diff options
Diffstat (limited to '38129.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 38129.txt | 5423 |
1 files changed, 5423 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/38129.txt b/38129.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e8289e --- /dev/null +++ b/38129.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5423 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Armenian Legends and Festivals, by Louis A. Boettiger + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Armenian Legends and Festivals + +Author: Louis A. Boettiger + +Release Date: November 25, 2011 [EBook #38129] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMENIAN LEGENDS AND FESTIVALS *** + + + + +Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + + Research Publications of the University of Minnesota + + Studies in the Social Sciences + Number 14 + + ARMENIAN LEGENDS AND FESTIVALS + + By + LOUIS A. BOETTIGER, M.A. + + + + Published by the University of Minnesota + Minneapolis, January, 1920 + + + + + + + + + Copyright 1920 + by the + University of Minnesota + + + + + + + + +PREFACE + + +The author of the study which follows responded to the lure of +his task for both theoretical and practical reasons. He seemed, +because of his intimate personal relationship to Armenian life, to +be peculiarly qualified to study and interpret a cross-section of +that country's life. It is particularly urgent that we as Americans +have authentic studies of Armenia and Armenian social life. Heretofore +there has been a striking lack of such materials readily accessible in +English. Because of the not inconsiderable immigration which reaches +us from Armenia, and because also there has been a call for the United +States to act as mandatory for this country under the peace treaty, +we should penetrate more deeply into the Armenian heart than we have +been able to do so far, if we are to carry through successfully +our job either as assimilator or as friendly guardian. Moreover +there is incumbent upon the United States in particular the duty of +understanding a country like Armenia, since we have been foremost in +proclaiming the doctrine of the rights of small nationalities. Those +are the practical purposes from the standpoint of social politics +which have given rise to and confer full warrant upon this study. + +Of no less importance, however, is the contribution which +Mr. Boettiger's study makes to theoretical sociology. He has sketched +out for us the picture of a refractory culture which refuses to +amalgamate with or yield to or be permeated by rival cultures. The +social history of this sturdy people offers us a very clear-cut +example of what really makes a society or a nation. Not mountains, +not dynasties, not blood, but common interests, common traditions, +common beliefs; in short, mental community. + +The theoretical joins with the practical service of this study if +it can strengthen our understanding that only as our own blood and +that of our Armenian friends reach the place where they boil at the +same temperature, or are cooled by the same application of reason, +can we minister to each other or carry out the new partnership which +may lie immediately ahead of us in the reestablishment of peace and +the reorganization of world comity. + + + Arthur J. Todd + + + + + + + + +CONTENTS + + + Pages + +Introduction 1-2 + +Part I. Legends + +Chapter I. The geography of Armenia 5-8 + +Chapter II. Ancient historical legends 9-23 + + Section 1. The legend, of Haic 9 + 2. The legend of Ara and Semiramis 10 + 3. Historical background of the legend of Ara and + Semiramis 11 + 4. The legend of Vahakn 14 + 5. The historic background of the legend of Vahakn 15 + 6. The period of national integration 17 + 7. Legends of Artasches and Artavasd 20 + 8. Conclusions 22 + +Chapter III. Legends of the conversion to Christianity 24-38 + + Section 1. Pre-Christian mythology and religion 24 + 2. Legends of Abgar, Thaddeus, and St. Bartholomew 27 + 3. Legends of Rhipsime and Gregory 29 + 4. The Armenian church as a social force 34 + +Chapter IV. Locality legends 39-44 + + Section 1. Ararat 39 + 2. Khor-Virap and Erzerum 43 + +Chapter V. Interpretation and conclusions 45-48 + +Part II. Festivals + +Chapter I. The Gregorian church 51-55 + +Chapter II. Pagan folk festivals 56-66 + + Section 1. Vartavar and the Festival of Mihr 56 + 2. The Day of the Dead and Vartan's Day 58 + 3. Fortune-Telling Day 62 + +Chapter III. Christian folk festivals 67-78 + + Section 1. Christmas, Easter, and New Year 67 + 2. Special church ceremonies 71 + +Chapter IV. Private festival occasions 79-90 + + Section 1. Baptism 79 + 2. Betrothal 80 + 3. Marriage 83 + 4. Funeral 87 + +Chapter V. Summary 91-96 + + Conclusions 92 + +Bibliography 99-100 + + + + + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The study which follows has a very definite objective apart from +the mere gathering of materials, namely, to interpret as far as +the subject-matter would permit, the social life of the Armenian +people. The legends and festivals described have thus been selected +from a larger mass of material with this principle in mind. I have, +therefore, omitted such as seemed to me to be of little or no social +value. Also, in full accordance with this plan, I have chosen to +include certain church ceremonies which give rise to such festivals, +and are of such social importance that I considered them an organic +part of my subject. Otherwise I think I have kept within the strict +confines as indicated by the title of this study. + +It must, therefore, be evident that neither Part One on legends, +nor Part Two on festivals, is exhaustive, and this is necessarily +so, not only because of my selective plan, but also because much of +the work on this and kindred subjects has been done by the French, +and is available only on the continent. All of the sources used are, +however, original in two possible constructions of the term; that +is, they are the works of Armenians who have lived for many years in +their native land, or of foreigners, generally French or English, who +have traveled through the country and gathered their material first +hand. A large portion of this matter I have been able to check up +and add to through my wife, an Armenian, who lived in Constantinople +most of her life, and who is naturally versed in the folk-lore of her +native land. While this has been the chief source of my interest, +it is not the only one, for during my three years' work in Beirut, +Syria, I became acquainted with many Armenians. + +To describe a legend, or a festival, and to tag it Armenian, is about +as purposeful and enlightening as to explain Plato's idea of social +unity to a person who has no picture of Greek civilization. I have, +therefore, found it necessary to fit these legends and festivals into +the particular settings that seemed to me most natural. The legends +that date from pagan times are meaningless apart from their historical +background; the church legends and festivals are without value apart +from their religious-historical setting, while such legends as those +of Ararat require a description of the natural environment to which +they belong. The conclusions and interpretation which this study gives +rise to, as well as the manner in which I have organized and attempted +to weave the material together into a unified fabric, are my own. + +Most of the books used have been supplied by the Case Memorial +Library of Hartford Theological Seminary, and I owe the Reverend +M. H. Ananikian of that institution my thanks for his gracious +cooperation in suggesting materials and providing me with them. I am +also deeply indebted to Professor J. W. Beach for his painstaking +criticism and valuable suggestions, and for the corrections +and suggestions offered by Professor W. S. Davis and Professor +A. E. Jenks. To Professor A. J. Todd I am especially grateful, +for it was under his direction and supervision that this study was +carried out. + + + Louis A. Boettiger + + + + + + + + +PART ONE + +LEGENDS + + +CHAPTER I + +THE GEOGRAPHY OF ARMENIA + + +Armenia is a huge plateau, a westward extension of the great Iranian +highland, bounded by the Caucasus Mountains on the north, the Taurus +Mountains and Kurdistan on the south, the Persian lowlands on the +southeast, and the Black and Caspian seas. The average height of +the plateau is 6,000 feet. As it ends abruptly at the Black Sea on +one side, so on the other it breaks down in rugged terraces to the +Mesopotamian lowlands; on the east it sinks gradually to the lower +levels of Persia, and on the west to the plains of Asia Minor. The +chief mountain ranges run from northeast to southwest, rising above +the general level of the plateau to an altitude ranging from 8,000 +to 12,000 feet and culminating in Ararat, the lofty summit of which +stands 17,000 feet above sea level. Broad, elevated, and fertile +valleys range themselves between the mountains, the main lines of which +are determined by the four chief rivers of the country, the Tigris, +the Euphrates, the Aras, and the Kur. All four rise in the plateau, +the two former emptying into the Persian Gulf, and the latter two +into the Caspian Sea. The Euphrates divides the country into what is +known as great and little Armenia, or Armenia major and Armenia minor, +Armenia major on the east and Armenia minor on the west. Although the +valleys are generally broad expanses of arable land, grass covered +and treeless, the gorges of the Euphrates and Tigris can not be +surpassed in grandeur and wildness. The winters are long and severe, +and the summers short, dry, and hot. In the city of Erzerum the range +of temperature is from -22 deg. to 84 deg., and snow is usually present in +June. [1] + +In consequence of the long and severe winters the villages are +built on gentle slopes of the hillsides in which the houses are +excavated. Robert Curzon, who traveled through the country about 1850, +has written the best description of them. [2] A rectangular plot of +ground about the size of an English acre is laid out and excavated to +a depth of seven or eight feet at the back side, decreasing gradually +with the slope of the hill to a depth of about two feet. After a +careful leveling of the ground, trunks of straight trees are cut +and arranged in rows for the support of the ceiling, which consists +of cross-beams interspersed by a wooden frame-work upon which the +removed soil is laid to a considerable thickness. The walls are made of +stone. In entering the habitation at the lower slope of the hillside, +one is obliged to descend three or four steps to the outer door, +which opens to a passage six to ten feet in length, at the end of +which is a second door, constructed of wood like the first. This door +swings to through the operation of a curious wooden weight passed over +a kind of pulley, in order to keep the outside cold from entering the +inner chamber. The inside of the door is usually covered with a rough, +red-dyed goatskin. Directly before the inner door is a wooden platform +raised some two feet above the ground and known in Turkish as the +"Salamlik," the hall of reception of the head of the family. Chairs +and tables it possesses none, only divans richly draped with Kurdish +stuffs placed against the stone walls that bound the two sides of +the platform. The floor is carpeted with tekeke, a kind of grey felt, +and the walls are decorated with swords, knives, pistols, and other +weapons. On the other two sides, the Salamlik is bounded by wooden +rails to keep away the sheep and cattle which occupy the greatest +proportion of floor space, and whose breathing helps materially to +keep the chamber warm. The other members of the household are confined +behind the stone wall where the space is sometimes split up into +two or more chambers for the various families of the patriarchal +household. One of these rooms is the common eating-room, and is +provided with an open hearth, fireplace, and chimney which leans +forward over the fireplace and draws up the smoke through a hole in +the turf-covered roof. A great stone is placed over the chimney to +keep children at play and grazing animals from falling through. In +traveling through the country on horseback, particular care must be +taken lest the horse step through an old chimney hole and break his +leg. The windows are funnel shaped holes through the ceiling spanned +with oiled paper. + +Such is the Armenian household in which the people live day and night +during eight winter months of the year in the coldest section of the +country, as Erzerum and Mush. That many of the evenings were passed in +listening to the tales and gossip of a wandering minstrel, or to the +legends and folk-beliefs of the grey-haired members of the family, +there can be no doubt. That the national tradition was passed on in +this manner from the aged to the younger, to be again passed on in +their turn, is a matter of as much certainty as that part at least +of this same tradition has been preserved through the continually +recurring storms of the passing centuries. The recounting of national +legends and folk-lore is a chief means of amusement even in the warmer +sections of the country, where the climate makes a free community life +possible. How much more place, then, must it have had in these colder +sections where only the head of the family ever left the household +in winter-time, and then only in case of absolute necessity. + +As has been suggested, this style of dwelling-place is not common to +all parts of Armenia. In some places the houses are built entirely +above ground, usually of stone, and sometimes, especially in the +case of the poorer inhabitants, of mud. Though the winters are not so +long or severe as in the district of Erzerum, they are nevertheless +sufficiently cold to require a fire six or seven months of the +year. The characteristic feature of every living- and dining-room is +the large "toneer" or circular fireplace dug out to a depth of three +to four feet in the center of the room. Here the fire is built in the +morning, usually with "tezek," the most common variety of fuel which +is a sun-baked mixture of straw and sheep or cow dung. The bread is +baked and the meals are cooked in the "toneer" and when it is time +to eat, the members sit about the open space, letting their feet +hang over the fire to keep warm. In the hut described by Montpereux, +there was but a single opening in the roof which served for window +and chimney at the same time, and which was often carefully sealed +up with straw to keep out the cold. [3] This author has given a clear +picture of the common family fireplace and sleeping chamber in which +each person fell asleep as best he might upon rugs and skins, keeping +as near the "toneer" as possible. And if the traditions, legends, and +folk-lore that will make up the body of this thesis are the common +possession of the people, as I have reason to believe them to be, +in spite of drastic measures taken to suppress them, how better could +they have been told and retold than while lounging about the "toneer" +during long winter evenings before sleeping time? [4] + +In what other respects the natural environment of the people moulded +the common life, one can only conjecture. That the cold winters +and deep river valleys have tended to the formation of isolated +communities, clannishness, and provincialism, as is contended by +some writers, has not generally been true. Tidal waves of conquering +civilizations have passed over the country too frequently to make +such an influence possible. [5] Furthermore the people are bound +together by a national religion, whose chief officials are chosen +by the lay members and priesthood of the many communities. [6] These +representatives to the national religious assemblies return to their +own people brimming with news and reports of political as well as +religious and social matters. Such facts together with a common +ancestry, a common tradition, and a common language have moulded +a nation, and not a thousand differentiated groups among a people +who were once a nation. They have tended to solidify and unify the +national character, and it is just this process of solidification +that gives significance to the whole fabric of beliefs, legends, +and festivals of the people. + +As a nation, the Armenian people are exclusive, but this is an entirely +different matter. For three years I have had occasion to observe groups +of students belonging to different nations, chiefly Egyptians, Syrians, +Greeks, Jews, Persians, Turks, and Armenians, and the latter always +showed a most persistent determination to confine their friendships +and social intercourse to themselves. Perhaps this is due to the fact +that nearly all of the nations above mentioned have at one time or +another dominated the Armenians; perhaps it is due to the persecution +they have recently suffered, which, though it has been a sufficiently +important fact to result in serious social and psychological changes, +has by no means been characteristic of the history of the people, +as it has been, for example, of the Jews; or perhaps it is due to the +solidarity and oneness of the people as a whole. I am inclined rather +to the latter explanation, and may perhaps be able to prove it so. + +Nevertheless, the singularity of the physical environment has placed +its irremovable stamp upon the people. The words that best describe +the country are not trees, hills, forests, gently flowing streams, +such words as commonly express American landscape, but rather, +gorges, mountain ranges, broad river valleys, treeless expanses of +country. There is space to make one think of other worlds and other +shores, and there are mountains suggestive of strength, that rise +majestic above the plateau, to fill one with awe and wonder. Religious +the people are naturally, but more than that, they are thoughtful, +reflecting, considering. No writer that I have read but has spoken +of the Armenian as intellectually alert and capable. That this +thoughtfulness, this robust element in their idealism is in part the +stamp of physical nature, there can be little doubt. + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER II + +ANCIENT HISTORICAL LEGENDS + + +SECTION 1. THE LEGEND OF HAIC + +Armenians do not call themselves Armenians nor their country +Armenia. They are descendants of Haic, as the legend goes, who was +the son of Togarmah, the son of Japhet, who was the son of Noah, and +they call their country Haiasdan after the patriarchal progenitor of +their people. [7] Haic dwelt in the plain of Shinar and was a prefect +or director in the building of the tower of Babel. He was beautiful +as a god and strong as a giant, mighty in battle and especially adept +in spear throwing. In the days of his youth, Bel or Nimrod, who was +the patron god of Babylon, established himself over all and wished +to be worshipped. But Haic refused to obey, and taking his sons, who +numbered about three hundred, his daughters, his sheep and cattle, +he journeyed north until he came to the land of Ararat. Bel tried in +vain to persuade his rival to come back. + +"Thou hast departed and hast settled in a chill and frosty region," +urged the Assyrian god. "Soften thy hard pride, change thy coldness +to geniality; be my subject and come and live a life of ease in my +domain." [8] + +But Haic refused the cordial invitation, which so much angered Bel +that the latter brought his army to force the Armenian hero into +submission. Haic, however, was victorious, for he slew Bel with an +arrow from his own bow. The place where Bel was buried is called +"Kerezman," meaning grave, and is pointed out to this day. Armenians +sing songs and tell stories of the great beauty and valor of Haic. He +died at the age of four hundred in about 2028 B.C. [9] + +This oldest of Armenian legends, quaint and simple as it is in +accounting for the beginnings of a people, savours of the Old +Testament and is suggestive of the Assyrian invasion which took +place about the ninth century before Christ. It is significant that +the Armenians refused the protection of Bel, and that in the very +beginning of their legendary history, they insisted on standing +firm and maintaining their independence, for no single quality is +more characteristic of this people than a proud, haughty, even at +times disdainful independence. It is also suggestive that their +patriarchal hero was no saint, but a mighty giant, beautiful as he +was strong, whose greatest pride was in the throwing of a spear, +for his descendants have not been a peaceful people. To be sure, +they were the first nation to be converted to Christianity, which +would say little for their firmness and independence, were it not +that the priest with the cross was followed by a powerful king with a +sword at the head of an army that had learned to fight as the Romans +fought. [10] The songs that were sung in memory and honor of Haic +are seldom sung to-day unless it be in some remote village where the +civilization of the Turk has not yet pressed, and there are few such +villages if any. For many of them breathe of a national spirit not +beseeming a subject nation, and have been suppressed for many years. + + + + +SECTION 2. THE LEGEND OF ARA AND SEMIRAMIS + +Dating back to the Assyrian invasion which took place during the +seventh and eighth centuries before Christ, one of the oldest of +Armenian legends, that of Semiramis, queen of Assyria, and Ara, king +of Armenia, is told. [11] Ara was very beautiful, and Semiramis having +heard speech of his beauty for many years, wished to possess him. But +she dared do nothing for fear of Ninus, protector over Armenia. After +the death of Ninus, however, the queen sent messengers to Ara, with +gifts and offerings, with prayers and promises of riches, begging +him to come to her at Nineveh and either wed her and reign over all +that Ninus had possessed, or fulfill her desire and return in peace to +Armenia with many gifts. But when the messengers had been turned away +repeatedly, Semiramis became angry, and taking her army she hastened +to Armenia. The battle was fought on the plain of Ara, called after +him Ararat; and although the queen had given careful orders to her +generals to devise some means of saving the life of Ara, the Armenian +king was slain. She found the dead body among the others that had +fallen, and ordered her servants to place it in an upper chamber in +her castle. And when the Armenian army again arose to drive away the +foe and avenge the death of Ara, the queen said, "I have commanded +the gods to lick his wounds and he shall live again." She tried to +bring Ara back to life by witchcraft and charms, but the body began to +decay and she commanded her servants to cast the corpse into a deep +pit and to cover it. And having dressed up one of her men in secret, +she caused the following proclamation to be spread among the people: +"The gods have licked Ara and have brought him back to life again, +thus fulfilling our prayers and our pleasures. Therefore from this +time forth shall they be the more glorified and worshipped by us, +for they are the givers of joy and the fulfillers of desire." And +she erected a statue to the gods, making it seem as though they had +brought Ara back to life again. This news was spread over all the +country of Armenia, and having satisfied the people, she put an end +to the fighting. The twelve-year-old son of the king was taken by the +Assyrian queen and appointed ruler over Armenia. She called him Ara, +in memory of her love for Ara the Beautiful. + +To Semiramis is attributed the building of the ancient city of +Van on the shores of the beautiful lake of Van, where she made +her summer residence until the time of her departure. [12] She +might well have lingered there, for the Armenians have a proverb, +"Van in this world, paradise in the next." Nevertheless, Semiramis +and Ara are mythical characters, although the latter is spoken of in +the history of St. Martin as having lived along about 1769 B.C. [13] +As regards the popular belief in the legend, however, there is not +the slightest doubt. This is proved by the fact that even to-day the +city is called "Sham-iram-agerd" by the Armenians, meaning the city +of Semiramis. Lynch says that Ara and Semiramis are Tannuz and Istar, +the Adonis and the Aphrodite of the Hellenic myth, and that the quest +of the Assyrian queen may be connected with the introduction into +Armenia of the worship of Istar whose name is mentioned in one of the +cuneiform inscriptions at Van. [14] However, the results of modern +scholarship are by no means conclusive on this point, as we shall see. + + + + +SECTION 3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE LEGEND OF ARA AND SEMIRAMIS + +Moses' history was read by St. Martin who became exceedingly interested +in Van, and in the cuneiform inscriptions spoken of. It was due to +him that the French government dispatched a mission to Armenia in +1827, under the direction of a young German Professor, Friedrich +Edward Schulz. Schulz was murdered by the Kurds, a thing which +rarely happens in Armenia, and his work was left incomplete. He had +succeeded, however, in making copies of forty-two inscriptions, which +were published in 1840, and proved to be remarkably accurate. Shortly +afterward, orientalists made great discoveries in the Mesopotamian +valley, but the inscriptions at Van did not tally with any syllabaries +discovered up to that time, nor could they be translated in any known +language. A number of them were found to be Assyrian, but the great +majority were peculiar to Van, and entirely baffled the students. Not +until 1880 were they finally unravelled. M. S. Guyard discovered at +that time that the concluding phrase of many Vannic texts represented +an imprecatory formula found in exactly the same place in Assyrian +counterparts. This discovery enabled Professor Sayce, of Oxford, +to decipher the inscriptions at a rapid rate. + +Among the important facts discovered were that the nation was a +rival nation of Assyria, and that its people were called Khaldeans, +or children of Khaldis, much in the same way as the Assyrians reflected +the name of their god, Assur. The country was a theocracy and Khaldis +was supreme. In the tablets, his wrath was invoked against whomever +should destroy them. The capital city was Dhuspus, modern Van, which +is the Disp, or Tsp of Armenian writers, and the Turuspa of Assyrian +annals. The Assyrians styled the kingdom Urardhu, or Urarthu, which +is the name appearing in the Bible in the familiar form Ararat. + +The earliest inscriptions date back to the ninth century before +Christ, and as the language is neither Semitic nor Indo-European, +the people could neither have been Assyrians whose language was +Semitic, nor Armenians, whose language is Indo-European. The first +mention made of Urardhu was in the reign of Ashur-Nazir-Pal (885-860 +B.C.) whose successor, Shalmanasar II (860-825 B.C.) was the first +Assyrian king to invade Armenia. [15] Raffi, however, (the son of the +famous Armenian poet) speaks of an account given by Assur-Nazir-Haban +(1882-1857 B.C.) of one of his victories. "They" (i.e., the people +of Ararat or Urarthu), he said, "fled to the impregnable mountains +so that I might not be able to get at them, for the mighty summits +were like drawn swords pointing to the skies. Only the birds of +heaven soaring on their wings could reach them. In three days I was +there spreading terror in places where they had taken refuge. Their +corpses like autumn leaves filled the clefts. The rest escaped to +distant inaccessible heights." [16] This, clearly, is a much older +record than any that Lynch found trace of, and although Raffi cites no +authority for the quotation, I presume that it has been taken from a +recent discovery. If this be true the Khaldeans were a very ancient +people. One of the tablets shows that King Memas was the principal +author of the magnificent canal which conducts the water of the river +Khoshab to the suburbs of Van, and which is to-day called "Shamiram-Su" +or river of Semiramis. [17] The line of Vannic kings is traceable as +far down as 644 B.C. + +Most of these inscriptions are to be found on a huge isolated rock, +situated in the curve of the bay, and known as the "rock of Van." [18] +Among them are inscriptions left by Xerxes (485 B.C.), the Persian +conqueror whose father's empire (Darius, 521-486 B.C.) succeeded the +loose Scythian rule. + +But the ancient Khaldean kingdom had already vanished when Xerxes' +victorious army overran the country, for shortly after the great influx +of Scythians and the break-up of Assyria, came another horde from the +west, perhaps to fill up the void left by the Scythian ravages. It is +at this time that the Armenian people are first heard from, and it is +this horde, therefore, that is regarded as the foundation stock of +the Armenian people. They seem to have been an Indo-European people +residing in the territory north of the Black Sea, for, coming from +the west they must have entered Asia from Europe by crossing the +straits. The ancient Khaldeans were assimilated to some extent, +but for the most part, they were driven to the north and south, +where they have left traces that have been recognized and recorded +by Xenophon and Herodotus. [19] + +That the civilization and culture of the ancient Khaldeans were +utilized is beyond doubt. Their most ancient cities, Van, Armavir, +were foundations of Vannic kings, while recently it has been disclosed +that the city of Hajk, southeast of Van, shows some of the familiar +features of a Khaldean settlement. But their supreme god during the +pre-Christian era was not Khaldis, but the Persian Ormuzd, which +indicates that the Persians exercised an even greater influence. + +How then could Semiramis ever have come to Van in quest of an Armenian +king, since it seems that the Scythians had already conquered Assyria +before the great influx of Armenian hordes? Nor does it seem that the +city of Van was built by the Assyrian queen, for the inscriptions +make no mention of her name. King Memas who, in the view of Lynch, +constructed the famous canal, was in all probability the author of +the garden city. The belief, according to Lynch, as already stated, +is that this legend is the Armenian version of the old Hellenic myth of +Aphrodite and Adonis, taken over during the domination of the Seleucid +dynasty which followed the conquest of Alexander about 325 B.C. [20] + +But this is unreasonable. That a myth should be taken over by a subject +people and the characters rechristened is not difficult to understand, +but that the name of one of them should be applied to the ancient +city is very improbable to say the least. Furthermore, the legend is +flavored rather strongly with Persian voluptuousness, and is not at +all suggestive of Greek delicacy and refinement. Nor is the fact that +the horde overran the country after the destruction of Assyria in any +way conclusive, for if there were any assimilation at all, as there +must unquestionably have been, the Khaldean culture and history was to +that extent the actual possession of the Armenians. Even intermarriage +would perhaps be unnecessary, for what Irishman who has been in the +United States two months does not speak of Benjamin Franklin and George +Washington as his forefathers? It is to be noted also that to this day +the canal spoken of is called "Shamiram-Su" or river of Semiramis, by +all Armenians. [21] On the whole it seems to me conclusive, therefore, +that the legend of Semiramis and Ara has its roots in Armenian history, +and is not at all a version of the Hellenic myth. + + + + +SECTION 4. THE LEGEND OF VAHAKN + +The legend of Vahakn, king and god of Armenians, is very clearly +attributable to the Greek period, which followed the Persian conquest +under Xerxes. Vahakn was deified because of his great valor and made +the fire-god of the Armenian people. [22] He was called "Vishapakagh," +uprooter of dragons, since he cleared Armenia of monsters and saved +it from evil influences. His exploits were known in the abode of the +gods as well as in Armenia. The most famous of them was the theft of +corn from the barns of King Barsham of Assyria, from whom he ran away +and tried to hide in heaven. Because of the ears he dropped in his +rapid flight, there arose the Milky Way which is called in Armenian +the "track of the corn stealer." [23] + +Moses of Khorene writes as follows: + + + Concerning the birth of this king the legends say, + + + "Heaven and earth were in travail, + And the crimson waters were in travail, + And in the water, the crimson reed + Was also in travail. + From the mouth of the reed issued smoke, + From the mouth of the reed issued flame, + And out of the flame sprang the young child, + His hair was of fire, a beard had he of flame, + And his eyes were suns." [24] + + + With our own ears did we hear these words sung to the accompaniment + of the harp. They sing moreover that he did fight with the dragons, + and overcame them; and some say that his valiant deeds were like + unto Hercules. Others declare that he was a god, and that a great + image of him stood in the land of Georgia, where it was worshipped, + with sacrifices. [25] + + +The wife of Vahakn was Astghik, the goddess of beauty, a +personification of the moon, corresponding to the Phoenician and +Sidonian Astarte. This is suggestive of Greek influence, for Venus, the +Greek goddess of beauty, was also the wife of a fire-god, Vulcan. [26] + +The flight of Vahakn before the Assyrian king is certainly more +suggestive of the fear in which the Assyrians must have been regarded +than of the valor of their god. The originators of the legend were +good psychologists, however, in regarding the instincts of fear and +of pugnacity as compatible. For even the slayer of demons must some +day face his superiors in strength, and when he does, will he not be +afraid? In fact he would be more afraid than another, for he could +not well impute more mercy to his superior than he himself had shown +to his inferiors. + +The vein of humor is too rich to be left unnoted. If the Greeks could +laugh at their gods, and even mock them, the Armenians could also +make sport of them. For what could be more delightfully humorous than +the picture of a bearded god, a slayer of dragons, whose hair was +of flame and whose eyes like suns, stealing corn from the Assyrian +king and dropping the ears from his shoulders in his hasty flight +across heaven? The character thus brought out, together with the +richness of imaginative quality, especially in the song of his birth, +the wholesome and unveiled anthropomorphism (wholesome because it is +unveiled), and the correspondence between the Greek fire-god Vulcan +whose wife was Venus, the goddess of beauty, with the fire-god Vahakn +whose wife Astghik was also goddess of beauty, stamp the legend with +its unmistakable origin in Greek mythology. + + + + +SECTION 5. THE HISTORIC BACKGROUND OF THE LEGEND OF VAHAKN + +The Greek period from which this legend dates began with the defeat +of the Armenian king Vahy, who was overcome by Alexander the Great +somewhere about 328 B.C. [27] The Greeks chose their own representative +to rule over the province, who at the time of Alexander's death was +Seleucus. Historians have taken the name of this governor to indicate +the dynasty of Greek supremacy which followed; i.e., the Seleucid +dynasty. This method of the Greeks of selecting their own man to +govern a subject people, which was of course in pursuance of their +policy of superimposing their own culture upon all subject nations, +was contrary to the policy of the Parthians, Romans, and Persians, +who allowed the Armenians to maintain their national independence +provided they permitted the use of their armies and duly paid their +taxes. And it is this policy of the Greeks that accounts for the fact +that large portions of Greek mythology and religion were taken over +by the Armenians. + +Although the period of political supremacy was short-lived, the +influence of Greek culture continued to permeate the social life +of the people through the reign of the Arsacid kings. [28] In 246 +B.C. Arsaces, a Parthian, made himself master of the Parthians, +Persians, Medes, Babylonians, and lastly Armenians. [29] His grandson, +Arsaces the Great, conquered as far as India, and after seating himself +securely upon the throne of Persia, placed his brother Valarsace upon +the Armenian throne, so founding the Persian and Armenian Arsacid +dynasties (150 B.C.). [30] The Persian Arsacidae became extinct in +A.D. 226 when they were overthrown by the Persian Sasanidae, whereas +the Armenian Arsacidae line continued up until A.D. 428, when the +Armenian kingdom was divided between Persia and Rome by Shapuh, +the Persian monarch, and Theodosius II. [31] This makes a period +of 578 years (150 B.C.