a pupil of
+Titian, in a letter written by the miniaturist, Giulio Clovio, addressed
+to Cardinal Alessandro Farnesi, dated the 15th of November 1570.
+
+Although a student under Titian, he was at no time an exponent of his
+master's spirit, and his early historical pictures were attributed to
+many other artists, but never to Titian. Of his early works, two
+pictures of "The Healing of the Blind Man" at Dresden and Palma, and the
+four of "Christ driving the money-changers out of the Temple" in the
+Yarborough collection, the Cork collection, the National Gallery, and
+the Beruete collection at Madrid, are the chief. His first authentic
+portrait is that of his fellow-countryman, Giulio Clovio. It was painted
+between 1570 and 1578, is signed in Greek characters, and preserved at
+Naples, and the last portrait he painted under the influence of the
+Italian school appears to be that of a cardinal now in the National
+Gallery, of which four replicas painted in Spain are known. He appears
+to have come to Spain in 1577, but, on being questioned two years later
+in connexion with a judicial suit, as to when he arrived in the country,
+and for what purpose he came, declined to give any information. He was
+probably attracted by the prospect of participating in the decoration of
+the Escorial, and he appears to have settled down in Toledo, where his
+first works were the paintings for the high altar of Santo Domingo, and
+his famous picture of "The Disrobing of Christ" in the sacristy of the
+cathedral. It was in connexion with this last-named work that he proved
+refractory, and the records of a law-suit respecting the price to be
+paid to him give us the earliest information of the artist's sojourn in
+Spain. In 1590, he painted the "History of St Maurice" for Philip II.,
+and in 1578, his masterpiece, entitled "The Burial of the Count Orgaz."
+This magnificent picture, one of the finest in Spain, is at last being
+appreciated, and can only be put a little below the masterpieces of
+Velazquez. It is a strangely individual work, representing Spanish
+character even more truthfully than did any Spanish artist, and it
+gathers up all the fugitive moods, the grace and charm, the devices and
+defects of a single race, and gives them complete stability in their
+wavering expressions.
+
+Between 1595 and 1600, El Greco executed two groups of paintings in the
+church of San Jose at Toledo, and in the hospital of La Caridad, at
+Illescas. Besides these, he is known to have painted thirty-two
+portraits, several manuscripts, and many paintings for altar-pieces in
+Toledo and the neighbourhood. As an architect he was responsible for
+more than one of the churches of Toledo, and as a sculptor for carvings
+both in wood and in marble, and he can only be properly understood in
+all his varied excellences after a visit to the city where most of his
+work was executed.
+
+He died on the 7th of April 1614, and the date of his death is one of
+the very few certain facts which we have respecting him. The record
+informs us that he made no will, that he received the sacraments, and
+was buried in the church of Santo Domingo. The popular legend of his
+having gone mad towards the latter part of his career has no foundation
+in fact, but his painting became more and more eccentric as his life
+went on, and his natural perversity and love of strange, cold colouring,
+increased towards the end of his life. As has been well said, "Light
+with him was only used for emotional appeal, and was focussed or
+scattered at will." He was haughtily certain of the value of his own
+art, and was determined to paint in cold, ashen colouring, with livid,
+startling effect, the gaunt and extraordinary figures that he beheld
+with his eccentric genius. His pictures have wonderful visionary
+quality, admirable invention, and are full of passionate fervency. They
+may be considered extravagant, but are never commonplace, and are
+exceedingly attractive in their intense emotion, marvellous sincerity,
+and strange, chilly colour.
+
+El Greco's work is typically modern, and from it the portrait-painter,
+J. S. Sargent, claims to have learnt more than from that of any other
+artist. It immortalizes the character of the people amongst whom he
+dwelt, and he may be considered as the initiator of truth and realism in
+art, a precursor and inspirer of Velazquez.
+
+In his own time he was exceedingly popular, and held in great repute.
+Sonnets were written in his honour, and he is himself said to have
+written several treatises, but these have not come down to our time. For
+more than a generation his work was hardly known, but it is now gaining
+rapidly in importance, and its true position is more and more
+recognized. Some examples of the artist's own handwriting have been
+discovered in Toledo, and Senor Don Manuel Cossia of Madrid has spent
+many years collecting information for a work dealing with the artist.
+    (G. C. W.)
+
+
+
+
+GRECO-TURKISH WAR, 1897. This war between Greece and Turkey (see GREECE:
+_Modern History_) involved two practically distinct campaigns, in
+Thessaly and in Epirus. Upon the Thessalian frontier the Turks, early in
+March, had concentrated six divisions (about 58,000 men), 1500 sabres
+and 156 guns, under Edhem Pasha. A seventh division was rendered
+available a little later. The Greeks numbered about 45,000 infantry, 800
+cavalry and 96 guns, under the crown prince. On both sides there was a
+considerable dispersion of forces along the frontier. The Turkish navy,
+an important factor in the war of 1877-78, had become paralytic ten
+years later, and the Greek squadron held complete command of the sea.
+Expeditionary forces directed against the Turkish line of communications
+might have influenced the course of the campaign; but for such work the
+Greeks were quite unprepared, and beyond bombarding one or two
+insignificant ports on the coast-line, and aiding the transport of
+troops from Athens to Volo, the navy practically accomplished nothing.
+On the 9th and 10th April Greek irregulars crossed the frontier, either
+with a view to provoke hostilities or in the hope of fomenting a rising
+in Macedonia. On the 16th and 17th some fighting occurred, in which
+Greek regulars took part; and on the 18th Edhem Pasha, whose
+headquarters had for some time been established at Elassona, ordered a
+general advance. The Turkish plan was to turn the Greek left and to
+bring on a decisive action, but this was not carried out. In the centre
+the Turks occupied the Meluna Pass on the 19th, and the way was
+practically open to Larissa. The Turkish right wing, however, moving on
+Damani and the Reveni Pass, encountered resistance, and the left wing
+was temporarily checked by the Greeks among the mountains near Nezeros.
+At Mati, covering the road to Tyrnavo, the Greeks entrenched themselves.
+Here sharp fighting occurred on the 21st and 22nd, during which the
+Greeks sought to turn the right flank of the superior Turkish central
+column. On the 23rd fighting was renewed, and the advance guard of the
+Turkish left column, which had been reinforced, and had pressed back the
+Greeks, reached Deliler. The Turkish forces had now drawn together, and
+the Greeks were threatened on both flanks. In the evening a general
+retreat was ordered, and the loose discipline of the Greek army was at
+once manifested. Rumours of disaster spread among the ranks, and wild
+panic supervened. There was nothing to prevent an orderly retirement
+upon Larissa, which had been fortified and provisioned, and which
+offered a good defensive position. The general _debacle_ could not,
+however, be arrested, and in great disorder the mass of the Greek army
+fled southwards to Pharsala. There was no pursuit, and the Turkish
+commander-in-chief did not reach Larissa till the 27th. Thus ended the
+first phase of the war, in which the Greeks showed tenacity in defence,
+which proved fruitless by reason of initially bad strategic dispositions
+entailing far too great dispersion, and also because there was no plan
+of action beyond a general desire to avoid risking a defeat which might
+prevent the expected risings in Macedonia and elsewhere. The handling of
+the Turkish army showed little skill or enterprise; but on both sides
+political considerations tended to prevent the application of sound
+military principles.
+
+Larissa being abandoned by the Greeks, Velestino, the junction of the
+Thessalian railways, where there was a strong position covering Volo,
+seemed to be the natural rallying point for the Greek army. Here the
+support of the fleet would have been secured, and a Turkish advance
+across the Othrys range upon Athens could not have taken place until the
+flanking position had been captured. Whether by direction or by natural
+impulse, however, the mass of the Greek troops made for Pharsala, where
+some order was re-established, and preparations were made to resist
+attack. The importance of Velestino was recognized by sending a brigade
+thither by railway from Pharsala, and the inferior Greek army was thus
+split into two portions, separated by nearly 40 m. On 27th April a
+Turkish reconnaissance on Velestino was repulsed, and further fighting
+occurred on the 29th and 30th, in which the Greeks under Colonel
+Smolenski held their own. Meanwhile the Turks made preparations to
+attack Pharsala, and on 5th May the Greeks were driven from their
+positions in front of the town by three divisions. Further fighting
+followed on the 6th, and in the evening the Greek army retired in fair
+order upon Domokos. It was intended to turn the Greek left with the
+first division under Hairi Pasha, but the flanking force did not arrive
+in time to bring about a decisive result. The abandonment of Pharsala
+involved that of Velestino, where the Turks had obtained no advantage,
+and on the evening of the 5th Colonel Smolenski began a retirement upon
+Halmyros. Again delaying, Edhem Pasha did not attack Domokos till the
+17th, giving the Greeks time to entrench their positions. The attack was
+delivered in three columns, of which the right was checked and the
+centre failed to take the Greek trenches and suffered much loss. The
+left column, however, menaced the line of retreat, and the Greek army
+abandoned the whole position during the night. No effective stand was
+made at the Furka Pass, which was evacuated on the following night.
+Colonel Smolenski, who arrived on the 18th from Halmyros, was directed
+to hold the pass of Thermopylae. The Greek forces being much
+demoralized, the intervention of the tsar was invoked by telegraph; and
+the latter sent a personal appeal to the Sultan, who directed a
+suspension of hostilities. On the 20th an armistice was arranged.
+
+In Epirus at the outbreak of war about 15,000 Greeks, including a
+cavalry regiment and five batteries, the whole under Colonel Manos,
+occupied a line of defence from Arta to Peta. The Turks, about 28,000
+strong, with forty-eight guns, under Achmet Hifsi Pasha, were
+distributed mainly at Iannina, Pentepagadia, and in front of Arta. On
+18th April the Turks commenced a three days' bombardment of Arta; but
+successive attempts to take the bridge were repulsed, and during the
+night of the 21st they retired on Philippiada, 26 m. distant, which was
+attacked and occupied by Colonel Manos on the 23rd. The Greeks then
+advanced to Pentepagadia, meeting with little resistance. Their
+difficulties now began. After some skirmishing on the 27th, the position
+held by their advanced force near Homopulos was attacked on the 28th.
+The attack was renewed on the 29th, and no Greek reinforcements were
+forthcoming when needed. The Euzones made a good defence, but were
+driven back by superior force, and a retreat was ordered, which quickly
+degenerated into panic-stricken flight to and across the Arta.
+Reinforcements, including 2500 Epirote volunteers, were sent to Arta
+from Athens, and on 12th May another incursion into Turkish territory
+began, the apparent object being to occupy a portion of the country in
+view of the breakdown in Thessaly and the probability that hostilities
+would shortly end. The advance was made in three columns, while the
+Epirote volunteers were landed near the mouth of the Luro river with the
+idea of cutting off the Turkish garrison of Prevesa. The centre column,
+consisting of a brigade, three squadrons and two batteries, which were
+intended to take up and hold a defensive position, attacked the Turks
+near Strevina on the 13th. The Greeks fought well, and being reinforced
+by a battalion from the left column, resumed the offensive on the
+following day, and fairly held their own. On the night of the 15th a
+retreat was ordered and well carried out. The volunteers landed at the
+mouth of the Luro, were attacked and routed with heavy loss.
+
+The campaign in Epirus thus failed as completely as that in Thessaly.
+Under the terms of the treaty of peace, signed on 20th September, and
+arranged by the European powers, Turkey obtained an indemnity of
+LT4,000,000, and a rectification of the Thessalian frontier, carrying
+with it some strategic advantage. History records few more unjustifiable
+wars than that which Greece gratuitously provoked. The Greek troops on
+several occasions showed tenacity and endurance, but discipline and
+cohesion were manifestly wanting. Many of the officers were incapable;
+the campaign was gravely mismanaged; and politics, which led to the war,
+impeded its operations. On the other hand, the fruits of the German
+tuition, which began in 1880, and received a powerful stimulus by the
+appointment of General von der Goltz in 1883, were shown in the Turkish
+army. The mobilization was on the whole smoothly carried out, and the
+newly completed railways greatly facilitated the concentration on the
+frontier. The young school of officers trained by General von der Goltz
+displayed ability, and the artillery at Pharsala and Domokos was well
+handled. The superior leading was, however, not conspicuously
+successful; and while the rank and file again showed excellent military
+qualities, political conditions and the Oriental predilection for
+half-measures and for denying full responsibility and full powers to
+commanders in the field enfeebled the conduct of the campaign. On
+account of the total want of careful and systematic peace training on
+both sides, a war which presented several interesting strategic problems
+provided warnings in place of military lessons.     (G. S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GREECE,[1] an ancient geographical area, and a modern kingdom more or
+less corresponding thereto, situated at the south-eastern extremity of
+Europe and forming the most southerly portion of the Balkan Peninsula.
+The modern kingdom is bounded on the N. by European Turkey and on the
+E., S. and W. by the Aegean, Mediterranean and Ionian seas. The name
+_Graecia_, which was more or less vaguely given to the ancient country
+by the Romans, seems not to have been employed by any native writer
+before Aristotle; it was apparently derived by the Romans from the
+Illyrians, who applied the name of an Epirote tribe ([Greek: Graikoi],
+Graeci) to all their southern neighbours. The names Hellas, Hellenes
+([Greek: Hellas, Hellenes]), by which the ancient Greeks called their
+country and their race, and which are still employed by the modern
+Greeks, originally designated a small district in Phthiotis in Thessaly
+and its inhabitants, who gradually spread over the lands south of the
+Cambunian mountains. The name Hellenes was not universally applied to
+the Greek race until the post-Homeric epoch (Thucyd. i. 3).
+
+[Illustration: Map of Greece.]
+
+
+1. GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS
+
+  Extent of ancient Greece.
+
+The ancient Greeks had a somewhat vague conception of the northern
+limits of Hellas. Thessaly was generally included and Epirus excluded;
+some writers included some of the southern cantons of Epirus, while
+others excluded not only all that country but Aetolia and Acarnania.
+Generally speaking, the confines of Hellas in the age of its greatest
+distinction were represented by a line drawn from the northern shore of
+the Ambracian Gulf on the W. to the mouth of the Peneus on the E.
+Macedonia and Thrace were regarded as outside the pale of Hellenic
+civilization till 386 B.C., when after his conquest of Thessaly and
+Phocis, Philip of Macedon obtained a seat in the Amphictyonic Council.
+In another sense, however, the name Hellas expressed an ethnological
+rather than a geographical unity; it denoted every country inhabited by
+Hellenes. It thus embraced all the Greek settlements on the coasts and
+islands of the Mediterranean, on the shores of the Hellespont, the
+Bosporus and the Black Sea. Nevertheless, the Greek peninsula within the
+limits described above, together with the adjacent islands, was always
+regarded as Hellas _par excellence_. The continental area of Hellas
+proper was no greater than that of the modern Greek kingdom, which
+comprises but a small portion of the territories actually occupied by
+the Greek race. The Greeks have always been a maritime people, and the
+real centre of the national life is now, as in antiquity, the Aegean Sea
+or Archipelago. Thickly studded with islands and bordered by deeply
+indented coasts with sheltered creeks and harbours, the Aegean in the
+earliest days of navigation invited the enterprise of the mariner; its
+shores, both European and Asiatic, became covered with Greek settlements
+and its islands, together with Crete and Cyprus, became Greek. True to
+their maritime instincts, the Greeks rarely advanced inland to any
+distance from the sea; the coasts of Macedonia, Thrace and Asia Minor
+are still mainly Greek, but, except for some isolated colonies, the
+_hinterland_ in each case lies outside the limits of the race.
+Continental Greece is divided by its mountain ranges into a number of
+natural cantons; the existence of physical barriers tended in the
+earliest times to the growth of isolated political communities, and in
+the epoch of its ancient independence the country was occupied by
+seventeen separate states, none of them larger than an ordinary English
+county. These states, which are noticed separately, were: Thessaly, in
+northern Greece; Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris, Doris, Phocis, Megaris,
+Boeotia and Attica in central Greece; and Corinthia, Sicyonia, Achaea,
+Elis, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis and Arcadia in the Peloponnesus.
+
+
+  Extent of modern Greece.
+
+Modern Greece, which (including the adjacent islands) extends from 35
+deg. 50' to 39 deg. 54' N. and from 19 deg. 20' to 26 deg. 15' E.,
+comprises all the area formerly occupied by these states. Under the
+arrangement concluded at Constantinople on the 21st of July 1832 between
+Great Britain, France, Russia and Turkey, the northern boundary of
+Greece was drawn from the Gulf of Arta (Sinus Ambracius) to the Gulf of
+Volo (S. Pagasaeus), the line keeping to the crest of the Othrys range.
+Thessaly and part of Acarnania were thus left to Turkey. The island of
+Euboea, the Cyclades and the northern Sporades were added to the new
+kingdom. In 1864 the Ionian Islands (q.v.) were ceded by Great Britain
+to Greece. In 1880 the Conference of Berlin proposed a new frontier,
+which transferred to Greece not only Thessaly but a considerable portion
+of southern Epirus, extending to the river Kalamas. This, however, was
+rejected by Turkey, and the existing boundary was traced in 1881.
+Starting from the Aegean coast at a point near Platamona, between Mount
+Olympus and the mouth of the Salambria (Peneus), the line passes over
+the heights of Kritiri and Zygos (Pindus) and descends the course of the
+river Arta to its mouth. After the war of 1897 Greece restored to Turkey
+some strategical points on the frontier possessing no geographical
+importance. The greatest length of Greece is about 250 m., the greatest
+breadth 180 m. The country is generally divided into five parts, which
+are indicated by its natural features:--(i.) Northern Greece, which
+extends northwards from Mount Othrys and the gulfs of Zeitun (Lamia) and
+Arta to the Cambunian Mountains, and comprises Thessaly and a small
+portion of Epirus; (ii.) Central Greece, extending from the southern
+limits of Northern Greece to the gulfs of Corinth and Aegina; (iii.) the
+peninsula of the Peloponnesus or Morea, attached to the mainland by the
+Isthmus of Corinth; (iv.) the Ionian Islands on the west coasts of
+Epirus and Greece; (v.) The islands of the Aegean Sea, including Euboea,
+the Cyclades and the northern Sporades.
+
+
+    Physical features.
+
+  In the complexity of its contour and the variety of its natural
+  features Greece surpasses every country in Europe, as Europe surpasses
+  every continent in the world. The broken character of its coast-line
+  is unique; except a few districts in Thessaly no part of the country
+  is more than 50 m. from the sea. Although the area of Greece is
+  considerably smaller than that of Portugal, its coast-line is greater
+  than that of Spain and Portugal together. The mainland is penetrated
+  by numerous gulfs and inlets, and the adjoining seas are studded with
+  islands. Another characteristic is the number and complexity of the
+  mountain chains, which traverse every part of the country and which,
+  together with their ramifications, cover four-fifths of its surface.
+  The mountain-chains interlace, the interstices forming small enclosed
+  basins, such as the plain of Boeotia and the plateau of Arcadia; the
+  only plain of any extent is that of Thessaly. The mountains project
+  into the sea, forming peninsulas, and sometimes reappearing in rows or
+  groups of islands; they descend abruptly to the coast or are separated
+  from it by small alluvial plains. The portions of the country suitable
+  for human colonization were thus isolated one from the other, but as a
+  rule possessed easy access to the sea. The earliest settlements were
+  generally situated on or around some rocky elevation, which dominated
+  the surrounding plain and was suitable for fortification as a citadel
+  or acropolis; owing to the danger of piratical attacks they were
+  usually at some little distance from the sea, but in the vicinity of a
+  natural harbour. The physical features of the country played an
+  important part in moulding the character of its inhabitants. Protected
+  against foreign invasion by the mountain barriers and to a great
+  extent cut off from mutual intercourse except by sea, the ancient
+  Greek communities developed a marked individuality and a strong
+  sentiment of local patriotism; their inhabitants were both
+  mountaineers and mariners; they possessed the love of country, the
+  vigour and the courage which are always found in highlanders, together
+  with the spirit of adventure, the versatility and the passion for
+  freedom characteristic of a seafaring people. The great variety of
+  natural products as well as the facility of maritime communication
+  tended to the early growth of commercial enterprise, while the
+  peculiar beauty of the scenery, though little dwelt upon in ancient
+  literature, undoubtedly quickened the poetic and artistic instincts of
+  the race. The effects of physical environment are no less noticeable
+  among the modern Greeks. The rural populations of Attica and Boeotia,
+  though descended from Albanian colonists in the middle ages, display
+  the same contrast in character which marked the inhabitants of those
+  regions in ancient times.
+
+  In its general aspect the country presents a series of striking and
+  interesting contrasts. Fertile tracts covered with vineyards, olive
+  groves, corn-fields or forests display themselves in close proximity
+  with rugged heights and rocky precipices; the landscape is never,
+  monotonous; its outlines are graceful, and its colouring, owing to the
+  clearness of the air, is at once brilliant and delicate, while the
+  sea, in most instances, adds a picturesque feature, enhancing the
+  charm and variety of the scenery.
+
+
+    Mountains.
+
+  The ruling feature in the mountain system of northern Greece is the
+  great chain of Pindus, which, extending southwards from the lofty Shar
+  Dagh (Skardos) near Uskub, forms the backbone of the Balkan peninsula.
+  Reaching the frontier of Greece a little S. of lat. 40 deg., the Pindus
+  range is intersected by the Cambunian Mountains running E. and W.; the
+  eastern branch, which forms the northern boundary of Thessaly, extends
+  to the Gulf of Salonica and culminates in Mount Olympus (9754 ft.) a
+  little to the N. of the Greek frontier; then bending to the S.E. it
+  follows the coast-line, forming a rampart between the Thessalian plain
+  and the sea; the barrier is severed at one point only where the river
+  Salambria (anc. _Peneus_) finds an exit through the narrow defile of
+  Tempe. South of Tempe the mountain ridge, known as the Mavro Vouno,
+  connects the pyramidal Kissovo (anc. _Ossa_, 6400 ft.) with Plessidi
+  (anc. _Pelion_, 5310 ft.); it is prolonged in the Magnesian peninsula,
+  which separates the Gulf of Volo from the Aegean, and is continued by
+  the mountains of Euboea (highest summits, Dirphys, 5725 ft., and Ocha,
+  4830 ft.) and by the islands of Andros and Tenos. West of Pindus, the
+  Cambunian Mountains are continued by several ridges which traverse
+  Epirus from north to south, enclosing the plain and lake of Iannina;
+  the most westerly of these, projecting into the Adriatic, forms the
+  Acroceraunian promontory terminating in Cape Glossa. The principal
+  pass through the Cambunian Mountains is that of Meluna, through which
+  runs the carriage-road connecting the town of Elassona in Macedonia
+  with Larissa, the capital of Thessaly; there are horse-paths at Reveni
+  and elsewhere. The central chain of Pindus at the point where it is
+  intersected by the Cambunian Mountains forms the mass of Zygos (anc.
+  _Lacmon_, 7113 ft.) through which a horse-path connects the town of
+  Metzovo with Kalabaka in Thessaly; on the declivity immediately N. of
+  Kalabaka are a series of rocky pinnacles on which a number of
+  monasteries are perched. Trending to the S., the Pindus chain
+  terminates in the conical Mount Velouchi (anc. _Tymphrestus_, 7609
+  ft.) in the heart of the mountainous region of northern Greece. From
+  this centre-point a number of mountains radiate in all directions. To
+  the E. runs the chain of Helloro (anc. _Othrys_; highest summit,
+  Hagios Elias, 5558 ft.) separating the plain of Thessaly from the
+  valley of the Spercheios and traversed by the Phourka pass (2789 ft.);
+  to the S.E. is Mount Katavothra (anc. _Oeta_, 7080 ft.) extending to
+  the southern shore of the Gulf of Lamia at Thermopylae; to the S.E.,
+  S. and S.W. are the mountains of Aetolia and Acarnania. The Aetolian
+  group, which may be regarded as the direct continuation of the Pindus
+  range, includes Kiona (8240 ft.), the highest mountain in Greece, and
+  Vardusi (anc. _Korax_, 8190 ft.). The mountains of Acarnania with
+  [Greek: Hupsele koruphe] (5215 ft.) rise to the W. of the valley of
+  the Aspropotamo (anc. _Achelous_). The Aetolian Mountains are
+  prolonged to the S.E. by the double-crested Liakoura (anc.
+  _Parnassus_; 8064 ft.) in Phocis; by Palaeo Vouno (anc. _Helicon_,
+  5738 ft.) and Elateas (anc. _Cithaeron_, 4626 ft.) respectively W. and
+  S. of the Boeotian plain; and by the mountains of Attica,--Ozea (anc.
+  _Parnes_, 4626 ft.), Mendeli (anc. _Pentelicus_ or _Brilessos_, 3639
+  ft.), Trellovouno (anc. _Hymettus_, 3369 ft.), and Keratia (2136
+  ft.)--terminating in the promontory of Sunium, but reappearing in the
+  islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos and Siphnos. South of Cithaeron are
+  Patera in Megaris (3583 ft.) and Makri Plagi (anc. _Geraneia_, 4495
+  ft.) overlooking the Isthmus of Corinth.
+
+  The mountains of the Morea, grouped around the elevated central
+  plateau of Arcadia, form an independent system with ramifications
+  extending through the Argolid peninsula on the E. and the three
+  southern promontories of Malea, Taenaron and Acritas. At the eastern
+  end of the northern chain, separating Arcadia from the Gulf of
+  Corinth, is Ziria (anc. _Cyllene_, 7789 ft.); it forms a counterpart
+  to Parnassus on the opposite side of the gulf. A little to the W. is
+  Chelmos (anc. _Aroania_, 7725 ft.); farther W., Olonos (anc.
+  _Erymanthus_, 7297 ft.) and Voidia (anc. _Panachaicon_, 6322 ft.)
+  overlooking the Gulf of Patras. The highest summit in the Argolid
+  peninsula is Hagios Elias (anc. _Arachnaeon_, 3930 ft.). The series of
+  heights forming the eastern rampart of Arcadia, including Artemision
+  (5814 ft.) and Ktenia (5246 ft.) is continued to the S. by the Malevo
+  range (anc. _Parnon_, highest summit 6365 ft.) which extends into the
+  peninsula of Malea and reappears in the island of Cerigo. Separated
+  from Parnon by the Eurotas valley to the W., the chain of Taygetus
+  (mod. _Pentedaktylon_; highest summit Hagios Elias, 7874 ft., the
+  culminating point of the Morea) forms a barrier between the plains of
+  Laconia and Messenia; it is traversed by the Langada pass leading from
+  Sparta to Kalamata. The range is prolonged to the S. through the arid
+  district of Maina and terminates in Cape Matapan (anc. _Taenarum_).
+  The mountains of western Arcadia are less lofty and of a less marked
+  type; they include Hagios Petros (4777 ft.) and Palaeocastro (anc.
+  _Pholoe_, 2257 ft.) N. of the Alpheus valley, Diaphorti (anc.
+  _Lycaeus_, 4660 ft.), the haunt of Pan, and Nomia (4554 ft.) W. of the
+  plain of Megalopolis. Farther south, the mountains of western Messenia
+  form a detached group (Varvara, 4003 ft.; Mathia, 3140 ft.) extending
+  to Cape Gallo (anc. _Acritas_) and the Oenussae Islands. In central
+  Arcadia are Apanokrapa (anc. _Maenalus_, also sacred to Pan) and
+  Roudia (5072 ft.); the Taygetus chain forms the southern continuation
+  of these mountains.
+
+  The more noteworthy fortified heights of ancient Greece were the
+  Acrocorinthus, the citadel of Corinth (1885 ft.); Ithome (2631 ft.) at
+  Messene; Larissa (950 ft.) at Argos; the Acropolis of Mycenae (910
+  ft.); Tiryns (60 ft.) near Nauplia, which also possessed its own
+  citadel, the Palamidhi or Acro-nauplia (705 ft.); the Acropolis of
+  Athens (300 ft. above the mean level of the city and 512 ft. above the
+  sea), and the Cadmea of Thebes (715 ft.).
+
+
+    Rivers.
+
+  Greece has few rivers; most of these are small, rapid and turbid, as
+  might be expected from the mountainous configuration of the country.
+  They are either perennial rivers or torrents, the white beds of the
+  latter being dry in summer, and only filled with water after the
+  autumn rains. The chief rivers (none of which is navigable) are the
+  Salambria (_Peneus_) in Thessaly, the Mavropotamo (_Cephisus_) in
+  Phocis, the Hellada (_Spercheios_) in Phthiotis, the Aspropotamo
+  (_Achelous_) in Aetolia, and the Ruphia (_Alpheus_) and Vasiliko
+  (_Eurotas_) in the Morea. Of the famous rivers of Athens, the one, the
+  Ilissus, is only a chain of pools all summer, and the other, the
+  Cephisus, though never absolutely dry, does not reach the sea, being
+  drawn off in numerous artificial channels to irrigate the neighbouring
+  olive groves. A frequent peculiarity of the Greek rivers is their
+  sudden disappearance in subterranean chasms and reappearance on the
+  surface again, such as gave rise to the fabled course of the Alpheus
+  under the sea, and its emergence in the fountain of Arethusa in
+  Syracuse. Some of these chasms--"Katavothras"--are merely sieves with
+  herbage and gravel in the bottom, but others are large caverns through
+  which the course of the river may sometimes be followed. Floods are
+  frequent, especially in autumn, and natural fountains abound and gush
+  out even from the tops of the hills. Aganippe rises high up among the
+  peaks of Helicon, and Peirene flows from the summit of Acrocorinthus.
+  The only noteworthy cascade, however, is that of the Styx in Arcadia,
+  which has a fall of 500 ft. During part of the year it is lost in
+  snow, and it is at all times almost inaccessible. Lakes are numerous,
+  but few are of considerable size, and many merely marshes in summer.
+  The largest are Karla (_Boebeis_) in Thessaly, Trichonis in Aetolia,
+  Copais in Boeotia, Pheneus and Stymphalus in Arcadia.
+
+
+    Plains.
+
+  The valleys are generally narrow, and the plains small in extent, deep
+  basins walled in among the hills or more free at the mouths of the
+  rivers. The principal plains are those of Thessaly, Boeotia, Messenia,
+  Argos, Elis and Marathon. The bottom of these plains consists of an
+  alluvial soil, the most fertile in Greece. In some of the mountainous
+  regions, especially in the Morea, are extensive table-lands. The plain
+  of Mantinea is 2000 ft. high, and the upland district of Sciritis,
+  between Sparta and Tegea, is in some parts 3000 ft.
+
+
+    Coast.
+
+  Strabo said that the guiding thing in the geography of Greece was the
+  sea, which presses in upon it at all parts with a thousand arms. From
+  the Gulf of Arta on the one side to the Gulf of Volo on the other the
+  coast is indented with a succession of natural bays and gulfs. The
+  most important are the Gulfs of Aegina (_Saronicus_) and Lepanto
+  (_Corinthiacus_), which separate the Morea from the northern mainland
+  of Greece,--the first an inlet of the Aegean, the second of the Ionian
+  Sea,--and are now connected by a canal cut through the high land of
+  the narrow Isthmus of Corinth (3-1/2 m. wide). The outer portion of the
+  Gulf of Lepanto is called the Gulf of Patras, and the inner part the
+  Bay of Corinth; a narrow inlet on the north side of the same gulf,
+  called the Bay of Salona or Itea, penetrates northwards into Phocis so
+  far that it is within 24 geographical miles of the Gulf of Zeitun on
+  the north-east coast. The width of the entrance to the gulf of Lepanto
+  is subject to singular changes, which are ascribed to the formation of
+  alluvial deposits by certain marine currents, and their removal again
+  by others. At the time of the Peloponnesian war this channel was 1200
+  yds. broad; in the time of Strabo it was only 850; and in our own day
+  it has again increased to 2200. On the coast of the Morea there are
+  several large gulfs, that of Arcadia (_Cyparissius_) on the west,
+  Kalamata (_Messeniacus_) and Kolokythia (_Laconicus_) on the south and
+  Nauplia (_Argolicus_) on the east. Between Euboea and the mainland lie
+  the channels of Trikeri, Talanti (_Euboicum Mare_) and Egripo; the
+  latter two are connected by the strait of Egripo (_Euripus_). This
+  strait, which is spanned by a swing-bridge, is about 180 ft. wide, and
+  is remarkable for the unexplained eccentricity of its tide, which has
+  puzzled ancients and moderns alike. The current runs at the average
+  speed of 5 m. an hour, but continues only for a short time in one
+  direction, changing its course, it is said, ten or twelve times in a
+  day; it is sometimes very violent.
+
+
+    Volcanic action.
+
+  There are no volcanoes on the mainland of Greece, but everywhere
+  traces of volcanic action and frequently visitations of earthquakes,
+  for it lies near a centre of volcanic: agency, the island of Santorin,
+  which has been within recent years in a state of eruption. There is an
+  extinct crater at Mount Laphystium (_Granitsa_) in Boeotia. The
+  mountain of Methane, on the coast of Argolis, was produced by a
+  volcanic eruption in 282 B.C. Earthquakes laid Thebes in ruins in
+  1853, destroyed every house in Corinth in 1858, filled up the
+  Castalian spring in 1870, devastated Zante in 1893 and the district of
+  Atalanta in 1894. There are hot springs at Thermopylae and other
+  places, which are used for sanitary purposes. Various parts of the
+  coast exhibit indications of upheaval within historical times. On the
+  coast of Elis four rocky islets are now joined to the land, which were
+  separate from it in the days of ancient Greece. There are traces of
+  earlier sea-beaches at Corinth, and on the coast of the Morea, and at
+  the mouth of the Hellada. The land has gained so much that the pass of
+  Thermopylae which was extremely narrow in the time of Leonidas and his
+  three hundred, is now wide enough for the motions of a whole army.
+       (J. D. B.)
+
+
+    Geology.
+
+  Structurally, Greece may be divided into two regions, an eastern and a
+  western. The former includes Thessaly, Boeotia, the island of Euboea,
+  the isthmus of Corinth, and the peninsula of Argolis, and, throughout,
+  the strike of the beds is nearly from west to east. The western region
+  includes the Pindus and all the parallel ranges, and the whole of the
+  Peloponnesus excepting Argolis. Here the folds which affect the
+  Mesozoic and early Tertiary strata run approximately from N.N.W. to
+  S.S.E.
+
+  Up to the close of the 19th century the greater part of Greece was
+  believed to be formed of Cretaceous rocks, but later researches have
+  shown that the supposed Cretaceous beds include a variety of
+  geological horizons. The geological sequence begins with crystalline
+  schists and limestones, followed by Palaeozoic, Triassic and Liassic
+  rocks. The oldest beds which hitherto have yielded fossils belong to
+  the Carboniferous System (_Fusulina_ limestone of Euboea). Following
+  upon these older beds are the great limestone masses which cover most
+  of the eastern region, and which are now known to include Jurassic,
+  Tithonian, Lower and Upper Cretaceous and Eocene beds. In the Pindus
+  and the Peloponnesus these beds are overlaid by a series of shales and
+  platy limestones (Olonos Limestone of the Peloponnesus), which were
+  formerly supposed to be of Tertiary age. It has now been shown,
+  however, that the upper series of limestones has been brought upon the
+  top of the lower by a great overthrust. Triassic fossils have been
+  found in the Olonos Limestone and it is almost certain that other
+  Mesozoic horizons are represented.
+
+  The earth movements which produced the mountain chains of western
+  Greece have folded the Eocene beds and must therefore be of
+  post-Eocene date. The Neogene beds, on the other hand, are not
+  affected by the folds, although by faulting without folding they have
+  in some places been raised to a height of nearly 6000 ft. They lie,
+  however, chiefly along the coast and in the valleys, and consist of
+  marls, conglomerates and sands, sometimes with seams of lignite. The
+  Pikermi deposits, of late Miocene age, are famous for their rich
+  mammalian fauna.
+
+  Although the folding which formed the mountain chains appears to have
+  ceased, Greece is still continually shaken by earthquakes, and these
+  earthquakes are closely connected with the great lines of fracture to
+  which the country owes its outline. Around the narrow gulf which
+  separates the Peloponnesus from the mainland, earthquakes are
+  particularly frequent, and another region which is often shaken is the
+  south-western corner of Greece, the peninsula of Messene.[2] (P. La.)
+
+
+    Flora.
+
+  The vegetation of Greece in general resembles that of southern Italy
+  while presenting many types common to that of Asia Minor. Owing to the
+  geographical configuration of the peninsula and its mountainous
+  surface the characteristic flora of the Mediterranean regions is often
+  found in juxtaposition with that of central Europe. In respect to its
+  vegetation the country may be regarded as divided into four zones. In
+  the first, extending from the sea-level to the height of 1500 ft.,
+  oranges, olives, dates, almonds, pomegranates, figs and vines
+  flourish, and cotton and tobacco are grown. In the neighbourhood of
+  streams are found the laurel, myrtle, oleander and lentisk, together
+  with the plane and white poplar; the cypress is often a picturesque
+  feature in the landscape, and there is a variety of aromatic plants.
+  The second zone, from 1500 to 3500 ft., is the region of the oak,
+  chestnut and other British trees. In the third, from 3500 to 5500 ft.,
+  the beech is the characteristic forest tree; the _Abies cephalonica_
+  and _Pinus pinea_ now take the place of the _Pinus halepensis_, which
+  grows everywhere in the lower regions. Above 5500 ft. is the Alpine
+  region, marked by small plants, lichens and mosses. During the short
+  period of spring anemones and other wild flowers enrich the hillsides
+  with magnificent colouring; in June all verdure disappears except in
+  the watered districts and elevated plateaus. The asphodel grows
+  abundantly in the dry rocky soil; aloes, planted in rows, form
+  impenetrable hedges. Medicinal plants are numerous, such as the _Inula
+  Helenium_, the _Mandragora Officinarum_, the _Colchicum napolitanum_
+  and the _Helleborus orientalis_, which still grows abundantly near
+  Aspraspitia, the ancient Anticyra, at the foot of Parnassus.
+
+
+    Fauna.
+
+  The fauna is similar to that of the other Mediterranean peninsulas,
+  and includes some species found in Asia Minor but not elsewhere in
+  Europe. The lion existed in northern Greece in the time of Aristotle
+  and at an earlier period in the Morea. The bear is still found in the
+  Pindus range. Wolves are common in all the mountainous regions and
+  jackals are numerous in the Morea. Foxes are abundant in all parts of
+  the country; the polecat is found in the woods of Attica and the
+  Morea; the lynx is now rare. The wild boar is common in the mountains
+  of northern Greece, but is almost extinct in the Peloponnesus. The
+  badger, the marten and the weasel are found on the mainland and in the
+  islands. The red deer, the fallow deer and the roe exist in northern
+  Greece, but are becoming scarce. The otter is rare. Hares and rabbits
+  are abundant in many parts of the country, especially in the Cyclades;
+  the two species never occupy the same district, and in the Cyclades
+  some islands (Naxos, Melos, Tenos, &c.) form the exclusive domain of
+  the hares, others (Seriphos, Kimolos, Mykonos, &c.) of the rabbits. In
+  Andros alone a demarcation has been arrived at, the hares retaining
+  the northern and the rabbits the southern portion of the island. The
+  chamois is found in the higher mountains, such as Pindus, Parnassus
+  and Tymphrestus. The Cretan _agrimi_, or wild goat (_Capra nubiana_,
+  _C. aegagrus_), found in Antimelos and said to exist in Taygetus, the
+  jackal, the stellion, and the chameleon are among the Asiatic species
+  not found westward of Greece. There is a great variety of birds; of
+  358 species catalogued two-thirds are migratory. Among the birds of
+  prey, which are very numerous, are the golden and imperial eagle, the
+  yellow vulture, the _Gypaetus barbatus_, and several species of
+  falcons. The celebrated owl of Athena (_Athene noctua_) is becoming
+  rare at Athens, but still haunts the Acropolis and the royal garden;
+  it is a small species, found everywhere in Greece. The wild goose and
+  duck, the bustard, partridge, woodcock, snipe, wood-pigeon and
+  turtle-dove are numerous. Immense flocks of quails visit the southern
+  coast of the Morea, where they are captured in great numbers and
+  exported alive. The stork, which was common in the Turkish epoch, has
+  now become scarce. There is a great variety of reptiles, of which
+  sixty-one species have been catalogued. The saurians are all harmless;
+  among them the stellion (_Stellio vulgaris_), commonly called [Greek:
+  krokodeilos] in Mykonos and Crete, is believed by Heldreich to have
+  furnished a name to the crocodile of the Nile (Herod. ii. 69). There
+  are five species of tortoise and nine of Amphibia. Of the serpents,
+  which are numerous, there are only two dangerous species, the _Vipera
+  ammodytes_ and the _Vipera aspis_; the first-named is common. Among
+  the marine fauna are the dolphins, familiar in the legends and
+  sculpture of antiquity; in the clear water of the Aegean they often
+  afford a beautiful spectacle as they play round ships; porpoises and
+  whales are sometimes seen. Sea-fish, of which 246 species have been
+  ascertained, are very abundant.
+
+
+    Climate.
+
+  The climate of Greece, like that of the other countries of the Balkan
+  peninsula, is liable to greater extremes of heat and cold than prevail
+  in Spain and Italy; the difference is due to the general contour of
+  the peninsula, which assimilates its climatic conditions to those of
+  the European mainland. Another distinctive feature is the great
+  variety of local contrasts; the rapid transitions are the natural
+  effect of diversity in the geographical configuration of the country.
+  Within a few hours it is possible to pass from winter to spring and
+  from spring to summer. The spring is short; the sun is already
+  powerful in March, but the increasing warmth is often checked by cold
+  northerly winds; in many places the corn harvest is cut in May, when
+  southerly winds prevail and the temperature rises rapidly. The great
+  heat of summer is tempered throughout the whole region of the
+  archipelago by the Etesian winds, which blow regularly from the N.E.
+  for forty to fifty days in July and August. This current of cool dry
+  air from the north is due to the vacuum resulting from intense heat in
+  the region of the Sahara. The healthy Etesian winds are generally
+  replaced towards the end of summer by the southerly Libas or sirocco,
+  which, when blowing strongly, resembles the blast from a furnace and
+  is most injurious to health. The sirocco affects, though in a less
+  degree, the other countries of the Balkan peninsula and even Rumania.
+  The mean summer temperature is about 79 deg. Fahr. The autumn is the
+  least healthy season of the year owing to the great increase of
+  humidity, especially in October and November. At the end of October
+  snow reappears on the higher mountains, remaining on the summits till
+  June. The winter is mild, and even in January there are, as a rule,
+  many warm clear days; but the recurrence of biting northerly winds and
+  cold blasts from the mountains, as well as the rapid transitions from
+  heat to cold and the difference in the temperature of sunshine and
+  shade, render the climate somewhat treacherous and unsuitable for
+  invalids. Snow seldom falls in the maritime and lowland districts and
+  frost is rare. The mean winter temperature is from 48 deg. to 55 deg.
+  Fahr. The rainfall varies greatly according to localities; it is
+  greatest in the Ionian Islands (53.34 ins. at Corfu), in Arcadia and
+  in the other mountainous districts, and least on the Aegean littoral
+  and in the Cyclades; in Attica, the driest region in Greece, it is
+  16.1 ins. The wettest months are November, December and January; the
+  driest July and August, when, except for a few thunder-storms, there
+  is practically no rainfall. The rain generally accompanies southerly
+  or south-westerly winds. In all the maritime districts the sea breeze
+  greatly modifies the temperature; it begins about 9 A.M., attains its
+  maximum force soon after noon, and ceases about an hour after sunset.
+  Greece is renowned for the clearness of its climate; fogs and mists
+  are almost unknown. In most years, however, only four or five days are
+  recorded in which the sky is perfectly cloudless. The natural
+  healthiness of the climate is counteracted in the towns, especially in
+  Athens, by deficient sanitation and by stifling clouds of dust, which
+  propagate infection and are peculiarly hurtful in cases of ophthalmia
+  and pulmonary disease. Malarial fever is endemic in the marshy
+  districts, especially in the autumn.
+
+
+  Area and population.
+
+The area of the country was 18,341 sq. m. before the acquisition of the
+Ionian Islands in 1864, 19,381 sq. m. prior to the annexation of
+Thessaly and part of Epirus in 1881, and 24,552 sq. m. at the census in
+1896. If we deduct 152 sq. m., the extent of territory ceded to Turkey
+after the war of 1897, the area of Greece in 1908 would be 24,400 sq. m.
+Other authorities give 25,164 and 25,136 sq. m. as the area prior to
+the rectification of the frontier in 1898.[3] The population in 1896 was
+2,433,806, or 99.1 to the sq. m., the population of the territories
+annexed in 1881 being approximately 350,000; and 2,631,952 in 1907, or
+107.8 to the sq. m. (according to the official estimate of the area),
+showing an increase of 198,146 or 0.81% per annum, as compared with
+1.61% during the period between 1896 and 1889; the diminished increase
+is mainly due to emigration. The population by sex in 1907 is given as
+1,324,942 males and 1,307,010 females (or 50.3% males to 49.6 females).
+The preponderance of males, which was 52% to 48% females in 1896, has
+also been reduced by emigration; it is most marked in the northern
+departments, especially in Larissa. Only in the departments of Arcadia,
+Eurytania, Corinth, Cephalonia, Lacedaemon, Laconia, Phocis, Argolis and
+in the Cyclades, is the female population in excess of the male.
+
+  Neither the census of 1896 nor that of 1889 gave any classification by
+  professions, religion or language. The following figures, which are
+  only approximate, were derived from unofficial sources in
+  1901:--agricultural and pastoral employments 444,000; industries
+  64,200; traders and their employes 118,000; labourers and servants
+  31,300; various professions 15,700; officials 12,000; clergy about
+  6000; lawyers 4000; physicians 2500. In 1879, 1,635,698 of the
+  population were returned as Orthodox Christians, 14,677 as Catholics
+  and Protestants, 2652 as Jews, and 740 as of other religions. The
+  annexation of Thessaly and part of Epirus is stated to have added
+  24,165 Mahommedan subjects to the Hellenic kingdom. A considerable
+  portion of these, however, emigrated immediately after the annexation,
+  and, although a certain number subsequently returned, the total
+  Mahommedan population in Greece was estimated to be under 5000 in
+  1908. A number of the Christian inhabitants of these regions,
+  estimated at about 50,000, retained Turkish nationality with the
+  object of escaping military service. The Albanian population,
+  estimated at 200,000 by Finlay in 1851, still probably exceeds
+  120,000. It is gradually being absorbed in the Hellenic population. In
+  1870, 37,598 persons (an obviously untrustworthy figure) were returned
+  as speaking Albanian only. In 1879 the number is given as 58,858. The
+  Vlach population, which has been increased by the annexation of
+  Thessaly, numbers about 60,000. The number of foreign residents is
+  unknown. The Italians are the most numerous, numbering about 11,000.
+  Some 1500 persons, mostly Maltese, possess British nationality.
+
+  By a law of 27 November 1899, Greece, which had hitherto been divided
+  into sixteen departments ([Greek: nomoi]) was redivided into
+  twenty-six departments, as follows:--
+
+      _Departments._          _Pop._     _Departments._         _Pop._
+
+     1 Attica                341,247    14 Corinth              71,229
+     2 Boeotia                65,816    15 Arcadia             162,324
+     3 Phthiotis             112,328    16 Achaea              150,918
+     4 Phocis                 62,246    17 Elis                103,810
+     5 Aetolia and Acarnania 141,405    18 Triphylia            90,523
+     6 Eurytania              47,192    19 Messenia            127,991
+     7 Arta                   41,280    20 Laconia              61,522
+     8 Trikkala               90,548    21 Lacedaemon           87,106
+     9 Karditsa               92,941    22 Corfu                99,571
+    10 Larissa                95,066    23 Cephalonia           71,235
+    11 Magnesia              102,742    24 Leucas (with Ithaca) 41,186
+    12 Euboea                116,903    25 Zante                42,502
+    13 Argolis                81,943    26 Cyclades            130,378
+
+  The population is densest in the Ionian Islands, exceeding 307 per sq.
+  m. The departments of Acarnania, Phocis and Euboea are the most thinly
+  inhabited (about 58, 61 and 66 per sq. m. respectively).
+
+  Very little information is obtainable with regard to the movement of
+  the population; no register of births, deaths and marriages is kept in
+  Greece. The only official statistics are found in the periodical
+  returns of the mortality in the twelve principal towns, according to
+  which the yearly average of deaths in these towns for the five years
+  1903-1907 was approximately 10,253, or 23.8 per 1000; of these more
+  than a quarter are ascribed to pulmonary consumption, due in the main
+  to defective sanitation. Both the birth-rate and death-rate are low,
+  being 27.6 and 20.7 per 1000 respectively. Infant mortality is slight,
+  and in point of longevity Greece compares favourably with most other
+  European countries. The number of illegitimate births is 12.25 per
+  1000; these are almost exclusively in the towns.
+
+  Of the total population 28.5% are stated to live in towns. The
+  population of the principal towns is:--
+
+                         1896.      1907.
+
+    Athens             111,486    167,479
+    Peiraeus            43,848     73,579
+    Patras              37,985     37,724
+    Trikkala            21,149     17,809
+    Hermopolis (Syra)   18,760     18,132
+    Corfu               18,581     28,254*
+    Volo                16,788     23,563
+    Larissa             15,373     18,001
+    Zante               14,906     13,580
+    Kalamata            14,298     15,397
+    Pyrgos              12,708     13,690
+    Tripolis            10,465     10,789
+    Chalcis              8,661     10,958
+    Laurium              7,926     10,007
+
+    * Including suburbs.
+
+  No trustworthy information is obtainable with regard to immigration
+  and emigration, of which no statistics have ever been kept.
+  Emigration, which was formerly in the main to Egypt and Rumania, is
+  now almost exclusively to the United States of America. The principal
+  exodus is from Arcadia, Laconia and Maina; the emigrants from these
+  districts, estimated at about 14,000 annually, are for the most part
+  young men approaching the age of military service. According to
+  American statistics 12,431 Greeks arrived in the United States from
+  Greece during the period 1869-1898 and 130,154 in 1899-1907; a
+  considerable number, however, have returned to Greece, and those
+  remaining in the United States at the end of 1907 were estimated at
+  between 136,000 and 138,000; this number was considerably reduced in
+  1908 by remigration. Since 1896 the tendency to emigration has
+  received a notable and somewhat alarming impulse. There is an
+  increasing immigration into the towns from the rural districts, which
+  are gradually becoming depopulated. Both movements are due in part to
+  the preference of the Greeks for a town life and in part to distaste
+  for military service, but in the main to the poverty of the peasant
+  population, whose condition and interests have been neglected by the
+  government.
+
+
+  Ethnology.
+
+Greece is inhabited by three races--the Greeks, the Albanians and the
+Vlachs. The Greeks who are by far the most numerous, have to a large
+extent absorbed the other races; the process of assimilation has been
+especially rapid since the foundation of the Greek kingdom. Like most
+European nations, the modern Greeks are a mixed race. The question of
+their origin has been the subject of much learned controversy; their
+presumed descent from the Greeks of the classical epoch has proved a
+national asset of great value; during the period of their struggle for
+independence it won them the devoted zeal of the Philhellenes, it
+inspired the enthusiasm of Byron, Victor Hugo, and a host of minor
+poets, and it has furnished a pleasing illusion to generations of
+scholarly tourists who delight to discover in the present inhabitants of
+the country the mental and physical characteristics with which they have
+been familiarized by the literature and art of antiquity. This amiable
+tendency is encouraged by the modern Greeks, who possess an implicit
+faith in their illustrious ancestry. The discussion of the question
+entered a very acrimonious stage with the appearance in 1830 of
+Fallmerayer's _History of the Morea during the Middle Ages_. Fallmerayer
+maintained that after the great Slavonic immigration at the close of the
+8th century the original population of northern Greece and the Morea,
+which had already been much reduced during the Roman period, was
+practically supplanted by the Slavonic element and that the Greeks of
+modern times are in fact Byzantinized Slavs. This theory was subjected
+to exhaustive criticism by Ross, Hopf, Finlay and other scholars, and
+although many of Fallmerayer's conclusions remain unshaken, the view is
+now generally held that the base of the population both in the mainland
+and the Morea is Hellenic, not Slavonic. During the 5th and 6th
+centuries Greece had been subjected to Slavonic incursions which
+resulted in no permanent settlements. After the great plague of 746-747,
+however, large tracts of depopulated country were colonized by Slavonic
+immigrants; the towns remained in the hands of the Greeks, many of whom
+emigrated to Constantinople. In the Morea the Slavs established
+themselves principally in Arcadia and the region of Taygetus, extending
+their settlements into Achaia, Elis, Laconia and the promontory of
+Taenaron; on the mainland they occupied portions of Acarnania, Aetolia,
+Doris and Phocis. Slavonic place-names occurring in all these districts
+confirm the evidence of history with regard to this immigration. The
+Slavs, who were not a maritime race, did not colonize the Aegean
+Islands, but a few Slavonic place-names in Crete seem to indicate that
+some of the invaders reached that island. The Slavonic settlements in
+the Morea proved more permanent than those in northern Greece, which
+were attacked by the armies of the Byzantine emperors. But even in the
+Morea the Greeks, or "Romans" as they called themselves ([Greek:
+Rhomaioi]), who had been left undisturbed on the eastern side of the
+peninsula, eventually absorbed the alien element, which disappeared
+after the 15th century. In addition to the place-names the only
+remaining traces of the Slav immigration are the Slavonic type of
+features, which occasionally recurs, especially among the Arcadian
+peasants, and a few customs and traditions. Even when allowance is made
+for the remarkable power of assimilation which the Greeks possessed in
+virtue of their superior civilization, it is difficult to resist the
+conclusion that the Hellenic element must always have been the most
+numerous in order to effect so complete an absorption. This element has
+apparently undergone no essential change since the epoch of Roman
+domination. The destructive invasions of the Goths in A.D. 267 and 395
+introduced no new ethnic feature; the various races which during the
+middle ages obtained partial or complete mastery in Greece--the Franks,
+the Venetians, the Turks--contributed no appreciable ingredient to the
+mass of the population. The modern Greeks may therefore be regarded as
+in the main the descendants of the population which inhabited Greece in
+the earlier centuries of Byzantine rule. Owing to the operation of
+various causes, historical, social and economic, that population was
+composed of many heterogeneous elements and represented in a very
+limited degree the race which repulsed the Persians and built the
+Parthenon. The internecine conflicts of the Greek communities, wars with
+foreign powers and the deadly struggles of factions in the various
+cities, had to a large extent obliterated the old race of free citizens
+by the beginning of the Roman period. The extermination of the Plataeans
+by the Spartans and of the Melians by the Athenians during the
+Peloponnesian war, the proscription of Athenian citizens after the war,
+the massacre of the Corcyraean oligarchs by the democratic party, the
+slaughter of the Thebans by Alexander and of the Corinthians by Mummius,
+are among the more familiar instances of the catastrophes which overtook
+the civic element in the Greek cities; the void can only have been
+filled from the ranks of the metics or resident aliens and of the
+descendants of the far more numerous slave population. Of the latter a
+portion was of Hellenic origin; when a city was taken the males of
+military age were frequently put to the sword, but the women and
+children were sold as slaves; in Laconia and Thessaly there was a serf
+population of indigenous descent. In the classical period four-fifths of
+the population of Attica were slaves and of the remainder half were
+metics. In the Roman period the number of slaves enormously increased,
+the supply being maintained from the regions on the borders of the
+empire; the same influences which in Italy extinguished the small landed
+proprietors and created the _latifundia_ prevailed also in Greece. The
+purely Hellenic population, now greatly diminished, congregated in the
+towns; the large estates which replaced the small freeholds were
+cultivated by slaves and managed or farmed by slaves or freedmen, and
+wide tracts of country were wholly depopulated. How greatly the free
+citizen element had diminished by the close of the 1st century A.D. may
+be judged from the estimate of Plutarch that all Greece could not
+furnish more than 3000 hoplites. The composite population which replaced
+the ancient Hellenic stock became completely Hellenized. According to
+craniologists the modern Greeks are brachycephalous while the ancient
+race is stated to have been dolichocephalous, but it seems doubtful
+whether any such generalization with regard to the ancients can be
+conclusively established. The Aegean islanders are more brachycephalous
+than the inhabitants of the mainland, though apparently of purer Greek
+descent. No general conception of the facial type of the ancient race
+can be derived from the highly-idealized statues of deities, heroes and
+athletes; so far as can be judged from portrait statues it was very
+varied. Among the modern Greeks the same variety of features prevails;
+the face is usually oval, the nose generally long and somewhat
+aquiline, the teeth regular, and the eyes remarkably bright and full of
+animation. The country-folk are, as a rule, tall and well-made, though
+slightly built and rather meagre; their form is graceful and supple in
+movement. The urban population, as elsewhere, is physically very
+inferior. The women often display a refined and delicate beauty which
+disappears at an early age. The best physical types of the race are
+found in Arcadia, in the Aegean Islands and in Crete.
+
+The Albanian population extends over all Attica and Megaris (except the
+towns of Athens, Peiraeus and Megara), the greater part of Boeotia, the
+eastern districts of Locris, the southern half of Euboea and the
+northern side of Andros, the whole of the islands of Salamis, Hydra,
+Spetsae and Poros, and part of Aegina, the whole of Corinthia and
+Argolis, the northern districts of Arcadia and the eastern portion of
+Achaea. There are also small Albanian groups in Laconia and Messenia
+(see ALBANIA). The Albanians, who call themselves _Shkyipetar_, and are
+called by the Greeks _Arvanitae_ ([Greek: Arbanitai]), belong to the
+Tosk or southern branch of the race; their immigration took place in the
+latter half of the 14th century. Their first settlements in the Morea
+were made in 1347-1355. The Albanian colonization was first checked by
+the Turks; in 1454 an Albanian insurrection in the Morea against
+Byzantine rule was crushed by the Turkish general Tura Khan, whose aid
+had been invoked by the Palaeologi. With a few exceptions, the Albanians
+in Greece retained their Christian faith after the Turkish conquest. The
+failure of the insurrection of 1770 was followed by a settlement of
+Moslem Albanians, who had been employed by the Turks to suppress the
+revolt. The Christian Albanians have long lived on good terms with the
+Greeks while retaining their own customs and language and rarely
+intermarrying with their neighbours. They played a brilliant part during
+the War of Independence, and furnished the Greeks with many of their
+most distinguished leaders. The process of their Hellenization, which
+scarcely began till after the establishment of the kingdom, has been
+somewhat slow; most of the men can now speak Greek, but Albanian is
+still the language of the household. The Albanians, who are mainly
+occupied with agriculture, are less quick-witted, less versatile, and
+less addicted to politics than the Greeks, who regard them as
+intellectually their inferiors. A vigorous and manly race, they furnish
+the best soldiers in the Greek army, and also make excellent sailors.
+
+The Vlachs, who call themselves _Aromani_, i.e. Romans, form another
+important foreign element in the population of Greece. They are found
+principally in Pindus (the Agrapha district), the mountainous parts of
+Thessaly, Othrys, Oeta, the mountains of Boeotia, Aetolia and Acarnania;
+they have a few settlements in Euboea. They are for the most part either
+nomad shepherds and herdsmen or carriers (_kiradjis_). They apparently
+descend from the Latinized provincials of the Roman epoch who took
+refuge in the higher mountains from the incursions of the barbarians and
+Slavs (see VLACHS and MACEDONIA). In the 13th century the Vlach
+principality of "Great Walachia" ([Greek: Megale Blachia]) included
+Thessaly and southern Macedonia as far as Castoria; its capital was at
+Hypati near Lamia. Acarnania and Aetolia were known as "Lesser
+Walachia." The urban element among the Vlachs has been almost completely
+Hellenized; it has always displayed great aptitude for commerce, and
+Athens owes many of its handsomest buildings to the benefactions of
+wealthy Vlach merchants. The nomad population in the mountains has
+retained its distinctive nationality and customs together with its Latin
+language, though most of the men can speak Greek. Like the Albanians,
+the pastoral Vlachs seldom intermarry with the Greeks; they occasionally
+take Greek wives, but never give their daughters to Greeks; many of them
+are illiterate, and their children rarely attend the schools. Owing to
+their deficient intellectual culture they are regarded with disdain by
+the Greeks, who employ the term [Greek: blachos] to denote not only a
+shepherd but an ignorant rustic.
+
+A considerable Italian element was introduced into the Ionian Islands
+during the middle ages owing to their prolonged subjection to Latin
+princes and subsequently (till 1797) to the Venetian republic. The
+Italians intermarried with the Greeks; Italian became the language of
+the upper classes, and Roman Catholicism was declared the state
+religion. The peasantry, however, retained the Greek language and
+remained faithful to the Eastern Church; during the past century the
+Italian element was completely absorbed by the Greek population.
+
+The Turkish population in Greece, which numbered about 70,000 before the
+war of liberation, disappeared in the course of the struggle or
+emigrated at its conclusion. The Turks in Thessaly are mainly descended
+either from colonists established in the country by the Byzantine
+emperors or from immigrants from Asia Minor, who arrived at the end of
+the 14th century; they derive their name Konariots from Iconium (Konia).
+Many of the beys or land-owning class are the lineal representatives of
+the Seljuk nobles who obtained fiefs under the feudal system introduced
+here and in Macedonia by the Sultan Bayezid I.
+
+
+  National character.
+
+Notwithstanding their composite origin, their wide geographical
+distribution and their cosmopolitan instincts, the modern Greeks are a
+remarkably homogeneous people, differing markedly in character from
+neighbouring races, united by a common enthusiasm in the pursuit of
+their national aims, and profoundly convinced of their superiority to
+other nations. Their distinctive character, combined with their
+traditional tendency to regard non-Hellenic peoples as barbarous, has,
+indeed, to some extent counteracted the results of their great energy
+and zeal in the assimilation of other races; the advantageous position
+which they attained at an early period under Turkish rule owing to their
+superior civilization, their versatility, their wealth, and their
+monopoly of the ecclesiastical power would probably have enabled them to
+Hellenize permanently the greater part of the Balkan peninsula had their
+attitude towards other Christian races been more sympathetic. Always the
+most civilized race in the East, they have successively influenced their
+Macedonian, Roman and Turkish conquerors, and their remarkable
+intellectual endowments bid fair to secure them a brilliant position in
+the future. The intense patriotic zeal of the Greeks may be compared
+with that of the Hungarians; it is liable to degenerate into arrogance
+and intolerance; it sometimes blinds their judgment and involves them in
+ill-considered enterprises, but it nevertheless offers the best
+guarantee for the ultimate attainment of their national aims. All
+Greeks, in whatever country they may reside, work together for the
+realization of the Great Idea ([Greek: he Megale Idea])--the supremacy
+of Hellenism in the East--and to this object they freely devote their
+time, their wealth and their talents; the large fortunes which they
+amass abroad are often bequeathed for the foundation of various
+institutions in Greece or Turkey, for the increase of the national fleet
+and army, or for the spread of Hellenic influence in the Levant. This
+patriotic sentiment is unfortunately much exploited by self-seeking
+demagogues and publicists, who rival each other in exaggerating the
+national pretensions and in pandering to the national vanity. In no
+other country is the passion for politics so intense; "keen political
+discussions are constantly going on at the cafes; the newspapers, which
+are extraordinarily numerous and generally of little value, are
+literally devoured, and every measure of the government is violently
+criticized and ascribed to interested motives." The influence of the
+journals is enormous; even the waiters in the cafes and domestic
+servants have their favourite newspaper, and discourse fluently on the
+political problems of the day. Much of the national energy is wasted by
+this continued political fever; it is diverted from practical aims, and
+may be said to evaporate in words. The practice of independent criticism
+tends to indiscipline in the organized public services; it has been
+remarked that every Greek soldier is a general and every sailor an
+admiral. During the war of 1897 a young naval lieutenant telegraphed to
+the minister of war condemning the measures taken by his admiral, and
+his action was applauded by several journals. There is also little
+discipline in the ranks of political parties, which are held together,
+not by any definite principle, but by the personal influence of the
+leaders; defections are frequent, and as a rule each deputy in the
+Chamber makes his terms with his chief. On the other hand, the
+independent character of the Greeks is favourably illustrated by the
+circumstance that Greece is the only country in the Balkan peninsula in
+which the government cannot count on securing a majority by official
+pressure at the elections. Few scruples are observed in political
+warfare, but attacks on private life are rare. The love of free
+discussion is inherent in the strongly-rooted democratic instinct of the
+Greeks. They are in spirit the most democratic of European peoples; no
+trace of Latin feudalism survives, and aristocratic pretensions are
+ridiculed. In social life there is no artificial distinction of classes;
+all titles of nobility are forbidden; a few families descended from the
+chiefs in the War of Independence enjoy a certain pre-eminence, but
+wealth and, still more, political or literary notoriety constitute the
+principal claim to social consideration. The Greeks display great
+intellectual vivacity; they are clever, inquisitive, quick-witted and
+ingenious, but not profound; sustained mental industry and careful
+accuracy are distasteful to them, and their aversion to manual labour is
+still more marked. Even the agricultural class is but moderately
+industrious; abundant opportunities for relaxation are provided by the
+numerous church festivals. The desire for instruction is intense even in
+the lowest ranks of the community; rhetorical and literary
+accomplishments possess a greater attraction for the majority than the
+fields of modern science. The number of persons who seek to qualify for
+the learned professions is excessive; they form a superfluous element in
+the community, an educated proletariat, attaching themselves to the
+various political parties in the hope of obtaining state employment and
+spending an idle existence in the cafes and the streets when their party
+is out of power. In disposition the Greeks are lively, cheerful,
+plausible, tactful, sympathetic; very affable with strangers,
+hospitable, kind to their servants and dependants, remarkably temperate
+and frugal in their habits, amiable and united in family life.
+Drunkenness is almost unknown, thrift is universally practised; the
+standard of sexual morality is high, especially in the rural districts,
+where illegitimacy is extremely rare. The faults of the Greeks must in a
+large degree be attributed to their prolonged subjection to alien races;
+their cleverness often degenerates into cunning, their ready invention
+into mendacity, their thrift into avarice, their fertility of resource
+into trickery and fraud. Dishonesty is not a national vice, but many who
+would scorn to steal will not hesitate to compass illicit gains by
+duplicity and misrepresentation; deceit, indeed, is often practised
+gratuitously for the mere intellectual satisfaction which it affords. In
+the astuteness of their monetary dealings the Greeks proverbially
+surpass the Jews, but fall short of the Armenians; their remarkable
+aptitude for business is sometimes marred by a certain short-sightedness
+which pursues immediate profits at the cost of ulterior advantages.
+Their vanity and egoism, which are admitted by even the most favourable
+observers, render them jealous, exacting, and peculiarly susceptible to
+flattery. In common with other southern European peoples the Greeks are
+extremely excitable; their passionate disposition is prone to take
+offence at slight provocation, and trivial quarrels not infrequently
+result in homicide. They are religious, but by no means fanatical,
+except in regard to politico-religious questions affecting their
+national aims. In general the Greeks may be described as a clever,
+ambitious and versatile people, capable of great effort and sacrifice,
+but deficient in some of the more solid qualities which make for
+national greatness.
+
+
+  Customs.
+
+The customs and habits of the Greek peasantry, in which the observances
+of the classical age may often be traced, together with their legends
+and traditions, have furnished an interesting subject of investigation
+to many writers (see _Bibliography_ below). In the towns the more
+cosmopolitan population has largely adopted the "European" mode of life,
+and the upper classes show a marked preference for French manners and
+usages. In both town and country, however, the influence of oriental
+ideas is still apparent, due in part to the long period of Turkish
+domination, in part to the contact of the Greeks with Asiatic races at
+all epochs of their history. In the rural districts, especially, the
+women lead a somewhat secluded life and occupy a subject position; they
+wait at table, and only partake of the meal when the men of the family
+have been served. In most parts of continental Greece the women work in
+the fields, but in the Aegean Islands and Crete they rarely leave the
+house. Like the Turks, the Greeks have a great partiality for coffee,
+which can always be procured even in the remotest hamlets; the Turkish
+practice of carrying a string of beads or rosary (_comboloio_), which
+provides an occupation for the hands, is very common. Many of the
+observances in connexion with births, christenings, weddings and
+funerals are very interesting and in some cases are evidently derived
+from remote antiquity. Nuptial ceremonies are elaborate and protracted;
+in some of the islands of the archipelago they continue for three weeks.
+In the preliminary negotiations for a marriage the question of the
+bride's dowry plays a very important part; a girl without a dowry often
+remains unmarried, notwithstanding the considerable excess of the male
+over the female population. Immediately after the christening of a
+female child her parents begin to lay up her portion, and young men
+often refrain from marrying until their sisters have been settled in
+life. The dead are carried to the tomb in an open coffin; in the country
+districts professional mourners are engaged to chant dirges; the body is
+washed with wine and crowned with a wreath of flowers. A valedictory
+oration is pronounced at the grave. Many superstitions still prevail
+among the peasantry; the belief in the vampire and the evil eye is
+almost universal. At Athens and in the larger towns many handsome
+dwelling-houses may be seen, but the upper classes have no predilection
+for rural life, and their country houses are usually mere farmsteads,
+which they rarely visit. In the more fertile districts two-storeyed
+houses of the modern type are common, but in the mountainous regions the
+habitations of the country-folk are extremely primitive; the small
+stone-built hut, almost destitute of furniture, shelters not only the
+family but its cattle and domestic animals. In Attica the peasants'
+houses are usually built of cob. In Maina the villagers live in
+fortified towers of three or more storeys; the animals occupy the ground
+floor, the family the topmost storey; the intermediate space serves as a
+granary or hay-loft. The walls are loop-holed for purposes of defence in
+view of the traditional vendetta and feuds, which in some instances have
+been handed down from remote generations and are maintained by
+occasional sharp-shooting from these primitive fortresses. In general
+cleanliness and sanitation are much neglected; the traveller in the
+country districts is doomed to sleepless nights unless he has provided
+himself with bedding and a hammock. Even Athens, though enriched by many
+munificent benefactions, is still without a drainage system or an
+adequate water supply; the sewers of many houses open into the streets,
+in which rubbish is allowed to accumulate. The effects of insanitary
+conditions are, however, counteracted in some degree by the excellent
+climate. The Aegean islanders contrast favourably with the continentals
+in point of personal cleanliness and the neatness of their dwellings;
+their houses are generally covered with the flat roof, familiar in Asia,
+on which the family sleep in summer. The habits and customs of the
+islanders afford an interesting study. Propitiatory rites are still
+practised by the mariners and fishermen, and thank-offerings for
+preservation at sea are hung up in the churches. Among the popular
+amusements of the Greeks dancing holds a prominent place; the dance is
+of various kinds; the most usual is the somewhat inanimate round dance
+([Greek: syrto] or [Greek: trata]), in which a number of persons,
+usually of the same sex, take part holding hands; it seems indentical
+with the Slavonic _kolo_ ("circle"). The more lively Albanian fling is
+generally danced by three or four persons, one of whom executes a series
+of leaps and pirouettes. The national music is primitive and monotonous.
+All classes are passionately addicted to card-playing, which is
+forbidden by law in places of public resort. The picturesque national
+costume, which is derived from the Albanian Tosks, has unfortunately
+been abandoned by the upper classes and the urban population since the
+abdication of King Otho, who always wore it; it is maintained as the
+uniform of the _euzones_ (highland regiments). It consists of a red cap
+with dark blue tassel, a white shirt with wide sleeves, a vest and
+jacket, sometimes of velvet, handsomely adorned with gold or black
+braid, a belt in which various weapons are carried, a white kilt or
+_fustanella_ of many folds, white hose tied with garters, and red
+leather shoes with pointed ends, from which a tassel depends. Over all
+is worn the shaggy white _capote_. The islanders wear a dark blue
+costume with a crimson waistband, loose trousers descending to the knee,
+stockings and pumps or long boots. The women's costume is very varied;
+the loose red fez is sometimes worn and a short velvet jacket with rich
+gold embroidery. The more elderly women are generally attired in black.
+In the Megara district and elsewhere peasant girls wear on festive
+occasions a headdress composed of strings of coins which formerly
+represented the dowry.
+
+  Government.
+
+Greece is a constitutional monarchy; hereditary in the male line, or, in
+case of its extinction, in the female. The sovereign, by decision of the
+conference of London (August 1863), is styled "king of the Hellenes";
+the title "king of Greece" was borne by King Otho. The heir apparent is
+styled [Greek: ho diadochos], "the successor"; the title "duke of
+Sparta," which has been accorded to the crown prince, is not generally
+employed in Greece. The king and the heir apparent must belong to the
+Orthodox Greek Church; a special exception has been made for King
+George, who is a Lutheran. The king attains his majority on completing
+his eighteenth year; before ascending the throne he must take the oath
+to the constitution in presence of the principal ecclesiastical and lay
+dignitaries of the kingdom, and must convoke the Chamber within two
+months after his accession. The civil list amounts to 1,125,000 dr., in
+addition to which it was provided that King George should receive L4000
+annually as a personal allowance from each of the three protecting
+powers, Great Britain, France and Russia. The heir apparent receives
+from the state an annuity of 200,000 dr. The king has a palace at Athens
+and other residences at Corfu, Tatoi (on the slopes of Mt Parnes) and
+Larissa. The present constitution dates from the 29th of October 1864.
+The legislative power is shared by the king with a single chamber
+([Greek: boule]) elected by manhood suffrage for a period of four years.
+The election is by ballot; candidates must have completed their
+thirtieth year and electors their twenty-first. The deputies ([Greek:
+bouleutai]), according to the constitution, receive only their
+travelling expenses, but they vote themselves a payment of 1800 dr. each
+for the session and a further allowance in case of an extraordinary
+session. The Chamber sits for a term of not less than three or more than
+six months. No law can be passed except by an absolute majority of the
+house, and one-half of the members must be present to form a quorum;
+these arrangements have greatly facilitated the practice of obstruction,
+and often enable individual deputies to impose terms on the government
+for their attendance. In 1898 the number of deputies was 234. Some years
+previously a law diminishing the national representation and enlarging
+the constituencies was passed by Trikoupis with the object of checking
+the local influence of electors upon deputies, but the measure was
+subsequently repealed. The number of deputies, however, who had hitherto
+been elected in the proportion of one to twelve thousand of the
+population, was reduced in 1905, when the proportion of one to sixteen
+thousand was substituted; the Chamber of 1906, elected under the new
+system, consisted of 177 deputies. In 1906 the electoral districts were
+diminished in number and enlarged so as to coincide with the twenty-six
+administrative departments ([Greek: nomoi]); the reduction of these
+departments to their former number of sixteen, which is in
+contemplation, will bring about some further diminution in parliamentary
+representation. It is hoped that recent legislation will tend to check
+the pernicious practice of bartering personal favours, known as [Greek:
+synallage], which still prevails to the great detriment of public
+morality, paralysing all branches of the administration and wasting the
+resources of the state. Political parties are formed not for the
+furtherance of any principle or cause, but with the object of obtaining
+the spoils of office, and the various groups, possessing no party
+watchword or programme, frankly designate themselves by the names of
+their leaders. Even the strongest government is compelled to bargain
+with its supporters in regard to the distribution of patronage and other
+favours. The consequent instability of successive ministries has
+retarded useful legislation and seriously checked the national progress.
+In 1906 a law was passed disqualifying junior officers of the army and
+navy for membership of the Chamber; great numbers of these had hitherto
+been candidates at every election. This much-needed measure had
+previously been passed by Trikoupis, but had been repealed by his rival
+Delyannes. The executive is vested in the king, who is personally
+irresponsible, and governs through ministers chosen by himself and
+responsible to the Chamber, of which they are _ex-officio_ members. He
+appoints all public officials, sanctions and proclaims laws, convokes,
+prorogues and dissolves the Chamber, grants pardon or amnesty, coins
+money and confers decorations. There are seven ministries which
+respectively control the departments of foreign affairs, the interior,
+justice, finance, education and worship, the army and the navy.
+
+
+  Local Administration.
+
+The 26 departments or [Greek: nomoi], into which the country is divided
+for administrative purposes, are each under a prefect or nomarch
+([Greek: nomarchos]); they are subdivided into 69 districts or
+eparchies, and into 445 communes or demes ([Greek: demoi]) under mayors
+or demarchs ([Greek: demarchoi]). The prefects and sub-prefects are
+nominated by the government; the mayors are elected by the communes for
+a period of four years. The prefects are assisted by a departmental
+council, elected by the population, which manages local business and
+assesses rates; there are also communal councils under the presidency of
+the mayors. There are altogether some 12,000 state-paid officials in the
+country, most of them inadequately remunerated and liable to removal or
+transferral upon a change of government. A host of office-seekers has
+thus been created, and large numbers of educated persons spend many
+years in idleness or in political agitation. A law passed in 1905
+secures tenure of office to civil servants of fifteen years' standing,
+and some restrictions have been placed on the dismissal and transferral
+of schoolmasters.
+
+
+  Justice.
+
+Under the Turks the Greeks retained, together with their ecclesiastical
+institutions, a certain measure of local self-government and judicial
+independence. The Byzantine code, based on the Roman, as embodied in the
+[Greek: Hexabiblos] of Armenopoulos (1345), was sanctioned by royal
+decree in 1835 with some modifications as the civil law of Greece.
+Further modifications and new enactments were subsequently introduced,
+derived from the old French and Bavarian systems. The penal code is
+Bavarian, the commercial French. Liberty of person and domicile is
+inviolate; no arrest can be made, no house entered, and no letter opened
+without a judicial warrant. Trial by jury is established for criminal,
+political and press offences. A new civil code, based on Saxon and
+Italian law, has been drawn up by a commission of jurists, but it has
+not yet been considered by the Chamber. A separate civil code, partly
+French, partly Italian, is in force in the Ionian Islands. The law is
+administered by 1 court of cassation (styled the "Areopagus"), 5 courts
+of appeal, 26 courts of first instance, 233 justices of the peace and 19
+correctional tribunals.
+
+The judges, who are appointed by the Crown, are liable to removal by the
+minister of justice, whose exercise of this right is often invoked by
+political partisans. The administration of justice suffers in
+consequence, more especially in the country districts, where the judges
+must reckon with the influential politicians and their adherents. The
+pardon or release of a convicted criminal is not infrequently due to
+pressure on the part of some powerful patron. The lamentable effects of
+this system have long been recognized, and in 1906 a law was introduced
+securing tenure of office for two or four years to judges of the courts
+of first instance and of the inferior tribunals. In the circumstances
+crime is less rife than might be expected; the temperate habits of the
+Greeks have conduced to this result. A serious feature is the great
+prevalence of homicide, due in part to the passionate character of the
+people, but still more to the almost universal practice of carrying
+weapons. The traditions of the vendetta are almost extinct in the Ionian
+Islands, but still linger in Maina, where family feuds are transmitted
+from generation to generation. The brigand of the old-fashioned type
+([Greek: lestes, klephtes]) has almost disappeared, except in the
+remoter country districts, and piracy, once so prevalent in the Aegean,
+has been practically suppressed, but numbers of outlaws or absconding
+criminals ([Greek: phygodikoi]) still haunt the mountains, and the
+efforts of the police to bring them to justice are far from successful.
+Their ranks were considerably increased after the war of 1897, when many
+deserters from the army and adventurers who came to Greece as volunteers
+betook themselves to a predatory life. On the other hand, there is no
+habitually criminal class in Greece, such as exists in the large centres
+of civilization, and professional mendicancy is still rare.
+
+Police duties, for which officers and, in some cases, soldiers of the
+regular army were formerly employed, are since 1906 carried out by a
+reorganized gendarmerie force of 194 officers and 6344 non-commissioned
+officers and men, distributed in the twenty-six departments and
+commanded by an inspector-general resident at Athens, who is aided by a
+consultative commission. There are male and female prisons at all the
+departmental centres; the number of prisoners in 1906 was 5705. Except
+in the Ionian Islands, the general condition of the prisons is
+deplorable; discipline and sanitation are very deficient, and conflicts
+among the prisoners are sometimes reported in which knives and even
+revolvers are employed. A good prison has been built near Athens by
+Andreas Syngros, and a reformatory for juvenile offenders ([Greek:
+ephebeion]) has been founded by George Averoff, another national
+benefactor. Capital sentences are usually commuted to penal servitude
+for life; executions, for which the guillotine is employed, are for the
+most part carried out on the island of Bourzi near Nauplia; they are
+often postponed for months or even for years. There is no enactment
+resembling the Habeas Corpus Act, and accused persons may be detained
+indefinitely before trial. The Greeks, like the other nations liberated
+from Turkish rule, are somewhat litigious, and numbers of lawyers find
+occupation even in the smaller country towns.
+
+
+  Education.
+
+The Greeks, an intelligent people, have always shown a remarkable zeal
+for learning, and popular education has made great strides. So eager is
+the desire for instruction that schools are often founded in the rural
+districts on the initiative of the villagers, and the sons of peasants,
+artisans and small shopkeepers come in numbers to Athens, where they
+support themselves by domestic service or other humble occupations in
+order to study at the university during their spare hours. Almost
+immediately after the accession of King Otho steps were taken to
+establish elementary schools in all the communes, and education was made
+obligatory. The law is not very rigorously applied in the remoter
+districts, but its enforcement is scarcely necessary. In 1898 there were
+2914 "demotic" or primary schools, with 3465 teachers, attended by
+129,210 boys (5.38% of the population) and 29,119 girls (1.19% of the
+population). By a law passed in 1905 the primary schools, which had
+reached the number of 3359 in that year, were reduced to 2604. The
+expenditure on primary schools is nominally sustained by the communes,
+but in reality by the government in the form of advances to the
+communes, which are not repaid; it was reduced in 1905 from upwards of
+7,000,000 dr. to under 6,000,000 dr. In 1905 there were 306 "Hellenic"
+or secondary schools, with 819 teachers and 21,575 pupils (boys only)
+maintained by the state at a cost of 1,720,096 dr.; and 39 higher
+schools, or gymnasia, with 261 masters and 6485 pupils, partly
+maintained by the state (expenditure 615,600 dr.) and partly by
+benefactions and other means. Besides these public schools there are
+several private educational institutions, of which there are eight at
+Athens with 650 pupils. The Polytechnic Institute of Athens affords
+technical instruction in the departments of art and science to 221
+students. Scientific agricultural instruction has been much neglected;
+there is an agricultural school at Aidinion in Thessaly with 40 pupils;
+there are eight agricultural stations ([Greek: stathmoi]) in various
+parts of the country. There are two theological seminaries--the Rizari
+School at Athens (120 pupils) and a preparatory school at Arta; three
+other seminaries have been suppressed. The Commercial and Industrial
+Academy at Athens (about 225 pupils), a private institution, has proved
+highly useful to the country; there are four commercial schools, each in
+one of the country towns. A large school for females at Athens, the
+Arsakion, is attended by 1500 girls. There are several military and
+naval schools, including the military college of the Euelpides at Athens
+and the school of naval cadets ([Greek: ton dokimon]). The university of
+Athens in 1905 numbered 57 professors and 2598 students, of whom 557
+were from abroad. Of the six faculties, theology numbered 79 students,
+law 1467, medicine 567, arts 206, physics and mathematics 192, and
+pharmacy 87. The university receives a subvention from the state, which
+in 1905 amounted to 563,960 dr.; it possesses a library of over 150,000
+volumes and geological, zoological and botanical museums. A small tax on
+university education was imposed in 1903; the total cost to the student
+for the four years' course at the university is about L25. Higher
+education is practically gratuitous in Greece, and there is a somewhat
+ominous increase in the number of educated persons who disdain
+agricultural pursuits and manual labour. The intellectual culture
+acquired is too often of a superficial character owing to the tendency
+to sacrifice scientific thoroughness and accuracy, to neglect the more
+useful branches of knowledge, and to aim at a showy dialectic and
+literary proficiency. (For the native and foreign archaeological
+institutions see ATHENS.)
+
+
+  Religion.
+
+The Greek branch of the Orthodox Eastern Church is practically
+independent, like those of Servia, Montenegro and Rumania, though
+nominally subject to the patriarchate of Constantinople. The
+jurisdiction of the patriarch was in fact repudiated in 1833, when the
+king was declared the supreme head of the church, and the severance was
+completed in 1850. Ecclesiastical affairs are under the control of the
+Ministry of Education. Church government is vested in the Holy Synod, a
+council of five ecclesiastics under the presidency of the metropolitan
+of Athens; its sittings are attended by a royal commissioner. The church
+can invoke the aid of the civil authorities for the punishment of heresy
+and the suppression of unorthodox literature, pictures, &c. There were
+formerly 21 archbishoprics and 29 bishoprics in Greece, but a law passed
+in 1899 suppressed the archbishoprics (except the metropolitan see of
+Athens) on the death of the existing prelates, and fixed the total
+number of sees at 32. The prelates derive their incomes partly from the
+state and partly from the church lands. There are about 5500 priests,
+who belong for the most part to the poorest classes. The parochial
+clergy have no fixed stipends, and often resort to agriculture or small
+trading in order to supplement the scanty fees earned by their
+ministrations. Owing to their lack of education their personal influence
+over their parishioners is seldom considerable. In addition to the
+parochial clergy there are 19 preachers ([Greek: hierokerukes]) salaried
+by the state. There are 170 monasteries and 4 nunneries in Greece, with
+about 1600 monks and 250 nuns. In regard to their constitution the
+monasteries are either "idiorrhythmic" or "coenobian" (see ATHOS); the
+monks ([Greek: kalogeroi]) are in some cases assisted by lay brothers
+([Greek: kosmikoi]). More than 300 of the smaller monasteries were
+suppressed in 1829 and their revenues secularized. Among the more
+important and interesting monasteries are those of Megaspelaeon and
+Lavra (where the standard of insurrection, unfurled in 1821, is
+preserved) near Kalavryta, St Luke of Stiris near Arachova, Daphne and
+Penteli near Athens, and the Meteora group in northern Thessaly. The
+bishops, who must be unmarried, are as a rule selected from the monastic
+order and are nominated by the king; the parish priests are allowed to
+marry, but the remarriage of widowers is forbidden. The bulk of the
+population, about 2,000,000, belongs to the Orthodox Church; other
+Christian confessions number about 15,000, the great majority being
+Roman Catholics. The Roman Catholics (principally in Naxos and the
+Cyclades) have three archbisboprics (Athens, Naxos and Corfu), five
+bishoprics and about 60 churches. The Jews, who are regarded with much
+hostility, have almost disappeared from the Greek mainland; they now
+number about 5000, and are found principally at Corfu. The Mahommedans
+are confined to Thessaly except a few at Chalcis. National sentiment is
+a more powerful factor than personal religious conviction in the
+attachment of the Greeks to the Orthodox Church; a Greek without the
+pale of the church is more or less an alien. The Catholic Greeks of
+Syros sided with the Turks at the time of the revolution; the
+Mahommedans of Crete, though of pure Greek descent, have always been
+hostile to their Christian fellow-countrymen and are commonly called
+Turks. On the other hand, that portion of the Macedonian population
+which acknowledges the patriarch of Constantinople is regarded as Greek,
+while that which adheres to the Bulgarian exarchate, though differing in
+no point of doctrine, has been declared schismatic. The constitution of
+1864 guarantees toleration to all creeds in Greece and imposes no civil
+disabilities on account of religion.
+
+
+  Agriculture.
+
+Greece is essentially an agricultural country; its prosperity depends on
+its agricultural products, and more than half the population is occupied
+in the cultivation of the soil and kindred pursuits. The land in the
+plains and valleys is exceedingly rich, and, wherever there is a
+sufficiency of water, produces magnificent crops. Cereals nevertheless
+furnish the principal figure in the list of imports, the annual value
+being about 30,000,000 fr. The country, especially since the acquisition
+of the fertile province of Thessaly, might under a well-developed
+agricultural system provide a food-supply for all its inhabitants and an
+abundant surplus for exportation. Thessaly alone, indeed, could furnish
+cereals for the whole of Greece. Unfortunately, however, agriculture is
+still in a primitive state, and the condition of the rural population
+has received very inadequate attention from successive governments. The
+wooden plough of the Hesiodic type is still in use, especially in
+Thessaly; modern implements, however, are being gradually introduced.
+The employment of manure and the rotation of crops are almost unknown;
+the fields are generally allowed to lie fallow in alternate years. As a
+rule, countries dependent on agriculture are liable to sudden
+fluctuations in prosperity, but in Greece the diversity of products is
+so great that a failure in one class of crops is usually compensated by
+exceptional abundance in another. Among the causes which have hitherto
+retarded agricultural progress are the ignorance and conservatism of the
+peasantry, antiquated methods of cultivation, want of capital, absentee
+proprietorship, sparsity of population, bad roads, the prevalence of
+usury, the uncertainty of boundaries and the land tax, which, in the
+absence of a survey, is levied on ploughing oxen; to these may be added
+the insecurity hitherto prevailing in many of the country districts and
+the growing distaste for rural life which has accompanied the spread of
+education. Large estates are managed under the metayer system; the
+cultivator paying the proprietor from one-third to half of the gross
+produce; the landlords, who prefer to live in the larger towns, see
+little of their tenants, and rarely interest themselves in their
+welfare. A great proportion of the best arable land in Thessaly is owned
+by persons who reside permanently out of the country. The great estates
+in this province extend over some 1,500,000 acres, of which about
+500,000 are cultivated. In the Peloponnesus peasant proprietorship is
+almost universal; elsewhere it is gradually supplanting the metayer
+system; the small properties vary from 2 or 3 to 50 acres. The extensive
+state lands, about one-third of the area of Greece, were formerly the
+property of Mahommedan religious communities (_vakoufs_); they are for
+the most part farmed out annually by auction. They have been much
+encroached upon by neighbouring owners; a considerable portion has also
+been sold to the peasants. The rich plain of Thessaly suffers from
+alternate droughts and inundations, and from the ravages of field mice;
+with improved cultivation, drainage and irrigation it might be rendered
+enormously productive. A commission has been occupied for some years in
+preparing a scheme of hydraulic works. Usury is, perhaps, a greater
+scourge to the rural population than any visitation of nature; the
+institution of agricultural banks, lending money at a fair rate of
+interest on the security of their land, would do much to rescue the
+peasants from the clutches of local Shylocks. There is a difficulty,
+however, in establishing any system of land credit owing to the lack of
+a survey. Since 1897 a law passed in 1882 limiting the rate of interest
+to 8% (to 9% in the case of commercial debts) has to some extent been
+enforced by the tribunals. In the Ionian Islands the rate of 10% still
+prevails.
+
+  The following figures give approximately the acreage in 1906 and the
+  average annual yield of agricultural produce, no official statistics
+  being available:--
+
+                                        Acres.
+    Fields sown or lying fallow       3,000,000
+    Vineyards                           337,500
+    Currant plantations                 175,000
+    Olives (10,000,000 trees)           250,000
+    Fruit trees (fig, mulberry, &c.)    125,000
+    Meadows and pastures              7,500,000
+    Forests                           2,000,000
+    Waste lands                       2,875,000
+                                     ----------
+                                     16,262,500
+
+  The average annual yield is as follows:--
+
+    Wheat                       350,000,000 kilograms
+    Maize                       100,000,000     "
+    Rye                          20,000,000     "
+    Barley                       70,000,000     "
+    Oats                         75,000,000     "
+    Beans, lentils, &c           25,000,000     "
+    Currants                    350,000,000 Venetian lb.
+    Sultanina                     4,000,000     "
+    Wine                          3,000,000 hectolitres
+    Olive oil                       300,000     "
+    Olives (preserved)          100,000,000 kilograms
+    Figs (exported only)         12,000,000     "
+    Seed cotton                   6,500,000     "
+    Tobacco                       8,000,000     "
+    Vegetables and fresh fruits  20,000,000     "
+    Cocoons                       1,000,000     "
+    Hesperidiums (exported only)  4,000,000     "
+    Carobs (exported only)       10,000,000     "
+    Resin                         5,000,000     "
+    Beet                         12,000,000     "
+
+  Rice is grown in the marshy plains of Elis, Boeotia, Marathon and
+  Missolonghi; beet in Thessaly. The cultivation of vegetables is
+  increasing; beans, peas and lentils are the most common. Potatoes are
+  grown in the upland districts, but are not a general article of diet.
+  Of late years market-gardening has been taken up as a new industry in
+  the neighbourhood of Athens. There is a great variety of fruits. Olive
+  plantations are found everywhere; in 1860 they occupied about 90,000
+  acres; in 1887, 433,701 acres. The trees are sometimes of immense age
+  and form a picturesque feature in the landscape. In latter years the
+  groves in many parts of the western Morea and Zante have been cut down
+  to make room for currant plantations; the destruction has been
+  deplorable in its consequences, for, as the tree requires twenty years
+  to come into full bearing, replanting is seldom resorted to. Preserved
+  olives, eaten with bread, are a common article of food. Excellent
+  olive oil is produced in Attica and elsewhere. The value of the oil
+  and fruit exported varies from five to ten million francs. Figs are
+  also abundant, especially in Messenia and in the Cyclades. Mulberry
+  trees are planted for the purposes of sericulture; they have been cut
+  down in great numbers in the currant-growing districts. Other fruit
+  trees are the orange, citron, lemon, pomegranate and almond. Peaches,
+  apricots, pears, cherries, &c., abound, but are seldom scientifically
+  cultivated; the fruit is generally gathered while unripe. Cotton in
+  1906 occupied about 12,500 acres, chiefly in the neighbourhood of
+  Livadia. Tobacco plantations in 1893 covered 16,320 acres, yielding
+  about 3,500,000 kilograms; the yield in 1906 was 9,000,000 kilograms.
+  About 40% of the produce is exported, principally to Egypt and Turkey.
+  More important are the vineyards, which occupied in 1887 an area of
+  306,421 acres. The best wine is made at Patras, on the royal estate at
+  Decelea, and on other estates in Attica; a peculiar flavour is
+  imparted to the wine of the country by the addition of resin. The wine
+  of Santorin, the modern representative of the famous "malmsey," is
+  mainly exported to Russia. The foreign demand for Greek wines is
+  rapidly increasing; 3,770,257 gallons were exported in 1890, 4,974,196
+  gallons in 1894, There is also a growing demand for Greek cognac. The
+  export of wine in 1905 was 20,850,941 okes, value 5,848,544 fr.; of
+  cognac, 363,720 okes, value 1,091,160 fr.
+
+
+    Currants.
+
+  The currant, by far the most important of Greek exports, is cultivated
+  in a limited area extending along the southern shore of the Gulf of
+  Corinth and the seaboard of the Western Peloponnesus, in Zante,
+  Cephalonia and Leucas, and in certain districts of Acarnania and
+  Aetolia; attempts to cultivate it elsewhere have generally proved
+  unsuccessful. The history of the currant industry has been a record of
+  extraordinary vicissitudes. Previously to 1877 the currant was
+  exported solely for eating purposes, the amounts for the years 1872 to
+  1877 being 70,766 tons, 71,222 tons, 76,210 tons, 72,916 tons, 86,947
+  tons, and 82,181 tons respectively. In 1877, however, the French
+  vineyards began to suffer seriously from the phylloxera, and French
+  wine producers were obliged to have recourse to dried currants, which
+  make an excellent wine for blending purposes. The importation of
+  currants into France at once rose from 881 tons in 1877 to 20,999 tons
+  in 1880, and to 70,401 tons in 1889, or about 20,000 tons more than
+  were imported into England in that year. Meanwhile the total amount of
+  currants produced in Greece had nearly doubled in these thirteen
+  years. The country was seized with a mania for currant planting; every
+  other industry was neglected, and olive, orange and lemon groves were
+  cut down to make room for the more lucrative growth. The currant
+  growers, in order to increase their production as rapidly as possible,
+  had recourse to loans at a high rate of interest, and the great
+  profits which they made were devoted to further planting, while the
+  loans remained unpaid. A crisis followed rapidly. By 1891 the French
+  vineyards had to a great extent recovered from the disease, and wine
+  producers in France began to clamour against the competition of
+  foreign wines and wine-producing raisins and currants. The import duty
+  on these was thereupon raised from 6 francs to 15 francs per 100
+  kilos, and was further increased in 1894 to 25 francs. The currant
+  trade with France was thus extinguished; of a crop averaging 160,000
+  tons, only some 110,000 now found a market. Although a fresh opening
+  for exportation was found in Russia, the value of the fruit dropped
+  from L15 to L5 per ton, a price scarcely covering the cost of
+  cultivation. In July 1895 the government introduced a measure, since
+  known as the Retention ([Greek: parakratesis]) Law, by which it was
+  enacted that every shipper should deliver into depots provided by the
+  government a weight of currants equivalent to 15% of the amount which
+  he intended to export. A later law fixed the quantity to be retained
+  by the state at 10%, which might be increased to 20%, should a
+  representative committee, meeting every summer at Athens, so advise
+  the government. The currants thus taken over by the government cannot
+  be exported unless they are reduced to pulp, syrup or otherwise
+  rendered unsuitable for eating purposes; they may be sold locally for
+  wine-making or distilling, due precautions being taken that they are
+  not used in any other way. The price of exported currants is thus
+  maintained at an artificial figure. The Retention Law, which after
+  1895 was voted annually, was passed for a period of ten years in 1899.
+  This pernicious measure, which is in defiance of all economic laws,
+  perpetuates a superfluous production, retards the development of other
+  branches of agriculture and burdens the government with vast
+  accumulations of an unmarketable commodity. It might excusably be
+  adopted as a temporary expedient to meet a pressing crisis, but as a
+  permanent system it can only prove detrimental to the country and the
+  currant growers themselves.
+
+  In 1899 a "Bank of Viticulture" was established at Patras for the
+  purpose of assisting the growers, to whom it was bound to make
+  advances at a low rate of interest; it undertook the storage and the
+  sale of the retained fruit, from which its capital was derived. The
+  bank soon found itself burdened with an enormous unsaleable stock,
+  while its loans for the most part remained unpaid; meantime
+  over-production, the cause of the trouble, continued to increase, and
+  prices further diminished. In 1903 a syndicate of English and other
+  foreign capitalists made proposals for a monopoly of the export,
+  guaranteeing fixed prices to the growers. The scheme, which conflicted
+  with Anglo-Greek commercial conventions, was rejected by the Theotokis
+  ministry; serious disturbances followed in the currant-growing
+  districts, and M. Theotokis resigned. His successor, M. Rallis, in
+  order to appease the cultivators, arranged that the Currant Bank
+  should offer them fixed minimum prices for the various growths, and
+  guaranteed it a loan of 6,000,000 dr. The resources of the bank,
+  however, gave out before the end of the season, and prices pursued
+  their downward course. Another experiment was then tried; the export
+  duty (15%) was made payable in kind, the retention quota being thus
+  practically raised from 20 to 35%. The only result of this measure was
+  a diminution of the export; in the spring of 1905 prices fell very low
+  and the growers began to despair. A syndicate of banks and capitalists
+  then came forward, which introduced the system now in operation. A
+  privileged company was formed which obtained a charter from the
+  government for twenty years, during which period the retention and
+  export duties are maintained at the fixed rates of 20 and 15%
+  respectively. The company aims at keeping up the prices of the
+  marketable qualities by employing profitably for industrial purposes
+  the unexported surplus and retained inferior qualities; it pays to the
+  state 4,000,000 dr. annually under the head of export duty; offers all
+  growers at the beginning of each agricultural year a fixed price of
+  115 dr. per 1000 Venetian lb. irrespective of quality, and pays a
+  price varying from 115 dr. to 145 dr. according to quality at the end
+  of the year for the unexported surplus. In return for these advantages
+  to the growers the company is entitled to receive 7 dr. on every 1000
+  lb. of currants produced and to dispose of the whole retained amount.
+  A special company has been formed for the conversion of the
+  superfluous product into spirit, wine, &c. The system may perhaps
+  prove commercially remunerative, but it penalizes the producers of the
+  better growths in order to provide a livelihood for the growers of
+  inferior and unmarketable kinds and protracts an abnormal situation.
+  The following table gives the annual currant crop from 1877 to 1905:--
+
+    +------+----------+------------+-----------+
+    | Year.|Total crop| Exported to|Exported to|
+    |      | (tons).  |Gt. Britain.|  France.  |
+    +------+----------+------------+-----------+
+    | 1877 |   82,181 |     ..     |      881  |
+    | 1878 |  100,004 |     ..     |    9,086  |
+    | 1879 |   92,311 |     ..     |   19,087  |
+    | 1880 |   92,337 |     ..     |   20,999  |
+    | 1881 |  121,994 |     ..     |   30,315  |
+    | 1882 |  109,403 |   51,933   |   26,282  |
+    | 1883 |  114,980 |   52,099   |   24,815  |
+    | 1884 |  129,268 |   59,629   |   39,198  |
+    | 1885 |  113,287 |   55,765   |   37,730  |
+    | 1886 |  127,570 |   48,892   |   45,000  |
+    | 1887 |  127,160 |   55,549   |   37,438  |
+    | 1888 |  158,728 |   63,714   |   40,735  |
+    | 1889 |  142,308 |   52,251   |   69,555  |
+    | 1890 |  146,749 |   67,502   |   37,816  |
+    | 1891 |  161,545 |   70,762   |   39,712  |
+    | 1892 |  116,944 |   60,418   |   21,721  |
+    | 1893 |  119,886 |   73,000   |    6,800  |
+    | 1894 |  135,500 |   64,500   |   15,000  |
+    | 1895 |  167,695 |   60,500   |   26,500  |
+    | 1896 |  153,514 |   65,000   |    6,500  |
+    | 1897 |  115,730 |   63,000   |    2,000  |
+    | 1898 |  153,514 |   69,500   |    6,000  |
+    | 1899 |  144,071 |   65,600   |    3,800  |
+    | 1900 |   47,236 |   36,000   |      300  |
+    | 1901 |  139,820 |   58,000   |    1,216  |
+    | 1902 |  152,580 |   58,400   |    4,782  |
+    | 1903 |  179,499 |   54,800   |    4,470  |
+    | 1904 |  146,500 |   58,850   |      820  |
+    | 1905 |  162,957 |   61,700   |    1,042  |
+    +------+----------+------------+-----------+
+
+  The "peronospora," a species of white blight, first caused
+  considerable damage in the Greek vineyards in 1892, recurring in 1897
+  and 1900.
+
+
+    Stock-farming.
+
+  More than half the cultivable area of Greece is devoted to pasturage.
+  Cattle-rearing, as a rule, is a distinct occupation from agricultural
+  farming; the herds are sent to pasture on the mountains in the summer,
+  and return to the plains at the beginning of winter. The larger cattle
+  are comparatively rare, being kept almost exclusively for agricultural
+  labour; the smaller are very abundant. Beef is scarcely eaten in
+  Greece, the milk of cows is rarely drunk and butter is almost unknown.
+  Cheese, a staple article of diet, is made from the milk of sheep and
+  goats. The number of larger cattle has declined in recent years; that
+  of the smaller has increased. The native breed of oxen is small;
+  buffaloes are seldom seen except in north-western Thessaly; a few
+  camels are used in the neighbourhood of Parnassus. The Thessalian
+  breed of horses, small but sturdy and enduring, can hardly be taken to
+  represent the celebrated chargers of antiquity. Mules are much
+  employed in the mountainous districts; the best type of these animals
+  is found in the islands. The flocks of long-horned sheep and goats add
+  a picturesque feature to Greek rural scenery. The goats are more
+  numerous in proportion to the population than in any other European
+  country (137 per 100 inhabitants). The shepherds' dogs rival those of
+  Bulgaria in ferocity. According to an unofficial estimate published in
+  1905 the numbers of the various domestic animals in 1899 were as
+  follows: Oxen and buffaloes, 408,744; horses, 157,068; mules, 88,869;
+  donkeys, 141,174; camels, 51; sheep, 4,568,151; goats, 3,339,439;
+  pigs, 79,716. During the four years 1899-1902 the annual average value
+  of imported cattle was 4,218,015 dr., of exported cattle 209,321 dr.
+
+
+    Forests.
+
+  The forest area (about 2,500,000 acres or one-fifth of the surface of
+  the mainland) is for the most part state property. The value of the
+  forests has been estimated at 200,000,000 fr.; the most productive are
+  in the district extending from the Pindus range to the Gulf of
+  Corinth. The principal trees are the oak (about 30 varieties), the
+  various coniferae, the chestnut, maple, elm, beech, alder, cornel and
+  arbutus. In Greece, as in other lands formerly subject to Turkish
+  rule, the forests are not only neglected, but often deliberately
+  destroyed; this great source of national wealth is thus continually
+  diminishing. Every year immense forest fires may be seen raging in the
+  mountains, and many of the most picturesque districts in the country
+  are converted into desolate wildernesses. These conflagrations are
+  mainly the work of shepherds eager to provide increased pasturage for
+  their flocks; they are sometimes, however, due to the carelessness of
+  smokers, and occasionally, it is said, to spontaneous ignition in hot
+  weather. Great damage is also done by the goats, which browse on the
+  young saplings; the pine trees are much injured by the practice of
+  scoring their bark for resin. With the disappearance of the trees the
+  soil of the mountain slopes, deprived of its natural protection, is
+  soon washed away by the rain; the rapid descent of the water causes
+  inundations in the plains, while the uplands become sterile and lose
+  their vegetation. The climate has been affected by the change; rain
+  falls less frequently but with greater violence, and the process of
+  denudation is accelerated. The government has from time to time made
+  efforts for the protection of the forests, but with little success
+  till recently. A staff of inspectors and forest guards was first
+  organized in 1877. The administration of the forests has since 1893
+  been entrusted to a department of the Ministry of Finance, which
+  controls a staff of 4 inspectors ([Greek: epitheoretai]), 31
+  superintendents ([Greek: dasarchoi]), 52 head foresters ([Greek:
+  archiphylakes]) and 298 foresters ([Greek: dasyphylakes]). The
+  foresters are aided during the summer months, when fires are most
+  frequent, by about 500 soldiers and gendarmes. About a third of these
+  functionaries have received instruction in the school of forestry at
+  Vythine in the Morea, open since 1898. Owing to the measures now
+  taken, which include excommunication by the parish priests of
+  incendiaries and their accomplices, the conflagrations have
+  considerably diminished. The total annual value of the products of the
+  Greek forests averages 15,000,000 drachmae. The revenue accruing to
+  the government in 1905 was 1,418,158 dr., as compared with 583,991 dr.
+  in 1883. The increase is mainly due to improved administration. The
+  supply of timber for house-construction, ship-building,
+  furniture-making, railway sleepers, &c., is insufficient, and is
+  supplemented by importation (annual value about 12,000,000 francs);
+  transport is rendered difficult by the lack of roads and navigable
+  streams. The principal secondary products are valonea (annual
+  exportation about 1,250,000 fr.) and resin, which is locally employed
+  as a preservative ingredient in the fabrication of wine. The
+  administration of the forests is still defective, and measures for the
+  augmentation and better instruction of the staff of foresters have
+  been designed by the government. In 1900 a society for the
+  re-afforesting of the country districts and environs of the large
+  towns was founded at Athens under the patronage of the crown princess.
+
+    +------------------------------+---------+-----------+
+    |                              |  Tons.  |  Francs.  |
+    +------------------------------+---------+-----------+
+    | Chrome                       |   8,900 |   337,952 |
+    | Emery                        |   6,972 |   742,486 |
+    | Gypsum                       |     185 |     7,995 |
+    | Iron ore                     | 465,622 | 3,387,467 |
+    | Ferromanganese               |  89,687 | 1,182,652 |
+    | Lead (argentiferous pig) ore |  13,729 | 6,811,792 |
+    | Lignite                      |  11,757 |   143,814 |
+    | Magnesite                    |  43,498 |   864,982 |
+    | Manganese ore                |   8,171 |   122,565 |
+    | Mill stones                  | 12,628  |    34,660 |
+    | Salt                         |  25,201 | 1,638,065 |
+    | Sulphur                      |   1,126 |   121,000 |
+    | Zinc ore                     |  22,562 | 2,852,355 |
+    +------------------------------+---------+-----------+
+
+
+    Mines.
+
+  The chief minerals are silver, lead, zinc, copper manganese, magnesia,
+  iron, sulphur and coal. Emery, salt, millstone and gypsum, which are
+  found in considerable quantities, are worked by the government. The
+  important mines at Laurium, a source of great wealth to ancient
+  Athens, were reopened in 1864 by a Franco-Italian company, but were
+  declared to be state property in 1871; they are now worked by a Greek
+  and a French company. The output of marketable ore in 1899 amounted to
+  486,760 tons, besides 289,292 tons of dressed lead ore. In 1905 the
+  output was as follows: Raw and roasted manganese iron ore, 113,636
+  tons; hematite iron ore, 94,734 tons; calamine or zinc ore, 22,612
+  tons; arsenic and argentiferous lead, 1875 tons; zinc blende and
+  galena, 443 tons; total, 233,300 tons, together with 164,857 tons of
+  dressed lead, producing 13,822 tons of silver pig lead containing 1657
+  to 1910 grams of silver per ton. It has been found profitable to
+  resmelt the scoriae of the ancient workings. The total value of the
+  exports from the Laurium mines, which in 1875 amounted to only
+  L150,513, had in 1899 increased to L827,209, but fell in 1905 to
+  L499,882. The revenue accruing to the government from all mines and
+  quarries, including those worked by the state, was estimated in the
+  budget for 1906 at 1,332,000 dr. The emery of Naxos, which is a state
+  monopoly, is excellent in quality and very abundant. Mines of iron ore
+  have latterly been opened at Larimna in Locris. Magnesite mines are
+  worked by an Anglo-Greek company in Euboea. There are sulphur and
+  manganese mines in the island of Melos, and the volcanic island of
+  Santorin produces pozzolana, a kind of cement, which is exported in
+  considerable quantities. The great abundance of marble in Greece has
+  latterly attracted the attention of foreign capitalists. New quarries
+  have been opened since 1897 by an English company on the north slope
+  of Mount Pentelicus, and are now connected by rail with Athens and the
+  Peiraeus. The marble on this side of the mountain is harder than that
+  on the south, which alone was worked by the ancients. The output in
+  1905 was 1573 tons. Mount Pentelicus furnished material for most of
+  the celebrated buildings of ancient Athens; the marble, which is
+  white, blue-veined, and somewhat transparent, assumes a rich yellow
+  hue after long exposure to the air. The famous Parian quarries are
+  still worked; white marble is also found at Scyros, Tenos and Naxos;
+  grey at Stoura and Karystos; variegated at Valaxa and Karystos; green
+  on Taygetus and in Thessaly; black at Tenos; and red (porphyry) in
+  Maina.
+
+  The official statistics of the output and value of minerals produced
+  in 1905 were as in the preceding table.
+
+  The number of persons employed in mining operations in 1905 was 9934.
+
+
+  Commerce and industry.
+
+Owing to the natural aptitude of the Greeks for commerce and their
+predilection for a seafaring life a great portion of the trade of the
+Levant has fallen into their hands. Important Greek mercantile colonies
+exist in all the larger ports of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea,
+and many of them possess great wealth. In some of the islands of the
+archipelago almost every householder is the owner or joint owner of a
+ship. The Greek mercantile marine, which in 1888 consisted of 1352
+vessels (70 steamers) with a total tonnage of 219,415 tons, numbered in
+1906, according to official returns, 1364 vessels (275 steamers) with a
+total tonnage of 427,291 tons. This figure is apparently too low, as the
+ship-owners are prone to understate the tonnage in order to diminish the
+payment of dues. Almost the whole corn trade of Turkey is in Greek
+hands. A large number of the sailing ships, especially the smaller
+vessels engaged in the coasting trade, belong to the islanders. A
+considerable portion of the shipping on the Danube and Pruth is owned by
+the inhabitants of Ithaca and Cephalonia; a certain number of their
+_sleps_ ([Greek: slepia]) have latterly been acquired by Rumanian Jews,
+but the Greek flag is still predominant. There are seven principal Greek
+steamship companies owning 40 liners with a total tonnage of 21,972
+tons. In 1847 there was but one lighthouse in Greek waters; in 1906
+there were 70 lighthouses and 68 port lanterns. Hermoupolis (Syra) is
+the chief seat of the carrying trade, but as a commercial port it yields
+to Peiraeus, which is the principal centre of distribution for imports.
+Other important ports are Patras, Volo, Corfu, Kalamata and Laurium.
+
+  The following table gives the total value (in francs) of special Greek
+  commerce for the given years:--
+
+    +---------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+    |         |    1887.    |    1892.    |    1897.    |    1902.    |
+    +---------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+    | Imports | 131,849,325 | 119,306,007 | 116,363,348 | 137,229,364 |
+    | Exports | 102,652,487 |  82,261,464 |  81,708,626 |  79,663,473 |
+    +---------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+
+
+  The marked fluctuations in the returns are mainly attributable to
+  variations in the price and quantity of imported cereals and in the
+  sale of currants. The great excess of imports, caused by the large
+  importation of food-stuffs and manufactured articles, is due to the
+  neglect of agriculture and the undeveloped condition of local
+  industries.
+
+  The imports and exports for 1905 were distributed as follows:--
+
+    +--------------------+--------------+-------------+
+    |                    | Imports from.| Exports to. |
+    +--------------------+--------------+-------------+
+    |                    |     Frs.     |    Frs.     |
+    | Russia             |  27,725,218  |    810,925  |
+    | Great Britain      |  27,516,928  | 24,436,707  |
+    | Austria-Hungary    |  19,444,415  |  7,876,806  |
+    | Turkey             |  15,538,370  |  4,516,403  |
+    | Germany            |  13,896,687  |  7,514,474  |
+    | France             |  10,101,070  |  7,078,321  |
+    | Italy              |   6,190,253  |  4,266,210  |
+    | Bulgaria           |   5,135,718  |    133,106  |
+    | Rumania            |   3,814,641  |  1,152,207  |
+    | America            |   2,656,501  |  6,440,648  |
+    | Belgium            |   2,276,393  |  2,068,138  |
+    | Netherlands        |   1,921,762  |  7,180,301  |
+    | Egypt              |    634,035   |  5,928,555  |
+    | Switzerland        |     348,281  |     ..      |
+    | Other countries    |   4,555,781  |  4,288,365  |
+    |                    | -----------  | ----------  |
+    | Total              | 141,756,053  | 83,691,166  |
+    +--------------------+--------------+-------------+
+
+  An enumeration of the chief articles of importation and exportation,
+  together with their value, will be found in tabular form overleaf.
+
+  Greece does not possess any manufacturing industries on a large scale;
+  the absence of a native coal supply is an obstacle to their
+  development. In 1889 there were 145 establishments employing steam of
+  5568 indicated horse-power; in 1892 the total horse-power employed was
+  estimated at 10,000. In addition to the smelting-works at Laurium, at
+  which some 5000 hands are employed by Greek and French companies and
+  local proprietors, there are flour mills, cloth, cotton and silk
+  spinning mills, ship-building and engineering works, oil-presses,
+  tanneries, powder and dynamite mills, soap mills (about 40), and
+  some manufactures of paper, glass, matches, turpentine, white lead,
+  hats, gloves, candles, &c. About 100 factories are established in the
+  neighbourhood of Athens and Peiraeus. The wine industry (10 factories)
+  is of considerable importance, and the manufacture of cognac has
+  latterly made great progress; there are 10 large and numerous small
+  cognac distilleries. Ship-building is carried on actively at all the
+  ports on the mainland and islands; about 200 ships, mostly of low
+  tonnage, are launched annually.
+
+    _Principal Articles of Importation._
+
+    +-----------------------------+--------------------------+--------------------------+
+    |                             |           1904.          |          1905.           |
+    |                             +------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+    |          Articles.          |Total value |Imported from|Total value |Imported from|
+    |                             | in francs. | the United  | in francs. | the United  |
+    |                             |            |  Kingdom.   |            |  Kingdom.   |
+    +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+    | Cereals                     | 27,735,808 |    none     | 32,511,784 |    none     |
+    | Textiles                    | 17,999,344 | 10,762,464  | 13,460,620 |  5,497,172  |
+    | Raw minerals                | 13,341,191 |  7,630,633  |     ..     |     ..      |
+    | Forest products             | 10,146,500 |      9,769  | 12,254,190 |     61,309  |
+    | Wrought metals              |  7,757,444 |  2,162,250  |     ..     |     ..      |
+    | Coals and pit-coal          |  6,522,086 |  6,087,068  |  5,073,841 |  4,308,357  |
+    | Yarn and tissues            |  4,739,819 |  2,504,667  |  8,021,523 |  6,838,079  |
+    | Fish                        |  4,992,615 |  2,394,224  |  1,014,164 |    186,072  |
+    | Raw hides                   |  4,558,101 |    478,965  |  3,909,657 |    215,745  |
+    | Various animals             |  4,271,151 |    none     |  3,373,523 |      1,268  |
+    | Horses                      |  3,011,450 |    none     |  2,070,250 |    none     |
+    | Paper, books, &c.           |  3,327,144 |    157,017  |  3,319,700 |     76,454  |
+    | Coffee                      |  2,957,601 |    293,610  |  3,060,904 |    107,296  |
+    | Sugar                       |  2,606,696 |    none     |  2,887,854 |         70  |
+    | Rice                        |  1,977,894 |     63,882  |  1,901,486 |    236,027  |
+    | Colours                     |  1,750,858 |    341,839  |  2,146,509 |    281,433  |
+    +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+--------------------------+
+
+    _Chief Articles of Exportation._
+
+    +-----------------------------+--------------------------+--------------------------+
+    |                             |           1904.          |          1905.           |
+    |                             +--------------------------+------------+-------------+
+    |          Articles.          |Total value | Exported to |Total value | Exported to |
+    |                             | in francs. | the United  | in francs. | the United  |
+    |                             |            |  Kingdom.   |            |  Kingdom.   |
+    +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+    | Currants                    | 28,841,678 | 14,569,137  | 34,299,780 | 17,008,929  |
+    | Minerals and raw metals     | 19,134,185 |  5,161,898  | 15,125,072 |  5,438,698  |
+    | Wines                       | 10,084,960 |    429,143  |  5,832,139 |    881,696  |
+    | Tobacco                     |  7,285,385 |     39,512  |  6,157,092 |    147,565  |
+    | Olive oil                   |  4,163,262 |    212,081  |  2,150,285 |     64,310  |
+    | Figs                        |  3,583,428 |     62,304  |  3,309,432 |    338,196  |
+    | Minerals and metals (worked)|  2,754,245 |      7,750  |  2,607,580 |        900  |
+    | Olives                      |  1,793,362 |      9,833  |  1,138,116 |     18,800  |
+    | Valonea                     |  1,558,678 |    200,849  |  1,917,014 |    146,927  |
+    | Cognac                      |  1,027,224 |     12,099  |  1,091,160 |      2,283  |
+    +-----------------------------+------------+-------------+------------+-------------+
+
+  _Public Works._--The important drainage-works at Lake Copais were
+  taken over by an English company in 1890. The lake covered an area of
+  58,080 acres, the greater part of which is now rendered fit for
+  cultivation. The drainage works consist of a canal, 28 kilometres in
+  length, and a tunnel of 600 metres descending through the mountain to
+  a lower lake, which is connected by a second tunnel with the sea. The
+  reclaimed land is highly fertile. The area under crops amounted in
+  1906 to 27,414 acres, of which 20,744 were let to tenants and the
+  remainder farmed by the company. The uncultivated portion affords
+  excellent grazing. The canal through the Isthmus of Corinth was opened
+  to navigation in November 1893. The total cost of the works, which
+  were begun by a company in 1882, was 70,000,000 francs. The narrowness
+  of the canal, which is only 24.60 metres broad at the surface, and the
+  strength of the current which passes through it, seriously detract
+  from its utility. The high charges imposed on foreign vessels have
+  proved almost prohibitive. There are reduced rates for ships sailing
+  in Greek waters. Up to the 31st of July 1906, 37,214 vessels, with a
+  tonnage of 4,971,922, had passed through the canal. The receipts up to
+  that date were 3,207,835 drachmae (mainly from Greek ships) and
+  415,976 francs (mainly from foreign ships). In 1905, 2930 vessels
+  (2735 Greek) passed through, the receipts being 281,935 drachmae and
+  34,142 francs. The total liabilities of the company in 1906 were about
+  40,000,000 fr. The canal would be more frequented by foreign shipping
+  if the harbours at its entrances were improved, and its sides, which
+  are of masonry, lined with beams; efforts are being made to raise
+  funds for these purposes. The widening of the Euripus Channel at
+  Chalcis to the extent of 21.56 metres was accomplished in 1894. The
+  operations involved the destruction of the picturesque Venetian tower
+  which guarded the strait. A canal was completed in 1903 rendering
+  navigable the shallow channel between Leucas (Santa Maura) and the
+  mainland (breadth 15 metres, depth 5 metres). Large careening docks
+  were undertaken in 1909 at Peiraeus at an estimated cost of 4,750,000
+  drachmae.
+
+  _Communications._--Internal communication by roads is improving,
+  though much remains to be done, especially as regards the quality of
+  the roads. A considerable impetus was given to road-making under the
+  Trikoupis administration. In 1878 there were only 555 m. of roads; in
+  1898 there were 2398 m.; in 1906, 3275 m. Electric trams have been
+  introduced at Patras. Railways were open to traffic in 1900 for a
+  length of 598 m.; in 1906 for a length of 867 m. The circuit of the
+  Morea railways (462 m.) was completed in 1902; from Diakophto, on the
+  north coast, a cogwheel railway, finished in 1894, ascends to
+  Kalavryta. A very important undertaking is the completion of a line
+  from Peiraeus to the frontier, the contract for which was signed in
+  1900 between the Greek government and the Eastern Railway Extension
+  Syndicate (subsequently converted into the _Societe des Chemins de Fer
+  helleniques_). A line Connecting Peiraeus with Larissa was begun in
+  1890, but in 1894 the English company which had undertaken the
+  contract went into liquidation. Under the contract of 1900 the line
+  was drawn through Demerli, in the south of Thessaly, to Larissa, a
+  distance of 217 m., and continued through the vale of Tempe to the
+  Turkish frontier (about 246 m. in all). Branch lines have been
+  constructed to Lamia and Chalcis. The establishment of a connexion
+  with the continental railway system, by a junction with the line from
+  Belgrade to Salonica, would be of immense advantage to Greece, and the
+  Peiraeus would become an important place of embarkation for Egypt,
+  India and the Far East.
+
+
+    Posts and telegraphs.
+
+  In 1905 the number of post offices was 640. Of these 320 were also
+  telegraph and 89 telephone stations, with 664 clerks; the remaining
+  post offices possess no special staff, but are served by persons who
+  also pursue other occupations. The number of postmen and other
+  employees was 889. During the year there passed through the post
+  6,897,899 ordinary letters for the interior, 2,980,958 for foreign
+  destinations, 2,788,477 from abroad; 540,411 registered letters or
+  parcels for the interior, 309,907 for foreign countries, and 300,150
+  from abroad; 880,673 post-cards for the interior, 504,785 from abroad,
+  and 187,975 sent abroad; 100,680 samples; 7,068,125 printed papers for
+  the interior, 5,278,405 to or from foreign countries. Telegraph lines
+  in 1905 extended over 4222 m. with 6836 m. of wires; 841,913 inland
+  telegrams, 221,188 service telegrams and 129,036 telegrams to foreign
+  destinations were despatched, and 169,519 received from abroad.
+  Receipts amounted to 4,589,601 drachmae (postal service 2,744,212,
+  telegraph and telephone services 1,845,389 drachmae) and expenditure
+  to 3,954,742 drachmae.
+
+
+  Army.
+
+The Greek army has recently been in a state of transition. Its condition
+has never been satisfactory, partly owing to the absence of systematic
+effort in the work of organization, partly owing to the pernicious
+influence of political parties, and in times of national emergency it
+has never been in a condition of readiness. The experience of the war of
+1897 proved the need of far-reaching administrative changes and
+disciplinary reforms. A scheme of complete reorganization was
+subsequently elaborated under the auspices of the crown prince
+Constantine, the commander-in-chief, and received the assent of the
+Chamber in June 1904. During the war of 1897 about 65,000 infantry, 1000
+cavalry, and 24 batteries were put into the field, and after great
+efforts another 15,000 men were mobilized. Under the new scheme it is
+proposed to maintain on a peace footing 1887 officers, 25,140
+non-commissioned officers and men, and 4059 horses and mules; in time of
+war the active army will consist of at least 120,000 men and the
+territorial army of at least 60,000 men. The heavy expenditure entailed
+by the project has been an obstacle to its immediate realization. In
+order to meet this expenditure a special fund has been instituted in
+addition to the ordinary military budget, and certain revenues have been
+assigned to it amounting to about 5,500,000 drachmae annually. In 1906,
+however, it was decided to suspend partially for five years the
+operation of the law of 1904 and to devote the resources thus
+economized together with other funds to the immediate purchase of new
+armaments and equipment. Under this temporary arrangement the peace
+strength of the army in 1908 consisted of 1939 officers and civilians,
+19,416 non-commissioned officers and men and 2661 horses and mules; it
+is calculated that the reserves will furnish about 77,000 men and the
+territorial army about 37,000 men in time of war.
+
+Military service is obligatory, and liability to serve begins from the
+twenty-first year. The term of service comprises two years in the active
+army, ten years in the active army reserve (for cavalry eight years),
+eight years in the territorial army (for cavalry ten years) and ten
+years for all branches in the territorial army reserve. As a rule,
+however, the period of service in the active army has hitherto been
+considerably shortened; with a view to economy, the men, under the law
+of 1904, receive furlough after eighteen months with the colours.
+Exemptions from military service, which were previously very numerous,
+are also restricted considerably by the law of 1904, which will secure a
+yearly contingent of about 13,000 men in time of peace. The conscripts
+in excess of the yearly contingent are withdrawn by lot; they are
+required to receive six months' training in the ranks as supernumeraries
+before passing into the reserve, in which they form a special category
+of "liability" men. Under the temporary system of 1906 the contingent is
+reduced to about 10,000 men by postponing the abrogation of several
+exemptions, and the period of service is fixed at fourteen months for
+all the conscripts alike. The field army as constituted by the law of
+1904 consists of 3 divisions, each division comprising 2 brigades of
+infantry, each of 2 regiments of 3 battalions and other units. There are
+thus 36 battalions of infantry (of which 12 are cadres); also 6
+battalions of _evzones_ (highlanders), 18 squadrons of cavalry (6
+cadres), 33 batteries of artillery (6 cadres), 3 battalions of engineers
+and telegraphists, 3 companies of ambulance, 3 of train, &c. The
+artillery is composed of 24 field batteries, 3 heavy and 6 mountain
+batteries; it is mainly provided with Krupp 7.5 cm. guns dating from
+1870 or earlier. After a series of trials in 1907 it was decided to
+order 36 field batteries of 7.5 cm. quick-firing guns and 6 mountain
+batteries, in all 168 guns, with 1500 projectiles for each battery from
+the Creuzot factory. The infantry, which was hitherto armed with the
+obsolete Gras rifle (.433 in.), was furnished in 1907 with the
+Mannlicher-Schonauer (model 1903) of which 100,000 had been delivered in
+May 1908. Hitherto the gendarmerie, which replaced the police, have
+formed a corps drawn from the army, which in 1908 consisted of 194
+officers and 6344 non-commissioned officers and men, but a law passed in
+1907 provided for these forces being thenceforth recruited separately by
+voluntary enlistment in annual contingents of 700 men. The participation
+of the officers in politics, which has proved very injurious to
+discipline, has been checked by a law forbidding officers below the rank
+of colonel to stand for the Chamber. In the elections of 1905 115
+officers were candidates. The three divisional headquarters are at
+Larissa, Athens and Missolonghi; the six headquarters of brigades are at
+Trikkala, Larissa, Athens, Chalcis, Missolonghi and Nauplia. In 1907
+annual manoeuvres were instituted.
+
+
+  Navy.
+
+The Greek fleet consisted in 1907 of 3 armoured barbette ships of 4885
+tons (built in France in 1890, reconstructed 1899), carrying each three
+10.8-in. guns, five 6-in., thirteen quick-firing and smaller guns, and
+three torpedo tubes; 1 cruiser of 1770 tons (built in 1879), with two
+6.7-in. and six light quick-firing guns; 1 armoured central battery ship
+of 1774 tons (built 1867, reconstructed 1897) with two 8.4 in. and nine
+small quick-firing guns; 2 coast-defence gunboats with one 10.6-in. gun
+each; 4 corvettes; 1 torpedo depot ship; 8 destroyers, each with six
+guns (ordered in 1905); 3 transport steamers; 7 small gunboats; 3 mining
+boats; 5 torpedo boats; 1 royal yacht; 2 school ships and various minor
+vessels. The personnel of the navy was composed in 1907 of 437 officers,
+26 cadets, 1118 petty officers, 2372 seamen and stokers, 60 boys and 99
+civilians, together with 386 artisans employed at the arsenal. The navy
+is manned chiefly by conscription; the period of service is two years,
+with four years in the reserve. The headquarters of the fleet and
+arsenal are in the island of Salamis, where there is a dockyard with
+naval stores, a floating dock and a torpedo school. Most of the vessels
+of the Greek fleet were in 1907 obsolete; in 1904 a commission under the
+presidency of Prince George proposed the rearmament of the existing
+ironclads and the purchase of three new ironclads and other vessels. A
+different scheme of reorganization, providing almost exclusively for
+submarines and scout vessels, was suggested to the government by the
+French admiral Fournier in 1908, but was opposed by the Greek naval
+officers. With a view to the augmentation and better equipment of the
+fleet a special fund was instituted in 1900 to which certain revenues
+have been assigned; it has been increased by various donations and
+bequests and by the proceeds of a state lottery. The fleet is not
+exercised methodically either in navigation or gunnery practice; a long
+voyage, however, was undertaken by the ironclad vessels in 1904. The
+Greeks, especially the islanders of the Aegean, make better sailors than
+soldiers; the personnel of the navy, if trained by foreign officers,
+might be brought to a high state of efficiency.
+
+
+    Finance.
+
+  The financial history of Greece has been unsatisfactory from the
+  outset. Excessive military and naval expenditure (mainly due to
+  repeated and hasty mobilizations), a lax and improvident system of
+  administration, the corruption of political parties and the
+  instability of the government, which has rendered impossible the
+  continuous application of any scheme of fiscal reform--all alike have
+  contributed to the economic ruin of the country. For a long series of
+  years preceding the declaration of national insolvency in 1893
+  successive budgets presented a deficit, which in years of political
+  excitement and military activity assumed enormous proportions: the
+  shortcomings of the budget were supplied by the proceeds of foreign
+  loans, or by means of advances obtained in the country at a high rate
+  of interest. The two loans which had been contracted during the war of
+  independence were extinguished by means of a conversion in 1889. Of
+  the existing foreign loans the earliest is that of 60,000,000 frs.,
+  guaranteed by the three protecting powers in 1832; owing to the
+  payment of interest and amortization by the powers, the capital
+  amounted in 1871 to 100,392,833 fr.; on this Greece pays an annual sum
+  of 900,000 fr., of which 300,000 have been granted by the powers as a
+  yearly subvention to King George. The only other existing foreign
+  obligation of early date is the debt to the heirs of King Otho
+  (4,500,000 dr.) contracted in 1868. A large amount of internal debt
+  was incurred between 1848 and 1880, but a considerable proportion of
+  this was redeemed with the proceeds of the foreign loans negotiated
+  after this period. At the end of 1880 the entire national debt,
+  external and internal, stood at 252,652,481 dr. In 1881 the era of
+  great foreign loans began. In that year a 5% loan of 120,000,000 fr.
+  was raised to defray the expenses of the mobilization of 1880. This
+  was followed in 1884 by a 5% loan of 170,000,000 fr., of which
+  100,000,000 was actually issued. The service of these loans was
+  guaranteed by various State revenues. A "patriotic loan" of 30,000,000
+  dr. without interest, issued during the war excitement of 1885, proved
+  a failure, only 2,723,860 dr. being subscribed. In 1888 a 4% loan of
+  135,000,000 fr. was contracted, secured on the receipts of the five
+  State monopolies, the management of which was entrusted to a
+  privileged company. In the following year (1889) two 4% loans of
+  30,000,000 fr. and 125,000,000 fr. respectively were issued without
+  guarantee or sinking fund; Greek credit had now apparently attained an
+  established position in the foreign money market, but a decline of
+  public confidence soon became evident. In 1890, of a 5% loan of
+  80,000,000 fr. effective, authorized for the construction of the
+  Peiraeus-Larissa railway, only 40,050,000 fr. was taken up abroad and
+  12,900,000 fr. at home; large portions of the proceeds were devoted to
+  other purposes. In 1892 the government was compelled to make large
+  additions to the internal floating debt, and to borrow 16,500,000 fr.
+  from the National Bank on onerous terms. In 1893 an effort to obtain a
+  foreign loan for the reduction of the forced currency proved
+  unsuccessful. (For the events leading up to the declaration of
+  national bankruptcy in that year see under _Recent History_.) A
+  funding convention was concluded in the summer, under which the
+  creditors accepted scrip instead of cash payments of interest. A few
+  months later this arrangement was reversed by the Chamber, and on the
+  13th December a law was passed assigning provisionally to all the
+  foreign loans alike 30% of the stipulated interest; the reduced
+  coupons were made payable in paper instead of gold, the sinking funds
+  were suspended, and the sums encashed by the monopoly company were
+  confiscated. The causes of the financial catastrophe may be briefly
+  summarized as follows: (1) The military preparations of 1885-1886,
+  with the attendant disorganization of the country; the extraordinary
+  expenditure of these years amounted to 130,987,772 dr. (2) Excessive
+  borrowing abroad, involving a charge for the service of foreign loans
+  altogether disproportionate to the revenue. (3) Remissness in the
+  collection of taxation: the total loss through arrears in a period of
+  ten years (1882-1891) was 36,549,202 dr., being in the main
+  attributable to non-payment of direct taxes. (4) The adverse balance
+  of trade, largely due to the neglected condition of agriculture; in
+  the five years preceding the crisis (1888-1892) the exports were
+  stated to amount to L19,578,973, while the imports reached
+  L24,890,146; foreign live stock and cereals being imported to the
+  amount of L6,193,579. The proximate cause of the crisis was the rise
+  in the exchange owing to the excessive amount of paper money in
+  circulation. Forced currency was first introduced in 1868, when
+  15,000,000 dr. in paper money was issued; it was abolished in the
+  following year, but reintroduced in 1877 with a paper issue of
+  44,000,000 dr. It was abolished a second time in 1884, but again put
+  into circulation in 1885, when paper loans to the amount of 45,000,000
+  dr. were authorized. In 1893 the total authorized forced currency was
+  146,000,000 dr., of which 88,000,000 (including 14,000,000 dr. in
+  small notes) was on account of the government. The gold and silver
+  coinage had practically disappeared from circulation. The rate of
+  exchange, as a rule, varies directly with the amount of paper money in
+  circulation, but, owing to speculation, it is liable to violent
+  fluctuations whenever there is an exceptional demand for gold in the
+  market. In 1893 the gold franc stood at the ratio of 1.60 to the paper
+  drachma; the service of the foreign loans required upwards of
+  31,000,000 dr. in gold, and any attempt to realize this sum in the
+  market would have involved an outlay equivalent to at least half the
+  budget. With the failure of the projected loan for the withdrawal of
+  the forced currency repudiation became inevitable. The law of the 13th
+  of December was not recognized by the national creditors: prolonged
+  negotiations followed, but no arrangement was arrived at till 1897,
+  when the intervention of the powers after the war with Turkey
+  furnished the opportunity for a definite settlement. It was stipulated
+  that Turkey should receive an indemnity of LT4,000,000 contingent on
+  the evacuation of Thessaly; in order to secure the payment of this sum
+  by Greece without prejudice to the interests of her creditors, and to
+  enable the country to recover from the economic consequences of the
+  war, Great Britain, France and Russia undertook to guarantee a 2-1/2%
+  loan of 170,000,000 fr., of which 150,000,000 fr. has been issued. By
+  the preliminary treaty of peace (18th of September 1897) an
+  International Financial Commission, composed of six representatives of
+  the powers, was charged with the payment of the indemnity to Turkey,
+  and with "absolute control" over the collection and employment of
+  revenues sufficient for the service of the foreign debt. A law
+  defining the powers of the Commission was passed by the Chamber, 26th
+  of February 1898 (o.s.). The revenues assigned to its supervision were
+  the five government monopolies, the tobacco and stamp duties, and the
+  import duties of Peiraeus (total annual value estimated at 39,600,000
+  dr.): the collection was entrusted to a Greek society, which is under
+  the absolute control of the Commission. The returns of Peiraeus
+  customs (estimated at 10,700,000 dr.) are regarded as an extra
+  guarantee, and are handed over to the Greek government; when the
+  produce of the other revenues exceeds 28,900,000 dr. the "plus value"
+  or surplus is divided in the proportion of 50.8% to the Greek
+  government and 49.2% to the creditors. The plus values amounted to
+  3,301,481 dr. in 1898, 3,533,755 dr. in 1899, and 3,442,713 dr. in
+  1900. Simultaneously with the establishment of the control the
+  interest for the Monopoly Loan was fixed at 43%, for the Funding Loan
+  at 40%, and for the other loans at 32% of the original interest. With
+  the revenues at its disposal the International Commission has already
+  been enabled to make certain augmentations in the service of the
+  foreign debt; since 1900 it has begun to take measures for the
+  reduction of the forced currency, of which 2,000,000 dr. will be
+  annually bought up and destroyed till the amount in circulation is
+  reduced to 40,000,000 dr. On the 1st of January 1901 the authorized
+  paper issue was 164,000,000 dr., of which 92,000,000 (including
+  18,000,000 in fractional currency) was on account of the government;
+  the amount in actual circulation was 148,619,618 dr. On the 31st of
+  July 1906 the paper issue had been reduced to 152,775,975 dr., and the
+  amount in circulation was 124,668,057 dr. The financial commission
+  retains its powers until the extinction of all the foreign loans
+  contracted since 1881. Though its activity is mainly limited to the
+  administration of the assigned revenues, it has exercised a beneficial
+  influence over the whole domain of Greek finance; the effect may be
+  observed in the greatly enhanced value of Greek securities since its
+  institution, averaging 25.76% in 1906. No change can be made in its
+  composition or working without the consent of the six powers, and none
+  of the officials employed in the collection of the revenues subject to
+  its control can be dismissed or transferred without its consent. It
+  thus constitutes an element of stability and order which cannot fail
+  to react on the general administration. It is unable, however, to
+  control the expenditure or to assert any direct influence over the
+  government, with which the responsibility still rests for an improved
+  system of collection, a more efficient staff of functionaries and the
+  repression of smuggling. The country has shown a remarkable vitality
+  in recovering from the disasters of 1897, and should it in future
+  obtain a respite from paroxysms of military and political excitement,
+  its financial regeneration will be assured.
+
+  The following table gives the actual expenditure and receipts for the
+  period 1889-1906 inclusive:
+
+    +---------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+    |  Year.  |   Actual    |    Actual    |  Surplus or  |
+    |         |  Receipts.  | Expenditure. |   Deficit.   |
+    +---------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+    |         |  Drachmae.  |   Drachmae.  |  Drachmae.   |
+    | 1889    |  83,731,591 |  110,772,327 |  -27,040,736 |
+    | 1890    |  79,931,795 |  125,932,579 |  -46,000,784 |
+    | 1891    |  90,321,872 |  122,836,385 |  -32,514,513 |
+    | 1892    |  95,465,569 |  107,283,498 |  -11,817,929 |
+    | 1893*   |  96,723,418 |   92,133,565 |  + 4,589,853 |
+    | 1894    | 102,885,643 |   85,135,752 |  +17,749,891 |
+    | 1895    |  94,657,065 |   91,641,967 |  + 3,015,098 |
+    | 1896    |  96,931,726 |   90,890,607 |  + 6,041,119 |
+    | 1897**  |  92,485,825 |  137,043,929 |  -44,558,104 |
+    | 1898*** | 104,949,718 |  110,341,431 |  - 5,391,713 |
+    | 1899    | 111,318,273 |  104,586,504 |  + 6,731,769 |
+    | 1900    | 112,206,849 |  112,049,279 |  +   157,570 |
+    | 1901    | 115,734,159 |  113,646,301 |  + 2,087,858 |
+    | 1902    | 123,949,931 |  121,885,707 |  + 2,064,224 |
+    | 1903    | 120,194,362 |  117,436,549 |  + 2,757,813 |
+    | 1904    | 121,186,246 |  120,200,247 |  +   985,999 |
+    | 1905    | 126,472,580 |  118,699,761 |  + 7,772,819 |
+    | 1906    | 125,753,358 |  124,461,577 |  + 1,291,781 |
+    +---------+-------------+--------------+--------------+
+
+      * Reduction of interest on foreign debt by 70%.
+     ** War with Turkey.
+    *** International Financial Commission instituted.
+
+  The steady increase of receipts since 1898 attests the growing
+  prosperity of the country, but expenditure has been allowed to
+  outstrip revenue, and, notwithstanding the official figures which
+  represent a series of surpluses, the accumulated deficit in 1905
+  amounted to about 14,000,000, dr. in addition to treasury bonds for
+  8,000,000 dr. A remarkable feature has been the rapid fall in the
+  exchange since 1903; the gold franc, which stood at 1.63 dr. in 1902,
+  had fallen to 1.08 in October 1906. The decline, a favourable symptom
+  if resulting from normal economic factors, is apparently due to a
+  combination of exceptional circumstances, and consequently may not be
+  maintained; it has imposed a considerable strain on the financial and
+  commercial situation. The purchasing power of the drachma remains
+  almost stationary and the price of imported commodities continues
+  high; import dues, which since 1904 are payable in drachmae at the
+  fixed rate of 1.45 to the franc, have been practically increased by
+  more than 30%. In April 1900 a 4% loan of 43,750,000 francs for the
+  completion of the railway from Peiraeus to the Turkish frontier, and
+  another loan of 11,750,000 drachmae for the construction of a line
+  from Pyrgos to Meligala, linking up the Morea railway system, were
+  sanctioned by the Chamber; the first-named, the "Greek Railways Loan,"
+  was taken up at 80 by the syndicate contracting for the works and was
+  placed on the market in 1902. The service of both loans is provided by
+  the International Commission from the surplus funds of the assigned
+  revenues. On the 1st of January 1906 the external debt amounted to
+  725,939,500 francs and the internal (including the paper circulation)
+  to 171,629,436 drachmae.
+
+  The budget estimates for 1906 were as follows: Civil list, 1,325,000
+  dr.; pensions, payment of deputies, &c., 7,706,676 dr.; public debt,
+  34,253,471 dr.; foreign affairs, 3,563,994 dr.; justice, 6,240,271
+  dr.; interior, 13,890,927 dr.; religion and education, 7,143,924 dr.;
+  army, 20,618,563 dr.; navy, 7,583,369 dr.; finance, 2,362,143 dr.;
+  collection of revenue, 10,650,487 dr.; various expenditure, 9,122,752
+  dr.; total, 124,461,577 dr.
+
+  The two privileged banks in Greece are the National Bank, founded in
+  1841; capital 20,000,000 drachmae in 20,000 shares of 1000 dr. each,
+  fully paid up; reserve fund 13,500,000 dr.; notes in circulation
+  (September 1906) 126,721,887 dr., of which 76,360,905 dr. on account
+  of the government; and the Ionian Bank, incorporated in 1839; capital
+  paid up L315,500 in 63,102 shares, of L5 each; notes in circulation,
+  10,200,000 drachmae, of which 3,500,000 (in fractional notes of 1 and
+  2 dr.) on account of the government. The notes issued by these two
+  banks constitute the forced paper currency circulating throughout the
+  kingdom. In the case of the Ionian Bank the privilege of issuing
+  notes, originally limited to the Ionian Islands, will expire in 1920.
+  The National Bank is a private institution under supervision of the
+  government, which is represented by a royal commissioner on the board
+  of administration; the central establishment is at Athens with
+  forty-two branches throughout the country. The headquarters of the
+  Ionian Bank, which is a British institution, are in London; the bank
+  has a central office at Athens and five branches in Greece. The
+  privileged Epiro-Thessalian Bank ceased to exist from the 4th of
+  January 1900, when it was amalgamated with the National Bank. There
+  are several other banking companies, as well as private banks, at
+  Athens. The most important is the Bank of Athens (capital 40,000,000
+  dr.), founded in 1893; it possesses five branches in Greece and six
+  abroad.
+
+
+    Currency, weights and measures.
+
+  Greece entered the Latin Monetary Union in 1868. The monetary unit is
+  the new drachma, equivalent to the franc, and divided into 100 lepta
+  or centimes. There are nickel coins of 20, 10 and 5 lepta, copper
+  coins of 10 and 5 lepta. Gold and silver coins were minted in Paris
+  between 1868 and 1884, but have since practically disappeared from the
+  country. The paper currency consists of notes for 1000 dr., 500 dr.,
+  100 dr., 25 dr., 10 dr. and 5 dr., and of fractional notes for 2 dr.
+  and 1 dr. The decimal system of weights and measures was adopted in
+  1876, but some of the old Turkish standards are still in general use.
+  The dram = 1/10 oz. avoirdupois approximately; the oke = 400 drams or
+  2.8 lb.; the kilo = 22 okes or 0.114 of an imperial quarter; the
+  cantar or quintal = 44 okes or 123.2 lb. Liquids are measured by
+  weight. The punta = 1-5/8 in.; the ruppa, 3-1/2 in.; the pik, 26 in.;
+  the stadion = 1 kilometre or 1093-1/2 yds. The stremma (square
+  measure) is nearly one-third of an acre.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--W. Leake, _Researches in Greece_ (1814), _Travels in the
+  Morea_ (3 vols., 1830), _Travels in Northern Greece_ (4 vols., 1834),
+  _Peloponnesiaca_ (1846); Bursian, _Geographie von Griechenland_ (2
+  vols., Leipzig, 1862-1873); Lolling, "Hellenische Landeskunde und
+  Topographie" in Ivan Muller's _Handbuch der klassischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_; C. Wordsworth, _Greece; Pictorial, Descriptive
+  and Historical_ (new ed., revised by H. F. Tozer, London, 1882); K.
+  Stephanos, _La Grece_ (Paris, 1884); C. Neumann and J. Partsch,
+  _Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland_ (Breslau, 1885); K.
+  Krumbacher, _Griechische Reise_ (Berlin, 1886); J. P. Mahaffy,
+  _Rambles and Studies in Greece_ (London, 1887); R. A. H.
+  Bickford-Smith, _Greece under King George_ (London, 1893); Ch. Diehl,
+  _Excursions archeologiques en Grece_ (Paris, 1893); Perrot and
+  Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art_, tome vi., "La Grece primitive" (Paris,
+  1894); tome vii., "La Grece archaique" (Paris, 1898); A. Philippson,
+  _Griechenland und seine Stellung im Orient_ (Leipzig, 1897); L.
+  Sergeant, _Greece in the Nineteenth Century_ (London, 1897); J. G.
+  Frazer, _Pausanias's Description of Greece_ (6 vols., London, 1898);
+  _Pausanias and other Greek Sketches_ (London, 1900); _Greco-Turkish
+  War of 1897_, from official sources, by a German staff officer (Eng.
+  trans., London, 1898); J. A. Symonds, _Studies_, and _Sketches in
+  Italy and Greece_ (3 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1898); V. Berard, _La
+  Turquie et l'hellenisme contemporaine_ (Paris, 1900).
+
+  For the climate: D. Aeginetes, [Greek: To klima tes Hellados] (Athens,
+  1908).
+
+  For the fauna: Th. de Heldreich, _La Fauna de la Grece_ (Athens,
+  1878).
+
+  For special topography: A. Meliarakes, [Greek: Kukladika etoi
+  geographia kai historia ton Kukladikon neson] (Athens, 1874); [Greek:
+  'Tpomnemata perigraphika ton Kukladon neson Androu kai Keo] (Athens,
+  1880); [Greek: Geographia politike nea kai archaia tou nomou Argolidos
+  kai Korinthias] (Athens, 1886); [Greek: Geographia politike nea kai
+  archaia tou nomou Kephallenias]. (Athens, 1890); Th. Bent, _The
+  Cyclades_ (London, 1885); A. Botticher, _Olympia_ (2nd ed., Berlin,
+  1886); J. Partsch, _Die Insel Corfu: eine geographische Monographie_
+  (Gotha, 1887); _Die Insel Leukas_ (Gotha, 1889); _Kephallenia und
+  Ithaka_ (Gotha, 1890); _Die Insel Zante_ (Gotha, 1891); A. Philippson,
+  _Der Peloponnes_. (_Versuch einer Landeskunde auf geologischer
+  Grundlage._) (Berlin, 1892); "Thessalien und Epirus" (_Reisen und
+  Forschungen im nordlichen Griechenland_) (Berlin, 1897); _Die
+  griechischen Inseln des agaischen Meeres_ (Berlin, 1897); W. J.
+  Woodhouse, _Aetolia_ (Oxford, 1897); Schultz and Barnsley, _The
+  Monastery of St Luke of Stiris_ (London, 1901); M. Lamprinides,
+  [Greek: He Nauplia] (Athens, 1898); _Monuments de l'art byzantin_,
+  publies par le Ministere de l'Instruction, tome i.; G. Millet, "Le
+  Monastere de Daphni" (Paris, 1900). For the life, customs and habits
+  of the modern Greeks: C. Wachsmuth, _Das alte Griechenland im neuen_
+  (Bonn, 1864); C. K. Tuckerman, _The Greeks of to-day_ (London, 1873);
+  B. Schmidt, _Volksleben der Neugriechen und das hellenische Altertum_
+  (Leipzig, 1871); Estournelle de Constant, _La Vie de province en
+  Grece_ (Paris, 1878); E. About, _La Grece contemporaine_ (Paris, 1855;
+  8th ed., 1883); J. T. Bent, _Modern Life and Thought among the Greeks_
+  (London, 1891); J. Rennell Rodd, The Customs and Lore of Modern Greece
+  (London, 1892). Guide-books, Baedeker's _Greece_ (3rd ed., Leipzig,
+  1905); Murray's _Handbook for Greece_ (7th ed., London, 1905);
+  Macmillan's _Guide to the Eastern Mediterranean_ (London, 1901).
+       (J. D. B.)
+
+
+2. HISTORY
+
+a. _Ancient; to 146_ B.C.
+
+1. _Introductory._--It is necessary to indicate at the outset the scope
+and object of the present article. The reader must not expect to find in
+it a compendious summary of the chief events in the history of ancient
+Greece. It is not intended to supply an "Outlines of Greek History." It
+may be questioned whether such a sketch of the history, within the
+limits of space which are necessarily imposed in a work of reference,
+would be of utility to any class of readers. At any rate, the plan of
+the present work, in which the subject of Greek history is treated of in
+a large number of separate articles, allows of the narrative of events
+being given in a more satisfactory form under the more general of the
+headings (e.g. ATHENS, SPARTA, PELOPONNESIAN WAR). The character of the
+history itself suggests a further reason why a general article upon
+Greek history should not be confined to, or even attempt, a narrative of
+events. A sketch of Greek history is not possible in the sense in which
+a sketch of Roman history, or even of English history, is possible.
+Greek history is not the history of a single state. When Aristotle
+composed his work upon the constitutions of the Greek states, he found
+it necessary to extend his survey to no less that 158 states. Greek
+history is thus concerned with more than 150 separate and independent
+political communities. Nor is it even the history of a single country.
+The area occupied by the Greek race extended from the Pyrenees to the
+Caucasus, and from southern Russia to northern Africa. It is inevitable,
+therefore, that the impression conveyed by a sketch of Greek history
+should be a misleading one. A mere narrative can hardly fail to give a
+false perspective. Experience shows that such a sketch is apt to resolve
+itself into the history of a few great movements and of a few leading
+states. What is still worse, it is apt to confine itself, at any rate
+for the greater part of the period dealt with, to the history of Greece
+in the narrower sense, i.e. of the Greek peninsula. For the
+identification of Greece with Greece proper there may be some degree of
+excuse when we come to the 5th and 4th centuries. In the period that
+lies behind the year 500 B.C. Greece proper forms but a small part of
+the Greek world. In the 7th and 6th centuries it is outside Greece
+itself that we must look for the most active life of the Greek people
+and the most brilliant manifestations of the Greek spirit. The present
+article, therefore, will be concerned with the causes and conditions of
+events, rather than with the events themselves; it will attempt analysis
+rather than narrative. Its object will be to indicate problems and to
+criticize views; to suggest lessons and parallels, and to estimate the
+importance of the Hellenic factor in the development of civilization.
+
+2. _The Minoan and Mycenaean Ages._--When does Greek history begin?