-A.D. 428) during which Armenia was governed +by her own line of kings, and enjoyed the liberties of national +independence. To be sure after the conquest of Lucullus and Pompey +(66 B.C.) Armenia became tributary to Rome, but the right of succession +remained with the Armenian royal family, even during Roman supremacy, +so that the national life was in no manner interfered with. [32] The +greatest Armenian king of the Arsacidae line was Tigranes the Great, +who extended his domains by conquest and established himself in his +capital, Tigranacerta, with a court of matchless splendor. [33] He +is spoken of by historians as a king of kings, and as having ruled +with a pomp, splendor, and pride never before known. Defeated by +Pompey within the walls of his own capital city, his kingdom became +tributary to Rome. + + + + +SECTION 6. THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION + +The continuity of the period of the Armenian Arsacidae makes it the +time when the process of national solidification and unification was +carried out to the point that made Armenia a nation, and beyond this +point. Raffi asserts that the introduction of Greek culture during +the Arsacid dynasty not only changed the religion of Armenians, +but also so affected their language and customs that they became +different from the Persians, which is proof that a process of social +readjustment was going on. [34] It was during this period that the +wandering minstrels spoken of by Langlois journeyed from one end of +the nation to the other, singing their songs, repeating the national +legends, relating the news of the world and the court gossip which +probably made up the largest portion of it. + + + Les chants de l'antique Armenie rappellent principalement des + evenements la plupart heroiques et legendaires, accomplis a des + epoques tres differentes, ce qui donne a penser qu'ils ont du etre + composes a diverses reprises, par des rhapsodes dont les noms + ne nous sont point parvenus. Les sujets traites dans ces chants + demontrent clairement qu'ils n'ont ete inspires ni a des pretres + paiens, ni a des poetes qui auraient vecu sous leur influence, + en vue d'etre recites dans des fetes religieuses ou en face des + autels. Au contraire, on reconnait de prime abord que ces chants + sont l'oeuvre de bardes nationaux, ayant un libre acces dans les + palais des souverains et a la cour des satrapes. C'est ce qui + fait supposer que ces poemes sont peutetre dus a des menestrels, + a la solde des rois et des nobles et ayant pour emploi de celebrer + leurs vertus et leurs prouesses. [35] + + +This is putting the case conservatively, for Moses speaks often of +"les chantres" and "les chants." They traveled as far as Persia and +returned, for it is related by the Italian Countess Evelyn Martinengo +how a wandering minstrel, who had just returned from that country, +was entertained by an Armenian patriarchal family living in the +kind of underground habitation described in the beginning of this +thesis. [36] No one was ever more welcome than the minstrel. He was +assigned to the guest chamber usually prepared especially for him, +and always the best chamber in the household. His head and feet were +washed for him by the wife of the patriarch, and at meal time all the +delicacies of the household were spread before him. All guests were +welcome, but no guest more welcome than the minstrel. They must have +listened to his tales in a kind of petrified awe, and heard him sing +his songs in speechless enjoyment. + +It was a practice among the minstrels of the time to compete with +each other in public, and it is related how two minstrels entertained +by a Persian prince were led out upon an open grass plot and seated, +one facing the other. Five thousand people made a circle around the +competitors while the rivals contended in song and verse, riddle +and repartee. Each began where the other left off, until finally one +failed to perceive the drift of his adversary, and answering at random, +the spectators proclaimed him beaten. The triumphant bard was led to +the vanquished, whose lyre was taken from him and broken. Robed in +a prince's mantle, the victor was taken to the highest seat in the +banquet hall. + +That the people were the judges of the contest, indicates how well +they must have been acquainted with the current folk-songs, legends, +and tradition. How generally and frequently the custom of minstrel +competition was practiced throughout Armenia is not known, but it +certainly is proof, besides Moses' own statements to the same effect, +that the national legends and folk-songs were the possession of the +common people. And what is more important, this same body of legends, +folk-songs, and tradition did more than any other one thing to weld +the sentiments of the people into a single national sentiment, which +crystallized into a real patriotism, a real loyalty and devotion +to any cause that was a national cause, because it was the natural, +spontaneous expression of the life and thought of the people, and no +mean, artificial thing superimposed from outside. [37] + +There are other reasons for giving this period the social importance +that I have ascribed to it. The conversion of the people to +Christianity about the third century after Christ was achieved in +no sentimental fashion, but, as I believe, in a manner in which it +alone could have been done, namely, at the point of the sword of their +own king, Tiridates, who was converted from paganism to Christianity +by Gregory the Illuminator. The traditions in connection with this +important event will be told later. Suffice it to say at this point +that the whole process of conversion was carried out so thoroughly +and completely, that it may be described as a national volte-face, +and therefore did not result in the disintegration, civil strife, +and social chaos that would unquestionably have been the result +had the process been carried out by means of peaceful penetration +and propaganda. + +The third and last argument in support of the social and national +importance of the period of the Arsacid kings is in respect to the +alphabet which was compiled by St. Mesrob Maschtotz. St. Mesrob was +a former secretary of the king, and desired to extirpate the last +remnants of paganism in the province of Akoulis, but in the absence of +an alphabet he was unable to carry out any scheme of propaganda. He +therefore besought the king, Vramschapouh, to put an end to this +state of things and the latter, in response to the request, placed +all available material at the disposal of the saint. The task was +accomplished in 404, somewhat at the expense of the future devotees +of the language, for the alphabet contains thirty-eight letters. [38] +Nevertheless, most of the sounds of foreign languages were represented, +making it particularly useful as a foundation language for other +languages. St. Mesrob, with a body of translators trained by himself +and St. Sahak, then proceeded to the translation of the Bible, +which was not completed until 433. Liturgies and song-books quickly +followed. To be sure the effect of the invention of the alphabet and +the distribution of the various religious publications that followed +were not felt during the period of the Arsacidae, for the Bible was +not published until after the break-up of the kingdom in 428, when it +was divided between Persia and Rome. But the important point is that +the time had come when the need for an alphabet was making itself very +strongly felt, and this could not have been true of a diversified, +heterogeneous population. + +For the three reasons above mentioned, i.e., first, the work of +minstrels, second, the Christianizing of the nation, and third, +the invention of the alphabet, all occurring during the successive +reigns of the Arsacid kings, I should ascribe to this period (150 +B.C.-A.D. 428) the integration of the Armenian people into a national +unit. [39] Christianity must have come as a disrupting force, as a +terrible shock, necessitating a complete social readjustment, but the +fact that the readjustment was made shows that the people were ready +for it. For better or for worse the yoke of Christianity was fastened +to the neck of the people, and with it they had to replow the social +soil. The job was a good one, for the Armenian church has been the +chief power during the last ten or fifteen centuries in keeping alive +the streams of national life, and in holding the people together in +the face of invasion and repeated attempts at proselytization by the +Persians and by the Greek and Roman Catholic churches. + + + + +SECTION 7. LEGENDS OF ARTASCHES AND ARTAVASD + +The legends of Artasches and Satenik, and of Artavasd, the son of +Artasches, belong to the Arsacid period, for Artavasd and Artasches +are Armenian kings of the Arsacid dynasty, according to Moses. [40] +The Alans who, according to the legend, were a neighboring people +residing in the mountain region in the vicinity of Georgia, spread +themselves over Armenia while Artasches, the Armenian king, collected +a great army and forced the Alans to retreat across the river Kur +where they pitched camp. The son of the Alan king was taken captive +and brought to Artasches, which forced the former to seek peace on +whatever terms the Armenian king might wish, provided only his son +was returned in safety. But Artasches refused, whereupon the sister +of the captured boy came to the river bank, and standing upon a great +rock spoke to the camp of Artasches by means of interpreters saying: +"Oh brave Artasches, who hast vanquished the great nation of Alans, +unto thee I speak. Come, hearken unto the bright-eyed daughter of +the Alan king and give back the youth. For it is not the way of +heroes to destroy life at the root, nor for the sake of humbling +and enslaving a hostage to establish everlasting enmity between two +great nations." [41] Artasches, having heard of these sayings went +to the river bank and having seen that the girl was beautiful, +and listened to her words of wisdom, wished to marry her. His +chamberlain considered it a wise stroke of policy, and therefore +went to the Alan king, soliciting the hand of the princess for his +master, whose oaths and assurances of peace he vouched for, together +with the promise to return the boy. The king of the Alans answered, +"From whence shall brave Artasches give thousands upon thousands, +and ten thousands upon tens of thousands in return for the maiden?" + +Writes Moses: + + Concerning this, the poets of that land sing in their songs: + + + "Brave King Artasches + Mounted his fine black charger, + And took the red leathern cord + With the golden ring. + Like a swift winged eagle + He passed over the river + And cast the golden ring + Round the waist of the Alan Princess; + Causing much pain to the tender maiden + As he bore her swiftly back to his camp." + + + Which being interpreted meaneth that he was commanded to give + much gold, leather, and crimson dye in exchange for the maiden. So + also they sing of the wedding: + + + "It rained showers of gold when Artasches became a bridegroom, + It rained pearls when Satenik became a bride." + + + For it was the custom of our kings to scatter coins amongst the + people when they arrived at the doors of the temple for their + wedding, as also for the queens to scatter pearls in their + bride-chamber. [42] + + +The couplet quoted is still sung by the Armenians, and it is still +customary for the bridegroom to scatter money on his way to the +church, and though it may be for queens to scatter pearls, the +Armenian bride is not to be outdone. She is given a partly opened +pomegranate which she throws at the door of the bridegroom upon the +arrival at the bridegroom's home after the ceremony at the church, +the bits of pomegranate scattering themselves about as pearls. + +After fifty-one years of a very prosperous reign, Artasches, who was +very much beloved by his people, died. The funeral procession was a +most magnificent one, and many of the people killed themselves, out +of love for their dead king, according to the custom of the time. And +when the body was laid in the grave they threw precious jewels, gold, +and silver after it. Nor did the lamenting and suicide stop after +his burial, for upon the grave of their dead king the nobles and +the people continued to kill themselves. So great was the slaughter +that Artavasd, son of Artasches, and king after his father's death, +addressed the spirit of his dead father, saying, "Behold, thou art +taking all with thee; dost thou leave me to rule over ruins and the +dead?" The words given by Moses of Khorene are: "Now that thou art +gone, and hast taken with thee the whole land, how shall I reign over +the ruins?" [43] Whereupon the spirit of Artasches cursed him and said, + + + "When thou ridest forth to hunt + Over the free heights of Ararat, + The strong ones shall have thee, + And shall take thee up + On to the free heights of Ararat. + There shalt thou abide, + And never more see the light." [44] + + +These words together with those of Artavasd spoken to his father's +spirit were sung by the singers of the time. [45] + +One day while out hunting Artavasd was seized by some visionary terror +and lost his reason. Urging his horse down a steep bank he fell into +a chasm where he sank and disappeared. Old women told how he was +confined in a cavern and bound with iron chains which his two dogs +gnawed at daily in order to set him free. But somehow at the sound +of the hammers striking on the anvils, the chains were continually +strengthened, and it was customary among the blacksmiths of the time +to strike the anvil three or four times to strengthen, as they said, +the chains of Artavasd. And so the tradition was kept up by singers and +blacksmiths; the blacksmiths and old women having consigned the jealous +king to the world's nethermost regions, while the singers left him +to the solitude of Ararat in accordance with the curse of Artasches. + + + + +SECTION 8. CONCLUSIONS + +Such are the ancient legends of Armenia, in their respective historical +settings: the legends of Haic, of Semiramis and Ara, of Vahakn, +of Artasches and Satenik, and of Artavasd. All of them antedate the +Christian era, and some of them by many centuries. Each one of them +is told by Moses of Khorene. But as to origin and probable historic +roots Moses was silent, for he was writing a history. He constantly +laments the absolute dearth of material and sources and begins his +accounts of these legends with the words "This is as it is told," +or "the singers say," indicating that his only sources for them +were the songs and reports current among the people during his own +time. The legends of Haic and of Semiramis and Ara are told by Moses +as though he believed them historic fact, but of course Moses had no +materials to serve as a basis of criticism. He is careful to quote +Mar Apas Catina as his only source for this material. The other three +legends are regarded as such. Artavasd is spoken of as an historical +king who lost his reason while riding horseback and fell into a deep +chasm. The practice of suicide at the death of Artasches, his father, +was a pagan custom. The curse of the spirit of the dead father, the +chains, the dogs, and the anvils were of course recognized as the work +of ingenious fancy. In view therefore, of the questionable character +of Moses' sources these legends have very little historic value. They +do, however, have a high social value inasmuch as the common knowledge +of them among the people was the only ultimate source at the disposal +of the historian. + +The second conclusion is that these legends formed a very important +part of the larger mass of tradition and songs that served to cement +the people into a nation. Just how important, it would be difficult +to say, but the fact that they were current at the time Moses wrote +indicates that they were current and passed on from generation to +generation during the whole period of the Arsacidae kings. And as +the people had no alphabet during this whole period, they must have +been passed on by song and word of mouth. This was a time of special +activity on the part of the minstrels and singers, and therefore +the development of the national consciousness characteristic of the +period must have been brought about in a large measure through the +medium of these legendary beliefs. + +Furthermore these legends are known by the Armenian people to-day +and are taught in the schools that are not too severely under the +rules of Turkish and Russian censorship. Naturally enough, they are +a source of great pride since they breathe national independence and +loyalty. But of course, the Turks and Russians have suppressed all +public singing of songs, and public teaching of history and legend +that may possibly be construed as partaking of the national spirit. + +It may be argued that these legends slumbered between the covers +of Moses' history during the centuries known as the dark ages, and +that they had no social value until the contagion of the European +spirit of the Renaissance awoke the legends and the people at +the same time. But the mere dearth of record is no proof of this +Rip Van Winkle theory. There is at least one reliable authority +sufficient to disprove it, viz., Grigor Magistros, a scholar of the +eleventh century who wrote that he heard the Artasches epic sung +by minstrels. [46] Besides the unreasonableness of the supposition, +there is the added fact of an independent Armenian kingdom known as +the Bagradouni dynasty, whose capital seat was at the famous city +of Ani. This kingdom included greater Armenia and continued from +A.D. 887 to 1079. [47] But 1079 does not mark the end of Armenian +independence though it marks the destruction of Ani, for Reuben, +a member of the royal family, made his way into Cilicia in the year +1080, and rallying a handful of Armenians about him, overpowered the +Greeks and founded what is known as the Rupenian Kingdom of Cilicia, +which continued during a period of 300 years. So that here again is a +period of very nearly five hundred years (889-1380), during which time +the Armenian people enjoyed national political independence. [48] And +this during the very period of the dark ages, about which we know so +little! We could not, therefore, for a moment suppose the traditions +and legends to have had no social importance during these centuries, +for such an assumption would be in flat contradiction to the witness +of Grigor Magistros, and to the facts of Armenian history. + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER III + +LEGENDS OF THE CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY + + +SECTION 1. PRE-CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION + +The second body of legends which I wish to consider is +chiefly concerned with the introduction of Christianity into the +country. These, together with the traditional beliefs centered about +the chief geographical feature of the land, Mt. Ararat, constitute +a group bearing a very distinct religious stamp. For this reason, +and also because they have a later origin, they are to be marked +off very distinctly from those already taken up. In view of their +religious bearing I shall introduce them with a brief account of the +various forms of pagan worship that preceded the Christianization of +the people. + +The chief religious influences have been the Assyrian, the Persian, +and the Greek. It seems, however, that a kind of monotheism prevailed +before the gods of any of these were taken over. The very ancient +Armenian kings planted groves of poplars around their cities and the +worship was carried on in these groves. [49] An altar was placed among +the trees, where the first male descendant of the royal family (and +perhaps other families) offered sacrifices to the one God, while the +priests derived oracles from the rustling of the leaves. Even now the +poplar groves are held in uncommon regard. This is a survival of the +old belief that they were the dwelling place of God, and of the later +practice of consecrating children in them. The belief that God dwelt +among the leaves must have been suggested by the slightest trembling +of the leaves, even at the gentlest breeze, and one can well imagine +the people looking up at them in the impressive silence of the forest +with an awe and wonder no other environment could possibly induce. The +Armenian for poplar, "Sossi" is used to-day as a name for girls, and +the poplar tree, although not held sacred by Armenian people to-day, +is certainly regarded with great reverence. [50] + +The influence of Persian worship is more clear. Aramazd, the architect +of the universe, lord and creator of all things, was the chief +Armenian god, and is unquestionably the Persian Ormuzd named in the +inscription of Xerxes on the rock of Van. Armenians have given him +the title of "father of the gods," and the qualifications "great, +and strong, creator of heaven and earth, and god of fertility and +of abundance." The Greeks identified him with Zeus. [51] There were +numerous sanctuaries erected in his honor, and at the annual festival +celebrated in his name, white animals, especially goats, horses, +and mules, were sacrificed and their blood used to fill silver and +golden goblets. [52] Tir, or "Grogh" meaning in Armenian "to write" +was his attendant spirit, whose chief business it was to watch over +mankind, recording their good and evil deeds. [53] Upon the death of a +person "Grogh" conducted the soul of the departed before his master, +who opened the great book, and balancing the good and evil deeds, +assigned a reward or punishment. Grogh is also the personification +of hope and fear, and the expression "may Grogh take you" is still +very commonly used among the people, especially by servant girls +and those whose language has not undergone the purification of a +season of "Sturm und Drang." It is interesting to note that this +and some other expressions owe their survival to usage among women +rather than among men, which is not difficult of explanation when one +considers the social restrictions that women are generally subject +to. "Viele Seiten des alten heidnischen Glaubens sind in dem heutigen +Volksglauben, besonders bei den tiefer stehenden Volksschichten, bei +alten Bauerinnen, als ueberbleibsel der Vergangenheit erhalten." [54] + +The god Mihr represented fire, and was the son of Aramazd. [55] +He guided heroes in battle, and was commemorated by a festival held +in the beginning of spring. Fires were kindled in the open market +place in his honor, and a lantern lit from one of these fires was +kept burning in his temple throughout the year. [56] It is still a +festival among the people, although it has a different significance, +and will be described more in detail later on. This is practiced not +only by the Armenians, but also by the Syrian Maronites who reside +in the Lebanon. I have seen the mountainsides literally aglow with +a thousand fires in celebration of a Christian festival that has +its roots in the pagan ceremony in honor of Mihr. The practice of a +continually burning lantern was also carried over by some branches +of the Christian church. + +Both Persians and Armenians were worshippers of Mihr (fire-worship), +although there was a very distinct difference between the two. The +Armenian sacred fire was invisible, whereas the Persian was material +and kept up throughout the whole year. It is for this reason that +the Armenians called the Persians fire-worshippers. The only visible +fire-god worshipped by the Armenians was the sun, to which temples +were dedicated, and after which the Armenian calendar month "Areg" was +named. [57] The "Children of the Sun" as they were called, offered the +most persistent opposition to the introduction of Christianity, and a +community of them continued their worship in the face of persecution +after Christianity became the religion of the state. The phrase "let +me die for your sun," and the oath "let the sun of my son be witness," +are language survivals of this particular worship. + +The Greek worship, introduced first during the Seleucid dynasty, and +emphasized and encouraged by the line of Arsacidae kings up to the +introduction of Christianity, exercised an even stronger influence +than the Persian. Many of the Greek divinities were rechristened +and adopted by the people. Chief of these was Anahit, "Mother of +Chastity," known also as the "Pure and Spotless Goddess," who was the +daughter of Aramazd, and corresponded to the Greek Artemid and the +Roman Diana. [58] She was also regarded as the benefactress of the +people. Writes Agathangelus: "Through her (Anahit) the Armenian land +exists; from her it draws its life, she is the glory of our nation and +its protectress." [59] Images and shrines were dedicated to her name +under the titles, "The Golden Mother," "The Being of Golden Birth." A +summer festival was celebrated in her honor at which a dove and a +rose were offered to her golden image. The day was called "Vartavar," +meaning "the flaming of the rose." The temples of Anahit and the golden +image were destroyed with the conversion of the people to Christianity, +but the festival has continued as a regular church festival under +the same name "Vartavar" though of course with a different meaning. + +The second and third daughters of Aramazd were Astghik, the goddess +of beauty, and Nane, or Noone, the goddess of contrivance. [60] The +former was the wife of Vahakn, the mythical king-god, the legend in +respect to whom has been told, and corresponded to the Phoenician +and Sidonian Astarte. It is stated by Raffi that the goddess of +contrivance was a necessary power to womankind, for then as now woman +had to make big things out of small. Sandaramet, the wife of Aramazd, +was an invisible goddess and personification of the earth. Her master +sent rain upon her, and brought forth vegetation. Later she became +the synonym for Hades. Perhaps the best summary of Armenian worship +as existing before the Christian time is that given by St. Martin. + + + La religion Armenienne etait probablement un melange des opinions + de Zoroastre, fort alteres par le cult des divinites grecques. On + voyait dans les temples de l'Armenie un grand nombre de statues + de divinites, auxquelles on faisait des sacrifices d'animaux, + ce qui ne se pratiquait point dans la religion de Zoroastre, qui, + a proprement parler, n'admettait pas l'existence d'autre divinite + que le temps sans bornes, appele Zerwan. [61] Les plus puissants + des dieux etaient Aramazd (Ormuzd), Anahid (Venus), Mihir (Mihr), + ou Mithra. On y adorait encore d'autres divinites inferieures. + + +Anahit, however, was goddess of chastity, and did not therefore +correspond to Venus. [62] + + + + +SECTION 2. LEGENDS OF ABGAR, THADDEUS, AND ST. BARTHOLOMEW + +The first connection that Armenians had with Christianity occurred +in the reign of King Abgar, whose capital was at Edessa (now Ourfa) +during the time of Christ's teaching in Palestine. [63] The story +is legendary and very popular. Abgar was called a great man because +of his exceeding meekness and wisdom. As the result of several +severe military campaigns, the health of the king began to give +way. This led to complications which developed into a very painful +disease. It was at this time that Abgar sent two of his messengers +to the Roman governor, Marinus, to show the Roman a treaty of peace +that had been made between Ardasches and his brother of Persia, who +had quarreled and had been reconciled by their kinsman Abgar; for the +Romans suspected that Abgar had gone to Persia in order to collect +and direct a Persian-Armenian army against the Romans. [64] To clear +himself of all suspicion, therefore, those two messengers were sent +to show the treaty of peace to the Roman governor. On their return +the messengers went up to Jerusalem in order to see Christ, having +heard of his wonderful deeds. And when they returned to their king, +Abgar, they told of the works of Christ, at which the king marveled, +and believed him to be the very Son of God. The king, because of his +sickness, sent Christ a letter asking him to come and heal him of +his disease. The letter is quoted as follows: + + + The letter of Abgarus to our Saviour Jesus Christ. "Abgarus, + a prince of the world, unto Jesus the Saviour and Benefactor, + who hast appeared in the City of Jerusalem, Greetings. + + "I have heard of thee, and of the healings wrought by thy hands, + without drugs and without roots; for it is said that thou givest + sight to the blind, thou makest the lame to walk, and thou cleanest + the lepers; thou curest those who have been long tormented by + diseases, and raisest even the dead. And when I heard all this + concerning thee, I thought that either thou art God come down from + heaven that workest these things, or the Son of God. I have written + unto thee, that thou shouldst trouble thyself to come unto me, + and heal me of my disease. I have heard also that the Jews murmur + against thee, and think to torture thee. My city is a small one, + but it is beautiful, and it is sufficient for us twain." [65] + + +The messengers delivered the message to Jesus in Jerusalem, to which +the gospel bears witness in the words, "There were some amongst the +heathen that came up to him." But Jesus could do no more than to send +a letter in reply. + + + The answer to the letter of Abgarus, written at the command of our + Saviour by the Apostle Thomas: "Blessed is he who believeth on me, + though he hath not seen me. For it is written concerning me thus: + 'they that have seen me believed not on me, but they that have not + seen me shall believe and live.' And concerning that which thou + hast written unto me to come down unto thee, it is needful that I + fulfill all that for which I was sent; and when I have fulfilled + it I will ascend unto Him that sent me. And after my ascension I + will send one of my disciples, who shall heal thee of thy disease, + and give life unto thee and unto all that are with thee." [66] + + +This letter was duly delivered to Abgar, with the image of the Saviour, +which was still kept in Edessa at the time of Moses' writing. The +legend concerning the image is somewhat as follows. One of the three +messengers sent to Jesus with the letter of Abgar was an artist who +was told to paint a portrait of Jesus in case the latter found it +impossible to take the journey. The artist tried in vain to paint a +good picture, and having noticed him, Jesus took a handkerchief and +passing it over his face a most exact likeness was stamped upon it, +which he gave to the artist to be given to the king. + +The quaint ending of Abgar's letter is worth the whole legend. What +could be simpler or more seductive than the invitation, "My city is +a small one, but it is beautiful, and it is sufficient for us twain." + +The tradition of the Armenian church, or the Gregorian church, as it +is more commonly called, acknowledges St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew +as the original founders, who are therefore designated as the first +illuminators of Armenia. [67] Concerning the recognition of the +tradition of St. Bartholomew, which includes his apostolic journeys, +his preaching, and his martyrdom in Armenia, all Christian churches +are unanimous. The name Albanus given as the place of his martyrdom, is +the same as the name Albacus, hallowed by the Armenian tradition. His +mission covered a period of sixteen years (A.D. 44-60). There is +difference of opinion, however, in regard to the dates. + +The traditions about St. Thaddeus vary. Some suppose him to have +been the brother of St. Thomas, and according to these, he traveled +to Ardaze by way of Edessa. There is an anachronism, however, +in this tradition which would transfer the mission of Thaddeus to +the second century. According to a second tradition he is not the +brother of Thomas, but one St. Judas Thaddeus, surnamed Lebbeus, who +also is said to have established a sanctuary of worship at Ardaze, +a circumstance admitted by the Greek and Latin churches. The Armenian +church places the time of this mission as a period of eight years +from 35-43. That this has been done to lay a strong foundation for +the claim of apostolic origin may be suspected, especially in view +of the belief that apostolic origin is essential to every Christian +church, in order, as stated by Ormanian, "to place her in union +with her Divine Founder." The church, however, has us at its mercy, +for conclusive evidence one way or another is lacking. Nevertheless, +the fact of Thaddeus' mission to Armenia wherever and whenever it +might have occurred, is undisputed. [68] + +The matter is not especially important except to theologians with +their doctrines of "apostolic origins." What is perfectly clear is +that both these men did their work in comparative silence, and that +they did not make very much headway, for if they had there would +have been less doubt concerning the traditions. The great work +was done by King Tiridates, and Gregory, who converted him about +A.D. 301. The traditions concerning these men are among the most +cherished possessions of the Armenian church. + + + + +SECTION 3. LEGENDS OF RHIPSIME AND GREGORY + +These traditions have their historical setting in the reign of +Tiridates, and of Chosroes the father of Tiridates. [69] Just as +there was an Arsacid dynasty in Armenia, dating and originating in +the Parthian conquests and supremacy, so also was there an Arsacid +dynasty of Persia. The Persian king at the time of Chosroes was a +kinsman of the latter, called Ardavan, who was overthrown (A.D. 227) +by a Persian prince of the province of Fars, named Ardashir. [70] +His dynasty, a very powerful one, known as the Sassanid dynasty, +supplanted the Arsacid dynasty of Persia. Chosroes of Armenia, +fearing future difficulty with the new Persian monarch, ardently +supported his dethroned kinsman. The next year (228), therefore, +he led a huge army beyond the frontiers of Persia, and laid waste +her provinces to the gates of Ctesiphon. [71] The war was continued +for ten years, during which time the Armenian capital, Vagharshapat, +was filled with the booty of successful raids. The reigning Caesar, +Severus, also alarmed by the success of the new Persian king, +headed a Roman army against Ardashir. Realizing the jeopardy of his +position, the Persian resolved to put Chosroes out of the way by +whatever means possible. A Parthian of the royal blood, Anak by name, +consented to execute his king's desire, and went with his family to +Vagharshapat as a refugee. A friendship sprang up between himself and +his future victim, enabling him to execute his purpose, which he did +in company with his brother while preparation was being made for a +spring campaign. But the murderers were cut off in their escape by +Armenian horsemen and precipitated into the Araxes, while the dying +king gave orders to massacre the family of Anak. Only two of the +children were rescued, one of whom was Gregory, the Illuminator, +founder of the Armenian national church, called also the Gregorian +church. The child Gregory was taken to Cesarea where he was educated +in the tenets of Christianity. [72] + +Ardashir died shortly after the murder of his foe, and thus failed +to follow up his advantage except for a few raids into Armenian +territory. Tiridates, a child at this time, was the oldest son of +Chosroes, and as heir to the Armenian throne was the chief obstacle in +the way of the ambitions of his uncles, whose treatment of the young +king compelled him to take refuge in Rome where he was educated. [73] +Having distinguished himself by personal bravery in a Gothic campaign, +his nation's dominions were restored to him by the support of a +Roman army, for during his absence Armenia was invaded by Shapur, +the successor of Ardashir. The Persian king had taken advantage of the +disputes of Tiridates' uncles. The remainder of the story is legendary. + +Gregory had been informed in the meantime of his father's deed, +and seeking to make such amends for it as he could, he journeyed +to Rome, where he attached himself as a servant to the exiled king, +Tiridates. The latter, after his victory over the Persians and his +re-accession to the Armenian throne, entered the temple of Anahit +in company with his faithful servant Gregory, to offer sacrifices of +thanksgiving. A feast followed the ceremony, at which many guests were +present, and Tiridates, who must have known of Gregory's attachment to +Christianity, commanded the latter to make an offering of garlands to +the great goddess. Gregory refused. The king was angry. "How dare you," +exclaimed the king, "adore a god whom I do not adore?" Persuasion +and finally torture were used to coerce the pious and firm-minded +youth, but to no avail. In the meantime, Tiridates had been informed +as to Gregory's identity, i.e., that he was the son of his father's +murderer, whereupon the king commanded that Gregory be cast into a +deep pit where he was left to perish. [74] + +For thirteen years Gregory languished in his well, and was only +saved from death by the ministrations of a widow who resided in the +castle of Artaxata just by the pit. This was done in great secret, +for Tiridates had issued an edict which admonished his subjects to +beware of the resentment of the gods, of Aramazd, Anahit, and Vahakn, +and following the practice of the Romans, to lay hands on all offenders +against the gods, chief of whom, evidently, were the Christians. They +were to be bound hand and foot, brought before the gate of the palace, +and if found guilty their lands and chattels were assigned to their +accusers. [75] + +While Christians were being robbed, and Gregory was slowly perishing +of misery in his prison well, there arrived at Vagharshapat a Roman +virgin of exquisite beauty, named Rhipsime, in company with her nurse +Gaiane, and thirty-three followers who were also virgins. They had fled +from the Emperor Diocletian, who had selected Rhipsime for his spouse, +after a most careful search of his kingdom for the most beautiful of +women. [76] Rhipsime, unfortunately had taken a vow of chastity, and +there was nothing to do but to flee. Meanwhile an ambassador from Rome +arrived at the court of the Armenian king bearing a letter in which +Tiridates was informed of the flight of the virgin to his land, and +bidden to discover the refugees, to send Rhipsime to Rome, and to kill +her companions. The emperor added, however, in truly generous fashion, +that he might himself marry her if he was overcome by her charms. + +The band was found, Rhipsime was recognized, and the king sent an +escort of litters to bring them to his court. As Diocletian suspected, +the Armenian king also fell in love, for the maiden, having refused +the pomp of a royal equipage, was forced to appear before him +in court. The Armenian's suit was likewise a failure. Rhipsime +would marry, provided he became Christian, which the king took as +mockery. Again the girl succeeded in escaping, but she was tracked, +overtaken with her companions, bound with cords, and put to death with +great cruelty. Both Rhipsime and her nurse Gaiane are commemorated on +the calendar of saints, and at Etchmiadzin, the religious center of +the nation, there are three edifices; the largest and most important +bears the name of St. Gregory, while the other two respectively bear +the names of the two saints, Rhipsime and Gaiane. + +Agathangelus relates the legend in his Histoire du Regne de Tiridate +but unfortunately the book has been tampered with and now contains much +questionable material. [77] There are mentioned ominous thunderclaps, +openings of heaven, divine voices exhorting Rhipsime to stand firm +in her faith, and the transformation of Tiridates into a grass-eating +boar which was the punishment for his great crime. The sister of the +king, Khosrovitukht, had a vision, in which she was told that the only +remedy was to send for a prisoner named Gregory, who had been cast +into a well some thirteen years before. A rope was let down into the +cavern, and to the astonishment of all, there emerged a human form, +blackened to the color of coal. It was none other than Gregory. He also +saw visions and heard divine voices speak through curious openings in +heaven. Strange columns of fire and flaming crosses of light appeared +to him in the places where Rhipsime and Gaiane suffered martyrdom; +and there appeared a great deal more to him which is recorded, even as +there must have appeared yet more which is not recorded. The result of +all of this was that Gregory ordered the construction of two chapels, +one to be erected in honor of Rhipsime, the other in memory of Gaiane, +both of which are still standing in Etchmiadzin. Etchmiadzin means, +"the place where the Only-Begotten descended" for it was at this +place that Gregory beheld his miraculous vision. Having prayed for +the healing of the king, the horns fell from the royal head, and +Tiridates, now a Christian, shared in the work of constructing the +chapels. [78] He ascended Ararat and returned with huge blocks of +stone which he laid at the portals of the chapels in expiation of his +sin. It was customary among Armenians to place huge blocks of stone +at the entrance of a church by way of offering. Dubois de Montpereux +saw a number of such stones, six or seven feet high, in front of the +cathedral at Etchmiadzin, but Lynch found no trace of them. [79] + +Such are the legends of Gregory and of Tiridates' conversion to +Christianity. In all justice, the highly imaginative material +which was probably the work of an enthusiast, and in all certainty +a surreptitious insertion in the work of the historian, should +be distinguished from the less fanciful material concerning the +imprisonment of Gregory and the martyrdom of the virgins, which though +legendary, may probably be connected with the events of history. + +Although Dubois de Montpereux recognizes that all traditions point to +the conversion of Armenia as having taken place before the conversion +of Constantine (in 312), he does not consider this as probable, for +Tiridates, as a tributary king, and imitator of the Romans in all +things, could not have had the courage to take so important a step +except in following out the policy of the emperor. [80] Gregory, +according to the view of Dubois, remained in his prison well until +Constantine accepted Christianity, when the Armenian king called for +him and was converted as a matter of diplomacy after listening to +his exhortations. + +But this is not accepted by modern writers, any more than it was by +the ancient historians. Bryce places the conversion at 302, and states +that the so-called conversion of Constantine happened either twelve +or thirty-seven years later, according as one reckons to the battle +of the Milvian Bridge, or his baptism. [81] Armenia, therefore, +was the first country that adopted Christianity as a religion of +state, a matter of no small pride to the Gregorians, and it has been +maintained as the national religion ever since in a form so intact as +to surpass the dreams of the most ultra-conservative. And this, too, +in the face of attacks by Persian fire-worshippers who attempted +to force their religion upon the people, Greek and Latin popes, +Mohammedan khalifs, and Turkish sultans. Ormanian, former Armenian +patriarch at Constantinople, who gives the date as 301, considers the +existence of the churches of St. Rhipsime and St. Gaiane with their +inscriptions as positive proof, and mentions also the testimony in +the writings of Eusebius, who cites the war of the year 311 which +the Emperor Maximianus, the Dacian, declared against Armenians on +account of their, at that time, recent conversion. [82] The critical +studies made since the journey of Dubois (1837) are conclusive at +least in this, that the conversion of Tiridates and of the nation +could not have taken place later than the year 302, and there is no +doubt therefore of the claim that the Gregorian church is the oldest +national Christian church of the world. + + + + +SECTION 4. THE ARMENIAN CHURCH AS A SOCIAL FORCE + +The conversion of the people followed close upon the conversion of the +king, for Gregory was a temple-building priest not without ambition, +and the king was an acknowledged hero. The business of converting +the nation was not a matter of priests and preaching as suggested +by Dubois; [83] as indicated before, it was rather a matter of fire +and sword. Ormanian supposes that it was due to the work of the +Christian communities already established, whose work was stimulated +and encouraged by the king's conversion. [84] "Indeed," he says, "the +almost instant conversion of the whole of Armenia at the beginning +of the fourth century, can not be explained but by the preexistence +of a Christian element which had taken root in the country." And +again, "The first nucleus of the faithful, by its steadfast energy, +at length succeeded in gaining the mastery over both obstacles and +persecutions." This does not seem to me to be correct, for in the +first place the Christianity of the first, second, and third centuries +was not the Christianity of Gregory; it was one of the many forms of +worship killed by Gregory; and in the second place there are sufficient +records to prove the wholesale destruction of pagan temples, images, +idols, and inscriptions as carried out by the king and saint, and of +the use of the sword in forcing the people to change their faith. [85] + +First, then, what was the Christianity of the first centuries? It +is clear that the ideal was one of communal simplicity of life. That +it was opposed to all hierarchies and established priesthoods there +can be no question. The irksome round of daily toil was idealized +in the fellowship of a common faith, the central point of which +was the indwelling of the Spirit of God. Hence baptism was the +all-important event, for through baptism the Holy Spirit descended +into the human heart even as into Christ when he was baptized by +John in the Jordan. Jesus was no God come to earth in human form by +a miraculous conception; he was the son of Joseph and Mary. Feeling +his kinship with God he was baptized, which ceremony was merely +symbolic of the Indwelling Spirit. These early Christians have been +called adoptionists, for the ceremony of baptism is said to represent +the adoption of the individual by God, or by the Holy Spirit, both +expressions having been used synonymously. Simple and pure, it seems +that the adoptionists came as near carrying out the spirit of the +teachings of Jesus as any Christian sect that ever existed. [86] +But how utterly opposed, how perfectly contradictory to the brick +and mortar religion of Gregory! That the adoptionists were objects +of persecution by the orthodox church is a certainty, and it was +very probably this sect that was referred to in "that stubborn +heresy of their native land" mentioned so frequently by Armenian +writers. The following picture was clearly set forth in a disputation +between two Armenian church-men occurring at the close of the third +century. "Tell me," says Archelaus, "over whom it was that the Holy +Spirit descended like a dove? Who is this one whom John baptized? If +he was already perfect, if he was already the Son, if he was already +Virtue, the Holy Spirit could not have entered into him. A kingdom +can not enter into a kingdom." [87] What is also to the point is the +celebrated formula of Nice (325) at which the nature of Christ was +defined as essentially and continuously divine. "Christ a very God, +begotten of God, but not a creature of God; Son of God, of one nature +with God; who came down from heaven and took flesh, and became man, +and suffered and ascended unto heaven; who was before he was begotten, +and who has always been." The decision was in absolute contradiction to +the adoptionist faith, and it was legislated by this august council, +that the members of such faith, who were called Paulicians, after +their leader Paul of Samosata, should be rebaptized before admission +to the church. [88] The recalcitrants were driven to the mountains, +where they increased in number as in strength until the persecution +of the ninth century. Both Agathangelus and Faustus of Byzantium were +silent concerning these people, and, one suspects, advisedly so. + +Such was pre-Gregorian Christianity. How ridiculous to suppose that the +conversion of the nation was due to the firm roots already established +by the Christians when the Christians themselves had to be converted! + +On the contrary, it was the right of might that established the new +religion. The troops of the capital city were led by the king and +priest in such an image- and temple-smashing campaign as was never +before seen. Proceeding down the Araxes valley, the temple of the +god Dir was levelled to the ground; the temple of Anahit was stoutly +defended but to no avail; the temple was burned. One after another +of the most famous sanctuaries were destroyed; temples of Aramazd, +of Mithra, of Nane, and of Anahit, many of which were defended by the +vanquished until overpowered. [89] Shrines of Vahakn and of Astghik +were laid to waste to be replaced by Christian churches which grew +up over the ruins as if overnight; and if a temple was destroyed, it +was only to build a Christian church in its stead. So construction +followed in the wake of destruction, the old was supplanted by the +new, and when all armed resistance was beaten down, the king and +priest continued the work by preaching. + +When the work was fairly under way the ambitious priest journeyed to +Cesarea in Cappadocia where he got himself ordained. This Gregory was +no meek-spirited adoptionist. He was the son of Anak, of royal blood, +ambitious, zealous, suffering and doing all things to gain his ends. + +In view, therefore, of the actual character of preexisting +Christianity, and of the methods employed in converting the people, how +can one reasonably suppose that the "instant conversion of the whole +of Armenia to Christianity can not be explained but by the preexistence +of a Christian element which had taken root in the country"? + +The state-authorized religion, however, did take root in the country, +and became inextricably interwoven with the self-consciousness of +the nation. It became the organ of national expression, and for many +centuries has been the very backbone of the people. If the molten +metals of national life had hardened during the reign of the Arsacidae +kings they were at the time of the conversion in a molten state, ready +to be remolded. This did not require much time. Old festivals were +carried over intact, except that they were given a new meaning. The +old national traditions, legends, and folk-lore were in the common +possession of the people, and there was no reason for discouraging +them. In fact the Armenian church even more than the state encouraged +them, for it recognized in them a source of solidarity and national +unity, as essential to the life of the church as its hierarchies, +liturgy, and calendar of saints. So much then was old; part of the past +carried over into the present to be carried over into the future. What +then was new? First the legends and traditions, already mentioned, +imbedded in the immediately past events of the new order. Legends of +Abgar, of Gregory, of Thaddeus, of Rhipsime, of Tiridates, passed like +magic fire from person to person, creating a common sentiment which +made the foundations of the new church absolutely secure. How firmly +this foundation was established is indicated by the reaction of the +church to the decisions at the Council of Chalcedon, where the dogma +of the dual nature of Christ was affirmed, in perfect contradiction +to the Nicaean dogma, and by the reaction against the Persian proposals +to accept fire-worship as the state religion. + +I shall consider the second point first. As already stated, the year +428 marked the end of the Armenian Arsacid dynasty. The nation was +divided between Persia and Rome at this time, largely as a result of +internal dissensions. In the year 450 the Persian king sent a letter +to the Armenian princes, setting forth the excellence of fire-worship +and the foolishness of Christianity, and summoned the Armenians to +accept the Persian religion. [90] A council of bishops and laymen was +held and a reply of unanimous refusal was drawn up. "From this faith +no one can move us, neither angels nor men, neither sword nor fire, +nor water, nor any deadly punishment." [91] A rather impertinent +reply from a subject nation to one which dominated it; but thoroughly +characteristic of the Armenians. The Persians did use fire and sword, +and defeated the Armenians in the plain of Avarair under Mount Ararat +(451). But they did not gain their end. An old historian wrote of the +battle, "swords of slayers grew dull, but their necks were not weary," +and the Persian high priest having seen the utter hopelessness of +his project wrote, "these people have put on Christianity, not like +a garment, but like flesh and blood." [92] + +Already, only one hundred fifty years after the conversion, the +foundation of the church was secure. This of course was made possible +by the completeness of the work of its founders; but this in itself +would not have been sufficient. A common favorable sentiment had +been created, which grew up under the natural conditions of life, +and inasmuch as the legends described are part of the common beliefs +of the people, it may be inferred that they played an important role +in the formation of this sentiment. The church, on the other hand, +has incorporated these legendary beliefs in its ritual and ceremony, +and in that way has given them the necessary sanction by which they +are passed on from generation to generation. They thus form part of +the permanent social tradition of the Armenian people. + +The security of the church at this early time (450) was indicated +not only by the reaction of the nation to the Persian proposals of +fire-worship, but also by the reaction to the decision of the Council +of Chalcedon, at which, as stated, the dual nature of Christ was +dogmatically affirmed, in contradiction to the dogma established at +the Council of Nicaea (325), accepted by the Armenian church. But at +the time of the Chalcedonian council, the Persian difficulties were +taking place, the battle of Avarair having occurred during the same +year, and it was not until 491 that the Armenians held a synod of +their own which assembled at Vagharshapat, in order to take decisive +action. [93] The decisions of the Council of Chalcedon were rejected +and the action was repeated at subsequent synods. Of the three sees +or patriarchates, the Roman at Rome, the Greek at Alexandria, and +the Byzantine at Constantinople, the latter was gaining in power, +and it was at the Council of Chalcedon that the precedence of the see +of Constantinople was recognized. Naturally, neither the Roman nor +Greek sees acknowledged the decision of the council, but later both +Greek and Latin churches revoked their opposition, and recognized it +as the fourth OEcumenic Council. But the Armenian church would have +nothing to do with Chalcedon, in spite of Greek and Latin approval, +and since that time she has stood alone, absolutely independent +of Greek and Latin churches. Ormanian states: "She set herself to +resist every new dogmatic utterance said to emanate from revelation, +as well as any innovation which could in any way pervert the primitive +faith." [94] The "primitive faith" may be a slight stretch of point, +but the fact that the Armenian church adopted an absolutely independent +policy, which separated her from all other Christian churches, and +to which she has steadfastly adhered in spite of persistent Greek and +Latin influence and efforts at domination, is in clear support of my +assertion that the social foundations of the church were firmly and +securely established as early as 450, only one hundred fifty years +after the work of Gregory and Tiridates. + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +LOCALITY LEGENDS + + +SECTION 1. ARARAT + +There is a third and last body of Armenian legends more closely related +to the second group discussed than to the first, and yet marked off in +some respects from the second as well. They have a distinct religious +stamp like those we have just finished describing, and they are all +related in some way to the stories of the Old Testament. The legend of +Haic is related to the Old Testament, for Haic was the great-grandson +of Noah, but it clearly belongs to the first group taken up, for the +reason that it has to do with the origin of the Armenian nation. The +first body, including Haic, and the legends of Semiramis and Ara, +Vahakn, Artasches and Satenik, and Artavazd, are all concerned +with ancient Armenian kings, real or mythical, and all go back to +a time before the introduction of Christianity. Vahakn was deified, +but that does not exclude him since he was first a king. The second +group, including the legends of Abgar, Rhipsime and Gaiane, Gregory, +Thaddeus, and Tiridates, are all concerned with historical figures, +real or supposed, and there is no doubt about their historic reality, +with the exception of Rhipsime and Gaiane. But what marks them off from +the other groups is that they are all concerned with the introduction +of Christianity into the country. Those of the third group have no +historic value whatever. They are legends based upon legends that date +back to a period even more remote than the legend of Haic, and their +social value does not approach that of the first two groups. They +are all connected in some way, either with the Old Testament legend +of Noah, or with the legend of the origin of man. No traveler ever +passed through Armenia without hearing of one or more of them. + +"In the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, the ark +rested upon the mountains of Ararat." [95] Every Armenian, and others, +too, believe that this is the Ararat of Armenia, or Masis as it is +called, and it is true that there is absolutely nothing to disprove +such a belief. James Bryce has given a careful consideration to +the question, and states in conclusion that full liberty is left to +the traveler to consider the "snowy sovereign of the Araxes plain" +to be the true Ararat. [96] There are several points that may be +noted. First, there is nothing in the statement of Genesis to show +that the Ararat mentioned was a mountain called by that name; it seems +rather that Ararat was a section of country, for the passage states +that the ark rested "upon the mountains of Ararat." In the second +place, the mountain is not called Ararat by Armenians, but Masis. And +thirdly, there is no independent Armenian tradition of the flood so +far as is known, for it can not be shown that the modern tradition +is older than the Christian era. + +These facts would be conclusive evidence that Armenian Ararat is +not the traditional Ararat of the Old Testament, were it not, first, +for the fact that there was in the region of the mountain a province +of Airarat which in all probability corresponds to the biblical +Ararat. Secondly, the biblical Ararat unquestionably corresponds +to the Assyrian Urarthu which is the section of country about Lake +Van and Mount Ararat. So that, although not absolutely conclusive, +the Armenian tradition enjoys a very high degree of probability. + +In this connection the legend of the village of Nakhitchevan is worth +noting. It is situated just to the north of the mountain on the left +bank of the Araxes. Armenians believe it to be the place where Noah +first landed, and as proof, the name of the village, which means, +"the first place of landing," is cited. One might suppose the name to +have been given by the Christians after the conversion to Christianity, +were it not that Ptolemy places in the same spot a city named Naxuana +which is the exact Greek for the Armenian name. Also Josephus, fifty +years before Ptolemy speaks of the place, as quoted by St. Martin: +"Les Armeniens appellent ce lieu l'endroit de la descente parce +que c'est la que l'arche trouva un endroit de salut, et qu'encore +actuellement les indigenes montrent ses debris." [97] Tavernier who +traveled through the country along about 1700 speaks of Nakhitchevan as +the "oldest city of the world" and gives the tradition. [98] But many +Jews, who undoubtedly gave the village its name, lived in Armenia, +long before the Christian era. + +Situated on a broad plain four or five thousand feet above sea +level, Ararat rises majestic and solitary to a height of 17,000 +feet. There are no lesser peaks or ranges to destroy the grandeur +of the effect. Except for its companion, Little Ararat, which rises +beside it on a common base to a height of 12,840 feet, it stands +alone as monarch of the broad plain it surveys. Little Ararat is in +the form of a perfect cone, whereas Ararat is broad-shouldered and +dome-shaped, supported by huge buttresses and capped with snow a +considerable distance down the slope through the entire year. It is +truly symbolic of strength and majesty. + +Such is the mountain about which a thousand legends cluster. Marco +Polo says of the mountain: "There is an exceeding great mountain +on which it is said the ark of Noah rested, and for this cause +it is called the mountain of the Ark of Noah." In 1254, a little +before Marco Polo's time, a Franciscan friar, William of Rubruck +passed by the mountain upon which the ark is said to have rested, +which mountain, he said, could not be ascended, though the earnest +prayers of a pious monk prevailed so far that a piece of the wood +of the ark was brought to him by an angel, which piece, he said, +is still preserved in a church near by as a holy relic. He gives +Masis as the name of the mountain and adds that it is the Mother of +the World. According to a Persian tradition it is called "Cradle of +the Human Race." Still more interesting is the account by Sir John +Maundeville, part of which runs as follows: "Fro Artyroun go men to an +Hille, that is clept Sabisocolle. And there besyde is another Hille, +that men clepen Ararathe: but the Jews clepen it Taneez, where Noas +Schipp rested: and zit is upon that Montayne and men may see it a +ferr in clear wedre: and that Montayne is well a myle high. And sum +men seyn that they have seen and touched the Schipp; and put here +Fyngres in the parties where the Feend went out when that Noe seyd +'Benedicta.' But they that seyn such Wordes seyn here Willie, for a +man may not gon up the Montayne for gret plenties of Snow that is alle +weys on that Montayne nouther Somer ne Winter: so that no man may gon +up there: ne never man did, sithe the time of Noe: Saf a Monk that be +the grace of God brought one of the Plankes down, that zit is in the +Mynstre at the foot of the Montayne. And beside is the Cytes of Dayne +that Noe founded. And faste by it is the Cytee of Any, in which were +1000 churches. But upon that Montayne to gon up this monk had gret +desir; and so upon a day he went up and when he was the third part +of the Montayne he was so wery that he mighte not furthere, and so +he rested him and felle to slep, and when he awoke he fonde himself +liggyie at the foot of the Montayne. And then he preyde devoutly to +God that he wold vouch saf to suffre him gon up. And an angelle cam +to him and seyde that he scholde gon up; and so he did. And sithe that +Time never non. Wherefore men scholde not beleeve such Woordes." [99] + +The legend of the monk is usually given in a form which confirms still +more the sacredness of the mountain. St. Jacob, as the monk was named, +tried three successive times to climb the mountain. Each time he fell +asleep intending to resume his journey the next morning, only to wake +up finding himself at the same point he had started from the preceding +day. An angel came to him after the third time, and told him that God +had forbidden mortal foot ever to tread on the sacred summit, but that +he should be given a fragment of the ark in which mankind had been +preserved as a reward for his devout perseverance. [100] This treasure +is still preserved at Etchmiadzin and the saint is commemorated by +the little monastery of St. Jacob, which till 1840, when a tremendous +shaking of the mountain showered the little monastery with rocks of +destruction, stood above the valley of Arghuri on the slopes of Ararat. + +The little village of Arghuri, the single village on the mountainside, +was the city of Noah's vineyard, and contained a little church which +is said to hallow the spot where Noah first set up an altar. [101] +But this village, too, was completely destroyed by the avalanche of +1840. Not the slightest trace of it remains, though only three years +before its destruction, Dubois de Montpereux visited the little city +and described it together with the church of Noah, Noah's vineyard, +and the monastery of St. Jacob. [102] In the garden of the city were +planted pear trees, apple, plum, cherry, apricot, peach, and nut +trees. This very garden was the site of the first vine on which the +old patriarch became drunk, and the inhabitants showed