+Whatever may be the answer that is given to this question, it will be
+widely different from any that could have been proposed a generation
+ago. Then the question was, How late does Greek history begin? To-day
+the question is, How early does it begin? The suggestion made by Grote
+that the first Olympiad (776 B.C.) should be taken as the starting-point
+of the history of Greece, in the proper sense of the term "history,"
+seemed likely, not so many years ago, to win general acceptance. At the
+present moment the tendency would seem to be to go back as far as the
+3rd or 4th millennium B.C. in order to reach a starting-point. It is to
+the results of archaeological research during the last thirty years that
+we must attribute so startling a change in the attitude of historical
+science towards this problem. In the days when Grote published the first
+volumes of his _History of Greece_ archaeology was in its infancy. Its
+results, so far as they affected the earlier periods of Greek history,
+were scanty; its methods were unscientific. The methods have been
+gradually perfected by numerous workers in the field; but the results,
+which have so profoundly modified our conceptions of the early history
+of the Aegean area, are principally due to the discoveries of two men,
+Heinrich Schliemann and A. J. Evans. A full account of these discoveries
+will be found elsewhere (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION and CRETE). It will be
+sufficient to mention here that Schliemann's labours began with the
+excavations on the site of Troy in the years 1870-1873; that he passed
+on to the excavations at Mycenae in 1876 and to those at Tiryns in 1884.
+It was the discoveries of these years that revealed to us the Mycenaean
+age, and carried back the history to the middle of the 2nd millennium.
+The discoveries of Dr A. J. Evans in the island of Crete belong to a
+later period. The work of excavation was begun in 1900, and was carried
+on in subsequent years. It has revealed to us the Minoan age, and
+enabled us to trace back the development and origins of the civilization
+for a further period of 1000 or 1500 years. The dates assigned by
+archaeologists to the different periods of Mycenaean and Minoan art must
+be regarded as merely approximate. Even the relation of the two
+civilizations is still, to some extent, a matter of conjecture. The
+general chronological scheme, however, in the sense of the relative
+order of the various periods and the approximate intervals between them,
+is too firmly established, both by internal evidence, such as the
+development of the styles of pottery, and of the art in general, and by
+external evidence, such as the points of contact with Egyptian art and
+history, to admit of its being any longer seriously called in question.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Greece (ancient).]
+
+If, then, by "Greek history" is to be understood the history of the
+lands occupied in later times by the Greek race (i.e. the Greek
+peninsula and the Aegean basin), the beginnings of the history must be
+carried back some 2000 years before Grote's proposed starting-point. If,
+however, "Greek history" is taken to mean the history of the Greek
+people, the determination of the starting-point is far from easy. For
+the question to which archaeology does not as yet supply any certain
+answer is the question of race. Were the creators of the Minoan and
+Mycenaean civilization Greeks or were they not? In some degree the
+Minoan evidence has modified the answer suggested by the Mycenaean.
+Although wide differences of opinion as to the origin of the Mycenaean
+civilization existed among scholars when the results of Schliemann's
+labours were first given to the world, a general agreement had gradually
+been arrived at in favour of the view which would identify Mycenaean
+with Achaean or Homeric. In presence of the Cretan evidence it is no
+longer possible to maintain this view with the same confidence. The two
+chief difficulties in the way of attributing either the Minoan or the
+Mycenaean civilization to an Hellenic people are connected respectively
+with the script and the religion. The excavations at Cnossus have
+yielded thousands of tablets written in the linear script. There is
+evidence that this script was in use among the Mycenaeans as well. If
+Greek was the language spoken at Cnossus and Mycenae, how is it that all
+attempts to decipher the script have hitherto failed? The Cretan
+excavations, again, have taught us a great deal as to the religion of
+the Minoan age; they have, at the same time, thrown a new light upon the
+evidence supplied by Mycenaean sites. It is no longer possible to ignore
+the contrast between the cults of the Minoan and Mycenaean ages, and the
+religious conceptions which they imply, and the cults and religious
+conceptions prevalent in the historical period. On the other hand, it
+may safely be asserted that the argument derived from the Mycenaean art,
+in which we seem to trace a freedom of treatment which is akin to the
+spirit of the later Greek art, and is in complete contrast to the spirit
+of Oriental art, has received striking confirmation from the remains of
+Minoan art. The decipherment of the script would at once solve the
+problem. We should at least know whether the dominant race in Crete in
+the Minoan age spoke an Hellenic or a non-Hellenic dialect. And what
+could be inferred with regard to Crete in the Minoan age could almost
+certainly be inferred with regard to the mainland in the Mycenaean age.
+In the meanwhile, possibly until the tablets are read, at any rate until
+further evidence is forthcoming, any answer that can be given to the
+question must necessarily be tentative and provisional. (See AEGEAN
+CIVILIZATION.)
+
+It has already been implied that this period of the history of Greece
+may be subdivided into a Minoan and a Mycenaean age. Whether these terms
+are appropriate is a question of comparatively little importance. They
+at least serve to remind us of the part played by the discoveries at
+Mycenae and Cnossus in the reconstruction of the history. The term
+"Mycenaean," it is true, has other associations than those of locality.
+It may seem to imply that the civilization disclosed in the excavations
+at Mycenae is Achaean in character, and that it is to be connected with
+the Pelopid dynasty to which Agamemnon belonged. In its scientific use,
+the term must be cleared of all such associations. Further, as opposed
+to "Minoan" it must be understood in a more definite sense than that in
+which it has often been employed. It has come to be generally recognized
+that two different periods are to be distinguished in Schliemann's
+discoveries at Mycenae itself. There is an earlier period, to which
+belong the objects found in the shaft-graves, and there is a later
+period, to which belong the beehive tombs and the remains of the
+palaces. It is the latter period which is "Mycenaean" in the strict
+sense; i.e. it is "Mycenaean" as opposed to "Minoan." To this period
+belong also the palace at Tiryns, the beehive-tombs discovered elsewhere
+on the mainland of Greece and one of the cities on the site of Troy
+(Schliemann's sixth). The pottery of this period is as characteristic of
+it, both in its forms (e.g. the "stirrup" or "false-necked" form of
+vase) and in its peculiar glaze, as is the architecture of the palaces
+and the beehive-tombs. Although the chief remains have been found on the
+mainland of Greece itself, the art of this period is found to have
+extended as far north as Troy and as far east as Cyprus. On the other
+hand, hardly any traces of it have been discovered on the west coast of
+Asia Minor, south of the Troad. The Mycenaean age, in this sense, may be
+regarded as extending from 1600 to 1200 B.C. The Minoan age is of far
+wider extent. Its latest period includes both the earlier and the later
+periods of the remains found at Mycenae. This is the period called by Dr
+Evans "Late Minoan." To this period belong the Great Palace at Cnossus
+and the linear system of writing. The "Middle Minoan" period, to which
+the earlier palace belongs, is characterized by the pictographic system
+of writing and by polychrome pottery of a peculiarly beautiful kind. Dr
+Evans proposes to carry back this period as far as 2500 B.C. Even behind
+it there are traces of a still earlier civilization. Thus the Minoan
+age, even if limited to the middle and later periods, will cover at
+least a thousand years. Perhaps the most surprising result of the
+excavations in Crete is the discovery that Minoan art is on a higher
+level than Mycenaean art. To the scholars of a generation ago it seemed
+a thing incredible that the art of the shaft-graves, and the
+architecture of the beehive-tombs and the palaces, could belong to the
+age before the Dorian invasion. The most recent discoveries seem to
+indicate that the art of Mycenae is a decadent art; they certainly prove
+that an art, hardly inferior in its way to the art of the classical
+period, and a civilization which implies the command of great material
+resources, were flourishing in the Aegean perhaps a thousand years
+before the siege of Troy.
+
+
+  Oriental influence.
+
+To the question, "What is the origin of this civilization? Is it of
+foreign derivation or of native growth?" it is not possible to give a
+direct answer. It is clear, on the one hand that it was developed, by a
+gradual process of differentiation, from a culture which was common to
+the whole Aegean basin and extended as far to the west as Sicily. It is
+equally clear, on the other hand, that foreign influences contributed
+largely to the process of development. Egyptian influences, in
+particular, can be traced throughout the "Minoan" and "Mycenaean"
+periods. The developed art, however, both in Crete and on the mainland,
+displays characteristics which are the very opposite of those which are
+commonly associated with the term "oriental." Egyptian work, even of the
+best period, is stiff and conventional; in the best Cretan work, and, in
+a less degree, in Mycenaean work, we find an originality and a freedom
+of treatment which remind one of the spirit of the Greek artists. The
+civilization is, in many respects, of an advanced type. The Cretan
+architects could design on a grand scale, and could carry out their
+designs with no small degree of mechanical skill. At Cnossus we find a
+system of drainage in use, which is far in advance of anything known in
+the modern world before the 19th century. If the art of the Minoan age
+falls short of the art of the Periclean age, it is hardly inferior to
+that of the age of Peisistratus. It is a civilization, too, which has
+long been familiar with the art of writing. But it is one that belongs
+entirely to the Bronze Age. Iron is not found until the very end of the
+Mycenaean period, and then only in small quantities. Nor is this the
+only point of contrast between the culture of the earliest age and that
+of the historical period in Greece. The chief seats of the early culture
+are to be found either in the island of Crete, or, on the mainland, at
+Tiryns and Mycenae. In the later history Crete plays no part, and Tiryns
+and Mycenae are obscure. With the great names of a later age, Argos,
+Sparta and Athens, no great discoveries are connected. In northern
+Greece, Orchomenos rather than Thebes is the centre of influence.
+Further points of contrast readily suggest themselves. The so-called
+Phoenician alphabet, in use amongst the later Greeks, is unknown in the
+earliest age. Its systems of writing, both the earlier and the later
+one, are syllabic in character, and analogous to those in vogue in Asia
+Minor and Cyprus. In the art of war, the chariot is of more importance
+than the foot-soldier, and the latter, unlike the Greek hoplite, is
+lightly clad, and trusts to a shield large enough to cover the whole
+body, rather than to the metal helmet, breastplate and greaves of later
+times (see Arms and Armour: Greek). The political system appears to have
+been a despotic monarchy, and the realm of the monarch to have extended
+to far wider limits than those of the "city-states" of historical
+Greece. It is, perhaps, in the religious practices of the age, and in
+the ideas implied in them, that the contrast is most apparent. Neither
+in Crete nor on the mainland is there any trace of the worship of the
+"Olympian" deities. The cults in vogue remind us rather of Asia than of
+Greece. The worship of pillars and of trees carries us back to Canaan,
+while the double-headed axe, so prominent in the ritual of Cnossus,
+survives in later times as the symbol of the national deity of the
+Carians. The beehive-tombs, found on many sites on the mainland besides
+Mycenae, are evidence both of a method of sepulture and of ideas of the
+future state, which are alien to the practice and the thought of the
+Greeks of history. It is only in one region--in the island of
+Cyprus--that the culture of the Mycenaean age is found surviving into
+the historical period. As late as the beginning of the 5th century B.C.
+Cyprus is still ruled by kings, the alphabet has not yet displaced a
+syllabary, the characteristic forms of Mycenaean vases still linger on,
+and the chief deity of the island is the goddess with attendant doves
+whose images are among the common objects of Mycenaean finds.
+
+3. _The Homeric Age._--Alike in Crete and on the mainland the
+civilization disclosed by excavation comes abruptly to an end. In Crete
+we can trace it back from c. 1200 B.C. to the Neolithic period. From the
+Stone Age to the end of the Minoan Age the development is continuous and
+uninterrupted.[4] But between the culture of the Early Age and the
+culture of the Dorians, who occupied the island in historical times, no
+connexion whatever can be established. Between the two there is a great
+gulf fixed. It would be difficult to imagine a greater contrast than
+that presented by the rude life of the Dorian communities in Crete when
+it is compared with the political power, the material resources and the
+extensive commerce of the earlier period. The same gap between the
+archaeological age and the historical exists on the mainland also. It is
+true that the solution of continuity is here less complete. Mycenaean
+art continues, here and there, in a debased form down to the 9th
+century, a date to which we can trace back the beginnings of the later
+Greek art. On one or two lines (e.g. architecture) it is even possible
+to establish some sort of connexion between them. But Greek art as a
+whole cannot be evolved from Mycenaean art. We cannot bridge over the
+interval that separates the latter art, even in its decline, from the
+former. It is sufficient to compare the "dipylon" ware (with which the
+process of development begins, which culminates in the pottery of the
+Great Age) with the Mycenaean vases, to satisfy oneself that the gulf
+exists. What then is the relation of the Heroic or Homeric Age (i.e. the
+age whose life is portrayed for us in the poems of Homer) to the
+Earliest Age? It too presents many contrasts to the later periods. On
+the other hand, it presents contrasts to the Minoan Age, which, in their
+way, are not less striking. Is it then to be identified with the
+Mycenaean Age? Schliemann, the discoverer of the Mycenaean culture,
+unhesitatingly identified Mycenaean with Homeric. He even identified the
+shaft-graves of Mycenae with the tombs of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra.
+Later inquirers, while refusing to discover so literal a correspondence
+between things Homeric and things Mycenaean, have not hesitated to
+accept a general correspondence between the Homeric Age and the
+Mycenaean. Where it is a case of comparing literary evidence with
+archaeological, an exact coincidence is not of course to be demanded.
+The most that can be asked is that a general correspondence should be
+established. It may be conceded that the case for such a correspondence
+appears prima facie a strong one. There is much in Homer that seems to
+find confirmation or explanation in Schliemann's finds. Mycenae is
+Agamemnon's city; the plan of the Homeric house agrees fairly well with
+the palaces at Tiryns and Mycenae; the forms and the technique of
+Mycenaean art serve to illustrate passages in the poems; such are only a
+few of the arguments that have been urged. It is the great merit of
+Professor Ridgeway's work (_The Early Age of Greece_) that it has
+demonstrated, once and for all, that Mycenaean is not Homeric pure and
+simple. He insists upon differences as great as the resemblances. Iron
+is in common use in Homer; it is practically unknown to the Mycenaeans.
+In place of the round shield and the metal armour of the Homeric
+soldier, we find at Mycenae that the warrior is lightly clad in linen,
+and that he fights behind an oblong shield, which covers the whole body;
+nor are the chariots the same in form. The Homeric dead are cremated;
+the Mycenaean are buried. The gods of Homer are the deities of Olympus,
+of whose cult no traces are to be found in the Mycenaean Age. The
+novelty of Professor Ridgeway's theory is that for the accepted
+equation, Homeric = Achaean = Mycenaean, he proposes to substitute the
+equations, Homeric = Achaean = post-Mycenaean, and Mycenaean =
+pre-Achaean = Pelasgian. The Mycenaean civilization he attributes to the
+Pelasgians, whom he regards as the indigenous population of Greece, the
+ancestors of the later Greeks, and themselves Greek both in speech and
+blood. The Homeric heroes are Achaeans, a fair-haired Celtic race, whose
+home was in the Danube valley, where they had learned the use of iron.
+In Greece they are newcomers, a conquering class comparable to the
+Norman invaders of England or Ireland, and like them they have acquired
+the language of their subjects in the course of a few generations. The
+Homeric civilization is thus Achaean, i.e. it is Pelasgian (Mycenaean)
+civilization, appropriated by a ruder race; but the Homeric culture is
+far inferior to the Mycenaean. Here, at any rate, the Norman analogy
+breaks down. Norman art in England is far in advance of Saxon. Even in
+Normandy (as in Sicily), where the Norman appropriated rather than
+introduced, he not only assimilated but developed. In Greece the process
+must have been reversed.
+
+The theory thus outlined is probably stronger on its destructive side
+than on its constructive. To treat the Achaeans as an immigrant race is
+to run counter to the tradition of the Greeks themselves, by whom the
+Achaeans were regarded as indigenous (cf. Herod. viii. 73). Nor is the
+Pelasgian part of the theory easy to reconcile with the Homeric
+evidence. If the Achaeans were a conquering class ruling over a
+Pelasgian population, we should expect to find this difference of race a
+prominent feature in Homeric society. We should, at least, expect to
+find a Pelasgian background to the Homeric picture. As a matter of fact,
+we find nothing of the sort. There is no consciousness in the Homeric
+poems of a distinction of race between the governing and the subject
+classes. There are, indeed, Pelasgians in Homer, but the references
+either to the people or the name are extraordinarily few. They appear as
+a people, presumably in Asia Minor, in alliance with the Trojans; they
+appear also, in a single passage, as one of the tribes inhabiting Crete.
+The name survives in "Pelasgicon Argos," which is probably to be
+identified with the valley of the Spercheius,[5] and as an epithet of
+Zeus of Dodona. The population, however, of Pelasgicon Argos and of
+Dodona is no longer Pelasgian. Thus, in the age of Homer, the Pelasgians
+belong, so far as Greece proper is concerned, to a past that is already
+remote. It is inadmissible to appeal to Herodotus against Homer. For the
+conditions of the Homeric age Homer is the sole authoritative witness.
+If, however, Professor Ridgeway has failed to prove that "Mycenaean"
+equals "Pelasgian," he has certainly proved that much that is Homeric is
+post-Mycenaean. It is possible that different strata are to be
+distinguished in the Homeric poems. There are passages which seem to
+assume the conditions of the Mycenaean age; there are others which
+presuppose the conditions of a later age. It may be that the latter
+passages reflect the circumstances of the poet's own times, while the
+former ones reproduce those of an earlier period. If so, the
+substitution of iron for bronze must have been effected in the interval
+between the earlier and the later periods.
+
+
+  The Homeric state.
+
+It has already been pointed out that the question whether the makers of
+the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations were Greeks must still be
+regarded as an open one. No such question can be raised as to the
+Homeric Age. The Achaeans may or may not have been Greek in blood. What
+is certain is that the Achaean Age forms an integral part of Greek
+history. Alike on the linguistic, the religious and the political sides,
+Homer is the starting-point of subsequent developments. In the Greek
+dialects the great distinction is that between the Doric and the rest.
+Of the non-Doric dialects the two main groups are the Aeolic and Ionic,
+both of which have been developed, by a gradual process of
+differentiation, from the language of the Homeric poems. With regard to
+religion it is sufficient to refer to the judgment of Herodotus, that it
+was Homer and Hesiod who were the authors of the Greek theogony (ii. 53
+[Greek: houtoi eisi hoi poiesantes theogonien Hellesi]). It is a
+commonplace that Homer was the Bible of the Greeks. On the political
+side, Greek constitutional development would be unintelligible without
+Homer. When Greek history, in the proper sense, begins, oligarchy is
+almost universal. Everywhere, however, an antecedent stage of monarchy
+has to be presupposed. In the Homeric system monarchy is the sole form
+of government; but it is monarchy already well on the way to being
+transformed into oligarchy. In the person of the king are united the
+functions of priest, of judge and of leader in war. He belongs to a
+family which claims divine descent and his office is hereditary. He is,
+however, no despotic monarch. He is compelled by custom to consult the
+council (_boule_) of the elders, or chiefs. He must ask their opinion,
+and, if he fails to obtain their consent, he has no power to enforce his
+will. Even when he has obtained the consent of the council, the proposal
+still awaits the approval of the assembly (_agora_), of the people.
+
+
+  Homeric society.
+
+Thus in the Homeric state we find the germs not only of the oligarchy
+and democracy of later Greece, but also of all the various forms of
+constitution known to the Western world. And a monarchy such as is
+depicted in the Homeric poems is clearly ripe for transmutation into
+oligarchy. The chiefs are addressed as kings ([Greek: basilees]), and
+claim, equally with the monarch, descent from the gods. In Homer, again,
+we can trace the later organization into tribe ([Greek: phyle]), clan
+([Greek: genos]), and phratry, which is characteristic of Greek society
+in the historical period, and meets us in analogous forms in other Aryan
+societies. The [Greek: genos] corresponds to the Roman _gens_, the
+[Greek: phyle] to the Roman tribe, and the phratry to the _curia_. The
+importance of the _phratry_ in Homeric society is illustrated by the
+well-known passage (_Iliad_ ix. 63) in which the outcast is described as
+"one who belongs to no phratry" ([Greek: aphretor]). It is a society
+that is, of course, based upon slavery, but it is slavery in its least
+repulsive aspect. The treatment which Eumaeus and Eurycleia receive at
+the hands of the poet of the _Odyssey_ is highly creditable to the
+humanity of the age. A society which regarded the slave as a mere
+chattel would have been impatient of the interest shown in a swineherd
+and a nurse. It is a society, too, that exhibits many of the
+distinguishing traits of later Greek life. Feasting and quarrels, it is
+true, are of more moment to the heroes than to the contemporaries of
+Pericles or Plato; but "music" and "gymnastic" (though the terms must be
+understood in a more restricted sense) are as distinctive of the age of
+Homer as of that of Pindar. In one respect there is retrogression in the
+historical period. Woman in Homeric society enjoys a greater freedom,
+and receives greater respect, than in the Athens of Sophocles and
+Pericles.
+
+4. _The Growth of the Greek States._--The Greek world at the beginning
+of the 6th century B.C. presents a picture in many respects different
+from that of the Homeric Age. The Greek race is no longer confined to
+the Greek peninsula. It occupies the islands of the Aegean, the western
+seaboard of Asia Minor, the coasts of Macedonia and Thrace, of southern
+Italy and Sicily. Scattered settlements are found as far apart as the
+mouth of the Rhone, the north of Africa, the Crimea and the eastern end
+of the Black Sea. The Greeks are called by a national name, _Hellenes_,
+the symbol of a fully-developed national self-consciousness. They are
+divided into three great branches, the Dorian, the Ionian and the
+Aeolian, names almost, or entirely, unknown to Homer. The heroic
+monarchy has nearly everywhere disappeared. In Greece proper, south of
+Thermopylae, it survives, but in a peculiar form, in the Spartan state
+alone. What is the significance and the explanation of contrasts so
+profound?
+
+
+  Dorian invasion.
+
+It is probable that the explanation is to be found, directly or
+indirectly, in a single cause, the Dorian invasion. In Homer the Dorians
+are mentioned in one passage only (_Odyssey_ xix. 177). They there
+appear as one of the races which inhabit Crete. In the historical period
+the whole Peloponnese, with the exception of Arcadia, Elis and Achaea,
+is Dorian. In northern Greece the Dorians occupy the little state of
+Doris, and in the Aegean they form the population of Crete, Rhodes and
+some smaller islands. Thus the chief centres of Minoan and Mycenaean
+culture have passed into Dorian hands, and the chief seats of Achaean
+power are included in Dorian states. Greek tradition explained the
+overthrow of the Achaean system by an invasion of the Peloponnese by the
+Dorians, a northern tribe, which had found a temporary home in Doris.
+The story ran that, after an unsuccessful attempt to force an entrance
+by the Isthmus of Corinth, they had crossed from Naupactus, at the mouth
+of the Corinthian Gulf, landed on the opposite shore, and made their way
+into the heart of the Peloponnese, where a single victory gave them
+possession of the Achaean states. Their conquests were divided among the
+invaders into three shares, for which lots were cast, and thus the three
+states of Argos, Sparta and Messenia were created. There is much in this
+tradition that is impossible or improbable. It is impossible, e.g. for
+the tiny state of Doris, with its three or four "small, sad villages"
+([Greek: poleis mikrai kai lyprochoroi], Strabo, p. 427), to have
+furnished a force of invaders sufficient to conquer and re-people the
+greater part of the Peloponnese. It is improbable that the conquest
+should have been either as sudden, or as complete, as the legend
+represents. On the contrary, there are indications that the conquest was
+gradual, and that the displacement of the older population was
+incomplete. The improbability of the details affords, however, no ground
+for questioning the reality of the invasion.[6] The tradition can be
+traced back at Sparta to the 7th century B.C. (Tyrtaeus, quoted by
+Strabo, p. 362), and there is abundant evidence, other than that of
+legend, to corroborate it. There is the Dorian name, to begin with. If,
+as Beloch supposes, it originated on the coast of Asia Minor, where it
+served to distinguish the settlers in Rhodes and the neighbouring
+islands from the Ionians and Aeolians to the north of them, how came the
+great and famous states of the Peloponnese to adopt a name in use among
+the petty colonies planted by their kinsmen across the sea? Or, if
+Dorian is simply Old Peloponnesian, how are we to account for the Doric
+dialect or the Dorian pride of race?
+
+It is true that there are great differences between the literary Doric,
+the dialect of Corinth and Argos, and the dialects of Laconia and Crete,
+and that there are affinities between the dialect of Laconia and the
+non-Dorian dialects of Arcadia and Elis. It is equally true, however,
+and of far more consequence, that all the Doric dialects are
+distinguished from all other Greek dialects by certain common
+characteristics. Perhaps the strongest sentiment in the Dorian nature is
+the pride of race. Indeed, it looks as if the Dorians claimed to be the
+sole genuine Hellenes. How can we account for an indigenous population,
+first imagining itself to be immigrant, and then developing a contempt
+for the rest of the race, equally indigenous with itself, on account of
+a fictitious difference in origin? Finally, there is the archaeological
+evidence. The older civilization comes to an abrupt end, and it does so,
+on the mainland at least, at the very period to which tradition assigns
+the Dorian migration. Its development is greatest, and its overthrow
+most complete, precisely in the regions occupied by the Dorians and the
+other tribes, whose migrations were traditionally connected with theirs.
+It is hardly too much to say that the archaeologist would have been
+compelled to postulate an inroad into central and southern Greece of
+tribes from the north, at a lower level of culture, in the course of the
+12th and 11th centuries B.C., if the historian had not been able to
+direct him to the traditions of the great migrations ([Greek:
+metanastaseis]), of which the Dorian invasion was the chief. With the
+Dorian migration Greek tradition connected the expansion of the Greek
+race eastwards across the Aegean. In the historical period the Greek
+settlements on the western coast of Asia Minor fall into three clearly
+defined groups. To the north is the Aeolic group, consisting of the
+island of Lesbos and twelve towns, mostly insignificant, on the opposite
+mainland. To the south is the Dorian _hexapolis_, consisting of Cnidus
+and Halicarnassus on the mainland, and the islands of Rhodes and Cos. In
+the centre comes the Ionian _dodecapolis_, a group consisting of ten
+towns on the mainland, together with the islands of Samos and Chios. Of
+these three groups, the Ionian is incomparably the most important. The
+Ionians also occupy Euboea and the Cyclades. Although it would appear
+that Cyprus (and possibly Pamphylia) had been occupied by settlers from
+Greece in the Mycenaean age, Greek tradition is probably correct in
+putting the colonization of Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean
+after the Dorian migration. Both the Homeric and the archaeological
+evidence seem to point to the same conclusion. Between Rhodes on the
+south and the Troad on the north scarcely any Mycenaean remains have
+been found. Homer is ignorant of any Greeks east of Euboea. If the poems
+are earlier than the Dorian Invasion, his silence is conclusive. If the
+poems are some centuries later than the Invasion, they at least prove
+that, within a few generations of that event, it was the belief of the
+Greeks of Asia Minor that their ancestors had crossed the seas after the
+close of the Heroic Age. It is probable, too, that the names Ionian and
+Aeolian, the former of which is found once in Homer, and the latter not
+at all, originated among the colonists in Asia Minor, and served to
+designate, in the first instance, the members of the Ionic and Aeolic
+_dodecapoleis_. As Curtius[7] pointed out, the only Ionia known to
+history is in Asia Minor. It does not follow that Ionia is the original
+home of the Ionian race, as Curtius argued. It almost certainly follows,
+however, that it is the original home of the Ionian name.
+
+
+  Government.
+
+It is less easy to account for the name _Hellenes_. The Greeks were
+profoundly conscious of their common nationality, and of the gulf that
+separated them from the rest of mankind. They themselves recognized a
+common race and language, and a common type of religion and culture, as
+the chief factors in this sentiment of nationality (see Herod. viii. 144
+[Greek: to Hellenikon eon homaimon te kai homoglosson kai theon
+hidrymata te koina kai thusiai ethea te homotropa]). "Hellenes" was the
+name of their common race, and "Hellas" of their common country. In
+Homer there is no distinct consciousness of a common nationality, and
+consequently no antithesis of Greek and Barbarian (see Thuc. i. 3). Nor
+is there a true collective name. There are indeed Hellenes (though the
+name occurs in one passage only, _Iliad_ ii. 684), and there is a
+Hellas; but his Hellas, whatever its precise signification may be, is,
+at any rate, not equivalent either to Greece proper or to the land of
+the Greeks, and his Hellenes are the inhabitants of a small district to
+the south of Thessaly. It is possible that the diffusion of the Hellenic
+name was due to the Dorian invaders. Its use can be traced back to the
+first half of the 7th century. Not less obscure are the causes of the
+fall of monarchy. It cannot have been the immediate effect of the
+Dorian conquest, for the states founded by the Dorians were at first
+monarchically governed. It may, however, have been an indirect effect of
+it. We have already seen that the power of the Homeric king is more
+limited than that of the rulers of Cnossus, Tiryns or Mycenae. In other
+words, monarchy is already in decay at the epoch of the Invasion. The
+Invasion, in its effects on wealth, commerce and civilization, is almost
+comparable to the irruption of the barbarians into the Roman empire. The
+monarch of the Minoan and Mycenaean age has extensive revenues at his
+command; the monarch of the early Dorian states is little better than a
+petty chief. Thus the interval, once a wide one, that separates him from
+the nobles tends to disappear. The decay of monarchy was gradual; much
+more gradual than is generally recognized. There were parts of the Greek
+world in which it still survived in the 6th century, e.g. Sparta,
+Cyrene, Cyprus, and possibly Argos and Tarentum. Both Herodotus and
+Thucydides apply the title "king" ([Greek: basileus]) to the rulers of
+Thessaly in the 5th century. The date at which monarchy gave place to a
+republican form of government must have differed, and differed widely,
+in different cases. The traditions relating to the foundation of Cyrene
+assume the existence of monarchy in Thera and in Crete in the middle of
+the 7th century (Herodotus iv. 150 and 154), and the reign of
+Amphicrates at Samos (Herod, iii. 59) can hardly be placed more than a
+generation earlier. In view of our general ignorance of the history of
+the 7th and 8th centuries, it is hazardous to pronounce these instances
+exceptional. On the other hand, the change from monarchy to oligarchy
+was completed at Athens before the end of the 8th century, and at a
+still earlier date in some of the other states. The process, again, by
+which the change was effected was, in all probability, less uniform than
+is generally assumed. There are extremely few cases in which we have any
+trustworthy evidence, and the instances about which we are informed
+refuse to be reduced to any common type. In Greece proper our
+information is fullest in the case of Athens and Argos. In the former
+case, the king is gradually stripped of his powers by a process of
+devolution. An hereditary king, ruling for life, is replaced by three
+annual and elective magistrates, between whom are divided the executive,
+military and religious functions of the monarch (see ARCHON). At Argos
+the fall of the monarchy is preceded by an aggrandisement of the royal
+prerogatives. There is nothing in common between these two cases, and
+there is no reason to suppose that the process elsewhere was analogous
+to that at Athens. Everywhere, however, oligarchy is the form of
+government which succeeds to monarchy. Political power is monopolized by
+a class of nobles, whose claim to govern is based upon birth and the
+possession of land, the most valuable form of property in an early
+society. Sometimes power is confined to a single clan (e.g. the
+Bacchiadae at Corinth); more commonly, as at Athens, all houses that are
+noble are equally privileged. In every case there is found, as the
+adviser of the executive, a Boule, or council, representative of the
+privileged class. Without such a council a Greek oligarchy is
+inconceivable. The relations of the executive to the council doubtless
+varied. At Athens it is clear that the real authority was exercised by
+the archons;[8] in many states the magistrates were probably subordinate
+to the council (cf. the relation of the consuls to the senate at Rome).
+And it is clear that the way in which the oligarchies used their power
+varied also. The cases in which the power was abused are naturally the
+ones of which we hear; for an abuse of power gave rise to discontent and
+was the ultimate cause of revolution. We hear little or nothing of the
+cases in which power was exercised wisely. Happy is the constitution
+which has no annals! We know, however, that oligarchy held its ground
+for generations, or even for centuries, in a large proportion of the
+Greek states; and a government which, like the oligarchies of Elis,
+Thebes or Aegina, could maintain itself for three or four centuries
+cannot have been merely oppressive.
+
+
+  Trade.
+
+The period of the transition from monarchy to oligarchy is the period in
+which commerce begins to develop, and trade-routes to be organized.
+Greece had been the centre of an active trade in the Minoan and
+Mycenaean epochs. The products of Crete and of the Peloponnese had found
+their way to Egypt and Asia Minor. The overthrow of the older
+civilization put an end to commerce. The seas became insecure and
+intercourse with the East was interrupted. Our earliest glimpses of the
+Aegean after the period of the migrations disclose the raids of the
+pirate and the activity of the Phoenician trader. It is not till the 8th
+century has dawned that trade begins to revive, and the Phoenician has
+to retire before his Greek competitor. For some time to come, however,
+no clear distinction is drawn between the trader and the pirate. The
+pioneers of Greek trade in the West are the pirates of Cumae (Thucyd.
+vi. 4). The expansion of Greek commerce, unlike that of the commerce of
+the modern world, was not connected with any great scientific
+discoveries. There is nothing in the history of ancient navigation that
+is analogous to the invention of the mariner's compass or of the
+steam-engine. In spite of this, the development of Greek commerce in the
+7th and 6th centuries was rapid. It must have been assisted by the great
+discovery of the early part of the former century, the invention of
+coined money. To the Lydians, rather than the Greeks, belongs the credit
+of the discovery; but it was the genius of the latter race that divined
+the importance of the invention and spread its use. The coinage of the
+Ionian towns goes back to the reign of Gyges (c. 675 B.C.). And it is in
+Ionia that commercial development is earliest and greatest. In the most
+distant regions the Ionian is first in the field. Egypt and the Black
+Sea are both opened up to Greek trade by Miletus, the Adriatic and the
+Western Mediterranean by Phocaea and Samos. It is significant that of
+the twelve states engaged in the Egyptian trade in the 6th century all,
+with the exception of Aegina, are from the eastern side of the Aegean
+(Herod. ii. 178). On the western side the chief centres of trade during
+these centuries were the islands of Euboea and Aegina and the town of
+Corinth. The Aeginetan are the earliest coins of Greece proper (c. 650
+B.C.); and the two rival scales of weights and measures, in use amongst
+the Greeks of every age, are the Aeginetan and the Euboic. Commerce
+naturally gave rise to commercial leagues, and commercial relations
+tended to bring about political alliances. Foreign policy even at this
+early epoch seems to have been largely determined by considerations of
+commerce. Two leagues, the members of which were connected by political
+as well as commercial ties, can be recognized. At the head of each stood
+one of the two rival powers in the island of Euboea, Chalcis and
+Eretria. Their primary object was doubtless protection from the pirate
+and the foreigner. Competing routes were organized at an early date
+under their influence, and their trading connexions can be traced from
+the heart of Asia Minor to the north of Italy. Miletus, Sybaris and
+Etruria were members of the Eretrian league; Samos, Corinth, Rhegium and
+Zancle (commanding the Straits of Messina), and Cumae, on the Bay of
+Naples, of the Chalcidian. The wool of the Phrygian uplands, woven in
+the looms of Miletus, reached the Etruscan markets by way of Sybaris;
+through Cumae, Rome and the rest of Latium obtained the elements of
+Greek culture. Greek trade, however, was confined to the Mediterranean
+area. The Phoenician and the Carthaginian navigators penetrated to
+Britain; they discovered the passage round the Cape two thousand years
+before Vasco da Gama's time. The Greek sailor dared not adventure
+himself outside the Black Sea, the Adriatic and the Mediterranean. Greek
+trade, too, was essentially maritime. Ports visited by Greek vessels
+were often the starting points of trade-routes into the interior; the
+traffic along those routes was left in the hands of the natives (see
+e.g. Herod. iv. 24). One service, the importance of which can hardly be
+overestimated, was rendered to civilization by the Greek traders--the
+invention of geography. The science of geography is the invention of the
+Greeks. The first maps were made by them (in the 6th century); and it
+was the discoveries and surveys of their sailors that made map-making
+possible.
+
+
+  Colonization.
+
+Closely connected with the history of Greek trade is the history of
+Greek colonization. The period of colonization, in its narrower sense,
+extends from the middle of the 8th to the middle of the 6th century.
+Greek colonization is, however, merely a continuation of the process
+which at an earlier epoch had led to the settlement, first of Cyprus,
+and then of the islands and coasts of the Aegean. From the earlier
+settlements the colonization of the historical period is distinguished
+by three characteristics. The later colony acknowledges a definite
+_metropolis_ ("mother-city"); it is planted by a definite _oecist_
+([Greek: oikistes]); it has a definite date assigned to its
+foundation.[9] It would be a mistake to regard Greek colonization as
+commercial in origin, in the sense that the colonies were in all cases
+established as trading-posts. This was the case with the Phoenician and
+Carthaginian settlements, most of which remained mere factories; and
+some of the Greek colonies (e.g. many of those planted by Miletus on the
+shores of the Black Sea) bore this character. The typical Greek colony,
+however, was neither in origin nor in development a mere trading-post.
+It was, or it became, a _polis_, a city-state, in which was reproduced
+the life of the parent state. Nor was Greek colonization, like the
+emigration from Europe to America and Australia in the 19th century,
+simply the result of over-population. The causes were as various as
+those which can be traced in the history of modern colonization. Those
+which were established for the purposes of trade may be compared to the
+factories of the Portuguese and Dutch in Africa and the Far East. Others
+were the result of political discontent, in some form or shape; these
+may be compared to the Puritan settlements in New England. Others again
+were due to ambition or the mere love of adventure (see Herod. v. 42
+ff., the career of Dorieus). But however various the causes, two
+conditions must always be presupposed--an expansion of commerce and a
+growth of population. Within the narrow limits of the city-state there
+was a constant tendency for population to become redundant, until, as in
+the later centuries of Greek life, its growth was artificially
+restricted. Alike from the Roman colonies, and from those founded by the
+European nations in the course of the last few centuries, the Greek
+colonies are distinguished by a fundamental contrast. It is significant
+that the contrast is a political one. The Roman colony was in a position
+of entire subordination to the Roman state, of which it formed a part.
+The modern colony was, in varying degrees, in political subjection to
+the home government. The Greek colony was completely independent; and it
+was independent from the first. The ties that united a colony to its
+metropolis were those of sentiment and interest; the political tie did
+not exist. There were, it is true, exceptions. The colonies established
+by imperial Athens closely resembled the colonies of imperial Rome. The
+cleruchy (q.v.) formed part of the Athenian state; the cleruchs kept
+their status as citizens of Athens and acted as a military garrison. And
+if the political tie, in the proper sense, was wanting, it was
+inevitable that political relations should spring out of commercial or
+sentimental ones. Thus we find Corinth interfering twice to save her
+colony Syracuse from destruction, and Megara bringing about the revolt
+of Byzantium, her colony, from Athens. Sometimes it is not easy to
+distinguish political relations from a political tie (e.g. the relations
+of Corinth, both in the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars, to Ambracia and
+the neighbouring group of colonies). When we compare the development of
+the Greek and the modern colonies we shall find that the development of
+the former was even more rapid than that of the latter. In at least
+three respects the Greek settler was at an advantage as compared with
+the colonist of modern times. The differences of race, of colour and of
+climate, with which the chief problems of modern colonization are
+connected, played no part in the history of the Greek settlements. The
+races amongst whom the Greeks planted themselves were in some cases on
+a similar level of culture. Where the natives were still backward or
+barbarous, they came of a stock either closely related to the Greek, or
+at least separated from it by no great physical differences. We need
+only contrast the Carian, the Sicel, the Thracian or even the Scythian,
+with the native Australian, the Hottentot, the Red Indian or the Maori,
+to apprehend the advantage of the Greek. Amalgamation with the native
+races was easy, and it involved neither physical nor intellectual
+degeneracy as its consequence. Of the races with which the Greeks came
+in contact the Thracian was far from the highest in the scale of
+culture; yet three of the greatest names in the Great Age of Athens are
+those of men who had Thracian blood in their veins, viz. Themistocles,
+Cimon and the historian Thucydides. In the absence of any distinction of
+colour, no insuperable barrier existed between the Greek and the
+hellenized native. The _demos_ of the colonial cities was largely
+recruited from the native population,[10] nor was there anything in the
+Greek world analogous to the "mean whites" or the "black belt." Of
+hardly less importance were the climatic conditions. In this respect the
+Mediterranean area is unique. There is no other region of the world of
+equal extent in which these conditions are at once so uniform and so
+favourable. Nowhere had the Greek settler to encounter a climate which
+was either unsuited to his labour or subversive of his vigour. That in
+spite of these advantages so little, comparatively speaking, was
+effected in the work of Hellenization before the epoch of Alexander and
+the Diadochi, was the effect of a single counteracting cause. The Greek
+colonist, like the Greek trader, clung to the shore. He penetrated no
+farther inland than the sea-breeze. Hence it was only in islands, such
+as Sicily or Cyprus, that the process of Hellenization was complete.
+Elsewhere the Greek settlements formed a mere fringe along the coast.
+
+
+  The tyrants.
+
+To the 7th century there belongs another movement of high importance in
+its bearing upon the economic, religious and literary development of
+Greece, as well as upon its constitutional history. This movement is the
+rise of the _tyrannis_. In the political writers of a later age the word
+possesses a clear-cut connotation. From other forms of monarchy it is
+distinguished by a twofold differentiation. The _tyrannus_ is an
+unconstitutional ruler, and his authority is exercised over unwilling
+subjects. In the 7th and 6th centuries the line was not drawn so
+distinctly between the tyrant and the legitimate monarch. Even Herodotus
+uses the words "tyrant" and "king" interchangeably (e.g. the princes of
+Cyprus are called "kings" in v. 110 and "tyrants" in v. 109), so that it
+is sometimes difficult to decide whether a legitimate monarch or a
+tyrant is meant (e.g. Aristophilides of Tarentum, iii. 136, or Telys of
+Sybaris, v. 44). But the distinction between the tyrant and the king of
+the Heroic Age is a valid one. It is not true that his rule was always
+exercised over unwilling subjects; it is true that his position was
+always unconstitutional. The Homeric king is a legitimate monarch; his
+authority is invested with the sanctions of religion and immemorial
+custom. The tyrant is an illegitimate ruler; his authority is not
+recognized, either by customary usage or by express enactment. But the
+word "tyrant" was originally a neutral team; it did not necessarily
+imply a misuse of power. The origin of the _tyrannis_ is obscure. The
+word _tyrannus_ has been thought, with some reason, to be a Lydian one.
+Probably both the name and the thing originated in the Greek colonies of
+Asia Minor, though the earliest tyrants of whom we hear in Asia Minor
+(at Ephesus and Miletus) are a generation later than the earliest in
+Greece itself, where, both at Sicyon and at Corinth, tyranny appears to
+date back to the second quarter of the 7th century. It is not unusual to
+regard tyranny as a universal stage in the constitutional development of
+the Greek states, and as a stage that occurs everywhere at one and the
+same period. In reality, tyranny is confined to certain regions, and it
+is a phenomenon that is peculiar to no one age or century. In Greece
+proper, before the 4th century B.C., it is confined to a small group of
+states round the Corinthian and Saronic Gulfs. The greater part of the
+Peloponnese was exempt from it, and there is no good evidence for its
+existence north of the Isthmus, except at Megara and Athens. It plays no
+part in the history of the Greek cities in Chalcidice and Thrace. It
+appears to have been rare in the Cyclades. The regions in which it finds
+a congenial soil are two, Asia Minor and Sicily. Thus it is incorrect to
+say that most Greek states passed through this stage. It is still wider
+of the mark to assume that they passed through it at the same time.
+There is no "Age of the Tyrants." Tyranny began in the Peloponnese a
+hundred years before it appears in Sicily, and it has disappeared in the
+Peloponnese almost before it begins in Sicily. In the latter the great
+age of tyranny comes at the beginning of the 5th century; in the former
+it is at the end of the 7th and the beginning of the 6th. At Athens the
+history of tyranny begins after it has ended both at Sicyon and Corinth.
+There is, indeed, a period in which tyranny is non-existent in the Greek
+states; roughly speaking, the last sixty years of the 5th century. But
+with this exception, there is no period in which the tyrant is not to be
+found. The greatest of all the tyrannies, that of Dionysius at Syracuse,
+belongs to the 4th century. Nor must it be assumed that tyranny always
+comes at the same stage in the history of a constitution; that it is
+always a stage between oligarchy and democracy. At Corinth it is
+followed, not by democracy but by oligarchy, and it is an oligarchy that
+lasts, with a brief interruption, for two hundred and fifty years. At
+Athens it is not immediately preceded by oligarchy. Between the Eupatrid
+oligarchy and the rule of Peisistratus there comes the timocracy of
+Solon. These exceptions do not stand alone. The cause of tyranny is, in
+one sense, uniform. In the earlier centuries, at any rate, tyranny is
+always the expression of discontent; the tyrant is always the champion
+of a cause. But it would be a mistake to suppose that the discontent is
+necessarily political, or that the cause which he champions is always a
+constitutional one. At Sicyon it is a racial one; Cleisthenes is the
+champion of the older population against their Dorian oppressors (see
+Herod. v. 67, 68). At Athens the discontent is economic rather than
+political; Peisistratus is the champion of the Diacrii, the inhabitants
+of the poorest region of Attica. The party-strifes of which we hear in
+the early history of Miletus, which doubtless gave the tyrant his
+opportunity, are concerned with the claims of rival industrial classes.
+In Sicily the tyrant is the ally of the rich and the foe of the _demos_,
+and the cause which he champions, both in the 5th century and the 4th,
+is a national one, that of the Greek against the Carthaginian. We may
+suspect that in Greece itself the tyrannies of the 7th century are the
+expression of an anti-Dorian reaction. It can hardly be an accident that
+the states in which the tyrannis is found at this epoch, Corinth,
+Megara, Sicyon, Epidaurus, are all of them states in which a Dorian
+upper class ruled over a subject population. In Asia Minor the
+_tyrannis_ assumes a peculiar character after the Persian conquest. The
+tyrant rules as the deputy of the Persian satrap. Thus in the East the
+tyrant is the enemy of the national cause; in the West, in Sicily, he is
+its champion.
+
+Tyranny is not a phenomenon peculiar to Greek history. It is possible to
+find analogies to it in Roman history, in the power of Caesar, or of the
+Caesars; in the despotisms of medieval Italy; or even in the Napoleonic
+empire. Between the tyrant and the Italian despot there is indeed a real
+analogy; but between the Roman principate and the Greek _tyrannis_ there
+are two essential differences. In the first place, the principate was
+expressed in constitutional forms, or veiled under constitutional
+fictions; the tyrant stood altogether outside the constitution. And,
+secondly, at Rome both Julius and Augustus owed their position to the
+power of the sword. The power of the sword, it is true, plays a large
+part in the history of the later tyrants (e.g. Dionysius of Syracuse);
+the earlier ones, however, had no mercenary armies at their command. We
+can hardly compare the bodyguard of Peisistratus to the legions of the
+first or the second Caesar.
+
+The view taken of the _tyrannis_ in Greek literature is almost uniformly
+unfavourable. In this respect there is no difference between Plato and
+Aristotle, or between Herodotus and the later historians.[11] His policy
+is represented as purely selfish, and his rule as oppressive. Herodotus
+is influenced partly by the traditions current among the oligarchs, who
+had been the chief sufferers, and partly by the odious associations
+which had gathered round tyranny in Asia Minor. The philosophers write
+under their impressions of the later _tyrannis_, and their account is
+largely an a priori one. It is seldom that we find any attempt, either
+in the philosophers or the historians, to do justice to the real
+services rendered by the tyrants.[12] Their first service was a
+constitutional one. They helped to break down the power of the old
+aristocratic houses, and thus to create the social and political
+conditions indispensable to democracy. The _tyrannis_ involved the
+sacrifice of liberty in the cause of equality. When tyranny falls, it is
+never succeeded by the aristocracies which it had overthrown. It is
+frequently succeeded by an oligarchy, but it is an oligarchy in which
+the claim to exclusive power is based, not upon mere birth, but upon
+wealth, or the possession of land. It would be unfair to treat this
+service as one that was rendered unconsciously and unwillingly. Where
+the tyrant asserted the claims of an oppressed class, he consciously
+aimed at the destruction of privilege and the effacement of class
+distinctions. Hence it is unjust to treat his power as resting upon mere
+force. A government which can last eighty or a hundred years, as was the
+case with the tyrannies at Corinth and Sicyon, must have a moral force
+behind it. It must rest upon the consent of its subjects. The second
+service which the tyrants rendered to Greece was a political one. Their
+policy tended to break down the barriers which isolated each petty state
+from its neighbours. In their history we can trace a system of
+widespread alliances, which are often cemented by matrimonial
+connexions. The Cypselid tyrants of Corinth appear to have been allied
+with the royal families of Egypt, Lydia and Phrygia, as well as with the
+tyrants of Miletus and Epidaurus, and with some of the great Athenian
+families. In Sicily we find a league of the northern tyrants opposed to
+a league of the southern; and in each ease there is a corresponding
+matrimonial alliance. Anaxilaus of Rhegium is the son-in-law and ally of
+Terillus of Himera; Gelo of Syracuse stands in the same relation to
+Theron of Agrigentum. Royal marriages have played a great part in the
+politics of Europe. In the comparison of Greek and modern history it has
+been too often forgotten how great a difference it makes, and how great
+a disadvantage it involves, to a republic that it has neither sons nor
+daughters to give in marriage. In commerce and colonization the tyrants
+were only continuing the work of the oligarchies to which they
+succeeded. Greek trade owed its expansion to the intelligent efforts of
+the oligarchs who ruled at Miletus and Corinth, in Samos, Aegina and
+Euboea; but in particular cases, such as Miletus, Corinth, Sicyon and
+Athens, there was a further development, and a still more rapid growth,
+under the tyrants. In the same way, the foundation of the colonies was
+in most cases due to the policy of the oligarchical governments. They
+can claim credit for the colonies of Chalcis and Eretria, of Megara,
+Phocaea and Samos, as well as for the great Achaean settlements in
+southern Italy. The Cypselids at Corinth, and Thrasybulus at Miletus,
+are instances of tyrants who colonized on a great scale.
+
+
+  Religion under the "tyrants."
+
+In their religious policy the tyrants went far to democratize Greek
+religion. The functions of monarchy had been largely religious; but,
+while the king was necessarily a priest, he was not the only priest in
+the community. There were special priesthoods, hereditary in particular
+families, even in the monarchical period; and upon the fall of the
+monarchy, while the priestly functions of the kings passed to republican
+magistrates, the priesthoods which were in the exclusive possession of
+the great families tended to become the important ones. Thus, before the
+rise of tyranny, Greek religion is aristocratic. The cults recognized
+by the state are the _sacra_ of noble clans. The religious prerogatives
+of the nobles helped to confirm their political ones, and, as long as
+religion retained its aristocratic character, it was impossible for
+democracy to take root. The policy of the tyrants aimed at fostering
+popular cults which had no associations with the old families, and at
+establishing new festivals. The cult of the wine-god, Dionysus, was thus
+fostered at Sicyon by Cleisthenes, and at Corinth by the Cypselids;
+while at Athens a new festival of this deity, which so completely
+overshadowed the older festival that it became known as the Great
+Dionysia, probably owed its institution to Peisistratus. Another
+festival, the Panathenaea, which had been instituted only a few years
+before his rise to power, became under his rule, and thanks to his
+policy, the chief national festival of the Athenian state. Everywhere,
+again, we find the tyrants the patrons of literature. Pindar and
+Bacchylides, Aeschylus and Simonides found a welcome at the court of
+Hiero. Polycrates was the patron of Anacreon, Periander of Arion. To
+Peisistratus has been attributed, possibly not without reason, the first
+critical edition of the text of Homer, a work as important in the
+literary history of Greece as was the issue of the Authorized Version of
+the Bible in English history. If we would judge fairly of tyranny, and
+of what it contributed to the development of Greece, we must remember
+how many states there were in whose history the period of greatest power
+coincides with the rule of a tyrant. This is unquestionably true of
+Corinth and Sicyon, as well as of Syracuse in the 5th, and again in the
+4th century; it is probably true of Samos and Miletus. In the case of
+Athens it is only the splendour of the Great Age that blinds us to the
+greatness of the results achieved by the policy of the Peisistratids.
+
+
+  The arts.
+
+With the overthrow of this dynasty tyranny disappears from Greece proper
+for more than a century. During the century and a half which had elapsed
+since its first appearance the whole aspect of Greek life, and of the
+Greek world, had changed. The development was as yet incomplete, but the
+lines on which it was to proceed had been clearly marked out. Political
+power was no longer the monopoly of a class. The struggle between the
+"few" and the "many" had begun; in one state at least (Athens) the
+victory of the "many" was assured. The first chapter in the history of
+democracy was already written. In the art of war the two innovations
+which were ultimately to establish the military supremacy of Greece,
+hoplite tactics and the trireme, had already been introduced. Greek
+literature was no longer synonymous with epic poetry. Some of its most
+distinctive forms had not yet been evolved; indeed, it is only quite at
+the end of the period that prose-writing begins; but both lyric and
+elegiac poetry had been brought to perfection. In art, statuary was
+still comparatively stiff and crude; but in other branches, in
+architecture, in vase-painting and in coin-types, the aesthetic genius
+of the race had asserted its pre-eminence. Philosophy, the supreme gift
+of Greece to the modern world, had become a living power. Some of her
+most original thinkers belong to the 6th century. Criticism had been
+applied to everything in turn: to the gods, to conduct, and to the
+conception of the universe. Before the Great Age begins, the claims of
+intellectual as well as of political freedom had been vindicated. It was
+not, however, in Greece proper that progress had been greatest. In the
+next century the centre of gravity of Greek civilization shifts to the
+western side of the Aegean; in the 6th century it must be looked for at
+Miletus, rather than at Athens. In order to estimate how far the
+development of Greece had advanced, or to appreciate the distinctive
+features of Greek life at this period, we must study Ionia, rather than
+Attica or the Peloponnese. Almost all that is greatest and most
+characteristic is to be found on the eastern side of the Aegean. The
+great names in the history of science and philosophy before the
+beginning of the 5th century--Thales, Pythagoras, Xenophanes,
+Heraclitus, Parmenides, Anaximander, Hecataeus; names which are
+representative of mathematics, astronomy, geography and metaphysics, are
+all, without exception, Ionian. In poetry, too, the most famous names,
+if not so exclusively Ionian, are connected either with the Asiatic
+coast or with the Cyclades. Against Archilochus and Anacreon, Sappho
+and Alcaeus, Greece has nothing better to set, after the age of Hesiod,
+than Tyrtaeus and Theognis. Reference has already been made to the
+greatness of the Ionians as navigators, as colonizers and as traders. In
+wealth and in population, Miletus, at the epoch of the Persian conquest,
+must have been far ahead of any city of European Greece. Sybaris, in
+Magna Graecia, can have been its only rival outside Ionia. There were
+two respects, however, in which the comparison was in favour of the
+mother-country. In warfare, the superiority of the Spartan infantry was
+unquestioned; in politics, the Greek states showed a greater power of
+combination than the Ionian.
+
+
+  External relations.
+
+  Persian wars.
+
+Finally, Ionia was the scene of the first conflicts with the Persian.
+Here were decided the first stages of a struggle which was to determine
+the place of Greece in the history of the world. The rise of Persia
+under Cyrus was, as Herodotus saw, the turning-point of Greek history.
+Hitherto the Greek had proved himself indispensable to the oriental
+monarchies with which he had been brought into contact. In Egypt the
+power of the Saite kings rested upon the support of their Greek
+mercenaries. Amasis (569-525 B.C.), who is raised to the throne as the
+leader of a reaction against the influence of the foreign garrison, ends
+by showing greater favour to the Greek soldiery and the Greek traders
+than all that were before him. With Lydia the relations were originally
+hostile; the conquest of the Greek fringe is the constant aim of Lydian
+policy. Greek influences, however, seem to have quickly permeated Lydia,
+and to have penetrated to the court. Alyattes (610-560 B.C.) marries an
+Ionian wife, and the succession is disputed between the son of this
+marriage and Croesus, whose mother was a Carian. Croesus (560-546 B.C.)
+secures the throne, only to become the lavish patron of Greek
+sanctuaries and the ally of a Greek state. The history of Hellenism had
+begun. It was the rise of Cyrus that closed the East to Greek enterprise
+and Greek influences. In Persia we find the antithesis of all that is
+characteristic of Greece--autocracy as opposed to liberty; a military
+society organized on an aristocratic basis, to an industrial society,
+animated by a democratic spirit; an army, whose strength lay in its
+cavalry, to an army, in which the foot-soldier alone counted; a
+morality, which assigned the chief place to veracity, to a morality
+which subordinated it to other virtues; a religion, which ranks among
+the great religions of the world, to a religion, which appeared to the
+most spiritual minds among the Greeks themselves both immoral and
+absurd. Between two such races there could be neither sympathy nor
+mutual understanding. In the Great Age the Greek had learned to despise
+the Persian, and the Persian to fear the Greek. In the 6th century it
+was the Persian who despised, and the Greek who feared. The history of
+the conflicts between the Ionian Greeks and the Persian empire affords a
+striking example of the combination of intellectual strength and
+political weakness in the character of a people. The causes of the
+failure of the Ionians to offer a successful resistance to Persia, both
+at the time of the conquest by Harpagus (546-545 B.C.) and in the Ionic
+revolt (499-494 B.C.), are not far to seek. The centrifugal forces
+always tended to prove the stronger in the Greek system, and nowhere
+were they stronger than in Ionia. The tie of their tribal union proved
+weaker, every time it was put to the test, than the political and
+commercial interests of the individual states. A league of jealous
+commercial rivals is certain not to stand the strain of a protracted
+struggle against great odds. Against the advancing power of Lydia a
+common resistance had not so much as been attempted. Miletus, the
+greatest of the Ionian towns, had received aid from Chios alone. Against
+Persia a common resistance was attempted. The Panionium, the centre of a
+religious amphictyony, became for the moment the centre of a political
+league. At the time of the Persian conquest Miletus held aloof. She
+secured favourable terms for herself, and left the rest of Ionia to its
+fate. In the later conflict, on the contrary, Miletus is the leader in
+the revolt. The issue was determined, not as Herodotus represents it, by
+the inherent indolence of the Ionian nature, but by the selfish policy
+of the leading states. In the sea-fight at Lade (494 B.C.) the decisive
+battle of the war, the Milesians and Chians fought with desperate
+courage. The day was lost thanks to the treachery of the Samian and
+Lesbian contingents.
+
+The causes of the successful resistance of the Greeks to the invasions
+of their country, first by Datis and Artaphernes (490 B.C.), in the
+reign of Darius, and then by Xerxes in person (480-479 B.C.), are more
+complex. Their success was partly due to a moral cause. And this was
+realized by the Greeks themselves. They felt (see Herod. vii. 104) that
+the subjects of a despot are no match for the citizens of a free state,
+who yield obedience to a law which is self-imposed. But the cause was
+not solely a moral one. Nor was the result due to the numbers and
+efficiency of the Athenian fleet, in the degree that the Athenians
+claimed (see Herod. vii. 139). The truth is that the conditions, both
+political and military, were far more favourable to the Greek defence in
+Europe than they had been in Asia. At this crisis the centripetal forces
+proved stronger than the centrifugal. The moral ascendancy of Sparta was
+the determining factor. In Sparta the Greeks had a leader whom all were
+ready to obey (Herod. viii. 2). But for her influence the forces of
+disintegration would have made themselves felt as quickly as in Ionia.
+Sparta was confronted with immense difficulties in conducting the
+defence against Xerxes. The two chief naval powers, Athens and Aegina,
+had to be reconciled after a long and exasperating warfare (see AEGINA).
+After Thermopylae, the whole of northern Greece, with the exception of
+Athens and a few minor states, was lost to the Greek cause. The supposed
+interests of the Peloponnesians, who formed the greater part of the
+national forces, conflicted with the supposed interests of the
+Athenians. A more impartial view than was possible to the generation for
+which Herodotus wrote suggests that Sparta performed her task with
+intelligence and patriotism. The claims of Athens and Sparta were about
+equally balanced. And in spite of her great superiority in numbers,[13]
+the military conditions were far from favourable to Persia. A land so
+mountainous as Greece is was unsuited to the operations of cavalry, the
+most efficient arm of the service in the Persian Army, as in most
+oriental ones. Ignorance of local conditions, combined with the
+dangerous nature of the Greek coast, exposed their ships to the risk of
+destruction; while the composite character of the fleet, and the
+jealousies of its various contingents, tended to neutralize the
+advantage of numbers. In courage and discipline, the flower of the
+Persian infantry was probably little inferior to the Greek; in
+equipment, they were no match for the Greek panoply. Lastly, Xerxes
+laboured under a disadvantage, which may be illustrated by the
+experience of the British army in the South African War--distance from
+his base.
+
+
+  Systems of government.
+
+5. _The Great Age (480-338 B.C.)._--The effects of the repulse of Persia
+were momentous in their influence upon Greece. The effects upon
+Elizabethan England of the defeat of the Spanish armada would afford
+quite an inadequate parallel. It gave the Greeks a heightened sense,
+both of their own national unity and of their superiority to the
+barbarian, while at the same time it helped to create the material
+conditions requisite alike for the artistic and political development of
+the 5th century. Other cities besides Athens were adorned with the
+proceeds of the spoils won from Persia, and Greek trade benefited both
+from the reunion of Ionia with Greece, and from the suppression of
+piracy in the Aegean and the Hellespont. Do these developments justify
+us in giving to the period, which begins with the repulse of Xerxes, and
+ends with the victory of Philip, the title of "the Great Age"? If the
+title is justified in the case of the 5th century, should the 4th
+century be excluded from the period? At first sight, the difference
+between the 4th century and the 5th may seem greater than that which
+exists between the 5th and the 6th. On the political side, the 5th
+century is an age of growth, the 4th an age of decay; on the literary
+side, the former is an age of poetry, the latter an age of prose. In
+spite of these contrasts, there is a real unity in the period which
+begins with the repulse of Xerxes and ends with the death of Alexander,
+as compared with any preceding one. It is an age of maturity in
+politics, in literature, and in art; and this is true of no earlier age.
+Nor can we say that the 5th century is, in all these aspects of Greek
+life, immature as compared with the 4th, or, on the other hand, that the
+4th is decadent as compared with the 5th. On the political side,
+maturity is, in one sense, reached in the earlier century. There is
+nothing in the later century so great as the Athenian empire. In another
+sense, maturity is not reached till the 4th century. It is only in the
+later century that the tendency of the Greek constitutions to conform to
+a common type, democracy, is (at least approximately) realized, and it
+is only in this century that the principles upon which democracy is
+based are carried to their logical conclusion. In literature, if we
+confine our attention to poetry, we must pronounce the 5th century the
+age of completed development; but in prose the case is different. The
+style even of Thucydides is immature, as compared with that of Isocrates
+and Plato. In philosophy, however high may be the estimate that is
+formed of the genius of the earlier thinkers, it cannot be disputed that
+in Plato and Aristotle we find a more mature stage of thought. In art,
+architecture may perhaps be said to reach its zenith in the 5th,
+sculpture in the 4th century. In its political aspect, the history of
+the Great Age resolves itself into the history of two movements, the
+imperial and the democratic. Hitherto Greece had meant, politically, an
+aggregate of independent states, very numerous, and, as a rule, very
+small. The principle of autonomy was to the Greek the most sacred of all
+political principles; the passion for autonomy the most potent of
+political factors. In the latter half of the 6th century Sparta had
+succeeded in combining the majority of the Peloponnesian states into a
+loose federal union; so loose, however, that it appears to have been
+dormant in the intervals of peace. In the crisis of the Persian invasion
+the Peloponnesian League was extended so as to include all the states
+which had espoused the national cause. It looked on the morrow of
+Plataea and Mycale (the two victories, won simultaneously, in 479 B.C.,
+by Spartan commanders, by which the danger from Persia was finally
+averted) as if a permanent basis for union might be found in the
+hegemony of Sparta. The sense of a common peril and a common triumph
+brought with it the need of a common union; it was Athens, however,
+instead of Sparta, by whom the first conscious effort was made to
+transcend the isolation of the Greek political system and to bring the
+units into combination. The league thus founded (the Delian League,
+established in 477 B.C.) was under the presidency of Athens, but it
+included hardly any other state besides those that had conducted the
+defence of Greece. It was formed, almost entirely, of the states which
+had been liberated from Persian rule by the great victories of the war.
+The Delian League, even in the form in which it was first established,
+as a confederation of autonomous allies, marks an advance in political
+conceptions upon the Peloponnesian League. Provision is made for an
+annual revenue, for periodical meetings of the council, and for a
+permanent executive. It is a real federation, though an imperfect one.
+There were defects in its constitution which rendered it inevitable that
+it should be transformed into an empire. Athens was from the first "the
+predominant partner." The fleet was mainly Athenian, the commanders
+entirely so; the assessment of the tribute was in Athenian hands; there
+was no federal court appointed to determine questions at issue between
+Athens and the other members; and, worst omission of all, the right of
+secession was left undecided. By the middle of the century the Delian
+League has become the Athenian empire. Henceforward the imperial idea,
+in one form or another, dominates Greek politics. Athens failed to
+extend her authority over the whole of Greece. Her empire was
+overthrown; but the triumph of autonomy proved the triumph of
+imperialism. The Spartan empire succeeds to the Athenian, and, when it
+is finally shattered at Leuctra (371 B.C.), the hegemony of Thebes,
+which is established on its ruins, is an empire in all but name. The
+decay of Theban power paves the way for the rise of Macedon.
+
+Thus throughout this period we can trace two forces contending for
+mastery in the Greek political system. Two causes divide the allegiance
+of the Greek world, the cause of empire and the cause of autonomy. The
+formation of the confederacy of Delos did not involve the dissolution of
+the alliance between Athens and Sparta. For seventeen years more Athens
+retained her place in the league, "which had been established against
+the Mede" under the presidency of Sparta in 480 B.C. (Thuc. i. 102). The
+ascendancy of Cimon and the Philolaconian party at Athens was favourable
+to a good understanding between the two states, and at Sparta in normal
+times the balance inclined in favour of the party whose policy is best
+described by the motto "quieta non movere."
+
+
+  The Peloponnesian Wars.
+
+In the end, however, the opposition of the two contending forces proved
+too strong for Spartan neutrality. The fall of Cimon (461 B.C.) was
+followed by the so-called "First Peloponnesian War," a conflict between
+Athens and her maritime rivals, Corinth and Aegina, into which Sparta
+was ultimately drawn. Thucydides regards the hostilities of these years
+(460-454 B.C.), which were resumed for a few months in 446 B.C., on the
+expiration of the Five Years' Truce, as preliminary to those of the
+great Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.). The real question at issue was
+in both cases the same. The tie that united the opponents of Athens was
+found in a common hostility to the imperial idea. It is a complete
+misapprehension to regard the Peloponnesian War as a mere duel between
+two rival claimants for empire. The ultimatum presented by Sparta on the
+eve of the war demanded the restoration of autonomy to the subjects of
+Athens. There is no reason for doubting her sincerity in presenting it
+in this form. It would, however, be an equal misapprehension to regard
+the war as merely a struggle between the cause of empire and the cause
+of autonomy. Corresponding to this fundamental contrast there are other
+contrasts, constitutional, racial and military. The military interest of
+the war is largely due to the fact that Athens was a sea power and
+Sparta a land one. As the war went on, the constitutional aspect tended
+to become more marked. At first there were democracies on the side of
+Sparta, and oligarchies on the side of Athens. In the last stage of the
+war, when Lysander's influence was supreme, we see the forces of
+oligarchy everywhere united and organized for the destruction of
+democracy. In its origin the war was certainly not due to the rivalry of
+Dorian and Ionian. This racial, or tribal, contrast counted for more in
+the politics of Sicily than of Greece; and, though the two great
+branches of the Greek race were represented respectively by the leaders
+of the two sides, the allies on neither side belonged exclusively to the
+one branch or the other. Still, it remains true that the Dorian states
+were, as a rule, on the Spartan side, and the Ionian states, as a rule,
+on the Athenian--a division of sentiment which must have helped to widen
+the breach, and to intensify the animosities.
+
+
+  The Athenian empire.
+
+As a political experiment the Athenian empire possesses a unique
+interest. It represents the first attempt to fuse the principles of
+imperialism and democracy. It is at once the first empire in history
+possessed and administered by a sovereign people, and the first which
+sought to establish a common system of democratic institutions amongst
+its subjects.[14] It was an experiment that failed, partly owing to the
+inherent strength of the oligarchic cause, partly owing to the exclusive
+character of ancient citizenship. The Athenians themselves recognized
+that their empire depended for its existence upon the solidarity of
+democratic interests (see Thuc. iii. 47; Pseudo-Xenophon, _de Rep. Ath._
+i. 14, iii. 10). An understanding existed between the democratic leaders
+in the subject-states and the democratic party at Athens. Charges were
+easily trumped up against obnoxious oligarchs, and conviction as easily
+obtained in the Athenian courts of law. Such a system forced the
+oligarchs into an attitude of opposition. How much this opposition
+counted for was realized when the Sicilian disaster (413 B.C.) gave the
+subjects their chance to revolt. The organization of the oligarchical
+party throughout the empire, which was effected by Lysander in the last
+stage of the war, contributed to the overthrow of Athenian ascendancy
+hardly less than the subsidies of Persia. Had Athens aimed at
+establishing a community of interest between herself and her subjects,
+based upon a common citizenship, her empire might have endured. It would
+have been a policy akin to that which secured the permanence of the
+Roman empire. And it was a policy which found advocates when the day for
+it was past (see Aristophanes, _Lysistrata_, 574 ff.; cf. the grant of
+citizenship to the Samians after Aegospotami, _C.I.A._ iv. 2, 1b). But
+the policy pursued by Athens in the plenitude of her power was the
+reverse of the policy pursued by Rome in her treatment of the franchise.
+It is hardly an exaggeration to say that the fate of the empire was
+sealed by the law of Pericles (451 B.C.), by which the franchise was
+restricted to those who could establish Athenian descent on both sides.
+It was not merely that the process of amalgamation through intermarriage
+was abruptly checked; what was more serious was that a hard and fast
+line was drawn, once and for all, between the small body of privileged
+rulers and the great mass of unprivileged subjects. Maine (_Early
+Institutions_, lecture 13) has classed the Athenian empire with those of
+the familiar Oriental type, which attempt nothing beyond the raising of
+taxes and the levying of troops. The Athenian empire cannot, indeed, be
+classed with the Roman, or with the British rule in India; it does not,
+therefore, deserve to be classed with the empires of Cyrus or of Jenghiz
+Khan. Though the basis of its organization, like that of the Persian
+empire under Darius, was financial, it attempted, and secured, objects
+beyond the mere payment of tribute and the supply of ships. If Athens
+did not introduce a common religion, or a common system of education, or
+a common citizenship, she did introduce a common type of political
+institutions, and a common jurisdiction.[15] She went some way, too, in
+the direction of establishing a common system of coins, and of weights
+and measures. A common language was there already. In a word, the
+Athenian empire marks a definite stage of political evolution.
+
+
+  The mature democracy.
+
+The other great political movement of the age was the progress of
+democracy. Before the Persian invasion democracy was a rare phenomenon
+in Greek politics. Where it was found it existed in an undeveloped form,
+and its tenure of power was precarious. By the beginning of the
+Peloponnesian War it had become the prevalent form of government. The
+great majority of Greek states had adopted democratic constitutions.
+Both in the Athenian sphere of influence and in the colonial world
+outside that sphere, democracy was all but the only form of constitution
+known. It was only in Greece proper that oligarchy held its own. In the
+Peloponnese it could count a majority of the states; in northern Greece
+at least a half of them. The spread of democratic institutions was
+arrested by the victory of Sparta in the East, and the rise of Dionysius
+in the West. There was a moment at the end of the 5th century when it
+looked as if democracy was a lost cause. Even Athens was for a brief
+period under the rule of the Thirty (404-403 B.C.). In the regions which
+had formed the empire of Athens the decarchies set up by Lysander were
+soon overthrown, and democracies restored in most cases, but oligarchy
+continued to be the prevalent form in Greece proper until Leuctra (371
+B.C.), and in Sicily tyranny had a still longer tenure of power. By the
+end of the Great Age oligarchy has almost disappeared from the Greek
+world, except in the sphere of Persian influence. The Spartan monarchy
+still survives; a few Peloponnesian states still maintain the rule of
+the few; here and there in Greece itself we meet with a revival of the
+_tyrannis_; but, with these exceptions, democracy is everywhere the only
+type of constitution. And democracy has developed as well as spread. At
+the end of the 5th century the constitution of Cleisthenes, which was a
+democracy in the view of his contemporaries, had come to be regarded as
+an aristocracy (Aristot. _Ath. Pol._ 29. 3). We can trace a similar
+change of sentiment in Sicily. As compared with the extreme form of
+constitution adopted at Syracuse after the defeat of the Athenian
+expedition, the democracies established two generations earlier, on the
+fall of the _tyrannis_, appeared oligarchical. The changes by which the
+character of the Greek democracies was revolutionized were four in
+number: the substitution of sortition for election, the abolition of a
+property qualification, the payment of officials and the rise of a class
+of professional politicians. In the democracy of Cleisthenes no payment
+was given for service, whether as a magistrate, a juror or a member of
+the Boule. The higher magistracies were filled by election, and they
+were held almost exclusively by the members of the great Athenian
+families. For the highest office of all, the archonship, none but
+_Pentacosiomedimni_ (the first of the four Solonian classes) were
+eligible. The introduction of pay and the removal of the property
+qualification formed part of the reforms of Pericles. Sortition had been
+instituted for election a generation earlier (487 B.C.).[16] What is
+perhaps the most important of all these changes, the rise of the
+demagogues, belongs to the era of the Peloponnesian War. From the time
+of Cleisthenes to the outbreak of the war every statesman of note at
+Athens, with the exception of Themistocles (and, perhaps, of Ephialtes),
+is of aristocratic birth. Down to the fall of Cimon the course of
+Athenian politics is to a great extent determined by the alliances and
+antipathies of the great clans. With the Peloponnesian War a new epoch
+begins. The chief office, the _strategia_, is still, as a rule, held by
+men of rank. But leadership in the Ecclesia has passed to men of a
+different class. The demagogues were not necessarily poor men. Cleon was
+a wealthy man; Eucrates, Lysicles and Hyperbolus were, at any rate,
+tradesmen rather than artisans. The first "labour member" proper is
+Cleophon (411-404 B.C.), a lyre-maker. They belonged, however, not to
+the land-owning, but to the industrial classes; they were distinguished
+from the older race of party-leaders by a vulgar accent, and by a
+violence of gesture in public speaking, and they found their supporters
+among the population of the city and its port, the Peiraeus, rather than
+among the farmers of the country districts. In the 4th century the
+demagogues, though under another name, that of orators, have acquired
+entire control of the Ecclesia. It is an age of professionalism, and the
+professional soldier has his counterpart in the professional politician.
+Down to the death of Pericles the party-leader had always held office as
+Strategus. His rival, Thucydides, son of Melesias, forms a solitary
+exception to this statement. In the 4th century the divorce between the
+general and the statesman is complete. The generals are professional
+soldiers, who aspire to no political influence in the state, and the
+statesmen devote themselves exclusively to politics, a career for which
+they have prepared themselves by a professional training in oratory or
+administrative work. The ruin of agriculture during the war had reduced
+the old families to insignificance. Birth counts for less than nothing
+as a political asset in the age of Demosthenes.
+
+
+  The city-state.
+
+But great as are the contrasts which have been pointed out between the
+earlier and the later democracy, those that distinguish the ancient
+conception of democracy from the modern are of a still more essential
+nature. The differences that distinguish the democracies of ancient
+Greece from those of the modern world have their origin, to a great
+extent, in the difference between a city-state and a nation-state. Many
+of the most famous Greek states had an area of a few square miles; the
+largest of them was no larger than an English county. Political theory
+put the limit of the citizen-body at 10,000. Though this number was
+exceeded in a few cases, it is doubtful if any state, except Athens,
+ever counted more than 20,000 citizens. In the nation-states of modern
+times, democratic government is possible only under the form of a
+representative system; in the city-state representative government was
+unnecessary, and therefore unknown. In the ancient type of democracy a
+popular chamber has no existence. The Ecclesia is not a chamber in any
+sense of the term; it is an assembly of the whole people, which every
+citizen is entitled to attend, and in which every one is equally
+entitled to vote and speak. The question raised in modern political
+science, as to whether sovereignty resides in the electors or their
+representatives, has thus neither place nor meaning in ancient theory.
+In the same way, one of the most familiar results of modern analysis,
+the distinction between the executive and the legislative, finds no
+recognition in the Greek writers. In a direct system of government there
+can be no executive in the proper sense. Executive functions are
+discharged by the ecclesia, to whose decision the details of
+administration may be referred. The position of the strategi, the chief
+officials in the Athenian democracy of the 5th century, was in no sense
+comparable to that of a modern cabinet. Hence the individual citizen in
+an ancient democracy was concerned in, and responsible for, the actual
+work of government to a degree that is inconceivable in a modern state.
+Thus participation in the administrative and judicial business of the
+state is made by Aristotle the differentia of the citizen ([Greek:
+polites estin ho metechon kriseos kai arches], Aristot. _Politics_, p.
+1275 a 20). A large proportion of the citizens of Athens, in addition to
+frequent service in the courts of law, must in the course of their lives
+have held a magistracy, great or small, or have acted for a year or two
+as members of the Boule.[17] It must be remembered that there was
+nothing corresponding to a permanent civil service in the ancient state.
+Much of the work of a government office would have been transacted by
+the Athenian Boule. It must be remembered, too, that political and
+administrative questions of great importance came before the popular
+courts of law. Hence it follows that the ordinary citizen of an ancient
+democracy, in the course of his service in the Boule or the law-courts,
+acquired an interest in political questions, and a grasp of
+administrative work, which none but a select few can hope to acquire
+under the conditions of the modern system. Where there existed neither a
+popular chamber nor a distinct executive, there was no opportunity for
+the growth of a party-system. There were, of course, political parties
+at Athens and elsewhere--oligarchs and democrats, conservatives and
+radicals, a peace-party and a war-party, according to the burning
+question of the day. There was, however, nothing equivalent to a general
+election, to a cabinet (or to that collective responsibility which is of
+the essence of a cabinet), or to the government and the opposition.
+Party organization, therefore, and a party system, in the proper sense,
+were never developed. Whatever may have been the evils incident to the
+ancient form of democracy, the "boss," the caucus and the spoils-system
+were not among them.
+
+
+  Position of women.
+
+Besides these differences, which, directly or indirectly, result from
+the difference of scale, there are others, hardly less profound, which
+are not connected with the size of the city-state. Perhaps the most
+striking contrast between the democracies of ancient and of modern times
+is to be found in their attitude towards privilege. Ancient democracy
+implies privilege; modern democracy implies its destruction. In the more
+fully developed democracies of the modern world (e.g. in the United
+States, or in Australia), the privilege of class is unknown; in some of
+them (e.g. New Zealand, Australia, Norway) even the privilege of sex has
+been abolished. Ancient democracy was bound up with privilege as much as
+oligarchy was. The transition from the latter to the former was effected
+by enlarging the area of privilege and by altering its basis. In an
+oligarchical state citizenship might be confined to 10% of the free
+population; under a democracy 50% might enjoy it. In the former case the
+qualification might be wealth or land; in the latter case it might be,
+as it was at Athens, birth, i.e. descent, on both sides, from a citizen
+family. But, in both cases alike, the distinction between a privileged
+and an unprivileged body of free-born residents is fundamental. To the
+unprivileged class belonged, not only foreigners temporarily resident
+([Greek: xenoi]) and aliens permanently domiciled ([Greek: metoikoi]),
+but also those native-born inhabitants of the state who were of foreign
+extraction, on one side or the other.[18] The privileges attaching to
+citizenship included, in addition to eligibility for office and a vote
+in the assembly, such private rights as that of owning land or a house,
+or of contracting a marriage with one of citizen status. The citizen,
+too, was alone the recipient of all the various forms of pay (e.g. for
+attendance in the assembly, for service in the Boule or the law-courts,
+or for the celebration of the great festivals) which are so conspicuous
+a feature in the developed democracy of the 4th century. The _metoeci_
+could not even plead in a court of law in person, but only through a
+patron ([Greek: prostates]). It is intelligible that privileges so great
+should be jealously guarded. In the democracies of the modern world
+naturalization is easy; in those of ancient Greece admission to the
+franchise was rarely accorded. In modern times, again, we are accustomed
+to connect democracy with the emancipation of women. It is true that
+only a few democratic constitutions grant them the suffrage; but though,
+as a rule, they are denied public rights, the growth of popular
+government has been almost everywhere accompanied by an extension of
+their private rights, and by the removal of the restrictions imposed by
+law, custom or public opinion upon their freedom of action. In ancient
+Greece the democracies were as illiberal in their policy as the
+oligarchies. Women of the respectable class were condemned to
+comparative seclusion. They enjoyed far less freedom in 4th-century
+Athens than in the Homeric Age. It is not in any of the democracies, but
+in conservative Sparta, that they possess privilege and exercise
+influence.
+
+
+  Slavery.
+
+The most fundamental of all the contrasts between democracy in its
+ancient and in its modern form remains to be stated. The ancient state
+was inseparable from slavery. In this respect there was no difference
+between democracy and the other forms of government. No inconsistency
+was felt, therefore, between this institution and the democratic
+principle. Modern political theory has been profoundly affected by the
+conception of the dignity of labour; ancient political theory tended to
+regard labour as a disqualification for the exercise of political
+rights. Where slavery exists, the taint of it will inevitably cling to
+all labour that can be performed by the slave. In ancient Athens (which
+may be taken as typical of the Greek democracies) unskilled labour was
+almost entirely slave-labour, and skilled labour was largely so. The
+arts and crafts were, to some extent, exercised by citizens, but to a
+less extent in the 4th than in the 6th century. They were, however,
+chiefly left to aliens or slaves. The citizen-body of Athens in the age
+of Demosthenes has been stigmatized as consisting in great measure of
+salaried paupers. There is, doubtless, an exaggeration in this. It is,
+however, true, both that the system of state-pay went a long way towards
+supplying the simple wants of a southern population, and that a large
+proportion of the citizens had time to spare for the service of the
+state. Had the life of the lower class of citizens been absorbed in a
+round of mechanical labours, as fully as is the life of our industrial
+classes, the working of an ancient democracy would have been impossible.
+In justice to the ancient democracies it must be conceded that, while
+popular government carried with it neither the enfranchisement of the
+alien nor the emancipation of the slave, the rights secured to both
+classes were more considerable in the democratic states than elsewhere.
+The lot of the slave, as well as that of the alien, was a peculiarly
+favourable one at Athens. The pseudo-Xenophon in the 5th century (_De
+rep. Ath._ 1. 10-12) and Plato in the 4th (_Republic_, p. 563 B), prove
+that the spirit of liberty, with which Athenian life was permeated, was
+not without its influence upon the position of these classes. When we
+read that critics complained of the opulence of slaves, and of the
+liberties they took, and when we are told that the slave could not be
+distinguished from the poorer class of citizens either by his dress or
+his look, we begin to realize the difference between the slavery of
+ancient Athens and the system as it was worked on the Roman _latifundia_
+or the plantations of the New World.
+
+
+  The Spartan empire.
+
+It had been anticipated that the fall of Athens would mean the triumph
+of the principle of autonomy. If Athens had surrendered within a year or
+so of the Sicilian catastrophe, this anticipation would probably have
+been fulfilled. It was the last phase of the struggle (412-404 B.C.)
+that rendered a Spartan empire inevitable. The oligarchical governments
+established by Lysander recognized that their tenure of power was
+dependent upon Spartan support, while Lysander himself, to whose genius,
+as a political organizer not less than as a commander, the triumph of
+Sparta was due, was unwilling to see his work undone. The Athenian
+empire had never included the greater part of Greece proper; since the
+Thirty Years' Peace its possessions on the mainland, outside the
+boundaries of Attica, were limited to Naupactus and Plataea. Sparta, on
+the other hand, attempted the control of the entire Greek world east of
+the Adriatic. Athens had been compelled to acknowledge a dual system;
+Sparta sought to establish uniformity. The attempt failed from the
+first. Within a year of the surrender of Athens, Thebes and Corinth had
+drifted into an attitude of opposition, while Argos remained hostile. It
+was not long before the policy of Lysander succeeded in uniting against
+Sparta the very forces upon which she had relied when she entered on the
+Peloponnesian War. The Corinthian War (394-387 B.C.) was brought about
+by the alliance of all the second-class powers--Thebes, Athens, Corinth,
+Argos--against the one first-class power, Sparta. Though Sparta emerged
+successful from the war, it was with the loss of her maritime empire,
+and at the cost of recognizing the principle of autonomy as the basis of
+the Greek political system. It was already evident, thus early in the
+century, that the centrifugal forces were to prove stronger than the
+centripetal. Two further causes may be indicated which help to explain
+the failure of the Spartan empire. In the first place Spartan sea-power
+was an artificial creation. History seems to show that it is idle for a
+state to aspire to naval supremacy unless it possesses a great
+commercial marine. Athens had possessed such a marine; her naval
+supremacy was due not to the mere size of her fleet, but to the numbers
+and skill of her seafaring population. Sparta had no commerce. She could
+build fleets more easily than she could man them. A single defeat (at
+Cnidus, 391 B.C.) sufficed for the ruin of her sea-power. The second
+cause is to be found in the financial weakness of the Spartan state. The
+Spartan treasury had been temporarily enriched by the spoils of the
+Peloponnesian War, but neither during that war, nor afterwards, did
+Sparta succeed in developing any scientific financial system. Athens was
+the only state which either possessed a large annual revenue or
+accumulated a considerable reserve. Under the conditions of Greek
+warfare, fleets were more expensive than armies. Not only was money
+needed for the building and maintenance of the ships, but the sailor
+must be paid, while the soldier served for nothing. Hence the power with
+the longest purse could both build the largest fleet and attract the
+most skilful seamen.
+
+
+  Theban hegemony.
+
+The battle of Leuctra transferred the hegemony from Sparta to Thebes,
+but the attempt to unite Greece under the leadership of Thebes was from
+the first doomed to failure. The conditions were less favourable to
+Thebes than they had been to Athens or Sparta. Thebes was even more
+exclusively a land-power than Sparta. She had no revenue comparable to
+that of Athens in the preceding century. Unlike Athens and Sparta, she
+had not the advantage of being identified with a political cause. As the
+enemy of Athens in the 5th century, she was on the side of oligarchy; as
+the rival of Sparta in the 4th, she was on the side of democracy; but in
+her bid for primacy she could not appeal, as Athens and Sparta could,
+to a great political tradition, nor had she behind her, as they had, the
+moral force of a great political principle. Her position, too, in
+Boeotia itself was insecure. The rise of Athens was in great measure the
+result of the _synoecism_ ([Greek: sunoikismos)] of Attica. All
+inhabitants of Attica were Athenians. But "Boeotian" and "Theban" were
+not synonymous terms. The Boeotian league was an imperfect form of
+union, as compared with the Athenian state, and the claim of Thebes to
+the presidency of the league was, at best, sullenly acquiesced in by the
+other towns. The destruction of some of the most famous of the Boeotian
+cities, however necessary it may have been in order to unite the
+country, was a measure which at once impaired the resources of Thebes
+and outraged Greek sentiment. It has been often held that the failure of
+Theban policy was due to the death of Epaminondas (at the battle of
+Mantinea, 362 B.C.). For this view there is no justification. His policy
+had proved a failure before his death. Where it harmonized with the
+spirit of the age, the spirit of dissidence, it succeeded; where it
+attempted to run counter to it, it failed. It succeeded in destroying
+the supremacy of Sparta in the Peloponnese; it failed to unite the
+Peloponnese on a new basis. It failed still more significantly to unite
+Greece north of the Isthmus. It left Greece weaker and more divided than
+it found it (see the concluding words of Xenophon's _Hellenics_). It
+would be difficult to overestimate the importance of his policy as a
+destructive force; as a constructive force it effected nothing.[19] The
+Peloponnesian system which Epaminondas overthrew had lasted two hundred
+years. Under Spartan leadership the Peloponnese had enjoyed almost
+complete immunity from invasion and comparative immunity from _stasis_
+(faction). The claim that Isocrates makes for Sparta is probably
+well-founded (_Archidamus_, 64-69; during the period of Spartan
+ascendency the Peloponnesians were [Greek: eudaimonestatoi ton
+Hellenon]). Peloponnesian sentiment had been one of the chief factors in
+Greek politics; to it, indeed, in no small degree was due the victory
+over Persia. The Theban victory at Leuctra destroyed the unity, and with
+it the peace and the prosperity, of the Peloponnese. It inaugurated a
+period of misery, the natural result of _stasis_ and invasion, to which
+no parallel can be found in the earlier history (See Isocrates,
+_Archidamus_, 65, 66; the Peloponnesians were [Greek: omalismenoi tais
+sumphopais]). It destroyed, too, the Peloponnesian sentiment of
+hostility to the invader. The bulk of the army that defeated Mardonius
+at Plataea came from the Peloponnese; at Chaeronea no Peloponnesian
+state was represented.
+
+
+  The rise of Macedon.
+
+The question remains, Why did the city-state fail to save Greece from
+conquest by Macedon? Was this result due to the inherent weakness either
+of the city-state itself, or of one particular form of it, democracy? It
+is clear, in any case, that the triumph of Macedon was the effect of
+causes which had long been at work. If neither Philip nor Alexander had
+appeared on the scene, Greece might have maintained her independence for
+another generation or two; but, when invasion came, it would have found
+her weaker and more distracted, and the conquerors might easily have
+been less imbued with the Greek spirit, and less sympathetic towards
+Greek ideals, than the great Macedonian and his son. These causes are to
+be found in the tendencies of the age, political, economic and moral. Of
+the two movements which characterized the Great Age in its political
+aspect, the imperial and the democratic, the one failed and the other
+succeeded. The failure and the success were equally fatal to the chances
+of Greece in the conflict with Macedon. By the middle of the 4th century
+Greek politics had come to be dominated by the theory of the balance of
+power. This theory, enunciated in its coarsest form by Demosthenes (_Pro
+Megalopolit._ 4 [Greek: sumpherei te polei kai Lakedaimonious astheneis
+einai kai Thebaious]; cf. _in Aristocrat._ 102, 103), had shaped the
+foreign policy of Athens since the end of the Peloponnesian War. As long
+as Sparta was the stronger, Athens inclined to a Theban alliance; after
+Leuctra she tended in the direction of a Spartan one. At the epoch of
+Philip's accession the forces were everywhere nicely balanced. The
+Peloponnese was fairly equally divided between the Theban and the
+Spartan interests, and central Greece was similarly divided between the
+Theban and the Athenian. Farther north we get an Athenian party opposed
+to an Olynthian in Chalcidice, and a republican party, dependent upon
+the support of Thebes, opposed to that of the tyrants in Thessaly. It is
+easy to see that the political conditions of Greece, both in the north
+and in the south, invited interference from without. And the triumph of
+democracy in its extreme form was ruinous to the military efficiency of
+Greece. On the one side there was a monarchical state, in which all
+powers, civil as well as military, were concentrated in the hands of a
+single ruler; on the other, a constitutional system, in which a complete
+separation had been effected between the responsibility of the statesman
+and that of the commander.[20]
+
+It could not be doubtful with which side victory would rest. Meanwhile,
+the economic conditions were steadily growing worse. The cause which
+Aristotle assigns for the decay of the Spartan state--a declining
+population (see _Politics_, p. 1270 a [Greek: apoleto e polis ton
+Lakedaimonion dia ten oliganthropian])--might be extended to the Greek
+world generally. The loss of population was partly the result of war and
+_stasis_--Isocrates speaks of the number of political exiles from the
+various states as enormous[21]--but it was also due to a declining
+birth-rate, and to the exposure of infants. Aristotle, while condemning
+exposure, sanctions the procuring of abortion (_Politics_, 1335 b). It
+is probable that both ante-natal and post-natal infanticide were rife
+everywhere, except among the more backward communities. A people which
+has condemned itself to racial suicide can have little chance when
+pitted against a nation in which healthier instincts prevail. The
+materials for forming a trustworthy estimate of the population of Greece
+at any given epoch are not available; there is enough evidence, however,
+to prove that the military population of the leading Greek states at the
+era of the battle of Chaeronea (338 B.C.) fell far short of what it had
+been at the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. The decline in
+population had been accompanied by a decline in wealth, both public and
+private; and while revenues had shrunk, expenditure had grown. It was a
+century of warfare; and warfare had become enormously more expensive,
+partly through the increased employment of mercenaries, partly through
+the enhanced cost of material. The power of the purse had made itself
+felt even in the 5th century; Persian gold had helped to decide the
+issue of the great war. In the politics of the 4th century the power of
+the purse becomes the determining factor. The public finance of the
+ancient world was singularly simple in character, and the expedients for
+raising a revenue were comparatively few. The distinction between direct
+and indirect taxation was recognized in practice, but states as a rule
+were reluctant to submit to the former system. The revenue of Athens in
+the 5th century was mainly derived from the tribute paid by her
+subjects; it was only in time of war that a direct tax was levied upon
+the citizen-body.[22] In the age of Demosthenes the revenue derived from
+the Athenian Confederacy was insignificant. The whole burden of the
+expenses of a war fell upon the 1200 richest citizens, who were subject
+to direct taxation in the dual form of the _Trierarchy_ and the
+_Eisphora_ (property-tax). The revenue thus raised was wholly
+insufficient for an effort on a great scale; yet the revenues of Athens
+at this period must have exceeded those of any other state.
+
+It is to moral causes, however, rather than to political or economic
+ones, that the failure of Greece in the conflict with Macedon is
+attributed by the most famous Greek statesmen of that age. Demosthenes
+is never weary of insisting upon the decay of patriotism among the
+citizens and upon the decay of probity among their leaders. Venality had
+always been the besetting sin of Greek statesmen. Pericles' boast as to
+his own incorruptibility (Thuc. ii. 60) is significant as to the
+reputation of his contemporaries. In the age of Demosthenes the level of
+public life in this respect had sunk at least as low as that which
+prevails in many states of the modern world (see Demosth. _On the
+Crown_, 61 [Greek: para tois Hellesin, oi tisin all' apasin omoios phora
+prooton kai dorodokon sunebe]; cf. SS 295, 296). Corruption was
+certainly not confined to the Macedonian party. The best that can be
+said in defence of the patriots, as well as of their opponents, is that
+they honestly believed that the policy which they were bribed to
+advocate was the best for their country's interests. The evidence for
+the general decay of patriotism among the mass of the citizens is less
+conclusive. The battle of Megalopolis (331 B.C.), in which the Spartan
+soldiery "went down in a blaze of glory," proves that the spirit of the
+Lacedemonian state remained unchanged. But at Athens it seemed to
+contemporary observers--to Isocrates equally with Demosthenes--that the
+spirit of the great days was extinct (see Isocr. _On the Peace_, 47,
+48). It cannot, of course, be denied that public opinion was obstinately
+opposed to the diversion of the Theoric Fund to the purposes of the war
+with Philip. It was not till the year before Chaeronea that Demosthenes
+succeeded in persuading the assembly to devote the entire surplus to the
+expenses of the war.[23] Nor can it be denied that mercenaries were far
+more largely employed in the 4th century than in the 5th. In justice,
+however, to the Athenians of the Demosthenic era, it should be
+remembered that the burden of direct taxation was rarely imposed, and
+was reluctantly endured, in the previous century. It must also be
+remembered that, even in the 4th century, the Athenian citizen was ready
+to take the field, provided that it was not a question of a distant
+expedition or of prolonged service.[24] For distant expeditions, or for
+prolonged service, a citizen-militia is unsuited. The substitution of a
+professional force for an unprofessional one is to be explained, partly
+by the change in the character of Greek warfare, and partly by the
+operation of the laws of supply and demand. There had been a time when
+warfare meant a brief campaign in the summer months against a
+neighbouring state. It had come to mean prolonged operations against a
+distant enemy.[25] Athens was at war, e.g. with Philip, for eleven years
+continuously (357-346 B.C.). If winter campaigns in Thrace were
+unpopular at this epoch, they had been hardly less unpopular in the
+epoch of the Peloponnesian War. In the days of her greatness, too,
+Athens had freely employed mercenaries, but it was in the navy rather
+than the army. In the age of Pericles the supply of mercenary rowers was
+abundant, the supply of mercenary troops inconsiderable. In the age of
+Demosthenes incessant warfare and ceaseless revolution had filled Greece
+with crowds of homeless adventurers. The supply helped to create the
+demand. The mercenary was as cheap as the citizen-soldier, and much more
+effective. On the whole, then, it may be inferred that it is a mistake
+to regard the prevalence of the mercenary system as the expression of a
+declining patriotism. It would be nearer the mark to treat the
+transition from the voluntary to the professional system as cause rather
+than effect: as one among the causes which contributed to the decay of
+public spirit in the Greek world.
+
+
+  Federal government.
+
+6. _From Alexander to the Roman Conquest (336-146 B.C.)._--In the
+history of Greece proper during this period the interest is mainly
+constitutional. It may be called the age of federation. Federation,
+indeed, was no novelty in Greece. Federal unions had existed in
+Thessaly, in Boeotia and elsewhere, and the Boeotian league can be
+traced back at least to the 6th century. Two newly-founded federations,
+the Chalcidian and the Arcadian, play no inconsiderable part in the
+politics of the 4th century. But it is not till the 3rd century that
+federation attains to its full development in Greece, and becomes the
+normal type of polity. The two great leagues of this period are the
+Aetolian and the Achaean. Both had existed in the 4th century, but the
+latter, which had been dissolved shortly before the beginning of the 3rd
+century, becomes important only after its restoration in 280 B.C., about
+which date the former, too, first begins to attract notice. The interest
+of federalism lies in the fact that it marks an advance beyond the
+conception of the city-state. It is an attempt to solve the problem
+which the Athenian empire failed to solve, the reconciliation of the
+claims of local autonomy with those of national union. The federal
+leagues of the 3rd century possess a further interest for the modern
+world, in that there can be traced in their constitutions a nearer
+approach to a representative system than is found elsewhere in Greek
+experience. A genuine representative system, it is true, was never
+developed in any Greek polity. What we find in the leagues is a sort of
+compromise between the principle of a primary assembly and the principle
+of a representative chamber. In both leagues the nominal sovereign was a
+primary assembly, in which every individual citizen had the right to
+vote. In both of them, however, the real power lay with a council
+([Greek: Boule]) composed of members representative of each of the
+component states.[26]
+
+
+  Alexander's empire.
+
+The real interest of this period, however, is to be looked for elsewhere
+than in Greece itself. Alexander's career is one of the turning-points
+in history. He is one of the few to whom it has been given to modify the
+whole future of the human race. He originated two forces which have
+profoundly affected the development of civilization. He created
+Hellenism, and he created for the western world the monarchical ideal.
+Greece had produced personal rulers of ability, or even of genius; but
+to the greatest of these, to Peisistratus, to Dionysius, even to Jason
+of Pherae, there clung the fatal taint of illegitimacy. As yet no ruler
+had succeeded in making the person of the monarch respectable. Alexander
+made it sacred. From him is derived, for the West, that "divinity that
+doth hedge a king." And in creating Hellenism he created, for the first
+time, a common type of civilization, with a common language, literature
+and art, as well as a common form of political organization. In Asia
+Minor he was content to reinforce the existing Hellenic elements (cf.
+the case of Side, Arrian, _Anabasis_, i. 26. 4). In the rest of the East
+his instrument of hellenization was the _polis_. He is said to have
+founded no less than seventy cities, destined to become centres of Greek
+influence; and the great majority of these were in lands in which
+city-life was almost unknown. In this respect his example was emulated
+by his successors. The eastern provinces were soon lost, though Greek
+influences lingered on even in Bactria and across the Indus. It was only
+the regions lying to the west of the Euphrates that were effectively
+hellenized, and the permanence of this result was largely due to the
+policy of Rome. But after all deductions have been made, the great fact
+remains that for many centuries after Alexander's death Greek was the
+language of literature and religion, of commerce and of administration
+throughout the Nearer East. Alexander had created a universal empire as
+well as a universal culture. His empire perished at his death, but its
+central idea survived--that of the municipal freedom of the Greek
+_polis_ within the framework of an imperial system. Hellenistic
+civilization may appear degenerate when compared with Hellenic; when
+compared with the civilizations which it superseded in non-Hellenic
+lands, it marks an unquestionable advance. (For the history of Greek
+civilization in the East, see HELLENISM.) Greece left her mark upon the
+civilization of the West as well as upon that of the East, but the
+process by which her influence was diffused was essentially different.
+In the East Hellenism came in the train of the conqueror, and Rome was
+content to build upon the foundations laid by Alexander. In the West
+Greek influences were diffused by the Roman conquest of Greece. It was
+through the ascendancy which Greek literature, philosophy and art
+acquired over the Roman mind that Greek culture penetrated to the
+nations of western Europe. The civilization of the East remained Greek.
+The civilization of the West became and remained Latin, but it was a
+Latin civilization that was saturated with Greek influences. The
+ultimate division, both of the empire and the church, into two halves,
+finds its explanation in this original difference of culture.
+
+ANCIENT AUTHORITIES.--(I.) For the earliest periods of Greek history,
+the so-called Minoan and Mycenaean, the evidence is purely
+archaeological. It is sufficient here to refer to the article AEGEAN
+CIVILIZATION. For the next period, the Heroic or Homeric Age, the
+evidence is derived from the poems of Homer. In any estimate of the
+value of these poems as historical evidence, much will depend upon the
+view taken of the authorship, age and unity of the poems. For a full
+discussion of these questions see HOMER. It cannot be questioned that
+the poems are evidence for the existence of a period in the history of
+the Greek race, which differed from later periods in political and
+social, military and economic conditions. But here agreement ends. If,
+as is generally held by German critics, the poems are not earlier than
+the 9th century, if they contain large interpolations of considerably
+later date and if they are Ionian in origin, the authority of the poems
+becomes comparatively slight. The existence of different strata in the
+poems will imply the existence of inconsistencies and contradictions in
+the evidence; nor will the evidence be that of a contemporary. It will
+also follow that the picture of the heroic age contained in the poems is
+an idealized one. The more extreme critics, e.g. Beloch, deny that the
+poems are evidence even for the existence of a pre-Dorian epoch. If, on
+the other hand, the poems are assigned to the 11th or 12th century, to a
+Peloponnesian writer, and to a period anterior to the Dorian Invasion
+and the colonization of Asia Minor (this is the view of the late Dr D.
+B. Munro), the evidence becomes that of a contemporary, and the
+authority of the poems for the distribution of races and tribes in the
+Heroic Age, as well as for the social and political conditions of the
+poet's time, would be conclusive. Homer recognizes no Dorians in Greece,
+except in Crete (see _Odyssey_, xix. 177), and no Greek colonies in Asia
+Minor. Only two explanations are possible. Either there is deliberate
+archaism in the poems, or else they are earlier in date than the Dorian
+Invasion and the colonization of Asia Minor.
+
+
+  Herodotus.
+
+II. For the period that extends from the end of the Heroic Age to the
+end of the Peloponnesian War[27] the two principal authorities are
+Herodotus and Thucydides. Not only have the other historical works which
+treated of this period perished (those at least whose date is earlier
+than the Christian era), but their authority was secondary and their
+material chiefly derived from these two writers. In one respect then
+this period of Greek history stands alone. Indeed, it might be said,
+with hardly an exaggeration, that there is nothing like it elsewhere in
+history. Almost our sole authorities are two writers of unique genius,
+and they are writers whose works have come down to us intact. For the
+period which ends with the repulse of the Persian invasion our authority
+is Herodotus. For the period which extends from 478 to 411 we are
+dependent upon Thucydides'. In each case, however, a distinction must be
+drawn. The Persian Wars form the proper subject of Herodotus's work; the
+Peloponnesian War is the subject of Thucydides. The interval between the
+two wars is merely sketched by Thucydides; while of the period anterior
+to the conflicts of the Greek with the Persian, Herodotus does not
+attempt either a complete or a continuous narrative. His references to
+it are episodical and accidental. Hence our knowledge of the Persian
+Wars and of the Peloponnesian War is widely different in character from
+our knowledge of the rest of this period. In the history of these wars
+the _lacunae_ are few; in the rest of the history they are alike
+frequent and serious. In the history, therefore, of the Persian and
+Peloponnesian Wars little is to be learnt from the secondary sources.
+Elsewhere, especially in the interval between the two wars, they become
+relatively important.
+
+In estimating the authority of Herodotus (q.v.) we must be careful to
+distinguish between the invasion of Xerxes and all that is earlier.
+Herodotus's work was published soon after 430 B.C., i.e. about half a
+century after the invasion. Much of his information was gathered in the
+course of the preceding twenty years. Although his evidence is not that
+of an eye-witness, he had had opportunities of meeting those who had
+themselves played a part in the war, on one side or the other (e.g.
+Thersander of Orchomenos, ix. 16). In any case, we are dealing with a
+tradition which is little more than a generation old, and the events to
+which the tradition relates, the incidents of the struggle against
+Xerxes, were of a nature to impress themselves indelibly upon the minds
+of contemporaries. Where, on the other hand, he is treating of the
+period anterior to the invasion of Xerxes, he is dependent upon a
+tradition which is never less than two generations old, and is sometimes
+centuries old. His informants were, at best, the sons or grandsons of
+the actors in the wars (e.g. Archias the Spartan, iii. 55). Moreover,
+the invasion of Xerxes, entailing, as it did, the destruction of cities
+and sanctuaries, especially of Athens and its temples, marks a dividing
+line in Greek history. It was not merely that evidence perished and
+records were destroyed. What in reference to tradition is even more
+important, a new consciousness of power was awakened, new interests were
+aroused, and new questions and problems came to the front. The former
+things had passed away; all things were become new. A generation that is
+occupied with making history on a great scale is not likely to busy
+itself with the history of the past. Consequently, the earlier
+traditions became faint and obscured, and the history difficult to
+reconstruct. As we trace back the conflict between Greece and Persia to
+its beginnings and antecedents, we are conscious that the tradition
+becomes less trustworthy as we pass back from one stage to another. The
+tradition of the expedition of Datis and Artaphernes is less credible in
+its details than that of the expedition of Xerxes, but it is at once
+fuller and more credible than the tradition of the Ionian revolt. When
+we get back to the Scythian expedition, we can discover but few grains
+of historical truth.
+
+Much recent criticism of Herodotus has been directed against his
+veracity as a traveller. With this we are not here concerned. The
+criticism of him as an historian begins with Thucydides. Among the
+references of the latter writer to his predecessor are the following
+passages: i. 21; i. 22 _ad fin._; i. 20 _ad fin._ (cf. Herod. ix. 53,
+and vi. 57 _ad fin._); iii. 62 S 4 (cf. Herod. ix. 87); ii. 2 SS 1 and 3
+(cf. Herod. vii. 233); ii. 8 S 3 (cf. Herod. vi. 98). Perhaps the two
+clearest examples of this criticism are to be found in Thucydides'
+correction of Herodotus's account of the Cylonian conspiracy (Thuc. i.
+126, cf. Herod. v. 71) and in his appreciation of the character of
+Themistocles--a veiled protest against the slanderous tales accepted by
+Herodotus (i. 138). In Plutarch's tract "On the Malignity of Herodotus"
+there is much that is suggestive, although his general standpoint, viz.
+that Herodotus was in duty bound to suppress all that was discreditable
+to the valour or patriotism of the Greeks, is not that of the modern
+critic. It must be conceded to Plutarch that he makes good his charge of
+bias in Herodotus's attitude towards certain of the Greek states. The
+question, however, may fairly be asked, how far this bias is personal to
+the author, or how far it is due to the character of the sources from
+which his information was derived. He cannot, indeed, altogether be
+acquitted of personal bias. His work is, to some extent, intended as an
+_apologia_ for the Athenian empire. In answer to the charge that Athens
+was guilty of robbing other Greek states of their freedom, Herodotus
+seeks to show, firstly, that it was to Athens that the Greek world, as a
+whole, owed its freedom from Persia, and secondly, that the subjects of
+Athens, the Ionian Greeks, were unworthy to be free. This leads him to
+be unjust both to the services of Sparta and to the qualities of the
+Ionian race. For his estimate of the debt due to Athens see vii. 139.
+For bias against the Ionians see especially iv. 142 (cf. Thuc. vi. 77);
+cf. also i. 143 and 146, vi. 12-14 (Lade), vi. 112 _ad fin._ A striking
+example of his prejudice in favour of Athens is furnished by vi. 91. At
+a moment when Greece rang with the crime of Athens in expelling the
+Aeginetans from their Island, he ventures to trace in their expulsion
+the vengeance of heaven for an act of sacrilege nearly sixty years
+earlier (see AEGINA). As a rule, however, the bias apparent in his
+narrative is due to the sources from which it is derived. Writing at
+Athens, in the first years of the Peloponnesian War, he can hardly help
+seeing the past through an Athenian medium. It was inevitable that much
+of what he heard should come to him from Athenian informants, and should
+be coloured by Athenian prejudices. We may thus explain the leniency
+which he shows towards Argos and Thessaly, the old allies of Athens, in
+marked contrast to his treatment of Thebes, Corinth and Aegina, her
+deadliest foes. For Argos cf. vii. 152; Thessaly, vii. 172-174; Thebes,
+vii. 132, vii. 233, ix. 87; Corinth (especially the Corinthian general
+Adeimantus, whose son Aristeus was the most active enemy of Athens at
+the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War), vii. 5, vii. 21, viii. 29 and
+61, vii. 94; Aegina, ix. 78-80 and 85. In his intimacy with members of
+the great Alcmaeonid house we probably have the explanation of his
+depreciation of the services of Themistocles, as well as of his defence
+of the family from the charges brought against it in connexion with
+Cylon and with the incident of the shield shown on Pentelicus at the
+time of Marathon (v. 71, vi. 121-124). His failure to do justice to the
+Cypselid tyrants of Corinth (v. 92), and to the Spartan king Cleomenes,
+is to be accounted for by the nature of his sources--in the former case,
+the tradition of the Corinthian oligarchy; in the latter, accounts,
+partly derived from the family of the exiled king Demaratus and partly
+representative of the view of the ephorate. Much of the earlier history
+is cast in a religious mould, e.g. the story of the Mermnad kings of
+Lydia in book i., or of the fortunes of the colony of Cyrene (iv.
+145-167). In such cases we cannot fail to recognize the influence of the
+Delphic priesthood. Grote has pointed out that the moralizing tendency
+observable in Herodotus is partly to be explained by the fact that much
+of his information was gathered from priests and at temples, and that it
+was given in explanation of votive offerings, or of the fulfilment of
+oracles. Hence the determination of the sources of his narrative has
+become one of the principal tasks of Herodotean criticism. In addition
+to the current tradition of Athens, the family tradition of the
+Alcmaeonidae, and the stories to be heard at Delphi and other
+sanctuaries, there may be indicated the Spartan tradition, in the form
+in which it existed in the middle of the 5th century; that of his native
+Halicarnassus, to which is due the prominence of its queen Artemisia;
+the traditions of the Ionian cities, especially of Samos and Miletus
+(important both for the history of the Mermnadae and for the Ionian
+Revolt); and those current in Sicily and Magna Graecia, which were
+learned during his residence at Thurii (Sybaris and Croton, v. 44, 45;
+Syracuse and Gela, vii. 153-167). Among his more special sources we can
+point to the descendants of Demaratus, who still held, at the beginning
+of the 4th century, the principality in the Troad which had been granted
+to their ancestor by Darius (Xen. _Hell._ iii. i. 6), and to the family
+of the Persian general Artabazus, in which the satrapy of Dascylium
+(Phrygia) was hereditary in the 5th century.[28] His use of written
+material is more difficult to determine. It is generally agreed that the
+list of Persian satrapies, with their respective assessments of tribute
+(iii. 89-97), the description of the royal road from Sardis to Susa (v.
+52-54), and of the march of Xerxes, together with the list of the
+contingents that took part in the expedition (vii. 26-131), are all
+derived from documentary and authoritative sources. From previous
+writers (e.g. Dionysius of Miletus, Hecataeus, Charon of Lampsacus and
+Xanthus the Lydian) it is probable that he has borrowed little, though
+the fragments are too scanty to permit of adequate comparison. His
+references to monuments, dedicatory offerings, inscriptions and oracles
+are frequent.
+
+The chief defects of Herodotus are his failure to grasp the principles
+of historical criticism, to understand the nature of military
+operations, and to appreciate the importance of chronology. In place of
+historical criticism we find a crude rationalism (e.g. ii. 45, vii. 129,
+viii. 8). Having no conception of the distinction between occasion and
+cause, he is content to find the explanation of great historical
+movements in trivial incidents or personal motives. An example of this
+is furnished by his account of the Ionian revolt, in which he fails to
+discover the real causes either of the movement or of its result.
+Indeed, it is clear that he regarded criticism as no part of his task as
+an historian. In vii. 152 he states the principles which have guided
+him--[Greek: ego de opheilo legein ta legomena, peithesthai ge men ou
+pantapasi opheilo, kai moi touto to epos echeto es panta logon]. In
+obedience to this principle he again and again gives two or more
+versions of a story. We are thus frequently enabled to arrive at the
+truth by a comparison of the discrepant traditions. It would have been
+fortunate if all ancient writers who lacked the critical genius of
+Thucydides had been content to adopt the practice of Herodotus. His
+accounts of battles are always unsatisfactory. The great battles,
+Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis and Plataea, present a series of
+problems. This result is partly due to the character of the traditions
+which he follows--traditions which were to some extent inconsistent or
+contradictory, and were derived from different sources; it is, however,
+in great measure due to his inability to think out a strategical
+combination or a tactical movement. It is not too much to say that the
+battle of Plataea, as described by Herodotus, is wholly unintelligible.
+Most serious of all his deficiencies is his careless chronology. Even in
+the case of the 5th century, the data which he affords are inadequate or
+ambiguous. The interval between the Scythian expedition and the Ionian
+revolt is described by so vague an expression as [Greek: meta de ou
+pollon chronon anesis kakon en] (v. 28). In the history of the revolt
+itself, though he gives us the interval between its outbreak and the
+fall of Miletus ([Greek: ekto etei], vi. 18), he does not give us the
+interval between this and the battle of Lade, nor does he indicate with
+sufficient precision the years to which the successive phases of the
+movement belong. Throughout the work professed synchronisms too often
+prove to be mere literary devices for facilitating a transition from one
+subject to another (cf. e.g. v. 81 with 89, 90; or vi. 51 with 87 and
+94). In the 6th century, as Grote pointed out, a whole generation, or
+more, disappears in his historical perspective (cf. i. 30, vi. 125, v.
+94, iii. 47, 48, v. 113 contrasted with v. 104 and iv. 162). The
+attempts to reconstruct the chronology of this century upon the basis of
+the data afforded by Herodotus (e.g. by Beloch, _Rheinisches Museum_,
+xlv., 1890, pp. 465-473) have completely failed.
+
+In spite of all such defects Herodotus is an author, not only of
+unrivalled literary charm, but of the utmost value to the historian. If
+much remains uncertain or obscure, even in the history of the Persian
+Wars, it is chiefly to motives or policy, to topography or strategy, to
+dates or numbers, that uncertainty attaches. It is to these that a sober
+criticism will confine itself.
+
+
+  Thucydides.
+
+Thucydides is at once the father of contemporary history and the father
+of historical criticism. From a comparison of i. 1, i. 22 and v. 26, we
+may gather both the principles to which he adhered in the composition of
+his work and the conditions under which it was composed. It is seldom
+that the circumstances of an historical writer have been so favourable
+for the accomplishment of his task. Thucydides was a contemporary of the
+Twenty-Seven Years' War in the fullest sense of the term. He had reached
+manhood at its outbreak, and he survived its close by at least
+half-a-dozen years. And he was more than a mere contemporary. As a man
+of high birth, a member of the Periclean circle, and the holder of the
+chief political office in the Athenian state, the _strategia_, he was
+not only familiar with the business of administration and the conduct of
+military operations, but he possessed in addition a personal knowledge
+of those who played the principal part in the political life of the age.
+His exile in the year 424 afforded him opportunities of visiting the
+scenes of distant operations (e.g. Sicily) and of coming in contact with
+the actors on the other side. He himself tells us that he spared no
+pains to obtain the best information available in each case. He also
+tells us that he began collecting materials for his work from the very
+beginning of the war. Indeed, it is probable that much of books i.-v. 24
+was written soon after the Peace of Nicias (421), just as it is possible
+that the history of the Sicilian Expedition (books vi. and vii.) was
+originally intended to form a separate work. To the view, however, which
+has obtained wide support in recent years, that books i.-v. 22 and books
+vi. and vii. were separately published, the rest of book v. and book
+viii. being little more than a rough draught, composed after the author
+had adopted the theory of a single war of twenty-seven years' duration,
+of which the Sicilian Expedition and the operations of the years 431-421
+formed integral parts, there seem to the present writer to be
+insuperable objections. The work, as a whole, appears to have been
+composed in the first years of the 4th century, after his return from
+exile in 404, when the material already in existence must have been
+revised and largely recast. There are exceedingly few passages, such as
+iv. 48. 5, which appear to have been overlooked in the process of
+revision. It can hardly be questioned that the impression left upon the
+reader's mind is that the point of view of the author, in all the books
+alike, is that of one writing after the fall of Athens.
+
+The task of historical criticism in the case of the Peloponnesian War is
+widely different from its task in the case of the Persian Wars. It has
+to deal, not with facts as they appear in the traditions of an
+imaginative race, but with facts as they appeared to a scientific
+observer. Facts, indeed, are seldom in dispute. The question is rather
+whether facts of importance are omitted, whether the explanation of
+causes is correct, or whether the judgment of men and measures is just.
+Such inaccuracies as have been brought home to Thucydides on the
+strength, e.g. of epigraphic evidence, are, as a rule, trivial. His most
+serious errors relate to topographical details, in cases where he was
+dependent on the information of others. Sphacteria (see Pylos) (see G.
+B. Grundy, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xvi., 1896, p. 1) is a case in
+point. Nor have the difficulties connected with the siege of Plataea
+been cleared up either by Grundy or by others (see Grundy, _Topography
+of the Battle of Plataea_, &c., 1894). Where, on the contrary, he is
+writing at first hand his descriptions of sites are surprisingly
+correct. The most serious charge as yet brought against his authority as
+to matters of fact relates to his account of the Revolution of the Four
+Hundred, which appears, at first sight, to be inconsistent with the
+documentary evidence supplied by Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_
+(q.v.). It may be questioned, however, whether the documents have been
+correctly interpreted by Aristotle. On the whole, it is probable that
+the general course of events was such as Thucydides describes (see E.
+Meyer, _Forschungen_, ii. 406-436), though he failed to appreciate the
+position of Theramenes and the Moderate party, and was clearly
+misinformed on some important points of detail. With regard to the
+omission of facts, it is unquestionable that much is omitted that would
+not be omitted by a modern writer. Such omissions are generally due to
+the author's conception of his task. Thus the internal history of Athens
+is passed over as forming no part of the history of the war. It is only
+where the course of the war is directly affected by the course of
+political events (e.g. by the Revolution of the Four Hundred) that the
+internal history is referred to. However much it may be regretted that
+the relations of political parties are not more fully described,
+especially in book v., it cannot be denied that from his standpoint
+there is logical justification even for the omission of the ostracism of
+Hyperbolus. There are omissions, however, which are not so easily
+explained. Perhaps the most notable instance is that of the raising of
+the tribute in 425 B.C. (see DELIAN LEAGUE).
+
+Nowhere is the contrast between the historical methods of Herodotus and
+Thucydides more apparent than in the treatment of the causes of events.
+The distinction between the occasion and the cause is constantly present
+to the mind of Thucydides, and it is his tendency to make too little
+rather than too much of the personal factor. Sometimes, however, it may
+be doubted whether his explanation of the causes of an event is adequate
+or correct. In tracing the causes of the Peloponnesian War itself,
+modern writers are disposed to allow more weight to the commercial
+rivalry of Corinth; while in the case of the Sicilian expedition, they
+would actually reverse his judgment (ii. 65 [Greek: ho es Sikelian plous
+hos ou tosoutov gnomes hamartema en pros hous epeesan]). To us it seems
+that the very idea of the expedition implied a gigantic miscalculation
+of the resources of Athens and of the difficulty of the task. His
+judgments of men and of measures have been criticized by writers of
+different schools and from different points of view. Grote criticized
+his verdict upon Cleon, while he accepted his estimate of the policy of
+Pericles. More recent writers, on the other hand, have accepted his view
+of Cleon, while they have selected for attack his appreciation alike of
+the policy and the strategy of Pericles. He has been charged, too, with
+failure to do justice to the statesmanship of Alcibiades.[29] There are
+cases, undoubtedly, in which the balance of recent opinion will be
+adverse to the view of Thucydides. There are many more in which the
+result of criticism has been to establish his view. That he should
+occasionally have been mistaken in his judgment and his views is
+certainly no detraction from his claim to greatness.
+
+On the whole, it may be said that while the criticism of Herodotus,
+since Grote wrote, has tended seriously to modify our view of the
+Persian Wars, as well as of the earlier history, the criticism of
+Thucydides, in spite of its imposing bulk, has affected but slightly our
+view of the course of the Peloponnesian War. The labours of recent
+workers in this field have borne most fruit where they have been
+directed to subjects neglected by Thucydides, such as the history of
+political parties, or the organization of the empire (G. Gilbert's
+_Innere Geschichte Athens im Zeitalter des pel. Krieges_ is a good
+example of such work).
+
+In regard to Thucydides' treatment of the period between the Persian and
+Peloponnesian Wars (the so-called _Pentecontaeteris_) it should be
+remembered that he does not profess to give, even in outline, the
+history of this period as a whole. The period is regarded simply as a
+prelude to the Peloponnesian War. There is no attempt to sketch the
+history of the Greek world or of Greece proper during this period. There
+is, indeed, no attempt to give a complete sketch of Athenian history.
+His object is to trace the growth of the Athenian Empire, and the causes
+that made the war inevitable. Much is therefore omitted not only in the
+history of the other Greek states, especially the Peloponnesian, but
+even in the history of Athens. Nor does Thucydides attempt an exact
+chronology. He gives us a few dates (e.g. surrender of Ithome, in the
+tenth year, i. 103; of Thasos, in the third year, i. 101; duration of
+the Egyptian expedition six years, i. 110; interval between Tanagra and
+Oenophyta 61 days, i. 108; revolt of Samos, in the sixth year after the
+Thirty Years' Truce, i. 115), but from these data alone it would be
+impossible to reconstruct the chronology of the period. In spite of all
+that can be gleaned from our other authorities, our knowledge of this,
+the true period of Athenian greatness, must remain slight and imperfect
+as compared with our knowledge of the next thirty years.
+
+
+  Diodorus.
+
+  Plutarch.
+
+  The constitutions.
+
+Of the secondary authorities for this period the two principal ones are
+Diodorus (xi. 38 to xii. 37) and Plutarch. Diodorus is of value chiefly
+in relation to Sicilian affairs, to which he devotes about a third of
+this section of his work and for which he is almost our sole authority.
+His source for Sicilian history is the Sicilian writer Timaeus (q.v.),
+an author of the 3rd century B.C. For the history of Greece Proper
+during the Pentecontaetia Diodorus contributes comparatively little of
+importance. Isolated notices of particular events (e.g. the _Synoecism_
+of Elis, 471 B.C., or the foundation of Amphipolis, 437 B.C.), which
+appear to be derived from a chronological writer, may generally be
+trusted. The greater part of his narrative is, however, derived from
+Ephorus, who appears to have had before him little authentic information
+for this period of Greek history other than that afforded by Thucydides'
+work. Four of Plutarch's _Lives_ are concerned with this period, viz.
+_Themistocles_, _Aristides_, _Cimon_ and _Pericles_. From the
+_Aristides_ little can be gained. Plutarch, in this biography, appears
+to be mainly dependent upon Idomeneus of Lampsacus, an excessively
+untrustworthy writer of the 3rd century B.C., who is probably to be
+credited with the invention of the oligarchical conspiracy at the time
+of the battle of Plataea (ch. 13), and of the decree of Aristides,
+rendering all four classes of citizens eligible for the archonship (ch.
+22). The _Cimon_, on the other hand, contains much that is valuable;
+such as, e.g. the account of the battle of the Eurymedon (chs. 12 and
+13). To the _Pericles_ we owe several quotations from the Old Comedy.
+Two other of the _Lives_, _Lycurgus_ and _Solon_, are amongst our most
+important sources for the early history of Sparta and Athens
+respectively. Of the two (besides _Pericles_) which relate to the
+Peloponnesian War, _Alcibiades_ adds little to what can be gained from
+Thucydides and Xenophon; the _Nicias_, on the other hand, supplements
+Thucydides' narrative of the Sicilian expedition with many valuable
+details, which, it may safely be assumed, are derived from the
+contemporary historian, Philistus of Syracuse. Amongst the most valuable
+material afforded by Plutarch are the quotations, which occur in almost
+all the _Lives_, from the collection of Athenian decrees ([Greek:
+psephismaton sunagoge]) formed by the Macedonian writer Craterus, in the
+3rd century B.C. Two other works may be mentioned in connexion with the
+history of Athens. For the history of the Athenian Constitution down to
+the end of the 5th century B.C. Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_
+(q.v.) is our chief authority. The other _Constitution of Athens_,
+erroneously attributed to Xenophon, a tract of singular interest both on
+literary and historical grounds, throws a good deal of light on the
+internal condition of Athens, and on the system of government, both of
+the state and of the empire, in the age of the Peloponnesian War, during
+the earlier years of which it was composed.
+
+
+  Inscriptions.
+
+To the literary sources for the history of Greece, especially of Athens,
+in the 5th century B.C. must be added the epigraphic. Few inscriptions
+have been discovered which date back beyond the Persian Wars. For the
+latter half of the 5th century they are both numerous and important. Of
+especial value are the series of Quota-lists, from which can be
+calculated the amount of tribute paid by the subject-allies of Athens
+from the year 454 B.C. onwards. The great majority of the inscriptions
+of this period are of Athenian origin. Their value is enhanced by the
+fact that they relate, as a rule, to questions of organization, finance
+and administration, as to which little information is to be gained from
+the literary sources.
+
+For the period between the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars Busolt,
+_Griechische Geschichte_, iii. 1, is indispensable. Hill's _Sources of
+Greek History, B.C. 478-431_ (Oxford, 1897) is excellent. It gives the
+most important inscriptions in a convenient form.
+
+
+  Xenophon.
+
+III. _The 4th Century to the Death of Alexander._--Of the historians who
+flourished in the 4th century the sole writer whose works have come down
+to us is Xenophon. It is a singular accident of fortune that neither of
+the two authors, who at once were most representative of their age and
+did most to determine the views of Greek history current in subsequent
+generations, Ephorus (q.v.) and Theopompus (q.v.), should be extant. It
+was from them, rather than from Herodotus, Thucydides or Xenophon that
+the Roman world obtained its knowledge of the history of Greece in the
+past, and its conception of its significance. Both were pupils of
+Isocrates, and both, therefore, bred up in an atmosphere of rhetoric.
+Hence their popularity and their influence. The scientific spirit of
+Thucydides was alien to the temper of the 4th century, and hardly more
+congenial to the age of Cicero or Tacitus. To the rhetorical spirit,
+which is common to both, each added defects peculiar to himself.
+Theopompus is a strong partisan, a sworn foe to Athens and to Democracy.
+Ephorus, though a military historian, is ignorant of the art of war. He
+is also incredibly careless and uncritical. It is enough to point to his
+description of the battle of the Eurymedon (Diodorus xi. 60-62), in
+which, misled by an epigram, which he supposed to relate to this
+engagement (it really refers to the Athenian victory off Salamis in
+Cyprus, 449 B.C.), he makes the coast of Cyprus the scene of Cimon's
+naval victory, and finds no difficulty in putting it on the same day as
+the victory on shore on the banks of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia. Only a
+few fragments remain of either writer, but Theopompus (q.v.) was largely
+used by Plutarch in several of the _Lives_, while Ephorus continues to
+be the main source of Diodorus' history, as far as the outbreak of the
+Sacred War (Fragments of Ephorus in Muller's _Fragmenta historicorum
+Graecorum_, vol.i.; of Theopompus in _Hellenica Oxyrhynchia, cum
+Theopompi et Cratippi fragmentis_, ed. B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt,
+1909).
+
+It may be at least claimed for Xenophon (q.v.) that he is free from all
+taint of the rhetorical spirit. It may also be claimed for him that, as
+a witness, he is both honest and well-informed. But, if there is no
+justification for the charge of deliberate falsification, it cannot be
+denied that he had strong political prejudices, and that his narrative
+has suffered from them. His historical writings are the _Anabasis_, an
+account of the expedition of the Ten Thousand, the _Hellenica_ and the
+_Agesilaus_, a eulogy of the Spartan king. Of these the _Hellenica_ is
+far the most important for the student of history. It consists of two
+distinct parts (though there is no ground for the theory that the two
+parts were separately written and published), books i. and ii., and
+books iii. to vii. The first two books are intended as a continuation of
+Thucydides' work. They begin, quite abruptly, in the middle of the Attic
+year 411/10, and they carry the history down to the fall of the Thirty,
+in 403. Books iii. to vii., the _Hellenica_ proper, cover the period
+from 401 to 362, and give the histories of the Spartan and Theban
+hegemonies down to the death of Epaminondas. There is thus a gap of two
+years between the point at which the first part ends and that at which
+the second part begins. The two parts differ widely, both in their aim
+and in the arrangement of the material. In the first part Xenophon
+attempts, though not with complete success, to follow the chronological
+method of Thucydides, and to make each successive spring, when military
+and naval operations were resumed after the winter's interruption, the
+starting-point of a fresh section. The resemblance between the two
+writers ends, however, with the outward form of the narrative. All that
+is characteristic of Thucydides is absent in Xenophon. The latter writer
+shows neither skill in portraiture, nor insight into motives. He is
+deficient in the sense of proportion and of the distinction between
+occasion and cause. Perhaps his worst fault is a lack of imagination. To
+make a story intelligible it is necessary sometimes to put oneself in
+the reader's place, and to appreciate his ignorance of circumstances and
+events which would be perfectly familiar to the actors in the scene or
+to contemporaries. It was not given to Xenophon, as it was to
+Thucydides, to discriminate between the circumstances that are essential
+and those that are not essential to the comprehension of the story. In
+spite, therefore, of its wealth of detail, his narrative is frequently
+obscure. It is quite clear that in the trial of the generals, e.g.,
+something is omitted. It may be supplied as Diodorus has supplied it
+(xiii. 101), or it may be supplied otherwise. It is probable that, when
+under cross-examination before the council, the generals, or some of
+them, disclosed the commission given to Theramenes and Thrasybulus. The
+important point is that Xenophon himself has omitted to supply it. As it
+stands his narrative is unintelligible. In the first two books, though
+there are omissions (e.g. the loss of Nisaea, 409 B.C.), they are not so
+serious as in the last five, nor is the bias so evident. It is true that
+if the account of the rule of the Thirty given in Aristotle's
+_Constitution of Athens_ be accepted, Xenophon must have deliberately
+misrepresented the course of events to the prejudice of Theramenes. But
+it is at least doubtful whether Aristotle's version can be sustained
+against Xenophon's, though it may be admitted, not only that there are
+mistakes as to details in the latter writer's narrative, but that less
+than justice is done to the policy and motives of the "Buskin." The
+_Hellenica_ was written, it should be remembered, at Corinth, after 362.
+More than forty years had thus elapsed since the events recorded in the
+first two books, and after so long an interval accuracy of detail, even
+where the detail is of importance, is not always to be expected.[30] In
+the second part the chronological method is abandoned. A subject once
+begun is followed out to its natural ending, so that sections of the
+narrative which are consecutive in order are frequently parallel in
+point of date. A good example of this will be found in book iv. In
+chapters 2 to 7 the history of the Corinthian war is carried down to the
+end of 390, so far as the operations on land are concerned, while
+chapter 8 contains an account of the naval operations from 394 to 388.
+In this second part of the _Hellenica_ the author's disqualifications
+for his task are more apparent than in the first two books. The more he
+is acquitted of bias in his selection of events and in his omissions,
+the more clearly does he stand convicted of lacking all sense of the
+proportion of things. Down to Leuctra (371 B.C.) Sparta is the centre of
+interest, and it is of the Spartan state alone that a complete or
+continuous history is given. After Leuctra, if the point of view is no
+longer exclusively Spartan, the narrative of events is hardly less
+incomplete. Throughout the second part of the _Hellenica_ omissions
+abound which it is difficult either to explain or justify. The formation
+of the Second Athenian Confederacy of 377 B.C., the foundation of
+Megalopolis and the restoration of the Messenian state are all left
+unrecorded. Yet the writer who passes them over without mention thinks
+it worth while to devote more than one-sixth of an entire book to a
+chronicle of the unimportant feats of the citizens of the petty state of
+Phlius. Nor is any attempt made to appraise the policy of the great
+Theban leaders, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The former, indeed, is
+mentioned only in a single passage, relating to the embassy to Susa in
+368; the latter does not appear on the scene till a year later, and
+receives mention but twice before the battle of Mantinea. An author who
+omits from his narrative some of the most important events of his
+period, and elaborates the portraiture of an Agesilaus while not
+attempting the bare outline of an Epaminondas, may be honest; he may
+even write without a consciousness of bias; he certainly cannot rank
+among the great writers of history.[31]
+
+
+  Diodorus.
+
+For the history of the 4th century Diodorus assumes a higher degree of
+importance than belongs to him in the earlier periods. This is partly to
+be explained by the deficiencies of Xenophon's _Hellenica_, partly by
+the fact that for the interval between the death of Epaminondas and the
+accession of Alexander we have in Diodorus alone a continuous narrative
+of events. Books xiv. and xv. of his history include the period covered
+by the _Hellenica_. More than half of book xiv. is devoted to the
+history of Sicily and the reign of Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse.
+For this period of Sicilian history he is, practically, our sole
+authority. In the rest of the book, as well as in book xv., there is
+much of value, especially in the notices of Macedonian history. Thanks
+to Diodorus we are enabled to supply many of the omissions of the
+_Hellenica_. Diodorus is, e.g., our sole literary authority for the
+Athenian naval confederation of 377. Book xvi. must rank, with the
+_Hellenica_ and Arrian's _Anabasis_, as one of the three principal
+authorities for this century, so far, at least, as works of an
+historical character are concerned. It is our authority for the Social
+and the Sacred Wars, as well as for the reign of Philip. It is a curious
+irony of fate that, for what is perhaps the most momentous epoch in the
+history of Greece, we should have to turn to a writer of such inferior
+capacity. For this period his material is better and his importance
+greater: his intelligence is as limited as ever. Who but Diodorus would
+be capable of narrating the siege and capture of Methone twice over,
+once under the year 354, and again under the year 352 (xvi. 31 and 34;
+cf. xii. 35 and 42; Archidamus (q.v.) dies in 434, commands
+Peloponnesian army in 431); or of giving three different numbers of
+years (eleven, ten and nine) in three different passages (chs. 14, 23
+and 59) for the length of the Sacred War; or of asserting the
+conclusion of peace between Athens and Philip in 340, after the failure
+of his attack on Perinthus and Byzantium? Amongst the subjects which are
+omitted is the Peace of Philocrates. For the earlier chapters, which
+bring the narrative down to the outbreak of the Sacred War, Ephorus, as
+in the previous book, is Diodorus' main source. His source for the rest
+of the book, i.e. for the greater part of Philip's reign, cannot be
+determined. It is generally agreed that it is not the _Philippica_ of
+Theopompus.
+
+
+  Historians of Alexander's reign.
+
+For the reign of Alexander our earliest extant authority is Diodorus,
+who belongs to the age of Augustus. Of the others, Q. Curtius Rufus, who
+wrote in Latin, lived in the reign of the emperor Claudius, Arrian and
+Plutarch in the 2nd century A.D. Yet Alexander's reign is one of the
+best known periods of ancient history. The Peloponnesian War and the
+twenty years of Roman history which begin with 63 B.C. are the only two
+periods which we can be said to know more fully or for which we have
+more trustworthy evidence. For there is no period of ancient history
+which was recorded by a larger number of contemporary writers, or for
+which better or more abundant materials were available. Of the writers
+actually contemporary with Alexander there were five of
+importance--Ptolemy, Aristobulus, Callisthenes, Onesicritus and
+Nearchus; and all of them occupied positions which afforded exceptional
+opportunities of ascertaining the facts. Four of them were officers in
+Alexander's service. Ptolemy, the future king of Egypt, was one of the
+_somatophylaces_ (we may, perhaps, regard them as corresponding to
+Napoleon's marshals); Aristobulus was also an officer of high rank (see
+Arrian, _Anab._ vi. 29. 10); Nearchus was admiral of the fleet which
+surveyed the Indus and the Persian Gulf, and Onesicritus was one of his
+subordinates. The fifth, Callisthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied
+Alexander on his march down to his death in 327 and was admitted to the
+circle of his intimate friends. A sixth historian, Cleitarchus, was
+possibly also a contemporary; at any rate he is not more than a
+generation later. These writers had at their command a mass of official
+documents, such as the [Greek: basileioi ephemerides]--the _Gazette_ and
+_Court Circular_ combined--edited and published after Alexander's death
+by his secretary, Eumenes of Cardia; the [Greek: stathmoi], or records
+of the marches of the armies, which were carefully measured at the time;
+and the official reports on the conquered provinces. That these
+documents were made use of by the historians is proved by the references
+to them which are to be found in Arrian, Plutarch and Strabo; e.g.
+Arrian, _Anab._ vii. 25 and 26, and Plutarch, _Alexander 76_ (quotation
+from the [Greek: basileioi ephemerides]); Strabo xv. 723 (reference to
+the [Greek: stathmoi]), ii. 69 (reports drawn up on the various
+provinces). We have, in addition, in Plutarch numerous quotations from
+Alexander's correspondence with his mother, Olympias, and with his
+officers. The contemporary historians may be roughly divided into two
+groups. On the one hand there are Ptolemy and Aristobulus, who, except
+in a single instance, are free from all suspicion of deliberate
+invention. On the other hand, there are Callisthenes, Onesicritus and
+Cleitarchus, whose tendency is rhetorical. Nearchus appears to have
+allowed full scope to his imagination in dealing with the wonders of
+India, but to have been otherwise veracious. Of the extant writers
+Arrian (q.v.) is incomparably the most valuable. His merits are twofold.
+As the commander of Roman legions and the author of a work on tactics,
+he combined a practical with a theoretical knowledge of the military
+art, while the writers whom he follows in the _Anabasis_ are the two
+most worthy of credit, Ptolemy and Aristobulus. We may well hesitate to
+call in question the authority of writers who exhibit an agreement which
+it would be difficult to parallel elsewhere in the case of two
+independent historians. It may be inferred from Arrian's references to
+them that there were only eleven cases in all in which he found
+discrepancies between them. The most serious drawback which can be
+alleged against them is an inevitable bias in Alexander's favour. It
+would be only natural that they should pass over in silence the worst
+blots on their great commander's fame. Next in value to the _Anabasis_
+comes Plutarch's _Life of Alexander_, the merits of which, however, are
+not to be gauged by the influence which it has exercised upon
+literature. The _Life_ is a valuable supplement to the _Anabasis_,
+partly because Plutarch, as he is writing biography rather than history
+(for his conception of the difference between the two see the famous
+preface, _Life of Alexander_, ch. i.), is concerned to record all that
+will throw light upon Alexander's character (e.g. his epigrammatic
+sayings and quotations from his letters); partly because he tells us
+much about his early life, before he became king, while Arrian tells us
+nothing. It is unfortunate that Plutarch writes in an uncritical spirit;
+it is hardly less unfortunate that he should have formed no clear
+conception and drawn no consistent picture of Alexander's character.
+Book xvii. of Diodorus and the _Historiae Alexandri_ of Curtius Rufus
+are thoroughly rhetorical in spirit. It is probable that in both cases
+the ultimate source is the work of Clitarchus.
+
+
+  The orators.
+
+  Isocrates.
+
+It is towards the end of the 5th century that a fresh source of
+information becomes available in the speeches of the orators, the
+earliest of whom is Antiphon (d. 411 B.C.). Lysias is of great
+importance for the history of the Thirty (see the speeches against
+Eratosthenes and Agoratus), and a good deal may be gathered from
+Andocides with regard to the last years of the 5th and the opening years
+of the next century. At the other end of this period Lycurgus, Hyperides
+and Dinarchus throw light upon the time of Philip and Alexander. The
+three, however, who are of most importance to the historian are
+Isocrates, Aeschines and Demosthenes. Isocrates (q.v.), whose long life
+(436-338) more than spans the interval between the outbreak of the
+Peloponnesian War and the triumph of Macedon at Chaeronea, is one of the
+most characteristic figures in the Greek world of his day. To comprehend
+that world the study of Isocrates is indispensable; for in an age
+dominated by rhetoric he is the prince of rhetoricians. It is difficult
+for a modern reader to do him justice, so alien is his spirit and the
+spirit of his age from ours. It must be allowed that he is frequently
+monotonous and prolix; at the same time it must not be forgotten that,
+as the most famous representative of rhetoric, he was read from one end
+of the Greek world to the other. He was the friend of Evagoras and
+Archidamus, of Dionysius and Philip; he was the master of Aeschines and
+Lycurgus amongst orators and of Ephorus and Theopompus amongst
+historians. No other contemporary writer has left so indelible a stamp
+upon the style and the sentiment of his generation. It is a commonplace
+that Isocrates is the apostle of Panhellenism. It is not so generally
+recognized that he is the prophet of Hellenism. A passage in the
+Panegyricus (S 50 [Greek: hoste to ton Hellenon onoma meketi tou genous
+alla tes dianoias dokein einai kai mallon Hellenas kaleisthai tous tes
+paideuseos tes hemeteras e tous tes koines physeos metechontas]) is the
+key to the history of the next three centuries. Doubtless he had no
+conception of the extent to which the East was to be hellenized. He was,
+however, the first to recognize that it would be hellenized by the
+diffusion of Greek culture rather than of Greek blood. His Panhellenism
+was the outcome of his recognition of the new forces and tendencies
+which were at work in the midst of a new generation. When Greek culture
+was becoming more and more international, the exaggeration of the
+principle of autonomy in the Greek political system was becoming more
+and more absurd. He had sufficient insight to be aware that the price
+paid for this autonomy was the domination of Persia; a domination which
+meant the servitude of the Greek states across the Aegean and the
+demoralization of Greek political life at home. His Panhellenism led him
+to a more liberal view of the distinction between what was Greek and
+what was not than was possible to the intenser patriotism of a
+Demosthenes. In his later orations he has the courage not only to
+pronounce that the day of Athens as a first-rate power is past, but to
+see in Philip the needful leader in the crusade against Persia. The
+earliest and greatest of his political orations is the _Panegyricus_,
+published in 380 B.C., midway between the peace of Antalcidas and
+Leuctra. It is his _apologia_ for Panhellenism. To the period of the
+Social War belong the _De pace_ (355 B.C.) and the _Areopagiticus_ (354
+B.C.), both of great value as evidence for the internal conditions of
+Athens at the beginning of the struggle with Macedon. The _Plataicus_
+(373 B.C.) and the _Archidamus_ (366 B.C.) throw light upon the politics
+of Boeotia and the Peloponnese respectively. The _Panathenaicus_ (339
+B.C.), the child of his old age, contains little that may not be found
+in the earlier orations. The _Philippus_ (346 B.C.) is of peculiar
+interest, as giving the views of the Macedonian party.
+
+
+  Demosthenes.
+
+Not the least remarkable feature in recent historical criticism is the
+reaction against the view which was at one time almost universally
+accepted of the character, statesmanship and authority of the orator
+Demosthenes (q.v.). During the last quarter of a century his character
+and statesmanship have been attacked, and his authority impugned, by a
+series of writers of whom Holm and Beloch are the best known. With the
+estimate of his character and statesmanship we are not here concerned.
+With regard to his value as an authority for the history of the period,
+it is to his speeches, and to those of his contemporaries, Aeschines,
+Hypereides, Dinarchus and Lycurgus, that we owe our intimate knowledge,
+both of the working of the constitutional and legal systems, and of the
+life of the people, at this period of Athenian history. From this point
+of view his value can hardly be overestimated. As a witness, however, to
+matters of fact, his authority can no longer be rated as highly as it
+once was, e.g. by Schaefer and by Grote. The orator's attitude towards
+events, both in the past and in the present, is inevitably a different
+one from the historian's. The object of a Thucydides is to ascertain a
+fact, or to exhibit it in its true relations. The object of a
+Demosthenes is to make a point, or to win his case. In their dealings
+with the past the orators exhibit a levity which is almost inconceivable
+to a modern reader. Andocides, in a passage of his speech _On the
+Mysteries_ (S 107), speaks of Marathon as the crowning victory of
+Xerxes' campaign; in his speech _On the Peace_ (S 3) he confuses
+Miltiades with Cimon, and the Five Years' Peace with the Thirty Years'
+Truce. Though the latter passage is a mass of absurdities and
+confusions, it was so generally admired that it was incorporated by
+Aeschines in his speech _On the Embassy_ (SS 172-176). If such was their
+attitude towards the past; if, in order to make a point, they do not
+hesitate to pervert history, is it likely that they would conform to a
+higher standard of veracity in their statements as to the present--as to
+their contemporaries, their rivals or their own actions? When we compare
+different speeches of Demosthenes, separated by an interval of years, we
+cannot fail to observe a marked difference in his statements. The
+farther he is from the events, the bolder are his mis-statements. It is
+only necessary to compare the speech _On the Crown_ with that _On the
+Embassy_, and this latter speech with the _Philippics_ and _Olynthiacs_,
+to find illustrations. It has come to be recognized that no statement as
+to a matter of fact is to be accepted, unless it receives independent
+corroboration, or unless it is admitted by both sides. The speeches of
+Demosthenes may be conveniently divided into four classes according to
+their dates. To the pre-Philippic period belong the speeches _On the
+Symmories_ (354 B.C.), _On Megalopolis_ (352 B.C.), _Against
+Aristocrates_ (351 B.C.), and, perhaps, the speech _On Rhodes_ (? 351
+B.C.). These speeches betray no consciousness of the danger threatened
+by Philip's ambition. The policy recommended is one based upon the
+principle of the balance of power. To the succeeding period, which ends
+with the peace of Philocrates (346 B.C.), belong the _First Philippic_
+and the three _Olynthiacs_. To the period between the peace of
+Philocrates and Chaeronea belong the speech _On the Peace_ (346 B.C.),
+the _Second Philippic_ (344 B.C.), the speeches _On the Embassy_ (344
+B.C.) and _On the Chersonese_ (341 B.C.), and the _Third Philippic_. The
+masterpiece of his genius, the speech On the Crown, was delivered in 330
+B.C., in the reign of Alexander. Of the three extant speeches of
+Aeschines (q.v.) that _On the Embassy_ is of great value, as enabling us
+to correct the mis-statements of Demosthenes. For the period from the
+death of Alexander to the fall of Corinth (323-146 B.C.) our literary
+authorities are singularly defective. For the Diadochi Diodorus (books
+xviii.-xx.) is our chief source. These books form the most valuable
+part of Diodorus' work. They are mainly based upon the work of
+Hieronymus of Cardia, a writer who combined exceptional opportunities
+for ascertaining the truth (he was in the service first of Eumenes, and
+then of Antigonus) with an exceptional sense of its importance.
+Hieronymus ended his history at the death of Pyrrhus (272 B.C.), but,
+unfortunately, book xx. of Diodorus' work carries us no farther than 303
+B.C., and of the later books we have but scanty fragments. The narrative
+of Diodorus may be supplemented by the fragments of Arrian's _History of
+the events after Alexander's death_ (which reach, however, only to 321
+B.C.), and by Plutarch's _Lives of Eumenes_ and of _Demetrius_. For the
+rest of the 3rd century and the first half of the 2nd we have his _Lives
+of Pyrrhus_, of _Aratus_, of _Philopoemen_, and of _Agis and Cleomenes_.
+For the period from 220 B.C. onwards Polybius (q.v.) is our chief
+authority (see ROME: _Ancient History_, section "Authorities"). In a
+period in which the literary sources are so scanty great weight attaches
+to the epigraphic and numismatic evidence.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The literature which deals with the history of Greece,
+  in its various periods, departments and aspects, is of so vast a bulk
+  that all that can be attempted here is to indicate the most important
+  and most accessible works.
+
+  _General Histories of Greece._--Down to the middle of the 19th century
+  the only histories of Greece deserving of mention were the products of
+  English scholarship. The two earliest of these were published about
+  the same date, towards the end of the 18th century, nearly
+  three-quarters of a century before any history of Greece, other than a
+  mere compendium, appeared on the Continent. John Gillies' _History of
+  Greece_ was published in 1786, Mitford's in 1784. Both works were
+  composed with a political bias and a political object. Gillies was a
+  Whig. In the dedication (to George III.) he expresses the view that
+  "the History of Greece exposes the dangerous turbulence of Democracy,
+  and arraigns the despotism of Tyrants, while it evinces the
+  inestimable benefits, resulting to Liberty itself, from the steady
+  operation of well-regulated monarchy." Mitford was a Tory, who thought
+  to demonstrate the evils of democracy from the example of the Athenian
+  state. His _History_, in spite of its bias, was a work of real value.
+  More than fifty years elapsed between Mitford's work and Thirlwall's.
+  Connop Thirlwall, fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, afterwards
+  bishop of St David's, brought a sound judgment to the aid of ripe
+  scholarship. His _History of Greece_, published in 1835-1838 (8
+  vols.), is entirely free from the controversial tone of Mitford's
+  volumes. Ten years later (1846) George Grote published the first
+  volumes of his history, which was not completed (in 12 vols.) till
+  1856. Grote, like Mitford, was a politician--an ardent Radical, with
+  republican sympathies. It was in order to refute the slanders of the
+  Tory partisan that he was impelled to write a history of Greece, which
+  should do justice to the greatest democracy of the ancient world, the
+  Athenian state. Thus, in the case of three of these four writers, the
+  interest in their subject was mainly political. Incomparably the
+  greatest of these works is Grote's. Grote had his faults and his
+  limitations. His prejudices are strong, and his scholarship is weak;
+  he had never visited Greece, and he knew little or nothing of Greek
+  art; and, at the time he wrote, the importance of coins and
+  inscriptions was imperfectly apprehended. In spite of every defect,
+  however, his work is the greatest history of Greece that has yet been
+  written. It is not too much to say that nobody knows Greek history
+  till he has mastered Grote. No history of Greece has since appeared in
+  England on a scale at all comparable to that of Grote's work. The most
+  important of the more recent ones is that by J. B. Bury (1 vol.,
+  1900), formerly fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, afterwards Regius
+  Professor of Modern History at Cambridge. Mitford and Bury end with
+  the death of Alexander; Gillies and Grote carry on the narrative a
+  generation farther; while Thirlwall's work extends to the absorption
+  of Greece in the Roman Empire (146 B.C.).
+
+  While in France the _Histoire des Grecs_ (ending at 146 B.C.) of
+  Victor Duruy (new edition, 2 vols., 1883), Minister of Public
+  Instruction under Napoleon III., is the only one that need be
+  mentioned, in Germany there has been a succession of histories of
+  Greece since the middle of the 19th century. Kortum's _Geschichte
+  Griechenlands_ (3 vols., 1854), a work of little merit, was followed
+  by Max Duncker's _Geschichte der Griechen_ (vols. 1 and 2 published in
+  1856; vols. 1 and 2, Neue Folge, which bring the narrative down to the
+  death of Pericles, in 1884; the two former volumes form vols. 5, 6 and
+  7 of his _Geschichte des Altertums_), and by the _Griechische
+  Geschichte_ of Ernst Curtius (3 vols., 1857-1867). An English
+  translation of Duncker, by S. F. Alleyne, appeared in 1883 (2 vols.,
+  Bentley), and of Curtius, by A. W. Ward (5 vols., Bentley, 1868-1873).
+  Among more recent works may be mentioned the _Griechische Geschichte_
+  of Adolf Holm (4 vols., Berlin, 1886-1894; English translation by F.