Dubois some +bits of creepers to prove it. "Dieu," they said, "pour punir les +ceps qui avaient ainsi entraine le pauvre patriarche dans le peche, +les condamna a ne plus porter de raisins." Naive, yes, but very +sweetly so. And the church, the people said, marked the place where +Noah offered his first sacrifice after the deluge. Except for the +garden of Arghuri, wrote Dubois, this great mountain was absolutely +destitute of verdure; an old stunted willow, wound about with snow and +ice was the only other exception to this. According to the legend, +it marked the spot where a board of Noah's ark had taken root and +sprung up into a living tree which the people venerated. One was not +permitted to take away even the smallest of its feeble branches. + +All of this was blotted out so completely by the shower of falling +rocks and boulders that it is hard to imagine the places as ever +having existed. The primeval willow, the vineyard, the sacred church, +and the little monastery of St. Jacob have left not the slightest +trace. The bell of the old church is no more heard; the Christian +service is not chanted any longer on the sacred mountain of the Ark. + +Of the numerous other legends associated with the mountain I shall +mention only two. One of them regards the summit of the mountain as the +site of Chaldean star-worship, and asserts that a pillar with a figure +of a star stood upon it. [103] According to the same legend, twelve +wise men stood beside the pillar to watch for the star of the East, +which three of them followed to Bethlehem. The other is in respect +to the spring situated above the spot where stood the monastery. A +bird, called by the Armenians tetagush, feeds on the locusts which +are such a plague to the country, and curiously enough, the bird +is attracted by the waters of the spring. When the locusts appear, +the people carry their bottles to the spring and filling them with +the peculiarly charmed water, take them back to their fields where +they are placed on the ground to attract the tetagush. The people of +Syria and Palestine were much in need of tetagush and Ararat spring +water during the spring and summer of 1915, for the swarms of locusts +not only devoured the crops but also the leaves and barks of the trees. + + + + +SECTION 2. KHOR-VIRAP AND ERZERUM + +On the bank of the Araxes, in the plain of Armenia, and in full view +of Ararat are located the monastery of Khor-Virap and the chapel of +St. Gregory close beside it. An Armenian inscription is cut in the +walls of the portico of the monastery which marks the spot where a +monk, Johannes by name, appeared twice after his death saying that he +had seen Gregory the Illuminator. The chapel of St. Gregory covers +the traditional well into which he was thrown and imprisoned for +thirteen years by King Tiridates. Dubois descended into a sort of +tunnel, fifteen or sixteen feet below the pavement of the chapel, +which is part of an old fortress, and was shown the worn stones of +a niche where the saint prayed, as evidence of the thirteen years, +quite as though other pilgrims who knelt in the same place could +not have assisted somewhat the pious work of the saint. [104] The +spot is only a few steps from the famous temple dedicated to the +principal god of the Armenians, Aramazd, and it seems clear that +the pagan king intended to make a sacrifice to his gods in casting +the young fanatic into the well. The temple was called Achelichad, +meaning "many sacrifices" because of the many offerings here given up +to Aramazd. With the era of Christianity, the name Achelichad gave way +to the name Khor Virap, meaning dry well. Gregorius Magistros, already +mentioned, brought the body of the saint from Constantinople and placed +it in the bottom of the well, where it served to cure sick pilgrims. + +There is a tradition that the Armenian city of Erzerum, not far +from the source of the Euphrates, marks the vicinity of the Garden +of Eden. The Persian king Khosref Purveez is said to have encamped +in the neighborhood and to have received a message from the prophet +Mohammed during his sojourn, in which he was offered the protection +of Islam if he would embrace the faith. But the king spurned the +proposal and tossed the letter into the Euphrates. Nature, horrified +at the sacrilege, dried up the flowers and fruits of the ancient +garden and even parched up the sources of the river itself. And so +the last relic of Eden became waste. [105] + +In the same connection, there is a plaintive Armenian elegy, composed +in the person of Adam, who, sitting at the gate of paradise and +beholding cherubim and seraphim enter the garden, makes the following +defence: he did not eat the forbidden fruit until after he had +witnessed its fatal effects upon Eve, when, seeing her despoiled of +all her glory, he was touched with pity and tasted the immortal fruit +in the hope that the Creator, contemplating both in the same plight +might with paternal love take compassion on them. But in vain. "The +Lord cursed the serpent and Eve," pathetically cries Adam, "and I +was enslaved between them." The elegy closes most touchingly,--"When +ye enter Eden, shut not the gate of paradise, but place me standing +at the gate. I will look in a moment and then bring me back. Ah! I +remember ye, O flowers and sweet smelling fountains. Ah! I remember +ye, O birds, sweet singing, And ye, O beasts." [106] + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER V + +INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS + + +Because these legends are for the most part based upon older legends, +and also because some of them are known only locally, they can not be +said to have played so important a role in Armenian social life as the +first two groups of legends. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose +that all of the Ararat legends have merely a local value. Ararat +is the center of the nation, the grand geographical feature of +the country, and many of the beliefs clustered about it are held in +common. In fact there is a very old belief which considers the sacred +mountain to be the center of the world, and to-day it is the common +point of meeting of the boundaries of Russian, Turkish, and Persian +Armenia. And this is no accident; it is because of the veneration +in which the mountain is held, and consequently, the realization +of the importance the mountain gives to any territory in which it +may be located. The belief that Ararat is the mountain of the Ark, +the legend of Noah's vineyard, and the legend of St. Jacob are very +commonly accepted. The primeval willow, the church of Arghuri, the +legend, or perhaps one should say, the superstition of the tetagush, +and the legend of the wise men in search of the star of the East, +enjoy a more restricted circulation. Furthermore, it is natural to +suppose that the legends centered in the destroyed city of Arghuri have +not been told as frequently as of old, and are therefore dying out +gradually, although they seem still to be very much alive. A legend +or tradition that is objectified in an old willow, in a monastery, +or in a garden, is likely to die out gradually with the destruction of +its object. But some of them will never die out, object or no object, +as for example the legend of the devout monk who tried to gain the +summit of Ararat in order to see the holy Ark. There is something in +his waking up each successive morning only to find himself at the same +point he had started from the preceding day, which will keep its hold, +whether there be a monastery erected in his name or not. And if the +vineyard has been destroyed the people may very soon find another. In +fact I should be surprised if in traveling through the mountain region +of Ararat, I was not shown the legendary vineyard. This, however, +would more likely be true of a legend that had a commercial value +to the community because of the frequency of travelers, which could +certainly not be said of Ararat legends. The same general valuation +may be placed upon the Erzerum legends. A legend of this sort is +not believed to be true, unless the legend upon which it is based +is commonly believed in, and it is certainly safe to suppose that a +majority of the Armenian people accept the Old Testament legends. This +is important, for when a legend is not a matter of implicit belief +by a people it has little social value. The elegy of Adam can not be +properly said to be a legend at all. + +The preceding pages point out certain points of resemblance, and +certain points of difference between the two words, legend and +tradition, which require to be brought out at this point, first, +because of vague and loose current usage, and second, in order to +establish my own use of these terms. In the first place they are +beliefs, and here lies the secret of their social value. Let them +be disbelieved in and they may furnish material for entertaining +after-dinner conversation, but they no more have the power of welding +a people together into a nation, a caste, or a sect; they no longer +have the power of creating a common sentiment among a large number +of people or of creating a national consciousness. + +And in the second place, both the tradition and the legend are passed +on from person to person, and from generation to generation. When a +tradition is defined as a belief that is handed down orally from father +to son, it is not at all differentiated from the legend which is also +a belief, and which may also be passed on orally from generation to +generation. Neither does a legend or a tradition change its character +when the meaning is represented by symbols cut in rock, inscribed on +papyrus, or written on paper. The event of inscription is very often +a part of their history. + +But when it comes to a question of historic value we mark the +parting of the ways. A tradition, used in the sense with which we +are concerned here, is always rooted in an indisputable historic +fact. Consider the traditions of Islam that are centered about +the prophet Mohammed. They may have a thousand variations, may have +embodied falsehood after falsehood in the course of their transmission +from place to place, and from generation to generation, as most of +them unquestionably have, but they are traditions, nevertheless, +because they are associated with a character who is an undisputed +historic figure. The refusal of St. Gregory to offer garlands to the +goddess Anahit, and his imprisonment in the well during a period of +thirteen years is a tradition because the belief is associated with +a historic character. Compare this with the beliefs concerning Haic, +Vahakn, Semiramis and Ara, and the distinction is clear, for these +characters are all mythical. Artasches and Artavasd are generally +recognized as historical kings, and are so spoken of by Moses. As such +the beliefs concerning them should be classed as traditions. However, +Moses as a historian has been relegated to a secondary position by +Carriere, who gave the work a critical examination. This would make +the beliefs concerning Artasches and Satenik and Artavasd purely +legendary, unless further research establishes more reliable sources +of which we do not know. The first group therefore are legends. + +In regard to the second group of beliefs all having to do with +the introduction of Christianity, Bartholomew, Thaddeus, Gregory, +and Tiridates are unquestionably historic; Rhipsime and Gaiane are +mythical; the historic authenticity of Abgar is also questionable. We +should therefore speak of the legends of Rhipsime, Gaiane and Abgar, +and of the traditions of Bartholomew, Thaddeus, Gregory, and Tiridates. + +The Ararat and Erzerum group are of course legends with one or two +exceptions. The belief concerning the scorning of the proposal of +Mohammed by the Persian king who was encamped on the Euphrates as +explaining the barrenness of the Garden of Eden certainly has to +do with an historic figure, and perhaps two. But it is a legend, +nevertheless, because both the prophet of Arabia and the Persian king +are accidental rather than fundamental to the belief. The fundamental +basis of belief is the legend of the Garden of Eden. The elegy of Adam +in explanation of his sinful conduct is neither legend nor tradition, +and the belief concerning the tetagush and the spring of Ararat is +a superstition. It results in a distinct type of conduct marking it +off from both tradition and legend. + +I have stated my conclusions at various places, and it would be +pointless repetition to summarize them all. I shall therefore sum up +only the important ones. The first is that the legends and traditions +of Part One are an important part of a larger body of Armenian legends, +traditions, folk-songs, and folk-lore, and that their social value lies +in the power they have of creating a national sentiment. This national +sentiment is the direct result of a social process accomplished through +the medium of the traditions, legends, and folk-songs spoken of. An +analysis of the national sentiment of ancient Armenia would lead us +to the conclusion that it was made up of at least three elements: +first, a sentiment of loyalty to the state; secondly, a sentiment +of reverence amounting almost to worship for the past glory of the +nation; and thirdly, a sentiment of love for the country. + +The last sentiment is an especially real experience to all +Armenians. Objectified as it was at first in the vast plains, the +broad river valleys, the mountain ranges, or simply in the soil that +brought forth its vegetation, it came to be objectified in a spirit +of independence and in the ideals of freedom and strength. These two +objects of the national sentiment of love, the one material, the other +immaterial, are not, however, to be dissociated in the social mind, +as I have dissociated them on paper. They are inseparable, the material +and the spiritual, and simply do not exist apart from each other. Only +the emphasis varies, symbolized in one case by the peasant's kissing +his native soil, and in the other by the far-away look toward the +summit of some distant mountain. And when this sentiment of love is +the most important of those sentiments that go to make up a national +sentiment, that is, when it dominates all the others, holding them +in subjection, there has come to be a national self. A continuous +stream of consciousness envelopes the national self, and inasmuch +as it implies a highly-organized and well-developed national self, +national-self-consciousness is the larger term. It may be objectified +and examined especially at a time of injustice from without, and even +at the time of an obvious act of injustice by the state which usually +results in civil strife. The latter case is illustrative of how one of +the sentiments that make up the national sentiment may be under the +domination of another, the sentiment of loyalty to the state being +subordinate to the sentiment of love for the country in this case. + +That the national self is organic, i.e., that it is functional, a +vital, living thing which grows and dies is clearly brought out by +the second group of legends considered. This is the second general +conclusion. The legends and traditions mentioned in this group are +of course again part of a larger body, all of which have to do with +the introduction of Christianity into the country. The important +point is that from this larger body of beliefs there resulted a new +national sentiment, new because something had come to be incorporated +within it which was not there before. This something was a sentiment +of loyalty to the church, evidenced in the readiness to uphold and +protect the church with all its recognized encumbrances of hierarchies +and paraphernalia against all foreign intrusion, whether peaceful +or military in character. With the destruction of the state, this +sentiment of loyalty to the church largely absorbed the sentiment +of loyalty to the state. Reverence for the past glory of the nation +went on unchanged except in so far as the church intensified it as +a means of intensifying the whole national sentiment. + +A loosely organized, heterogeneous group of people can not boast of +a national sentiment, nor of the united action necessary in times +of national crisis, as when a people go to war. This united action +is only possible where the diverse sentiments of a more or less +heterogeneous people have been woven into a national sentiment of the +kind spoken of. This weaving process, as I have shown, is essentially +a social process, and the materials by means of which it is carried +on are largely such as I have been describing, namely, the legends, +traditions, and folk-lore that have somehow grown up among a people. + + + + + + + + +PART TWO + +FESTIVALS + + +CHAPTER I + +THE GREGORIAN CHURCH + + +As the materials of Part One are part of a larger mass of legends, +traditions, and folk-lore, the social value of which lies in their +power of creating a national or group sentiment, so the festivals +and ceremonies to be taken up in Part Two are part of a larger mass +of festivals, ceremonies, and rites whose social value lies in the +fact that they constitute a necessary vehicle of expression for this +same national sentiment. The festivals are a necessary counterpart +of the legends, as the latter are a necessary counterpart of the +former. Activity is one of the most fundamental of nature's laws. The +sentiment of love for an individual dies eventually in the absence +of some formal mode of active expression. But be the action ever so +little a thing, such as the laying of flowers upon the grave of the +dead, the visiting of a shrine, or the sight of some hallowed spot +of sacred memory, the sentiment is kept alive. To be sure a sentiment +may smoulder for a lifetime, even as a national sentiment may slumber +for centuries without a mode of expression, and then all of a sudden +burst forth into a flame, or awaken into life at a mere suggestion from +outside. Bereft of statehood, the sentiment of loyalty for the state +has slumbered for centuries within the breast of the Armenian people, +but how often, how too sadly often, has it not suddenly awakened into +hot, new life only to be pacified into slumber again. But the last +glow, the little flicker at the end is all that separates the living +embers from the dead ash. + +How the Armenian church recognized the truth of this by putting +into operation a thousand various modes of action in which the new +national sentiment that it created has kept itself alive and fresh, +may well serve as an object lesson to many another church. She did +not make the mistake of imposing an entirely new body of festivals and +ceremonies upon the people; she utilized the past and carried over a +number of pagan festivals absolutely intact, which she clothed with +a new meaning slowly recognized by the people. These form the first +group to be considered. In the course of time she created certain new +festivals which constitute the second group. And then she identified +herself with all of the ceremonies of common life, such as betrothal, +marriage, and funeral ceremonies. + +In this way the Armenian church has become absolutely and inseparably +identified with the life of the people, and the people in turn +have been held together into a nation which has continued to give +its artists and artisans to the world. [107] What is Armenia? The +national Gregorian church; much as Louis XIV, when asked "What is +the state?" replied, "I am the state." This is unquestionably an +exaggerated view, but not as much so as might be supposed, since +the social life of the people is so completely bound up with the +church. The only betrothal and marriage recognized is that sanctioned +by the church. Whenever there is a common danger, as has been the +case repeatedly during the past twenty years, the people flock to +the church for protection. Such secret revolutionary propaganda as +has been carried on has been done largely through the church. The +young Armenian who returns from his academic life in Paris, a +sceptic if not an unbeliever, and certainly opposed to the dogma and +ultra-conservatism of his church, does not alienate himself, for he +realizes his utter impotence in any kind of work for his people should +he do so. In spite of the division of Armenia into three slices, +Turkish, Persian, and Russian, the church has retained its hold, +and if the position of the people as subject to Turkey, Persia, +and Russia has placed her (the church) at a decided disadvantage in +coping with the ever constant influence and propaganda, schools, and +missionaries of the Greek, Latin, and Protestant churches, she has not +at all given in, for the number of Catholic Armenians amounts to only +3 per cent of the number of orthodox Armenians, while the number of +Protestant Armenians is only 1 per cent. [108] Considering, as I say, +the utter helplessness of the church in combating outside influences, +these figures indicate how closely the life of the people is identified +with her. Perhaps her very helplessness has been a source of strength. + +These facts together with such little practices as I have mentioned +(and I might also note the custom of the Armenian peasant of crossing +himself daily at the altar of his community church before beginning his +day of toil) [109] are sufficient to show that the church has been the +chief means of keeping alive the currents of national life, that it is +a national church, and that it has identified itself with the common +life of the people. The festivals and ceremonies which constitute +the second part of my paper thus form the vehicle of expression of +the national sentiment, and are all connected with the church. + +The participation of the laity in church matters, especially in +the election of its officials, is a chief reason for the essential +oneness of church and people. Priests, bishops, and patriarchs, +who constitute the three chief grades in the religious hierarchy, +are chosen by the people. [110] The approval of higher authorities +is necessary in most cases, but this only slightly detracts from +the importance of the role of the people. A married priest is the +religious head of every parish, and he is elected either by a direct +process of voting or by a deed of presentation. The religious council +of the diocese proceeds to examine the ability and qualifications of +the candidate, who is ordained if his examination proves successful; +if unsuccessful, a new candidate must be presented, for a bishop can +not of his own initiative ordain a priest. The laity have no voice +in the election of the celibate priesthood, which is only natural +since the celibate priests are not in any way connected with the +life of the community. Furthermore, they do not constitute a very +important element, for when Ormanian wrote in 1911, there were only +400 celibate priests as against 4,000 married priests. [111] + +The married priest is very closely identified with his community. He +not only makes a regular practice of visiting the various households +of the parish, but he is sole confessor of the people. [112] As he +officiates at masses and church ceremonies and promotes a general +participation in the festivals, so also no betrothal, marriage, +baptism, or funeral can be sanctioned without his presence. He is as +well a kind of marriage agency, employment agency, and relief agency, +acting always of course in cooperation with the council of elders of +his parish. A priest called at the home of an Armenian lady I know, +and remarked casually that he was aware she had a daughter, whom he +was very anxious to see, for there were two young men of the community +who were very desirous to marry. So the people inform the priest of +their need and the priest does all in his power to help them. He does +not receive a regular compensation, being absolutely dependent upon +the voluntary offerings of his flock and the voluntary fees received +for official services rendered. [113] This works out sometimes to +his advantage, but more often not, depending generally on whether +his parish is poverty stricken or well-to-do. + +There are several very curious usages practiced by the married +priest. He is recruited from all classes of society, but more often +there is a succession from father to son. [114] The conditions +demanded, besides parochial election, are acquaintance with +ecclesiastical and liturgical matters, an exemplary life, and the +consent of his wife. After his ordination he must fast for forty +days. He then prepares himself for his first mass by a life of retreat +in the church, restricting himself to a vegetable diet for twenty-four +hours. [115] The wife, who enjoys a certain precedence in society, +observes a customary abstinence in the absence of her husband. One week +or at least three days before the celebration of the mass, he keeps +away from home, passing the nights within the church. He may engage in +domestic or even professional work so long as this does not interfere +with the duties of his calling. Should his wife die, he may not marry +again unless he lays aside his priestly robe, nor may a priest ever +marry a widow. These practices are not dead letters, except that the +custom of sojourning within the church for three nights before mass +has, in Constantinople at least, been reduced to a single night. + +The bishops are chosen as chiefs of dioceses by the council of the +diocese, six sevenths of whose members are laymen, the remainder +being ecclesiastics. [116] The patriarchs, including the Katholikos, +the supreme authority of the church whose seat is at Etchmiadzin, the +religious center of the nation, are chosen by an electoral assembly +of the religious heads (bishops or archbishops) and lay deputies who +are nominated by the dioceses as a whole. [117] The eight members +of the synod, which is an advisory body to the Katholikos, and the +seven oldest members of the congregation at Etchmiadzin have equal +share in voting. The electoral assembly, so constituted, chooses two +candidates, one of whom is selected by the Czar. The Czar, after his +selection is made, sends a deputy to meet the successful candidate, +who is decorated and escorted with due ceremony to Etchmiadzin where he +is officially ordained. There are only two patriarchates besides the +see of Etchmiadzin, i.e., those of Constantinople and Jerusalem. The +corresponding patriarchs are likewise chosen by a national assembly, +six sevenths of whose members belong to the laity. The patriarchs +of both Jerusalem and of Constantinople acknowledge the supremacy +of the Katholikos of Etchmiadzin, who is thus head of the church, +though not infallible. + +The site of Etchmiadzin is the old capital city, Vagharshapat, the +ruins of which are all but washed away; and it marks the spot where +St. Gregory in his vision saw the descent of Jesus Christ. Etchmiadzin +means, "Descent of the Only Begotten." The particular spot is +commemorated by the central altar of the Cathedral, which is the chief +church of the nation. This Cathedral is situated in the center of a +huge court bounded in the form of a large rectangle by the cells of +the monks, the long refectory building, the library, the theological +seminary, and the residence of the Katholikos. Outside this rectangle +are ranged buildings and open spaces, including the garden of the +Katholikos, the court for pilgrims, the printing establishment, and +dwellings for various uses, all of which is bounded by a huge wall +in the form of a still larger rectangle about 1,000 feet in length +and 700 feet in width. [118] The chapels of the martyrs are some +distance from the monastery, the church of St. Gaiane, commemorating +the spot of her martyrdom, being about one fourth of a mile distant, +while the church of St. Rhipsime, which likewise honors the spot of +Rhipsime's martyrdom, is about three fourths of a mile distant. The +buildings now standing can hardly be those built by the saint. [119] + +Etchmiadzin has been for many years a place of pilgrimage for the +faithful. There is not only the sacred Cathedral where Jesus Christ is +believed to have appeared; there is also the chamber of holy relics +in the rear of the Cathedral which is perhaps the chief attraction +and glory of the place. The most important of the relics here kept +is a hand of St. Gregory, or rather right arm, "atch," as it is +called, now preserved in a silver case, and which was considered at +one time to be a necessary appanage of the patriarchal dignity. The +poor hand of the saint has been the cause of many peregrinations in +consequence. [120] One patriarch seized it and carried it off with him +in order to justify his claims. Another restole it and brought it back +to Etchmiadzin, while others have pretended possession of the holy +"atch," in order to make good their claims. It was with this relic +as well as with the holy chrism that consecrations were performed, +which made possession of it a necessary condition of the patriarchal +authority. Another much revered relic is the fragment of the ark, +which the angel who appeared to St. Jacob gave to him as a reward for +his perseverance in attempting so impossible a task as the climbing +of Ararat. Still another is the head of the "holy spear" which was +thrust into the side of Christ by the Roman soldier at Golgotha. [121] +There are others of lesser importance, some of which are believed to +possess the power of effecting cures. + +Such in brief are the broader and more important facts relating to the +church, which has thus come to sanction the festivals and ceremonies +that make up the second part of this thesis. These, as I have said, +naturally divide themselves into three groups, first those that +have been taken over bodily from the past; second, new festivals and +ceremonies created by the church; and third the ceremonies of common +life with which the church has identified itself. In the first group +are included the midsummer festival of Vartavar, the spring festival, +the festival in commemoration of the dead, Fortune-Telling Day, and +the festival of Vartan's Day. All except the last have their origin +in pagan festivals; each one has been taken over by the church and +made its own. + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER II + +PAGAN FOLK FESTIVALS + + +SECTION 1. VARTAVAR AND THE FESTIVAL OF MIHR + +Vartavar, meaning "flaming of the rose," was celebrated in pagan +times in honor of Anahit, goddess of chastity, at midsummer. The +central act of the festival was the offering of a dove and a rose to +her golden image. With the introduction of Christianity the temple +and the image were destroyed, and it may be noted that upon the site +of the Temple of Anahit in Vagharshapat was built the Cathedral of +Etchmiadzin. This would lead to the strange conclusion that in the +vision of St. Gregory, Jesus Christ descended upon a pagan temple. The +fact seems to be that this marvelous vision was seen by a pious monk +who published a life of St. Gregory some two or three centuries after +the Illuminator's death. [122] But the festival became the "Festival +of the Transfiguration of Christ," although the name Vartavar still +remains, and doves are still set flying. [123] + +The festival is celebrated differently in various places. Upon the +mountains of Armenia every family brings a sheep for sacrifice, adorned +with colored papers and pigments, and as the sheep approach the shrine, +lighted candles are fixed upon their horns. [124] Sheaves of grain, +fruit, flowers, and doves are also brought as sacrifices, while dust +from beside the altar is carried home to children as a talisman to +help them to learn their A B C's. In the absence of a church on the +mountainside, which is usually the case, a large white tent with +crosses is put up beside some sacred spring, with which the country +abounds. The spring is necessary, for on this day the people amuse +themselves by throwing water upon each other. For this reason the day +is often called Armenian Water Day. After the doves are set flying, +the priest sprinkles the people, and they in turn sprinkle water over +each other. This practice probably dates to the legend of the deluge, +the Universal Baptism with which God cleansed His sinful earth. The +dove and the baptism are also suggestive of the baptism of Jesus by +John in the waters of Jordan. This part of the festival is probably +an addition to the pagan rite, for the sprinkling of the water is +symbolic of love and forgiveness; it is carried on with much laughing +and merry-making. The festival includes also a kind of fair, for the +people have to show what progress they have made during the year in +art and the various handicrafts. Races, competitions, and games are +held, and the victors are crowned with wreaths of roses, so that even +the rose continues to have an important place in the festivities as +it had in pagan days. The sprinkling of water, the games, the races, +show how happy a time the people must have on this day; the exhibition +of the year's accomplishment in handicraft and art points out the more +serious side; while the essential religious symbolism is very clearly +emphasized. What may also be noted is that there is entertainment for +all, old and young, serious and frivolous. The pious-minded may sit +on the mountainside contemplating the religious aspect of it all; +the gay and light-hearted may sprinkle water over each other; the +young and strong may run races and play games; men and women of a +practical turn of mind may visit the fair and note the progress made +during the year; and children may roll about on the mountainsides or +gather roses, for these are in full bloom at this time. + +The pagan spring festival in honor of Mihr, the god of fire, was taken +over by the church to commemorate the bringing of the Babe Jesus to +the temple, where Mary sacrificed two doves according to the custom +of purification. [125] The ancient rite consisted of kindling fires +in the open market places in honor of the god Mihr, and of lighting +a lantern from one of the newly kindled fires, which was kept burning +in the temple throughout the year. As now celebrated, on February 26, +every young man who has been married within the year brings a load +of aromatic shrubs, making a huge pile of them in the yard of the +church. A religious service is held in the open air at evening-time, +after which the priest sets fire to the pile. All the villagers, men, +women, and children, dance about the fire, while boys and young men +show their agility and courage by leaping over it. When the flames +die down, each person carries home a glowing brand and places it on +the hearthstone for good luck. + +The description of the festival by Abeghian shows how a general +celebration of this kind varies in particulars from place to +place. [126] On the afternoon of the 13th of February, [127] which +is the day before the church festival of the purification, a pile of +wood consisting usually of thorn-wood, cane, and straw is gathered +together in the churchyard. The entire community comes together in +the church on the night of the same day, each person provided with +a candle. After the vespers all stand about the pile of shrub and +wood, the newly married during the year making the first row. The +candles are lighted from the church light, and after the priest has +blessed the pile, it is set ablaze from all sides, after which the +candles are put out. As soon as the fire has died down, the candles +are relighted from the glowing embers which are regarded as sacred, +and carried home where they are used to light a pile of shrub and wood +that has been gathered on the roof of the house. The young people jump +over the fire while the young women and married women march around +it saying, "May it not itch me, and may I not receive any scabs," +taking care just to singe the border of their dresses. The ashes, +as well as the half-burned wood-stuffs are preserved, or scattered +in the four corners of the barn, over the fields or in the garden, +for the ashes and flames of the firebrands are believed to protect +people and cattle from sickness and the fruit trees from worms and +caterpillars. In the homes of the newly married the festival is +celebrated with music and dance, the young couples especially making +it a point to dance about the sacred flames, while in some places +special food is prepared in honor of the occasion. + +Various prophesies are made during the festival, for example, if the +flame and smoke blows to the east, it is a sign of a good harvest +for the coming year, if toward the west, a bad growth is expected. + +In recent years the religious authorities at Etchmiadzin printed the +following prohibition in the church calendar: "It is forbidden to run +about the fire." But the festival is celebrated nevertheless. [128] +That it originates in the pagan festival held in honor of Mihr there +is little doubt, for the month of February corresponds to the ancient +Armenian month Mehakan, which, translated into modern Armenian, +Mihragan, means belonging to Mihr, or more loosely, the Festival +of Mihr. + + + + +SECTION 2. THE DAY OF THE DEAD AND VARTAN'S DAY + +The festival in commemoration of the dead is celebrated on the first +day after Easter, and may be regarded as a reaction against the +lenten fasts. Families of Armenians, loaded with picnic baskets, +packages of food, and bottles of wine, flock to their cemeteries +in great numbers. Priests are paid small fees for standing over +the graves of the dead to chant prayers for the salvation of the +departed souls. Over the graves of the recently dead stand the +bereaved relatives of the deceased, lamenting loudly and bewailing +a fate which they know must some day be their own. A more maudlin +spectacle could not be imagined. Here and there are seated groups +of families eating and drinking and laughing all the more heartily +for the enforced abstinence of the preceding weeks; while standing +beside this grave or that is a priest in black robe and high hat, +chanting a prayer for the dead, and incidentally earning his daily +bread. Eating seems to be the chief amusement; even the mourners eat +after they have faithfully mourned, and the priests too come in for +their shares after all possible fees have been earned. Altogether it +is a post-lenten festival in the full meaning of the term, and much +in contrast to the wholesome enjoyment and the light-hearted gaiety so +characteristic of Vartavar. It has been witnessed in Constantinople by +Armenians I know, who have given accounts to me. Whether or not it is +carried out in this manner in the villages and rural districts I am not +aware, but I should be very much surprised to learn that it was, for I +should certainly regard the festival in this form as a product of the +artificiality of city life. In the absence of wholesome amusements and +of the community solidarity characteristic of the Armenian village, +contact with city-bred folk would inevitably result in a shift of +standards of judgment and valuation, together with a break-up in +old habits of thought and life; and as the people have no common +play-ground, so to speak, except the poor denuded cemetery allotted +them by the Turkish government, one can well excuse the ugliness of +the spectacle. The Armenian has Vartavar, a real festival, and need +not look with shame upon this festival in commemoration of the dead. + +This same offering of sacrifice for the dead is carried on in a +variety of ways. In Armenian villages the family of the deceased +prepares a lamb or a kid with rice, and on the day of the funeral +pieces of it are given to the attendants; given, as they say, and +taken, in sacrifice for the dead. The practice in Constantinople is +somewhat different, although the idea is exactly the same. Forty days +after the death of an individual, or perhaps on the anniversary of +the death, the bereaved family prepares a lamb or a kid with rice, +which is distributed to the people in small pots, and given, as they +say, in sacrifice for the dead. The Greek custom in this respect is +most absurd. At the head of the casket, which is left open, two men +march in the funeral procession carrying a wide tray filled with boiled +wheat and sugar, and trailing a piece of black crape. After the burial +this is distributed to the mourners in handfuls, again in sacrifice +for the dead. Libations set aside and poured out in Roman days are +illustrative of the same thing. That these practices are not Christian +but distinct survivals of pagan festivals and customs is very clear. + +The above conclusions, namely, first that the festival as I +described it is an aberration of city life, and second, that although +identified with the church it is distinctly pagan in character, are +borne out by Abeghian, whose material, as an Armenian who for many +years lived in the little Armenian village of Astapat, is distinctly +first-hand. [129] Worship of the deceased, he says, begins immediately +after death. Each departed soul, and especially those of elderly +people, requires particular honor on the first day after death, and +during the ensuing year. It is for this reason a great misfortune for +an Armenian peasant not to have a child. A still greater misfortune, +however, it is to die in a strange land where there are none to care +for the departed soul. That a curious evolution has taken place in +these requirements is very clear. In the beginning, satisfactions +of a material kind were required, something to eat and to drink, and +accordingly the custom arose of placing bread upon the heart of the +dead, or sanctified bread in the cavity of the mouth and incense in +the nostrils. Then there arose the idea of facilitating the journey +of the departed into the beyond, and of making the future life +of the soul a happier one. For example, Armenians generally bathe +the bodies of their dead in blessed water, and wash the clothes of +the deceased on the day following burial for the purification of +the soul so that it may arrive spotless at its destination. Since +the soul has been cleansed of all sin through the symbolic washing +of the body and clothes, no more covering is required for the body +than a large white cloth. No other color is permissible. Should the +deceased be more than ten years of age, candles or oil lamps are +burned during eight days over the spot where the body was bathed +in order to lighten the way of the soul into the beyond. According +to old beliefs, the destination of the departed soul is a place of +darkness, and hence two candles are placed in the hands of the dead +immediately after the bath in order that he may recognize his friends +and relatives in the world beyond. At frequent intervals during the +first year, food and drink are brought to the cemetery, and placed +upon the grave. There is weeping, eating, and drinking at these times, +and what food is left over is always placed over the grave. + +The souls of the righteous are thought of as luminous, the wicked as +black. Accordingly the blessed are called "spirits of light." [130] +In order to possess a bright soul one must have performed good works, +of which giving alms to the poor is considered the most important. Such +spirits are also called "generous," "charitable." It is a current +belief that the blackened souls become brighter through the good works +of descendants, as well as through their prayers. Offspring are thus +especially desirable, and the old Armenian liturgy, the Maschtotz +prepared by St. Mesrob, the inventor of the Armenian alphabet in +the fifth century, contains innumerable prayers for the dead. [131] +The prayers are short and their power is relative to the frequency +of repetition rather than to the length. Some sort of short prayer +is repeated with every thought of the dead, as for example, "May God +have mercy upon his soul"; "May his soul become lightened"; or only +"The illuminated soul." + +Several days of the year are set apart for particular remembrance +of the dead. [132] At these times the departed spirits are supposed +to come down from heaven and to roam about the vicinity of their +graves or in the homes of their relatives. On the eve of these +days it is necessary to do honor to their memory with incense and +candles, which are regarded as offerings. The odor of the incense +is especially pleasant to spirits, for the incense-tree also blooms +in paradise. [133] Saturday night is very commonly devoted to such +intercession and worship. Incense is burned upon the hearth while +prayers are repeated, or a flame is ignited upon a plate which is +carried into all the corners of the house, or barn, or wherever it +is believed the departed spirit may be wandering. In some places it +is customary to maintain the "light of the dead" throughout the night +in order that the spirits may enter the house. If they find the house +dark in looking through the roof window, they make away, cursing. Water +is not drunk in the dark during these nights, for it is believed that +to do so would be to take it away from the thirsty spirits of the dead. + +On the Day of the Dead the spirits are especially honored, for they +love most to wander in the neighborhood of their graves. People +actually feel themselves to be among the souls of the dead on this +celebration day. The latter are very happy to be thought of, and +are especially glad to have their graves blessed by the priests. But +to please them most one must bring wood and incense and leave it to +be burned over their graves. Three days the spirits remain upon the +earth, after which they return to heaven, their visit having been duly +honored. If they come to find themselves forgotten, they curse their +relatives and fly away in despair. Occasionally they come down to be of +service; especially is this true of the dead father and his living son, +for the former is especially remembered, and his grave is regarded +as holy. Armenians swear by the graves, or by the spirits of their +fathers, and call upon them for help in time of especial need. [134] + +Tavernier described the same festival in his Voyages and noticed that +it was considered the greatest infamy to eat with a "Mordischou," +the person who washed the dead. [135] No single festival and group of +relevant beliefs is more instructive in showing how much of Armenian +folk-belief and custom is the survival of paganism. + +There is yet another festival of this group, which, however, is not to +be traced to paganism, and it would be a mistake to suppose that the +church is connected with it in the same way and to the same extent +as it is with the first three festivals considered. The festival is +called Vartan's Day, and although the church sanctions the festival +and sets apart a day for the celebration, it comes about as near being +apart from the church as any single festival. Vartan was the general +of the Armenian army defeated at the battle of Avarair, spoken of in +Part One, by the Persian fire-worshippers who endeavored to impose +their religion upon the Armenians at a time when part of Armenia +was under the domination of Persia, and the remainder tributary to +Rome. But though defeated in battle, the moral victory, as people +now use the term, was Armenian, for the battle proved the utter +failure of the Persians to convert the Armenian people to their +religion. [136] Vartan saved the nation for Gregorian Christianity, +and it is significant that the people look upon Vartan as saviour of +the nation rather than as saviour of their religion, showing how the +religion was and still is identified with the nation. + +It is in his honor that the people hold a festival on the anniversary +day of the battle of Avarair. School children sing songs and +wreath Vartan's picture with red flowers. The belief is that this +peculiar kind of red flower sprang up from the blood of the Christian +army. Recitations and national patriotic plays are given, and as the +children participate in singing songs, reciting pieces, and rendering +plays, the older people participate in attending them. [137] + +Besides the belief of the red flower there are numerous other beliefs +hallowed by the day. Nightingales that fly over the battlefield are +supposed to sing "Vartan, Vartan," and there is a species of antelope +with a pouch of fragrant musk under its throat which is said to have +acquired its fragrance by browsing on herbage wet with the blood of +Armenian heroes. [138] + +Altogether it is the kind of festival to give expression to the +sentiment I have spoken of as love for the country, for its mountains, +rivers, and valleys, and for its ideals of freedom, independence, +and strength. In the presence of the state the festival probably +would be utilized to foster and give expression to the sentiment of +loyalty to the state. There would be specially chosen speakers to talk +of patriotism, waving of banners, and carefully designed methods of +instilling hatred for a real or supposed enemy, much as French school +children have been taught to hate Englishmen. But in the absence of +the state, the sentiment expressed must be a purer sentiment, loftier +and freer, and one can not but regret that Vartan's Day and similar +festivals have been suppressed by the Turkish government. And yet, +one could not reasonably expect otherwise. + + + + +SECTION 3. FORTUNE-TELLING DAY + +Most charming and most picturesque of festivals is that participated +in by the romantic Armenian maidens on the early dawn of Ascension +Day. [139] On the eve of the same day the young girls who wish their +fortunes told, decorate a large bowl with specially selected flowers, +after which each girl casts a token, a ring, a brooch, a thimble, +into the bowl. Flowers of several kinds are then put in, and the +bowl is filled with water drawn from seven springs. Then they cover +it with an embroidered cloth and take it by night to the priest who +says a prayer over it. The most carefully and daintily prepared bowl +is then placed out in the moonlight, open to the stars where it is +left until dawn. At early daybreak of the next morning, the maidens, +furnished with provisions for the entire day, go out of the village +carrying their bowl to the side of a spring, the foot of a mountain, +or into an open field, gathering on the way various kinds of flowers +with which they deck themselves. Having arrived at their place of +festival, they play games, dance, and sing, after which they take +a beautiful little girl, too young to tell where the sun rises, +who has been previously chosen and gaily dressed for the occasion, +to draw the various articles out of the bowl. The face of the child +is covered with a richly wrought veil that she may not see what is +in the bowl, and she then proceeds to withdraw the articles which +she holds in her hand one at a time. While this is done some one of +the party recites a charm song, and the owner of each token takes +the song which accompanies it as her fortune. There are thousands +of these charm songs, most of which have been written especially for +the festival, of which I shall give but a few. + + + 1. + + Snowless hang the clouds to-night, + Through the darkness comes a light; + On this lonely pillow now, + Never more shall sleep alight. + + 2. + + Like a star whose brightness grows + On the earth my beauty shows; + Thou shalt long for yet, and seek + My dark eyes and arching brows. + + 3. + + Long and lone this night to me + Passing slow and wearily; + Passing full of sighs and tears-- + Love, what doth it bring to thee? + + 4. + + Eden's smile my vineyard wore, + Flowers bloomed, a goodly store; + Handsome youth and ugly maid-- + This was never seen before! [140] + + +Thus each one carries its bit of prophesy, daintily and prettily +expressed, which when sung at the foot of some mountain, in the bright +eastern sunlight of the morning, while a little child is holding +tokens beside a bowl surrounded by the group of beflowered maidens, +makes as complete and charming a picture as one could well imagine. + +Many curious beliefs, superstitions, customs, and legends are +directly related to Ascension Day. It is believed, for example, +that on the eve of this day the water of the springs, brooks, +and rivers lies peacefully motionless for a single moment during +the night. At the same moment heaven and earth, mountain and stone, +trees and flowers beckon and congratulate one another. First heaven +congratulates and kisses the earth, then one star beckons to another, +one flower to another, and so forth until all of nature's objects +have expressed their mutual good feeling. Even plants and "soulless" +objects receive the gift of speech and share their secrets one with +the other at this time. He who hides himself in a stone crevice of the +mountainside may listen to the conversation of stones and flowers, +and understand what they tell each other. They tell on this night +what sort of sicknesses they and the springs will heal, and many +people endeavor to attend at this moment, but only a few succeed. [141] + +At midnight the waters are believed to have the power of healing, and +people bathe themselves in the streams. As the children are not to be +troubled during the night, water is warmed for them the next morning, +bits of grass are thrown in and the children are bathed. During the +magic moment the door of the cavern of "Maher," the revered hero god +who dwells upon earth, is opened: and one may enter to see him, his +steed, and the "wheel of the starred heavens" or the wheel of fate. In +one of the national epics (David of Sassun) Maher is represented +as the strongest of the heroes, and is supposed to dwell in a rocky +cave in the vicinity of Van [142] (probably the rock of Van). In this +cave all of the world's riches are heaped up, and the "wheel of the +world," the wheel of fate which constantly turns assigning to people +their destinies, stands there. Maher looks continually at the wheel +and if it should stand still, he comes out of his cavern to ravage +the world. The door of the cave is made of stone and covered with +cuneiform inscriptions. It is locked during the entire year except +for the night of the ascension of Christ, when it is opened during +the single magic moment. Whosoever perceives this moment may step +into the cave and take as much gold as he pleases. The idea of the +"wheel of fortune" is considerably extant, although it is not always +understood as separated from heaven and connected with Maher. [143] +That the idea of fate or of fortune is generally associated with the +day, not only by romantic maidens, but by the people, is very evident. + +The flowing waters are believed to change into gold during the silent +minute, and if one places an object in the water and wishes at the +same time that it become gold, the object turns to gold. Accordingly +the young men and women go to the springs and rivers in order to +draw water, trusting their fates that they may select the happy +moment. Superstitions and magic are not lacking, for while one member +of a party seats himself upon a pair of fire-tongs in the fashion +of a rider, another performs likewise upon a long-handled spit. The +iron tools are also regarded as a necessary protection against the +calls that one hears behind after the water has been drawn, for if one +should look back perchance, he would surely fall under the influence +of the evil spirits. The oldest of the party carries a gourd flask +full of wheat and barley, which is poured into the stream towards +midnight with the words "I give you wheat and barley; you give me +everything that is good." Thereupon he fills the gourd flask with +water, and the party hurries homeward to discover the gold. [144] + +The fortune-telling festival is given by Abeghian as he observed it in +his home village, and I shall give a free translation of his account +at this point because of a few interesting variations. In Astapet, +the festival is called the "Festival of the Mother of Flowers." On the +day before Ascension Day the girls and young women of the village +divide themselves into two groups, one to gather special sorts +of flowers from the mountainside, while the other goes to "steal" +water from seven springs, or seven rivers. The "thieves" must not +see each other, nor must the people of the village know aught of what +is happening. Having filled their vessels with water, each throws a +stone into the spring and then they turn back, taking care neither +to look about, to set down their vessels, nor to talk. They imagine +that the mountains, the valleys, trees, and meadows call out behind +them and if they should turn about they would be turned to stone. [145] + +At night of the same day the "water thieves" and flower gatherers meet +together in a garden to prepare the "Havgir" or magic bowl in which +is poured the water from the seven springs, and in which seven stones +from the seven sources, together with leaves of the gathered flowers +are dropped. Each one who wishes her fortune told now throws in a charm +token, such as mentioned before. Those who are not present send their +tokens in order to have them thrown into the "Havgir" by others. The +bowl is then adorned with flowers, after which the "Vicak" meaning +destiny or fate, is prepared. This consists of two pieces of wood tied +together in the form of a cross, which is dressed and adorned with +jewels and pearls to make it appear as a newly-married doll-bride. The +"Vicak" is fastened to the "Havgir," and both are placed under the +stars, in order that these who are the real destinies, may work the +proper magic upon the charm tokens. [146] A few girls guard it during +the whole night against the young men who try to steal it. + +Early the next morning the maidens gather together in the garden +laden with food baskets and prepared to make a day of it. The "Havgir" +and strangely fashioned "Vicak" are carried to a nearby spring, the +young girls decking themselves with flowers as they go. The spring +is decorated about with flowers, green leaves, and branches, and the +"Havgir" is placed in the middle, and then after they have prepared +everything and eaten, the oldest among them takes the "Vicak," kisses +it, gives it to another, who does likewise, and so it passes from +hand to hand. Finally a seven-year-old girl receives it. She sets +herself in the middle of the group and holds the "Vicak" while the +"Havgir" stands before her. The little girl is called "bride," is the +interpreter of the "Vicak" and is specially selected and dressed for +the occasion. When she has received the "Vicak" a red veil is passed +over both, and all is ready for the central event of the festival. A +charm song is sung by the group, and after each stanza the "bride" +draws a token from the vessel. The preceding verse reveals the fate +of the one to whom the token belongs. [147] + +The fortune-telling festival of Ascension morning stands quite +alone. Bodeful of the future and suggestive of the past, it can +not but have a serious tenor, for there are maidens whose lovers +have not been born, as there are also sadder ones. Perhaps they do +not take their verses very seriously. Whether they do or not there +is always the charm of sunrise colors, and the out-of-doors that +makes it as beautiful as it is romantic. The best of the future, +their brightest hope, the best of the present, warmth of sunshine +and color, and the best of the past, their golden dreams of youth, +are brought together on this day and given a common expression in a +way that must charm them as it charms the observer. Festivals to be +perfect festivals must be out-of-doors and the day must be bright. + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER III + +CHRISTIAN FOLK FESTIVALS + + +The second group of festivals comprises those newly created by the +church, such as the Blessing of the Grapes, New Year, Easter, and +Christmas. I wish also to include in this group a few of the peculiarly +characteristic church ceremonies which also have a distinct festival +value for the people, i.e., the ceremony of the "Washing of Feet" +on Maundy Thursday, "Khatchanguist" or the "Blessing of Water," the +consecration of the Katholikos, and the manufacture of the "holy oil." + + + + +SECTION 1. CHRISTMAS, EASTER, AND NEW YEAR + +The service of the church on any one of the festival days is +exclusively connected with the divine mystery, so called. These include +the Assumption, or Immaculate Conception, celebrated by the people +in the festival "the Blessing of the Grapes"; the miraculous birth, +which corresponds to the Christmas festival; the Transfiguration, +or the folk-festival Vartavar; the Redemption, to which the Easter +festival corresponds; and the Resurrection, including Ascension or +Fortune-Telling Day. There are other festivals celebrated by the +church, such as the festival of the Holy Cross, and of the Holy +Church, which I omit because there is not a corresponding social +expression. Grand mass is said at the church, and the particular +passages of scripture that have a direct bearing on the occasion +are read. The Armenian calendar is curious in that many of the +festivals occupy a succession of days; there are, for example, +39 days for the Resurrection, 3 days for the Transfiguration, 10 +days for the Ascension, etc., which make up a grand total of 136 +days in the year to which festivals are assigned. As there are 160 +days devoted to abstinence, 117 of which are liturgical abstinence, +that is, days of penitence mentioned in the liturgy, there are left +only 112 days for the commemoration of saints, which have necessarily +to be grouped together, since there are more than 112 saints. [148] +Because, therefore, of the continuity of festival days, one could not +expect any one of the festivals to have any social value from the +standpoint of the church service. But there is never any conflict +between the services of the church and the festivities without, +which are thus sanctioned by the church and in many cases directed +and carried out by church officials. It has been noticed that the +blessing of the priest was secured for the magic bowl, before it was +placed underneath the stars on the eve of Ascension Day. + +The festival of the Virgin Mary, or the "Blessing of the Grapes," +is more actively participated in by the church. It may be designed +to keep the people from eating green grapes, but more probably was +intended to give a social expression to an otherwise dull and very +monotonous church ceremony. The people are all expected to maintain +a strict abstinence from eating grapes until the middle of August, +the day set apart for the festival. The grapes are then gathered +in great quantities, some of which are carried to the church and +placed on a large tray, which is set at the foot of the altar. After +the ceremony of the church, the priest turns to the tray of grapes +before him, which he blesses with his cross. The tray is then taken +to the door of the church, where each member of the congregation is +given a bunch as he passes out. The fast is thus broken with the +taste of "blessed grapes," and there is no end of grape eating on +that day. During the remainder of the day every woman named Mary, +or named with a possible attribute of the Virgin Mary, as "Kudsa," +meaning "saintly," or "Dirouhi," meaning "Mother of the Lord," +keeps open house for the friends who drop in to eat grapes and to +congratulate her. In rural places or villages where vineyards are +abundant, social groups may be seen eating grapes from the vines +while talking or playing as they are inclined. Grapes ripen earlier +in some parts of Armenia than in others, and where this is true the +festival is merged with the festival of Vartavar. [149] + +For the festival of New Year's Eve no religious cooperation whatever +is necessary; it comes as near to being distinct from the church as +any of the Armenian festivals. The preparation consists largely in +making or purchasing gifts for the various members of the family, +in cracking bowls of nuts and getting all kinds of dried fruits +ready. Armenian and Greek New Year's Eve fall on the same night, +and in Constantinople there is much agitation and animation in the +streets. Singing and music fill the air, and as soon as dusk falls, +groups of boys, some carrying small lanterns, others provided with +tom-toms or hand-organs, begin the circuit of the streets. Thus they +go from house to house singing the New Year's song and playing their +hand-organs, receiving pennies as they go. After the boys have passed +along, the porters, watchmen, and firemen make a noisy procession down +the streets, they too playing hand-organs and stopping at one house +after another where they receive a drink, some sweets and nuts, and +most important of all, a tip. As midnight approaches, the excitement +increases; the pounding of the tom-toms becomes unbearable, all the +organs of the neighborhood are making music, and there is such a +noise of singing, shouting, and laughing as can be compared only to +a night of political election. Inside the homes of the better-to-do, +the children are put to bed for a time while the enormous New Year's +table is set. Besides several specially prepared New Year's dishes, +every home must be provided with a dish of every kind of fruit, dried +or fresh. Small candles are stuck around the plates, and the presents +are heaped up on a side table. At midnight the candles are all lit, +and the family ranges itself around the table while the eldest, usually +the grandmother, blesses all and prays. After the prayer she wishes +to all the best things for the coming year, for the young ladies good +husbands, for the young men prosperity and good wives, happiness for +the little children, and comfort and health for the older ones. These +wishes having been given, all kiss the hands of the older members of +the family, after which the children kiss each others' hands. The +presents are exchanged; fruits, candies, and nuts are partaken of, +and the fun goes on until dawn. [150] In the interior of Armenia, +two elders of the church go from door to door of the more fortunate +ones on the day before New Year, carrying bags which they fill with +the offerings received at every house. These are carefully parceled +out and at dusk are left at the doors of poor families who would +otherwise have no New Year's cheer. + +The church makes up amply in the Easter festival for any lack of +participation at New Year. Forty-eight days of rigid lenten abstinence, +during which time no meat is eaten, precede the festivities of Easter +Day. The first two or three days of the Holy Week are given over to +housecleaning, which however must be finished by Thursday in order +that the people may attend the ceremonies at church which continue +until Easter Day. On Thursday afternoon "the Washing of the Feet," +to be described later, commences, and the service continues until past +midnight. On Saturday all go to the bath, which is made an essential +part of the week's celebrations, and on the afternoon of the same day +the real Easter service, called the Lighting of the Lights, begins. The +church is first illuminated on Easter Eve, for on the three preceding +days of mourning and sorrow the altar shrine is kept closed and no +candles are lit. Even the congregation holds lighted wax candles while +the triumphal songs are chanted by the robed choir of little boys. + +At the evening meal of the day before Easter the lenten fast is partly +broken by eating fish and boiled eggs, but no meat. [151] The denial +of the flesh recommences, however, at bedtime, for not a morsel is +eaten until Easter midday. Early dawn sees the people putting on their +new clothes, especially new shoes which are considered a necessity +on this day, and all, newly attired, go to church where communion is +celebrated. The church is usually filled with flowers and its most +brilliant ornaments are displayed, the service ending at midday in time +for the usual feast of stuffed roast lamb, the customary red eggs, and +the egg bread made only at Easter time. In the afternoon the men visit +from house to house and