+  Clarke, 4 vols., Macmillan, 1894-1898), and histories with the same
+  title by Julius Beloch (3 vols., Strassburg, 1893-1904) and Georg
+  Busolt (2nd ed., 3 vols., Gotha, 1893-1904). Holm carries on the
+  narrative to 30 B.C., Beloch to 217 B.C., Busolt to Chaeronea (338
+  B.C.).[32] Busolt's work is entirely different in character from any
+  other history of Greece. The writer's object is to refer in the notes
+  (which constitute five-sixths of the book) to the views of every
+  writer in any language upon every controverted question. It is
+  absolutely indispensable, as a work of reference, for any serious
+  study of Greek history. The ablest work since Grote's is Eduard
+  Meyer's _Geschichte des Altertums_, of which 5 vols. (Stuttgart and
+  Berlin, 1884-1902) have appeared, carrying the narrative down to the
+  death of Epaminondas (362 B.C.). Vols. 2-5 are principally concerned
+  with Greek history. It must be remembered that, partly owing to the
+  literary finds and the archaeological discoveries of the last thirty
+  years, and partly owing to the advance made in the study of epigraphy
+  and numismatics, all the histories published before those of Busolt,
+  Beloch, Meyer and Bury are out of date.
+
+  _Works bearing on the History of Greece._--Earlier works and editions
+  are omitted, except in the case of a work which has not been
+  superseded.
+
+  _Introductions._--C. Wachsmuth, _Einleitung in das Studium der alten
+  Geschichte_ (1 vol., Leipzig, 1895); E. Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten
+  Geschichte_ (2 parts, Halle, 1892-1899; quite indispensable); J. B.
+  Bury, _The Ancient Greek Historians_ (London, 1909).
+
+  _Constitutional History and Institutions._--G. F. Schomann,
+  _Griechische Altertumer_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1855-1859; vol. i., tr. by
+  E. G. Hardy and J. S. Mann, Rivingtons, 1880); G. Gilbert,
+  _Griechische Staatsaltertumer_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Leipzig, 1893; vol.
+  i. tr. by E. J. Brooks and T. Nicklin, Swan Sonnenschein, 1895); K. F.
+  Hermann, _Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitaten_ (6th ed., 4 vols.,
+  Freiburg, 1882-1895); Iwan Muller, _Handbuch der klassischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_ (9 vols., Nordlingen, 1886, in progress;
+  several of the volumes are concerned with Greek history); J. H.
+  Lipsius, _Das attische Recht und Rechtsverfahren_ (Leipzig, 1905, in
+  progress); A. H. J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Constitutional
+  History_ (1 vol., Macmillan, 1896); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyklopadie
+  der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_ (Stuttgart, 1894 foll.).
+
+  _Geography._--E. H. Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography amongst the
+  Greeks and Romans_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Murray, 1883), W. M. Leake,
+  _Travels in the Morea_ (3 vols., 1830), and _Travels in Northern
+  Greece_ (4 vols., 1834); H. F. Tozer, _Lectures on the Geography of
+  Greece_ (1 vol., Murray, 1873), and _History of Ancient Geography_ (1
+  vol., Cambridge, 1897); J. P. Mahaffy, _Rambles and Studies in Greece_
+  (3rd ed., 1 vol., Macmillan, 1887, an admirable book); C. Bursian,
+  _Geographie von Griechenland_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1872); H. Berger,
+  _Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen_ (4 parts,
+  Leipzig, 1887-1893); Ernst Curtius, _Peloponnesos_ (2 vols., Gotha,
+  1850-1851).
+
+  _Epigraphy and Numismatics._--_Corpus inscriptionum Atticarum_
+  (Berlin, 1875, in progress), _Corpus inscriptionum Graecarum_ (Berlin,
+  1892, in progress). The following selections of Greek inscriptions may
+  be mentioned: E. F. Hicks and G. F. Hill, _Manual of Greek Historical
+  Inscriptions_ (new ed., 1 vol., Oxford, 1901): W. Dittenberger,
+  _Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum_ (2nd ed., 2 vols., Berlin, 1898); C.
+  Michel, _Recueil d'inscriptions grecques_ (Paris, 1900). Among works
+  on numismatics the English reader may refer to B. V. Head, _Historia
+  numorum_ (1 vol., Oxford, 1887); G. F. Hill, _Handbook of Greek and
+  Roman Coins_ (1 vol., Macmillan, 1899), as well as to the _British
+  Museum Catalogue of Greek Coins_. In French the most important general
+  work is the _Monnaies grecques_ of F. Imhoof-Blumer (Paris, 1883).
+
+  _Chronology, Trade, War, Social Life, &c._--H. F. Clinton, _Fasti
+  Hellenici_ (3rd ed., 3 vols., Oxford, 1841, a work of which English
+  scholarship may well be proud; it is still invaluable for the study of
+  Greek chronology); B. Buchsenschutz, _Besitz und Erwerb im
+  griechischen Altertume_ (1 vol., Halle, 1869; this is still the best
+  book on Greek commerce); J. Beloch, _Die Bevolkerung der
+  griechisch-romischen Welt_ (1 vol., Leipzig, 1886); W. Rustow and H.
+  Kochly, _Geschichte des griechischen Kriegswesens_ (1 vol., Aarau,
+  1852); J. P. Mahaffy, _Social Life in Greece_ (2nd ed., 1 vol., 1875).
+       (E. M. W.)
+
+
+b. _Post-Classical: 146 B.C.-A.D. 1800_
+
+I. THE PERIOD OF ROMAN RULE.--(i.) _Greece under the Republic_ (146-27
+B.C.). After the collapse of the Achaean League (q.v.) the Senate
+appointed a commission to reorganize Greece as a Roman dependency.
+Corinth, the chief centre of resistance, was destroyed and its
+inhabitants sold into slavery. In addition to this act of exemplary
+punishment, which may perhaps have been inspired in part by the desire
+to crush a commercial competitor, steps were taken to obviate future
+insurrections. The national and cantonal federations were dissolved,
+commercial intercourse between cities was restricted, and the government
+transferred from the democracies to the propertied classes, whose
+interests were bound up with Roman supremacy. In other respects few
+changes were made in existing institutions. Some favoured states like
+Athens and Sparta retained their full sovereign rights as _civitates
+liberae_, the other cities continued to enjoy local self-government.
+The ownership of the land was not greatly disturbed by confiscations,
+and though a tribute upon it was levied, this impost may not have been
+universal. General powers of supervision were entrusted to the governor
+of Macedonia, who could reserve cases of high treason for his decision,
+and in case of need send troops into the country. But although Greece
+was in the _provincia_ of the Macedonian proconsul, in the sense of
+belonging to his sphere of command, its status was in fact more
+favourable than that of other provincial dependencies.
+
+This settlement was acquiesced in by the Greek people, who had come to
+realize the hopelessness of further resistance. The internal disorder
+which was arising from the numerous disputes about property rights
+consequent upon the political revolutions was checked by the good
+offices of the historian Polybius, whom the Senate deputed to mediate
+between the litigants. The pacification of the country eventually became
+so complete that the Romans withdrew the former restrictions upon
+intercourse and allowed some of the leagues to revive. But its quiet was
+seriously disturbed during the first Mithradatic War (88-84 B.C.), when
+numerous Greek states sided with Mithradates (q.v.). The success which
+the invader experienced in detaching the Greeks from Rome is partly to
+be explained by the skilful way in which his agents incited the
+imperialistic ambitions of prominent cities like Athens, partly perhaps
+by his promises of support to the democratic parties. The result of the
+war was disastrous to Greece. Apart from the confiscations and exactions
+by which the Roman general L. Cornelius Sulla punished the disloyal
+communities, the extensive and protracted campaigns left Central Greece
+in a ruinous condition. During the last decades of the Roman republic
+European Greece was scarcely affected by contemporary wars nor yet
+exploited by Roman magistrates in the same systematic manner as most
+other provinces. Yet oppression by officials who traversed Greece from
+time to time and demanded lavish entertainments and presentations in the
+guise of _viaticum_ or _aurum coronarium_ was not unknown. Still greater
+was the suffering produced by the rapacity of Roman traders and
+capitalists: it is recorded that Sicyon was reduced to sell its most
+cherished art treasures in order to satisfy its creditors. A more
+indirect but none the less far-reaching drawback to Greek prosperity was
+the diversion of trade which followed upon the establishment of direct
+communication between Italy and the Levant. The most lucrative source of
+wealth which remained to the European Greeks was pasturage in large
+domains, an industry which almost exclusively profited the richer
+citizens and so tended to widen the breach between capitalists and the
+poorer classes, and still further to pauperize the latter. The coast
+districts and islands also suffered considerably from swarms of pirates
+who, in the absence of any strong fleet in Greek waters, were able to
+obtain a firm footing in Crete and freely plundered the chief trading
+places and sanctuaries; the most notable of such visitations was
+experienced in 69 B.C. by the island of Delos. This evil came to an end
+with the general suppression of piracy in the Mediterranean by Pompey
+(67 B.C.), but the depopulation which it had caused in some regions is
+attested by the fact that the victorious admiral settled some of his
+captives on the desolated coast strip of Achaea.
+
+In the conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Greeks provided the
+latter with a large part of his excellent fleet. In 48 B.C. the decisive
+campaign of the war was fought on Greek soil, and the resources of the
+land were severely taxed by the requisitions of both armies. As a result
+of Caesar's victory at Pharsalus, the whole country fell into his power;
+the treatment which it received was on the whole lenient, though
+individual cities were punished severely. After the murder of Caesar the
+Greeks supported the cause of Brutus (42 B.C.), but were too weak to
+render any considerable service. In 39 B.C. the Peloponnese for a short
+time was made over to Sextus Pompeius. During the subsequent period
+Greece remained in the hands of M. Antonius (Mark Antony), who imposed
+further exactions in order to defray the cost of his wars. The extensive
+levies which he made in 31 B.C. for his campaign against Octavian, and
+the contributions which his gigantic army required, exhausted the
+country's resources so completely that a general famine was prevented
+only by Octavian's prompt action after the battle of Actium in
+distributing supplies of grain and evacuating the land with all haste.
+The depopulation which resulted from the civil wars was partly remedied
+by the settlement of Italian colonists at Corinth and Patrae by Julius
+Caesar and Octavian; on the other hand, the foundation of Nicopolis
+(q.v.) by the latter merely had the effect of transferring the people
+from the country to the city.
+
+(ii.) _The Early Roman Empire_ (27 B.C.-A.D. 323).--Under the emperor
+Augustus Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia; the rest of Greece
+was converted into the province of Achaea, under the control of a
+senatorial proconsul resident at Corinth. Many states, including Athens
+and Sparta, retained their rights as free and nominally independent
+cities. The provincials were encouraged to send delegates to a communal
+synod ([Greek: koinon ton Achaion]) which met at Argos to consider the
+general interests of the country and to uphold national Hellenic
+sentiment; the Delphic amphictyony was revived and extended so as to
+represent in a similar fashion northern and central Greece.
+
+
+  Social conditions.
+
+Economic conditions did not greatly improve under the empire. Although
+new industries sprang up to meet the needs of Roman luxury, and Greek
+marble, textiles and table delicacies were in great demand, the only
+cities which regained a really flourishing trade were the Italian
+communities of Corinth and Patrae. Commerce languished in general, and
+the soil was mainly abandoned to pasturage. Though certain districts
+retained a measure of prosperity, e.g. Thessaly, Phocis, Elis, Argos and
+Laconia, huge tracts stood depopulated and many notable cities had sunk
+into ruins; Aetolia, Acarnania and Epirus never recovered from the
+effects of former wars and from the withdrawal of their surviving
+inhabitants into Nicopolis. Such wealth as remained was amassed in the
+hands of a few great landowners and capitalists; the middle class
+continued to dwindle, and large numbers of the people were reduced to
+earning a precarious subsistence, supplemented by frequent doles and
+largesses.
+
+The social aspect of Greek life henceforward becomes its most attractive
+feature. After a long period of storm and stress, the European Hellenes
+had relapsed into a quiet and resigned frame of mind which stands in
+sharp contrast on the one hand with the energy and ability, and on the
+other with the vulgar intriguing of their Asiatic kinsmen. Seeing no
+future before them, the inhabitants were content to dwell in
+contemplation amid the glories of the past. National pride was fostered
+by the undisguised respect with which the leading Romans of the age
+treated Hellenic culture. And although this sentiment could degenerate
+into antiquarian pedantry and vanity, such as finds its climax in the
+diatribes of Apollonius of Tyana against the "barbarians," it prevented
+the nation from sinking into some of the worst vices of the age. A
+healthy social tone repressed extravagant luxury and the ostentatious
+display of wealth, and good taste long checked the spread of
+gladiatorial contests beyond the Italian community of Corinth. The most
+widespread abuse of that period, the adulation and adoration of
+emperors, was indeed introduced into European Greece and formed an
+essential feature of the proceedings at the Delphic amphictyony, but it
+never absorbed the energies of the people in the same way as it did in
+Asia. In order to perpetuate their old culture, the Greeks continued to
+set great store by classical education, and in Athens they possessed an
+academic centre which gradually became the chief university of the Roman
+empire. The highest representatives of this type of old-world refinement
+are to be found in Dio Chrysostom and especially in Plutarch of
+Chaeroneia (q.v.).
+
+The relations between European Greece and Rome were practically confined
+to the sphere of scholarship. The Hellenes had so far lost their warlike
+qualities that they supplied scarcely any recruits to the army. They
+retained too much local patriotism to crowd into the official careers of
+senators or imperial servants. Although in the 1st century A.D. the
+astute Greek man of affairs and the _Graeculus esuriens_ of Juvenal
+abounded in Rome, both these classes were mainly derived from the less
+pure-blooded population beyond the Aegean.
+
+The influx of Greek rhetoricians and professors into Italy during the
+2nd and 3rd centuries was balanced by the large number of travellers who
+came to Greece to frequent its sanatoria, and especially to admire its
+works of art; the abundance in which these latter were preserved is
+strikingly attested in the extant record of Pausanias (about A.D. 170).
+
+
+  Roman administration.
+
+The experience of the Greeks under their earliest governors seems to
+have been unfortunate, for in A.D. 15 they petitioned Tiberius to
+transfer the administration to an imperial legate. This new arrangement
+was sanctioned, but only lasted till A.D. 44, when Claudius restored the
+province to the senate. The proconsuls of the later 1st and 2nd
+centuries were sometimes ill qualified for their posts, but cases of
+oppression are seldom recorded against them. The years 66 and 67 were
+marked by a visit of the emperor Nero, who made a prolonged tour through
+Greece in order to display his artistic accomplishments at the various
+national festivals. In return for the flattering reception accorded to
+him he bestowed freedom and exemption from tribute upon the country. But
+this favour was almost neutralized by the wholesale depredations which
+he committed among the chief collections of art. A scheme for cutting
+through the Corinthian isthmus and so reviving the Greek carrying trade
+was inaugurated in his presence, but soon abandoned.
+
+As Nero's grant of self-government brought about a recrudescence of
+misplaced ambition and party strife, Vespasian revoked the gift and
+turned Achaea again into a province, at the same time burdening it with
+increased taxes. In the 2nd century a succession of genuinely
+phil-Hellenic emperors made serious attempts to revive the nation's
+prosperity. Important material benefits were conferred by Hadrian, who
+made a lengthy visit to Greece. Besides erecting useful public works in
+many cities, he relieved Achaea of its arrears of tribute and exempted
+it from various imposts. In order to check extravagance on the part of
+the free cities, he greatly extended the practice of placing them under
+the supervision of imperial functionaries known as _correctores_.
+Hadrian fostered national sentiment by establishing a new pan-Hellenic
+congress at Athens, while he gave recognition to the increasing
+ascendancy of Hellenic culture at Rome by his institution of the
+Athenaeum.
+
+In the 3rd century the only political event of importance was the edict
+of Caracalla which threw open the Roman citizenship to large numbers of
+provincials. Its chief effect in Greece was to diminish the
+preponderance of the wealthy classes, who formerly had used their riches
+to purchase the franchise and so to secure exemption from taxation. The
+chief feature of this period is the renewal of the danger from foreign
+invasions. Already in 175 a tribe named Costoboci had penetrated into
+central Greece, but was there broken up by the local militia. In 253 a
+threatened attack was averted by the stubborn resistance of
+Thessalonica. In 267-268 the province was overrun by Gothic bands, which
+captured Athens and some other towns, but were finally repulsed by the
+Attic levies and exterminated with the help of a Roman fleet.
+
+(iii.) _The Late Roman Empire._--After the reorganization of the empire
+by Diocletian, Achaea occupied a prominent position in the "diocese" of
+Macedonia. Under Constantine I. it was included in the "prefecture" of
+Illyricum. It was subdivided into the "eparchies" of Hellas,
+Peloponnesus, Nicopolis and the islands, with headquarters at Thebes,
+Corinth, Nicopolis and Samos. Thessaly was incorporated with Macedonia.
+A complex hierarchy of imperial officials was now introduced and the
+system of taxation elaborated so as to yield a steady revenue to the
+central power. The levying of the land-tax was imposed upon the [Greek:
+dekaprotoi] or "ten leading men," who, like the Latin _decuriones_, were
+entrusted henceforth with the administration in most cities. The
+tendency to reduce all constitutions to the Roman municipal pattern
+became prevalent under the rulers of this period, and the greater number
+of them was stereotyped by the general regulations of the Codex
+Theodosianus (438). Although the elevation of Constantinople to the rank
+of capital was prejudicial to Greece, which felt the competition of the
+new centre of culture and learning and had to part with numerous works
+of art destined to embellish its privileged neighbour, the general level
+of prosperity in the 4th century was rising. Commercial stagnation was
+checked by a renewed expansion of trade consequent upon the diversion of
+the trade routes to the east from Egypt to the Euxine and Aegean Seas.
+Agriculture remained in a depressed condition, and many small
+proprietors were reduced to serfdom; but the fiscal interests of the
+government called for the good treatment of this class, whose growth at
+the expense of the slaves was an important step in the gradual
+equalization of the entire population under the central despotism which
+restored solidarity to the Greek nation.
+
+This prosperity received a sharp set-back by a series of unusually
+severe earthquakes in 375 and by the irruption of a host of Visigoths
+under Alaric (395-396), whom the imperial officers allowed to overrun
+the whole land unmolested and the local levies were unable to check.
+Though ultimately hunted down in Arcadia and induced to leave the
+province, Alaric had time to execute systematic devastations which
+crippled Greece for several decades. The arrears of taxation which
+accumulated in consequence were remitted by Theodosius II. in 428.
+
+The emperors of the 4th century made several attempts to stamp out by
+edict the old pagan religion, which, with its accompaniment of
+festivals, oracles and mysteries, still maintained an outward appearance
+of vigour, and, along with the philosophy in which the intellectual
+classes found comfort, retained the affection of the Greeks. Except for
+the decree of Theodosius I. by which the Olympian games were interdicted
+(394), these measures had no great effect, and indeed were not
+rigorously enforced. Paganism survived in Greece till about 600, but the
+interchange of ideas and practices which the long-continued contact with
+Christianity had effected considerably modified its character. Hence the
+Christian religion, though slow in making its way, eventually gained a
+sure footing among a nation which accepted it spontaneously. The hold of
+the Church upon the Greeks was strengthened by the judicious manner in
+which the clergy, unsupported by official patronage and often out of
+sympathy with the Arian emperors, identified itself with the interests
+of the people. Though in the days when the orthodox Church found favour
+at court corruption spread among its higher branches, the clergy as a
+whole rendered conspicuous service in opposing the arbitrary
+interferences of the central government and in upholding the use of the
+Hellenic tongue, together with some rudiments of Hellenic culture.
+
+The separation of the eastern and western provinces of the empire
+ultimately had an important effect in restoring the language and customs
+of Greece to their predominant position in the Levant. This result,
+however, was long retarded by the romanizing policy of Constantine and
+his successors. The emperors of the 5th and 6th centuries had no regard
+for Greek culture, and Justinian I. actively counteracted Hellenism by
+propagating Roman law in Greece, by impairing the powers of the
+self-governing cities, and by closing the philosophical schools at
+Athens (529). In course of time the inhabitants had so far forgotten
+their ancient culture that they abandoned the name of Hellenes for that
+of Romans (_Rhomaioi_). For a long time Greece continued to be an
+obscure and neglected province, with no interests beyond its church and
+its commercial operations, and its culture declined rapidly. Its history
+for some centuries dwindles into a record of barbarian invasions which,
+in addition to occasional plagues and earthquakes, seem to have been the
+only events found worthy of record by the contemporary chroniclers.
+
+In the 5th century Greece was only subjected to brief raids by Vandal
+pirates (466-474) and Ostrogoths (482). In Justinian's reign irruptions
+by Huns and Avars took place, but led to no far-reaching results. The
+emperor had endeavoured to strengthen the country's defences by
+repairing the fortifications of cities and frontier posts (530), but his
+policy of supplanting the local guards by imperial troops and so
+rendering the natives incapable of self-defence was ill-advised;
+fortunately it was never carried out with energy, and so the Greek
+militias were occasionally able to render good service against invaders.
+
+
+  Slavonic immigrations.
+
+Towards the end of the century mention is made for the first time of an
+incursion by Slavonic tribes (581). These invaders are to be regarded as
+merely the forerunners of a steady movement of immigration by which a
+considerable part of Greece passed for a time into foreign hands. It is
+doubtful how far the newcomers won their territory by force of arms; in
+view of the desolation of many rural tracts, which had long been in
+progress as a result of economic changes, it seems probable that
+numerous settlements were made on unoccupied land and did not challenge
+serious opposition. At any rate the effect upon the Greek population was
+merely to accelerate its emigration from the interior to the coastland
+and the cities. The foreigners, consisting mainly of Slovenes and Wends,
+occupied the mountainous inland, where they mostly led a pastoral life;
+the natives retained some strips of plain and dwelt secure in their
+walled towns, among which the newly-built fortresses of Monemvasia,
+Corone and Calamata soon rose to prosperity. The Slavonic element, to
+judge by the geographical names in that tongue which survive in Greece,
+is specially marked in N.W. Greece and Peloponnesus; central Greece
+appears to have been protected against them by the fortress-square of
+Chalcis, Thebes, Corinth and Athens. For a long time the two nations
+dwelt side by side without either displacing the other. The Slavs were
+too rude and poor, and too much distracted with cantonal feuds, to make
+any further headway; the Greeks, unused to arms and engrossed in
+commerce, were content to adopt a passive attitude. The central
+government took no steps to dislodge the invaders, until in 783 the
+empress Irene sent an expedition which reduced most of the tribes to pay
+tribute. In 810 a desperate attempt by the Slavs to capture Patrae was
+foiled; henceforth their power steadily decreased and their submission
+to the emperor was made complete by 850. A powerful factor in their
+subjugation was the Greek clergy, who by the 10th century had
+christianized and largely hellenized all the foreigners save a remnant
+in the peninsula of Maina.
+
+II. THE BYZANTINE PERIOD.--In the 7th century the Greek language made
+its way into the imperial army and civil service, but European Greece
+continued to have little voice in the administration. The land was
+divided into four "themes" under a yearly appointed civil and military
+governor. Imperial troops were stationed at the chief strategic points,
+while the natives contributed ships for naval defence. During the
+dispute about images the Greeks were the backbone of the
+image-worshipping party, and the iconoclastic edicts of Leo III. led to
+a revolt in 727 which, however, was easily crushed by the imperial
+fleet; a similar movement in 823, when the Greeks sent 350 ships to aid
+a pretender, met with the same fate. The firm government of the Isaurian
+dynasty seems to have benefited Greece, whose commerce and industry
+again became flourishing. In spite of occasional set-backs due to the
+depredations of pirates, notably the Arab corsairs who visited the
+Aegean from the 7th century onwards, the Greeks remained the chief
+carriers in the Levant until the rise of the Italian republics,
+supplying all Europe with its silk fabrics.
+
+In the 10th century Greece experienced a renewal of raids from the
+Balkan tribes. The Bulgarians made incursions after 929 and sometimes
+penetrated to the Isthmus; but they mostly failed to capture the cities,
+and in 995 their strength was broken by a crushing defeat on the
+Spercheius at the hands of the Byzantine army. Yet their devastations
+greatly thinned the population of northern Greece, and after 1084
+Thessaly was occupied without resistance by nomad tribes of Vlachs. In
+1084 also Greece was subjected to the first attack from the new nations
+of the west, when the Sicilian Normans gained a footing in the Ionian
+islands. The same people made a notable raid upon the seaboard of Greece
+in 1145-1146, and sacked the cities of Thebes and Corinth. The Venetians
+also appear as rivals of the Greeks, and after 1122 their encroachments
+in the Aegean Sea never ceased.
+
+In spite of these attacks, the country on the whole maintained its
+prosperity. The travellers Idrisi of Palermo (1153) and Benjamin of
+Tudela (1161) testify to the briskness of commerce, which induced many
+foreign merchants to take up their residence in Greece. But this
+prosperity revived an aristocracy of wealth which used its riches and
+power for purely selfish ends, and under the increasing laxity of
+imperial control the _archontes_ or municipal rulers often combined with
+the clergy in oppressing the poorer classes. Least of all were these
+nobles prepared to become the champions of Greece against foreign
+invaders at a time when they alone could have organized an effectual
+resistance.
+
+III. _The Latin Occupation and Turkish Conquest._--The capture of
+Constantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine empire by the Latins
+(1204) brought in its train an invasion of Greece by Frankish barons
+eager for new territory. The natives, who had long forgotten the use of
+arms and dreaded no worse oppression from their new masters, submitted
+almost without resistance, and only the N.W. corner of Greece, where
+Michael Angelus, a Byzantine prince, founded the "despotat" of Epirus,
+was saved from foreign occupation. The rest of the country was divided
+up between a number of Frankish barons, chief among whom were the dukes
+of Achaea (or Peloponnese) and "grand signors" of Thebes and Athens, the
+Venetians, who held naval stations at different points and the island of
+Crete, and various Italian adventurers who mainly settled in the
+Cyclades. The conquerors transplanted their own language, customs and
+religion to their new possessions, and endeavoured to institute the
+feudal system of land-tenure. Yet recognizing the superiority of Greek
+civil institutions they allowed the natives to retain their law and
+internal administration and confirmed proprietors in possession of their
+land on payment of a rent; the Greek church was subordinated to the
+Roman archbishops, but upheld its former control over the people. The
+commerce and industry of the Greek cities was hardly affected by the
+change of government.
+
+Greek history during the Latin occupation loses its unity and has to be
+followed in several threads. In the north the "despots" of Epirus
+extended their rule to Thessaly and Macedonia, but eventually were
+repulsed by the Asiatic Greeks of Nicaea, and after a decisive defeat at
+Pelagonia (1259) reduced to a small dominion round Iannina. Thessaly
+continued to change masters rapidly. Till 1308 it was governed by a
+branch line of the Epirote dynasty. When this family died out it fell to
+the Grand Catalan Company; in 1350 it was conquered along with Epirus by
+Stephen Dushan, king of Servia. About 1397 it was annexed by the Ottoman
+Turks, who after 1431 also gradually wrested Epirus from its latest
+possessors, the Beneventine family of Tocco (1390-1469).
+
+The leading power in central Greece was the Burgundian house de la
+Roche, which established a mild and judicious government in Boeotia and
+Attica and in 1261 was raised to ducal rank by the French king Louis IX.
+A conflict with the Grand Catalan Company resulted in a disastrous
+defeat of the Franks on the Boeotian Cephissus (1311) and the occupation
+of central Greece by the Spanish mercenaries, who seized for themselves
+the barons' fiefs and installed princes from the Sicilian house of
+Aragon as "dukes of Athens and Neopatras" (Thessaly). After seventy-five
+years of oppressive rule and constant wars with their neighbours the
+Catalans were expelled by the Peloponnesian baron Nerio Acciaiuoli. The
+new dynasty, whose peaceful government revived its subjects' industry,
+became tributary to the Turks about 1415, but was deposed by Sultan
+Mahommed II., who annexed central Greece in 1456.
+
+The conquest of the Peloponnese was effected by two French knights,
+William Champlitte and Geoffrey Villehardouin, the latter of whom
+founded a dynasty of "princes of all Achaea." The rulers of this line
+were men of ability, who controlled their barons and spiritual vassals
+with a firm hand and established good order throughout their province.
+The Franks of the Morea maintained as high a standard of culture as
+their compatriots at home, while the natives grew rich enough from
+their industry to pay considerable taxes without discontent. The climax
+of the Villehardouins' power was attained under Prince William, who
+subdued the last independent cities of the coast and the mountaineers of
+Maina (1246-1248). In 1259, however, the same ruler was involved in the
+war between the rulers of Epirus and Nicaea, and being captured at the
+battle of Pelagonia, could only ransom himself by the cession of Laconia
+to the restored Byzantine empire. This new dependency after 1349 was
+treated with great care by the Byzantine monarchs, who sought to repress
+the violence of the local aristocracies by sending their kinsmen to
+govern under the title of "despots." On the other hand, with the
+extinction of the Villehardouin dynasty the Frankish province fell more
+and more into anarchy; at the same time the numbers of the foreigners
+were constantly dwindling through war, and as they disdained to recruit
+them by intermarriage, the preponderance of the native element in the
+Morea eventually became complete. Thus by 1400 the Byzantines were
+enabled to recover control over almost the whole peninsula and apportion
+it among several "despots." But the mutual quarrels of these princes
+soon proved fatal to their rule. Already in the 14th century they had
+employed Albanians and the Turkish pirates who harried their coasts as
+auxiliaries in their wars. The Albanians largely remained as settlers,
+and the connexion with the Turks could no longer be shaken off. In spite
+of attempts to fortify the Isthmus (1415) an Ottoman army penetrated
+into Morea and deported many inhabitants in 1423. An invasion of central
+Greece by the despot Constantine was punished by renewed raids in 1446
+and 1450. In 1457 the despot Thomas withheld the tribute which he had
+recently stipulated to pay, but was reduced to obedience by an
+expedition under Mahommed II. (1458). A renewed revolt in 1459 was
+punished by an invasion attended with executions and deportations on a
+large scale, and by the annexation of the Morea to Turkey (1460).
+
+IV. _The Turkish Dominion till 1800._--Under the Ottoman government
+Greece was split up into six _sanjaks_ or military divisions: (1) Morea,
+(2) Epirus, (3) Thessaly, (4) Euboea, Boeotia and Attica, (5) Aetolia
+and Acarnania, (6) the rest of central Greece, with capitals at Nauplia,
+Jannina, Trikkala, Negropont (Chalkis), Karlili and Lepanto; further
+divisions were subsequently composed of Crete and the islands. In each
+_sanjak_ a number of fiefs was apportioned to Turkish settlers, who were
+bound in return to furnish some mounted men for the sultan's army, the
+total force thus held in readiness being over 7000. The local government
+was left in the hands of the archontes or primates in each community,
+who also undertook the farming of the taxes and the policing of their
+districts. Law was usually administered by the Greek clergy. The natives
+were not burdened with large imposts, but the levying of the land-tithes
+was effected in an inconvenient fashion, and the capitation-tax, to
+which all Christians were subjected was felt as a humiliation. A further
+grievance lay in the requisitions of forced labour which the pashas were
+entitled to call for; but the most galling exaction was the tribute of
+children for the recruiting of the Janissaries (q.v.), which was often
+levied with great ruthlessness. The habitual weakness of the central
+government also left the Greeks exposed to frequent oppression by the
+Turkish residents and by their own magistrates and clergy. But the new
+rulers met with singularly little opposition. The dangerous elements of
+the population had been cleared away by Mahommed's executions; the rest
+were content to absorb their energies in agriculture and commerce, which
+in spite of preferential duties and capitulations to foreign powers
+largely fell again into the hands of Greeks. Another important
+instrument by which the people were kept down was their own clergy, whom
+the Turkish rulers treated with marked favour and so induced to
+acquiesce in their dominion.
+
+In the following centuries Greece was often the theatre of war in which
+the Greeks played but a passive part. Several wars with Venice (1463-79,
+1498-1504) put the Turks in possession of the last Italian strongholds
+on the mainland. But the issue was mainly fought out on sea; the
+conflicts which had never ceased in the Aegean since the coming of the
+Italians now grew fiercer than ever; Greek ships and sailors were
+frequently requisitioned for the Turkish fleets, and the damage done to
+the Greek seaboard by the belligerents and by fleets of adventurers and
+corsairs brought about the depopulation of many islands and
+coast-strips. The conquest of the Aegean by the Ottomans was completed
+by 1570; but Venice retained Crete till 1669 and never lost Corfu until
+its cession to France in 1797.
+
+In 1684 the Venetians took advantage of the preoccupation of Turkey on
+the Danube to attack the Morea. A small mercenary army under Francesco
+Morosini captured the strong places with remarkable ease, and by 1687
+had conquered almost the whole peninsula. In 1687 the invaders also
+captured Athens and Lepanto; but the former town had soon to be
+abandoned, and with their failure to capture Negropont (1688) the
+Venetians were brought to a standstill. By the peace of Karlowitz (1699)
+the Morea became a possession of Venice. The new rulers, in spite of the
+commercial restrictions which they imposed in favour of their own
+traders, checked the impoverishment and decrease of population (from
+300,000 to 86,000) which the war had caused. By their attempts to
+cooperate with the native magistrates and the mildness of their
+administration they improved the spirit of their subjects. But they
+failed to make their government popular, and when in 1715 the Ottomans
+with a large and well-disciplined army set themselves to recover the
+Morea, the Venetians were left without support from the Greeks. The
+peninsula was rapidly recaptured and by the peace of Passarowitz (1718)
+again became a Turkish dependency. The gaps left about this time in the
+Greek population were largely made up by an immigration from Albania.
+
+The condition of the Greeks in the 18th century showed a great
+improvement which gave rise to yet greater hopes. Already in the 17th
+century the personal services of the subjects had been commuted into
+money contributions, and since 1676 the tribute of children fell into
+abeyance. The increasing use of Greek officials in the Turkish civil
+service, coupled with the privileges accorded to the Greek clergy
+throughout the Balkan countries, tended to recall the consciousness of
+former days of predominance in the Levant. Lastly, the education of the
+Greeks, which had always remained on a comparatively high level, was
+rapidly improved by the foundation of new schools and academies.
+
+The long neglect which Greece had experienced at the hands of the
+European Powers was broken in 1764, when Russian agents appeared in the
+country with promises of a speedy deliverance from the Turks. A small
+expedition under Feodor and Alexis Orloff actually landed in the Morea
+in 1769, but failed to rouse national sentiment. Although the Russian
+fleet gained a notable victory off Chesme near Chios, a heavy defeat
+near Tripolitza ruined the prospects of the army. The Albanian troops in
+the Turkish army subsequently ravaged the country far and wide, until in
+1779 they were exterminated by a force of Turkish regulars. In 1774 a
+concession, embodied in the treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji, by which Greek
+traders were allowed to sail under the protection of the Russian flag,
+marked an important step in the rehabilitation of the country as an
+independent power. Greek commerce henceforth spread swiftly over the
+Mediterranean, and increased intercourse developed a new sense of
+Hellenic unity. Among the pioneers who fostered this movement should be
+mentioned Constantine Rhigas, the "modern Tyrtaeus," and Adamantios
+Coraes (q.v.), the reformer of the Greek tongue. The revived memories of
+ancient Hellas and the impression created by the French revolution
+combined to give the final impulse which made the Greeks strike for
+freedom. By 1800 the population of Greece had increased to 1,000,000,
+and although 200,000 of these were Albanians, the common aversion to the
+Moslem united the two races. The military resources of the country alone
+remained deficient, for the _armatoli_ or local militias, which had
+never been quite disbanded since Byzantine times, were at last
+suppressed by Ali Pasha of Iannina and found but a poor substitute in
+the klephts who henceforth spring into prominence. But at the first sign
+of weakness in the Turkish dominion the Greek nation was ready to rise,
+and the actual outbreak of revolt had become merely a question of time.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--General: G. Finlay, _History of Greece_ (ed. Tozer,
+  Oxford, 1877), especially vols. i., iv., v.; K. Paparrhigopoulos,
+  [Greek: Historia tou Hellenikou ethnous] (4th ed., Athens, 1903),
+  vols. ii.-v.; _Histoire de la civilisation hellenique_ (Paris, 1878);
+  R. v. Scala, _Das Griechentum seit Alexander dem Grossen_ (Leipzig and
+  Vienna, 1904); and specially W. Miller, _The Latins in the Levant_
+  (1908).
+
+  Special--(a) The Roman period: Strabo, bks. viii.-x.; Pausanias,
+  _Descriptio Graeciae_; G. F. Hertzberg, _Die Geschichte Griechenlands
+  unter der Herrschaft der Romer_ (Halle, 1866-1875); Sp. Lampros,
+  [Greek: Historia tes Hellados] (Athens, 1888 sqq.), vol. iii.; A.
+  Holm, _History of Greece_ (Eng. trans., London, 1894-1898). vol. iv.,
+  chs. 19, 24, 26, 28 seq.; Th. Mommsen, _The Provinces of the Roman
+  Empire_ (Eng. trans., London, 1886, ch. 7); J. P. Mahaffy, _The Greek
+  World under Roman Sway, from Polybius to Plutarch_ (London, 1890); W.
+  Miller, "The Romans in Greece" (_Westminster Review_, August 1903, pp.
+  186-210); L. Friedlander, "Griechenland unter den Romern" (_Deutsche
+  Rundschau_, 1899, pp. 251-274, 402-430). (b) The Byzantine and Latin
+  periods: G. F. Hertzberg, _Geschichte Griechenlands seit dem Absterben
+  des antiken Lebens_ (Gotha, 1876-1879), vols. i., ii.; C. Hopf,
+  _Geschichte Griechenlands im Mittelalter_ (Leipzig, 1868); J. A.
+  Buchon, _Histoire des conquetes et de l'etablissement des Francais
+  dans les Etats de l'ancienne Grece_ (Paris, 1846); G. Schmitt, _The
+  Chronicle of Morea_ (London, 1904); W. Miller, "The Princes of the
+  Peloponnese" (_Quarterly Review_, July 1905, pp. 109-135); D. Bikelas,
+  _Seven Essays on Christian Greece_ (Paisley and London, 1890); _La
+  Grece byzantine et moderne_ (Paris, 1893), pp. 1-193. (c) The Turkish
+  and Venetian periods: Hertzberg, _op. cit._, vol. iii.; K. M.
+  Bartholdy, _Geschichte Griechenlands von der Eroberung
+  Konstantinopels_ (Leipzig, 1870), bks. i. and ii., pp. 1-155; K. N.
+  Sathas, [Greek: Tourkokratoumene Hellas] (Athens, 1869); W. Miller,
+  "Greece under the Turks" (_Westminster Review_, August and September
+  1904, pp. 195-210, 304-320; _English Historical Review_, 1904, pp.
+  646-668); L. Ranke, "Die Venetianer in Morea" (_Historisch-politische
+  Zeitschrift_, ii. 405-502). (d) Special subjects: Religion. E. Hatch,
+  _The Influence of Greek Ideas and Usages upon the Christian Church_
+  (London, 1890). Ethnology. J. P. Fallmerayer, _Geschichte der
+  Halbinsel Morea wahrend des Mittelalters_ (Stuttgart and Tubingen,
+  1830); S. Zampelios, [Greek: Peri pegon neoellenikes ethnotetos]
+  (Athens, 1857); A. Philippson, "Zur Ethnographie des Peloponnes"
+  [_Petermann's Mitteilungen_ 36 (1890), pp. 1-11, 33-41]; A. Vasiljev,
+  "Die Slaven in Griechenland" [_Vizantijsky Vremennik_, St Petersburg,
+  5 (1898), pp. 404-438, 626-670].
+
+  See also ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER; ATHENS.     (M. O. B. C.)
+
+
+c. _Modern History: 1800-1908._
+
+  The decadence of Turkey.
+
+At the beginning of the 19th century Greece was still under Turkish
+domination, but the dawn of freedom was already breaking, and a variety
+of forces were at work which prepared the way for the acquisition of
+national independence. The decadence of the Ottoman empire, which began
+with the retreat of the Turks from Vienna in 1683, was indicated in the
+18th century by the weakening of the central power, the spread of
+anarchy in the provinces, the ravages of the janissaries, and the
+establishment of practically independent sovereignties or fiefs, such as
+those of Mehemet of Bushat at Skodra and of Ali Pasha of Tepelen at
+Iannina; the 19th century witnessed the first uprisings of the Christian
+populations and the detachment of the outlying portions of European
+Turkey. Up to the end of the 18th century none of the subject races had
+risen in spontaneous revolt against the Turks, though in some instances
+they rendered aid to the sultan's enemies; the spirit of the conquered
+nations had been broken by ages of oppression. In some of the remoter
+and more mountainous districts, however, the authority of the Turks had
+never been completely established; in Montenegro a small fragment of the
+Serb race maintained its independence; among the Greeks, the Mainotes in
+the extreme south of the Morea and the Sphakiote mountaineers in Crete
+had never been completely subdued. Resistance to Ottoman rule was
+maintained sporadically in the mountainous districts by the Greek
+_klephts_ or brigands, the counterpart of the Slavonic _haiduks_, and by
+the pirates of the Aegean; the _armatoles_ or bodies of Christian
+warriors, recognized by the Turks as a local police, often differed
+little in their proceedings from the brigands whom they were appointed
+to pursue.
+
+
+  Russian influence.
+
+Of the series of insurrections which took place in the 19th century, the
+first in order of time was the Servian, which broke out in 1804; the
+second was the Greek, which began in 1821. In both these movements the
+influence of Russia played a considerable part. In the case of the
+Servians Russian aid was mainly diplomatic, in that of the Greeks it
+eventually took a more material form. Since the days of Peter the Great,
+the eyes of Russia had been fixed on Constantinople, the great
+metropolis of the Orthodox faith. The policy of inciting the Greek
+Christians to revolt against their oppressors, which was first adopted
+in the reign of the empress Anna, was put into practical operation by
+the empress Catharine II., whose favourite, Orlov, appeared in the
+Aegean with a fleet in 1769 and landed in the Morea, where he organized
+a revolt. The attempt proved a failure; Orlov re-embarked, leaving the
+Greeks at the mercy of the Turks, and terrible massacres took place at
+Tripolitza, Lemnos and elsewhere. By the treaty of Kutchuk-Kainarji
+(July 21, 1774) Russia obtained a vaguely-defined protectorate over the
+Orthodox Greek subjects of Turkey, and in 1781 she arrived at an
+arrangement with Austria, known as the "Greek project," for a partition
+of Turkish territory and the restoration of the Byzantine empire under
+Constantine, the son of Catharine II. The outbreak of the French
+Revolution distracted the attention of the two empires, but Russia never
+ceased to intrigue among the Christian subjects of Turkey. A revolt of
+the inhabitants of Suli in 1790 took place with her connivance, and in
+the two first decades of the 19th century her agents were active and
+ubiquitous.
+
+
+  Greek revolutionary activity.
+
+The influence of the French Revolution, which pervaded all Europe,
+extended to the shores of the Aegean. The Greeks, who had hitherto been
+drawn together mainly by a common religion, were now animated by the
+sentiment of nationality and by an ardent desire for political freedom.
+The national awakening, as in the case of the other subject Christian
+nations, was preceded by a literary revival. Literary and patriotic
+societies, the Philhellenes, the Philomousi, came into existence; Greek
+schools were founded everywhere; the philological labours of Coraes,
+which created the modern written language, furnished the nation with a
+mode of literary expression; the songs of Rhigas of Velestino fired the
+enthusiasm of the people. In 1815 was founded the celebrated _Philike
+Hetaerea_, or friendly society, a revolutionary organization with
+centres at Moscow, Bucharest, Triest, and in all the cities of the
+Levant; it collected subscriptions, issued manifestos, distributed arms
+and made preparations for the coming insurrection. The revolt of Ali
+Pasha of Iannina against the authority of the sultan in 1820 formed the
+prelude to the Greek uprising; this despot, who had massacred the Greeks
+by hundreds, now declared himself their friend, and became a member of
+the Hetaerea. In March 1821 Alexander Ypsilanti, a former aide-de-camp
+of the tsar Alexander I., and president of the Hetaerea, entered
+Moldavia from Russian territory at the head of a small force; in the
+same month Archbishop Germanos of Patras unfurled the standard of revolt
+at Kalavryta in the Morea.
+
+
+  Independence of Greece.
+
+For the history of the prolonged struggle which followed see GREEK WAR
+OF INDEPENDENCE. The warfare was practically brought to a close by the
+annihilation of the Egyptian fleet at Navarino by the fleets of Great
+Britain, France and Russia on the 20th of October 1827. Nine months
+previously, Count John Capo d'Istria (q.v.), formerly minister of
+foreign affairs of the tsar Alexander, had been elected president of the
+Greek republic for seven years beginning on January 18, 1828. By the
+protocol of London (March 22, 1829) the Greek mainland south of a line
+drawn from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Volo, the Morea and the
+Cyclades were declared a principality tributary to the sultan under a
+Christian prince. The limits drawn by the protocol of London were
+confirmed by the treaty of Adrianople (September 14, 1829), by which
+Greece was constituted an independent monarchy. The governments of
+Russia, France and England were far from sharing the enthusiasm which
+the gallant resistance of the Greeks had excited among the peoples of
+Europe, and which inspired the devotion of Byron, Cochrane, Sir Richard
+Church, Fabvier and other distinguished Philhellenes; jealousies
+prevailed among the three protecting powers, and the newly-liberated
+nation was treated in a niggardly spirit; its narrow limits were reduced
+by a new protocol (February 3, 1830), which drew the boundary line at
+the Aspropotamo, the Spercheios and the Gulf of Lamia. Capo d'Istria,
+whose Russian proclivities and arbitrary government gave great offence
+to the Greeks, was assassinated by two members of the Mavromichalis
+family (October 9, 1831), and a state of anarchy followed. Before his
+death the throne of Greece had been offered to Prince Leopold of
+Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, afterwards king of the Belgians, who declined it,
+basing his refusal on the inadequacy of the limits assigned to the new
+kingdom and especially the exclusion of Crete.
+
+
+  King Otto.
+
+By the convention of London (May 7, 1832) Greece was declared an
+independent kingdom under the protection of Great Britain, France and
+Russia with Prince Otto, son of King Louis I. of Bavaria, as king. The
+frontier line, now traced from the Gulf of Arta to the Gulf of Lamia,
+was fixed by the arrangement of Constantinople (July 21, 1832). King
+Otto, who had been brought up in a despotic court, ruled absolutely for
+the first eleven years of his reign; he surrounded himself with Bavarian
+advisers and Bavarian troops, and his rule was never popular. The Greek
+chiefs and politicians, who found themselves excluded from all influence
+and advancement, were divided into three factions which attached
+themselves respectively to the three protecting powers. On the 15th of
+September 1843 a military revolt broke out which compelled the king to
+dismiss the Bavarians and to accept a constitution. A responsible
+ministry, a senate nominated by the king, and a chamber elected by
+universal suffrage were now instituted. Mavrocordatos, the leader of the
+English party, became the first prime minister, but his government was
+overthrown at the ensuing elections, and a coalition of the French and
+Russian parties under Kolettes and Metaxas succeeded to power. The
+warfare of factions was aggravated by the rivalry between the British
+and French ministers, Sir Edmond Lyons and M. Piscatory; King Otto
+supported the French party, and trouble arose with the British
+government, which in 1847 despatched warships to enforce the payment of
+interest on the loan contracted after the War of Independence. A British
+fleet subsequently blockaded the Peiraeus in order to obtain
+satisfaction for the claims of Pacifico, a Portuguese Jew under British
+protection, whose house had been plundered during a riot. On the
+outbreak of hostilities between Russia and Turkey in 1853 the Greeks
+displayed sympathy with Russia; armed bands were sent into Thessaly, and
+an insurrection was fomented in Epirus in the hope of securing an
+accession of territory. In order to prevent further hostile action on
+the part of Greece, British and French fleets made a demonstration
+against the Peiraeus, which was occupied by a French force during the
+Crimean War. The disappointment of the national hopes increased the
+unpopularity of King Otto, who had never acquiesced in constitutional
+rule. In 1862 a military revolt broke out, and a national assembly
+pronounced his deposition. The vacant throne was offered by the assembly
+to Duke Nicholas of Leuchtenberg, a cousin of the tsar, but the mass of
+the people desired a constitutional monarchy of the British type; a
+plebiscite was taken, and Prince Alfred of England was elected by an
+almost unanimous vote. The three protecting powers, however, had bound
+themselves to the exclusion of any member of their ruling houses. In the
+following year Prince William George of
+Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg, whom the British government
+had designated as a suitable candidate, was elected by the National
+Assembly with the title "George I., king of the Hellenes." Under the
+treaty of London (July 13, 1863) the change of dynasty was sanctioned by
+the three protecting powers, Great Britain undertaking to cede to Greece
+the seven Ionian Islands, which since 1815 had formed a commonwealth
+under British protection.
+
+
+  Accession of George I.
+
+On the 29th of October 1863 the new sovereign arrived in Athens, and in
+the following June the British authorities handed over the Ionian
+Islands to a Greek commissioner. King George thus began his reign under
+the most favourable auspices, the patriotic sentiments of the Greeks
+being flattered by the acquisition of new territory. He was, however,
+soon confronted with constitutional difficulties; party spirit ran riot
+at Athens, the ministries which he appointed proved short-lived, his
+counsellor, Count Sponneck, became the object of violent attacks, and at
+the end of 1864 he was compelled to accept an ultra-democratic
+constitution, drawn up by the National Assembly. This, the sixth
+constitution voted since the establishment of the kingdom, is that which
+is still in force. In the following year Count Sponneck left Greece, and
+the attention of the nation was concentrated on the affairs of Crete.
+The revolution which broke out in that island received moral and
+material support from the Greek government, with the tacit approval of
+Russia; military preparations were pressed forward at Athens, and
+cruisers were purchased, but the king, aware of the inability of Greece
+to attain her ends by warlike means, discouraged a provocative attitude
+towards Turkey, and eventually dismissed the bellicose cabinet of
+Koumoundouros. The removal of a powerful minister commanding a large
+parliamentary majority constituted an important precedent in the
+exercise of the royal prerogative; the king adopted a similar course
+with regard to Delyannes in 1892 and 1897. The relations with the porte,
+however, continued to grow worse, and Hobart Pasha, with a Turkish
+fleet, made a demonstration off Syra. The Cretan insurrection was
+finally crushed in the spring of 1869, and a conference of the powers,
+which assembled that year at Paris, imposed a settlement of the Turkish
+dispute on Greece, but took no steps on behalf of the Cretans. In 1870
+the murder of several Englishmen by brigands in the neighbourhood of
+Athens produced an unfavourable impression in Europe; in the following
+year the confiscation of the Laurion mines, which had been ceded to a
+Franco-Italian company, provoked energetic action on the part of France
+and Italy. In 1875, after an acute constitutional crisis, Charilaos
+Trikoupes, who but ten months previously had been imprisoned for
+denouncing the crown in a newspaper article, was summoned to form a
+cabinet. This remarkable man, the only great statesman whom modern
+Greece has produced, exercised an extraordinary influence over his
+countrymen for the next twenty years; had he been able to maintain
+himself uninterruptedly in power during that period, Greece might have
+escaped a long succession of misfortunes. His principal opponent,
+Theodore Delyannes, succeeded in rallying a strong body of adherents,
+and political parties, hitherto divided into numerous factions, centred
+around these two prominent figures.
+
+
+  New frontier, 1881.
+
+In 1877 the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War produced a fever of
+excitement in Greece; it was felt that the quarrels of the party leaders
+compromised the interests of the country, and the populace of Athens
+insisted on the formation of a coalition cabinet. The "great" or
+"oecumenical" ministry, as it was called, now came into existence under
+the presidency of the veteran Kanares; in reality, however, it was
+controlled by Trikoupes, who, recognizing the unpreparedness of the
+country, resolved on a pacific policy. The capture of Plevna by the
+Russians brought about the fall of the "oecumenical" ministry, and
+Koumoundouros and Delyannes, who succeeded to power, ordered the
+invasion of Thessaly. Their warlike energies, however, were soon checked
+by the signing of the San Stefano Treaty, in which the claims of Greece
+to an extension of frontier were altogether ignored. At the Berlin
+congress two Greek delegates obtained a hearing on the proposal of Lord
+Salisbury. The congress decided that the rectification of the frontier
+should be left to Turkey and Greece, the mediation of the powers being
+proposed in case of non-agreement; it was suggested, however, that the
+rectified frontier should extend from the valley of the Peneus on the
+east to the mouth of the Kalamas, opposite the southern extremity of
+Corfu, on the west. In 1879 a Greco-Turkish commission for the
+delimitation met first at Prevesa, and subsequently at Constantinople,
+but its conferences were without result, the Turkish commissioners
+declining the boundary suggested at Berlin. Greece then invoked the
+arbitration of the powers, and the settlement of the question was
+undertaken by a conference of ambassadors at Berlin (1880). The line
+approved by the conference was practically that suggested by the
+congress; Turkey, however, refused to accept it, and the Greek army was
+once more mobilized. It was evident, however, that nothing could be
+gained by an appeal to arms, the powers not being prepared to apply
+coercion to Turkey. By a convention signed at Constantinople in July
+1881, the demarcation was entrusted to a commission representing the six
+powers and the two interested parties. The line drawn ran westwards from
+a point between the mouth of the Peneus and Platamona to the summits of
+Mounts Kritiri and Zygos, thence following the course of the river Arta
+to its mouth. An area of 13,395 square kilometres, with a population of
+300,000 souls, was thus added to the kingdom, while Turkey was left in
+possession of Iannina, Metzovo and most of Epirus. The ceded territory
+was occupied by Greek troops before the close of the year.
+
+
+  Trikoupes and Delyannes.
+
+In 1882 Trikoupes came into power at the head of a strong party, over
+which he exercised an influence and authority hitherto unknown in Greek
+political life. With the exception of three brief intervals (May 1885 to
+May 1886, October 1890 to February 1892, and a few months in 1893), he
+continued in office for the next twelve years. The reforms which he
+introduced during this period were generally of an unpopular character,
+and were loudly denounced by his democratic rivals; most of them were
+cancelled during the intervals when his opponent Delyannes occupied the
+premiership. The same want of continuity proved fatal to the somewhat
+ambitious financial programme which he now inaugurated. While pursuing a
+cautious foreign policy, and keeping in control the rash impetuosity of
+his fellow-countrymen, he shared to the full the national desire for
+expansion, but he looked to the development of the material resources of
+the country as a necessary preliminary to the realization of the dreams
+of Hellenism. With this view he endeavoured to attract foreign capital
+to the country, and the confidence which he inspired in financial
+circles abroad enabled him to contract a number of loans and to better
+the financial situation by a series of conversions. Under a stable,
+wise, and economical administration this far-reaching programme might
+perhaps have been carried out with success, but the vicissitudes of
+party politics and the periodical outbursts of national sentiment
+rendered its realization impossible. In April 1885 Trikoupes fell from
+power, and a few months later the indignation excited in Greece by the
+revolution of Philippopolis placed Delyannes once more at the head of a
+warlike movement. The army and fleet were again mobilized with a view to
+exacting territorial compensation for the aggrandizement of Bulgaria,
+and several conflicts with the Turkish troops took place on the
+frontier. The powers, after repeatedly inviting the Delyannes cabinet to
+disarm, established a blockade of Peiraeus and other Greek ports (8th
+May 1886), France alone declining to cooperate in this measure.
+Delyannes resigned (11th May) and Trikoupes, who succeeded to power,
+issued a decree of disarmament (25th May). Hostilities, however,
+continued on the frontier, and the blockade was not raised till 7th
+June. Trikoupes had now to face the serious financial situation brought
+about by the military activity of his predecessor. He imposed heavy
+taxation, which the people, for the time at least, bore without
+murmuring, and he continued to inspire such confidence abroad that Greek
+securities maintained their price in the foreign market. It was ominous,
+however, that a loan which he issued in 1890 was only partially covered.
+Meanwhile the Cretan difficulty had become once more a source of trouble
+to Greece. In 1889 Trikoupes was grossly deceived by the Turkish
+government, which, after inducing him to dissuade the Cretans from
+opposing the occupation of certain fortified posts, issued a firman
+annulling many important provisions in the constitution of the island.
+The indignation in Greece was intense, and popular discontent was
+increased by the success of the Bulgarians in obtaining the _exequatur_
+of the sultan for a number of bishops in Macedonia. In the autumn of
+1890 Trikoupes was beaten at the elections, and Delyannes, who had
+promised the people a radical reform of the taxation, succeeded to
+power. He proved unequal, however, to cope with the financial
+difficulty, which now became urgent; and the king, perceiving that a
+crisis was imminent, dismissed him and recalled Trikoupes. The hope of
+averting national bankruptcy depended on the possibility of raising a
+loan by which the rapid depreciation of the paper currency might be
+arrested, but foreign financiers demanded guarantees which seemed likely
+to prove hurtful to Greek susceptibilities; an agitation was raised at
+Athens, and Trikoupes suddenly resigned (May 1893). His conduct at this
+juncture appears to have been due to some misunderstandings which had
+arisen between him and the king. The Sotiropoulos-Rhalles ministry which
+followed effected a temporary settlement with the national creditors,
+but Trikoupes, returning to power in the autumn, at once annulled the
+arrangement. He now proceeded to a series of arbitrary measures which
+provoked the severest criticism throughout Europe and exposed Greece to
+the determined hostility of Germany. A law was hastily passed which
+deprived the creditors of 70% of their interest, and the proceeds of the
+revenues conceded to the monopoly bondholders were seized (December
+1893). Long negotiations followed, resulting in an arrangement which was
+subsequently reversed by the German bondholders. In January 1895
+Trikoupes resigned office, in consequence of a disagreement with the
+crown prince on a question of military discipline. His popularity had
+vanished, his health was shattered, and he determined to abandon his
+political career. His death at Cannes (11th April 1896), on the eve of a
+great national convulsion, deprived Greece of his masterly guidance and
+sober judgment at a critical moment in her history.
+
+
+  Nationalist agitation, 1896.
+
+His funeral took place at Athens on 23rd April, while the city was still
+decorated with flags and garlands after the celebration of the Olympic
+games. The revival of the ancient festival, which drew together
+multitudes of Greeks from abroad, led to a lively awakening of the
+national sentiment, hitherto depressed by the economic misfortunes of
+the kingdom, and a secret patriotic society, known as the _Ethnike
+Hetaerea_, began to develop prodigious activity, enrolling members from
+every rank of life and establishing branches in all parts of the
+Hellenic world. The society had been founded in 1894, by a handful of
+young officers who considered that the military organization of the
+country was neglected by the government; its principal aim was the
+preparation of an insurrectionary movement in Macedonia, which, owing to
+the activity of the Bulgarians and the reconciliation of Prince
+Ferdinand with Russia, seemed likely to be withdrawn for ever from the
+domain of Greek irredentism. The outbreak of another insurrection in
+Crete supplied the means of creating a diversion for Turkey while the
+movement in Macedonia was being matured; arms and volunteers were
+shipped to the island, but the society was as yet unable to force the
+hand of the government, and Delyannes, who had succeeded Trikoupes in
+1895, loyally aided the powers in the restoration of order by advising
+the Cretans to accept the constitution of 1896. The appearance of strong
+insurgent bands in Macedonia in the summer of that year testified to the
+activity of the society and provoked the remonstrances of the powers,
+while the spread of its propaganda in the army led to the issue of a
+royal rescript announcing grand military manoeuvres, the formation of a
+standing camp, and the rearmament of the troops with a new weapon (6th
+December). The objects of the society were effectually furthered by the
+evident determination of the porte to evade the application of the
+stipulated reforms in Crete; the Cretan Christians lost patience, and
+indignation was widespread in Greece. Emissaries of the society were
+despatched to the island, and affairs were brought to a climax by an
+outbreak at Canea on 4th February 1897. The Turkish troops fired on the
+Christians, thousands of whom took refuge on the warships of the powers,
+and a portion of the town was consumed by fire.
+
+
+  Cretan crisis, 1897.
+
+Delyannes now announced that the government had abandoned the policy of
+abstention. On the 6th two warships were despatched to Canea, and on the
+10th a torpedo flotilla, commanded by Prince George, left Peiraeus amid
+tumultuous demonstrations. The ostensible object of these measures was
+the protection of Greek subjects in Crete, and Delyannes was still
+anxious to avoid a definite rupture with Turkey, but the Ethnike
+Hetaerea had found means to influence several members of the ministry
+and to alarm the king. Prince George, who had received orders to prevent
+the landing of Turkish reinforcements on the island, soon withdrew from
+Cretan waters owing to the decisive attitude adopted by the commanders
+of the international squadron. A note was now addressed by the
+government to the powers, declaring that Greece could no longer remain a
+passive spectator of events in Crete, and on the 13th of February a
+force of 1500 men, under Colonel Vassos, embarked at Peiraeus. On the
+same day a Greek warship fired on a Turkish steam yacht which was
+conveying troops from Candia to Sitia. Landing near Canea on the night
+of the 14th, Colonel Vassos issued a proclamation announcing the
+occupation of Crete in the name of King George. He had received orders
+to expel the Turkish garrisons from the fortresses, but his advance on
+Canea was arrested by the international occupation of that town, and
+after a few engagements with the Turkish troops and irregulars he
+withdrew into the interior of the island. Proposals for the coercion of
+Greece were now put forward by Germany, but Great Britain declined to
+take action until an understanding had been arrived at with regard to
+the future government of Crete. Eventually (2nd March) collective notes
+were addressed to the Greek and Turkish governments announcing the
+decision of the powers that (1) Crete could in no case in present
+circumstances be annexed to Greece; (2) in view of the delays caused by
+Turkey in the application of the reforms, Crete should be endowed with
+an effective autonomous administration, calculated to ensure it a
+separate government, under the suzerainty of the sultan. Greece was at
+the same time summoned to remove its army and fleet within the space of
+six days, and Turkey was warned that its troops must for the present be
+concentrated in the fortified towns and ultimately withdrawn from the
+island. The action of the powers produced the utmost exasperation at
+Athens; the populace demanded war with Turkey and the annexation of
+Crete, and the government drew up a reply to the powers in which, while
+expressing the conviction that autonomy would prove a failure, it
+indicated its readiness to withdraw some of the ships, but declined to
+recall the army. A suggestion that the troops might receive a European
+mandate for the preservation of order in the island proved unacceptable
+to the powers, owing to the aggressive action of Colonel Vassos after
+his arrival. Meanwhile troops, volunteers and munitions of war were
+hurriedly despatched to the Turkish frontier in anticipation of an
+international blockade of the Greek ports, but the powers contented
+themselves with a pacific blockade of Crete, and military preparations
+went on unimpeded.
+
+
+  War with Turkey.
+
+While the powers dallied, the danger of war increased; on 29th March the
+crown prince assumed command of the Greek troops in Thessaly, and a few
+days later hostilities were precipitated by the irregular forces of the
+Ethnike Hetaerea, which attacked several Turkish outposts near Grevena.
+According to a report of its proceedings, subsequently published by the
+society, this invasion received the previous sanction of the prime
+minister. On 17th April Turkey declared war. The disastrous campaign
+which followed was of short duration, and it was evident from the outset
+that the Greeks had greatly underrated the military strength of their
+opponents (see GRECO-TURKISH WAR). After the evacuation of Larissa on
+the 24th, great discontent prevailed at Athens; Delyannes was invited by
+the king to resign, but refusing to do so was dismissed (29th April).
+His successor, Rhalles, after recalling the army from Crete (9th May)
+invoked the mediation of the powers, and an armistice was concluded on
+the 19th of that month. Thus ended an unfortunate enterprise, which was
+undertaken in the hope that discord among the powers would lead to a
+European war and the dismemberment of Turkey. Greek interference in
+Crete had at least the result of compelling Europe to withdraw the
+island for ever from Turkish rule. The conditions of peace put forward
+by Turkey included a war indemnity of L10,000,000 and the retention of
+Thessaly; the latter demand, however, was resolutely opposed by Great
+Britain, and the indemnity was subsequently reduced to L4,000,000. The
+terms agreed to by the powers were rejected by Rhalles; the chamber,
+however, refused him a vote of confidence and King George summoned
+Zaimes to power (October 3). The definitive treaty of peace, which was
+signed at Constantinople on the 6th of December, contained a provision
+for a slight modification of the frontier, designed to afford Turkey
+certain strategical advantages; the delimitation was carried out by a
+commission composed of military delegates of the powers and
+representatives of the interested parties. The evacuation of Thessaly by
+the Turkish troops was completed in June 1898. An immediate result of
+the war was the institution of an international financial commission at
+Athens, charged with the control of certain revenues assigned to the
+service of the national debt. The state of the country after the
+conclusion of hostilities was deplorable; the towns of northern Greece
+and the islands were crowded with destitute refugees from Thessaly;
+violent recriminations prevailed at Athens, and the position of the
+dynasty seemed endangered. A reaction, however, set in, in consequence
+of an attempt to assassinate King George (28th February 1898), whose
+great services to the nation in obtaining favourable terms from the
+powers began to receive general recognition. In the following summer the
+king made a tour through the country, and was everywhere received with
+enthusiasm. In the autumn the powers, on the initiative of Russia,
+decided to entrust Prince George of Greece with the government of Crete;
+on 26th November an intimation that the prince had been appointed high
+commissioner in the island was formally conveyed to the court of Athens,
+and on 21st December he landed in Crete amid enthusiastic demonstrations
+(see CRETE).
+
+
+  Macedonian troubles.
+
+In April 1899 Zaimes gave way to Theotokes, the chief of the Trikoupist
+party, who introduced various improvements in the administration of
+justice and other reforms including a measure transferring the
+administration of the army from the minister of war to the crown prince.
+In May 1901 a meeting took place at Abbazia, under the auspices of the
+Austro-Hungarian government, between King George and King Charles of
+Rumania with a view to the conclusion of a Graeco-Rumanian understanding
+directed against the growth of Slavonic, and especially Bulgarian,
+influence in Macedonia. The compact, however, was destined to be
+short-lived owing to the prosecution of a Rumanian propaganda among the
+semi-Hellenized Vlachs of Macedonia. In November riots took place at
+Athens, the patriotic indignation of the university students and the
+populace being excited by the issue of a translation of the Gospels into
+modern Greek at the suggestion of the queen. The publication was
+attributed to Panslavist intrigues against Greek supremacy over the
+Orthodox populations of the East, and the archbishop of Athens was
+compelled to resign. Theotokes, whose life was attempted, retired from
+power, and Zaimes formed a cabinet. In 1902 the progress of the
+Bulgarian movement in Macedonia once more caused great irritation in
+Greece. Zaimes, having been defeated at the elections in December,
+resigned, and was succeeded by Delyannes, whose popularity had not been
+permanently impaired by the misfortunes of the war. Delyannes now
+undertook to carry out extensive economic reforms, and introduced a
+measure restoring the control of the army to the ministry of war. He
+failed, however, to carry out his programme, and, being deserted by a
+section of his followers, resigned in June 1903, when Theotokes again
+became prime minister. The new cabinet resigned within a month owing to
+the outbreak of disturbances in the currant-growing districts, and
+Rhalles took office for the second time (July 8). The Bulgarian
+insurrection in Macedonia during the autumn caused great excitement in
+Athens, and Rhalles adopted a policy of friendship with Turkey (see
+MACEDONIA). The co-operation of the Greek party in Macedonia with the
+Turkish authorities exposed it to the vengeance of the insurgents, and
+in the following year a number of Greek bands were sent into that
+country. The campaign of retaliation was continued in subsequent years.
+
+
+  Murder of Delyannes.
+
+In December Rhalles, who had lost the support of the Delyannist party,
+was replaced by Theotokes, who promulgated a scheme of army
+reorganization, introduced various economies and imposed fresh taxation.
+In December the government was defeated on a vote of confidence and
+Delyannes once more became prime minister, obtaining a considerable
+majority in the elections which followed (March 1905), but on the 13th
+of June he was assassinated. He was succeeded by Rhalles, who effected a
+settlement of the currant question and cultivated friendly relations
+with Turkey in regard to Macedonia.
+
+In the autumn anti-Greek demonstrations in Rumania led to a rupture of
+relations with that country. In December the ministry resigned owing to
+an adverse vote of the chamber, and Theotokes formed a cabinet. The new
+government, as a preliminary to military and naval reorganization,
+introduced a law directed against the candidature of military officers
+for parliament. Owing to obstruction practised by the military members
+of the chamber a dissolution took place, and at the subsequent elections
+(April 1906) Theotokes secured a large majority. In the autumn various
+excesses committed against the Greeks in Bulgaria in reprisal for the
+depredations of the Greek bands in Macedonia caused great indignation in
+Greece, but diplomatic relations between the two countries were not
+suspended. On the 26th of September Prince George, who had resigned the
+high commissionership of Crete, returned to Athens; the designation of
+his successors was accorded by the protecting powers to King George as a
+satisfaction to Greek national sentiment (see CRETE). The great increase
+in the activity of the Greek bands in Macedonia during the following
+spring and summer led to the delivery of a Turkish note at Athens (July
+1907), which was supported by representations of the powers.
+
+In October 1908 the proclamation by the Cretan assembly of union with
+Greece threatened fresh complications, the cautious attitude of the
+Greek government leading to an agitation in the army, which came to a
+head in 1909. On the 18th of July a popular demonstration against his
+Cretan policy led to the resignation of Theotokes, whose successor,
+Rhalles, announced a programme of military and economical reform. The
+army, however, took matters into its own hands, and on the 23rd of
+August Rhalles was replaced by Mavromichales, the nominee of the
+"Military League." For the next six months constitutional government was
+practically superseded by that of the League, and for a while the crown
+itself seemed to be in danger. The influence of the League, however,
+rapidly declined; army and navy quarrelled; and a fresh _coup d'etat_ at
+the beginning of 1910 failed of its effect, owing to the firmness of the
+king. On the 7th of February Mavromichales resigned, and his successor,
+Dragoumis, accepting the Cretan leader Venezelo's suggestion of a
+national assembly, succeeded in persuading the League to dissolve (March
+29) on receiving the king's assurance that such an assembly would be
+convened. On the 31st, accordingly, King George formally proclaimed the
+convocation of a national assembly to deal with the questions at issue.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Finlay, _History of Greece_ (Oxford, 1877); K. N.
+  Sathas, [Greek: Mesaionike Bibliotheke] (7 vols., Venice, 1872-1894);
+  and [Greek: Mnemeia Hellenikes historias]. _Documents inedits relatifs
+  a l'histoire du moyen age_ (9 vols., Paris, 1880-1890); Sp. Trikoupes,
+  [Greek: Historia tes Hellenikes epanastaseos] (4 vols., 3rd ed.,
+  Athens, 1888); K. Paparrhegopoulos, [Greek: Historia tou Hellenikou
+  ethnous] (5 vols., 4th ed., Athens, 1903); J. Philemon, [Greek:
+  Dokimion historikon peri tes Hellenikes epanastaseos] (Athens,
+  1859-1861); P. Kontoyannes, [Greek: Oi Hellenes kata ton proton epi
+  Aikaterines 'Rhossotourkikon polemon] (Athens, 1903); D. G.
+  Kampouroglos, [Greek: Historia ton Athenaion, Tourkokratia,] 1458-1687
+  (2 vols., Athens, 1889-1890); and [Greek: Mnemeia tes historias ton
+  Athenaion], (3 vols., Athens, 1889-1892); G. E. Mavrogiannes, [Greek:
+  Historia ton Ionion neson,] 1797-1815 (2 vols., Athens, 1889); P.
+  Karolides, [Greek: Historia tou ith aionos], 1814-1892 (Athens,
+  1891-1893); E. Kyriakides, [Greek: Historia tou sugchronou
+  Hellenismou] 1832-1892 (2 vols., Athens, 1892); G. Konstantinides,
+  [Greek: Historia ton Hathenon apo Xristou genneseos mechri tou] 1821
+  (2nd ed., Athens, 1894); D. Bikelas, _La Grece byzantine et moderne_
+  (Paris, 1893).     (J. D. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See also GREEK ART, GREEK LANGUAGE, GREEK LAW, GREEK LITERATURE,
+    GREEK RELIGION.
+
+  [2] For the Geology of Greece see: M. Neumayr, &c., _Denks. k. Akad.
+    Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. Cl._ vol. xl. (1880); A. Philippson, _Der
+    Peloponnes_ (Berlin, 1892) and "Beitrage zur Kenntnis der
+    griechischen Inselwelt," _Peterm. Mitt._, Erganz.-heft No. 134
+    (1901); R. Lepsius, _Geologie von Attika_ (Berlin, 1893); L. Cayeux,
+    "Phenomenes de charriage dans la Mediterranee orientale," _C. R.
+    Acad. Sci. Paris_, vol. cxxxvi. (1903) pp. 474-476; J. Deprat, "Note
+    preliminaire sur la geologie de l'ile d'Eubee," _Bull. Soc. Geol.
+    France_, ser. 4, vol. iii. (1903) pp. 229-243, p. vii. and "Note sur
+    la geologie du massif du Pelion et sur l'influence exercee par les
+    massifs archeens sur la tectonique de l'Egeide," _ib._ vol. iv.
+    (1904), pp. 299-338.
+
+  [3] No state survey of Greece was available in 1908, though a survey
+    had been undertaken by the ministry of war.
+
+  [4] It would be more accurate to say to the year 1500 B.C. At Cnossus
+    the palace is sacked soon after this date, and the art, both in Crete
+    and in the whole Aegean area, becomes lifeless and decadent.
+
+  [5] See T. W. Allen in the _Classical Review_, vol. xx. (1906), No. 4
+    (May).
+
+  [6] It has been impugned by J. Beloch, _Griechische Geschichte_, i.
+    149 ff.
+
+  [7] _History of Greece_ (Eng. trans., i. 32 ff.); cf. the same
+    writer's _Ioner vor der ionischen Wanderung_.
+
+  [8] If the account of early Athenian constitutional history given in
+    the _Athenaion Politeia_ were accepted, it would follow that the
+    archons were inferior in authority to the Eupatrid Boule, the
+    Areopagus.
+
+  [9] The dates before the middle of the 7th century are in most cases
+    artificial, e.g. those given by Thucydides (book vi.) for the earlier
+    Sicilian settlements. See J. P. Mahaffy, _Journal of Hellenic
+    Studies_, ii. 164 ff.
+
+  [10] At Syracuse the _demos_ makes common cause with the Sicel
+    serf-population against the nobles (Herod. vii. 155).
+
+  [11] An exception should perhaps be made in the case of Thucydides.
+
+  [12] The Peisistratidae come off better, however.
+
+  [13] The numbers given by Herodotus (upwards of 5,000,000) are
+    enormously exaggerated. We must divide by ten or fifteen to arrive at
+    a probable estimate of the forces that actually crossed the
+    Hellespont.
+
+  [14] It has been denied by some writers (e.g. by A. H. J. Greenidge)
+    that Athens interfered with the constitutions of the subject-states.
+    For the view put forward in the text, the following passages may be
+    quoted: Aristotle, _Politics_ 1307 b 20; Isocrates, _Panegyricus_,
+    105, 106, _Panathenaicus_, 54 and 68; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iii. 4.
+    7; Ps.-Xen. _Athen. Constit._ i. 14, iii. 10.
+
+  [15] The evidence seems to indicate that all the more important
+    criminal cases throughout the empire were tried in the Athenian
+    courts. In civil cases Athens secured to the citizens of the
+    subject-states the right of suing Athenian citizens, as well as
+    citizens of other subject-states.
+
+  [16] After this date, and partly in consequence of the change, the
+    archonship, to which sortition was applied, loses its importance. The
+    _strategi_ (generals) become the chief executive officials. As
+    election was never replaced by the lot in their case, the change had
+    less practical meaning than might appear at first sight. (See ARCHON;
+    STRATEGUS.)
+
+  [17] For an estimate of the numbers annually engaged in the service
+    of Athens, see Aristot. _Ath. Pol._ 24. 3.
+
+  [18] Foreign is not used here as equivalent to non-Hellenic. It means
+    "belonging to another state, whether Greek or barbarian."
+
+  [19] It failed even to create a united Arcadia or a strong Messenia.
+
+  [20] See Demosthenes, _On the Crown_, 235. Philip was [Greek:
+    autokrator, despotes, egemon, kurios panton.]