something dainty is always served, a cocktail +or a cup of coffee with sweets like Turkish delight or bonbons. The +formula repeated by the guest upon entering a house is always the same; +"Christ is risen from the dead," he exclaims, and is answered by the +host with the usual formula, "Blessed is the resurrection of Christ." + +Perhaps the boys enjoy Easter most of all. Provided with red Easter +eggs, they collect in groups, whereupon there follows a most vivacious +competition to win each other's eggs by clashing them together. The +champion egg is used until it is broken, when a new champion is quickly +brought forth. This process continues as long as there are two or +more unbroken eggs, the game being won when all of the broken eggs are +in the possession of the boy who holds the champion egg. Picnic day, +or the "Day of the Dead," follows Easter Day, as I have described it, +and it is singularly strange that a "day of resurrection" should be +followed by a "day of the dead," when prayers are said and offerings +given in sacrifice for the departed. But people are not mindful of +such little incongruities; they are simple and carry out the festival +celebrated by their fathers, much as their fathers celebrated it. + +The week before Christmas is likewise devoted to a thorough +housecleaning by the Armenian housewife, and on the day before, +special dishes are prepared for the next day's feast. Again there +is the customary bath which is observed by all the members of the +household. On Christmas Eve the abstinence of the preceding days +is partly broken, usually with fried fish, lettuce, and boiled +spinach. Boiled spinach is the rule because it is believed that this +dish made up the supper of the Virgin Mary on the eve of Christ's +birth. At church special vespers are sung and there is much emphasis +laid upon special selections from the prophets which are also sung. An +hour before dawn the sexton alone, or with a group of choir boys, +goes from door to door singing what is called "the good tidings." It +is the signal for the faithful to awake, don their best clothes and go +to church again without eating breakfast. The holy bread and wine are +not to be profaned by the people having eaten a breakfast of ordinary +food, with the consequence that not a few faint during the service, +even as at Easter time. But the ceremony is finished by half past ten, +after which the women go home to prepare the midday feast while the +men visit the homes of their friends. The never-failing formula of +the guest upon entering the house of a friend is, "Christ is born and +manifested to-day," which is responded to by the host with "Blessed is +the manifestation of Christ." Each visit lasts about fifteen minutes +and sweets and coffee are served. At midday the Christmas feast is +partaken of, all make merry around the table, and in the afternoon +more calls are paid and received. The festivities are observed for +three days, the third being ladies' day, which is devoted by the +ladies to giving and receiving visits. They offer their salutations +and good wishes to each other, eating dainties even as the men. Shops +and business places of Armenians are usually kept closed for three +days. [152] + +There is thus considerable similarity between Easter and the Christmas +festivities, which is probably due to more or less sameness in the +church ceremonies. These ceremonies, always well attended, are made +attractive to the people by beautiful displays of flowers, vested choir +boys, the charm of whose singing can only be understood by those who +have heard them; also by special singing, not by the congregation, +but by those who can sing, and with such enticing little additions +as the Lighting of Lights. The services are thus as much and as +real a part of the day's rejoicings as the feasts and social visits, +and if they are designed consciously or unconsciously to give active +expression to the sentiment of loyalty to the church one must admit +that the expression is a perfectly free and natural one. Abstinences +do not make the festivities attractive, to be sure, and there are +more unfortunate communities who can not afford so lavish a display +as others; but flowers need only to be picked from the fields, and +boys there are always, even in the poorest churches. The holiday +rejoicing has somewhat more of the serious blend which is to be +contrasted with the more perfect gaiety of New Year's Day, and is +probably due to the weightiness of its religious significance of which +one is constantly reminded, not only by the services at the church +but also by the salutations of visitors and the necessary replies, +always the same. But even the gaiety of New Year is not to be compared +with the perfect lightness and freedom of merriment that characterize +some aspects of Vartavar, nor do any of the Christian folk festivals +have the completeness of Vartavar. + + + + +SECTION 2. SPECIAL CHURCH CEREMONIES + +Together with this second group of festivals including as they do +Christmas, Easter, New Year, and the Blessing of the Grapes, I wish +to include a short series of church ceremonies all of which have a +very distinct festival value, beside their value in being singularly +characteristic of the Armenian church. They are distinctly different +from the festivals of the preceding section, in that the festivities +are incidental to a ceremony peculiar to the Armenian church. The +"Washing of Feet," the "Blessing of the Water," the consecration +of the Katholikos, and the manufacture of the holy oil, are those I +desire to describe. + +The "Washing of Feet" occurs on Maundy Thursday, three days before +Easter. [153] This day is the first of three successive days of +mourning spoken of, during which the altar is closed, and no lights +are lit. After the mass the bishop puts away his brocaded robes, +and kneeling in imitation of Christ washing the feet of His disciples +on the night of the betrayal, he washes the feet of the priests and +choristers, of whom there are usually eleven. Christ washed the feet +of twelve, but one of them was unworthy. The service then continues +until midnight, and while the ceremony is in progress, the lights are +put out one by one, to remain out until the "Lighting of the Lights" +on Easter eve. If the church is a parish church in which a priest +officiates, a number of little boys are ranged in order for the +"Washing of Feet," which in this case is performed by the priest, +who anoints the soles of their feet with oil after he has washed +them. Each boy is given a walnut shell and before he moves from his +place he carefully scrapes some of the oil into his shell, and carries +it home to place in the butter. If he does this it is believed that +the supply of butter will not fail throughout the year. + +This same service was observed by a writer in the Survey, in a church +on East 27th Street, New York, rented by a company of Armenian folk +residing in that city. [154] The same symbolic "Washing of Feet" was +carried out on the evening of Maundy Thursday in much the same fashion +as it is carried out in the home-land. The symbolism, the pageantry, +the color of oriental Armenian worship, the silver-mounted Bible on +the altar in the center, the rising steps, the crosses, the lighted +candles, and the incense were all there. A white-robed choir with green +velvet copes filed in, singing long chants. The choir was followed +by two priests, and the priests by the bishop with his mitre, robe +of crimson and gold, and his ivory cross held in the right hand with +a kerchief of crimson silk. A shining crozier held in his left hand +marked his office as shepherd of the flock; a large jewel locket and +cross hung from his breast and was probably the gift of the Czar. The +choir chant that continues all the while was described as an intricate, +rhythmless tune, now passionate, now wailing and altogether "oriental," +accompanied by a few older folk here and there who were humming in +unison with the choir and the leader, who was beating time. Beside +the humming the congregation took no part in the service except that +it stood up for the psalm and prayer. Suddenly a sound to the right +brought the observer's attention to an old woman lying prostrate +in the aisle. No one helped her, no one even seemed to notice her, +but presently she rose to a kneeling posture and lifted her eyes in +prayer to the altar. Again she prostrated herself, and again rose to +lift her eyes to the altar, which performance was repeated a third +time before the old woman took her seat. "Der Voghormia" meaning +"Lord have mercy upon us," was repeated ten times by the interceding +bishop in a voice loud and intense, and a second ten times, and a +third ten times. The chant quickened, and as the aged priest took the +Bible from its place and held it toward the audience the bishop gave +his benediction of peace to the "four corners of the earth." There +was another chant after which the washing of the feet commenced. With +deep seriousness the bishop placed his staff by the altar, laid aside +his mitre and brocaded robes, and beginning with the aged priest, +he knelt beside a bowl of water to wash his feet. Ten more of those +who came forward shared in the ceremony. "I can not so serve you +all," he said at the close of his address, "I am sorry. Take as +symbolic what is done." There was a short intermission, but before +ten o'clock the penitential service recommenced and continued until +midnight. The story of Christ's betrayal in the garden was read, and +the chants continued, wilder, sadder, and more wailing, accompanied +by murmurs and occasionally by low cries from the people. As midnight +approached the lights were dimmed one by one, and the emotion became +more intense. As the hour struck, the congregation rose, and with +clasped hands joined in a closing song and prayer. There were only +a few score people present. + +The prostration of the old woman reminds one of the spiritually +wounded who lay prostrate over the floor during the times of the +Kentucky revivals, but the fact is there is nothing hysterical in +this particular phase of Armenian worship. The attitude is commonly +practiced by Armenians, especially among the peasant classes. They lie +flat touching their heads to the ground. [155] But the posture is more +peculiarly oriental than it is peculiarly Armenian. No sight is more +common in the countries of Islam than the faithful Moslem who spreads +his bit of carpet upon which he kneels with gaze fixed toward Mecca, +prostrating himself repeatedly as he murmurs his prayers. + +Although the picture given by Dubois of a simple church service he +attended in Koulpe, Armenia, is not the ceremony of Maundy Thursday, +it has one or two strokes of native color that make it impossible to +omit. [156] The church was poor and simple, the walls were built of +stone cemented by clay or bad lime. Two rows of large beams neither +squared nor trimmed supported the earthen roof in the manner of +columns. At the farther end was a kind of niche, partitioned off by +means of soiled curtains, thus forming a sanctuary where stood the +priest, clothed in torn robe, to read the prayers. All of the little +boys of the village encircled him, kneeling and chanting or reciting +prayers, turn by turn. The eldest placed themselves outside of the +choir and knelt on straw mats or on sheep's skins which marked their +customary places, and kissed the earth, or murmured very low the words +of the priest, or responded to the chanting at high pitch. The women +held themselves apart, their faces half veiled, filling the back of +the church behind the men, and, with lowered heads, were the first +to leave. + +The kneeling posture and the prostration is again clearly in +evidence, which together with what has been said is sufficient to +show that this attitude, especially among the common people, is a +very ordinary one and is therefore to be regarded merely as a very +generally recognized posture of worship, and not at all significant +necessarily of "conviction of sin" or a "feeling of penitence," which +is nevertheless suggested. The church at Koulpe must have been a very +poor one not to have benches, but it had its little chorus of boys, +and the people participated in much the same way as in the little +church in New York, although nearly a hundred years have passed since +Dubois attended the simple service. + +"Khatchahankist," meaning literally, "repose of the cross," is the +second of the four church ceremonies I shall describe. The ceremony +might better be named "the Blessing of the Water," for that is what it +really consists of. In the towns of Turkey the churches devote one day +each week to the performance of this rite, but in other churches it +occurs at the end of a special mass, as for example on Ascension Day, +or on the commemoration day of St. Gregory. [157] There is always a +very great gathering on this occasion largely because of the various +superstitions connected with it. A large silver bowl of water is +brought and placed on a stand at the foot of the altar, after which +the officiating priest comes forward with relics of the Holy Cross, of +the saints, or a simple silver cross in his hand. The more frequently +used relics are those of St. Gregory the Illuminator, St. John the +Baptist, St. James of Nisibis, or St. George the Martyr. The priest +reads prayers over the water, which are answered by the chants from +the choir, after which he dips the relic or the cross into the water +three times, finally making the sign of the cross over the bowl. The +Lord's prayer is repeated, after which a ladle is placed on one side +of the vessel, while the priest kneels on the other, cross or relic +in hand. Now the people crowd about, cross their faces and kiss the +cross, and then take up the ladle to drink of the water thus blessed +especially for drinking purposes. It is used also for ablutions, +for popular belief endows the sacred liquid with curative power. + +Some of the prayers that are repeated and the texts that are read +during this ceremony are well worth noting, for they illustrate the +candid interest of all participating. After the reading of the texts, +the deacon repeats the following proclamation: "Let us pray unto God +who loveth mankind and hath given for hope and refuge his victorious +holy cross, which is armor invincible against the inworkings of Satan, +to the end that whatsoever it touches, this water and all creatures. He +shall through the same vouchsafe both healing and mercy." The priest +then prays: "Bless, O Lord, this water, and hallow it with thy holy +cross, in order that the flocks and sheep which may approach and drink +of the same, may derive therefrom freedom from disease and sterility; +for from them we select sacrifices of fragrant sweetness and offer them +as victims to thyself." And again the priest prays: "Bless, O Lord, +this water with the life-giving powers of the cross that everyone who +shall drink thereof may derive therefrom a medicine of soul and body, +and a health from the diseases which afflict him." Again: "Bless, +O Lord, this water with thy holy cross, that it may impart to the +fields where it is sprinkled profitable harvests, and that all plants +and herbs may be more than ever increased in fruitfulness." [158] +The cross is then passed three times over the water with the words, +"Let this water be blessed and hallowed in the name of the Father, +and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." This is followed by a +short proclamation by the deacon and a closing prayer by the priest, +after which the assembled people receive of the magic water as above +described. + +This frank personal interest is characteristic of many of the church +ceremonies. For example in the sacrament of holy communion, incense +is offered with the prayer, "Do thou in its stead send upon us the +graces and gifts of thine Holy Spirit." [159] + +Of central importance to the nation as to the religion is the ceremony +of the consecration of the Katholikos, the supreme authority of the +church, which is held in front of the Cathedral at Etchmiadzin. [160] +People from near and far gather together to witness this event, +and lest they should fail to see the central act of the ceremony, +the roofs near-by are all used for the greater advantage they give +to the observer. The banner of the Katholikos is set flying from +the belfry tower; in front of the entrance to the Cathedral is set +a wooden dais covered with carpets and costly embroideries whereon +the ceremony is performed; the procession is formed and all is then +in readiness. A service is held in the Cathedral, after which the +procession issues from the church, and the various state and church +officials including representatives from the Russian government, +the choir and deacons, all take their places about the platform. The +twelve bishops who reside at Etchmiadzin, and whose business it is +to wait upon the Katholikos, now appear gorgeously attired, escorting +the central figure of the day, over whose head two attendants carry a +richly embroidered canopy. The patriarch falls on his knees, his feet +beneath his body in full accordance with the ordinary posture. One +bishop now reads, after which another advances bearing in his hands the +image of a dove wrought in gold. It is the receptacle of the holy oil, +which is a mixture of the sacred oil blessed by St. Gregory, sparingly +used and carefully preserved in the treasury of the Cathedral, and +of the specially prepared oil consecrated in Sis in Cilicia. While +one bishop is pouring the holy oil from the neck of the golden dove +over the head of the patriarch, the other bishops gather around to +spread the oil about with their thumbs, making at the same time the +sign of the cross. A piece of cloth is now placed over his head, his +face being covered at the same time by a veil which is attached to +the cloth. After a brief interval the newly consecrated Katholikos, +followed by the bishops, officials, and procession, reenters the +church in order to complete the ceremony. When the procession again +files out escorting the pontiff to his residence, the choir sings, +and the Russian band plays. Festivities continue throughout the day +and into the night, including mainly the banquet with its toasts +and songs by the choir, and the concert furnished by the band in the +evening. The band is a foreign innovation, although the particular +band observed by Lynch consisted mostly of Armenians. + +The holy oil used in the consecration consists for the most part of +the preparation manufactured in Sis, as stated, and with which there +is a special ceremony connected, which is of general importance, +for the oil is also used for the various necessary consecrations +of all the churches. In the church at Sis is treasured a gorgeous +silver bowl, decorated with turrets and pinnacles, in which "Muron" +as it is called, or holy oil is made every four years. Pilgrims +come from far to witness the event. The bowl, which holds about a +gallon of oil is placed outside the church, and in it are placed +a hundred and one kinds of flowers amid prayers and chants. [161] +These flowers are stirred with the arm of St. Gregory, after which +the lid is put on and the mixture made to boil. [162] The privilege +of lifting off the lid is auctioned, and it is said that L100 was +once paid for the distinction. The oil is then sold to the pilgrims, +all of whom take a phial of it along to their homes where it is used +in baptism, marriage, and burial ceremonies. It is also believed to +have wonderful medicinal properties. + +The chief social value of these ceremonies lies in the fact that they +bring large groups of people together under unusual circumstances, +all of which adds importance to the various rites and festivities +of the occasion. Especially is this true of the consecration of the +Katholikos, which may occur twice or at the most three times in a +generation. For this reason and also because of the authority and +position of the Katholikos, not only as head of the church, but also +in a very real sense, as head of the nation, this ceremony is attended +by many pilgrims from the various sections of the country. Having +assembled, the occasion is thus made a great deal more of than if it +were an ordinary event. The day is a festival day in the full meaning +of the term. Besides the services there is the banquet, the special +choir, and the band. The relics kept in the treasury, which it is +probable that most people who come have not seen before; also the +holy churches of St. Gaiane and St. Rhipsime, which are visited by +small groups throughout the day; and most of all the sacred altar of +the Cathedral, where Christ descended in the vision of St. Gregory, +are special attractions. And then there is the library where many +ancient and precious manuscripts are exhibited, the institution of +the monastery, the garden of the Katholikos, the printing press, and +the seminary, all of which are of interest to the spectator. In fact +there is sufficient to induce the pilgrims to remain for a number of +days, which many of them do. The grounds are provided with a pilgrim's +court surrounded by guest chambers utilized at this time. Naturally +enough the various monuments suggest the traditions and legends with +which they are connected, such as the traditions of St. Gregory, +Tiridates, the legends of St. Rhipsime and St. Gaiane, and the other +legends associated with the introduction of Christianity. Although +centered about a religious ceremony which probably lasts no longer +than fifteen minutes, the occasion is thus made a festival, and is +about as important in fostering a real sentiment of patriotism and +of church loyalty as any other single festival. + +The ceremony of the manufacture of the holy oil is not of such central +importance. It also, however, has the advantage of not occurring very +frequently, coming as it does only once in every four years. This +together with the general utility of the oil in all of the various +church ceremonies, plus the superstitions connected with it, is +sufficient to induce pilgrims to make the journey to Sis in Cilicia, +where the ceremony is held. It is again this assembly of pilgrims +that gives the ceremony a social importance. In a nation like the +United States where all parts are connected by railroads, telegraphs, +and telephones, such a pilgrimage would have comparatively little +social value. Except for government centers, there are no telegraphs +in Armenia, the telephone is known only in a few cities, and railroads +there are none. This lack of communication gives such ceremonies to +which pilgrimages are made a very special social value which they +otherwise would not at all have. The electoral assemblies spoken of +have the same value, and for the same reason. The Armenian is not a +person to be silent, and talks even when prudence is the better part +of valour. He criticizes, condemns, and praises openly, fearlessly, +and carelessly, and such a gathering of pilgrims, or electors, if +it means anything, would mean a wholesale exchange of facts relating +to current events, opinions, and rumors with reference to politics, +religion, and every phase of social and industrial life. + +The Blessing of the Water can not be said to have so great a social +value, occurring as it does in some parts of the country once every +week. And yet this service is unusually well attended, largely because +of the superstitions connected with the blessed water. Religion here +appears to offer its biggest attraction to the less fortunate, such +as the rheumatic, the tubercular, the dyspeptic, the epileptic, and +the feeble-minded. But enough facts have been mentioned to show that +the Armenian church is something more than an institution of cure and +relief. It has identified itself too completely with the common life +by keeping alive the streams and cross currents of social activity +to admit of such a supposition. + +The ceremony of Maundy Thursday, or Washing of the Feet, is, of +the four I have mentioned, of the least social importance. But it +is generally attended, especially by the women who are compelled +by the ban of custom to complete their house-cleaning before this +service begins. And then too, it is the commencement of the Easter +celebration, and as such has a distinct festival value. I have +reviewed them therefore in the order of their social importance. The +consecration of the Katholikos first; second the making of holy oil; +third, the Blessing of the Water, and finally, the Washing of the Feet, +which complete the second group of festivals. + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +PRIVATE FESTIVAL OCCASIONS + + +SECTION 1. BAPTISM + +The third group of festivals comprises those connected with the common +life of the people, including the ceremonies of baptism, betrothal, +marriage, and funeral. The church is vitally related to each of them, +and they are of importance here because of their social value, which +I shall again endeavor to point out. + +First after birth, the most important event in the life of every +Armenian child is that of baptism, for the belief is that the +unbaptized child has no soul. The infant is therefore generally +baptized on the day after birth, and when this is impossible always +within eight days of birth. If the child is sick there is all the more +reason to hurry; in this case the essential parts of the ceremony are +performed in the home, the remainder being celebrated at the church at +some later time. The very first thing to be done therefore after the +birth of a child is to make the necessary preparations for baptism, +which are very elaborate in the case of the first-born, especially if +the child is a boy. [163] A girl is always better than no child at all, +but not much better. A godfather and godmother are selected, presents +are exchanged between them and the parents of the child, invitations +are sent to friends and relations, and at a fixed time the assembled +people form a procession to the church, led by the midwife holding the +child. The godfather pays all expenses, and therefore such splendor as +the ceremony may have in the way of special ornaments for the altar, +numbers of priests, and a large choir, is determined by him. After the +group has properly assembled at the church, the priest takes the child +from the midwife and gives it to the godfather. The profession of faith +follows immediately and then the priest turns to the west to abjure the +devil and to the east to invoke the Trinity. [164] Having placed the +hem of his chasuble upon the babe, the priest proceeds to the sacristy +reciting a psalm, and followed by the people. The central event now +takes place. The baptism consists of three immersions in the name of +the Holy Trinity. First water is poured over the head of the child, +after which the whole body is plunged into the water. Confirmation is +administered right after the ceremony of immersion, and takes place +upon the altar of the church proper, before the image of the Blessed +Virgin. The forehead, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hands, back, breast +and upper part of the feet of the infant are anointed with holy oil, +and two wax tapers are placed in the hands of the godfather while +carrying the child. The priest then takes the tapers and the babe, +consecrates and confirms him by three profound inclinations before +the altar, gives candles and child back to the godfather and blesses +both. Now the child may be called by its Christian name, which is +usually that of a saint. [165] Led by the priest and the singing +choir, the procession now starts back to the home of the little one, +still carried by the godfather who continues to hold the candles. When +he reaches the door of the mother, she kneels and prostrates herself +before him. He in turn delivers the child to the mother's arms who may +now kiss it for the first time, the child not having been kissed by +any one from the moment of birth to the delivering over to the mother +by the godfather after baptism. Others may now also kiss the babe, +and each endeavors to be the first, for there is a superstitious value +attached to the first kiss following the mother's after baptism. The +priests and the family of the godfather spend the evening in the +child's home. They are served constantly by the father who does not +himself sit down. For forty days the mother must keep her room, and +walk only in such parts of the house as are exposed to the sun. [166] +Having completed the fortieth day she and her babe are taken to +church by the grandmother. [167] On this occasion the young mother +must bring an offering, which in times past was a rich Persian rug, +but is now merely a package of tapers. She waits at the door of the +sacristy until the priest comes and leads her in before the high altar +where both mother and child receive a blessing. After this ceremony +she must visit the godfather and kiss his hand in token of gratitude. + +If a funeral passes during the first forty days of the child's life, +the little one must be snatched up from the cradle and be carried +upright. People now come to offer their felicitations. The greeting +of the guest is always, "May God raise the child in the shadow of its +parents," to which answer is given, "May God bless you according to +your desire," or "May your tongue be always in good health." + + + + +SECTION 2. BETROTHAL + +It is the popular belief among Armenians that the practice of +early marriages dates from the proclamation of a Persian shah of +the sixteenth century, to whom part of Armenia was tributary. [168] +This edict was intended to wipe out Christianity, and provided for the +marriage of Armenian boys and girls with Persian children. In order to +evade the edict, the Armenian parents ran secretly from house to house +for several nights marrying off their children to each other. The +custom on the part of the parents of arranging for the marriage of +their children without the knowledge of the latter is supposed also +to be rooted in this event. Whether the explanation be true or not, +it certainly is not uncommon for children to marry at sixteen in the +interior of Armenia, and it is still generally true that arrangements +for the marriages of children are made without the knowledge of those +most concerned. [169] The girl does occasionally exercise choice, but +when the unfortunate suitor is not desired by the parents the feeling +of obligation on the girl's part, simply because she has lived at her +father's table, is sufficient to induce her to submit. [170] And the +same may be said of the young man, although the greater independence +of a son gives him a little more ground for acting contrary to his +father's wishes, than in the case of the daughter. But even when the +choice of the children is accepted, the arrangements and ceremony of +betrothal are always carried out by the parents. + +These arrangements are something as follows. The parents of a young man +consult his grandparents, and choose a young girl who to them seems +eligible. They then inform a woman match-maker of their decision, +and it is her business to sound the ground, so to speak, before a +proposal is made, since a refusal would ruin the boy's reputation. The +matchmaker is often a professional woman, and can therefore be relied +upon not to make a bungle of the job. Among other things, she finds +out what gifts the bridegroom-to-be must make to his future bride, +which can of course be done only after the proposal has met with a +favorable response on the part of the parents of the girl. "What can he +offer his bride," is the all important question from the standpoint of +the girl's family. Among the rich, but in times past, gold bracelets +bejeweled with diamonds or strings of gold pieces for adorning the +head or neck were common varieties of gifts. To-day silver plate, or +expensive heirlooms are given. After these matters have been decided +upon, preparations are made for the ceremony of betrothal, usually +held in the evening. The friends of the young man are notified to +meet together in his house at an appointed hour with the priest who +is given a ring which he blesses. The procession of the bridegroom's +friends headed by the priest now starts for the house of the bride. All +are provided with lighted wax candles which they hold in their hands +as they proceed down the streets accompanied by the sound of violin, +clarinets, drum, and joyful singing. Sometimes a detour is made in +order to lengthen the procession. + +Having arrived at their destination, the father and mother of the +girl pretend to know nothing whatever of the reason for the coming +of the guests, and conversation proceeds for a considerable time +without the slightest allusion to the matter of chief moment. The +priest finally makes the following statement amid profound silence: +"According to the law of the supreme Creator, and following the +usages of human society, we have the happiness of demanding the +hand of Miss X, for Mr. Y." The father of the girl pretends not to +wish to accept, stating that she is too young, or that her mother +is very desirous to keep her at home. But upon further pressing on +the part of the parents of the boy, the acceptance is given. It is +now the turn of the girl to be consulted; she, however, is nowhere +to be found. The priest searches, and when finally discovered she +does not speak a word. The former, however, knows, and offering his +hand he says, "If you consent, kiss the hand," which is straightway +done, for the girl has been informed beforehand that the kiss is to +be forthcoming. This part of the procedure takes place apart from +the crowd, and is followed by the presentation of the ring and the +benediction which must take place before the public. But since custom +forbids the girl to appear during the entire evening, a brother or +a sister comes forward and kneels before the priest to receive the +ring. The rest all kneel at the same time, and the priest gives the +benediction. The ring is carried by the child to the fiancee, the +health of the couple is drunk in rose-syrup, and congratulations and +compliments are exchanged. Whatever else is eaten or drunk, rose-syrup +must be at hand, for this is essential and peculiar to the ceremony. + +All this while the young man is within the walls of his own +home. Custom forbids him to appear at the house of his bride-to-be +until the wedding day, and if perchance the two should meet, he must +turn his head away while she hides herself. Towards ten o'clock the +party breaks up, and each guest is given a wax candle. All try to steal +something from the house before leaving, such as a bottle, a glass, +or a spoon, and if the thieves are not caught before they leave the +house, the articles are returned only at the price of a supper from +the head of the family. The party now returns to the home of the future +bridegroom, accompanied by the friends and relatives of the girl. The +procession formed, there is the same lighting of wax candles received +from the host, brightening the otherwise darkened streets, and the same +music and singing to triumph over the silence of the night. The young +man must stand upright before his future father-in-law all through the +visit. For him the great moment comes when the brother of his fiancee +takes him aside and offers him a glass of syrup prepared by her own +hands. The whole night is passed in song and amusement. During the +following fortnight both families receive visits of congratulation, +and at every visit the host or hostess must offer the syrup drunk at +the betrothal ceremony. + + + + +SECTION 3. MARRIAGE + +Elaborate and gay as are the festivities of betrothal, the celebrations +of marriage are so much more so that one is inclined to look upon the +essential religious ceremony as a pretext for the merry-making. [171] +The interval of a month which ordinarily intervenes between engagement +and marriage is devoted to making the necessary preparations for +the wedding. The bridegroom must get ready the promised ornaments, +a white wedding-dress for his bride, a fine veil to cover her face, +and a pair of shoes, a rather strange combination of gifts. One +wonders also why the necessary gloves and silk stockings are not +included. The young lady on her part prepares her trousseau including +garments of various sorts, bits of jewelry, a wooden chest filled with +her clothing, a mirror, a nuptial bed with the necessary accessories, +and a few cooking utensils; altogether an outfit quite as varied and +singular as the gifts of the bridegroom, but certainly practical +and sensible enough. Two days before the wedding, which usually +occurs on a Sunday afternoon, invitations are sent out to friends and +relatives, and musicians are secured. On the eve of the ceremony, the +godfather invites the bridegroom with his friends to a Turkish bath, +where they go to the accompaniment of music and singing. This part +of the celebration is full of laughter and song, and is continued on +the forenoon of the next day in the home of the bridegroom, when the +barber comes to shave him in the presence of the guests and musicians, +who sing and play as on the preceding evening at the bath. The occasion +is one of importance for the barber, who brings all sorts of perfumes +which are purchased by the guests and poured over the bridegroom; +he receives not only a large fee for his service but also a double +price for the scented extracts. The young man is then dressed up +while the priest and choir children who have arrived sing canticles. + +In the meantime very similar festivities occur in the home of the +bride, participated in by her young girl friends and relatives, +except that they are not characterized by the same spirit of loud +laughter and rejoicing. On the eve of the wedding the girls gather +around her to sing melancholy songs, in considerable contrast with +the gay, spirited music and singing taking place in the Turkish +bath at the same time. Having shared the sadness, they place a rose +leaf on the palm of each hand of the bride, which is covered with +henneh, a green Persian powder made into paste, after which each +hand is carefully bandaged up. So the poor sad girl must go to bed, +to sleep if she can. On the next morning her friends again arrive +to take the bandages off her hands, to dress her, and to sing and +dance about her. Except for the print of the rose leaf, the henneh +leaves the hands orange red, which is supposed to be beautiful. The +songs and dancing are again of a decidedly melancholy tone. Her white +dress, together with the coat of the bridegroom, must be blessed by +the priest, a ceremony which the church functionary performs alone, +both articles being sent to him early in the morning. Preliminary to +the day's events, and before breakfast, both bride and bridegroom, +being previously confessed, go separately to church, where they take +communion. This done, the festivities described follow, bride and +bridegroom are dressed, and all is in readiness for the ceremony +which occurs in the late afternoon or evening. + +The bride must ride to church on horseback, and having arrived she +is dismounted, and later remounted without touching her feet to the +ground, which rather cumbersome performance is accomplished through +the help of a brother or relative, who also rides the bride's steed +while the ceremony takes place within, for the horse is not to +be left riderless. The procession to the church is accompanied by +musicians. Before the rail which separates the choir from the body +of the church, two wooden chairs are placed, upon which the couple +sit down while the people present kneel on the mats covering the +floor. When the time comes for the blessing of the priest, the couple +arise, step inside the choir space, and stand facing each other between +the high altar and two witnesses, their foreheads touching. In this +position they receive the sacrament of matrimony, answering in the +affirmative the questions of the priest regarding their duties to +each other and to their children. Of the bride is demanded perfect +faithfulness to conjugal duties, entire obedience to the husband +of whom care, patience, wisdom, and love are required. The priest, +taking the right hand of the bride and placing it in the hand of +the bridegroom, says, "According to the divine order God gave to our +ancestors, I give thee now this wife in subjection. Wilt thou be her +master?" "Through the help of God I will," answers the bridegroom. The +priest then asks the woman, "Wilt thou be obedient to him?" to which +is answered, "I am obedient according to the order of God." These +questions are repeated and replied to thrice, in evident implicit +belief that once would not be sufficient. Finally, the priest ties +to each of their heads a cord and cross, which is again removed by +him late at night in the home with special ceremony, and it is only +after this performance that the couple may enter the nuptial chamber. + +After the ceremony at the church the procession starts back for the +home of the bridegroom's father, the bride riding upon her horse, +musician playing, and choir boys singing. The water-carriers, who +have supplied drinking water, break their jars noisily before the +bridegroom, drenching his marriage costume and giving rather an abrupt +signal to the godfather whose business it is to tip them. Noisily +the procession moves along the streets until it arrives at the +gate of the house. In days past it was the custom at this point in +the ceremony to place a sheep ready to be sacrificed at the feet +of the young couple, the poorer people contenting themselves with +chickens. The butcher put his knife to the neck of the sheep saying, +"May God thus put all your enemies under your feet, Amen, Amen." Then +pieces of coin mixed with raisins, pistachios, and other bits of nuts +or dried fruits are showered over the people from the windows above, +while the godfather leads the bridegroom within to the crowd of men, +and the godmother leads the bride to the women, everybody trying +to kiss the cross on their heads. The bride is then placed in the +seat of honor and in her arms is laid first a little boy, and then a +little girl, so that the first child may be a boy and if perchance +the will of God be otherwise at least a girl. Each guest now comes +to the bride to place at her feet a fruit in season. The bridegroom +is called "the prince of the feast" and must never quit his seat of +honor. If he does leave his chair he must place an object belonging +to him upon his seat, and if he should at any time omit to do so, +the assembly makes the godfather pay the necessary forfeit, which is +usually a dinner. Towards nine, the guests take their leave, having +eaten and sung to their uttermost desire. [172] + +Living in the home of her patriarchal father-in-law, the young +wife is subject to the severest restraints. She must wear a lightly +fitting veil enclosing her face below the eyes, without which she +can not appear even in the house. [173] She wears a close fitting +bodice fastened at the neck with silver clasps, full trousers of +rose colored silk gathered in at the ankles by a filet of silver; +her feet are bare, a silver girdle of curious workmanship loosely +encircles her waist, and a long padded garment, open down the front, +hangs from her shoulders. Not a single word must she utter to any +member of the household, except when alone with her husband, and then +only such as may be absolutely necessary, until she has given birth +to her first child. Then she may speak to her nursling, after a while +to her mother-in-law, later to her own mother, and by and by to the +young girls of the household, but never in all her life may she have +word with a young man not a relative. During her first year of married +life, she may not go out of the house except for two visits to the +church. Every morning and at the end of each meal she must pour water +over the hands of her father- and mother-in-law, and for a certain +time after marriage, when visitors come, she must kiss their hands, +except of course, for men, before whom she may not even appear. [174] +Apart from these troublesome restraints the young wife is treated +with the utmost solicitude, and in some parts, even the peasant +wife is not allowed to do outdoor work. In the mountain villages of +Persian Armenia, however, the women do all the tilling in the fields, +wearing their veils over their mouths as they work. [175] The author +here quoted states that husbands never see the mouths of their wives, +who not only must not speak during the first year of married life, +or until a child is born, but also may not converse freely with their +husbands until six years of married life have elapsed. [176] + +In such fashion the sanctity of the marriage relation is strictly +guarded, and as one would suppose, illegitimate births are unknown in +Armenia. Intermarriage among relations is forbidden, and until recent +years, divorce has been unknown. [177] As for the taboo on speech, +it is calculated not so much as an inducement to the production of +offspring as to preserve harmonious relations between the various +members of the patriarchal household. Even the patriarch with all +his authority would find difficulty in preserving proper decorum of +speech and manners in so heterogeneous a household, if every newly +acquired daughter-in-law were given a free rein in the use of her +tongue. As the neophyte is made to understand his position by a +brutal initiation, so the young wife is kept from assuming command +over the female household by the placing of a moral valuation upon +the silence which alone is compatible with the essential modesty +regarded as the first and chief of virtues among wives. In the +household of the patriarch there is a great deal to be done in common, +and unfortunately the occasion for mutual aid is not sufficient to +bring about the desired cooperation. Hence singleness of command and +authority is a necessary condition, not only of efficiency, but also +of peace, for it can not be supposed that so many daughters-in-law +would work together in harmony. It would be a mistake, therefore, +to regard the customary silence as an inducement to child-bearing. + +Identifying itself with the common events of life, such as birth, +marriage, and death, the church has not only given a religious meaning +to these occasions but has also sanctioned and even encouraged the +festivities that accompany them. These festivities have up to this +point been occasions for rejoicing, with the single and significant +exception of the melancholy singing of the bride's friends on the +eve and day of her wedding. There is a perfect naturalness about +all the merry-making and festivals so far considered, and this is +no less characteristic of the funeral celebrations now to be taken +up. The description of these will conclude my treatment of the last +group of festivals, which are more properly festival-ceremonies, +or ceremonies that have been made the occasion of festivity. + + + + +SECTION 4. FUNERAL + +The funerals, as one would naturally suppose, are more ceremonious, +more ritualistic, and although there is now generally a minimum of +festivity connected with them, this has not always been so. [178] +When the condition of a sick person is beyond hope, the priest is +notified and the person is given confession, communion, and extreme +unction. After death the eyes and mouth are closed, the body washed and +dressed up in the newest and cleanest clothes to be had, and the arms +crossed on the breast. [179] Two candles are kept burning until the day +of the funeral, one at the foot and one at the head of the coffin. Sad, +wooden bells are sounded, and guests are invited to pay their last +respects. Coffee is served to them, but without sugar, as a sign of +grief. Mourning women are secured, who eulogize the departed and weep +and lament until the priests begin their chanting. The corpse is now +taken to the church in a special coffin which is covered with a black +velvet cloth adorned with small white crosses, among the wealthy, but +among the poor the body is wrapped in linen and laid in a simple bier, +carried by relatives and friends. At the head of the procession, which +marches very slowly and chants on the way, there are carried a great +cross and two lighted torches, followed by the priests and then by +the coffin. The passer-by must stop and cross himself many times. At +the church the coffin is laid down, and if the relatives are wealthy +each person in the church is provided with a small wax candle which +is kept lighted during the service. While the ceremony proceeds the +body is blessed with holy water and perfumed with incense, after which +the procession re-forms to accompany the body to the cemetery. The +chanting is kept up all the way. At the cemetery the body is lowered +into its last resting-place, and the priest, after making the sign of +the cross on the four corners of the grave, throws three shovelfuls +of earth into it and three more on the coffin. The people imitate +by throwing three handfuls of dust, and the ceremony completed, all +return to the home of the deceased where they partake of steaming +broth prepared by the neighbors and friends, and recite prayers for +the soul of the dead. This latter practice, as said before, is a pagan +survival, as is also the chanting of mass for the departed, which +occurs three days later, at which time broth is again distributed, +but this time to the poor as a sacrifice to the dead. The grave is +blessed on the third day, again on the ninth, at the close of the +third month, and for the last time, at the close of the year. + +The funeral of a priest is performed with much splendor. [180] +The procession makes a circuit of all the churches, and stopping at +different places, portions of the gospel are read. If the priest be +of high rank, as an archbishop, or a bishop, he is carried in an open +coffin and in a sitting posture, dressed up in official vestments, in +which position he is interred in the courtyard of the church. Farmers +send sheep to be killed and given to the poor as a sacrifice. The +Greeks in Constantinople also carry their dead in an open coffin, +but this is because a Greek official who was a refugee prisoner in +Constantinople at the time of the war of the Turks with the Greeks, +endeavored to get himself carried out of the country by feigning death +and boxing himself up in a coffin. But the Turks discovered the ruse +and it was enacted by the sultan that thereafter all Greeks must be +carried to their graves in open coffins. The custom in respect to +the Armenian bishops, however, has no connection with this. + +In some parts of Armenia, as for example in Erzerum, the snow lies +so deep in winter-time that burial is well-nigh impossible. During +spring-time, with the melting of the snow, coffins have been found +perched up on tree tops. This was related by an Armenian boy I know +of, who lived in the vicinity of Erzerum. Curious customs of the past +have left their marks. In Tarsus, for example, there are Armenian +graves ranged about a tree which is asserted to have been planted +by St. Paul, each provided with a stone upon which has been carved a +symbol of the deceased, for the merchant, a representation of weights +and measures, for the blacksmith, an anvil and hammer, for the scribe, +an inkstand and pen, and for the industrious housewife, a distaff +and spindle. In the cemetery of Nakhitchevan is a large building +in which the mourners have a great repast after the funeral, and in +certain other graveyards, Dubois found innumerable pieces of broken +pitchers and crockery, which were probably broken, as the custom is, +to ward off the evil spirit of the dead. + +These four ceremonies complete the third and last group of festivals +described. I have called them ceremonies because fundamentally that is +what they are, but they are to be distinguished sharply from the many +church ceremonies I have not so much as mentioned, by reason of their +festival or social value which alone makes them proper subject-matter +for this thesis. The relation between these ceremonies as revealed in +the common procession, as well as in the religious ceremony necessary +to each is due largely to the fact that they have to do with the +most ordinary, and yet most extraordinary of life's events, birth, +betrothal, marriage, and death. + +Reviewing them from the standpoint of their social or festival value, +it is obvious that the marriage celebration easily takes first place, +the betrothal festivities second, baptism and funeral third. There is +the rather uncouth, perhaps, but none the less spontaneous gaiety of +the friends of the bridegroom, not only on the eve of the wedding-day +when they go to the bath, but also on the morning of the wedding-day +when the unfortunate youth is assuredly cured of any addiction he +might have to the use of perfumes. I should imagine that the music +would begin to bore the young men by the time the barber arrives, +since the musicians also accompany the rejoicing of the night before, +and yet it may be said that there could be nothing more convenient +or ingenious devised to carry over a lull in the merry-making, for +after all, the young men could not well be singing, joking, laughing, +and teasing all the time. In striking contrast is the melancholy +rejoicing of the party of young women at the home of the bride. But +where there is dancing and singing there can not well be weeping, +although no doubt it is more natural for the bride to be thoughtful +on her wedding-day, than for the bridegroom, for it is the former +who leaves her home to spend the rest of her days in a very new, +very strange, perhaps even unkindly world. There is still another +reason for the melancholy, in that the girl must know she is bidding +farewell forever to the delights and joys and freedom of childhood, +for although to-day she may speak and sing and make merry, to-morrow +morning she must be silent and prepared to pour water over the hands +of her father- and mother-in-law. Henceforth it is for her to be +submissive, obedient, docile, uncomplaining even at heart, for what +use will it be to complain, and though her most cherished dreams +may be of motherhood, does she not also have spirit, and why must +it be broken? Is she then only a chattel to be sold into everlasting +bondage? It is all too evident, even to the dullest of brides, that +the happiness of childhood is forever past, and the brighter one can +hardly fail to feel that she has been bartered for the bit of gold +about her waist or neck. + +There is then the very highest of social value to be attributed to both +of these festivities, and largely because in each group of people, +the young men on one side, the young women on the other, there is +perfect community of feeling, mutual understanding, and freedom +of thought and expression. In comparison with these gatherings, +the mixed assembly at the house of the bridegroom after the marriage +ceremony is of little importance. The succession of events covering a +period of nearly thirty-six hours, of which only a few, and perhaps +none at all, are spent in sleep by the members of the bridal party, +must certainly begin to have its effect by the time the little baby +doll is placed in the lap of the bride. + +The betrothal party is always out for a good time, for they realize +that the merry-making is to be an all-night affair. There is the +procession with its candles lighting up the darkened streets, the music +and singing filling all space, the humorous little artificialities in +the house of the bride,--real enough, at least ceremoniously, from +the standpoint of the family,--the syrup, the attempted stealing of +utensils, the return procession, the singing, music, and dancing at +the home of the young bridegroom-to-be, without stop until dawn. All +of this makes a rather complete occasion, even for young people. + +Baptism and funeral rites come nearest being pure ceremonies. But +even the baptismal rite has its procession to and from the church +participated in by all the friends and relatives of the family, and +though the event is an occasion neither for rejoicing nor for sorrow, +it is important enough, occurring as it does but once in the lifetime +of each individual. There are, to be sure, the social calls that follow +the ceremony. But the event can not be said to have any attraction +for the young; and if this is true of baptism, it is still more true +of funerals. Nevertheless there is the distinct psychological value +of each, calling up as they do various associations, as the baptism +of this one, or the death of another one, and thus keeping alive +the deepest experiences of life. If they are crude and offensive +to more delicate tastes, it must be remembered that a belief is +represented in the concrete fashion essential to the simple mind, +a mode of representation necessary to the best of intellects even +though on another plane. + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER V + +SUMMARY + + +Such are the festivals treated in the second and last part of this +thesis. Is it true that they form a vehicle of expression for the +national sentiment created by the large mass of social material +of which the legends of Part One are a considerable and important +portion? Again it will be necessary to remind ourselves of the +chief sentiments included within Armenian national sentiment, i.e., +the sentiment of loyalty to the church, the sentiment of reverence +amounting almost to worship for the ancient glory of the nation, +and the sentiment of love for the country. It would be ridiculous +to suppose that every festival was designed to give expression to +some one of these sentiments. But that these sentiments are given +very clear, very real outward expression in the great majority of the +celebrations described, should be so evident at this point as to make +further exposition unnecessary. In the summer Festival of Vartavar, +the spring Festival of Mihr, Vartan's Day, and in the consecration +of the Katholikos there is the proud and reverent looking back to the +times when Armenia was an independent nation; the festival ceremonies +of the third group, baptism, betrothal, marriage, and funeral, though +they are not positive expressions of the sentiments of loyalty to the +church, are yet so completely interwoven with the church and dependent +upon it that one is compelled to regard the feeling as something to be +taken for granted, while in most of the festivals of the second group, +Christmas, Easter, Maundy Thursday, and the Blessing of the Grapes +especially, the sentiment is given a more positive expression. As for +the sentiment of love for the country, that is identified especially +with Vartavar and Vartan's Day. It is evident, therefore, that each +of these festivals and festival-ceremonies forms a medium more or +less evident as the case may be, for the expression of one or more or +all of the sentiments that make up Armenian national sentiment. Some +of them are not to be classified as readily as this, as for example, +the festival of Ascension morning, or Fortune-Telling Day, in which +the dominant sentiment is one of romantic love, or in the Blessing +of the Water, where the desire for a gain in health or wealth is the +main psychological fact. + +Each one of these festivals, however, is a great deal more than the +putting into activity of some of the above sentiments. In many of them +the play-instinct is clearly evident, while in a few such as Vartavar, +the whole self, with all its sentiments, instincts, tendencies, +and emotions, is given the fullest and most unrestrained freedom. A +festival, if it is anything, is a letting loose of the reins; +there is nothing to hinder, nothing to keep back, nothing to hide, +nothing to fear, and the self reaches out in a higher consciousness of +fullness and completeness of living. As such it would be the greatest +of fallacies to suppose any one of the festivals to be restricted to +a particular sentiment. Nevertheless, it is clear, that the festivals +do constitute vehicles of expression for the sentiments that make up +Armenian national sentiment. + + + + +CONCLUSIONS + +The general conclusions to which this study unmistakably gives rise are +in respect to the national traits of the Armenian people. These traits +have been brought out both explicitly and implicitly in connection with +the various legends and festivals considered, and it is my purpose, +therefore, to summarize and substantiate them at this point. They +include, first, the superstitiousness, second, the conservatism, +third, the self-sufficiency, and lastly the familism of the people. + +First of these qualities, superstitiousness, may be ascribed in large +measure to geographical isolation. The country to be sure, is so +situated as to form a highway from Europe to the Mesopotamian valley, +and from Asiatic Russia to the Mediterranean, and although it has been +overrun by Assyrians, Greeks, Parthians, Romans, Persians, Turks, +Egyptians, and still others, yet we must speak of it as isolated, +for the science that has brought remote countries into contact has +not affected Armenia to any considerable degree. Subject to a backward +nation, lacking all modern means of communication, the country is shut +off and the plows of civilization have not yet furrowed the social +soil of superstition. How general these superstitions are is brought +out especially by the festivals described, many of which have given +rise to a superstition or a group of superstitions. From Vartavar, +there came the belief that the dust from the sacred altar served as a +talisman for children learning their A B C's; the spring fire festival +gave rise to the practice of taking home a glowing brand for good luck; +there is the belief that the blessed water will cure various diseases, +and that the oil scraped from the anointed foot with a walnut given by +the priest after washing the feet at the ceremony of Maundy Thursday, +will keep a supply of butter throughout the year. And then there are +the beliefs in the miraculous power of the holy oil, manufactured with +due ceremony every four years at Sis; in the healing power of the +various sacred relics kept at Etchmiadzin and other places, and ten +thousand others. There are also beliefs not of a religious character +as the above, such as the one in regard to the tetagush, the little +locust-eating bird, which is supposed to be attracted by Ararat spring +water. The same superstition obtains in other parts of the country with +the difference that the inconvenience of obtaining Ararat spring water +makes it necessary for the people to believe in the peculiar efficacy +of other springs. These illustrations are sufficient, and although it +could hardly be proved that Armenians are more innately superstitious +than the Anglo-Saxon ancestors who believed only a few generations +ago in the power of the malignant eye, and that an innocent person +might pass through fire unharmed, yet their superstitious nature and +beliefs are present-day facts explained most completely on the ground +of comparative isolation from the rest of the world. + +Second of the national characteristics of the people clearly +brought out by this study is their conservatism. This may also be +traced in large measure to their secluded condition, but in larger +proportion is it due to the solidarity and national consciousness, +which naturally consider innovations as foreign, and intrusions of +foreign cultures, ideals, customs, and manners as hostile. That this +is true is indicated conclusively by the fact that in Constantinople, +where Armenian culture has naturally come in conflict with that of the +Greek, the Turk, and the European, the Armenians have not at all given +up their ways to imitate any of the three peoples mentioned. To be +sure they have not adhered rigidly to the old beliefs and practices of +the interior. Comparison has resulted in substitution, and conflict +between the rational and irrational, the utile and the inutile, +has meant displacement, but invariably by something distinctly +different from the usages and practices current among Turk or +European. That is, Armenians are themselves centers of imitation +by fellow Armenians who, though they follow the lines suggested by +their fellow countrymen, scorn to imitate even the European, whose +superiority is generally recognized in Constantinople. The Armenian, +recognizing no superior, has merely modified his own practices, usages, +manners, and customs to suit his changed environment. And therefore +I say that the characteristic Armenian conservatism is due rather to +a strong feeling of nationality than to isolation. + +The conservatism of the church has been an important element. Refusing +to have anything to do with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon, +the church became independent and has maintained a policy of the most +rigid ultra-conservatism ever since. Says Ormanian: + + + The Armenian church would have nothing to do with this transaction + (Chalcedon) which was prompted by a design that had no bearing + on theology. She remained firm in her original resolve, and ever + maintained an attitude of ultra-conservatism. She set herself + to resist every new dogmatic utterance said to emanate from + revelation, as well as every innovation which could in any way + pervert the primitive faith. [181] + + +That this same spirit is reflected in the social life of the people +is something one would naturally expect, in view of the important +influence of the church over the entire life of the people. As the +father of the Alan princess replied when requested to give the hand +of his daughter to Artasches, "From whence shall brave Artasches give +thousands upon thousands and ten thousands upon tens of thousands unto +the Alans in return for the maiden?" so to-day the first question +that is asked when the hand of a young Armenian girl is requested +in marriage is "What can he give for his bride?" The practice of +wife purchase has only changed in that the required riches are given +to the bride instead of to the father of the bride. Occasionally a +young man is pressed to the point of mortgaging property in order +to obtain the necessary funds, and it has been known that in many +such cases the young bride found her treasure gone shortly after +her marriage, her master having taken it to pay off his mortgage. So +parents arrange for the marriage of their children, the young wife is +delivered up to her husband as the obedient and submissive servant, +children are baptized after they have scarcely opened their eyes, and +church ceremonies are conducted much as they have been for generations. + +The self-sufficiency of the Armenian people has been indicated in +the repeated failures of missionary religions and foreign cultures to +alter appreciably the native folkways and mores. In spite of political +subordination to Islam, the Gregorian church has held tenaciously +to its ideals and has successfully maintained its independence. The +distinctive social tradition,--which includes the political and the +religious traditions,--has remained intact in the face of recurrent +invasion, vassalage, and persecution. The Armenian will not be +assimilated. Death is preferable to the loss of those intangible +realities that make the people a distinctive group. When Haic, the +patriarchal progenitor of the race, was invited to "soften his hard +pride," and to return to the kingdom of the god Bel, the alternative, +war, was chosen. In the year 450, when the Persian fire-worshippers +invited the Armenians to change their faith, the answer again +was war. The reply to the decision of Chalcedon illustrates the +same spirit. Likewise through the centuries of the immediate past +the ever recurring answer to the Turk has been war. Powerless to +assimilate the Armenian people, the Turk has had to annihilate or be +annihilated. The self-sufficiency of the people thus reveals itself +in the will to maintain the distinctive social tradition, regardless +of cost or sacrifice. + +The characteristic familism reveals itself not only in the customs of +family life, but also in the very nature of the Armenian. In Russian +Armenia there is a very active propaganda carried on by Russian girls +to secure Armenian husbands because of the domesticity of the latter, +which is in striking contrast to the adventurous unfaithfulness of +the Russian husband, whose house becomes his prison, from which +he therefore flees, leaving his wife and children to shift for +themselves. The discontented Russian may be a more attractive lover +for his "Wanderlust" and restlessness, but he is a less attractive +husband for the same reason. An Armenian husband belongs in his home, +where he lives in the hope that some day he may be the father of +a huge household of married sons and grandsons. A young Armenian I +know spoke to me of his wish that some day his father might collect +the scattered sons and unite them and their families in a single +household. This desire is so general among Armenians as to make it +evident that the family is the all-important social unit. No reputation +is so great as that carried by a good family name, nor is there any +so damning as that which goes with a bad family name. And why is the +young bride kept silent for years if not to ensure the all-essential +family-unity, family-solidarity, and family-continuity,--that is, +continuity of family tradition, manners, and customs? And why is +the "patria-potestas" well-nigh unlimited if not for precisely the +same reason? Nor is the taboo upon the young bride, according to +which she may not speak to any young man not a relative during her +entire life of marriage, of no significance in this connection. It too +precludes family disruption, or blemish on the family name. Divorce and +infidelity are very rare, all family differences having no tribunal +outside the patriarch, who considers his greatest misfortune to be a +lack of family integrity or oneness. Thus a son who has been swayed +by Protestantism dares not clash with his father, and has no choice +but to run away, while a daughter whose wishes are contrary can +be disobedient only at the cost of breaking the family connection, +to prevent which she is usually ready to make any sacrifice. All of +this is no accident. Forced to dwell within the circle of the family +group for seven, eight, or nine months during the year without so much +as opening his door, because of the severity of winter, the life of +the patriarch is inevitably centered in his household, and therefore +also the self of each member is merged into the larger unit. This +familism throws additional light on some of the conclusions I have +insisted upon, for nothing so fosters conservatism as a substantial +family solidarity; what could be more instrumental in passing on the +national sentiment, and finally, what could be more favorable to the +development of the self-sufficiency, the independence of Armenian +character? In speaking of "familism and the well-knit family" Ross +says; "Worshippers of the spirit of the hearth, they are more aloof +from their fellows, slower therefore to merge with them or be swept +from their moorings by them. It seems to be communion by the fire-side +rather than communion in the public resort that gives individuality +long bracing roots. The withdrawn social self, although it lacks +breadth, gains in depth, etc." [182] + +Any socially well-knit people possessing a distinctive social +tradition, and characterized by a highly developed national +consciousness, may make its contribution to the world's work, if +it is given the necessary freedom. As the period of the Arsacidae +kings brought forth the golden age of Armenian literature, so greater +achievements may follow the political independence that is hoped for, +and for which Armenians have valiantly struggled. Lord Bryce writes +of the Armenian race, "It is the only one of the native races of +Western Asia that is capable of restoring productive industry and +assured prosperity to the now desolate region that was the earliest +home of civilization." In the past, the energy of the people has +been wasted in ceaseless conflict. Given a guarantee of territorial +integrity, and participation in the affairs of government with the +hope of future autonomy, the energies of strife will be diverted to +the work of peace. Not until then can the high calling expressed in +the words of Lord Bryce be realized. + + + + + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHY + + +Abeghian, A. Der armenische Volksglaube. Leipzig. 