+
+  [21] See _Archidamus_, 68; Philippus, 96, [Greek: oste raon einai
+    sustesai stratopedon meizon kai kreltton ek ton planomenon e ek ton
+    politeuomenon.]
+
+  [22] The _Liturgies_ (e.g. the trierarchy) had much the same effect
+    as a direct tax levied upon the wealthiest citizens.
+
+  [23] His extreme caution in approaching the question at an earlier
+    date is to be noticed. See, e.g., _Olynthiacs_, i. 19, 20.
+
+  [24] e.g. the two expeditions sent to Euboea, the cavalry force that
+    took part in the battle of Mantinea, and the army that fought at
+    Chaeronea. The troops in all these cases were citizens.
+
+  [25] For the altered character of warfare see Demosthenes,
+    _Philippics_, iii. 48, 49.
+
+  [26] It is known that the councillors were appointed by the states in
+    the Aetolian league; it is only surmised in the case of the Achaean.
+
+  [27] Strictly speaking, to 411 B.C. For the last seven years of the
+    war our principal authority is Xenophon, _Hellenica_, i., ii.
+
+  [28] Possibly some of his information about Persian affairs may have
+    been derived, at first or second hand, from Zopyrus, son of
+    Megabyzus, whose flight to Athens is mentioned in iii. 160.
+
+  [29] For a defence of Thucydides' judgment on all three statesmen,
+    see E. Meyer, _Forschungen_, ii. 296-379.
+
+  [30] On the discrepancies between Xenophon's account of the Thirty,
+    and Aristotle's, see G. Busolt, _Hermes_ (1898), pp. 71-86.
+
+  [31] The fragment of the New Historian (_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol.
+    v.) affords exceedingly important material for the criticism of
+    Xenophon's narrative. (See THEOPOMPUS.)
+
+  [32] Vol. iii. goes down to the end of the Peloponnesian War.
+
+
+
+
+GREEK ART. It is proposed in the present article to give a brief account
+of the history of Greek art and of the principles embodied in that
+history. In any broad view of history, the products of the various arts
+practised by a people constitute an objective and most important record
+of the spirit of that people. But all nations have not excelled in the
+same way: some have found their best expression in architecture, some in
+music, some in poetry. The Greeks most fully embodied their ideas in two
+ways, first in their splendid literature, both prose and verse, and
+secondly, in their plastic and pictorial art, in which matter they have
+remained to our days among the greatest instructors of mankind. The
+three arts of architecture, sculpture and painting were brought by them
+into a focus; and by their aid they produced a visible splendour of
+public life such as has perhaps been nowhere else attained.
+
+The volume of the remains of Greek civilization is so vast, and the
+learning with which these have been discussed is so ample, that it is
+hopeless to attempt to give in a work like the present any complete
+account of either. Rather we shall be frankly eclectic, choosing for
+consideration such results of Greek art as are most noteworthy and most
+characteristic. In some cases it will be possible to give a reference to
+a more detailed treatment of particular monuments in these volumes under
+the heading of the places to which they belong. Architectural detail is
+relegated to ARCHITECTURE and allied architectural articles. Coins (see
+NUMISMATICS) and gems (see GEMS) are treated apart, as are vases
+(CERAMICS), and in the bibliography which closes this article an effort
+is made to direct those who wish for further information in any
+particular branch of our subject.
+
+1. _The Rediscovery of Greek Art._--The visible works of Greek
+architect, sculptor and painter, accumulated in the cities of Greece and
+Asia Minor until the Roman conquest. And in spite of the ravages of
+conquering Roman generals, and the more systematic despoilings of the
+emperors, we know that when Pausanias visited Greece, in the age of the
+Antonines, it was from coast to coast a museum of works of art of all
+ages. But the tide soon turned. Works of originality were no longer
+produced, and a succession of disasters gradually obliterated those of
+previous ages. In the course of the Teutonic and Slavonic invasions from
+the north, or in consequence of earthquakes, very frequent in Greece,
+the splendid cities and temples fell into ruins; and with the taking of
+Constantinople by the Franks in 1204 the last great collection of works
+of Greek sculpture disappeared. But while paintings decayed, and works
+in metal were melted down, many marble buildings and statues survived,
+at least in a mutilated condition, while terra-cotta is almost proof
+against decay.
+
+With the Renaissance attention was directed to the extant remains of
+Greek and Roman art; as early as the 15th century collections of ancient
+sculpture, coins and gems began to be formed in Italy; and in the 16th
+the enthusiasm spread to Germany and France. The earl of Arundel, in the
+reign of James I., was the first Englishman to collect antiques from
+Italy and Asia Minor: his marbles are now in the Ashmolean Museum at
+Oxford. Systematic travel in Greece for the discovery of buildings and
+works of art was begun by Spon and Wheler (1675-1676); and the discovery
+of Pompeii in 1748 opened a new chapter in the history of ancient art.
+
+But though kings delighted to form galleries of ancient statues, and the
+great Italian artists of the Renaissance drew from them inspiration for
+their paintings and bronzes, the first really critical appreciation of
+Greek art belongs to Winckelmann (_Geschichte der Kunst des Altertums_,
+1764). The monuments accessible to Winckelmann were but a very small
+proportion of those we now possess, and in fact mostly works of inferior
+merit: but he was the first to introduce the historical method into the
+treatment of ancient art, and to show how it embodied the ideas of the
+great peoples of the ancient world. He was succeeded by Lessing, and the
+waves of thought and feeling set in motion by these two affected the
+cultivated class in all nations,--they inspired in particular Goethe in
+Germany and Lord Byron in England.
+
+The second stage in the recovery of Greek art begins with the permission
+accorded by the Porte to Lord Elgin in 1800 to remove to England the
+sculptural decoration of the Parthenon and other buildings of Athens.
+These splendid works, after various vicissitudes, became the property of
+the English nation, and are now the chief treasures of the British
+Museum. The sight of them was a revelation to critics and artists,
+accustomed only to the base copies which fill the Italian galleries, and
+a new epoch in the appreciation of Greek art began. English and German
+savants, among whom Cockerell and Stackelberg were conspicuous,
+recovered the glories of the temples of Aegina and Bassae. Leake and
+Ross, and later Curtius, journeyed through the length and breadth of
+Greece, identifying ancient sites and studying the monuments which were
+above ground. Ross reconstructed the temple of Athena Nike on the
+Acropolis of Athens from fragments rescued from a Turkish bastion.
+
+Meantime more methodical exploration brought to light the remains of
+remarkable civilizations in Asia, not only in the valley of the
+Euphrates, but in Lycia, whence Sir Charles Fellows brought to London
+the remains of noteworthy tombs, among which the so-called Harpy
+Monument and Nereid Monument take the first place. Still more important
+were the accessions derived from the excavations of Sir Charles Newton,
+who in the years 1852-1859 resided as consul in Asia Minor, and explored
+the sites of the mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the shrine of Demeter at
+Cnidus. Pullan at Priene, and Wood at Ephesus also made fruitful
+excavations.
+
+The next landmark is set by the German excavations at Olympia (1876 and
+foll.), which not only were conducted with a scientific completeness
+before unknown, and at great cost, but also established the principle
+that in future all the results of excavations in Greece must remain in
+the country, the right of first publication only remaining with the
+explorers. The discovery of the Hermes of Praxiteles, almost the only
+certain original of a great Greek sculptor which we possess, has
+furnished a new and invaluable fulcrum for the study of ancient art. In
+emulation of the achievements of the Germans at Olympia, the Greek
+archaeological society methodically excavated the Athenian acropolis,
+and were rewarded by finding numerous statues and fragments of pediments
+belonging to the age of Peisistratus, an age when the promise of art was
+in full bud. More recently French explorers have made a very thorough
+examination of the site of Delphi, and have succeeded in recovering
+almost complete two small treasuries, those of the people of Athens and
+of Cnidus or Siphnos, the latter of 6th-century Ionian work, and adorned
+with extremely important sculpture.
+
+No other site of the same importance as Athens, Olympia and Delphi
+remains for excavation in Greece proper. But in all parts of the
+country, at Tegea, Corinth, Sparta and on a number of other ancient
+sites, striking and important monuments have come to light. And at the
+same time monuments already known in Italy and Sicily, such as the
+temples of Paestum, Selinus and Agrigentum have been re-examined with
+fuller knowledge and better system. Only Asia Minor, under the influence
+of Turkish rule, has remained a country where systematic exploration is
+difficult. Something, however, has been accomplished at Ephesus, Priene,
+Assos and Miletus, and great works of sculpture such as the reliefs of
+the great altar at Pergamum, now at Berlin, and the splendid sarcophagi
+from Sidon, now at Constantinople, show what might be expected from
+methodic investigation of the wealthy Greek cities of Asia.
+
+From further excavations at Herculaneum we may expect a rich harvest of
+works of art of the highest class, such as have already been found in
+the excavations on that site in the past; and the building operations at
+Rome are constantly bringing to light fine statues brought from Greece
+in the time of the Empire, which are now placed in the collections of
+the Capitol and the Baths of Diocletian.
+
+The work of explorers on Greek sites requires as its complement and
+corrective much labour in the great museums of Europe. As museum work
+apart from exploration tends to dilettantism and pedantry, so
+exploration by itself does not produce reasoned knowledge. When a new
+building, a great original statue, a series of vases is discovered,
+these have to be fitted in to the existing frame of our knowledge; and
+it is by such fitting in that the edifice of knowledge is enlarged. In
+all the museums and universities of Europe the fresh examination of new
+monuments, the study of style and subject, and attempts to work out
+points in the history of ancient art, are incessantly going on. Such
+archaeological work is an important element in the gradual education of
+the world, and is fruitful, quite apart from the particular results
+attained, because it encourages a method of thought. Archaeology,
+dealing with things which can be seen and handled, yet being a species
+of historic study, lies on the borderland between the province of
+natural science and that of historic science, and furnishes a bridge
+whereby the methods of investigation proper to physical and biological
+study may pass into the human field.
+
+  These investigations and studies are recorded, partly in books, but
+  more particularly in papers in learned journals (see bibliography),
+  such as the _Mitteilungen_ of the German Institute, and the English
+  _Journal of Hellenic Studies_.
+
+An example or two may serve to give the reader a clearer notion of the
+recent progress in the knowledge of Greek art.
+
+To begin with architecture. Each of the palmary sites of which we have
+spoken has rendered up examples of early Greek temples. At Olympia there
+is the Heraeum, earliest of known temples of Greece proper, which
+clearly shows the process whereby stone gradually superseded wood as a
+constructive material. At Delphi the explorers have been so fortunate as
+to be able to put together the treasuries of the Cnidians (or Siphnians)
+and of the Athenians. The former (see fig. 17) is a gem of early Ionic
+art, with two Caryatid figures in front in the place of columns, and
+adorned with the most delicate tracery and fine reliefs. On the Athenian
+acropolis very considerable remains have been found of temples which
+were destroyed by the Persians when they temporarily occupied the site
+in 480 B.C. And recently the ever-renewed study of the Erechtheum has
+resulted in a restoration of its original form more valuable and
+trustworthy than any previously made.
+
+In the field of sculpture recent discoveries have been too many and too
+important to be mentioned at any length. One instance may serve to mark
+the rapidity of our advance. When the remains of the Mausoleum were
+brought to London from the excavations begun by Sir Charles Newton in
+1856 we knew from Pliny that four great sculptors, Scopas, Bryaxis,
+Leochares and Timotheus, had worked on the sculpture; but we knew of
+these artists little more than the names. At present we possess many
+fragments of two pediments at Tegea executed under the direction of
+Scopas, we have a basis with reliefs signed by Bryaxis, we have
+identified a group in the Vatican museum as a copy of the Ganymede of
+Leochares, and we have pedimental remains from Epidaurus which we know
+from inscriptional evidence to be either the works of Timotheus or made
+from his models. Any one can judge how enormously our power of
+criticizing the Mausoleum sculptures, and of comparing them with
+contemporary monuments, has increased.
+
+In regard to ancient painting we can of course expect no such fresh
+illumination. Many important wail-paintings of the Roman age have been
+found at Rome and Pompeii: but we have no certain or even probable work
+of any great Greek painter. We have to content ourselves with studying
+the colouring of reliefs, such as those of the sarcophagi at
+Constantinople, and the drawings on vases, in order to get some notion
+of the composition and drawing of painted scenes in the great age of
+Greece. As to the portraits of the Roman age painted on wood which have
+come in considerable quantities from Egypt, they stand at a far lower
+level than even the paintings of Pompeii. The number of our
+vase-paintings, however, increases steadily, and whole classes, such as
+the early vases of Ionia, are being marked off from the crowd, and so
+becoming available for use in illustrating the history of Hellenic
+civilization.
+
+The study of Greek art is thus one which is eminently progressive. It
+has over the study of Greek literature the immense advantage that its
+materials increase far more rapidly. And it is becoming more and more
+evident that a sound and methodic study of Greek art is quite as
+indispensable as a foundation for an artistic and archaeological
+education as the study of Greek poets and orators is as a basis of
+literary education. The extreme simplicity and thorough rationality of
+Greek art make it an unrivalled field for the training and exercise of
+the faculties which go to the making of the art-critic and art
+historian.
+
+2. _The General Principles of Greek Art._--Before proceeding to sketch
+the history of the rise and decline of Greek art, it is desirable
+briefly to set forth the principles which underlie it (see also P.
+Gardner's _Grammar of Greek Art_).
+
+As the literature of Greece is composed in a particular language, the
+grammar and the syntax of which have to be studied before the works in
+poetry and prose can be read, so Greek works of art are composed in what
+may be called an artistic language. To the accidence of a grammar may be
+compared the mere technique of sculpture and painting: to the syntax of
+a grammar correspond the principles of composition and grouping of
+individual figures into a relief or picture. By means of the rules of
+this grammar the Greek artist threw into form the ideas which belonged
+to him as a personal or a racial possession.
+
+We may mention first some of the more external conditions of Greek art;
+next, some of those which the Greek spirit posited for itself.
+
+No nation is in its works wholly free from the domination of climate and
+geographical position; least of all a people so keenly alive to the
+influence of the outer world as the Greeks. They lived in a land where
+the soil was dry and rocky, far less hospitable to vegetation than that
+of western Europe, while on all sides the horizon of the land was
+bounded by hard and jagged lines of mountain. The sky was extremely
+clear and bright, sunshine for a great part of the year almost
+perpetual, and storms, which are more than passing gales, rare. It was
+in accordance with these natural features that temples and other
+buildings should be simple in form and bounded by clear lines. Such
+forms as the cube, the oblong, the cylinder, the triangle, the pyramid
+abound in their constructions. Just as in Switzerland the gables of the
+chalets match the pine-clad slopes and lofty summits of the mountains,
+so in Greece, amid barer hills of less elevation, the Greek temple looks
+thoroughly in place. But its construction is related not only to the
+surface of the land, but also to the character of the race. M. Emile
+Boutmy, in his interesting _Philosophie de l'architecture en Grece_, has
+shown how the temple is a triumph of the senses and the intellect, not
+primarily emotional, but showing in every part definite purpose and
+design. It also exhibits in a remarkable degree the love of balance, of
+symmetry, of a mathematical proportion of parts and correctness of
+curvature which belong to the Greek artist.
+
+The purposes of a Greek temple may be readily judged from its plan.
+Primarily it was the abode of the deity, whose statue dwelt in it as men
+dwell in their own houses. Hence the cella or _naos_ is the central
+feature of the building. Here was placed the image to which worship was
+brought, while the treasures belonging to the god were disposed partly
+in the cella itself, partly in a kind of treasury which often existed,
+as in the Parthenon, behind the cella. There was in large temples a
+porch of approach, the _pronaos_, and another behind, the
+_opisthodomos_. Temples were not meant for, nor accommodated to, regular
+services or a throng of worshippers. Processions and festivals took
+place in the open air, in the streets and fields, and men entered the
+abodes of the gods at most in groups and families, commonly alone. Thus
+when a place had been found for the statue, which stood for the presence
+of the god, for the small altar of incense, for the implements of cult
+and the gifts of votaries, little space remained free, and great spaces
+or subsidiary chapels such as are usual in Christian cathedrals did not
+exist (see TEMPLE).
+
+Here our concern is not with the purposes or arrangements of a temple,
+but with its appearance and construction, regarded as a work of art, and
+as an embodiment of Greek ideas. A few simple and striking principles
+may be formulated, which are characteristic of all Greek buildings:--
+
+(i.) Each member of the building has one function, and only one, and
+this function controls even the decoration of that member. The pillar of
+a temple is made to support the architrave and is for that purpose only.
+The flutings of the pillar, being perpendicular, emphasize this fact.
+The line of support which runs up through the pillar is continued in the
+triglyph, which also shows perpendicular grooves. On the other hand, the
+wall of a temple is primarily meant to divide or space off; thus it may
+well at the top be decorated by a horizontal band of relief, which
+belongs to it as a border belongs to a curtain. The base of a column, if
+moulded, is moulded in such a way as to suggest support of a great
+weight; the capital of a column is so carved as to form a transition
+between the column and the cornice which it supports.
+
+(ii.) Greek architects took the utmost pains with the proportions, the
+symmetry as they called it, of the parts of their buildings. This was a
+thing in which the keen and methodical eyes of the Greeks delighted, to
+a degree which a modern finds it hard to understand. Simple and natural
+relations, 1:2, 1:3, 2:3 and the like, prevailed between various members
+of a construction. All curves were planned with great care, to please
+the eye with their flow; and the alternations and correspondences of
+features is visible at a glance. For example, the temple must have two
+pediments and two porches, and on its sides and fronts triglyph and
+metope must alternate with unvarying regularity.
+
+(iii.) Rigidity in the simple lines of a temple is avoided by the device
+that scarcely any outline is actually straight. All are carefully
+planned and adapted to the eye of the spectator. In the Parthenon the
+line of the floor is curved, the profiles of the columns are curved, the
+corner columns slope inward from their bases, the columns are not even
+equidistant. This elaborate adaptation, called entasis, was expounded by
+F. C. Penrose in his work on Athenian architecture, and has since been
+observed in several of the great temples of Greece.
+
+(iv.) Elaborate decoration is reserved for those parts of the temple
+which have, or at least appear to have, no strain laid upon them. It is
+true that in the archaic age experiments were made in carving reliefs on
+the lower drums of columns (as at Ephesus) and on the line of the
+architrave (as at Assus). But such examples were not followed. Nearly
+always the spaces reserved for mythological reliefs or groups are the
+tops of walls, the spaces between the triglyphs, and particularly the
+pediments surmounting the two fronts, which might be left hollow without
+danger to the stability of the edifice. Detached figures in the round
+are in fact found only in the pediments, or standing upon the tops of
+the pediments. And metopes are sculptured in higher relief than friezes.
+
+  "When we examine in detail even the simplest architectural decoration,
+  we discover a combination of care, sense of proportion, and reason.
+  The flutings of an Ionic column are not in section mere arcs of a
+  circle, but made up of a combination of curves which produce a
+  beautiful optical effect; the lines of decoration, as may be best seen
+  in the case of the Erechtheum, are cut with a marvellous delicacy.
+  Instead of trying to invent new schemes, the mason contents himself
+  with improving the regular patterns until they approach perfection,
+  and he takes everything into consideration. Mouldings on the outside
+  of a temple, in the full light of the sun, are differently planned
+  from those in the diffused light of the interior. Mouldings executed
+  in soft stone are less fine than those in marble. The mason thinks
+  before he works, and while he works, and thinks in entire
+  correspondence with his surroundings."[1]
+
+Greek architecture, however, is treated elsewhere (see ARCHITECTURE); we
+will therefore proceed to speak briefly of the principles exemplified in
+sculpture. Existing works of Greek sculpture fall easily into two
+classes. The first class comprises what may be called works of
+substantive art, statues or groups made for their own sake and to be
+judged by themselves. Such are cult-statues of gods and goddesses from
+temple and shrine, honorary portraits of rulers or of athletes,
+dedicated groups and the like. The second class comprises decorative
+sculptures, such as were made, usually in relief, for the decoration of
+temples and tombs and other buildings, and were intended to be
+subordinate to architectural effect.
+
+Speaking broadly, it may be said that the works of substantive sculpture
+in our museums are in the great majority of cases copies of doubtful
+exactness and very various merit. The Hermes of Praxiteles is almost the
+only marble statue which can be assigned positively to one of the great
+sculptors; we have to work back towards the productions of the peers of
+Praxiteles through works of poor execution, often so much restored in
+modern times as to be scarcely recognizable. Decorative works, on the
+other hand, are very commonly originals, and their date can often be
+accurately fixed, as they belong to known buildings. They are thus
+infinitely more trustworthy and more easy to deal with than the copies
+of statues of which the museums of Europe, and more especially those of
+Italy, are full. They are also more commonly unrestored. But yet there
+are certain disadvantages attaching to them. Decorative works, even when
+carried out under the supervision of a great sculptor, were but seldom
+executed by him. Usually they were the productions of his pupils or
+masons. Thus they are not on the same level of art as substantive
+sculpture. And they vary in merit to an extraordinary extent, according
+to the capacity of the man who happened to have them in hand, and who
+was probably but little controlled. Every one knows how noble are the
+pedimental sculptures of the Parthenon. But we know no reason why they
+should be so vastly superior to the frieze from Phigalia; nor why the
+heads from the temple at Tegea should be so fine, while those from the
+contemporary temple at Epidaurus should be comparatively insignificant.
+From the records of payments made to the sculptors who worked on the
+Erechtheum at Athens it appears that they were ordinary masons, some of
+them not even citizens, and paid at the rate of 60 drachms (about 60
+francs) for each figure, whether of man or horse, which they produced.
+Such piece-work would not, in our days, produce a very satisfactory
+result.
+
+Works of substantive sculpture may be divided into two classes, the
+statues of human beings and those of the gods. The line between the two
+is not, however, very easy to draw, or very definite. For in
+representing men the Greek sculptor had an irresistible inclination to
+idealize, to represent what was generic and typical rather than what was
+individual, and the essential rather than the accidental. And in
+representing deities he so fully anthropomorphized them that they became
+men and women, only raised above the level of everyday life and endowed
+with a superhuman stateliness. Moreover, there was a class of heroes
+represented largely in art who covered the transition from men to gods.
+For example, if one regards Heracles as a deity and Achilles as a man of
+the heroic age and of heroic mould, the line between the two will be
+found to be very narrow.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  _Photo, Brogi._
+  FIG. 50. HARMODIUS AND ARISTOGITON. (NAT. MUS. NAPLES.)
+
+  _Photo, Brogi._
+  FIG. 51. FARNESE BULL. (NAPLES.)
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 52. LAOCOON GROUP. (VATICAN.)
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 53. GANYMEDE OF LEOCHARES. (VATICAN.)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 54.--FLYING OF MARSYAS. (VILLA ALBANI, ROME.)
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 55.--APOLLO OF THE BELVIDERE. (VATICAN.)]
+
+  FIG. 56.--HEAD OF YOUNG ALEXANDER. (BRIT. MUS.)
+
+  _Photo, Seebah._
+  FIG. 57.--HERMES OF ALCAMENES. (CONSTANTINOPLE.)
+
+  FIG. 58.--THESEUS AND AMAZON (ERETRIA).
+
+  _Photo, Mansell._
+  FIG. 59.--DRUM OF COLUMN FROM EPHESUS. (BRIT. MUS.)
+
+  _Photo, Baldwin Coolidge._
+  FIG. 60.--YOUNG HERMES. (MUS. OF FINE ARTS, BOSTON.)]
+
+Nevertheless one may for convenience speak first of human and afterwards
+of divine figures. It was the custom from the 6th century onwards to
+honour those who had done any great achievement by setting up their
+statues in conspicuous positions. One of the earliest examples is that
+of the tyrannicides, Harmodius and Aristogiton, a group, a copy of which
+has come down to us (Plate I. fig. 50[2]). Again, people who had not won
+any distinction were in the habit of dedicating to the deities portraits
+of themselves or of a priest or priestess, thus bringing themselves, as
+it were, constantly under the notice of a divine patron. The rows of
+statues before the temples at Miletus, Athens and elsewhere came thus
+into being. But from the point of view of art, by far the most important
+class of portraits consisted of athletes who had won victories at some
+of the great games of Greece, at Olympia, Delphi or elsewhere. Early in
+the 6th century the custom arose of setting up portraits of athletic
+victors in the great sacred places. We have records of numberless such
+statues executed by all the greatest sculptors. When Pausanias visited
+Greece he found them everywhere far too numerous for complete mention.
+
+It is the custom of studying and copying the forms of the finest of the
+young athletes, combined with the Greek habit of complete nudity during
+the sports, which lies at the basis of Greek excellence in sculpture.
+Every sculptor had unlimited opportunities for observing young vigorous
+bodies in every pose and in every variety of strain. The natural sense
+of beauty which was an endowment of the Greek race impelled him to copy
+and preserve what was excellent, and to omit what was ungainly or poor.
+Thus there existed, and in fact there was constantly accumulating, a
+vast series of types of male beauty, and the public taste was cultivated
+to an extreme delicacy. And of course this taste, though it took its
+start from athletic customs, and was mainly nurtured by them, spread to
+all branches of portraiture, so that elderly men, women, and at last
+even children, were represented in art with a mixture of ideality and
+fidelity to nature such as has not been reached by the sculpture of any
+other people.
+
+The statues of the gods began either with stiff and ungainly figures
+roughly cut out of the trunk of a tree, or with the monstrous and
+symbolical representations of Oriental art. In the Greece of late times
+there were still standing rude pillars, with the tops sometimes cut into
+a rough likeness to the human form. And in early decoration of vases and
+vessels one may find Greek deities represented with wings, carrying in
+their hands lions or griffins, bearing on their heads lofty crowns. But
+as Greek art progressed it grew out of this crude symbolism. In the
+language of Brunn, the Greek artists borrowed from Oriental or Mycenaean
+sources the letters used in their works, but with these letters they
+spelled out the ideas of their own nation. What the artists of Babylon
+and Egypt express in the character of the gods by added attribute or
+symbol, swiftness by wings, control of storms by the thunderbolt, traits
+of character by animal heads, the artists of Greece work more and more
+fully into the sculptural type; modifying the human subject by the
+constant addition of something which is above the ordinary level of
+humanity, until we reach the Zeus of Pheidias or the Demeter of Cnidus.
+When the decay of the high ethical art of Greece sets in, the gods
+become more and more warped to the merely human level. They lose their
+dignity, but they never lose their charm.
+
+The decorative sculpture of Greece consists not of single figures, but
+of groups; and in the arrangement of these groups the strict Greek laws
+of symmetry, of rhythm, and of balance, come in. We will take the three
+most usual forms, the pediment, the metope and the frieze, all of which
+belong properly to the temple, but are characteristic of all decoration,
+whether of tomb, trophy or other monument.
+
+The form of the pediment is triangular; the height of the triangle in
+proportion to its length being about 1:8. The conditions of space are
+here strict and dominant; to comply with them requires some ingenuity.
+To a modern sculptor the problem thus presented is almost insoluble; but
+it was allowable in ancient art to represent figures in a single
+composition as of various sizes, in correspondence not to actual
+physical measurement but to importance. As the more important figures
+naturally occupy the midmost place in a pediment, their greater size
+comes in conveniently. And by placing some of the persons of the group
+in a standing, some in a seated, some in a reclining position, it can be
+so contrived that their heads are equidistant from the upper line of the
+pediment.
+
+The statues in a Greek pediment, which are after quite an early period
+usually executed in the round, fall into three, five or seven groups,
+according to the size of the whole. As examples to illustrate this
+exposition we take the two pediments of the temple at Olympia, the most
+complete which have come down to us, which are represented in figs. 33
+and 34. The east pediment represents the preparation for the chariot
+race between Pelops and Oenomaus. The central group consists of five
+figures, Zeus standing between the two pairs of competitors and their
+wives. In the corners recline the two river-gods Alpheus and Cladeus,
+who mark the locality; and the two sides are filled up with the closely
+corresponding groups of the chariots of Oenomaus and Pelops with their
+grooms and attendants. Every figure to the left of Zeus balances a
+corresponding figure on his right, and all the lines of the composition
+slope towards a point above the apex of the pediment.
+
+In the opposite or western pediment is represented the battle between
+Lapiths and Centaurs which broke out at the marriage of Peirithous in
+Thessaly. Here we have no less than nine groups. In the midst is Apollo.
+On each side of him is a group of three, a centaur trying to carry off a
+woman and a Lapith striking at him. Beyond these on each side is a
+struggling pair, next once more a trio of two combatants and a woman,
+and finally in each corner two reclining female figures, the outermost
+apparently nymphs to mark locality. A careful examination of these
+compositions will show the reader more clearly than detailed description
+how clearly in this kind of group Greek artists adhered to the rules of
+rhythm and of balance.
+
+The metopes were the long series of square spaces which ran along the
+outer walls of temples between the upright triglyphs and the cornice.
+Originally they may have been left open and served as windows; but the
+custom came in as early as the 7th century, first of filling them in
+with painted boards or slabs of stone, and next of adorning them with
+sculpture. The metopes of the Treasury of Sicyon at Delphi (Plate IV.
+fig. 66) are as early as the first half of the 6th century. This
+recurrence of a long series of square fields for occupation well suited
+the genius and the habits of the sculptor. As subjects he took the
+successive exploits of some hero such as Heracles or Theseus, or the
+contemporary groups of a battle. His number of figures was limited to
+two or three, and these figures had to be worked into a group or scheme,
+the main features of which were determined by artistic tradition, but
+which could be varied in a hundred ways so as to produce a pleasing and
+in some degree novel result.
+
+With metopes, as regards shape, we may compare the reliefs of Greek
+tombs, which also usually occupy a space roughly square, and which also
+comprise but a few figures arranged in a scheme generally traditional. A
+figure standing giving his hand to one seated, two men standing hand in
+hand, or a single figure in some vigorous pose is sufficient to satisfy
+the simple but severe taste of the Greeks.
+
+In regard to friezes, which are long reliefs containing figures ranged
+between parallel lines, there is more variety of custom. In temples the
+height of the relief from the background varies according to the light
+in which it was to stand, whether direct or diffused. Almost all Greek
+friezes, however, are of great simplicity in arrangement and
+perspective. Locality is at most hinted at by a few stones or trees,
+never actually portrayed. There is seldom more than one line of figures,
+in combat or procession, their heads all equidistant from the top line
+of the frieze. They are often broken up into groups; and when this is
+the case, figure will often balance figure on either side of a central
+point almost as rigidly as in a pediment. An example of this will be
+found in the section of the Mausoleum frieze shown in fig. 70, Plate IV.
+Some of the friezes executed by Greek artists for semi-Greek peoples,
+such as those adorning the tomb at Trysa in Lycia, have two planes, the
+figures in the background being at a higher level.
+
+The rules of balance and symmetry in composition which are followed in
+Greek decorative art are still more to be discerned in the paintings of
+vases, which must serve, in the absence of more dignified compositions,
+to enlighten us as to the methods of Greek painters. Great painters
+would not, of course, be bound by architectonic rule in the same degree
+as the mere workmen who painted vases. Nevertheless we must never forget
+that Greek painting of the earlier ages was of extreme simplicity. It
+did not represent localities, save by some slight hint; it had next to
+no perspective; the colours used were but very few even down to the days
+of Apelles. Most of the great pictures of which we hear consisted of but
+one or two figures; and when several figures were introduced they were
+kept apart and separately treated, though, of course, not without
+relation to one another. Idealism and ethical purpose must have
+predominated in painting as in sculpture and in the drama and in the
+writing of history.
+
+We will take from vases a few simple groups to illustrate the laws of
+Greek drawing; colouring we cannot illustrate.
+
+[Illustration: (_Brit. Mus. Catalogue of Vases_, iii, Pl. vi. 2).
+
+FIG. 1.--Kylix by Epictetus]
+
+The fields offered to the draughtsman on Greek vases naturally follow
+the form of the vase; but they may be set down as approximately round,
+square or oblong. To each of these spaces the artist carefully adapts
+his designs. In fig. 1 we have a characteristic adaptation to circular
+form by the vase painter Epictetus.
+
+In the early period of painting all the space not occupied by the
+figures is filled with patterns or accessories, or even animals which
+have no connexion with the subject (fig. 9). In later and more developed
+art, as in this example, the outlines are so figured as to fill the
+space.
+
+When the space is square we have much the same problem as is presented
+by the metope spaces of a temple. In the case of both square and oblong
+fields the laws of balance are carefully observed. Thus if there is an
+even number of figures in the scheme, two of them will form a sort of
+centre-piece, those on either side balancing one another. If the number
+of figures is uneven, either there will be a group of three in the
+midst, or the midmost figure will be so contrived that he belongs wholly
+to neither side, but is the balance between them. These remarks will be
+made clear by figs. 2 and 3, which repeat the two sides of an amphora,
+one of which bears a design of three figures, the other of four.
+
+[Illustration: From _Wiener Vorlegeblatter_, 1890, Pl. viii., by
+permission of the Director of the _K. K. Osterr. Archaol. Institut._
+
+FIG. 2.
+
+FIG. 3.
+
+Vase Drawings.]
+
+The Greek artist not only adhered to the architectonic laws of balance
+and symmetry, but he thought in schemes. Certain group arrangements had
+a recognized signification. There are schemes for warriors fighting on
+equal terms, and schemes which represent the defeat of one of these by
+the other; the vanquished has commonly fallen on his knees, but still
+defends himself. There is a scheme for the leading away of a captive
+woman; the captor leads her by the hand looking back at her, while a
+friend walks behind to ward off pursuit. Such schemes, are constantly
+varied in detail, and often very skilfully varied; but the Greek artist
+uses schemes as a sort of shorthand, to show as clearly as possible what
+he meant. They serve the same purpose as the mask in the acting of a
+play, the first glance at which will tell the spectators what they have
+to look for.
+
+No doubt the great painters of Greece were not so much under the
+dominion of these schemes as the very inferior painters of vases. They
+used the schemes for their own purposes instead of being used by them.
+But as great poets do not revolt against the restrictions of the sonnet
+or of rhyme, so great artists in Greece probably found recognized
+conventions more helpful than hurtful.
+
+Students of Greek sculpture and vases must be warned not to suppose that
+Greek reliefs and drawings can be taken as direct illustrations of Homer
+or the dramatists. Book illustration in the modern sense did not exist
+in Greece. The poet and the painter pursued courses which were parallel,
+but never in actual contact. Each moved by the traditions of his own
+craft. The poet took the accepted tale and enshrined it in a setting of
+feeling and imagination. The painter took the traditional schemes which
+were current, and altered or enlarged them, adding new figures and new
+motives, but not attempting to set aside the general scheme. But
+varieties suitable to poetry were not likely to be suitable in painting.
+Thus it is but seldom that a vase-painter seems to have had in his mind,
+as he drew, passages of the Homeric poems, though these might well be
+familiar to him. And almost never does a vase-painting of the 5th
+century show any sign of the influence of the dramatists, who were
+bringing before the Athenian public on the stage many of the tales and
+incidents popular with the vase-painter. Only on vases of lower Italy of
+the 4th century and later we can occasionally discern something of
+Aeschylean and Euripidean influence in the treatment of a myth; and even
+in a few cases we may discern that the vase-painter has taken
+suggestions direct from the actors in the theatre.
+
+3. _Historic Sketch._--We propose next to trace in brief outline the
+history of Greek art from its rise to its decay. We begin with the rise
+of a national art, after the destruction of the Minoan and Mycenaean
+civilizations of early Greece by the irruption of tribes from the north,
+that is to say, about 800 B.C., and we stop with the Roman age of
+Greece, after which Greek art works in the service of the conquerors
+(see ROMAN ART). The period 800-50 B.C. we divide into four sections:
+(1) the period down to the Persian Wars, 800-480 B.C.; (2) the period of
+the early schools of art, 480-400 B.C.; (3) the period of the later
+great schools, 400-300 B.C.; (4) the period of Hellenistic art, 300-50
+B.C. In dealing with these successive periods we confine our sketch to
+the three greater branches of representative art, architecture,
+sculpture and painting, which in Greece are closely connected. The
+lesser arts, of pottery, gem-engraving, coin-stamping and the like, are
+treated of under the heads of CERAMICS, GEM, NUMISMATICS, &c., while the
+more technical treatment of architectural construction are dealt with
+under ARCHITECTURE and allied architectural articles. Further, for brief
+accounts of the chief artists the reader is referred to biographical
+articles, under such heads as PHEIDIAS, PRAXITELES, APELLES. We treat
+here only of the main course of art in its historic evolution.
+
+
+  Northern invasion.
+
+_Period I. 800-480_ B.C.--The fact is now generally allowed that the
+Mycenaean, or as it is now termed Aegean, civilization was for the most
+part destroyed by an invasion from the north. This invasion appears to
+have been gradual; its racial character is much in dispute.
+Archaeological evidence abundantly proves that it was the conquest of a
+more by a less rich and civilized race. In the graves of the period
+(900-600 B.C.) we find none of the wealthy spoil which has made
+celebrated the tombs of Mycenae and Vaphio (q.v.). The character of the
+pottery and the bronze-work which is found in these later graves reminds
+us of the art of the necropolis of Hallstatt in Austria, and other sites
+belonging to what is called the bronze age of North Europe. Its
+predominant characteristic is the use of geometrical forms, the lozenge,
+the triangle, the maeander, the circle with tangents, in place of the
+elaborate spirals and plant-forms which mark Mycenaean ware. For this
+reason the period from the 9th to the 7th century in Greece passes by
+the name of "the Geometric Age." It is commonly held that in the remains
+of the Geometric Age we may trace the influence of the Dorians, who,
+coming in as a hardy but uncultivated race, probably of purer Aryan
+blood than the previous inhabitants of Greece, not only brought to an
+end the wealth and the luxury which marked the Mycenaean age, but also
+replaced an art which was in character essentially southern by one which
+belonged rather to the north and the west. The great difficulty inherent
+in this view, a difficulty which has yet to be met, lies in the fact
+that some of the most abundant and characteristic remains of the
+geometric age which we possess come, not from Peloponnesus, but from
+Athens and Boeotia, which were never conquered by the Dorians.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Geometric Vase from Rhodes. (Ashmolean Museum.)]
+
+[Illustration: _Mon. d. Inst._ ix. 39.
+
+FIG. 5.--Corpse with Mourners.]
+
+
+  Geometric ware.
+
+The geometric ware is for the most part adorned with painted patterns
+only. Fig. 4 is a characteristic example, a small two-handled vase from
+Rhodes in the Ashmolean Museum, the adornment of which consists in
+zigzags, circles with tangents, and lines of water birds, perhaps swans.
+Sometimes, however, especially in the case of large vases from the
+cemetery at Athens, which adjoins the Dipylon gate, scenes from Greek
+life are depicted, from daily life, not from legend or divine myth.
+Especially scenes from the lying-in-state and the burial of the dead are
+prevalent. An excerpt from a Dipylon vase (fig. 5) shows a dead man on
+his couch surrounded by mourners, male and female. Both sexes are
+apparently represented naked, and are distinguished very simply; some of
+them hold branches to sprinkle the corpse or to keep away flies. It will
+be seen how primitive and conventional is the drawing of this age,
+presenting a wonderful contrast to the free drawing and modelling of the
+Mycenaean age. In the same graves with the pottery are sometimes found
+plaques of gold or bronze, and towards the end of the geometric age
+these sometimes bear scenes from mythology, treated with the greatest
+simplicity. For example, in the museum of Berlin are the contents of a
+tomb found at Corinth, consisting mainly of gold work of geometric
+decoration. But in the same tomb were also found gold plates or plaques
+of repousse work bearing subjects from Greek legend. Two of these are
+shown in fig. 6. On one Theseus is slaying the Minotaur, while Ariadne
+stands by and encourages the hero. The tale could not have been told in
+a simpler or more straightforward way. On the other we have an armed
+warrior with his charioteer in a chariot drawn by two horses. The
+treatment of the human body is here more advanced than on the vases of
+the Dipylon. On the site of Olympia, where Mycenaean remains are not
+found, but the earliest monuments show the geometric style, a quantity
+of dedications in bronze have been found, the decoration of which
+belongs to this style. Fig. 7 shows the handle of a tripod from Olympia,
+which is adorned with geometric patterns and surmounted by the figure of
+a horse.
+
+[Illustration: _Arch. Zeit._ 1884, 8.
+
+FIG. 6.--Gold Plaques: Corinth.]
+
+[Illustration: _Olympia_ iv. 33.
+
+FIG. 7.--Handle of Tripod.]
+
+It was about the 6th century that the genius of the Greeks, almost
+suddenly, as it seems to us, emancipated itself from the thraldom of
+tradition, and passed beyond the limits with which the nations of the
+east and west had hitherto been content, in a free and bold effort
+towards the ideal. Thus the 6th century marks the stage in art in which
+it may be said to have become definitely Hellenic. The Greeks still
+borrowed many of their decorative forms, either from the prehistoric
+remains in their own country or, through Phoenician agency, from the
+old-world empires of Egypt and Babylon, but they used those forms freely
+to express their own meaning. And gradually, in the course of the
+century, we see both in the painting of vases and in sculpture a
+national spirit and a national style forming under the influence of
+Greek religion and mythology, Greek athletic training, Greek worship of
+beauty. We must here lay emphasis on the fact, which is sometimes
+overlooked in an age which is greatly given to the Darwinian search
+after origins, that it is one thing to trace back to its original
+sources the nascent art of Greece, and quite another thing to follow and
+to understand its gradual embodiment of Hellenic ideas and civilization.
+The immense success with which the veil has in late years been lifted
+from the prehistoric age of Greece, and the clearness with which we can
+discern the various strands woven into the web of Greek art, have tended
+to fix our attention rather on what Greece possessed in common with all
+other peoples at the same early stage of civilization than on what
+Greece added for herself to this common stock. In many respects the art
+of Greece is incomparable--one of the great inspirations which have
+redeemed the world from mediocrity and vulgarity. And it is the
+searching out and appreciation of this unique and ideal beauty in all
+its phases, in idea and composition and execution, which is the true
+task of Greek archaeological science.
+
+[Illustration: _Mus. Napoleon_, 57.
+
+FIG. 8.--Jug from Rhodes.]
+
+
+  Ionian vases.
+
+In very recent years it has been possible, for the first time, to trace
+the influence of Ionian painting, as represented by vases, on the rise
+of art. The discoveries at Naucratis and Daphnae in Egypt, due to the
+keenness and pertinacity of W. M. Flinders Petrie, threw new light on
+this matter. It became evident that when those cities were first
+inhabited by Ionian Greeks, in the 7th century, they used pottery of
+several distinct but allied styles, the most notable feature of which
+was the use of the lotus in decoration, the presence of continuous
+friezes of animals and of monsters, and the filling up of the background
+with rosettes, lozenges and other forms. Fig. 8 shows a vase found in
+Rhodes which illustrates this Ionian decoration. The sphinx, the deer
+and the swan are prominent on it, the last-named serving as a link
+between the geometric ware and the more brilliant and varied ware of the
+Ionian cities. The assignment of the many species of early Ionic ware to
+various Greek localities, Miletus, Samos, Phocaea and other cities, is a
+work of great difficulty, which now closely occupies the attention of
+archaeologists. For the results of their studies the reader is referred
+to two recent German works, Bohlau's _Aus ionischen und italischen
+Nekropolen_, and Endt's _Beitrage zur ionischen Vasenmalerei_. The
+feature which is most interesting in this pottery from our present point
+of view is the way in which representations of Greek myth and legend
+gradually make their way, and relegate the mere decoration of the vases
+to borders and neck. One of the earliest examples of representation of a
+really Greek subject is the contest of Menelaus and Euphorbus on a plate
+found in Rhodes. On the vases of Melos, of the 7th century, which are,
+however, not Ionian, but rather Dorian in character, we have a certain
+number of mythological scenes, battles of Homeric heroes and the like.
+One of these is shown in fig. 9. It represents Apollo in a chariot drawn
+by winged horses, playing on the lyre, and accompanied by a pair of
+Muses, meeting his sister Artemis. It is notable that Apollo is bearded,
+and that Artemis holds her stag by the horns, much in the manner of the
+deities on Babylonian cylinders; in the other hand she carries an arrow;
+above is a line of water birds.
+
+[Illustration: Conze. _Mel. Tongefasse_, 4.
+
+FIG. 9.--Vase Painting: Melos.]
+
+Some sites in Asia Minor and the islands adjoining, such cities as
+Samos, Camirus in Rhodes, and the Ionian colonies on the Black Sea, have
+furnished us with a mass of ware of the Ionian class, but it seldom
+bears interesting subjects; it is essentially decorative. For Ionian
+ware which has closer relation to Greek mythology and history we must
+turn elsewhere. The cemeteries of the great Etruscan cities, Caere in
+particular, have preserved for us a large number of vases, which are now
+generally recognized as Ionian in design and drawing, though they may in
+some cases be only Italian imitations of Ionian imported ware. Thus has
+been filled up what was a blank page in the history of early Greek art.
+The Ionian painting is unrestrained in character, characterized by a
+licence not foreign to the nature of the race, and wants the
+self-control and moderation which belong to Doric art, and to Attic art
+after the first.
+
+Some of the most interesting examples of early Ionic painting are found
+on the sarcophagi of Clazomenae. In that city in archaic times an
+exceptional custom prevailed of burying the dead in great coffins of
+terra-cotta adorned with painted scenes from chariot-racing, war and the
+chase. The British Museum possesses some remarkable specimens, which are
+published in A. S. Murray's _Terra-Cotta Sarcophagi of the British
+Museum_. On one of them he sees depicted a battle between Cimmerian
+invaders and Greeks, the former accompanied to the field by their great
+war-dogs. In some of the representations of hunting on these sarcophagi
+the hunters ride in chariots, a way of hunting quite foreign to the
+Greeks, but familiar to us from Assyrian wall-sculptures. We know that
+the life of the Ionians before the Persian conquest was refined and not
+untinged with luxury, and they borrowed many of the stately ways of the
+satraps of the kings of Assyria and Persia.
+
+[Illustration: Furtwangler, _Goldfund v. Vettersfelde_.
+
+FIG. 10.--Fish of gold.]
+
+Fig. 10 shows a curious product of the Ionian workshops, a fish of solid
+gold, adorned with reliefs which represent a flying eagle, lions pulling
+down their prey, and a monstrous sea-god among his fishes. This relic is
+the more valuable on account of the spot where it was found--Vettersfelde
+in Brandenburg. It furnishes a proof that the influence and perhaps the
+commerce of the Greek colonies on the Black Sea spread far to the north
+through the countries of the Scythians and other barbarians. The fish
+dates from the 6th century B.C.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III.
+
+  _Photo, Giraudon._
+  FIG. 61.--WINGED VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE. (LOUVRE.)
+
+  _Photo, Giraudon._
+  FIG. 62.--WINGED VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE. (LOUVRE.)
+
+  FIG. 63. HEAD OF WARRIOR, RESTORED, FROM TEGEA.
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 64.--MARSYAS OF MYRON. (LATERAN MUS.)
+
+  _Photo, Mansell._
+  FIG. 65.--EAST PEDIMENT OF THE PARTHENON; LEFT AND RIGHT ENDS. (BRIT.
+  MUS.)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV.
+
+  FIG. 66.--METOPE OF THE TREASURY OF SICYON AT DELPHI.
+  (From _Fouilles de Delphes_, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)
+
+  FIG. 67.--GREEK PAINTING OF WOMAN'S HEAD.
+  (From _Comptes Rendus_ of St. Petersburg, 1865. Pl. I.)
+
+  _Photo, F. Bruckmann._
+  FIG. 68.--DISCOBOLUS OF MYRON, RESTORED BY PROF. FURTWANGLER.
+
+  _Photo, Giraudon._
+  FIG. 69.--FIGHTER OF AGASIAS. (LOUVRE.)
+
+  _Photo, Mansell._
+  FIG. 70.--PORTION OF FRIEZE OF MAUSOLEUM. (BRIT. MUS.)]
+
+[Illustration: Brit. Mus.
+
+FIG. 11.--Gold Ornaments from Camirus.]
+
+We may compare some of the gold ornaments from Camirus in Rhodes, which
+show an Ionian tendency, perhaps combined with Phoenician elements. On
+one of them (fig. 11) we see a centaur with human forelegs holding up a
+fawn, on the other the oriental goddess whom the Greeks identified with
+their Artemis, winged, and flanked by lions. This form was given to
+Artemis on the Corinthian chest of Cypselus, a work of art preserved at
+Olympia, and carefully described for us by Pausanias.
+
+[Illustration: _Mon. d. Inst._ i. 51.
+
+FIG. 12.--Fight over the Body of Achilles.]
+
+From Ionia the style of vase-painting which has been called by various
+names, but may best be termed the "orientalizing," spread to Greece
+proper. Its main home here was in Corinth; and small Corinthian
+unguent-vases bearing figures of swans, lions, monsters and human
+beings, the intervals between which are filled by rosettes, are found
+wherever Corinthian trade penetrated, notably in the cemeteries of
+Sicily. For the larger Corinthian vases, which bore more elaborate
+scenes from mythology, we must again turn to the graves of the cities of
+Etruria. Here, besides the Ionian ware, of which mention has already
+been made, we find pottery of three Greek cities clearly defined, that
+of Corinth, that of Chalcis in Euboea, and that of Athens. Corinthian
+and Chalcidian ware is most readily distinguished by means of the
+alphabets used in the inscriptions which have distinctive forms easily
+to be identified. Whether in the style of the paintings coming from the
+various cities any distinct differences may be traced is a far more
+difficult question, into which we cannot now enter. The subjects are
+mostly from heroic legend, and are treated with great simplicity and
+directness. There is a manly vigour about them which distinguishes them
+at a glance from the laxer works of Ionian style. Fig. 12 shows a group
+from a Chalcidian vase, which represents the conflict over the dead body
+of Achilles. The corpse of the hero lies in the midst, the arrow in his
+heel. The Trojan Glaucus tries to draw away the body by means of a rope
+tied round the ankle, but in doing so is transfixed by the spear of
+Ajax, who charges under the protection of the goddess Athena. Paris on
+the Trojan side shoots an arrow at Ajax.
+
+In fig. 13, from a Corinthian vase, Ajax falls on his sword in the
+presence of his colleagues, Odysseus and Diomedes. The short stature of
+Odysseus is a well-known Homeric feature. These vases are black-figured;
+the heroes are painted in silhouette on the red ground of the vases.
+Their names are appended in archaic Greek letters.
+
+[Illustration: _Mus. Napoleon_, 66.
+
+FIG. 13.--Suicide of Ajax.]
+
+[Illustration: _Arch. Zeit._ 1882, 9.
+
+FIG. 14. Harpies: Attic Vase.]
+
+
+  Athens.
+
+The early history of vase-painting at Athens is complicated. It was only
+by degrees that the geometric style gave way to, or developed into, what
+is known as the black-figured style. It would seem that until the age of
+Peisistratus Athens was not notable in the world of art, and nothing
+could be ruder than some of the vases of Athens in the 7th century, for
+example that here figured, on one side of which are represented the
+winged Harpies (fig. 14) and on the other Perseus accompanied by Athena
+flying from the pursuit of the Gorgons. This vase retains in its
+decoration some features of geometric style; but the lotus and rosette,
+the lion and sphinx which appear on it, belong to the wave of Ionian
+influence. Although it involves a departure from strict chronological
+order, it will be well here to follow the course of development in
+pottery at Athens until the end of our period. Neighbouring cities, and
+especially Corinth, seem to have exercised a strong influence at Athens
+about the 7th century. We have even a class of vases called by
+archaeologists Corintho-Attic. But in the course of the 6th century
+there is formed at Athens a distinct and marked black-figured style. The
+most-remarkable example of this ware is the so-called Francois vase at
+Munich, by Clitias and Ergotimus, which contains, in most careful and
+precise rendering, a number of scenes from Greek myth. One of these
+vases is dated, since it bears the name and the figure of Callias in his
+chariot (_Mon. dell' Inst._ iii. 45), and this Callias won a victory at
+Olympia in 564 B.C. Fig. 15 shows the reverse of a somewhat later
+black-figured vase of the Panathenaic class, given at Athens as a prize
+to the winner of a foot-race at the Panathenaea, with the foot-race
+(_stadion_) represented on it. A large number of Athenian vases of the
+6th century have reached us, which bear the signatures of the potters
+who made, or the artists who painted them; lists of these will be found
+in the useful work of Klein, _Griechische Vasen mit Meistersignaturen_.
+The recent excavations on the Acropolis have proved the erroneousness
+of the view, strongly maintained by Brunn, that the mass of the
+black-figured vases were of a late and imitative fabric. We now know
+that, with a few exceptions, vases of this class are not later than the
+early part of the 5th century. The same excavations have also proved
+that red-figured vase-painting, that is, vase-painting in which the
+background was blocked out with black, and the figures left in the
+natural colour of the vase originated at Athens in the last quarter of
+the 6th century. We cannot here give a detailed account of the beautiful
+series of Athenian vases of this fabric. Many of the finest of them are
+in the British Museum. As an example, fig. 16 presents a group by the
+painter Pamphaeus, representing Heracles wrestling with the
+river-monster Achelous, which belongs to the age of the Persian Wars.
+The clear precision of the figures, the vigour of the grouping, the
+correctness of the anatomy and the delicacy of the lines are all marks
+of distinction. The student of art will perhaps find the nearest
+parallel to these vase-pictures in Japanese drawings. The Japanese
+artists are very inferior to the Greek in their love and understanding
+of the human body, but equal them in freshness and vigour of design. At
+the same time began the beautiful series of white vases made at Athens
+for the purpose of burial with the dead, and found in great quantities
+in the cemeteries of Athens, of Eretria, of Gela in Sicily, and of some
+other cities. They are well represented in the British Museum and that
+of Oxford.
+
+[Illustration: _Mon. d. Inst._ x. 48 m.
+
+FIG. 15.--Foot-race: Panathenaic Vase.]
+
+[Illustration: _Wiener Vorlegeblatter_, D. 6.
+
+FIG. 16.--Heracles and Achelous.]
+
+
+  Delphi.
+
+We now return to the early years of the 6th century, and proceed to
+trace, by the aid of recent discoveries, the rise of architecture and
+sculpture. The Greek temple in its character and form gives the clue to
+the whole character of Greek art. It is the abode of the deity, who is
+represented by his sacred image; and the flat surfaces of the temple
+offer a great field to the sculptor for the depicting of sacred legend.
+The process of discovery has emphasized the line which divides Ionian
+from Dorian architecture and art. We will speak first of the temples and
+the sculpture of Ionia. The Ionians were a people far more susceptible
+than were the Dorians to oriental influences. The dress, the art, the
+luxury of western Asia attracted them with irresistible force. We may
+suspect, as Brunn has suggested, that Ionian artists worked in the great
+Assyrian and Persian palaces, and that the reliefs which adorn the walls
+of those palaces were in part their handiwork. Some of the great temples
+of Ionia have been excavated in recent years, notably those of Apollo at
+Miletus, of Hera at Samos, and of Artemis at Ephesus. Very little,
+however, of the architecture of the 6th-century temples of those sites
+has been recovered. Quite recently, however, the French excavators at
+Delphi have successfully restored the treasury of the people of Cnidus,
+which is quite a gem of Ionic style, the entablature being supported in
+front not by pillars but by two maidens or Corae, and a frieze running
+all round the building above. But though this building is of Ionic type,
+it is scarcely in the technical sense of Ionic style, since the columns
+have not Ionic capitals, but are carved with curious reliefs. The Ionic
+capital proper is developed in Asia by degrees (see ARCHITECTURE and
+CAPITAL; also Perrot and Chipiez, _Hist. de l'art_, vii. ch. 4).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Restoration of the Treasury of Cnidus.]
+
+The Doric temple is not wholly of European origin. One of the earliest
+examples is the old temple of Assus in Troas. Yet it was developed
+mainly in Hellas and the west. The most ancient example is the Heraeum
+at Olympia, next to which come the fragmentary temples of Corinth and of
+Selinus in Sicily. With the early Doric temple we are familiar from
+examples which have survived in fair preservation to our own days at
+Agrigentum in Sicily, Paestum in Italy, and other sites.
+
+Of the decorative sculpture which adorned these early temples we have
+more extensive remains than we have of actual construction. It will be
+best to speak of them under their districts. On the coast of Asia Minor,
+the most extensive series of archaic decorative sculptures which has
+come down to us is that which adorned the temple of Assus (fig. 18).
+These were placed in a unique position on the temple, a long frieze
+running along the entablature, with representations of wild animals, of
+centaurs, of Hercules seizing Achelous, and of men feasting, scene
+succeeding scene without much order or method. The only figures from
+Miletus which can be considered as belonging to the original temple
+destroyed by Darius, are the dedicated seated statues, some of which,
+brought away by Sir Charles Newton, are now preserved at the British
+Museum. At Ephesus Mr Wood has been more successful, and has recovered
+considerable fragments of the temple of Artemis, to which, as Herodotus
+tells us, Croesus presented many columns. The lower part of one of these
+columns, bearing figures in relief of early Ionian style, has been put
+together at the British Museum; and remains of inscriptions recording
+the presentation by Croesus are still to be traced. Reliefs from a
+cornice of somewhat later date are also to be found at the British
+Museum. Among the Aegean Islands, Delos has furnished us with the most
+important remains of early art. French excavators have there found a
+very early statue of a woman dedicated by one Nicandra to Artemis, a
+figure which may be instructively compared with another from Samus,
+dedicated to Hera by Cheramues. The Delian statue is in shape like a
+flat beam; the Samian, which is headless, is like a round tree. The arms
+of the Delian figure are rigid to the sides; the Samian lady has one arm
+clasped to her breast. A great improvement on these helpless and
+inexpressive figures is marked by another figure found at Delos, and
+connected, though perhaps incorrectly, with a basis recording the
+execution of a statue by Archermus and Micciades, two sculptors who
+stood, in the middle of the 6th century, at the head of a sculptural
+school at Chios. The representation (fig. 19) is of a running or flying
+figure, having six wings, like the seraphim in the vision of Isaiah, and
+clad in long drapery. It may be a statue of Nike or Victory, who is said
+to have been represented in winged form by Archermus. The figure, with
+its neatness and precision of work, its expressive face and strong
+outlines, certainly marks great progress in the art of sculpture. When
+we examine the early sculpture of Athens, we find reason to think that
+the Chian school had great influence in that city in the days of
+Peisistratus.
+
+[Illustration: From Perrot and Chipiez, vii. pl. 35, by permission of
+Chapman and Hall, Ltd., and Hachette & Co.
+
+FIG. 18.--Restoration of the Temple at Assus.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Nike of Delos, restored.]
+
+[Illustration: _Athen. Mitteil._ x. 237.
+
+FIG. 20.--Athenian Pediment: Heracles and Hydra.]
+
+[Illustration: _Athen. Mitteil._ xxii. 3.
+
+FIG. 21.--Pediment: Athena and Giant.]
+
+
+  Athenian sculpture.
+
+At Athens, in the age 650-480, we may trace two quite distinct periods
+of architecture and sculpture. In the earlier of the two periods, a
+rough limestone was used alike for the walls and the sculptural
+decoration of temples; in the later period it was superseded by marble,
+whether native or imported. Every visitor to the museum of the Athenian
+acropolis stands astonished at the recently recovered groups which
+decorated the pediments of Athenian temples before the age of
+Peisistratus--groups of large size, rudely cut in soft stone, of
+primitive workmanship, and painted with bright red, blue and green, in a
+fashion which makes no attempt to follow nature, but only to produce a
+vivid result. The two largest in scale of these groups seem to have
+belonged to the pediments of the early 6th-century temple of Athena. On
+other smaller pediments, perhaps belonging to shrines of Heracles and
+Dionysus, we have conflicts of Heracles with Triton or with other
+monstrous foes. It is notable how fond the Athenian artists of this
+early time are of exaggerated muscles and of monstrous forms, which
+combine the limbs of men and of animals; the measure and moderation
+which mark developed Greek art are as completely absent as are skill in
+execution or power of grouping. Fig. 20 shows a small pediment in which
+appears in relief the slaying of the Lernaean hydra by Heracles. The
+hero strikes at the many-headed water-snake, somewhat inappropriately,
+with his club. Iolaus, his usual companion, holds the reins of the
+chariot which awaits Heracles after his victory. On the extreme left a
+huge crab comes to the aid of the hydra.
+
+There can be little doubt that Athens owed its great start in art to the
+influence of the court of Peisistratus, at which artists of all kinds
+were welcome. We can trace a gradual transformation in sculpture, in
+which the influence of the Chian and other progressive schools of
+sculpture is visible, not only in the substitution of island marble for
+native stone, but in increased grace and truth to nature, in the toning
+down of glaring colour, and the appearance of taste in composition. A
+transition between the older and the newer is furnished by the
+well-known statue of the calf-bearer, an Athenian preparing to sacrifice
+a calf to the deities, which is made of marble of Hymettus, and in
+robust clumsiness of forms is not far removed from the limestone
+pediments. The sacrificer has been commonly spoken of as Hermes or
+Theseus, but he seems rather to be an ordinary human votary.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Figure by Antenor, restored.]
+
+In the time of Peisistratus or his sons a peristyle of columns was added
+to the old temple of Athena; and this necessitated the preparation of
+fresh pediments. These were of marble. In one of them was represented
+the battle between gods and giants; in the midst Athena herself striking
+at a prostrate foe (fig. 21). In these figures no eye can fail to trace
+remarkable progress. On about the same level of art are the charming
+statues dedicated to Athena, which were set up in the latter half of the
+6th century in the Acropolis, whose graceful though conventional forms
+and delicate colouring make them one of the great attractions of the
+Acropolis Museum. We show a figure (fig. 22) which, if it be rightly
+connected with the basis on which it stands, is the work of the sculptor
+Antenor, who was also author of a celebrated group representing the
+tyrant-slayers, Harmodius and Aristogiton. To the same age belong many
+other votive reliefs of the Acropolis, representing horsemen, scribes
+and other votaries of Athena.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Bust from Crete.]
+
+
+  Dorian sculpture.
+
+From Athens we pass to the seats of Dorian art. And in doing so we find
+a complete change of character. In place of Dorian draped goddesses and
+female figures, we find nude male forms. In place of Ionian softness and
+elegance, we find hard, rigid outlines, strong muscular development, a
+greater love of and faithfulness to the actual human form--the influence
+of the palaestra rather than of the harem. To the known series of
+archaic male figures, recent years have added many examples. We may
+especially mention a series of figures from the temple of Apollo Ptoos
+in Boeotia, probably representing the god himself. Still more noteworthy
+are two colossal nude figures of Apollo, remarkable both for force and
+for rudeness, found at Delphi, the inscriptions of which prove them to
+be the work of an Argive sculptor. (Plate V. fig. 76.) From Crete we
+have acquired the upper part of a draped figure (fig. 23), whether male
+or female is not certain, which should be an example of the early
+Daedalid school, whence the art of Peloponnesus was derived; but we can
+scarcely venture to treat it as a characteristic product of that school;
+rather the likeness to the dedication of Nicandra is striking.
+
+Another remarkable piece of Athenian sculpture, of the time of the
+Persian Wars, is the group of the tyrannicides Harmodius and
+Aristogiton, set up by the people of Athens, and made by the sculptors
+Critius and Nesiotes. These figures were hard and rigid in outline, but
+showing some progress in the treatment of the nude. Copies are preserved
+in the museum of Naples (Plate I. fig. 50). It should be observed that
+one of the heads does not belong.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Head of Hera: Olympia.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Spartan Tombstone: Berlin.]
+
+
+  Olympia, Sparta, Selinus.
+
+Next in importance to Athens, as a find-spot for works of early Greek
+art, ranks Olympia. Olympia, however, did not suffer like Athens from
+sudden violence, and the explorations there have brought to light a
+continuous series of remains, beginning with the bronze tripods of the
+geometric age already mentioned and ending at the barbarian invasions of
+the 4th century A.D. Notable among the 6th-century stone-sculpture of
+Olympia are the pediment of the treasury of the people of Megara, in
+which is represented a battle of gods and giants, and a huge rude head
+of Hera (fig. 24), which seems to be part of the image worshipped in the
+Heraeum. Its flatness and want of style are noteworthy. Among the
+temples of Greece proper the Heraeum of Olympia stands almost alone for
+antiquity and interest, its chief rival, besides the temples of Athens,
+being the other temple of Hera at Argos. It appears to have been
+originally constructed of wood, for which stone was by slow degrees,
+part by part, substituted. In the time of Pausanias one of the pillars
+was still of oak, and at the present day the varying diameter of the
+columns and other structural irregularities bear witness to the process
+of constant renewal which must have taken place. The early small bronzes
+of Olympia form an important series, figures of deities standing or
+striding, warriors in their armour, athletes with exaggerated muscles,
+and women draped in the Ionian fashion, which did not become unpopular
+in Greece until after the Persian Wars. Excavations at Sparta have
+revealed interesting monuments belonging to the worship of ancestors,
+which seems in the conservative Dorian states of Greece to have been
+more strongly developed than elsewhere. On some of these stones, which
+doubtless belonged to the family cults of Sparta, we see the ancestor
+seated holding a wine-cup, accompanied by his faithful horse or dog; on
+some we see the ancestor and ancestress seated side by side (fig. 25),
+ready to receive the gifts of their descendants, who appear in the
+corner of the relief on a much smaller scale. The male figure holds a
+wine-cup, in allusion to the libations of wine made at the tomb. The
+female figure holds her veil and the pomegranate, the recognized food of
+the dead. A huge serpent stands erect behind the pair. The style of
+these sculptures is as striking as the subjects; we see lean, rigid
+forms with severe outline carved in a very low relief, the surface of
+which is not rounded but flat. The name of Selinus in Sicily, an early
+Megarian colony, has long been associated with some of the most curious
+of early sculptures, the metopes of ancient temples, representing the
+exploits of Heracles and of Perseus. Even more archaic metopes have in
+recent years been brought to light, one representing a seated sphinx,
+one the journey of Europa over the sea on the back of the amorous bull
+(fig. 26), a pair of dolphins swimming beside her. In simplicity and in
+rudeness of work these reliefs remind us of the limestone pediments of
+Athens (fig. 20), but yet they are of another and a severer style; the
+Ionian laxity is wanting.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE V.
+
+  _From a Cast._
+  FIG. 71.--APHRODITE OF CNIDUS. (VATICAN.)
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 72.--BRONZE BOXER OF TERME. (ROME.)
+
+  FIG. 73.--BRONZE OF CERIGOTTO. (ATHENS.)
+  Found in the sea near Cythera.
+
+  FIG. 74.--AGIAS AT DELPHI.
+  (From _Fouilles de Delphes_, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)
+
+  FIG. 75.--CORA (KORE) OF ERECHTHEUM. (ATHENS.)
+
+  FIG. 76.--APOLLO AT DELPHI.
+  (From _Fouilles de Delphes_, by permission of A. Fontemoing.)]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE VI.
+
+  _Photo, Giraudon._
+  FIG. 77.--APHRODITE PF MELOS. (LOUVRE.)
+
+  _Photo, Alinari._
+  FIG. 78.--NIOBE AND HER YOUNGEST DAUGHTER. (FLORENCE.)
+
+  _Photo, Anderson._
+  FIG. 79.--APOXYOMENUS. (VATICAN.)
+
+  _Photo, Brogi._
+  FIG. 80.--DORYPHORUS OF POLYCLITUS. (NAT. MUS., NAPLES.)
+
+  _Photo, Alinari._
+  FIG. 81.--ANTIOCH SEATED ON A ROCK. (VATICAN.)
+
+  _Photo, English Photographic Co._
+  FIG. 82.--HERMES OF TELES. (OLYMPIA.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Metope: Europa on Bull: Palermo.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Restoration of West Pediment, Aegina.]
+
+
+  Delphi.
+
+The recent French excavations at Delphi add a new and important chapter
+to the history of 6th-century art. Of three treasure-houses, those of
+Sicyon, Cnidus and Athens, the sculptural adornments have been in great
+part recovered. These sculptures form a series almost covering the
+century 570-470 B.C., and include representations of some myths of which
+we have hitherto had no example. We may say here a few words as to the
+sculpture which has been discovered, leaving to the article DELPHI an
+account of the topography and the buildings of the sacred site. Of the
+archaic temple of Apollo, built as Herodotus tells us by the
+Alcmaeonidae of Athens, the only sculptural remains which have come down
+to us are some fragments of the pedimental figures. Of the treasuries
+which contained the offerings of the pious at Delphi, the most archaic
+of which there are remains is that belonging to the people of Sicyon. To
+it appertain a set of exceedingly primitive metopes. One represents Idas
+and Dioscuri driving off cattle (Plate IV. fig. 66); another, the ship
+Argo; another, Europa on the bull, others merely animals, a ram or a
+boar. The treasury of the people of Cnidus (or perhaps Siphnos) is in
+style some half a century later (see fig. 17). To it belongs a long
+frieze representing a variety of curious subjects: a battle, perhaps
+between Greeks and Trojans, with gods and goddesses looking on; a
+gigantomachy in which the figures of Poseidon, Athena, Hera, Apollo,
+Artemis and Cybele can be made out, with their opponents, who are armed
+like Greek hoplites; Athena and Heracles in a chariot; the carrying off
+of the daughters of Leucippus by Castor and Pollux; Aeolus holding the
+winds in sacks. The Treasury of the Athenians, erected at the time of
+the Persian Wars, was adorned with metopes of singularly clear-cut and
+beautiful style, but very fragmentary, representing the deeds of
+Heracles and Theseus.
+
+
+  Aegina.
+
+We have yet to speak of the most interesting and important of all Greek
+archaic sculptures, the pediments of the temple at Aegina (q.v.). These
+groups of nude athletes fighting over the corpses of their comrades are
+preserved at Munich, and are familiar to artists and students. But the
+very fruitful excavations of Professor Furtwangler have put them in
+quite a new light. Furtwangler (_Aegina: Heiligtum der Aphaia_) has
+entirely rearranged these pediments, in a way which removes the extreme
+simplicity and rigour of the composition, and introduces far greater
+variety of attitudes and motive. We repeat here these new arrangements
+(figs. 27 and 28), the reasons for which must be sought in Furtwangler's
+great publication. The individual figures are not much altered, as the
+restorations of Thorwaldsen, even when incorrect, have now a
+prescriptive right of which it is not easy to deprive them. Besides the
+pediments of Aegina must be set the remains of the pediments of the
+temple of Apollo at Eretria in Euboea, the chief group of which (Plate
+II. fig. 58), Theseus carrying off an Amazon, is one of the most finely
+executed works of early Greek art.
+
+_Period II. 480-400 B.C._--The most marvellous phenomenon in the whole
+history of art is the rapid progress made by Greece in painting and
+sculpture during the 5th century B.C. As in literature the 5th century
+takes us from the rude peasant plays of Thespis to the drama of
+Sophocles and Euripides; as in philosophy it takes us from Pythagoras to
+Socrates; so in sculpture it covers the space from the primitive works
+made for the Peisistratidae to some of the most perfect productions of
+the chisel.
+
+
+  Architecture.
+
+In architecture the 5th century is ennobled by the Theseum, the
+Parthenon and the Erechtheum, the temples of Zeus at Olympia, of Apollo
+at Phigalia, and many other central shrines, as well as by the Hall of
+the Mystae at Eleusis and the Propylaea of the Acropolis. Some of the
+most important of the Greek temples of Italy and Sicily, such as those
+of Segesta and Selinus, date from the same age. It is, however, only of
+their sculptural decorations, carried out by the greatest masters in
+Greece, that we need here treat in any detail.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Restoration of East Pediment, Aegina.]
+
+
+  Painting.
+
+It is the rule in the history of art that innovations and technical
+progress are shown earlier in the case of painting than in that of
+sculpture, a fact easily explained by the greater ease and rapidity of
+the brush compared with the chisel. That this was the order of
+development in Greek art cannot be doubted. But our means for judging of
+the painting of the 5th century are very slight. The noble paintings of
+such masters as Polygnotus, Micon and Panaenus, which once adorned the
+walls of the great porticoes of Athens and Delphi, have disappeared.
+There remain only the designs drawn rather than painted on the beautiful
+vases of the age, which in some degree help us to realize, not the
+colouring or the charm of contemporary paintings, but the principle of
+their composition and the accuracy of their drawing.
+
+Polygnotus of Thasos was regarded by his compatriots as a great ethical
+painter. His colouring and composition were alike very simple, his
+figures quiet and statuesque, his drawing careful and precise. He won
+his fame largely by incorporating in his works the best current ideas as
+to mythology, religion and morals. In particular his painting of Hades
+with its rewards and punishments, which was on the walls of the building
+of the people of Cnidus at Delphi, might be considered as a great
+religious work, parallel to the paintings of the Campo Santo at Pisa or
+to the painted windows of such churches as that at Fairford. But he also
+introduced improvements in perspective and greater freedom in grouping.
+
+[Illustration: _From monumenti dell' Instituto di Correspondenza
+archeologica_, xi. 40.
+
+FIG. 29.--Vase of Orvieto. (The Children of Niobe.)]
+
+It is fortunate for us that the Greek traveller Pausanias has left us
+very careful and detailed descriptions of some of the most important of
+the frescoes of Polygnotus, notably of the Taking of Troy and the Visit
+to Hades, which were at Delphi. A comparison of these descriptions with
+vase paintings of the middle of the 5th century has enabled us to
+discern with great probability the principles of Polygnotan drawing and
+perspective. Professor Robert has even ventured to restore the paintings
+on the evidence of vases. We here represent one of the scenes depicted
+on a vase found at Orvieto (fig. 29), which is certainly Polygnotan in
+character. It represents the slaying of the children of Niobe by Apollo
+and Artemis. Here we may observe a remarkable perspective. The different
+heights of the rocky background are represented by lines traversing the
+picture on which the figures stand; but the more distant figures are no
+smaller than the nearer. The forests of Mount Sipylus are represented by
+a single conventional tree. The figures are beautifully drawn, and full
+of charm; but there is a want of energy in the action.
+
+[Illustration: _Arch. Zeit._ 1878, pl. 22.
+
+FIG. 30.--Vase Drawing.]
+
+There can be little doubt that the school of Polygnotus exercised great
+influence on contemporary sculpture. Panaenus, brother of Pheidias,
+worked with Polygnotus, and many of the groupings found in the
+sculptures of the Parthenon remind us of those usual with the Thasian
+master. At this simple and early stage of art there was no essential
+difference between fresco-painting and coloured relief, light and shade
+and aerial perspective being unknown. We reproduce two vase-paintings,
+one (fig. 30) a group of man and horse which closely resembles figures
+in the Panathenaic frieze of the Parthenon (fig. 31); the other (fig.
+32) representing Victory pouring water for a sacrificial ox to drink,
+which reminds us of the balustrade of the shrine of Wingless Victory at
+Athens.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Part of Frieze of the Parthenon.]
+
+Most writers on Greek painting have supposed that after the middle of
+the 5th century the technique of painting rapidly improved. This may
+well have been the case; but we have little means of testing the
+question. Such improvements would soon raise such a barrier between
+fresco-painting and vase-painting,--which by its very nature must be
+simple and architectonic,--that vases can no longer be used with
+confidence as evidence for contemporary painting. The stories told us by
+Pliny of the lives of Greek painters are mostly of a trivial and
+untrustworthy character. Some of them are mentioned in this
+_Encyclopaedia_ under the names of individual artists. We can only
+discern a few general facts. Of Agatharchus of Athens we learn that he
+painted, under compulsion, the interior of the house of Alcibiades. And
+we are told that he painted a scene for the tragedies of Aeschylus or
+Sophocles. This has led some writers to suppose that he attempted
+illusive landscape; but this is contrary to the possibilities of the
+time; and it is fairly certain that what he really did was to paint the
+wooden front of the stage building in imitation of architecture; in fact
+he painted a permanent architectural background, and not one suited to
+any particular play. Of other painters who flourished at the end of the
+century, such as Zeuxis and Aristides, it will be best to speak under
+the next period.
+
+[Illustration: From Gerhard's _Auserlesene Vasenbilder_, ii. pl. 1.
+
+FIG. 32.--Nike and Bull.]
+
+It is now generally held, in consequence of evidence furnished by tombs,
+that the 5th century saw the end of the making of vases on a great scale
+at Athens for export to Italy and Sicily. And in fact few things in the
+history of art are more remarkable than the rapidity with which
+vase-painting at Athens reached its highest point and passed it on the
+downward road. At the beginning of the century black-figured ware was
+scarcely out of fashion, and the masters of the severe red-figured
+style, Pamphaeus, Epictetus and their contemporaries, were in vogue.
+The schools of Euphronius, Hiero and Duris belong to the age of the
+Persian wars. With the middle of the century the works of these makers
+are succeeded by unsigned vases of most beautiful design, some of them
+showing the influence of Polygnotus. In the later years of the century,
+when the empire of Athens was approaching its fall, drawing becomes
+laxer and more careless, and in the treatment of drapery we frequently
+note the over-elaboration of folds, the want of simplicity, which begin
+to mark contemporary sculpture. These changes of style can only be
+satisfactorily followed in the vase rooms of the British Museum, or
+other treasuries of Greek art (see also A. B. Walters, _History of
+Ancient Pottery_; and the article CERAMICS).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--East Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--West Pediment, Olympia. Two Restorations.]
+
+
+  Olympia: Temple of Zeus.
+
+Among the sculptural works of this period the first place may be given
+to the great temple of Zeus at Olympia. The statue by Pheidias which
+once occupied the place of honour in that temple, and was regarded as
+the noblest monument of Greek religion, has of course disappeared, nor
+are we able with confidence to restore it. But the plan of the temple,
+its pavement, some of its architectural ornaments, remain. The marbles
+which occupied the pediments and the metopes of the temple have been in
+large part recovered, having been probably thrown down by earthquakes
+and gradually buried in the alluvial soil. The utmost ingenuity and
+science of the archaeologists of Germany have been employed in the
+recovery of the composition of these groups; and although doubt remains
+as to the places of some figures, and their precise attitudes, yet we
+may fairly say that we know more about the sculpture of the Olympian
+temple of Zeus than about the sculpture of any other great Greek temple.
+The exact date of these sculptures is not certain, but we may with some
+confidence give them to 470-460 B.C. (In speaking of them we shall
+mostly follow the opinion of Dr Treu, whose masterly work in vol. iii.
+of the great German publication on Olympia is a model of patience and of
+science.) In the eastern pediment (fig. 33), as Pausanias tells us, were
+represented the preparations for the chariot-race between Oenomaus and
+Pelops, the result of which was to determine whether Pelops should find
+death or a bride and a kingdom. In the midst, invisible to the
+contending heroes, stood Zeus the supreme arbiter. On one side of him
+stood Oenomaus with his wife Sterope, on the other Pelops and
+Hippodameia, the daughter of Oenomaus, whose position at once indicates
+that she is on the side of the newcomer, whatever her parents may feel.
+Next on either side are the four-horse chariots of the two competitors,
+that of Oenomaus in the charge of his perfidious groom Myrtilus, who
+contrived that it should break down in the running, that of Pelops
+tended by his grooms. At either end, where the pediment narrows to a
+point, reclines a river god, at one end Alpheus, the chief stream of
+Olympia, at the other end his tributary Cladeus. Only one figure
+remains, not noticed in the careful description of Pausanias, the figure
+of a handmaid kneeling, perhaps one of the attendants of Sterope. Our
+engraving gives two conjectural restorations of the pediment, that of
+Treu and that of Kekule, which differ principally in the arrangement of
+the corners of the composition; the position of the central figures and
+of the chariots can scarcely be called in question. The moment chosen is
+one, not of action, but of expectancy, perhaps of preparation for
+sacrifice. The arrangement is undeniably stiff and formal, and in the
+figures we note none of the trained perfection of style which belongs to
+the sculptures of the Parthenon, an almost contemporary temple. Faults
+abound, alike in the rendering of drapery and in the representation of
+the human forms, and the sculptor has evidently trusted to the painter
+who was afterwards to colour his work, to remedy some of his clumsiness,
+or to make clear the ambiguous. Nevertheless there is in the whole a
+dignity, a sobriety, and a simplicity, which reconcile us to the
+knowledge that this pediment was certainly regarded in antiquity as a
+noble work, fit to adorn even the palace of Zeus. In the other, the
+western pediment (fig. 34), the subject is the riot of the Centaurs when
+they attended the wedding of Peirithous in Thessaly, and, attempting to
+carry off the bride and her comrades, were slain by Peirithous and
+Theseus. In the midst of the pediment, invisible like Zeus in the
+eastern pediment, stands Apollo, while on either side of him Theseus and
+Peirithous attack the Centaurs with weapons hastily snatched. Our
+illustration gives two possible arrangements. The monsters are in
+various attitudes of attempted violence, of combat and defeat; with
+each grapples one of the Lapith heroes in the endeavour to rob them of
+their prey. In the corners of the pediment recline female figures,
+perhaps attendant slaves, though the farthest pair may best be
+identified as local Thessalian nymphs, looking on with the calmness of
+divine superiority, yet not wholly unconcerned in what is going forward.
+Though the composition of the two pediments differs notably, the one
+bearing the impress of a parade-like repose, the other of an
+overstrained activity, yet the style and execution are the same in both,
+and the shortcomings must be attributed to the inferior skill of a local
+school of sculptors compared with those of Athens or of Aegina. It even
+appears likely that the designs also belong to a local school.
+Pausanias, it is true, tells us that the pediments were the work of
+Alcamenes, the pupil of Pheidias, and of Paeonius, a sculptor of Thrace,
+respectively; but it is almost certain that he was misled by the local
+guides, who would naturally be anxious to connect the sculptures of
+their great temple with well-known names.
+
+[Illustration: _Olympia_, iii. 45.
+
+FIG. 35--Metope: Olympia; restored.]
+
+[Illustration: _Olympia_, iii. 48.
+
+FIG. 36--Nike of Paeonius; restored.]
+
+The metopes of the temple are in the same style of art as the pediments,
+but the defects of awkwardness and want of mastery are less conspicuous,
+because the narrow limits of the metope exclude any elaborate grouping.
+The subjects are provided by the twelve labours of Heracles; the figures
+introduced in each metope are but two or at most three; and the action
+is simplified as much as possible. The example shown (fig. 35)
+represents Heracles holding up the sky on a cushion, with the friendly
+aid of a Hesperid nymph, while Atlas, whom he has relieved of his usual
+burden, approaches bringing the apples which it was the task of Heracles
+to procure.
+
+Another of the fruits of the excavations of Olympia is the floating
+Victory by Paeonius, unfortunately faceless (fig. 36), which was set up
+in all probability in memory of the victory of the Athenians and their
+Messenian allies at Sphacteria in 425 B.C. The inscription states that
+it was dedicated by the Messenians and people of Naupactus from the
+spoils of their enemies, but the name of the enemy is not mentioned in
+the inscription. The statue of Paeonius, which comes floating down
+through the air with drapery borne backward, is of a bold and innovating
+type, and we may trace its influence in many works of the next age.
+
+
+  Delphic charioteer.
+
+Among the discoveries at Delphi none is so striking and valuable to us
+as the life-size statue in bronze of a charioteer holding in his hand
+the reins. This is maintained by M. Homolle to be part of a
+chariot-group set up by Polyzalus, brother of Gelo and Hiero of
+Syracuse, in honour of a victory won in the chariot-race at the Pythian
+games at Delphi (fig. 37). The charioteer is evidently a high-born
+youth, and is clad in the long chiton which was necessary to protect a
+driver of a chariot from the rush of air. The date would be about
+480-470 B.C. Bronze groups representing victorious chariots with their
+drivers were among the noblest and most costly dedications of antiquity;
+the present figure is our only satisfactory representative of them. In
+style the figure is very notable, tall and slight beyond all
+contemporary examples. The contrast between the conventional
+decorousness of face and drapery and the lifelike accuracy of hands and
+feet is very striking, and indicates the clashing of various tendencies
+in art at the time when the great style was formed in Greece.
+
+[Illustration: _Memoires, Piot_, 1807, 16.
+
+FIG. 37.--Bronze Charioteer: Delphi.]
+
+The three great masters of the 5th century, Myron, Pheidias and
+Polyclitus are all in some degree known to us from their works. Of Myron
+we have copies of two works, the Marsyas (Plate III. fig. 64) and the
+Discobolus. The Marsyas (a copy in the Lateran Museum) represents the
+Satyr so named in the grasp of conflicting emotions, eager to pick up
+the flutes which Athena has thrown down, but at the same time dreading
+her displeasure if he does so. The Discobolus has usually been judged
+from the examples in the Vatican and the British Museum, in which the
+anatomy is modernized and the head wrongly put on. We have now
+photographs of the very superior replica in the Lancelotti gallery at
+Rome, the pose of which is much nearer to the original. Our illustration
+represents a restoration made at Munich, by combining the Lancelotti
+head with the Vatican body (Plate IV. fig. 68).
+
+Of the works of Pheidias we have unfortunately no certain copy, if we
+except the small replicas at Athens of his Athena Parthenos. The larger
+of these (fig. 38) was found in 1880: it is very clumsy, and the
+wretched device by which a pillar is introduced to support the Victory
+in the hand of Athena can scarcely be supposed to have belonged to the
+great original. Tempting theories have been published by Furtwangler
+(_Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_) and other archaeologists, which
+identify copies of the Athena Lemnia of Pheidias, his Pantarces, his
+Aphrodite Urania and other statues; but doubt hangs over all these
+attributions.
+
+A more pertinent and more promising question is, how far we may take the
+decorative sculpture of the Parthenon, since Lord Elgin's time the pride
+of the British Museum, as the actual work of Pheidias, or as done from
+his designs. Here again we have no conclusive evidence; but it appears
+from the testimony of inscriptions that the pediments at all events were
+not executed until after Pheidias's death.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Statuette of Athena Parthenos.]
+
+Of course the pediments and frieze of the Parthenon (q.v.), whose work
+soever they may be, stand at the head of all Greek decorative sculpture.
+Whether we regard the grace of the composition, the exquisite finish of
+the statues in the round, or the delightful atmosphere of poetry and
+religion which surrounds these sculptures, they rank among the
+masterpieces of the world. The Greeks esteemed them far below the statue
+which the temple was made to shelter; but to us, who have lost the great
+figure in ivory and gold, the carvings of the casket which once
+contained it are a perpetual source of instruction and delight. The
+whole is reproduced by photography in A. S. Murray's _Sculptures of the
+Parthenon_.
+
+An abundant literature has sprung up in regard to these sculptures in
+recent years. It will suffice here to mention the discussions in
+Furtwangler's _Masterpieces_, and the very ingenious attempts of Sauer
+to determine by a careful examination of the bases and backgrounds of
+the pediments as they now stand how the figures must have been arranged
+in them. The two ends of the eastern pediment (Plate III. fig. 65) are
+the only fairly well-preserved part of the pediments.
+
+Among the pupils of Pheidias who may naturally be supposed to have
+worked on the sculptures of the Parthenon, the most notable were
+Alcamenes and Agoracritus. Some fragments remain of the great statue of
+Nemesis at Rhamnus by Agoracritus. And an interesting light has been
+thrown on Alcamenes by the discovery at Pergamum of a professed copy of
+his Hermes set up at the entrance to the Acropolis at Athens (Plate II.
+fig. 57). The style of this work, however, is conventional and
+archaistic, and we can scarcely regard it as typical of the master.
+
+Another noted contemporary who was celebrated mainly for his portraits
+was Cresilas, a Cretan. Several copies of his portrait of Pericles
+exist, and testify to the lofty and idealizing style of portraiture in
+this great age.
+
+We possess also admirable sculpture belonging to the other important
+temples of the Acropolis, the Erechtheum and the temple of Nike. The
+temple of Nike is the earlier, being possibly a memorial of the Spartan
+defeat at Sphacteria. The Erechtheum belongs to the end of our period,
+and embodies the delicacy and finish of the conservative school of
+sculpture at Athens just as the Parthenon illustrates the ideas of the
+more progressive school. The reconstruction of the Erechtheum has been a
+task which has long occupied the attention of archaeologists (see the
+paper by Mr Stevens in the _American Journal of Archaeology_, 1906). Our
+illustration (Plate V. fig. 75) shows one of the Corae or maidens who
+support the entablature of the south porch of the Erechtheum in her
+proper setting. This use of the female figure in place of a pillar is
+based on old Ionian precedent (see fig. 17) and is not altogether
+happy; but the idea is carried out with remarkable skill, the perfect
+repose and solid strength of the maiden being emphasized.
+
+Beside Pheidias of Athens must be placed the greatest of early Argive
+sculptors, Polyclitus. His two typical athletes, the Doryphorus or
+spear-bearer (Plate VI. fig. 80) and the Diadumenus, have long been
+identified, and though the copies are not first-rate, they enable us to
+recover the principles of the master's art.
+
+
+  Polyclitus.
+
+Among the bases discovered at Olympia, whence the statues had been
+removed, are three or four which bear the name of Polyclitus, and the
+definite evidence furnished by these bases as to the position of the
+feet of the statues which they once bore has enabled archaeologists,
+especially Professor Furtwangler, to identify copies of those statues
+among known works. Also newly discovered copies of Polyclitan works have
+made their appearance. At Delos there has been found a copy of the
+Diadumenus, which is of much finer work than the statue in the British
+Museum from Vaison. The Museum of Fine Arts at Boston, U.S.A., has
+secured a very beautiful statue of a young Hermes, who but for the wings
+on the temples might pass as a boy athlete of Polyclitan style (Plate
+II. fig. 60). In fact, instead of relying as regards the manner of
+Polyclitus on Roman copies of the Doryphorus and Diadumenus, we have
+quite a gallery of athletes, boys and men, who all claim relationship,
+nearer or more remote, to the school of the great Argive master. It
+might have been hoped that the excavations, made under the leadership of
+Professor Waldstein at the Argive Heraeum, would have enlightened us as
+to the style of Polyclitus. Just as the sculptures of the Parthenon are
+the best monument of Pheidias, so it might seem likely that the
+sculptural decoration of the great temple which contained the Hera of
+Polyclitus would show us at large how his school worked in marble.
+Unfortunately the fragments of sculpture from the Heraeum are few. The
+most remarkable is a female head, which may perhaps come from a pediment
+(fig. 39). But archaeologists are not in agreement whether it is in
+style Polyclitan or whether it rather resembles in style Attic works.
+Other heads and some highly-finished fragments of bodies come apparently
+from the metopes of the same temple. (See also article Argos.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Female Head: Heraeum.]
+
+Another work of Polyclitus was his Amazon, made it is said in
+competition with his great contemporaries, Pheidias, Cresilas and
+Phradmon, all of whose Amazons were preserved in the great temple of
+Artemis at Ephesus. In our museums are many statues of Amazons
+representing 5th century originals. These have usually been largely
+restored, and it is no easy matter to discover their original type.
+Professor Michaelis has recovered successfully three types (fig. 40).
+The attribution of these is a matter of controversy. The first has been
+given to the chisel of Polyclitus; the second seems to represent the
+Wounded Amazon of Cresilas; the third has by some archaeologists been
+given to Pheidias. It does not represent a wounded amazon, but one
+alert, about to leap upon her horse with the help of a spear as a
+leaping pole.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Types of Amazons (Michaelis.)]
+
+
+  Lycia.
+
+We can devote little more than a passing mention to the sculpture of
+other temples and shrines of the later 5th century, which nevertheless
+deserve careful study. The frieze from the temple of Apollo at Phigalia,
+representing Centaur and Amazon battles, is familiar to visitors of the
+British Museum, where, however, its proximity to the remains of the
+Parthenon lays stress upon the faults of grouping and execution which
+this frieze presents. It seems to have been executed by local Arcadian
+artists. More pleasing is the sculpture of the Ionic tomb called the
+Nereid monument, brought by Sir Charles Fellows from Lycia. Here we have
+not only a series of bands of relief which ran round the tomb, but also
+detached female figures, whence the name which it bears is derived. A
+recent view sees in these women with their fluttering drapery not nymphs
+of the sea, but personifications of sea-breezes.
+
+The series of known Lycian tombs has been in recent years enriched
+through the acquisition by the museum of Vienna of the sculptured
+friezes which adorned a heroon near Geul Bashi. In the midst of the
+enclosure was a tomb, and the walls of the enclosure itself were adorned
+within and without with a great series of reliefs, mostly of mythologic
+purport. Many subjects which but rarely occur in early Greek art, the
+siege of Troy, the adventure of the Seven against Thebes, the carrying
+off of the daughters of Leucippus, Ulysses shooting down the Suitors,
+are here represented in detail. Professor Benndorf, who has published
+these sculptures in an admirable volume, is disposed to see in them the
+influence of the Thasian painter Polygnotus. Any one can see their
+kinship to painting, and their subjects recur in some of the great
+frescoes painted by Polygnotus, Micon and others for the Athenians. Like
+other Lycian sculptures, they contain non-Hellenic elements; in fact
+Lycia forms a link of the chain which extends from the wall-paintings of
+Assyria to works like the columns of Trajan and of Antoninus, but is not
+embodied in the more purely idealistic works of the highest Greek art.
+The date of the Vienna tomb is not much later than the middle of the 5th
+century. A small part of the frieze of this monument is shown in fig.
+41. It will be seen that in this fragment there are two scenes, one
+directly above the other. In the upper line Ulysses, accompanied by his
+son Telemachus, is in the act of shooting the suitors, who are reclining
+at table in the midst of a feast; a cup-bearer, possibly Melanthius, is
+escaping by a door behind Ulysses. In the lower line is the central
+group of a frieze which represents the hunting of the Calydonian boar,
+which is represented, as is usual in the best time of Greek art, as an
+ordinary animal and no monster.
+
+
+  Portraits.
+
+Archaeologists have recently begun to pay more attention to an
+interesting branch of Greek art which had until recently been neglected,
+that of sculptured portraits. The known portraits of the 5th century now
+include Pericles, Herodotus, Thucydides, Anacreon, Sophocles, Euripides,
+Socrates and others. As might be expected in a time when style in
+sculpture was so strongly pronounced, these portraits, when not later
+unfaithful copies, are notably ideal. They represent the great men whom
+they portray not in the spirit of realism. Details are neglected,
+expression is not elaborated; the sculptor tries to represent what is
+permanent in his subject rather than what is temporary. Hence these
+portraits do not seem to belong to a particular time of life; they only
+represent a man in the perfection of physical force and mental energy.
+And the race or type is clearly shown through individual traits. In some
+cases it is still disputed whether statues of this age represent deities
+or mortals, so notable are the repose and dignity which even human
+figures acquire under the hands of 5th-century masters. The Pericles
+after Cresilas in the British Museum, and the athlete-portraits of
+Polyclitus, are good examples.
+
+_Period III. 400-300 B.C._--The high ideal level attained by Greek art
+at the end of the 5th century is maintained in the 4th. There cannot be
+any question of decay in it save at Athens, where undoubtedly the loss
+of religion and the decrease of national prosperity acted prejudicially.
+But in Peloponnesus the time was one of expansion; several new and
+important cities, such as Messene, Megalopolis and Mantinea, arose under
+the protection of Epaminondas. And in Asia the Greek cities were still
+prosperous and artistic, as were the cities of Italy and Sicily which
+kept their independence. On the whole we find during this age some
+diminution of the freshness and simplicity of art; it works less in the
+service of the gods and more in that of private patrons; it becomes less
+ethical and more sentimental and emotional. On the other hand, there can
+be no doubt that technique both in painting and sculpture advanced with
+rapid strides; artists had a greater mastery of their materials, and
+ventured on a wider range of subject.
+
+[Illustration: _Heroon of Gyeul Bashi Trysa_, Pl. 7.
+
+FIG. 41.--Odysseus and Suitors; Hunting of Boar.]
+
+In the 4th century no new temples of importance rose at Athens; the
+Acropolis had taken its final form; but at Messene, Tegea, Epidaurus and
+elsewhere, very admirable buildings arose. The remains of the temple at
+Tegea are of wonderful beauty and finish; as are those of the theatre
+and the so-called _Tholus_ of Epidaurus. In Asia Minor vast temples of
+the Ionic order arose, especially at Miletus and Ephesus. The colossal
+pillars of Miletus astonish the visitors to the Louvre; while the
+sculptured columns of Ephesus in the British Museum (Plate II. fig. 59)
+show a high level of artistic skill. The Mausoleum erected about 350
+B.C. at Halicarnassus in memory of Mausolus, king of Caria, and adorned
+with sculpture by the most noted artists of the day, was reckoned one
+of the wonders of the world. It has been in part restored in the British
+Museum. Mr Oldfield's conjectural restoration, published in
+_Archaeologia_ for 1895, though it has many rivals, surpasses them all
+in the lightness of the effect, and in close correspondence to the
+description by Pliny. We show a small part of the sculptural decoration,
+representing a battle between Greeks and Amazons (Plate IV. fig. 70),
+wherein the energy of the action and the careful balance of figure
+against figure are remarkable. We possess also the fine portraits of
+Mausolus himself and his wife Artemisia, which stood in or on the
+building, as well as part of a gigantic chariot with four horses which
+surmounted it.
+
+Another architectural work of the 4th century, in its way a gem, is the
+structure set up at Athens by Lysicrates, in memory of a choragic
+victory. This still survives, though the reliefs with which it is
+adorned have suffered severely from the weather.
+
+[Illustration: Nat. Mus., Naples.
+
+FIG. 42.--Greek Drawing of Women Playing at Knucklebones.]
+
+The 4th century is the brilliant period of ancient painting. It opens
+with the painters of the Asiatic School, Zeuxis and Parrhasius and
+Protogenes, with their contemporaries Nicias and Apollodorus of Athens,
+Timanthes of Sicyon or Cythnus, and Euphranor of Corinth. It witnesses
+the rise of a great school at Sicyon, under Eupompus and Pamphilus,
+which was noted for its scientific character and the fineness of its
+drawing, and which culminated in Apelles, the painter of Alexander the
+Great, and probably the greatest master of the art in antiquity. To each
+of these painters a separate article is given, fixing their place in the
+history of the art. Of their paintings unfortunately we can form but a
+very inadequate notion. Vase-paintings, which in the 5th century give us
+some notion at least of contemporary drawing, are less careful in the
+4th century. Now and then we find on them figures admirably designed, or
+successfully foreshortened; but these are rare occurrences. The art of
+the vase decorator has ceased to follow the methods and improvements of
+contemporary fresco painters, and is pursued as a mere branch of
+commerce.
+
+But very few actual paintings of the age survive, and even these
+fragmentary remains have with time lost the freshness of their
+colouring; nor are they in any case the work of a noteworthy hand. We
+reproduce two examples. The first is from a stone of the vault of a
+Crimean grave (Plate IV. fig. 67). The date of the grave is fixed to the
+4th century by ornaments found in it, among which was a gold coin of
+Alexander the Great. The representation is probably of Demeter or her
+priestess, her hair bound with poppies and other flowers. The original
+is of large size. The other illustration (fig. 42) represents the
+remains of a drawing on marble, representing a group of women playing
+knucklebones. It was found at Herculaneum. Though signed by one
+Alexander of Athens, who was probably a worker of the Roman age,
+Professor Robert is right in maintaining that Alexander only copied a
+design of the age of Zeuxis and Parrhasius. In fact the drawing and
+grouping is so closely like that of reliefs of about 400 B.C. that the
+drawing is of great historic value, though there be no colouring.
+Several other drawings of the same class have been found at Herculaneum,
+and on the walls of the Transtiberine Villa at Rome (now in the Terme
+Museum).
+
+[Illustration: _Olympia_, iii. 53.
+
+FIG. 43.--Hermes of Praxiteles; restored.]
+
+
+  Praxiteles.
+
+Until about the year 1880, our knowledge of the great Greek sculptors of
+the 4th century was derived mostly from the statements of ancient
+writers and from Roman copies, or what were supposed to be copies, of
+their works. We are now in a far more satisfactory position. We now
+possess an original work of Praxiteles, and sculptures executed under
+the immediate direction of, if not from the hand of, other great
+sculptors of that age--Scopas, Timotheus and others. Among all the
+discoveries made at Olympia, none has become so familiar to the artistic
+world as that of the Hermes of Praxiteles. It is the first time that we
+have become possessed of a first-rate Greek original by one of the
+greatest of sculptors. Hitherto almost all the statues in our museums
+have been either late copies of Greek works of art, or else the mere
+decorative sculpture of temples and tombs, which was by the ancients
+themselves but little regarded. But we can venture without misgiving to
+submit the new Hermes to the strictest examination, sure that in every
+line and touch we have the work of a great artist. This is more than we
+can say of any of the literary remains of antiquity--poem, play or
+oration. Hermes is represented by the sculptor (fig. 43 and Plate VI.
+fig. 82) in the act of carrying the young child Dionysus to the nymphs
+who were charged with his rearing. On the journey he pauses and amuses
+himself by holding out to the child-god a bunch of grapes, and watching
+his eagerness to grasp them. To the modern eye the child is not a
+success; only the latest art of Greece is at home in dealing with
+children. But the Hermes, strong without excessive muscular development,
+and graceful without leanness, is a model of physical formation, and his
+face expresses the perfection of health, natural endowment and sweet
+nature. The statue can scarcely be called a work of religious art in the
+modern or Christian sense of the word religious, but from the Greek
+point of view it is religious, as embodying the result of the harmonious
+development of all human faculties and life in accordance with nature.
+
+The Hermes not only adds to our knowledge of Praxiteles, but also
+confirms the received views in regard to him. Already many works in
+galleries of sculpture had been identified as copies of statues of his
+school. Noteworthy among these are, the group at Munich representing
+Peace nursing the infant Wealth, from an original by Cephisodotus,
+father of Praxiteles; copies of the Cnidian Aphrodite of Praxiteles,
+especially one in the Vatican which is here illustrated (Plate V. fig.
+71); copies of the Apollo slaying a lizard (Sauroctonus), of a Satyr (in
+the Capitol Museum), and others. These works, which are noted for their
+softness and charm, make us understand the saying of ancient critics
+that Praxiteles and Scopas were noted for the pathos of their works, as
+Pheidias and Polyclitus for the ethical quality of those they produced.
+But the pathos of Praxiteles is of a soft and dreamy character; there is
+no action, or next to none; and the emotions which he rouses are
+sentimental rather than passionate. Scopas, as we shall see, was of
+another mood. The discovery of the Hermes has naturally set
+archaeologists searching in the museums of Europe for other works which
+may from their likeness to it in various respects be set down as
+Praxitelean in character. In the case of many of the great sculptors of
+Greece--Strongylion, Silanion, Calamis and others--it is of little use
+to search for copies of their works, since we have little really
+trustworthy evidence on which to base our inquiries. But in the case of
+Praxiteles we really stand on a safe level. Naturally it is impossible
+in these pages to give any sketch of the results, some almost certain,
+some very doubtful, of the researches of archaeologists in quest of
+Praxitelean works. But we may mention a few works which have been
+claimed by good judges as coming from the master himself. Professor
+Brunn claimed as work of Praxiteles a torso of a satyr in the Louvre, in
+scheme identical with the well-known satyr of the Capitol. Professor
+Furtwangler puts in the same category a delicately beautiful head of
+Aphrodite at Petworth. And his translator, Mrs Strong, regards the
+Aberdeen head of a young man in the British Museum as the actual work of
+Praxiteles. Certainly this last head does not suffer when placed beside
+the Olympian head of Hermes. At Mantinea has been found a basis whereon
+stood a group of Latona and her two children, Apollo and Artemis, made
+by Praxiteles. This base bears reliefs representing the musical contest
+of Apollo and Marsyas, with the Muses as spectators, reliefs very
+pleasing in style, and quite in the manner of Attic artists of the 4th
+century. But of course we must not ascribe them to the hand of
+Praxiteles himself; great sculptors did not themselves execute the
+reliefs which adorned temples and other monuments, but reserved them for
+their pupils. Yet the graceful figures of the Muses of Mantinea suggest
+how much was due to Praxiteles in determining the tone and character of
+Athenian art in relief in the 4th century. Exactly the same style which
+marks them belongs also to a mass of sepulchral monuments at Athens, and
+such works as the Sidonian sarcophagus of the Mourning Women, to be
+presently mentioned.
+
+
+  Scopas.
+
+Excavation on the site of the temple of Athena Alea at Tegea has
+resulted in the recovery of works of the school of Scopas. Pausanias
+tells us that Scopas was the architect of the temple, and so important
+in the case of a Greek temple is the sculptural decoration, that we can
+scarcely doubt that the sculpture also of the temple at Tegea was under
+the supervision of Scopas, especially as he was more noted as a sculptor
+than as an architect. In the pediments of the temple were represented
+two scenes from mythology, the hunting of the Calydonian boar and the
+combat between Achilles and Telephus. To one or other of these scenes
+belong several heads of local marble discovered on the spot, which are
+very striking from their extraordinary life and animation. Unfortunately
+they are so much injured that they can scarcely be made intelligible
+except by the help of restoration; we therefore engrave one of them, the
+helmeted head, as restored by a German sculptor (Plate III. fig. 63).
+The strong bony frame of this head, and its depth from front to back,
+are not less noteworthy than the parted lips and deeply set and strongly
+shaded eye; the latter features impart to the head a vividness of
+expression such as we have found in no previous work of Greek art, but
+which sets the key to the developments of art which take place in the
+Hellenistic age. A draped torso of Atalanta from the same pediment has
+been fitted to one of these heads. Hitherto Scopas was known to us,
+setting aside literary records, only as one of the sculptors who had
+worked at the Mausoleum. Ancient critics and travellers, however, bear
+ample testimony to his fame, and the wide range of his activity, which
+extended to northern Greece, Peloponnese and Asia Minor. His Maenads
+and his Tritons and other beings of the sea were much copied in
+antiquity. But perhaps he reached his highest level in statues such as
+that of Apollo as leader of the Muses, clad in long drapery.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Amazon from Epidaurus.]
+
+
+  Timotheus, Bryaxis, Leochares.
+
+The interesting precinct of Aesculapius at Epidaurus has furnished us
+with specimens of the style of an Athenian contemporary of Scopas, who
+worked with him on the Mausoleum. An inscription which records the sums
+spent on the temple of the Physician-god, informs us that the models for
+the sculptures of the pediments, and one set of acroteria or roof
+adornments, were the work of Timotheus. Of the pedimental figures and
+the acroteria considerable fragments have been recovered, and we may
+with confidence assume that at all events the models for these were by
+Timotheus. It is strange that the unsatisfactory arrangement whereby a
+noted sculptor makes models and some local workman the figures enlarged
+from those models, should have been tolerated by so artistic a people as
+the Greeks. The subjects of the pediments appear to have been the common
+ones of battles between Greek and Amazon and between Lapith and Centaur.
+We possess fragments of some of the Amazon figures, one of which,
+striking downwards at the enemy, is here shown (fig. 44). Their
+attitudes are vigorous and alert; but the work shows no delicacy of
+detail. Figures of Nereids riding on horses, which were found on the
+same site, may very probably be roof ornaments (acroteria) of the
+temple. We have also several figures of Victory, which probably were
+acroteria on some smaller temple, perhaps that of Artemis. A base found
+at Athens, sculptured with figures of horsemen in relief, bears the name
+of Bryaxis, and was probably made by a pupil of his. Probable conjecture
+assigns to Leochares the originals copied in the Ganymede of the
+Vatican, borne aloft by an eagle (Plate I. fig. 53) and the noble statue
+of Alexander the Great at Munich (see LEOCHARES). Thus we may fairly say
+that we are now acquainted with the work of all the great sculptors who
+worked on the Mausoleum--Scopas, Bryaxis, Leochares and Timotheus; and
+are in a far more advantageous position than were the archaeologists of
+1880 for determining the artistic problems connected with that noblest
+of ancient tombs.
+
+Contemporary with the Athenian school of Praxiteles and Scopas was the
+great school of Argos and Sicyon, of which Lysippus was the most
+distinguished member. Lysippus continued the academic traditions of
+Polyclitus, but he was far bolder in his choice of subjects and more
+innovating in style. Gods, heroes and mortals alike found in him a
+sculptor who knew how to combine fine ideality with a vigorous
+actuality. He was at the height of his fame during Alexander's life, and
+the grandiose ambition of the great Macedonian found him ample
+employment, especially in the frequent representation of himself and his
+marshals.
+
+We have none of the actual works of Lysippus; but our best evidence for
+his style will be found in the statue of Agias an athlete (Plate V. fig.
+74) found at Delphi, and shown by an inscription to be a marble copy of
+a bronze original by Lysippus. The Apoxyomenus of the Vatican (man
+scraping himself with a strigil) (Plate VI. fig. 79) has hitherto been
+regarded as a copy from Lysippus; but of this there is no evidence, and
+the style of that statue belongs rather to the 3rd century than the 4th.
+The Agias, on the other hand, is in style contemporary with the works
+of 4th-century sculptors.
+
+Of the elaborate groups of combatants with which Lysippus enriched such
+centres as Olympia and Delphi, or of the huge bronze statues which he
+erected in temples and shrines, we can form no adequate notion. Perhaps
+among the extant heads of Alexander the one which is most likely to
+preserve the style of Lysippus is the head from Alexandria in the
+British Museum (Plate II. fig. 56), though this was executed at a later
+time.
+
+Many noted extant statues may be attributed with probability to the
+latter part of the 4th or the earlier part of the 3rd century. We will
+mention a few only. The celebrated group at Florence representing Niobe
+and her children falling before the arrows of Apollo and Artemis is
+certainly a work of the pathetic school, and may be by a pupil of
+Praxiteles. Niobe, in an agony of grief, which is in the marble tempered
+and idealized, tries to protect her youngest daughter from destruction
+(Plate VI. fig. 78). Whether the group can have originally been fitted
+into the gable of a temple is a matter of dispute.
+
+Two great works preserved in the Louvre are so noted that it is but
+necessary to mention them, the Aphrodite of Melos (Plate VI. fig. 77),
+in which archaeologists are now disposed to see the influence of Scopas,
+and the Victory of Samothrace (Plate III. figs. 61 and 62), an original
+set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes after a naval victory won at Salamis in
+Cyprus in 306 B.C. over the fleet of Ptolemy, king of Egypt.
+
+Nor can we pass over without notice two works so celebrated as the
+Apollo of the Belvidere in the Vatican (Plate II. fig. 55), and the
+Artemis of Versailles. The Apollo is now by most archaeologists regarded
+as probably a copy of a work of Leochares, to whose Ganymede it bears a
+superficial resemblance. The Artemis is regarded as possibly due to some
+artist of the same age. But it is by no means clear that we have the
+right to remove either of these figures from among the statues of the
+Hellenistic age. The old theory of Preller, which saw in them copies
+from a trophy set up to commemorate the repulse of the Gauls at Delphi
+in 278 B.C., has not lost its plausibility.
+
+[Illustration: Hamdy et Reinach, _Necropole a Sidon_, Pl. 7.
+
+FIG. 45.--Tomb of Mourning Women: Sidon.]
+
+
+  Sarcophagi of Sidon.
+
+This may be the most appropriate place for mentioning the remarkable
+find made at Sidon in 1886 of a number of sarcophagi, which once
+doubtless contained the remains of kings of Sidon. They are now in the
+museum of Constantinople, and are admirably published by Hamdy Bey and
+T. Reinach (_Une Necropole royale a Sidon_, 1892-1896). The sarcophagi
+in date cover a considerable period. The earlier are made on Egyptian
+models, the covers shaped roughly in the form of a human body or mummy.
+The later, however, are Greek in form, and are clearly the work of
+skilled Greek sculptors, who seem to have been employed by the grandees
+of Phoenicia in the adornment of their last resting-places. Four of
+these sarcophagi in particular claim attention, and in fact present us
+with examples of Greek art of the 5th and 4th centuries in several of
+its aspects. To the 5th century belong the tomb of the Satrap, the
+reliefs of which bring before us the activities and glories of some
+unknown king, and the Lycian sarcophagus, so called from its form, which
+resembles that of tombs found in Lycia, and which is also adorned with
+reliefs which have reference to the past deeds of the hero buried in the
+tomb, though these deeds are represented, not in the Oriental manner
+directly, but in the Greek manner, clad in mythological forms. To the
+4th century belong two other sarcophagi. One of these is called the
+Tomb of Mourning Women. On all sides of it alike are ranged a series of
+beautiful female figures, separated by Ionic pillars, each in a somewhat
+different attitude, though all attitudes denoting grief (fig. 45). The
+pediments at the ends of the cover are also closely connected with the
+mourning for the loss of a friend and protector, which is the theme of
+the whole decoration of the sarcophagus. We see depicted in them the
+telling of the news of the death, with the results in the mournful
+attitude of the two seated figures. The mourning women must be taken,
+not as the representation of any persons in particular, but generally as
+the expression of the feeling of a city. Such figures are familiar to us
+in the art of the second Attic school; we could easily find parallels to
+the sarcophagus among the 4th-century sepulchral reliefs of Athens. We
+can scarcely be mistaken in attributing the workmanship of this
+beautiful sarcophagus to some sculptor trained in the school of
+Praxiteles. And it is a conjecture full of probability that it once
+contained the body of Strato, king of Sidon, who ruled about 380 B.C.,
+and who was _proxenos_ or public friend of the Athenians.
+
+More celebrated is the astonishing tomb called that of Alexander, though
+there can be no doubt that, although it commemorates the victories and
+exploits of Alexander, it was made not to hold his remains, but those of
+some ruler of Sidon who was high in his favour. Among all the monuments
+of antiquity which have come down to us, none is more admirable than
+this, and none more characteristic of the Greek genius. We give, in two
+lines, the composition which adorned one of the sides of this
+sarcophagus. It represents a victory of Alexander, probably that of the
+Granicus (fig. 46). On the left we see the Macedonian king charging the
+Persian horse, on the right his general Parmenio, and in the midst a
+younger officer, perhaps Cleitus. Mingled with the chiefs are
+foot-soldiers, Greek and Macedonian, with whom the Persians are mingled
+in unequal fray. What most strikes the modern eye is the remarkable
+freshness and force of the action and the attitudes. Those, however, who
+have seen the originals have been specially impressed with the
+colouring, whereof, of course, our engraving gives no hint, but which is
+applied to the whole surface of the relief with equal skill and
+delicacy. There are other features in the relief on which a Greek eye
+would have dwelt with special pleasure--the exceedingly careful symmetry
+of the whole, the balancing of figure against figure, the skill with
+which the result of the battle is hinted rather than depicted. The
+composition is one in which the most careful planning and the most
+precise calculation are mingled with freedom of hand and expressiveness
+in detail. The faces in particular show more expression than would be
+tolerated in art of the previous century. We are unable as yet to assign
+an author or even a school to the sculptor of this sarcophagus; he comes
+to us as a new and striking phenomenon in the history of ancient art.
+The reliefs which adorn the other sides of the sarcophagus are almost
+equally interesting. On one side we see Alexander again, in the company
+of a Persian noble, hunting a lion. The short sides also show us scenes
+of fighting and hunting. In fact it can scarcely be doubted that if we
+had but a clue to the interpretation of the reliefs, they would be found
+to embody historic events of the end of the 4th century. There are but a
+few other works of art, such as the Bayeux tapestry and the Column of
+Trajan, which bring contemporary history so vividly before our eyes. The
+battles with the Persians represented in some of the sculpture of the
+Parthenon and the temple of Nike at Athens are treated conventionally
+and with no attempt at realism; but here the ideal and the actual are
+blended into a work of consummate art, which is at the same time, to
+those who can read the language of Greek art, a historic record. The
+portraits of Alexander the Great which appear on this sarcophagus are
+almost contemporary, and the most authentic likenesses of him which we
+possess. The great Macedonian exercised so strong an influence on
+contemporary art that a multitude of heads of the age, both of gods and
+men, and even the portraits of his successors, show traces of his type.
+
+We have yet to mention what are among the most charming and the most
+characteristic products of the Greek chisel, the beautiful tombs,
+adorned with seated or standing portraits or with reliefs, which were
+erected in great numbers on all the main roads of Greece. A great number
+of these from the Dipylon cemetery are preserved in the Central Museum
+at Athens, and impress all visitors by the gentle sentiment and the
+charm of grouping which they display (Gardner, _Sculptured Tombs of
+Hellas_).
+
+[Illustration: Hamdy et Reinach. _Necropole a Sidon_, Pl. 30.
+
+FIG. 46.--Battle of The Granicus: Sarcophagus from Sidon.]
+
+_Period IV., 300-50 B.C._--There can be no question but that the period
+which followed the death of Alexander, commonly called the age of
+Hellenism, was one of great activity and expansion in architecture. The
+number of cities founded by himself and his immediate successors in Asia
+and Egypt was enormous. The remains of these cities have in a few cases
+(Ephesus, Pergamum, Assus, Priene, Alexandria) been partially excavated.
+But the adaptation of Greek architecture to the needs of the semi-Greek
+peoples included in the dominions of the kings of Egypt, Syria and
+Pergamum is too vast a subject for us to enter upon here (see
+ARCHITECTURE).
+
+Painting during this age ceased to be religious. It was no longer for
+temples and public stoae that artists worked, but for private persons;
+especially they made frescoes for the decoration of the walls of houses,
+and panel pictures for galleries set up by rich patrons. The names of
+very few painters of the Hellenistic age have come down to us. There can
+be no doubt that the character of the art declined, and there were no
+longer produced great works to be the pride of cities, or to form an
+embodiment for all future time of the qualities of a deity or the
+circumstances of scenes mythical or historic. But at the same time the
+mural paintings of Pompeii and other works of the Roman age, which are
+usually more or less nearly derived from Hellenistic models, prove that
+in technical matters painting continued to progress. Colouring became
+more varied, groups more elaborate, perspective was worked out with
+greater accuracy, and imagination shook itself free from many of the
+conventions of early art. Pompeian painting, however, must be treated of
+under Roman, not under Greek art. We figure a single example, to show
+the elaboration of painting at Alexandria and elsewhere, the wonderful
+Pompeian mosaic (fig. 47), which represents the victory of Alexander at
+Issus. This work being in stone has preserved its colouring; and it
+stands at a far higher level of art than ordinary Pompeian paintings,
+which are the work of mere house-decorators. This on the contrary is
+certainly copied from the work of a great master. It is instructive to
+compare it with the sarcophagus illustrated in Fig. 46, which it excels
+in perspective and in the freedom of individual figures, though the
+composition is much less careful and precise. Alexander charges from the
+left (his portrait being the least successful part of the picture), and
+bears down a young Persian; Darius in his chariot flees towards the
+right; in the foreground a young knight is trying to manage a restive
+horse. It will be observed how very simple is the indication of
+locality: a few stones and a broken tree stand for rocks and woods.
+
+Among the original sculptural creations of the early Hellenistic age, a
+prominent place is claimed by the statue of Fortune, typifying the city
+of Antioch (Plate VI. fig. 81), a work of Eutychides, a pupil of
+Lysippus. Of this we possess a small copy, which is sufficient to show
+how worthy of admiration was the original. We have a beautiful
+embodiment of the personality of the city, seated on a rock, holding
+ears of corn, while the river Orontes, embodied in a young male figure,
+springs forth at her feet.
+
+[Illustration: From a photograph by G. Borgi.
+
+FIG. 47.--Mosaic of the Battle of Issus (Naples).]
+
+This is, so far as we know, almost the only work of the early part of
+the 3rd century which shows imagination. Sculptors often worked on a
+colossal scale, producing such monsters as the colossal Apollo at
+Rhodes, the work of Chares of Lindus, which was more than 100 ft. in
+height. But they did not show freshness or invention; and for the most
+part content themselves with varying the types produced in the great
+schools of the 4th century. The wealthy kings of Syria, Egypt and Asia
+Minor formed art galleries, and were lavish in their payments; but it
+has often been proved in the history of art that originality cannot be
+produced by mere expenditure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Head of Anytus: Lycosura.]
+
+A great artist, whose date has been disputed, but who is now assigned to
+the Hellenistic age, Damophon of Messene, is known to us from his actual
+works. He set up in the shrine of the _Mistress_ (Despoena) at Lycosura
+in Arcadia a great group of figures consisting of Despoena, Demeter,
+Artemis and the Titan Anytus. Three colossal heads found on the spot
+probably belong to the three last-mentioned deities. We illustrate the
+head of Anytus, with wild disordered hair and turbulent expression (fig.
+48). Dr Dorpfeld has argued, on architectural grounds, that shrine and
+images alike must be given to a later time than the 4th century; and
+this judgment is now confirmed by inscriptional and other evidence.
+
+In one important direction sculpture certainly made progress. Hitherto
+Greek sculptors had contented themselves with studying the human body
+whether in rest or motion, from outside. The dissection of the human
+body, with a consequent increase in knowledge of anatomy, became usual
+at Alexandria in the medical school which flourished under the
+Ptolemies. This improved anatomical knowledge soon reacted upon the art
+of sculpture. Works such as the Fighter of Agasias in the Louvre (Plate
+IV. fig. 69), and in a less degree the Apoxyomenus (Plate VI. fig. 79),
+display a remarkable internal knowledge of the human frame, such as
+could only come from the habit of dissection. Whether this was really
+productive of improvement in sculpture may be doubted. But it is
+impossible to withhold one's admiration from works which show an
+astonishing knowledge of the body of man down to its bony framework, and
+a power and mastery of execution which have never since been surpassed.
+
+With accuracy in the portrayal of men's bodies goes of necessity a more
+naturalistic tendency in portraiture. As we have seen, the art of
+portraiture was at a high ideal level in the Pheidian age; and even in
+the age of Alexander the Great, notable men were rendered rather
+according to the idea than the fact. To a base and mechanical naturalism
+Greek art never at any time descended. But from 300 B.C. onwards we have
+a marvellous series of portraits which may be termed rather
+characteristic than ideal, which are very minute in their execution, and
+delight in laying emphasis on the havoc wrought by time and life on the
+faces of noteworthy men. Such are the portraits of Demosthenes, of
+Antisthenes, of Zeno and others, which exist in our galleries. And it
+was no long step from these actual portraits to the invention of
+characteristic types to represent the great men of a past generation,
+such as Homer and Lycurgus, or to form generic images to represent
+weatherbeaten fishermen or toothless old women.
+
+
+  Altar of Pergamum.
+
+Our knowledge of the art of the later Hellenistic age has received a
+great accession since 1875 through the systematic labours directed by
+the German Archaeological Institute, which have resulted in recovering
+the remains of Pergamum, the fortress-city which was the capital of the
+dynasty of the Philetaeri. Among the ancient buildings of Pergamum none
+was more ambitious in scale and striking in execution than the great
+altar used for sacrifices to Zeus, a monument supposed to be referred to
+in the phrase of the Apocalypse "where Satan's throne is." This altar,
+like many great sacrificial altars of later Greece, was a vast erection
+to which one mounted by many steps, and its outside was adorned with a
+frieze which represented on a gigantic scale, in the style of the 2nd
+century B.C., the battle between the gods and the giants. This enormous
+frieze (see PERGAMUM) is now one of the treasures of the Royal Museums
+of Berlin, and it cannot fail to impress visitors by the size of the
+figures, the energy of the action, and the strong vein of sentiment
+which pervades the whole, giving it a certain air of modernity, though
+the subject is strange to the Christian world. In early Greek art the
+giants where they oppose the gods are represented as men armed in full
+panoply, "in shining armour, holding long spears in their hands," to use
+the phrase in which Hesiod describes them. But in the Pergamene frieze
+the giants are strange compounds, having the heads and bodies of wild
+and fierce barbarians, sometimes also human legs, but sometimes in the
+place of legs two long serpents, the heads of which take with the giants
+themselves a share in the battle. Sometimes also they are winged. The
+gods appear in the forms which had been gradually made for them in the
+course of Greek history, but they are usually accompanied by the animals
+sacred to them in cultus, between which and the serpent-feet of the
+giants a weird combat goes on. We can conjecture the source whence the
+Pergamene artist derived the shaggy hair, the fierce expression, the
+huge muscles of his giants (fig. 49); probably these features came
+originally from the Galatians, who at the time had settled in Asia
+Minor, and were spreading the terror of their name and the report of
+their savage devastations through all Asia Minor. The victory over the
+giants clearly stands for the victory of Greek civilization over Gallic
+barbarism; and this meaning is made more emphatic because the gods are
+obviously inferior in physical force to their opponents, indeed, a large
+proportion of the divine combatants are goddesses. Yet everywhere the
+giants are overthrown, writhing in pain on the ground, or transfixed by
+the weapons of their opponents; everywhere the gods are victorious, yet
+in the victory retain much of their divine calm. The piecing together of
+the frieze at Berlin has been a labour of many years; it is now
+complete, and there is a special museum devoted to it. Some of the
+groups have become familiar to students from photographs, especially the
+group which represents Zeus slaying his enemies with thunderbolts, and
+the group wherein Athena seizes by the hair an overthrown opponent, who
+is winged, while Victory runs to crown her, and beneath is seen Gaia,
+the earth-goddess who is the mother of the giants, rising out of the
+ground, and mourning over her vanquished and tortured children. Another
+and smaller frieze which also decorated the altar-place gives us scenes
+from the history of Telephus, who opposed the landing of the army of
+Agamemnon in Asia Minor and was overthrown by Achilles. This frieze,
+which is quite fragmentary, is put together by Dr Schneider in the
+_Jahrbuch_ of the German Archaeological Institute for 1900.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Giant from Great Altar: Pergamum.]
+
+Since the Renaissance Rome has continually produced a crop of works of
+Greek art of all periods, partly originals brought from Greece by
+conquering generals, partly copies, such as the group at Rome formerly
+known as Paetus and Arria, and the overthrown giants and barbarians
+which came from the elaborate trophy set up by Attalus at Athens, of
+which copies exist in many museums. A noted work of kindred school is
+the group of Laocoon and his sons (Plate I. fig. 52), signed by Rhodian
+sculptors of the 1st century B.C., which has been perhaps more discussed
+than any work of the Greek chisel, and served as a peg for the
+aesthetic theories of Lessing and Goethe. In our days the histrionic and
+strained character of the group is regarded as greatly diminishing its
+interest, in spite of the astounding skill and knowledge of the human
+body shown by the artists. To the same school belong the late
+representations of Marsyas being flayed by the victorious Apollo (Plate
+II. fig. 54), a somewhat repulsive subject, chosen by the artists of
+this age as a means for displaying their accurate knowledge of anatomy.
+
+On what a scale some of the artists of Asia Minor would work is shown us
+by the enormous group, by Apollonius and Tauriscus of Tralles, which is
+called the Farnese Bull (Plate I. fig. 51), and which represents how
+Dirce was tied to a wild bull by her stepsons Zethus and Amphion.
+
+
+  Rome.
+
+The extensive excavations and alterations which have taken place at Rome
+in recent years have been very fruitful; the results may be found partly
+in the palace of the Conservatori on the Capitol, partly in the new
+museum of the Terme. Among recently found statues none excel in interest
+some bronzes of large size dating from the Hellenistic age. In the
+figure of a seated boxer (Plate V. fig. 72), in scale somewhat exceeding
+life, attitude and gesture are expressive. Evidently the boxer has
+fought already, and is awaiting a further conflict. His face is cut and
+swollen; on his hands are the terrible caestus, here made of leather,
+and not loaded with iron, like the caestus described by Virgil. The
+figure is of astounding force; but though the face is brutal and the
+expression savage, in the sweep of the limbs there is nobility, even
+ideal beauty. To the last the Greek artist could not set aside his
+admiration for physical perfection. Another bronze figure of more than
+life-size is that of a king of the Hellenistic age standing leaning on a
+spear. He is absolutely nude, like the athletes of Polyclitus. Another
+large bronze presents us with a Hellenistic type of Dionysus.
+
+Besides the bronzes found in Rome we may set those recently found in the
+sea on the coast of Cythera, the contents of a ship sailing from Greece
+to Rome, and lost on the way. The date of these bronze statues has been
+disputed. In any case, even if executed in the Roman age, they go back
+to originals of the 5th and 4th centuries. The most noteworthy among
+them is a beautiful athlete (Plate V. fig. 73) standing with hand
+upraised, which reflects the style of the Attic school of the 4th
+century.
+
+After 146 B.C. when Corinth was destroyed and Greece became a Roman
+province, Greek art, though by no means extinct, worked mainly in the
+employ of the Roman conquerors (see ROMAN ART).
+
+  IV. SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY.[3]--I. General works on Greek Art.--The only
+  recent general histories of Greek art are: H. Brunn, _Griechische
+  Kunstgeschichte_, bks. i. and ii., dealing with archaic art; W. Klein,
+  _Geschichte der griechischen Kunst_, no illustrations; Perrot et
+  Chipiez, _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquite_, vols. vii. and viii.
+  (archaic art only).
+
+  Introductory are: P. Gardner, _Grammar of Greek Art_; J. E. Harrison,
+  _Introductory Studies in Greek Art_; H. B. Walters, _Art of the
+  Greeks_.
+
+  Useful are also: H. Brunn, _Geschichte der griechischen Kunstler_,
+  (new edition, 1889); J. Overbeck, _Die antiken Schriftquellen zur
+  Geschichte der bildenden Kunste bei den Griechen_; untranslated
+  passages in Latin and Greek; the Elder Pliny's _Chapters on the
+  History of Art_, edited by K. Jex-Blake and E. Sellers; H. S. Jones,
+  _Ancient Writers on Greek Sculpture_.
+
+  II. Periodicals dealing with Greek Archaeology.--England: _Journal of
+  Hellenic Studies_; _Annual of the British School at Athens_;
+  _Classical Review_. France: _Revue archeologique_; _Gazette
+  archeologique_; _Bulletin de correspondance hellenique_. Germany:
+  _Jahrbuch des K. deutschen arch. Instituts_; _Mitteilungen des arch.
+  Inst._, Athenische Abteilung, Romische Abteilung; _Antike Denkmaler_.
+  Austria: _Jahreshefte des K. Osterreich. arch. Instituts_. Italy:
+  Publications of the _Accademia dei Lincei_; _Monumenti antichi_; _Not.
+  dei scavi_; _Bulletino comunale di Roma_. Greece: _Ephemeris
+  archaiologike_; _Deltion archaiologikon_; _Praktika_ of the Athenian
+  Archaeological Society.
+
+  III. Greek Architecture.--General: Perrot et Chipiez, _Histoire de
+  l'art dans l'antiquite_, vol. vii.; A. Choisy, _Histoire de
+  l'architecture_, vol. i.; Anderson and Spiers, _Architecture of Greece
+  and Rome_; E. Boutmy, _Philosophie de l'architecture en Grece_; R.
+  Sturgis, _History of Architecture_, vol. i.; A. Marquand, _Greek
+  Architecture_.
+
+  IV. Greek Sculpture.--General: M. Collignon, _Histoire de la sculpture
+  grecque_ (2 vols.); E. A. Gardner, _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_; A.
+  Furtwangler, _Masterpieces of Greek Sculpture_, translated and edited
+  by E. Sellers; Friederichs and Wolters, _Bausteine zur Geschichte der
+  griechisch-romischen Plastik_ (1887); von Mach, _Handbook of Greek and
+  Roman Sculpture_, 500 plates; H. Bulle, _Der schone Mensch in der
+  Kunst: Altertum_, 216 plates; S. Reinach, _Repertoire de la statuaire
+  grecque et romaine_, 3 vols.
+
+  V. Greek Painting and Vases.--Woltmann and Woermann, _History of
+  Painting_, vol. i., translated and edited by S. Colvin (1880); H. B.
+  Walters, _History of Ancient Pottery_ (2 vols.); Harrison and MacColl,
+  _Greek Vase-paintings_ (1894); O. Rayet et M. Collignon, _Histoire de
+  la ceramique grecque_ (1888); P. Girard, _La Peinture antique_ (1892);
+  S. Reinach, _Repertoire des vases peints grecs et etrusques_ (2
+  vols.); Furtwangler und Reichhold, "Griechische Vasenmalerei," _Wiener
+  Vorlegeblatter fur archaologische Ubungen_ (1887-1890).
+
+  VI. Special Schools and Sites.--A. Joubin, _La Sculpture grecque entre
+  les guerres mediques et l'epoque de Pericles_; C. Waldstein, _Essays
+  on the Art of Pheidias_ (1885); W. Klein, _Praxiteles_; G. Perrot,
+  _Praxitele_; A. S. Murray, _Sculptures of the Parthenon_; W. Klein,
+  _Euphronios_; E. Pottier, _Douris_; P. Gardner, _Sculptured Tombs of
+  Hellas_; E. A. Gardner, _Ancient Athens_; A. Botticher, _Olympia_;
+  Bernoulli, _Griechische Ikonographie_; P. Gardner, _The Types of Greek
+  Coins_ (1883); E. A. Gardner, _Six Greek Sculptors._
+
+  VII. Books related to the subject.--J. G. Frazer, _Pausanias's
+  Description of Greece_ (6 vols.); J. Lange, _Darstellung des Menschen
+  in der alteren griechischen Kunst_; E. Brucke, _The Human Figure; its
+  Beauties and Defects_; A. Michaelis, _Ancient Marbles in Great
+  Britain_ (1882); _Catalogue of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum_
+  (3 vols.); _Catalogue of Greek Vases in the British Museum_ (4 vols.);
+  J. B. Bury, _History of Greece_ (illustrated edition); Baumeister,
+  _Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums_ (3 vols.).     (P. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Grammar of Greek Art._
+
+  [2] It may here be pointed out that it was found impossible, with any
+    regard for the appearance of the pages, to arrange the Plates for
+    this article so as to preserve a chronological order in the
+    individual figures; they are not arranged consecutively as regards
+    the history or the period, and are only grouped for convenience in
+    paging.--Ed.
+
+  [3] The date is given when the work cannot be considered new.
+
+
+
+
+GREEK FIRE, the name applied to inflammable and destructive compositions
+used in warfare during the middle ages and particularly by the Byzantine
+Greeks at the sieges of Constantinople. The employment of liquid fire is
+represented on Assyrian bas-reliefs. At the siege of Plataea (429 B.C.)
+the Spartans attempted to burn the town by piling up against the walls
+wood saturated with pitch and sulphur and setting it on fire (Thuc. ii.
+77), and at the siege of Delium (424 B.C.) a cauldron containing pitch,
+sulphur and burning charcoal, was placed against the walls and urged
+into flame by the aid of a bellows, the blast from which was conveyed
+through a hollow tree-trunk (Thuc. iv. 100). Aeneas Tacticus in the
+following century mentions a mixture of sulphur, pitch, charcoal,
+incense and tow, which was packed in wooden vessels and thrown lighted
+upon the decks of the enemy's ships. Later, as in receipts given by
+Vegetius (_c._ A.D. 350), naphtha or petroleum is added, and some nine
+centuries afterwards the same substances are found forming part of
+mixtures described in the later receipts (which probably date from the
+beginning of the 13th century) of the collection known as the _Liber
+ignium_ of Marcus Graecus. In subsequent receipts saltpetre and
+turpentine make their appearance, and the modern "carcass composition,"
+containing sulphur, tallow, rosin, turpentine, saltpetre and crude
+antimony, is a representative of the same class of mixtures, which
+became known to the Crusaders as Greek fire but were more usually called
+wildfire. Greek fire, properly so-called, was, however, of a somewhat
+different character. It is said that in the reign of Constantine
+Pogonatus (648-685) an architect named Callinicus, who had fled from
+Heliopolis in Syria to Constantinople, prepared a wet fire which was
+thrown out from siphons ([Greek: to dia ton siphonon ekpheromenon pyr
+hugron]), and that by its aid the ships of the Saracens were set on fire
+at Cyzicus and their defeat assured. The art of compounding this
+mixture, which is also referred to as [Greek: pyr thalassion], or sea
+fire, was jealously guarded at Constantinople, and the possession of the
+secret on several occasions proved of great advantage to the city. The
+nature of the compound is somewhat obscure. It has been supposed that
+the novelty introduced by Callinicus was saltpetre, but this view
+involves the difficulty that that substance was apparently not known
+till the 13th century, even if it were capable of accounting for the
+properties attributed to the wet fire. Lieut.-Colonel H. W. L. Hime,
+after a close examination of the available evidence, concludes that what
+distinguished Greek fire from the other incendiaries of the period was
+the presence of quicklime, which was well known to give rise to a large
+development of heat when brought into contact with water. The mixture,
+then, was composed of such materials as sulphur and naphtha with
+quicklime, and took fire spontaneously when wetted--whence the name of
+wet fire or sea fire; and portions of it were "projected and at the same
+time ignited by applying the hose of a water engine to the breech" of
+the siphon, which was a wooden tube, cased with bronze.
+
+  See Lieut.-Col. H. W. L. Hime, _Gunpowder and Ammunition, their Origin
+  and Progress_ (London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+GREEK INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF, the name given to the great rising of the
+Greek subjects of the sultan against the Ottoman domination, which began
+in 1821 and ended in 1833 with the establishment of the independent
+kingdom of Greece. The circumstances that led to the insurrection and
+the general diplomatic situation by which its fortunes were from time to
+time affected are described elsewhere (see GREECE: _History_; TURKEY:
+_History_). The present article is confined to a description of the
+general character and main events of the war itself. If we exclude the
+abortive invasion of the Danubian principalities by Prince Alexander
+Ypsilanti (March 1821), which collapsed ignominiously as soon as it was
+disavowed by the tsar, the theatre of the war was confined to
+continental Greece, the Morea, and the adjacent narrow seas. Its history
+may, broadly speaking, be divided into three periods: the first
+(1821-1824), during which the Greeks, aided by numerous volunteers from
+Europe, were successfully pitted against the sultan's forces alone; the
+second, from 1824, when the disciplined troops of Mehemet Ali, pasha of
+Egypt, turned the tide against the insurgents; the third, from the
+intervention of the European powers in the autumn of 1827 to the end.
+
+When, on the 2nd of April 1821, Archbishop Germanos, head of the
+_Hetaeria_ in the Morea, raised the standard of the cross at Kalavryta
+as the signal for a general rising of the Christian population, the
+circumstances were highly favourable. In the Morea itself, in spite of
+plentiful warning, the Turks were wholly unprepared; while the bulk of
+the Ottoman army, under the _seraskier_ Khurshid Pasha, was engaged in
+the long task of reducing the intrepid Ali, pasha of Iannina (see ALI,
+pasha of Iannina).
+
+Another factor, and that the determining one, soon came to the aid of
+the Greeks. In warfare carried on in such a country as Greece, sea-girt
+and with a coast deeply indented, inland without roads and intersected
+with rugged mountains, victory--as Wellington was quick to observe--must
+rest with the side that has command of the sea. This was assured to the
+insurgents at the outset by the revolt of the maritime communities of
+the Greek archipelago. The Greeks of the islands had been accustomed
+from time immemorial to seafaring; their ships--some as large as
+frigates--were well armed, to guard against the Barbary pirates and
+rovers of their own kin; lastly, they had furnished the bulk of the
+sailors to the Ottoman navy which, now that this recruiting ground was
+closed, had to be manned hastily with impressed crews of dock-labourers
+and peasants, many of whom had never seen the sea. The Turkish fleet,
+"adrift in the Archipelago"--as the British seamen put it--though
+greatly superior in tonnage and weight of metal, could never be a match
+for the Greek brigs, manned as these were by trained, if not
+disciplined, crews.
+
+
+  Outbreak of the insurrection.
+
+The war was begun by the Greeks without definite plan and without any
+generally recognized leadership. The force with which Germanos marched
+from Kalavryta against Patras was composed of peasants armed with
+scythes, clubs and slings, among whom the "primates" exercised a
+somewhat honorary authority. The town itself was destroyed and those of
+its Mussulman inhabitants who could not escape into the citadel were
+massacred; but the citadel remained in the hands of the Turks till 1828.
+Meanwhile, in the south, leaders of another stamp had appeared: Petros,
+bey of the Maina (q.v.) chief of the Mavromichales, who at the head of
+his clan attacked Kalamata and put the Mussulman inhabitants to the
+sword; and Kolokotrones, a notable brigand once in the service of the
+Ionian government, who--fortified by a vision of the Virgin--captured
+Karytaena and slaughtered its infidel population. Encouraged by these
+successes the revolt spread rapidly; within three weeks there was not a
+Mussulman left in the open country, and the remnants of the once
+dominant class were closely besieged in the fortified towns by hosts of
+wild peasants and brigands. The flames of revolt now spread across the
+Isthmus of Corinth: early in April the Christians of Dervenokhoria rose,
+and the whole of Boeotia and Attica quickly followed suit; at the
+beginning of May the Mussulman inhabitants of Athens were blockaded in
+the Acropolis. In the Morea, meanwhile, a few Mussulman fortresses still
+held out: Coron, Modon, Navarino, Patras, Nauplia, Monemvasia,
+Tripolitsa. One by one they fell, and everywhere were repeated the same
+scenes of butchery. The horrors culminated in the capture of Tripolitsa,
+the capital of the vilayet. In September this was taken by storm;
+Kolokotrones rode in triumph to the citadel over streets carpeted with
+the dead; and the crowning triumph of the Cross was celebrated by a
+cold-blooded massacre of 2000 prisoners of all ages and both sexes. This
+completed the success of the insurrection in the Morea, where only
+Patras, Nauplia, and one or two lesser fortresses remained to the Turks.
+
+Meanwhile, north of the Isthmus, the fortunes of war had been less
+one-sided. In the west Khurshid's lieutenant, Omar Vrioni (a Mussulman
+Greek of the race of the Palaeologi), had inflicted a series of defeats
+on the insurgents, recaptured Levadia, and on the 30th of June relieved
+the Acropolis; but the rout of the troops which Mahommed Pasha was
+bringing to his aid by the Greeks in the defile of Mount Oeta, and the
+news of the fall of Tripolitsa, forced him to retreat, and the campaign
+of 1821 ended with the retirement of the Turks into Thessaly.
+
+The month of April had witnessed the revolt of the principal Greek
+islands, Spetsae on the 7th, Psara on the 23rd, Hydra on the 28th and
+Samos on the 30th. Their fleets were divided into squadrons, of which
+one, under Tombazes, was deputed to watch for the entrance of the
+Ottomans into the archipelago, while the other under Andreas Miaoulis
+(_q.v._) sailed to blockade Patras and watch the coasts of Epirus. At
+sea, as on land, the Greeks opened the campaign with hideous atrocities,
+almost their first exploit being the capture of a vessel carrying to
+Mecca the sheik-ul-Islam and his family, whom they murdered with every
+aggravation of outrage.
+
+
+  General character of the war.
+
+These inauspicious beginnings, indeed, set the whole tone of the war,
+which was frankly one of mutual extermination. On both sides the
+combatants were barbarians, without discipline or competent
+organization. At sea the Greeks rapidly developed into mere pirates, and
+even Miaoulis, for all his high character and courage, was often unable
+to prevent his captains from sailing home at critical moments, when pay
+or booty failed. On land the presence of a few educated Phanariots, such
+as Demetrios Ypsilanti or Alexander Mavrocordato, was powerless to
+inspire the rude hordes with any sense of order or of humanity in
+warfare; while every lull in the fighting, due to a temporary check to
+the Turks, was the signal for internecine conflicts due to the rivalry
+of leaders who, with rare exceptions, thought more of their personal
+power and profit than of the cause of Greece.
+
+
+  Turkish reprisals.
+
+  Europe and the rising Philhellenism.
+
+This cause, indeed, was helped more by the impolitic reprisals of the
+Turks than by the heroism of the insurgents. All Europe stood aghast at
+the news of the execution of the Patriarch Gregorios of Constantinople
+(April 22, 1821) and the wholesale massacres that followed, culminating
+as these did in the extermination of the prosperous community of Scio
+(Chios) in March 1822. The cause of Greece was now that of Christendom,
+of the Catholic and Protestant West, as of the Orthodox East. European
+Liberalism, too, gagged and fettered under Metternich's "system,"
+recognized in the Greeks the champions of its own cause; while even
+conservative statesmen, schooled in the memories of ancient Hellas, saw
+in the struggle a fight of civilization against barbarism. This latter
+belief, which was, moreover, flattering to their vanity, the Greek
+leaders were astute enough to foster; the propaganda of Adamantios
+Coraes (_q.v._) had done its work; and wily brigands, like Odysseus of
+Ithaka, assuming the style and trappings of antiquity, posed as the
+champions of classic culture against the barbarian. All Europe, then,
+hailed with joy the exploit of Constantine Kanaris, who on the night of
+June 18-19 succeeded in steering a fire-ship among the Turkish squadron
+off Scio, and burned the flag-ship of the capudan-pasha with 3000 souls
+on board.
+
+
+  Expedition of Dramali, 1822.
+
+Meanwhile Sultan Mahmud, now wide awake to the danger, had been
+preparing for a systematic effort to suppress the rising. The threatened
+breach with Russia had been avoided by Metternich's influence on the
+tsar Alexander; the death of Ali of Iannina had set free the army of
+Khurshid Pasha, who now, as _seraskier_ of Rumelia, was charged with the
+task of reducing the Morea. In the spring of 1822 two Turkish armies
+advanced southwards: one, under Omar Vrioni, along the coast of Western
+Hellas, the other, under Ali, pasha of Drama (Dramali), through Boeotia
+and Attica. Omar was held in check by the mud ramparts of Missolonghi;
+but Dramali, after exacting fearful vengeance for the massacre of the
+Turkish garrison of the Acropolis at Athens, crossed the Isthmus and
+with the over-confidence of a conquering barbarian advanced to the
+relief of the hard-pressed garrison of Nauplia. He crossed the perilous
+defile of Dervenaki unopposed; and at the news of his approach most of
+the members of the Greek government assembled at Argos fled in panic
+terror. Demetrios Ypsilanti, however, with a few hundred men joined the
+Mainote Karayanni in the castle of Larissa, which crowns the acropolis
+of ancient Argos. This held Dramali in check, and gave Kolokotrones time
+to collect an army. The Turks, in the absence of the fleet which was to
+have brought them supplies, were forced to retreat (August 6); the
+Greeks, inspired with new courage, awaited them in the pass of
+Dervenaki, where the undisciplined Ottoman host, thrown into confusion
+by an avalanche of boulders hurled upon them, was annihilated. In
+Western Greece the campaign had an outcome scarcely less disastrous for
+the Turks. The death of Ali of Iannina had been followed by the
+suppression of the insurgent Suliotes and the advance of Omar Vrioni
+southwards to Missolonghi; but the town held out gallantly, a Turkish
+surprise attack, on the 6th of January 1823, was beaten off, and Omar
+Vrioni had to abandon the siege and retire northwards over the pass of
+Makrynoros.
+
+
+  Civil war among the Greeks.
+
+  Campaign of 1823.
+
+The victorious outcome of the year's fighting had a disastrous effect
+upon the Greeks. Their victories had been due mainly to the guerilla
+tactics of the leaders of the type of Kolokotrones; Mavrocordato, whose
+character and antecedents had marked him out as the natural head of the
+new Greek state, in spite of his successful defence of Missolonghi, had
+been discredited by failures elsewhere; and the Greeks thus learned to
+despise their civilized advisers and to underrate the importance of
+discipline. The temporary removal of the common peril, moreover, let
+loose all the sectional and personal jealousies, which even in face of
+the enemy had been with difficulty restrained, and the year 1823
+witnessed the first civil war between the Greek parties. These
+internecine feuds might easily have proved fatal to the cause of Greece.
+In the Archipelago Hydriotes and Spetsiotes were at daggers drawn; the
+men of Psara were at open war with those of Samos; all semblance of
+discipline and cohesion had vanished from the Greek fleet. Had Khosrev,
+the new Ottoman admiral, been a man of enterprise, he might have
+regained the command of the sea and, with it, that of the whole
+situation. But the fate of his predecessor had filled him with a lively
+terror of Kanaris and his fire-ships; he contented himself with a cruise
+round the coasts of Greece, and was happy to return to safety under the
+guns of the Dardanelles without having accomplished anything beyond
+throwing supplies and troops into Coron, Modon and Patras. On land,
+meanwhile, the events of the year before practically repeated
+themselves. In the west an army of Mussulman and Catholic Albanians,
+under Mustai Pasha, advanced southwards. On the night of the 21st of
+August occurred the celebrated exploit of Marko Botzaris and his
+Suliotes: a successful surprise attack on the camp of the Ottoman
+vanguard, in which the Suliote leader fell. The jealousy of the Aetolian
+militia for the Suliotes, however, prevented the victory being decisive;
+and Mustai advanced to the siege of Anatoliko, a little town in the
+lagoons near Missolonghi. Here he was detained until, on the 11th of
+December, he was forced to raise the siege and retire northwards. His
+colleague, Yussuf Pasha, in East Hellas fared no better; here, too, the
+Turks gained some initial successes, but in the end the harassing
+tactics of Kolokotrones and his guerilla bands forced them back into the
+plain of the Kephissos. At the end of the year the Greeks were once more
+free to renew their internecine feuds.
+
+Just when these feuds were at their height, in the autumn of 1823, the
+most famous of the Philhellenes who sacrificed themselves for the cause
+of Greece, Lord Byron, arrived in Greece.
+
+
+  Second civil war, 1824.
+
+  Intervention of Mehemet Ali.
+
+The year 1824 was destined to be a fateful one for the Greek cause. The
+large loans raised in Europe, the first instalment of which Byron had
+himself brought over, while providing the Greeks with the sinews of war,
+provided them also with fresh material for strife. To the struggle for
+power was added a struggle for a share of this booty, and a second civil
+war broke out, Kolokotrones leading the attack on the forces of the
+government. Early in 1825 the government was victorious; Kolokotrones
+was in prison; and Odysseus, the hero of so many exploits and so many
+crimes, who had ended by turning traitor and selling his services to the
+Turks, had been captured, imprisoned in the Acropolis, and finally
+assassinated by his former lieutenant Gouras (July 16, 1824). But a new
+and more terrible danger now threatened Greece. Sultan Mahmud,
+despairing of suppressing the insurrection by his own power, had
+reluctantly summoned to his aid Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, whose
+well-equipped fleet and disciplined army were now thrown into the scale
+against the Greeks. Already, in June 1823, the pasha's son-in-law
+Hussein Bey had landed in Crete, and by April of the following year had
+reduced the insurgent islanders to submission. Crete now became the base
+of operations against the Greeks. On the 19th of June Hussein appeared
+before Kasos, a nest of pirates of evil reputation, which he captured
+and destroyed. The same day the Egyptian fleet, under Ibrahim Pasha,
+sailed from Alexandria. Khosrev, too, emboldened by this new sense of
+support, ventured to sea, surprised and destroyed Psara (July 2), and
+planned an attack on Samos, which was defeated by Miaoulis and his
+fire-ships (August 16, 17). On the 1st of September, however, Khosrev
+succeeded in effecting a junction with Ibrahim off Budrun, and two
+indecisive engagements followed with the united Greek fleet on the 5th
+and 10th. The object of Ibrahim was to reach Suda Bay with his
+transports, which the Greeks should at all costs have prevented. A first
+attempt was defeated by Miaoulis on the 16th of November, and Ibrahim
+was compelled to retire and anchor off Rhodes; but the Greek admiral was
+unable to keep his fleet together, the season was far advanced, his
+captains were clamouring for arrears of pay, and the Greek fleet sailed
+for Nauplia, leaving the sea unguarded. On the 5th of December Ibrahim
+again set sail, and reached Suda without striking a blow. Here he
+completed his preparations, and, on the 24th of February 1825, landed at
+Modon in the Morea with a force of 4000 regular infantry and 500
+cavalry. The rest followed, without the Greeks making any effort to
+intercept them.
+
+
+  Ibrahim in the Morea.
+
+The conditions of the war were now completely changed. The Greeks, who
+had been squandering the money provided by the loans in every sort of
+senseless extravagance, affected to despise the Egyptian invaders, but
+they were soon undeceived. On the 21st of March Ibrahim had laid siege
+to Navarino, and after some delay a Greek force under Skourti, a
+Hydriote sea-captain, was sent to its relief. The Greeks had in all some
+7000 men, Suliotes, Albanians, _armatoli_ from Rumelia, and some
+irregular Bulgarian and Vlach cavalry. On the 19th of April they were
+met by Ibrahim at Krommydi with 2000 regular infantry, 400 cavalry and
+four guns. The Greek entrenchments were stormed at the point of the
+bayonet by Ibrahim's fellahin at the first onset; the defenders broke
+and fled, leaving 600 dead on the field. The news of this disaster, and
+of the fall of Pylos and Navarino that followed, struck terror into the
+Greek government; and in answer to popular clamour Kolokotrones was
+taken from prison and placed at the head of the army. But the guerilla
+tactics of the wily klepht were powerless against Ibrahim, who marched
+northward, and, avoiding Nauplia for the present, seized Tripolitsa, and
+made this the base from which his columns marched to devastate the
+country far and wide.
+
+
+  Reshid "Kutahia" besieges Missolonghi.
+
+Meanwhile from the north the Ottomans were making another supreme
+effort. The command of the army that was to operate in west Hellas had
+been given to Reshid "Kutahia," pasha of Iannina, an able general and a
+man of determined character. On the 6th of April, after bribing the
+Albanian clansmen to neutrality, he passed the defile of Makrynoros,
+which the Greeks had left undefended, and on the 7th of May opened the
+second siege of Missolonghi. For twelve months the population held out,
+repulsing the attacks of the enemy, refusing every offer of honourable
+capitulation. This resistance was rendered possible by the Greek command
+of the sea, Miaoulis from time to time entering the lagoons with
+supplies; it came to an end when this command was lost. In September
+1825 Ibrahim, at the order of the sultan, had joined Reshid before the
+town; piecemeal the outlying forts and defences now fell, until the
+garrison, reduced by starvation and disease, determined to hazard all on
+a final sortie. This took place on the night of the 22nd of April 1826;
+but a mistaken order threw the ranks of the Greeks into disorder, and
+the Turks entered the town pell-mell with the retreating crowd. Only a
+remnant of the defenders succeeded in gaining the forests of Mount
+Zygos, where most of them perished.
+
+
+  Karaiskakis.
+
+The fall of Missolonghi, followed as this was by the submission of many
+of the more notable chiefs, left Reshid free to turn his attention to
+East Hellas, where Gouras had been ruling as a practically independent
+chief and in the spirit of a brigand. The peasants of the open country
+welcomed the Turks as deliverers, and Reshid's conciliatory policy
+facilitated his march to Athens, which fell at the first assault on the
+25th of August, siege being at once laid to the Acropolis, where Gouras
+and his troops had taken refuge. Round this the war now centred; for all
+recognized that its fall would involve that of the cause of Greece. In
+these straits the Greek government entrusted the supreme command of the
+troops to Karaiskakis, an old retainer of Ali of Iannina, a master of
+the art of guerilla war, and, above all, a man of dauntless courage and
+devoted patriotism. A first attempt to relieve the Acropolis, with the
+assistance of some disciplined troops under the French Colonel Fabvier,
+was defeated at Chaidari by the Turks. The garrison of the Acropolis was
+hard pressed, and the death of Gouras (October 13th) would have ended
+all, had not his heroic wife taken over the command and inspired the
+defenders with new courage. For months the siege dragged on, while
+Karaiskakis fought with varying success in the mountains, a final
+victory at Distomo (February 1827) over Omar Vrioni securing the
+restoration to the Greek cause of all continental Greece, except the
+towns actually held by the Turks.
+
+
+  Cochrane and Church.
+
+  Greek defeat at Athens.
+
+It was at this juncture that the Greek government, reinforced by a fresh
+loan from Europe, handed over the chief command at sea to Lord Cochrane
+(earl of Dundonald, _q.v._), and that of the land forces to General
+(afterwards Sir Richard) Church, both Miaoulis and Karaiskakis
+consenting without demur to serve under them. Cochrane and Church at
+once concentrated their energies on the task of relieving the Acropolis.
+Already, on the 5th of February, General Gordon had landed and
+entrenched himself on the hill of Munychia, near the ancient Piraeus,
+and the efforts of the Turks to dislodge him had failed, mainly owing to
+the fire of the steamer "Karteria" commanded by Captain Hastings. When
+Church and Cochrane arrived, a general assault on the Ottoman camp was
+decided on. This was preceded, on the 25th of April, by an attack,
+headed by Cochrane, on the Turkish troops established near the monastery
+of St Spiridion, the result of which was to establish communications
+between the Greeks at Munychia and Phalerum and isolate Reshid's
+vanguard on the promontory of the Piraeus. The monastery held out for
+two days longer, when the Albanian garrison surrendered on terms, but
+were massacred by the Greeks as they were marching away under escort.
+For this miserable crime Church has, by some historians, been held
+responsible by default; it is clear, however, from his own account that
+no blame rests upon him (see his MS. _Narrative_, vol. i. chap. ii. p.
+34). The assault on the Turkish main camp was fixed for the 6th of May;
+but, unfortunately, a chance skirmish brought on an engagement the day
+before, in the course of which Karaiskakis was killed, an irreparable
+loss in view of his prestige with the wild _armatoli_. The assault on
+the following day was a disastrous failure. The Greeks, advancing
+prematurely over broken ground and in no sort of order, were fallen upon
+in flank by Reshid's horsemen, and fled in panic terror. The English
+officers, who in vain tried to rally them, themselves only just escaped
+by scrambling into their boats and putting off to the war-vessels, whose
+guns checked the pursuit and enabled a remnant of the fugitives to
+escape. Church held Munychia till the 27th, when he sent instructions
+for the garrison of the Acropolis to surrender. On the 5th of June the
+remnant of the defenders marched out with the honours of war, and
+continental Greece was once more in the power of the Turks. Had Reshid
+at once advanced over the Isthmus, the Morea also must have been
+subdued; but he was jealous of Ibrahim, and preferred to return to
+Iannina to consolidate his conquests.
+
+
+  Renewed anarchy.
+
+The fate of Greece was now in the hands of the Powers, who after years
+of diplomatic wrangling had at last realized that intervention was
+necessary if Greece was to be saved for European civilization. The worst
+enemy of the Greeks was their own incurable spirit of faction; in the
+very crisis of their fate, during the siege of Missolonghi, rival
+presidents and rival assemblies struggled for supremacy, and a third
+civil war had only been prevented by the arrival of Cochrane and Church.
+Under their influence a new National Assembly met at Troezene in March
+1827 and elected as president Count Capo d'Istria (_q.v._), formerly
+Russian minister for foreign affairs; at the same time a new
+constitution was promulgated which, when the very life of the
+insurrection seemed on the point of flickering out, set forth the full
+ideal of Pan-Hellenic dreams. Anarchy followed; war of Rumeliotes
+against Moreotes, of chief against chief; rival factions bombarded each
+other from the two forts at Nauplia over the stricken town, and in
+derision of the impotent government. Finally, after months of inaction,
+Ibrahim began once more his systematic devastation of the country. To
+put a stop to this the Powers decided to intervene by means of a joint
+demonstration of their fleets, in order to enforce an armistice and
+compel Ibrahim to evacuate the Morea (Treaty of London, July 6, 1827).
+The refusal of Ibrahim to obey, without special instruction from the
+sultan, led to the entrance of the allied British, French and Russian
+fleet into the harbour of Navarino and the battle of the 20th of October
+1827 (see NAVARINO). This, and the two campaigns of the Russo-Turkish
+war of 1828-29, decided the issue.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--There is no trustworthy history of the war, based on all
+  the material now available, and all the existing works must be read
+  with caution, especially those by eye-witnesses, who were too often
+  prejudiced or the dupes of the Greek factions. The best-known works
+  are: G. Finlay, _Hist. of the Greek Revolution_ (2 vols., London,
+  1861); T. Gordon, _Hist. of the Greek Revolution_ (London, 1833); C.
+  W. P. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, _Geschichte Griechenlands_, &c.
+  (_Staatengeschichte der neuesten Zeit_) (2 vols., Leipzig, 1870-1874);
+  F. C. H. L. Pouqueville, _Histoire de la regeneration de la Grece,
+  &c._ (4 vols., Paris, 1824),--the author was French resident at the
+  court of Ali of Iannina and afterwards consul at Patras; Count A.
+  Prokesch-Osten, _Geschichte des Abfalls der Griechen vom turkischen
+  Reich, &c._ (6 vols., Vienna, 1867), the last four volumes consisting
+  of _pieces justificatives_ of much value. See also W. Alison Phillips,
+  _The War of Greek Independence_ (London and New York, 1897), a sketch
+  compiled mainly from the above-mentioned works: Spiridionos Tricoupi,
+  [Greek: Historia tes Hellenikes epanastaseos] (Athens, 1853); J.
+  Philemon, [Greek: Dokimion historikon peri tes Hellenikes
+  epanastaseos] (Athens, 1859), in four parts: (1) History of the
+  Hetaeria Philike, (2) The heralding of the war and the rising under
+  Ypsilanti, (3 and 4). The insurrection in Greece to 1822, with many
+  documents. Of great value also are the 29 volumes of Correspondence
+  and Papers of Sir Richard Church, now in the British Museum (Add MSS.
+  36,543-36,571). Among these is a Narrative by Church of the war in
+  Greece during his tenure of the command (vols. xxi.-xxiii., Nos.
+  36,563-36,565), which contains the material for correcting many errors
+  repeated in most works on the war, notably the strictures of Finlay
+  and others on Church's conduct before Athens. For further references
+  see the bibliography appended to W. Alison Phillips's chapter on
+  "Greece and the Balkan Peninsula" in the _Cambridge Modern History_,
+  x. 803.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+GREEK LANGUAGE. Greek is one of the eight main branches into which the
+Indo-European languages (q.v.) are divided. The area in which it is
+spoken has been curiously constant throughout its recorded history.
+These limits are, roughly speaking, the shores of the Aegean, on both
+the European and the Asiatic side, and the intermediate islands (one of
+the most archaic of Greek dialects being found on the eastern side in
+the island of Cyprus), and the Greek peninsula generally from its
+southern promontories as far as the mountains which shut in Thessaly on
+the north. Beyond Mt. Olympus and the Cambunian mountains lay Macedonia,
+in which a closely kindred dialect was spoken, so closely related,
+indeed, that O. Hoffmann has argued (_Die Makedonen_, Gottingen, 1906)
+that Macedonian is not only Greek, but a part of the great Aeolic
+dialect which included Thessalian to the south and Lesbian to the east.
+In the north-west, Greek included many rude dialects little known even
+to the ancient Greeks themselves, and it extended northwards beyond
+Aetolia and Ambracia to southern Epirus and Thesprotia. In the Homeric
+age the great shrine of Pelasgian Zeus was at Dodona, but, by the time
+of Thucydides, Aetolia and all north of it had come to be looked upon as
+the most backward of Greek lands, where men lived a savage life,
+speaking an almost unintelligible language, and eating raw flesh
+([Greek: agnostotatoi de glossan kai omophagoi], Thuc. iii. 94, of the
+Aetolian Eurytanes). The Greeks themselves had no memory of how they
+came to occupy this land. Their earliest legends connected the origin of
+their race with Thessaly and Mt. Pindus, but Athenians and Arcadians
+also boasted themselves of autochthonous race, inhabiting a country
+wherein no man had preceded their ancestors. The Greek language, at any
+rate as it has come down to us, is remarkably perfect, in vowel sounds
+being the most primitive of any of the Indo-European languages, while
+its verb system has no rival in completeness except in the earliest
+Sanskrit of the Vedic literature. Its noun system, on the other hand, is
+much less complete, its cases being more broken down than those of the
+Aryan, Armenian, Slavonic and Italic families.
+
+  The most remarkable characteristic of Greek is one conditioned by the
+  geographical aspect of the land. Few countries are so broken up with
+  mountains as Greece. Not only do mountain ranges as elsewhere on the
+  European continent run east and west, but other ranges cross them from
+  north to south, thus dividing the portions of Greece at some distance
+  from the sea into hollows without outlet, every valley being separated
+  for a considerable part of the year from contact with every other, and
+  inter-communication at all seasons being rendered difficult. Thus till
+  external coercion from Macedon came into play it was never possible to
+  establish a great central government controlling the Greek mainland.
+  The geographical situation of the islands in the Aegean equally led to
+  the isolation of one little territory from another. To these
+  geographical considerations may be added the inveterate desire of the
+  Greeks to make the [Greek: polis], the city state, everywhere and at
+  all times an independent unit, a desire which, originating in the
+  geographical conditions, even accentuated the isolating effect of the
+  natural features of the country. Thus at one time in the little island
+  of Amorgos there were no less than three separate and independent
+  political units. The inevitable result of geographical and political
+  division was the maintenance of a great number of local
+  characteristics in language, differentiating in this respect also each
+  political community from its nearest neighbours. It was only natural
+  that the inhabitants of a country so little adapted to maintain a
+  numerous population should have early sent off swarms to other lands.
+  The earliest stage of colonization lies in the borderland between myth
+  and history. The Greeks themselves knew that a population had preceded
+  them in the islands of the Cyclades which they identified with the
+  Carians of Asia Minor (Herodotus i. 171; Thucydides i. 4. 8). The same
+  population indeed appears to have preceded them on the mainland of
+  Greece, for there are similar place-names in Caria and in Greece which
+  have no etymology in Greek. Thus the endings of words like Parnassus
+  and Halicarnassus seem identical, and the common ending of place-names
+  in -[Greek: inthos, Korinthos, Probalinthos], &c., seems to be the
+  same in origin with the common ending of Asiatic names in -_nda_,
+  Alinda, Karyanda, &c. Probably the earliest portion of Asia Minor to
+  be colonized by the Greeks was the north-west, to which came settlers
+  from Thessaly, when the early inhabitants were driven out by the
+  Thesprotians, who later controlled Thessaly. The name Aeolis, which
+  after times gave to the N.W. of Asia Minor, was the old name for
+  Thessaly (Hdt. vii. 176). These Thesprotians were of the same stock as
+  the Dorians, to whose invasion of the Peloponnese the later migration,
+  which carried the Ionians to Asia and the Cypriot Greeks to Cyprus, in
+  all probability was due. From the north Aegean probably the Dorians
+  reached Crete, where alone their existence is recorded by Homer
+  (_Odyssey_, xix. 175 ff.; Diodorus Siculus v. 80. 2); cp. Fick,
+  _Vorgriechische Ortsnamen_ (1906).
+
+  Among the Greeks of the pre-Dorian period Herodotus distinguishes
+  various stocks. Though the name is not Homeric, both Herodotus and
+  Thucydides recognize an Aeolian stock which must have spread over
+  Thessaly and far to the west till it was suppressed and absorbed by
+  the Dorian stock which came in from the north-west. The name of Aeolis
+  still attached in Thucydides' time to the western area of Calydon
+  between the mountains and the N. side of the entrance to the
+  Corinthian gulf (iii. 102). In Boeotia the same stock survived (Thuc.
+  vii. 57. 5), overlaid by an influx of Dorians, and it came down to the
+  isthmus; for the Corinthians, though speaking in historical times a
+  Doric dialect, were originally Aeolians (Thuc. iv. 42). In the
+  Peloponnese Herodotus recognizes (viii. 73) three original stocks, the
+  Arcadians, the Ionians of Cynuria, and the Achaeans. In Arcadia there
+  is little doubt that the pre-Dorian population maintained itself and
+  its language, just as in the mountains of Wales, the Scottish
+  Highlands and Connemara the Celtic language has maintained itself
+  against the Saxon invaders. By Herodotus' time the Cynurians had been
+  doricized, while the Ionians, along the south side of the Corinthian
+  gulf, were expelled by the Achaeans (vii. 94, viii. 73), apparently
+  themselves driven from their own homes by the Dorian invasion (Strabo
+  viii. p. 333 _fin_.). However this may be, the Achaeans of historical
+  times spoke a dialect akin to that of northern Elis and of the Greeks
+  on the north side of the Corinthian gulf. How close the relation may
+  have been between the language of the Achaeans of the Peloponnese in
+  the Homeric age and their contemporaries in Thessaly we have no means
+  of ascertaining definitely, the documentary evidence for the history
+  of the dialects being all very much later than Homeric times. Even in
+  the Homeric catalogue Agamemnon has to lend the Arcadians ships to
+  take them to Troy (_Iliad_, ii. 612). But a population speaking the
+  same or a very similar dialect was probably seated on the eastern
+  coast, and migrated at the beginning of the Doric invasion to Cyprus.
+  As this population wrote not in the Greek alphabet but in a peculiar
+  syllabary and held little communication with the rest of the Greek
+  world, it succeeded in preserving in Cyprus a very archaic dialect
+  very closely akin to that of Arcadia, and also containing a
+  considerable number of words found in the Homeric vocabulary but lost
+  or modified in later Greek elsewhere.
+
+  On this historical foundation alone is it possible to understand
+  clearly the relation of the dialects in historical times. The
+  prehistoric movements of the Greek tribes can to some extent be
+  realized in their dialects, as recorded in their inscriptions, though
+  all existing inscriptions belong to a much later period. Thus from the
+  ancient Aeolis of northern Greece sprang the historical dialects of
+  Thessaly and Lesbos with the neighbouring coast of Asia Minor. At an
+  early period the Dorians had invaded and to some extent affected the
+  character of the southern Thessalian and to a much greater extent that
+  of the Boeotian dialect. The dialects of Locris, Phocis and Aetolia
+  were a somewhat uncouth and unliterary form of Doric. According to
+  accepted tradition, Elis had been colonized by Oxylus the Aetolian,
+  and the dialect of the more northerly part of Elis, as already pointed
+  out, is, along with the Achaean of the south side of the Corinthian
+  gulf, closely akin to those dialects north of the Isthmus. The most
+  southerly part of Elis--Triphylia--has a dialect akin to Arcadian.
+  Apart from Arcadian the other dialects of the Peloponnese in
+  historical times are all Doric, though in small details they differ
+  among themselves. Though we are unable to check the statements of the
+  historians as to the area occupied by Ionic in prehistoric times, it
+  is clear from the legends of the close connexion between Athens and
+  Troezen that the same dialect, had been spoken on both sides of the
+  Saronic gulf, and may well have extended, as Herodotus says, along the
+  eastern coast of the Peloponnese and the south side of the Corinthian
+  gulf. According to legend, the Ionians expelled from the Peloponnese
+  collected at Athens before they started on their migrations to the
+  coast of Asia Minor. Be that as it may, legend and language alike
+  connected the Athenians with the Ionians, though by the 5th century
+  B.C. the Athenians no longer cared to be known by the name (Hdt. i.
+  143). Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros, which had long belonged to Athens,
+  were Athenian also in language. The great island of Euboea and all the
+  islands of the central Aegean between Greece and Asia were Ionic.
+  Chios, the most northerly Ionic island on the Asiatic coast, seems to
+  have been originally Aeolic, and its Ionic retained some Aeolic
+  characteristics. The most southerly of the mainland towns which were
+  originally Aeolic was Smyrna, but this at an early date became Ionic
+  (Hdt. i. 149). The last important Ionic town to the south was Miletus,
+  but at an early period Ionic widened its area towards the south also
+  and took in Halicarnassus from the Dorians. According to Herodotus,
+  there were four kinds of Ionic ([Greek: charakteres glosses tesseres],
+  i. 142). Herodotus tells us the areas in which these dialects were
+  spoken, but nothing of the differences between them. They were (1)
+  Samos, (2) Chios and Erythrae, (3) the towns in Lydia, (4) the towns
+  in Caria. The language of the inscriptions unfortunately is a [Greek:
+  koine], a conventional literary language which reveals no differences
+  of importance. Only recently has the characteristic so well known in
+  Herodotus of [kappa] appearing in certain words where other dialects
+  have [pi] ([Greek: hokos] for [Greek: hopos, kou] for [Greek: pou],
+  &c.) been found in any inscription. It is, however, clear that this
+  was a popular characteristic not considered to be sufficiently
+  dignified for official documents. We may conjecture that the native
+  languages spoken on the Lydian and Carian coasts had affected the
+  character of the language spoken by the Greek immigrants, more
+  especially as the settlers from Athens married Carian women, while the
+  settlers in the other towns were a mixture of Greek tribes, many of
+  them not Ionic at all (Hdt. i. 146).
+
+  The more southerly islands of the Aegean and the most southerly
+  peninsula of Asia Minor were Doric. In the Homeric age Dorians were
+  only one of many peoples in Crete, but in historical times, though the
+  dialects of the eastern and the western ends of the island differ from
+  one another and from the middle whence our most valuable documents
+  come, all are Doric. By Melos and Thera Dorians carried their language
+  to Cos, Calymnus, Cnidus and Rhodes.
+
+  These settlements, Aeolic, Ionic and Doric, grew and prospered, and
+  like flourishing hives themselves sent out fresh swarms to other
+  lands. Most prosperous and energetic of all was Miletus, which
+  established its trading posts in the Black Sea to the north and in the
+  delta of the Nile (Naucratis) to the south. The islands also sent off
+  their colonies, carrying their dialects with them, Paros to Thasos,
+  Euboea to the peninsulas of Chalcidice; the Dorians of Megara guarded
+  the entrance to the Black Sea at Chalcedon and Byzantium. While
+  Achaean influence spread out to the more southerly Ionian islands,
+  Corinth carried her dialect with her colonies to the coast of
+  Acarnania, Leucas and Corcyra. But the greatest of all Corinthian
+  colonies was much farther to the west--at Syracuse in Sicily.
+  Unfortunately the continuous occupation of the same or adjacent sites
+  has led to the loss of almost all that is early from Corinth and from
+  Syracuse. Corcyra has bequeathed to us some interesting grave
+  inscriptions from the 6th century B.C. Southern Italy and Sicily were
+  early colonized by Greeks. According to tradition Cumae was founded
+  not long after the Trojan War; even if we bring the date nearer the
+  founding of Syracuse in 735 B.C., we have apparently no record earlier
+  than the first half of the 5th century B.C., though it is still the
+  earliest of Chalcidian inscriptions. Tarentum was a Laconian
+  foundation, but the longest and most important document from a
+  Laconian colony in Italy comes from Heraclea about the end of the 4th
+  century B.C.--the report of a commission upon and the lease of temple
+  lands with description and conditions almost of modern precision. To
+  Achaea belonged the south Italian towns of Croton, Metapontum and
+  Sybaris. The ancestry of the Greek towns of Sicily has been explained
+  by Thucydides (vi. 2-5). Selinus, a colony of Megara, betrays its
+  origin in its dialect. Gela and Agrigentum no less clearly show their
+  descent from Rhodes. According to tradition the great city of Cyrene
+  in Africa was founded from Thera, itself an offshoot from Sparta.
+
+
+  CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREEK DIALECTS
+
+  1. _Arcadian and Cyprian._--As Cyprian was written in a syllabary
+  which could not represent a consonant by itself, did not distinguish
+  between voiced, unvoiced and aspirated consonants, did not represent
+  at all a nasal before another consonant, and did not distinguish
+  between long and short vowels, the interpretation of the symbols is of
+  the nature of a conundrum and the answer is not always certain. Thus
+  the same combination of two symbols would have to stand for [Greek:
+  tote, tode, dote, dothe, tonde, tode, to, de]. No inscription of more
+  than a few words in length is found in either dialect earlier than the
+  5th century B.C. In both dialects the number of important inscriptions
+  is steadily increasing. Both dialects change final [omicron] to
+  [upsilon], [Greek: apo] passing into [Greek: apy]. Arcadian changes
+  the verb ending -[Greek: ai] into -[Greek: oi]. Arcadian uses [delta]
+  or [zeta] for an original _gw_-sound, which appears in Attic Greek as
+  [beta]: [Greek: zello], Attic [Greek: ballo], "throw." In inflexion
+  both agree in changing -[Greek: ao] of masculine -[alpha] stems into
+  [Greek: au] (Arcadian carries this form also into the feminine
+  -[alpha] stems), and in using locatives in -[Greek: ai] and -[Greek:
+  oi] for the dative, such locatives being governed by the prepositions
+  [Greek: apy] and [Greek: ex] (before a consonant [Greek: es] in
+  Arcadian). Verbs in -[Greek: ao], -[Greek: eo] and -[Greek: oo] are
+  declined not as -[omega], but as -[Greek: mi] verbs. The final [iota]
+  of the ending of the 3rd plural present changes the preceding [tau] to
+  [sigma]: [Greek: pheronsi], cp. Laconian (Doric) [Greek: pheronti],
+  Attic [Greek: pherousi], Lesbian [Greek: pheroisi]. Instead of the
+  Attic [Greek: tis], the interrogative pronoun appears as [Greek: sis],
+  the initial [sigma] in Arcadian being written with a special symbol
+  [koppa]. The pronunciation is not certain. The original sound was
+  _qw_, as in Latin _quis_, whence Attic [Greek: tis] and Thessalian
+  [Greek: kis]. In Arcadian [Greek: kan] the Aeolic particle [Greek: ke]
+  and the Ionic [Greek: an] seem to be combined.
+
+  2. _Aeolic._--Though Boeotian is overlaid with a Doric element, it
+  nevertheless agrees with Thessalian and Lesbian in some
+  characteristics. Unlike Greek generally, they represent the original
+  _qw_ of the word for _four_ by [pi] before [epsilon], where Attic and
+  other dialects have [tau]: [Greek: pettares], Attic [Greek: tettares].
+  The corresponding voiced and aspirated sounds are similarly treated:
+  [Greek: Belphaios] the adjective in Thessalian to [Greek: Delphoi],
+  and [Greek: pher] for [Greek: ther]. They all tend to change [omicron]
+  to [upsilon]: [Greek: onyma], "name"; [Greek: ou] for [omega] in
+  Thessalian: [Greek: Aploun], "Apollo"; and [upsilon] in Boeotian for
+  [Greek: oi]: [Greek: wukia] ([Greek: oikia]), "house." They also make
+  the dative plural of the third declension in -[Greek: essi], and the
+  perfect participle active is declined like a present participle in
+  -[Greek: on]. Instead of the Athenian method of giving the father's
+  name in the genitive when a citizen is described, these dialects
+  (especially Thessalian) tend to make an adjective: thus instead of the
+  Attic [Greek: Demosthenes Demosthenous], Aeolic would rather have
+  [Greek: D. Demostheneios]. Thessalian stands midway between Lesbian
+  and Boeotian, agreeing with Lesbian in the use of double consonants,
+  where Attic has a single consonant, with or without lengthening of the
+  previous syllable: [Greek: emmi], Attic [Greek: eimi] for an original
+  *_esmi_; [Greek: stalla], Attic [Greek: stele]; [Greek: xennos] for an
+  earlier [Greek: xenwos], Attic [Greek: xenos], Ionic [Greek: xeinos],
+  Doric [Greek: xenos]. Where Attic has -[Greek: as] from an earlier
+  -[Greek: ans] or -[Greek: ants], Lesbian has -[Greek: ais]: [Greek:
+  tais archais] accusative in Lesbian for older [Greek: tans archans].
+  Lesbian has no oxyton words according to the grammarians, the accent
+  being carried back to the penult or ante-*penultimate syllable. It has
+  also no "rough breathing," but this characteristic it shared with the
+  Ionic of Asia Minor, and in the course of time with other dialects.
+  The characteristic particle of the dialects is [Greek: ke], which is
+  used like the Doric [Greek: ka], the Arcadian [Greek: kan], and the
+  Attic and Ionic [Greek: an]. Thessalian and Lesbian agree in making
+  their long vowels close, [eta] belonging [Greek: ei] (a close _e_, not
+  a diphthong), [Greek: pateir], "father." The [upsilon] sound did not
+  become _u_ as in Attic and Ionic, and hence when the Ionic alphabet
+  was introduced it was spelt [Greek: ou], or when in contact with
+  dentals [Greek: iou], as in [Greek: oniouma = onyma], "name," [Greek:
+  tioucha = tyche], "chance"; the pronunciation, therefore, must have
+  been like the English sound in _news_, _tune_. Boeotian developed
+  earlier than other dialects the changes in the vowels which
+  characterize modern Greek: [Greek: ai] became _e_, [Greek: kai]
+  passing into [Greek: ke]: compare [Greek: pateir] and [Greek: wukia]
+  above: [Greek: ei] became [iota] in [Greek: echi], "has." Thessalian
+  shows some examples of the Homeric genitive in -[Greek: oio:
+  polemoio], &c.; its ordinary genitive of [omicron]- stems is in
+  -[Greek: oi].
+
+  There are some points of connexion between this group and
+  Arcadian-Cyprian: in both Thessalian and Cyprian the characteristic
+  [Greek: ptolis] (Attic, &c., [Greek: polis]) and [Greek: dauchna]- for
+  [Greek: daphne] are found, and both groups form the "contracting
+  verbs" not in -[omega] but in -[Greek: mi]. In the second group as in
+  the first there is little that precedes the 5th century B.C. Future
+  additions to our materials may be expected to lessen the gap between
+  the two groups and Homer.
+
+  3. _Ionic-Attic._--One of the earliest of Greek inscriptions--of the
+  7th century, at least--is the Attic inscription written in two lines
+  from right to left upon a wine goblet ([Greek: oinochoe]) given as a
+  prize: [Greek: hos nun orcheston panton | atalotata paizei toto dekan
+  min]. The last words are uncertain. Till lately early inscriptions in
+  Ionic were few, but recently an early inscription has been found at
+  Ephesus and a later copy of a long early inscription at Miletus.
+
+  The most noticeable characteristic of Attic and Ionic is the change of
+  [alpha] into [eta] which is universal in Ionic but does not appear in
+  Attic after another vowel or [rho]. Thus both dialects used [Greek:
+  meter, time] from an earlier [Greek: mater, tima], but Attic had
+  [Greek: sophia, pragma] and [Greek: chora], not [Greek: sophie,
+  pregma] and [Greek: chore] as in Ionic. The apparent exception [Greek:
+  kore] is explained by the fact that in this word a digamma [digamma]
+  has been lost after [rho], in Doric [Greek: korwa]. That the change
+  took place after the Ionians came into Asia is shown by the word
+  [Greek: Medoi], which in Cyprian is [Greek: Madoi]; the Medes were
+  certainly not known to the Greeks till long after the conquest of
+  Ionia. While Aeolic and the greater part of Doric kept [digamma], this
+  symbol and the sound _w_ represented by it had disappeared from both
+  Ionic and Attic before existing records begin--in other words, were
+  certainly not in use after 800 B.C. The symbol was known and occurs in
+  a few isolated instances. Both dialects agreed in changing _u_ into
+  _u_, so that a _u_ sound has to be represented by [Greek: ou]. The
+  short _o_ tended towards _u_, so that the contraction of [omicron] +
+  [omicron] gave [Greek: ou]. In the same way short _e_ tended towards
+  _i_, so that the contraction of [epsilon] + [epsilon] gave [Greek:
+  ei], which was not a diphthong but a close _e_-sound. In Attic Greek
+  these contractions were represented by O and E respectively till the
+  official adoption of the Ionic alphabet at Athens in 403 B.C. So also
+  were the lengthened syllables which represent in their length the loss
+  of an earlier consonant, as [Greek: emeina] and [Greek: eneima],
+  Aeolic [Greek: emenna, enemma], which stand for a prehistoric *[Greek:
+  emensa] and *[Greek: enemsa], containing the -[sigma]- of the first
+  aorist, and [Greek: tous, oikous, echousi] representing an earlier
+  [Greek: tons, oikons, echonti] (3 pl. present) or *[Greek: echontsi]
+  (dative pl. of present participle). Both dialects also agreed in
+  changing [tau] before [iota] into [sigma] (like Aeolic), as in [Greek:
+  echousi] above, and in the 3rd person singular of -[Greek: mi] verbs,
+  [Greek: tithesi, didosi], &c., and in noun stems, as in [Greek: dosis]
+  for an earlier *[Greek: dotis]. Neither dialect used the particle
+  [Greek: ke] or [Greek: ka], but both have [Greek: an] instead. One of
+  the effects of the change of [alpha] into [eta] was that the
+  combination [Greek: ao] changed in both dialects to [Greek: eo], which
+  in all Attic records and in the later Ionic has become [Greek: eo] by
+  a metathesis in the quantity of the vowels: [Greek: naos], earlier
+  [Greek: nawos], "temple," is in Homeric Greek [Greek: neos], in later
+  Ionic and Attic [Greek: neos]. In the dative (locative) plural of the
+  -[alpha] stems, Ionic has generally -[Greek: eisi] on the analogy of
+  the singular; Attic had first the old locative form in -[Greek: esi],
+  -[Greek: asi], which survived in forms which became adverbs like
+  [Greek: Athenesi] and [Greek: thurasi]; but after 420 B.C. these were
+  replaced by -[Greek: ais, thurais], &c. The Ionic of Asia Minor showed
+  many changes earlier than that of the Cyclades and Euboea. It lost the
+  aspirate very early: hence in the Ionic alphabet H is _e_, not _h_; it
+  changed [Greek: au] and [Greek: eu] into [Greek: ao] and [Greek: eo],
+  and very early replaced to a large extent the -[Greek: mi] by the
+  -[omega] verbs. This confusion can be seen in progress in the Attic
+  literature of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C., [Greek: deiknymi]
+  gradually giving way to [Greek: deiknyo], while the literature
+  generally uses forms like [Greek: ephiei] for [Greek: ephie] (impft.).
+  In Attica also the aspiration which survived in the Ionic of Euboea
+  and the Cyclades ceased by the end of the 5th century. The Ionic of
+  Asia Minor has -[Greek: ios] as the genitive of _o_-stems; the other
+  forms of Ionic have -[Greek: idos].
+
+  4. _Doric._--As already mentioned, the dialects of the North-West
+  differ in several respects from Doric elsewhere. As general
+  characteristics of Doric may be noted the contractions of [alpha] +
+  [epsilon] into [eta], and of [alpha] + [omicron] or [omega] into
+  [alpha], while the results in Attic and Ionic of these contractions
+  are [alpha] and [omega] respectively: [Greek: enike] from [Greek:
+  nikao], Attic [Greek: enika; timames] 1 pl. pres. from [Greek: timao],
+  Attic [Greek: timomen; timan] gen. pl. of [Greek: tima] "honour,"
+  Attic [Greek: timon]. In inflection the most noticeable points are the
+  pronominal adverbs in locative form: [Greek: toutei, tenei] (this from
+  a stem limited to a few Doric dialects and the Bucolic Poets), [Greek:
+  teide, hopei], &c.; the nom. pl. of the article [Greek: toi, tai], not
+  [Greek: hoi, hai] and so [Greek: toutoi] in Selinus and Rhodes; the
+  1st pl. of the verb in -[Greek: mes], not in -[Greek: men], cp. the
+  Latin -_mus_; the aorist and future in -[xi]-, where other dialects
+  have -[sigma]-, or contraction from presents in-[Greek: zo]; dikazo,
+  dikaso], Doric [Greek: dikaxo], &c.; the future passive with active
+  endings, [Greek: epimeletheseunti] (Rhodes), found as yet only in the
+  Doric islands and in the Doric prose of Archimedes; the particles
+  [Greek: ai] "if" and [Greek: ka] with a similar value to the Aeolic
+  [Greek: ke] and the Attic-Ionic [Greek: an]. Doric had an accentuation
+  system different both from Aeolic and from Ionic-Attic, but the
+  details of the system are very imperfectly known.
+
+  In older works Doric is often divided into a _dialectus severior_ and
+  a _dialectus mitis_. But the difference is one of time rather than of
+  place, the peculiarities of Doric being gradually softened down till
+  it was ultimately merged in the _lingua franca_, the [Greek: koine],
+  which in time engulfed all the local dialects except the descendant of
+  Spartan, Tzakonian. Here it is possible to mention its varieties only
+  in the briefest form. (a) The southern dialects are well illustrated
+  in the inscriptions of Laconia recently much increased in number by
+  the excavations of the British School at Athens. Apart from some brief
+  dedications, the earliest inscription of importance is the list of
+  names placed on a bronze column soon after 479 B.C. to commemorate the
+  tribes which had repulsed the Persians. The column, originally at
+  Delphi, is now at Constantinople. The most striking features of the
+  dialect are the retention of [digamma] at the beginning of words, as
+  in the dedication from the 6th century [Greek: wanaxibios] (_Annual of
+  British School_, xiv. 144). The dialect changed -[sigma]- between
+  vowels into -h-, [Greek: moha] for [Greek: mosa] "muse." Later it
+  changed [theta] into a sound like the English _th_, which was
+  represented by [sigma]. Before o-sounds [epsilon] here and in some
+  other Doric dialects changed to [iota]: [Greek: thios, sios] for
+  [Greek: theos] "god." The result of contraction and "compensatory
+  lengthening" was not [Greek: ei] and [Greek: ou] as in Attic and
+  Ionic, but [eta] and [omega]: [Greek: emen] infinitive = [Greek:
+  einai] from *esmen; gen. sing. of _o_-stems in [omega]: [Greek: theo],
+  acc. pl. in -[Greek: os: theos]; dy was represented by [Greek: dd],
+  not [zeta], as in Attic-Ionic; [Greek: musidde = muthize]. The dialect
+  has many strange words, especially in connexion with the state
+  education and organization of the boys and young men. The Heraclean
+  tables from a Laconian colony in S. Italy have curious forms in
+  -[Greek: assi] for the dat. pl. of the participle [Greek:
+  prassontassi] = Attic [Greek: prattousi]. Of the dialect of Messenia
+  we know little, the long inscription about mysteries from Andania
+  being only about 100 B.C. From Argolis there are a considerable number
+  of early inscriptions, and in a later form of the dialect the cures
+  recorded at the temple of Asklepios at Epidaurus present many points
+  of interest. There is also an inscription of the 6th century B.C. from
+  the temple of Aphaia in Aegina. [Digamma] survives in the old
+  inscriptions: [Greek: wewremena (= eiremena); ns], whether original or
+  arising by sound change from -_nty_, persists till the 2nd century
+  B.C.: [Greek: hantitychonsa = he antitychousa, tons huions = tous
+  huious]. The dialect of the Inachus valley seems to resemble Laconian
+  more closely than does that of the rest of the Argolic area. Corinth
+  and her colonies in the earliest inscriptions preserve [Digamma] and
+  [qoppa] (= Latin Q) before [omicron] and [upsilon] sounds, and write
+  [xi] and [psi] by [Greek: chs] and [Greek: phs], the symbols which are
+  used also for this purpose in old Attic. In the Corcyrean and Sicilian
+  forms of the dialect, [lambda] before a dental appears as [nu]:
+  [Greek: Phintias = Philtias]; and in Sicilian the perfect-active was
+  treated as a present: [Greek: dedoiko] for [Greek: dedoika], &c. From
+  Megara has come lately an obscure inscription from the beginning of
+  the 5th century; its colony Selinus has inscriptions from the middle
+  of the same century; the inscriptions from Byzantium and its other
+  Pontic colonies date only from Hellenistic times. In Crete, which
+  shows a considerable variety of subdialects, the most important
+  document is the great inscription from Gortyn containing twelve tables
+  of family law, which was discovered in 1884. The local alphabet has no
+  separate symbols for [chi] and [phi], and these sounds are therefore
+  written with [kappa] and [pi]. As in Argive the combination -[Greek:
+  ns] was kept both medially and finally except before words beginning
+  with a consonant; -_ty_- was represented by [zeta], later by -[Greek:
+  tt]-, as in Thessalian and Boeotian: [Greek: hopottoi], Attic [Greek:
+  hoposoi]; and finally by -[Greek: tt]-; [lambda] combined with a
+  preceding vowel into an au-diphthong: [Greek: auka], Attic [Greek:
+  alke], cp. the English pronunciation of _talk_, &c. In Gortyn and
+  some other towns -[Greek: st]--was assimilated to--[Greek: tt], where
+  [theta] must have been a spirant like the English _th_ in _thin_;
+  [zeta] of Attic Greek is represented initially by [delta], medially by
+  [Greek: dd], but in some towns by [tau] and [Greek: tt: doos (= zoos),
+  dikadden (= dikazein)]. Final consonants are generally assimilated to
+  the beginning of the next word. In inflection there are many local
+  peculiarities. In Melos and Thera some very old inscriptions have been
+  found written in an alphabet without symbols for [phi], [chi], [phi],
+  [xi], which are therefore written as [pi]h, [kappa]h or [koppa]h,
+  [Greek: ps, ks]. The contractions of [epsilon] + [epsilon] and of
+  [omicron] + [omicron] are represented by E and O respectively. The old
+  rock inscriptions of Thera are among the most archaic yet discovered.
+  The most characteristic feature of Rhodian Doric is the infinitive in
+  -[Greek: mein: domein], &c. (= Attic [Greek: dounai]), which passed
+  also to Gela and Agrigentum. The inscriptions from Cos are numerous,
+  but too late to represent the earliest form of the dialect.
+
+  (b) The dialects of N.W. Doric, Locrian, Phocian, Aetolian, with which
+  go Elean and Achaean, present a more uncouth appearance than the other
+  Doric dialects except perhaps Cretan. Only from Locris and Phocis come
+  fairly old inscriptions; later a [Greek: koine] was developed, in
+  which the documents of the Aetolian league are written, and of which
+  the most distinctive mark is the dative plural of consonant stems in
+  -[Greek: ois: archontois] (= Attic [Greek: archousi]), [Greek:
+  agonois] (= Attic [Greek: agosi]), &c. Phocian and the Locrian of Opus
+  have also forms like Aeolic in -[Greek: essi]. In place of the dative
+  in -[omega], locatives in -[Greek: oi] are used in Locrian and
+  Phocian. Generally north of the Corinthian gulf the middle present
+  participle from -[Greek: eo]-verbs ends in-[Greek: eimenos]; similar
+  forms are found also in Elean. Locrian changed [epsilon] before [rho]
+  into [alpha]: [Greek: patara] for [Greek: patera]; cf. English _Kerr_
+  and _Carr_, _sergeant_ and _Sargeaunt_. [Greek: st] appears for
+  [Greek: st], and [koppa] and [Digamma] are still much in use in the
+  5th century B.C. Many thousands of inscriptions were found in the
+  French excavations at Delphi, but nothing earlier than the 5th century
+  B.C. In the older inscriptions the Aeolic influence--datives in
+  -[Greek: essi, onyma] for [Greek: onoma]--is better marked than later.
+  In the Laws of the Labyad phratry (about 400 B.C.) the genitive is in
+  [Greek: ou], but a form in -[omega] is also found, [Greek: woiko],
+  which seems to be an old ablative fossilized as an adverb. The nom.
+  pl. [Greek: dekatetores] is used for the acc.; similar forms are found
+  in Elean and Achaean.
+
+  The more important of the older materials for Achaean come from the
+  Achaean colonies of S. Italy, and being scanty give us only an
+  imperfect view of the dialect, but it is clearly in its main features
+  Doric. Much more remarkable is the Elean dialect known chiefly from
+  inscriptions found at Olympia, some of which are as early as the
+  beginning of the 6th century. The native dialect was replaced first by
+  a Doric and then by the Attic [Greek: koine], but under the Caesars
+  the archaic dialect was restored. Many of its characteristics it
+  shares with the dialects north of the Corinthian gulf, but it changes
+  original [epsilon] to [alpha]: [Greek: ma = me], &c.; [delta] was
+  apparently a spirant, as in modern Greek (= _th_ in English _the_,
+  _thine_), and is represented by [zeta] in some of the earliest
+  inscriptions. Final -[sigma] became -[rho]; this is found also in
+  Laconian; -_ty_- became -[Greek: ss]-, but was not simplified as in
+  Attic to -[sigma]-: [Greek: ossa] = Attic [Greek: hosa].
+
+  As we have seen, Ionians, Aetolians and Dorians tended to level local
+  peculiarities and make a generally intelligible dialect in which
+  treaties and other important records were framed. The language of
+  literature is always of necessity to some extent a [Greek: koine]:
+  with some Greek writers the use of a [Greek: koine] was especially
+  necessary. The local dialect of Boeotia was not easily intelligible in
+  other districts, and a writer like Pindar, whose patrons were mostly
+  not Boeotians, had perforce to write in a dialect that they could
+  understand. Hence he writes in a conventional Doric with Aeolic
+  elements, which forms a strong contrast to that of Corinna, who kept
+  more or less closely to the Boeotian dialect. For different literary
+  purposes Greek had different [Greek: koinai]. A poet who would write
+  an epic must adopt a form of language modelled on that of Homer and
+  Hesiod; Alcaeus and Sappho were the models for the love lyric, which
+  was therefore Aeolic; Stesichorus was the founder of the triumphal
+  ode, which, as he was a Dorian of Sicily, must henceforth be in Doric,
+  though Pindar was an Aeolian, and its other chief representatives,
+  Simonides and Bacchylides, were Ionians from Ceos. The choral ode of
+  tragedy was always conventional Doric, and in the iambics also are
+  Doric words like [Greek: drao, lao], &c. Elegy and epigram were
+  founded on epic; the satirical iambics of Hipponax and his late
+  disciple Herondas are Ionic. The first Greek prose was developed in
+  Ionia, of which an excellent example has been preserved to us in
+  Herodotus. Thucydides was not an Ionian, but he could not shake
+  himself free of the tradition: he therefore writes [Greek: prasso,
+  tasso], &c., with -[Greek: ss]-, which was Ionic, but is never found
+  in Attic inscriptions nor in the writers who imitate the language of
+  common life--Aristophanes (when not parodying tragedy, or other forms
+  of literature or dialect), Plato and the Orators (with the partial
+  exception of Antiphon, who ordinarily has -[Greek: ss]-, but in the
+  one speech actually intended for the law-courts -[Greek: tt]-).
+  Similarly Hippocrates and his medical school in Cos wrote in Ionic,
+  not, however, in the Ionic of Herodotus, but in a language more akin
+  to the Ionic [Greek: koine] of the inscriptions; and this dialect
+  continued to be used in medicine later, much as doctors now use Latin
+  for their prescriptions. The first literary document written in Attic
+  prose is the treatise on the _Constitution of Athens_, which is
+  generally printed amongst the minor works of Xenophon, but really
+  belongs to about 425 B.C. From the fragment of Aristophanes'
+  _Banqueters_ and from the first speech of Lysias "Against
+  Theomnestos" it is clear that the Attic dialect had changed rapidly in
+  the 6th and 5th centuries B.C., and that much of the phraseology of
+  Solon's laws was no longer intelligible by 400 B.C. Among the most
+  difficult of the literary dialects to trace is the earliest--the
+  Homeric dialect. The Homeric question cannot be discussed here, and on
+  that question it may be said _quot homines tot sententiae_. To the
+  present writer, however, it seems probable that the poems were
+  composed in Chios as tradition asserted; the language contains many
+  Aeolisms, and the heroes sung are, except for the Athenians (very
+  briefly referred to), and possibly Telamonian Ajax, not of the Ionic
+  stock. Chios was itself an Ionicized Aeolic colony (Diodorus v. 81.
+  7). The hypothesis of a great poet writing on the basis of earlier
+  Aeolic lays ([Greek: klea andron]) in Chios seems to explain the main
+  peculiarities of the Homeric language, which, however, was modified to
+  some extent in later times first under Ionic and afterwards under
+  Athenian influence.
+
+  Of Dorian literature we know little. The works of Archimedes written
+  in the Syracusan dialect were much altered in language by the late
+  copyists. The most striking development of the late classical age in
+  Doric lands is that of pastoral poetry, which, like Spenser, is "writ
+  in no language," but, on a basis of Syracusan and possibly Coan Doric,
+  has in its structure many elements borrowed from the Aeolic love lyric
+  and from epic.
+
+  From the latter part of the 5th century B.C. Athens became ever more
+  important as a literary centre, and Attic prose became the model for
+  the later [Greek: koine], which grew up as a consequence of the decay
+  of the local dialects. For this decay there were several reasons. If
+  the Athenian empire had survived the Peloponnesian War, Attic
+  influence would no doubt soon have permeated the whole of that empire.
+  This consummation was postponed. Attic became the court language of
+  Macedon, and, when Alexander's conquests led to the foundation of
+  great new towns, like Alexandria, filled with inhabitants from all
+  parts of the Greek world, this dialect furnished a basis for common
+  intercourse. Naturally the resultant dialect was not pure Attic. There
+  were in it considerable traces of Ionic. In Attica itself the dialect
+  was less uniform than elsewhere even in the 5th century B.C., because
+  Athens was a centre of empire, literature and commerce. Like every
+  other language which is not under the dominion of the schoolmaster, it
+  borrowed the names of foreign objects which it imported from foreign
+  lands, not only from those of Greek-speaking peoples, but also from
+  Egypt, Persia, Lydia, Phoenicia, Thrace and elsewhere. The Ionians
+  were great seafarers, and from them Athens borrowed words for seacraft
+  and even for the tides: [Greek: amtotis] "ebb," [Greek: rhachia] "high
+  tide," an Ionic word [Greek: rhechie] spelt in Attic fashion. From the
+  Dorians it borrowed words connected with war and sport: [Greek:
+  lochagos, kunagos], &c. A soldier of fortune like Xenophon, who spent
+  most of his life away from Athens, introduced not only strange words
+  but strange grammatical constructions also into his literary
+  compositions. With Aristotle, not a born Athenian but long resident in
+  Athens, the [Greek: koine] may be said to have begun. Some
+  characteristics of Attic foreigners found it hard to acquire--its
+  subtle use of particles and its accent. Hence in Hellenistic Greek
+  particles are comparatively rare. According to Cicero, Theophrastus,
+  who came from as near Attica as Eretria in Euboea, was easily detected
+  by a market-woman as no Athenian after he had lived thirty years in
+  Athens. Thoucritus, an Athenian, who was taken prisoner in the
+  Peloponnesian War and lived for many years in Epirus as a slave, was
+  unable to recover the Athenian accent on his return, and his family
+  lay under the suspicion that they were an alien's children, as his son
+  tells us in Demosthenes' speech "Against Eubulides." In the [Greek:
+  koine] there were several divisions, though the line between them is
+  faint and irregular. There was a [Greek: koine] of literary men like
+  Polybius and of carefully prepared state documents, as at Magnesia or
+  Pergamum; and a different [Greek: koine] of the vulgar which is
+  represented to us in its Egyptian form in the Pentateuch, in a later
+  and at least partially Palestinian form in the Gospels. Still more
+  corrupt is the language which we find in the ill-written and ill-spelt
+  private letters found amongst the Egyptian papyri. Not out of the old
+  dialects but out of this [Greek: koine] arose modern Greek, with a
+  variety of dialects no less bewildering than that of ancient Greek. In
+  one place more rapidly, in another more slowly, the characteristics of
+  modern Greek begin to appear. As we have seen, in Boeotia the vowels
+  and diphthongs began to pass into the characteristic sounds of modern
+  Greek four centuries before Christ. Dorian dialects illustrate early
+  the passing of the old aspirate [Greek: th], the sound of which was
+  like the final t in English _bit_, into a sound like the English _th_
+  in _thin_, _pith_, which it still retains in modern Greek. The change
+  of [gamma] between vowels into a y sound was charged by the comic
+  poets against Hyperbolus the demagogue about 415 B.C. Only when the
+  Attic sound changes stood isolated amongst the Greek dialects did they
+  give way in the [Greek: koine] to Ionic. Thus the forms with -[Greek:
+  ss]- instead of -[Greek: tt]- won the day, while modern Greek shows
+  that sometimes the -[Greek: rr]- which Attic shared with some Doric
+  dialects and Arcadian was retained, and that sometimes the Ionic
+  -[Greek: rs]-, which was also Lesbian and partly Doric, took its
+  place. In other cases, where Ionic and Attic did not agree, forms came
+  in which were different from either: the genitives of masculine a
+  stems were now formed as in Doric with [alpha], but the analogy of the
+  other cases may have been the effective force. The form [Greek: naos]
+  "temple," instead of Ionic [Greek: neos], Attic [Greek: neos], can
+  only be Doric.[1] In the first five centuries of the Christian era
+  came in the modern Greek characteristics of Itacism and vowel
+  contraction, of the pronunciation of [Greek: mp] and [Greek: nt] as
+  _mb_ and _nd_ and many other sound changes, the loss of the dative and
+  the confusion of the 1st with the 3rd declension, the dropping of the
+  -[Greek: mi] conjugation, the loss of the optative and the
+  assimilation of the imperfect and second aorist endings to those of
+  the first aorist.[2] There were meantime spasmodic attempts at the
+  revival of the old language. Lucian wrote Attic dialogue with a
+  facility almost equal to Plato; the old dialect was revived in the
+  inscriptions of Sparta; Balbilla, a lady-in-waiting on Hadrian's
+  empress, wrote epigrams in Aeolic, and there were other attempts of
+  the same kind. But they were only _tours de force_, [Greek: kepoi
+  Adonidos], whose flowers had no root in the spoken language and
+  therefore could not survive. Even in the hands of a cultivated man
+  like Plutarch the [Greek: koine] of the 1st century A.D. looks
+  entirely different from Attic Greek. Apart from non-Attic
+  constructions, which are not very numerous, the difference consists
+  largely in the new vocabulary of the philosophical schools since
+  Aristotle, whose jargon had become part of the language of educated
+  men in Plutarch's time, and made a difference in the language not
+  unlike that which has been brought about in English by the development
+  of the natural sciences. It is hardly necessary to say that these
+  changes, whether of the [Greek: koine] or of modern Greek, did not of
+  necessity impair the powers of the language as an organ of expression;
+  if elaborate inflection were a necessity for the highest literary
+  merit, then we must prefer Caedmon to Milton and Cynewulf to
+  Shakespeare.
+
+
+  _The Chief Characteristics of Greek._
+
+  As is obvious from the foregoing account of the Greek dialects, it is
+  not possible to speak of the early history of Greek as handed down to
+  us as that of a single uniform tongue. From the earliest times it
+  shows much variety of dialect accentuated by the geographical
+  characteristics of the country, but arising, at least in part, from
+  the fact that the Greeks came into the country in separate waves
+  divided from one another by centuries. For the history of the language
+  it is necessary to take as a beginning the form of the Indo-European
+  language from which Greek descended, so far as it can be reconstructed
+  from a comparison of the individual I.E. languages (see ANDO-EUROPEAN
+  LANGUAGES). The sounds of this language, so far as at present
+  ascertained, were the following:--
+
+  (a) 11 vowels: _a_, _a_, _e_, _e_, _i_, _i_, _o_, _o_, _u_, _u_,
+  _[schwa]_ (a short indistinct vowel).
+
+  (b) 14 diphthongs: _ai_, _au_, _ei_, _eu_, _oi_, _ou_, _ai_, _au_,
+  _ei_, _eu_, _oi_, _ou_, _[schwa]i_, _[schwa]u_.
+
+  (c) 20 stop consonants.
+
+  Labials: _p_, _b_, _ph_, _bh_ (_ph_ and _bh_ being _p_ and _b_
+  followed by an audible breath, not _f_ and _v_).
+
+  Dentals: _t_, _d_, _th_, _dh_ (_th_ and _dh not_ spirants like the two
+  English sounds in _thin_ and _then_, but aspirated _t_ and _d_).
+
+  Palatals: _k_, _g_, _kh_, _gh_ (_kh_ and _gh_ aspirates as explained
+  above).
+
+  Velars: _q_, _g_, _qh_, _gh_ (velars differ from palatals by being
+  produced against the soft palate instead of the roof of the mouth).
+
+  Labio-velars: _qu_, _qu_, _quh_, _guh_ (these differ from the velars
+  by being combined with a slight labial w-sound).
+
+  (d) Spirants--
+
+    Labial: _w_.
+
+    Dental: _s_, _z_, post-dental _s_, _z_, interdental possibly [thorn],
+    [eth].
+
+    Palatal: [chi] (Scotch ch), y.
+
+    Velar: _x_ (a deeply guttural [chi], heard now in Swiss dialects),
+    [gh].
+
+  Closely akin to _w_ and _y_ and often confused with them were the
+  semi-vowels _u_ and _i_.
+
+  (e) Liquids: _l_, _r_.
+
+  (f) Nasals: _m_ (labial), _n_ (dental), _n_ (palatal), [symbol]
+  (velar), the last three in combination with similar consonants.
+
+  (a) As far as the vowels are concerned, Greek retains the original
+  state of things more accurately than any other language. The sounds of
+  short _e_ and short _o_ in Attic and Ionic were close, so that _e_ +
+  _e_ contracted to a long close e represented by [Greek: ei], _o_ + _o_
+  to a long close _o_ represented by [Greek: oe]. In these dialects _u_,
+  both long and short, was modified to _u_, and they changed the long
+  _a_ to _e_, though Attic has [alpha] after [epsilon], [iota] and
+  [rho]. In Greek [schwa] appeared regularly as [alpha], but under the
+  influence of analogy often as [epsilon] and [omicron].
+
+  (b) The short diphthongs as a whole remained unchanged before a
+  following consonant. Before a following vowel the diphthong was
+  divided between the two syllables, the [iota] or [upsilon] forming a
+  consonant at the beginning of the second syllable, which ultimately
+  disappeared. Thus from a root dheu- "run" comes a verb [Greek: theo]
+  for [Greek: the-wo], from an earlier *[Greek: theu-o]. The
+  corresponding adjective is [Greek: thoos] "swift," for [Greek:
+  tho-wo-s], from an earlier *[Greek: thou-o-s]. The only dialect which
+  kept the whole diphthong in one syllable was Aeolic. The long
+  diphthongs, except at the ends of words, were shortened in Attic. Some
+  of these appear merely as long vowels, having lost their second
+  element in the proethnic period. Apparent long diphthongs like those
+  in [Greek: letourgia, sozo] arise by contraction of two syllables.
+
+  (c) The consonants suffered more extensive change. The voiced
+  aspirates became unvoiced, so that _bh_, _dh_, _gh_, _gh_, _guh_ are
+  confused with original _ph_, _th_, _kh_, _qh_, _quh_: I.E. *_bhero_
+  (Skt. _bharami_) is Gr. [Greek: phero]; I.E. *_dhumos_ (Skt.
+  _dhumas_), Gr. [Greek: thymos]; I.E. *_ghimo_- (Skt. _hima_-), Gr.
+  [Greek: (dys)-chimo-s]; I.E. *_stigh_- (Skt. _stigh_-), Gr. [Greek:
+  stiches]; I.E. _guhen_- (Skt. _han_-), Gr. [Greek: theino] (probably),
+  [Greek: phonos]. The palatal and velar series cannot be distinguished
+  in Greek; for the differences between them resort must be had to
+  languages of the _satem_-group, such as Sanskrit, Zend or Slavonic,
+  where the palatals appear as sibilants (see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES).
+  The labio-velar series present a great variety of forms in the
+  different Greek dialects, and in the same dialect before different
+  sounds. Thus in Attic before _o_ vowels, nasals and liquids, the
+  series appears as [pi], [beta], [phi]; before _e_ and _i_ vowels as
+  [tau], [beta] ([delta]), [theta]; in combination with _u_, which led
+  to loss of the u by dissimilation, [kappa], [gamma] [chi]. Thus
+  [Greek: hepomai] corresponds to the Latin _sequo-r_, apart from the
+  ending; [Greek: bous] to Latin _bos_ (borrowed from Sabine), English
+  _cow_; [Greek: phonos] "slaughter," [Greek: epephnon], old Irish
+  _gonim_, "I wound." Parallel to these forms with _p_ are forms in the
+  Italic languages except Latin and Faliscan, and in the Cymric group of
+  the Celtic languages. The dental forms [tau], [delta], [theta] stand
+  by themselves. Thus [Greek: tis] (from the same root as [Greek: pou,
+  poi, pothen], etc.) is parallel to the Latin _quis_, the Oscan _pis_,
+  old Irish cia, Welsh _pwy_, "who?" "what?"; Attic [Greek: tettares],
+  Ionic [Greek: tesseres] "four" is parallel to Latin _quattuor_, Oscan
+  [Greek: petora], old Irish _cethir_, old Welsh _petguar_; [Greek:
+  tisis] is from the same root as [Greek: poine]. For the voiced sound,
+  [beta] is much more common than [delta] before _e_ and _i_ sounds;
+  thus [Greek: bios] "life," from the same root as Skt. _jivas_, Latin
+  _vivus_; [Greek: bios] "bowstring," Skt. _jya_, &c. In Arcado-Cyprian
+  and Aeolic, [pi] and [beta] often precede _e_ and _i_ sounds. Thus
+  parallel to Attic [Greek: tettares] Lesbian has [Greek: pessyres],
+  Homer [Greek: pisyres], Boeotian [Greek: pettares]; Thessalian [Greek:
+  bellomai], Boeotian [Greek: beilomai] alongside of Attic [Greek:
+  boulomai], Lesbian [Greek: bollomai], Doric [Greek: bolomai] and also
+  [Greek: delomai]. In Arcadian and Cyprian the form corresponding to
+  [Greek: tis] was [Greek: sis], in Thessalian [Greek: kis], where the
+  labialization was lost (see the article on Q).
+
+  A great variety of changes in the stopped consonants arose in
+  combination with other sounds, especially _i_ (a semivowel of the
+  nature of English _y_), _u_ (_w_) and _s_; -[Greek: ti-, -thi]- became
+  first -[Greek: ss]- and later -[sigma]- in Attic Greek, -[Greek: tt]-
+  in Boeotian (the precise pronunciation of -[Greek: ss]- and -[Greek:
+  tt]- is uncertain): Attic [Greek: ho-posos], earlier [Greek:
+  ho-possos], Boeotian [Greek: ho-pottos], from the same stem as the
+  Latin _quot_, _quotiens_; Homeric [Greek: messos], Attic [Greek:
+  mesos] from *[Greek: methios], Latin _medius_; -[Greek: ki-, -chi]-
+  became -[Greek: ss]-, Attic -[Greek: tt-: pissa] "pitch," Attic
+  [Greek: pitta] from *[Greek: pikia], cp. Latin _pix_, _picis_, [Greek:
+  elasson], Attic [Greek: elatton] comparative to [Greek: elachus].
+  [Greek: di] and [Greek: gi] became [zeta]: [Greek: Zeus] (Skt.
+  _Dyaus_) [Greek: elpizo] from [Greek: elpis], stem [Greek:
+  elpid]-"hope," [Greek: mastizo] from [Greek: mastix], stem [Greek:
+  mastig]- "lash."
+
+  (d) The sound _u_ was represented in the Greek alphabet by [digamma],
+  the "digamma," but in Attic and Ionic the sound was lost very early.
+  In Aeolic, particularly Boeotian and Lesbian, it was persistent, and
+  so also in many Doric dialects, especially at the beginning of words.
+  When the Ionic alphabet was adopted by districts which had retained
+  [digamma], it was represented by [beta]: [Greek: brodon] Aeolic for
+  [Greek: rodon], i.e. [Greek: Drodon]. In Attic it disappeared, leaving
+  no trace; in Ionic it lengthened the preceding syllable; thus in Homer
+  [Greek: hupodeisas] is scanned with o long because the root of the
+  verb contained [digamma]: [Greek: ddei]-. Attic has [Greek: xenos],
+  but Ionic [Greek: xeinos] for [Greek: xenwos]. Its combination with
+  [tau] became -[Greek: ss]-, Attic and Boeotian -[Greek: tt]-, in
+  [Greek: tesseres, tettares, pettares] for I.E. [Greek: guetu]-.
+
+  But the most effective of all elements in changing the appearance of
+  Greek words was the sound _s_. Before vowels at the beginning, or
+  between vowels in the middle of words, it passed into an _h_ sound,
+  the "rough breathing." Thus [Greek: hepta] is the same word as the
+  Latin _septem_, English _seven_; [Greek: hal-s] has the same stem as
+  the Latin _sal_, English _sal-t_; [Greek: euo] for [Greek: euho] is
+  the same as the Latin _uro_ (*_euso_). Combined with _i_ or _u_ also
+  it passes into _h_; [Greek: hymen], Skt. _syuman_, "band"; [Greek:
+  hedus], Doric [Greek: adus], Latin _sua(d)vis_, English sweet; cp.
+  [Greek: oikoio] for *[Greek: woikosio, neos], Lesbian [Greek: nauos]
+  "temple," through [Greek: nawos] from *[Greek: naswo-s] connected with
+  [Greek: naio] "dwell." Before nasals and liquids _s_ was assimilated:
+  [Greek: mei-dao], Latin _mi-ru-s_, English _smile_; [Greek: nipha],
+  Latin _nivem_, English _snow_; [Greek: lego], Latin _laxus_, English
+  _slack_; [Greek: rheo] from *_sreu-o_ of the same origin as English
+  _stream_ (where _t_ is a later insertion), imperfect [Greek: erreon]
+  for *_esreuom_; cp. also [Greek: philommeides, aganniphos, allektos].
+
+  After nasals _s_ is assimilated except finally; when assimilated, in
+  all dialects except Aeolic the previous syllable is lengthened if not
+  already long: Attic [Greek: eneima, emeina] for the first aorist
+  *_enemsa_, *_emensa_; but [Greek: tons, tans], &c., of the accusative
+  pl. either remained or became in Aeolic [Greek: tois, tais], in Ionic
+  and Attic [Greek: tous, tas], in Doric [Greek: tos, tas]; cp. [Greek:
+  titheis] for *[Greek: tithents, bas] for *[Greek: bants, heis] "one"
+  for *sem-s, then by analogy of the neuter *sens. Assimilation of
+  [sigma] to preceding [rho] and [lambda] is a matter of dialect: Ionic
+  [Greek: tharseo], but Attic [Greek: tharro], and so also the Doric of
+  Thera: [Greek: ekelsa], but [Greek: esteila] for *[Greek: ettelsa].
+  With nasals [iota] affected the previous syllable: [Greek: tektaino]
+  (*[Greek: tekteio]), where _n_ is the nasal of the stem [Greek:
+  tekton], itself forming a syllable (see the article N for these
+  so-called sonant nasals). Before [iota] original _m_ becomes _n_;
+  hence [Greek: baino] with _n_, though from the same root as English
+  _come_. Original [iota] does not survive in Greek, but is represented
+  by the aspirate at the beginning of words, [Greek: hagnos] = Skt.
+  _yajnas_; medially after consonants it disappears, affecting the
+  preceding consonant or syllable where a consonant precedes; between
+  vowels it disappears. A sound of the same kind is indicated in Cyprian
+  and some other dialects as a glide or transition sound between two
+  vowels.
+
+  (e) The most remarkable feature in the treatment of the nasals is that
+  when _n_ or _m_ forms a syllable by itself its consonant character
+  disappears altogether and it is represented by the vowel [alpha] only:
+  [Greek: tatos], Latin _tentus_, [alpha]- negative particle, Latin
+  _in_, English _un_; [Greek: ha-ploos] has the same prefix as the Latin
+  _sim-plex_ (_sm_). The liquids in similar cases show [Greek: la] or
+  [Greek: al] and [Greek: ra] or [Greek: ar: te-tla-men, pe-paltai;
+  edrakon, thrasys, tharsos].
+
+  The ends of words were modified in appearance by the loss of all
+  stop-consonants and the change of final _m_ to _n_, [Greek: edeixe],
+  Latin _dixit_; [Greek: zygon], Latin _iugum_.
+
+  _Accent._--The vowel system of Greek has been so well preserved
+  because it shows till late times very little in the way of stress
+  accent. As in early Sanskrit the accent was predominantly a pitch
+  accent (see ACCENT).
+
+  _Noun System._--The I.E. noun had three numbers, but the dual was
+  limited to pairs, the two hands, the two horses in the chariot, and
+  was so little in use that the original form of the oblique cases
+  cannot be restored with certainty. Ionic has no dual. The I.E. noun
+  had the following cases: Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, Ablative,
+  Instrumental, Locative and Dative. The vocative was not properly a
+  case, because it usually stands outside the syntactical construction
+  of the sentence; when a distinctive form appears, it is the bare stem,
+  and there is no form (separate from the nominative) for the plural.
+  Greek has confused genitive and ablative (the distinction between them
+  seems to have been derived from the pronouns), except for the solitary
+  [Greek: woiko = oikothen] in an inscription of Delphi. The
+  instrumental, locative and dative are mixed in one case, partly for
+  phonetic, partly for syntactical reasons. In Arcadian, Elean,
+  Boeotian, and later widely in N. Greece, the locative -[Greek: oi] is
+  used for the dative. The masculine _a_-stems make the nom. in most
+  dialects in -[Greek: as]. The genitive is in -[Greek: ao] (with
+  [omicron] borrowed from the _o_-stems), which remains in Homer and
+  Boeotian, appears in Arcado-Cyprian as -[Greek: au], and with
+  metathesis of quantity -[Greek: eo] in Ionic. The Attic form in
+  -[Greek: ou] is borrowed directly from the _o_-stems. In the plural
+  the -[alpha] and -_o_ stems follow the article in making their
+  nominatives in -[Greek: ai] and -[Greek: oi] instead of the original
+  -_as_ and -_os_. The neuter plural was in origin a collective
+  singular, and for this reason takes a singular verb; the plural of
+  [Greek: zygon] "yoke" was originally *_iuga_, and declined like any
+  other -a stem. But through the influence of the masculine and feminine
+  forms the neuter took the same oblique cases, and like its own
+  singular made the accusative the same as the nominative. In the plural
+  of -_a_ and -_o_ stems, the locative in -[Greek: aisi, -oisi] was long
+  kept apart from the instrumental-dative form in -[Greek: ais, -ois].
+
+  _The Verb System._--The verb system of Greek is more complete than
+  that of any of the other I.E. languages. Its only rival, the early
+  Vedic verb system, is already in decay when history begins, and when
+  the classical period of Sanskrit arrives the moods have broken down,
+  and the aorist, perfect, and imperfect tenses are syntactically
+  confused. Throughout the Greek classical period the moods are
+  maintained, but in the period of the [Greek: koine] the optative
+  occurs less and less and finally disappears. The original I.E. had two
+  voices, an active and a middle, and to these Greek has added a third,
+  the passive, distinguished from the middle in many verbs by separate
+  forms for the future and aorist, made with a syllable -[Greek: the-,
+  timethesomai, etimethen], though in this instance, [Greek: timesomai],
+  the future middle, is often used with a passive sense. Other forms
+  which Greek has added to the original system are the pluperfect--in
+  form a past of the perfect stem with aorist endings. It merely
+  expressed the perfect action in past time, and, except as derived from
+  the context, did not possess the notion of relative time (past at a
+  time already past), which attaches to the Latin forms with the same
+  name. The future optative was also a new formation, betraying its
+  origin in the fact that it is almost entirely limited to _Oratio
+  Obliqua_. The aorist imperatives were also new; the history of some of
+  them, as the second sing. act. [Greek: pauson], is not very clear. The
+  whole verb system is affected by the distinction between -_o_ and
+  -_mi_ verbs; the former or thematic verbs have a so-called "thematic
+  vowel" between the root and the personal suffix, while the -_mi_ verbs
+  attach the suffixes directly to the root. The distinction is really
+  one between monosyllabic and disyllabic roots. The history of the
+  personal endings is not altogether clear; the -_o_ verbs have in the
+  present forms for the 2nd and 3rd person in -[Greek: eis] and -[Greek:
+  ei], which are not yet elucidated. In the middle, Greek does not
+  entirely agree with Sanskrit in its personal endings, and the original
+  forms cannot all be restored with certainty. The endings of the
+  primary tenses differed from those of the secondary, but there has
+  been a certain amount of confusion between them.
+
+  The syntax of the verb is founded on the original I.E. distinction of
+  the verb forms, not by time (tense), but by forms of action,
+  progressive action (present and imperfect), consummated action
+  (aorist), state arising from action, emphatic or repeated action
+  (perfect). For the details of this see INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(i.) A grammar of Greek, which will deal fully with the
+  whole material of the language, is at present a _desideratum_, and is
+  hardly possible so long as new dialect material is being constantly
+  added and while comparatively so little has been done on the syntax of
+  the dialects. The greatest collection of material is to be found in
+  the new edition of Kuhner's _Griechische Grammatik, Laut- und
+  Formenlehre_, by Blass (2 vols., 1890-1892); _Syntax_, by Gerth (2
+  vols., 1896, 1900). Blass's part is useful only for material, the
+  explanations being entirely antiquated. The only full historical
+  account of the language (sounds, forms and syntax) at present in
+  existence is K. Brugmann's _Griechische Grammatik_ (3rd ed., 1900).
+  Gustav Meyer's _Griechische Grammatik_ (nothing on accent or syntax),
+  which did excellent pioneer work when it first appeared in 1880, was
+  hardly brought up to date in its 3rd edition (1896), but is still
+  useful for the dialect and bibliographical material collected. See
+  also H. Hirt, _Handbuch der griech. Laut- und Formenlehre_ (1902). Of
+  smaller grammars in English perhaps the most complete is that of J.
+  Thompson (London, 1902). The grammar of Homer was handled by D. B.
+  Monro (2nd ed., Oxford, 1891). The syntax has been treated in many
+  special works, amongst which may be mentioned W. W. Goodwin, _Syntax
+  of the Greek Moods and Tenses_ (new ed., 1889); B. L. Gildersleeve and
+  C. W. E. Miller, _Syntax of Classical Greek from Homer to
+  Demosthenes_, pt. i. (New York, 1901--and following); J. M. Stahl,
+  _Kritisch-historische Syntax des griechischen Verbums_ (1907); F. E.
+  Thompson, _Attic Greek Syntax_ (1907). (ii.) The relations between
+  Greek and the other I.E. languages are very well brought out in P.
+  Kretschmer's _Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_
+  (Gottingen, 1896). For comparative grammar see K. Brugmann and B.
+  Delbruck, _Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen
+  Sprachen_ (the 2nd ed., begun 1897, is still incomplete) and
+  Brugmann's _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik_ (1902-1903); A. Meillet,
+  _Introduction a l'etude comparative des langues indo-europeennes_ (2nd
+  ed., 1908). Greek compared with Latin and English: P. Giles, _A Short
+  Manual of Comparative Philology for Classical Students_ (2nd ed.,
+  1901, with an appendix containing a brief account and specimens of the
+  dialects); Riemann and Goelzer, _Grammaire comparative du Grec et du
+  Latin_ (1901), a parallel grammar in 2 vols., specially valuable for
+  syntax. (iii.) For the dialects two works have recently appeared, both
+  covering in brief space the whole field: A. Thumb, _Handbuch der
+  griechischen Dialekte_ (with bibliographies for each dialect, 1909);
+  C. D. Buck, _Introduction to the Study of the Greek Dialects, Grammar,
+  Selected Inscriptions, Glossary_ (Boston, 1910). Works on a larger
+  scale have been undertaken by R. Meister, by O. Hoffmann and by H. W.
+  Smyth. For the [Greek: koine] may be specially mentioned A. Thumb,
+  _Die griech. Sprache in Zeitalter des Hellenismus_ (1901); E. Mayser,
+  _Grammatik der griechischen Papyri aus der Ptolemaerzeit: Laut- und
+  Wortlehre_ (1906); H. St J. Thackeray, _A Grammar of the Old Testament
+  in Greek_, vol. i. (1909); Blass, _Grammar of New Testament Greek_,
+  trans. by Thackeray (1898); J. H. Moulton, _A Grammar of New Testament
+  Greek. I. Prolegomena_ (3rd ed., 1906). (iv.) For the development from
+  the [Greek: koine] to modern Greek: A. N. Jannaris, _An Historical
+  Greek Grammar, chiefly of the Attic Dialect, as written and spoken
+  from Classical Antiquity down to the Present Time_ (1901); G. N.
+  Hatzidakis, _Einleitung in die neugriechische Grammatik_ (1892); A.
+  Thumb, _Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache_ (2nd ed. 1910).
+  (v.) The inscriptions are collected in _Inscriptiones Graecae_ in the
+  course of publication by the Berlin Academy, those important for
+  dialect in the _Sammlung der griech. Dialektinschriften_, edited by
+  Collitz and Bechtel. The earlier parts of this collection are to some
+  extent superseded by later volumes of the _Inscr. Graecae_, containing
+  better readings and new inscriptions. A good selection (too brief) is
+  Solmsen's _Inscriptiones Graecae ad inlustrandas dialectos selectae_
+  (3rd ed., 1910). A serviceable lexicon for dialect words is van
+  Herwerden's _Lexicon Graecum suppletorium et dialecticum_ (2nd ed.,
+  much enlarged, 2 vols. 1910). (vi.) The historical basis for the
+  distribution of the Greek dialects is discussed at length in the
+  histories of E. Meyer (_Geschichte des Altertums_, ii.) and G. Busolt
+  (_Griechische Geschichte_, i.); by Professor Ridgeway, _Early Age of
+  Greece_, i. (1901), and P. Kretschmer in _Glotta_, i. 9 ff. See also
+  A. Fick, _Die vorgriechischen Ortsnamen_ (1905). (vii.) Bibliographies
+  containing the new publications on Greek, with some account of their
+  contents, appear from time to time in _Indogermanische Forschungen:
+  Anzeiger_ (Strassburg, Trubner), annually in _Glotta_ (Gottingen,
+  Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht), and _The Year's Work in Classical Studies_
+  (London, Murray).     (P. Gi.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Thumb, _Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus_
+    (1901), pp. 242-243.
+
+  [2] Thumb, _op. cit._ p. 249.
+
+
+
+
+
+
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