1899. + +Agathange. Histoire du regne de Tiridate. In Langlois, Collection +des historiens de l'Armenie. + +Anonymous. Easter service. Survey 36:167. + +---- Armenian folk-lore. Fraser's Magazine (n.s.) 13:283-97. + +Arnot, Robert. World's great classic series. Section on Armenian +literature and folk-lore. New York. 1901. + +Bent, J. T. Travels amongst the Armenians. Contemporary Review 70:695. + +Blackwell, Alice, S. Preface to Seklemian's tales. New York. 1898. + +Boyadjian, Z. C. Armenian legends and poems. London. 1916. + +Brightman, F. E. Liturgies eastern and western. Oxford. 1896. + +Bryce, J. Transcaucasia and Ararat. London. 1896. + +Cesaresco, E. M. Folk-songs. London. 1886. + +Chikhachev, P. A. Reisen in Kleinasien und Armenien. Gotha. 1867. + +Clark, W. Armenian history. New Englander 22:507, 672. + +Conybeare, F. C. Armenian church. Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed. + +---- Armenian language and literature. Ibid. + +---- Key of truth. Oxford. 1898. + +---- Rituale Armenorum. Oxford. 1905. + +Curzon, Robert. Armenia. London. 1854. + +Dubois de Montpereux. Voyages. Vols. 2, 3. Paris. 1839-43. + +Elisee Vartabed. Histoire de Vartan et de la guerre des Armeniens. In +Langlois, Collection. + +Emin, M. Movses--Khorenatzi yev Hayotz Hin Veber. Tiflis. 1886. + +Faustus of Byzance. Bibliotheque historique. In Langlois, Collection. + +Fortescue, E. F. K. The Armenian church. London. 1872. + +Gelzer, H. Armenia. New Schaff Herzog Encyclopaedia. + +Gibbon, Ed. Decline and fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 3. New +York. 1910. + +Hodgetts, E. A. B. Round about Armenia. London. 1896. + +Langlois, Victor. Collection des historiens de l'Armenie. Vols. 1, +2. Paris. 1867-1869. Contains translations of various historians +dating from 2nd century before Christ to 5th century after Christ. + +Lidgett, Elizabeth S. An ancient people. London. 1897. + +Lynch, H. F. B. Armenia. Vols. 1, 2. London. 1901. + +MacDougall, W. Social psychology. Boston. 1916. + +Mar Apas Catina. Histoire ancienne de l'Armenie. In Langlois, +Collection. + +Mesrob, St. Maschtotz. Constantinople. No date given. + +Moise de Khorene. Histoire de l'Armenie. In Langlois, Collection. + +Ormanian, M. The Armenian church. London. 1912. + +Radloff, W. Volksliteratur tuerkischen Staemme. St. Petersburg. 1866. + +Raffi, A. Article on Armenia. In Boyadjian, Armenian legends and poems. + +Rockwell, W. Publications of Hakluyt Society. Series 2, IV, and other +references under "Armenia." + +Ross, E. A. Social psychology. New York. 1917. + +St. Martin, J. Memoire sur l'Armenie. Paris. 1818-1819. + +Seklemian, S. Golden maiden and other tales. New York. 1898. + +Stubbs, W. Lectures on mediaeval kingdoms. Oxford. 1887. + +Tarde, G. Les lois sociales. Paris. 1898. + +Tavernier, J. B. Voyages en Turquie en Perse et aux +Indes. Vol. 3. Utrecht. 1712. + +Terzian, P. Religious customs among Armenians. Catholic World 71:305, +509. + +Trowbridge, T. C. Armenia and Armenians. New Englander 33:1. + +Ubicini, J. H. A. Letters on Turkey. London. 1856. + +Villari, Luigi. Fire and sword in the Caucasus. London. 1906. + +Wilson, C. W. Armenia. Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed. + + + + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] Detailed descriptions of geography and geology may be found +in Lynch, Armenia; St. Martin, Memoire sur l'Armenie, 2. Summary +descriptions may be found in the New Schaff Herzog and Britannica +encyclopedias. + +[2] Robert Curzon, Armenia. + +[3] Dubois de Montpereux, Voyages 3:400. + +[4] There is a belief that the toneer is sacred. "Nur der alte T'onir, +der offen Backofen, der von den Iraniern entlehnt ist und am fuenften +Jahrhundert schon gebraucht wird, gilt ueberall in Armenien als +heilig." Abeghian, Der armenische Volksglaube p. 3. + +[5] Surrounded as Armenia was with almost all of the ancient +civilizations, including the Parthians, Scythians, Medes, Assyrians, +Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans, she was inevitably involved +in continual warfare, while the central situation of the territory +made it a common stamping ground for hostile armies. Langlois 1:ix. + +[6] Ormanian, The Church of Armenia pp. 151-54. + +[7] Mar Apas Catina. Langlois' Collection des Histoires de l'Armenie +1:16. + +[8] St. Martin, Memoire sur l'Armenie 1:281. + +[9] Mar Apas Catina. Langlois 1:15-18. + +Moses of Khorene. Langlois 3:63-64. + +[10] St. Martin 1:306. + +[11] Ibid. 1:282-3. Moses of Khorene 2:67-69. + +Mar Apas Catina 1:26-27. + +The first Arsacidae king of Armenia, Valarsace, whose reign began +in 149 B.C. found the kingdom in general disorder and was the first +to organize the country along national lines. As a Parthian he was +unacquainted with the history and institutions of the people, and +desiring to build upon the established foundation, such as it was, +he sent a Syrian scholar, Mar Apas Catina by name, with a letter to +his brother, Arsace, king of Persia, requesting the latter to allow the +Syrian access to the royal archives with the view of finding a history +of Armenia. Mar Apas Catina found an old MS containing a history +of ancient Armenia which bore the name of no author, and which was +translated from Chaldean to Greek by order of Alexander the Great. It +was translated into Syriac by the Syrian scholar for the benefit of +Valarsace, but the MS has been lost, and there is not the slightest +trace of it anywhere. It must have been in existence however, during +the fifth century after Christ for Moses of Khorene used it as his only +source for Armenia's ancient history, in writing his general history +of Armenia. The old MS being lost, the translation by Mar Apas Catina +and the first part of the history of Moses are given as identical +to each other in Langlois' collection of Armenian historians. The +ancient history contains the legends of Haic, of Ara and Semiramis, +and of Vahakn, some of the songs of heroes, still sung, and other +matter which is strictly speaking not historical. As a history, +therefore, it is unreliable and unauthentic, but from the standpoint +of the social historian it is invaluable, for a belief is as important +a fact to sociology as the dethronement of a king is to history. + +[12] Boyadjian, Armenian Legends and Poetry p. 33. + +[13] St. Martin 1:409. + +[14] Lynch 2:65. + +[15] Lynch, Armenia, chapter entitled "Van." + +[16] Raffi, article in Boyadjian's Armenian Legends and Poetry, p. 125. + +[17] Lynch, chapter on Van. + +[18] Moses of Khorene 2:69. + +[19] Ibid. + +[20] Lynch 2:65. + +[21] Moses of Khorene 2:68, 69. + +[22] St. Martin 1:285. + +[23] Raffi p. 129. Abeghian pp. 49, 50. + +[24] Moses of Khorene 2:76. Translation from Moses, Boyadjian p. 10. + +Mar Apas Catina 1:40. + +[25] Mar Apas Catina 1:41. Moses of Khorene p. 76. + +Moses of Khorene, called the Herodotus of Armenia, has written the best +known history of the Armenian people. The work has been translated +into Latin, Italian, French, German, and Russian. Moses lived in the +fifth century, two centuries after the conversion of the nation to +Christianity. He belonged to the second order of translators in the +school of St. Sahag and St. Mesrob, and was sent to Syria, Egypt, +Greece, and Rome in order to complete his studies. Upon returning to +his country he found everything in disorder. St. Sahag and St. Mesrob +were dead, the king had been overthrown, and he chose the life of +solitude. Sometime later he was chosen bishop and requested by an +Armenian prince, Sahag Bagratide, to write a history of his country, +which task he took up with great enthusiasm. The translation of Mar +Apas Catina was his only source for Armenian ancient history. He +carefully differentiates hearsay from fact, never fails to stamp +a fable or legend as such, and generally quotes his authorities +where he has them. Considering the limitation of his materials, and +the time in which he wrote, Moses wrote a really remarkable book, +although the verdicts of a few critics have been unfavorable. + +[26] Raffi p. 129. + +[27] Lidgett, An Ancient People. St. Martin 1:409. Mar Apas Catina +p. 41. + +[28] The influence of Greek culture is chiefly indicated by the fact +that the pagan divinities were Greek and that many temples were erected +to these gods and goddesses all over the country. (Agathange, Histoire +du Regne de Tiridate. Langlois 1:164-70.) Secondly, there were formed +by St. Sahag and St. Mesrob in the fifth century after the conversion +of the nation to Christianity, schools of translators, who studied in +Greece, Egypt, and Rome and whose chief works were translations from +the Greek. With the conversion (301) came the necessity for a written +language, the characters of which were invented by St. Mesrob in +404. Thereupon were organized the schools of translators whose chief +study of necessity was Greek, and whose translations and original +works have given to the fifth century the title of "Golden Age of +Armenian Literature." (Langlois 1:xxi-xxvi, 2:vii.) + +[29] St. Martin 1:288, 289. Mar Apas Catina 1:41. + +Moses of Khorene 2:81. + +[30] Ibid. + +[31] Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 3:393. + +Moses of Khorene 2:155. + +[32] Ibid. pp. 88, 89. + +[33] St. Martin 1:291. Moses of Khorene p. 88. + +[34] Raffi p. 126. + +[35] Langlois 1:ix, x. These songs of which Moses of Khorene very +frequently speaks are classified by Langlois into songs of the first +order, the second order, and the third order. The first are relative +to the prowess of Armenian kings and gods; the second concern a long +series of military exploits accomplished against the Assyrians, Medes, +and Persians; the third refer especially to traditions in connection +with the Assyrians. The birth-song of Vahakn is an illustration of +the songs of the first order (p. x, xi). Flint in his History of the +Philosophy of History, p. 42, speaks of this period of minstrelsy +as necessarily preceding the use of letters everywhere. "The myth +and legend interest primitive man more than real fact. His vision is +more largely of the imagination than of the sense of judgment. It is +an error to regard the rude minstrelsy which generally preceded the +use of letters as essentially historical." + +[36] Countess Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, Essays in the Study of +Folk-Songs, chapter on Armenia. + +[37] The battle of Avarair under the leadership of the celebrated +Vartan, where Armenia defended her national ideals against the +intrusion of Persia, is proof of this. + +[38] Ormanian p. 22. Moses of Khorene p. 158. + +[39] There are further proofs that may be cited. The history of English +and French literature shows that the golden age of their literature +followed a period of social integration along national lines. And +it is true that the golden age of Armenian literature dawned with +the closing decades of the Arsacidae dynasty, and continued several +decades beyond. And finally, when Valarsace, the first Arsacidae, +ascended the throne of Armenia, finding everything in a state of +disorder, he organized the country along national lines. Dividing +the kingdom into provinces he placed his governors at the heads +of them; he organized a standing army, appointed guardians of the +granaries, established courts of justice, a royal guard, and minutely +regulated court life. What is most interesting is that he appointed two +reporters, one to remind him in his anger, "le bien a faire," the other +to remind him of the necessity for doing justice. Ibid. pp. 82-85. + +[40] St. Martin 1:300. Moses of Khorene pp. 105-6. + +[41] Ibid. p. 106. + +[42] Boyadjian p. 49. Moses of Khorene p. 106. Moses as translated by +Langlois, relates the story as legend, for after telling the tale, and +quoting the songs he writes, "Voici maintenant le fait dans toute sa +verite comme le cuir rouge est tres-estime chez les Alains, Artasches +donne beaucoup de peaux de cette couleur, et beaucoup d'or en dot, +et il obtient la jeune princesse Satenig. C'est la la laniere de cuir +rouge garnie d'anneaux d'or. Ainsi dans les noces, ils chantent des +legendes, en disant, + + + 'Une pluie d'or tombait + Au marriage d'Artasches; + Les perles pleuvait + Aux noces de Satenig.'" + + +Moses likewise relegates the legend and songs of Artavasd to their +proper places. + +[43] Moses of Khorene p. 111. + +[44] Translation from Moses by Boyadjian p. 65. + +[45] Moses of Khorene p. 111. + +[46] Raffi p. 42. + +[47] St. Martin 1:appendix. + +[48] Ibid. + +[49] Clark, New Englander 22:507, 672. Raffi p. 127. + +[50] That trees are worshipped even to-day, and that certain +superstitions are bound up with them is clearly shown by Abeghian. "In +den Gegenden Armeniens, wo das Land mit Waeldern bedeckt ist, werden +viele sehr alte und grosse Baeume fuer heilig gehalten und aehnlicher +Weise wie die Quellen verehrt. Man brennt vor ihnen Lichter. Weihrauch, +opfert ihnen Haehne und Hammel, kuesst sie, kriecht durch ihren +gespaltenen Stamm durch, oder laesst magere Kinder durch ihre Loecher +schluepfen, um die Einwirkung der bosen Geister aufzuheben. Man glaubt +dass vom Himmel Lichter auf die heiligen Baeume kommen, oder Heilige +sich auf denselben aufhalten. Auch die Baeume geben Gesundheit, einige +heilen alle Krankheiten.... Um von Baeumen Heilung zu bekommen soll man +ein Stueck von seiner Kleidung abreissen und damit den Baum umwickeln +oder es auf den Baum nageln. Man glaubt dadurch seine Krankheit auf +den Baum zu uebertragen." Abeghian pp. 58, 59. + +[51] Agathangelus p. 127. Emin, Recherches sur le Paganisme Armenien +p. 9. + +[52] Raffi, article in Boyadjian's Armenian Legends and Poetry. + +[53] Tir is mentioned only once by Agathangelus (p. 164) and he is not +mentioned by any other Armenian writers (Langlois 1:164). Emin compares +him to the Greek Hermes or Mercury, probably because Agathangelus +speaks of him as the recorder or reporter of Aramazd. (Emin p. 20, +note 1.) + +[54] Abeghian p. 4. + +[55] He corresponds to the Persian Mithra and is hence of Persian +origin and not Greek. The Greek translation of Agathangelus +regards him as analogous to Vulcan, which Emin considers to be +incorrect. (Agathangelus p. 168; Emin p. 20.) + +[56] Raffi, article in Boyadjian's Armenian Legends and Poetry. + +Seklemian's Tales. Preface by Blackwell. + +[57] "Und auch heute pflegt man stellenweise niederzuknieen und zu +beten: 'O du goettliche strahlende Sonne! Dein Fuss ruhe auf meinem +Antlitz! Bewahre meine Kinder.'" u. s. w. Abeghian p. 43. + +[58] Although the Greeks have identified Anahit with their goddess +of chastity, Artemid, the Armenian goddess is not of Greek, but of +Assyro-Babylonian origin according to Emin. Her name "Anahato" in +ancient Persian means "Spotless." Agathangelus p. 126; Emin p. 10. + +[59] Agathangelus. Langlois 1:127. + +[60] Raffi p. 129. + +Both Nane and Astghik are mentioned by Agathangelus who speaks of the +latter as the Aphrodite of the Greeks. (Agathangelus p. 173.) Emin +likens Nane to Venus. The fact is that very little is known of +either. (Agathangelus p. 168; Emin, p. 16.) + +[61] St. Martin 1:305, 306. + +[62] In the reigns of Artasches I and Tigranes II, many Greek +statues were imported from abroad, and the latter king not only +constructed temples for the worship of Greek divinities, but also +ordered all to offer sacrifices and to worship newly acquired gods +and goddesses. (Moses of Khorene pp. 86-88.) + +[63] St. Martin 1:295. + +[64] Moses of Khorene p. 95. + +[65] Moses of Khorene p. 96. + +[66] Ibid. + +[67] Ormanian p. 3. + +[68] There is another legend of St. Thaddeus, according to which +he converted Abgar and his whole court to Christianity, curing the +king of his disease at the same time. (Moses p. 97.) Abgar, who died +shortly afterword, divided his kingdom between his son and nephew. The +former at once resumed the pagan worship while the latter was forced +to apostatize. But the preaching and martyrdom of St. Thaddeus at the +hand of Sanatruk, the nephew, is recorded by Faustus of Byzantium, +one of the most reliable of early Armenian historians. (Faustus of +Byzantium. Langlois 1:210. See also Lynch, Armenia 1:278, and Moses +of Khorene pp. 98-99.) + +[69] Lynch 1:286. + +[70] St. Martin pp. 302, 303. + +[71] Agathangelus. Langlois 1:115. + +[72] St. Martin p. 303. + +Agathangelus p. 122. + +[73] St. Martin p. 304. Agathangelus p. 121. + +[74] Agathangelus pp. 126-33. + +[75] Ibid. p. 135. + +[76] Lynch 1:256. Agathangelus p. 139. + +[77] Critics have distinguished Agathangelus, the historian, +from Pseudo Agathangelus, the meddler, who evidently had religious +interests at stake. The former lived in the fourth century, and was +secretary to Tiridates, who unquestionably commissioned him to keep +the records of the events of his reign. He is spoken of by Moses and +other ancient historians as sincere and reliable. It is thus assumed +that the original work has been destroyed or lost, and that the Greek +and Armenian texts now existing are the work of an interpolater who +desired to weave the straggling skeins of religious sentiment into +a single garment by establishing an historic and literary sanction +to the religious events of the period of the conversion. There are +many indications of this, chief of which is the highly imaginative +style of narrative, undoubtedly designed with the particular intent +of capturing the minds of the people. (Langlois' introduction to +Agathangelus 1:99-108.) + +[78] Langlois in his footnotes states that the chapel consecrated +to St. Gaiane was constructed by the Katholikos Ezdras in the year +630. and repaired in 1652. The church of St. Rhipsime was built by the +Katholikos Gomidas in 618, and repaired in 1653. The main cathedral +was built by St. Gregory. They are situated in Etchmiadzin. (Dubois +3:213. Langlois 1:160, 162.) + +[79] Lynch 1:291, note. + +[80] Dubois 3:276. + +[81] Bryce pp. 314, 315. + +[82] Ormanian p. 13. + +[83] Dubois 3:276. + +[84] Ormanian p. 8. + +[85] Agathangelus pp. 164-66. + +[86] See Conybeare's translation and annotation of the Key of +Truth, the book of the Paulicians (Adoptionists) of Thonrak. This +book contains the baptismal and ordinal service of the Adoptionist +church. (Especially pp. vi-xcxii.) + +[87] Conybeare p. xcvii. The original is given by Conybeare as follows: +"Dic mihi," says Archelaus, "super quem Spiritus Sanctus sicut columba +descendit. Quis est etiam qui baptizatur a Ioanne si perfectus erat, +si Filius erat, si vertus erat, non poterat Spiritus ingredi; sicut +nee regnum potest ingredi intra regnum." + +Lynch 1:279. + +[88] Ibid. 1:282. + +[89] Lynch 1:294. + +Agathangelus pp. 164-66. + +[90] St. Martin 1: appendix. + +Elisee Vartabed, Histoire de Vartan. Langlois 2:190-91. + +[91] Ibid. p. 195. + +[92] Lidgett, An Ancient People. + +The detailed events of this struggle against the Persians are +told in the Histoire de Vartan et de la Guerre des Armeniens, by +Elisee Vartabed who belonged to the second order of translators and +served under General Vartan during the war, the history of which he +narrates. After the sad ending of the series of dramatic incidents that +made up this struggle for religious freedom, Elisee sought solitude +and lived on herbs and roots in a mountainside cave which came to be +known as the "cave of Elisee." Because of a growing social intimacy +he was obliged to find a second cave in a more remote section of the +country, where he completed his work and died. His history is written +in the style of a religious mystic, is full of dramatic imagery, +and has come down as an Armenian classic. (Langlois 2:179-82.) + +[93] Lynch 1:313. + +Ormanian p. 35. + +[94] Ibid. p. 36. + +[95] Genesis 8:4. + +[96] James Bryce, Transcaucasia and Ararat p. 210. + +St. Martin 1:264. + +[97] St. Martin 1:267-68. + +[98] Tavernier, Voyages 1:43. + +[99] Bryce, Transcaucasia and Ararat, chapter on Ararat. + +[100] Dubois 3:465. + +[101] Arghuri means "Il sema la vigne." St. Martin pp. 266, 267. + +[102] Dubois 3:465-68. + +[103] Bryce, chapter on Ararat. + +[104] Dubois 3:468. + +[105] Countess Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, chapter on Armenian +folk-songs. Fraser's Magazine (n.s.) 13:283-97. + +[106] Fraser's Magazine (n.s.) 13:283-97. + +[107] Ormanian p. 224. + +Bertrand Bareilles, preface to the French edition of Ormanian p. xviii. + +[108] Ormanian p. 243. + +[109] Ibid. p. 177. + +[110] Ubicini, Letters on Turkey. + +Ormanian pp. 151, 152. + +[111] Ibid. p. 173. + +[112] Ibid. p. 141. + +[113] Ubicini, Letters on Turkey. + +[114] Ormanian p. 170. + +[115] Ibid. + +Ubicini, Letters on Turkey. + +Tavernier 1:498, 499. + +[116] Ormanian p. 152. + +[117] Ibid. + +[118] Lynch, chapter on Etchmiadzin. + +Dubois 3:362, 363. + +[119] See p. 30 of this thesis, note 32. + +[120] Ormanian p. 74. + +[121] Ibid. + +For the relation of the church to the Turkish and Russian Governments +see Lynch 1:269, also Ubicini, Letters on Turkey. + +[122] That is, Pseudo Agathangelus. + +[123] Raffi p. 128. + +[124] Ibid. + +[125] Seklemian's Tales. Preface by Blackwell. + +[126] Abeghian pp. 72-74. + +[127] The 13th of February according to the old style calendar +corresponds to the 26th of February of the Latin calender. + +[128] Abeghian p. 72. + +[129] Ibid. p 20. + +The remainder of the paragraph is a free translation of selected +parts of pp. 20-22. + +[130] Abeghian p. 22. + +[131] Maschtotz, St. Mesrob. One third of the book is devoted to +this purpose. + +[132] Ormanian p. 189. + +[133] Abeghian p. 23. + +[134] Ibid. This and preceding paragraph are a free translation from +selected sentences of pp. 23 and 24. + +[135] Tavernier 1:507-9. + +[136] Elisee. + +[137] Lidgett, Ancient People. + +[138] Ibid. + +[139] Raffi p. 158. + +[140] Translated by Miss Boyadjian, Armenian Legends and Poetry. + +After the first and third lines of the charm song, the following line +is sung, which I give in the German of Abeghian: + + + "Liebe Rose meine, liebe, liebe." + + +and after the second and fourth lines: + + + "Liebe Blume meine, liebe, liebe." (Abeghian p. 65.) + + +There are thousands of similarly constructed folk-songs treating +a variety of subjects current among the people, many of which have +been collected by an Armenian by the name of Tcheras, whose book, +unfortunately, I have not been able to obtain. Miss Boyadjian has +collected a few of them in her Armenian Legends and Poetry. However, +I shall mention only such as are relevant to the festivals to be +described. + +[141] Abeghian pp. 61-62. + +[142] World's Great Classic Series. Section on Armenian literature, +with introduction by Robert Arnot. See David of Sassun pp. 57-79. + +[143] Abeghian p. 51, 52. + +Emin, Ancient Armenian Legends. + +[144] Abeghian p. 62. + +[145] These beliefs are analogous to those in connection with the +bringing of healing water, or the water of perpetual life, the source +of which is guarded by monsters, snakes, and scorpions. The hero steals +cautiously to the source in order not to be observed by the watchmen, +fills his vessel with water and hurries away, for the mountains and +trees call out to warn the guardians of the source who awake and +follow the hero. (Ibid. p. 63.) + +[146] This part of the festivities is also accompanied with song. In +Astapet the following song is sung by way of introduction: + + + "Holt einen grossen Meister, + Lasset ihn den Hochzeitsrock meines geliebten zuschneiden + Die Sonne sei der Stoff + Der Mond diene als Futter. + Stellt aus Wolken die Einfassung her, + Wickelt aus dem Meer Seidengarn, + Befestigt die Sterne in einer Reihe als Knopfe, + Naeht die ganze Liebe hinein." (Abeghian p. 64.) + + +[147] Abeghian pp. 63-66. + +[148] Ormanian pp. 189-90. + +[149] For the ritual side of this festival, the church ceremony known +as the Blessing of the Crops, or the Blessing of Harvest, and the +prayers in connection therewith, F. C. Conybeare's Ritual Armenorum, +and St. Mesrob's Maschtotz may be consulted. The social side I have +gotten from my wife who has taken part in the festival several times. + +[150] A very common custom, especially in the interior villages of +Armenia, is to give a lighted candle and an apple or orange in which +small silver coins have been stuck, as gifts to the children. This +is done by the eldest member of the family, usually the grandmother, +at the time the younger ones come up to kiss her hand and receive +her blessing. + +[151] For a description of the Easter and Christmas fasts, see +Tavernier, Voyages 1:497-98. + +[152] The festivals of New Year's Day, Easter, and Christmas, I +have described as related to me by my wife who has celebrated them +in company with others in Constantinople. Such variations practiced +in the interior of Armenia as I am aware of, I have indicated. + +[153] F. C. Conybeare, Ritual Armenorum pp. 213, 294. + +[154] Survey 36:167. Anonymous. + +[155] Tavernier, Voyages 1:496. + +[156] Dubois 3:441. + +[157] Ormanian p. 177. + +[158] F. C. Conybeare, Ritual Armenorum p. 224. + +[159] Brightman, Eastern Liturgies, chapter on Armenian Liturgy. For +an interesting variation of this ceremony see Tavernier 1:502. + +Closely related to this ceremony is that of the blessing or purifying +of a well. A well is not used until a priest has first blessed it, +or if the water of a well becomes impure, it is necessary to purify it +by the blessing of a priest. The latter takes a cross and a Bible and +having requested the people to draw a pail of water which is thrown +away, a second pail is drawn, over which the priest reads a psalm. The +water is then blessed with the cross, incense is burned over the well, +and the pail of water is emptied back. (Maschtotz.) + +[160] Lynch 1:203, 204. + +[161] Contemporary Review 70:695. J. T. Bent. + +Tavernier, 1:500, 501. + +[162] The people believe that the holy relic causes the mixture +to boil. + +[163] Catholic World 11:301. Paul Terzian. + +[164] According to Maschtotz the devil is abjured and the Trinity +invoked at the gate of the church. In the course of the ceremony +the priest unclothes the babe and asks the godfather, "What seeks +the child?" The godfather answers, "Faith, Hope, Love, and Baptism, +to be cleansed from his sins and to be freed from the devils." The +three immersions are symbolical of the three days of burial of +Christ. (Maschtotz.) + +[165] In the description of baptism as witnessed by Tavernier, red +and white threads were laid about the neck of the child at this point +in the ceremony. They represent the blood and body of Christ and are +probably believed to keep away the evil eye. Beads and various other +charm tokens are commonly used for this purpose. (Tavernier 1:500.) + +[166] This is probably because evil spirits dwell in darkness, while +the beneficent are light. + +[167] The similarity to the old Hebrew custom may be noted. + +[168] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:305. + +[169] Tavernier says that frequently two pregnant women who are on +very friendly terms, will engage their future offspring, trusting to +fortune that one will be a boy and the other a girl. (Tavernier 1:505.) + +[170] In fact when there is a variance of choice between parents +and daughter it is common for the girl to regard the decision of her +parents as being her fate. "Wenn eine junge Frau mit ihrer Heirat, +die sie, nach dem Willen der Eltern geschlossen hat, unzufrieden ist, +so singt sie: + + + 'Was soll ich meinem Vater und meiner Mutter sagen? + Das war auf meine Stirn geschrieben.'" (Abeghian p. 54.) + + +[171] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:305. + +[172] It is very evident that the expense of these festivities is a +considerable item in the budget of the bridegroom's father. But it is +a matter of social pride and respectability to live up to a certain +standard of established usage. Accordingly many families involve +themselves in life-long incumbrances, not only in the betrothal and +marriage festivities but also in the ceremony of baptism, simply to +come up to a recognized norm of expenditure. (Tavernier 1:504, 505.) + +[173] Cesaresco, chapter on Armenian folk-songs. + +[174] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:508. + +[175] Bent, Contemporary Review 70:701. + +[176] Tavernier states that in Persian Armenia a man frequently lives +with his wife ten years without ever hearing her voice or seeing +her face. Of course she does not sleep with her veil over her face, +but she is always careful to blow out the candle before she removes +the veil, as she is to rise before daybreak in order to put it on +again. (Tavernier 1:507.) + +[177] Trowbridge, New Englander 33:1 ff. + +[178] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:509. + +[179] This statement is in contradiction to a previous statement that +the body of the dead is merely wrapped in white cloth after it has +been washed; (see page 60) the use of the white cloth is common among +Gregorian Armenians. + +[180] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:509 ff. + +[181] Ormanian p. 36. + +[182] Ross, Social Psychology pp. 88-89. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Armenian Legends and Festivals, by +Louis A. Boettiger + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMENIAN LEGENDS AND FESTIVALS *** + +***** This file should be named 38129.txt or 38129.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/1/2/38129/ + +Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |