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+Project Gutenberg's Armenian Legends and Festivals, by Louis A. Boettiger
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Armenian Legends and Festivals
+
+Author: Louis A. Boettiger
+
+Release Date: November 25, 2011 [EBook #38129]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMENIAN LEGENDS AND FESTIVALS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
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+
+          Research Publications of the University of Minnesota
+
+                     Studies in the Social Sciences
+                               Number 14
+
+                     ARMENIAN LEGENDS AND FESTIVALS
+
+                                   By
+                        LOUIS A. BOETTIGER, M.A.
+
+
+
+                Published by the University of Minnesota
+                       Minneapolis, January, 1920
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                             Copyright 1920
+                                 by the
+                        University of Minnesota
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The author of the study which follows responded to the lure of
+his task for both theoretical and practical reasons. He seemed,
+because of his intimate personal relationship to Armenian life, to
+be peculiarly qualified to study and interpret a cross-section of
+that country's life. It is particularly urgent that we as Americans
+have authentic studies of Armenia and Armenian social life. Heretofore
+there has been a striking lack of such materials readily accessible in
+English. Because of the not inconsiderable immigration which reaches
+us from Armenia, and because also there has been a call for the United
+States to act as mandatory for this country under the peace treaty,
+we should penetrate more deeply into the Armenian heart than we have
+been able to do so far, if we are to carry through successfully
+our job either as assimilator or as friendly guardian. Moreover
+there is incumbent upon the United States in particular the duty of
+understanding a country like Armenia, since we have been foremost in
+proclaiming the doctrine of the rights of small nationalities. Those
+are the practical purposes from the standpoint of social politics
+which have given rise to and confer full warrant upon this study.
+
+Of no less importance, however, is the contribution which
+Mr. Boettiger's study makes to theoretical sociology. He has sketched
+out for us the picture of a refractory culture which refuses to
+amalgamate with or yield to or be permeated by rival cultures. The
+social history of this sturdy people offers us a very clear-cut
+example of what really makes a society or a nation. Not mountains,
+not dynasties, not blood, but common interests, common traditions,
+common beliefs; in short, mental community.
+
+The theoretical joins with the practical service of this study if
+it can strengthen our understanding that only as our own blood and
+that of our Armenian friends reach the place where they boil at the
+same temperature, or are cooled by the same application of reason,
+can we minister to each other or carry out the new partnership which
+may lie immediately ahead of us in the reëstablishment of peace and
+the reorganization of world comity.
+
+
+    Arthur J. Todd
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                 Pages
+
+Introduction                                                       1-2
+
+Part I. Legends
+
+Chapter I. The geography of Armenia                                5-8
+
+Chapter II. Ancient historical legends                            9-23
+
+    Section 1. The legend, of Haic                                   9
+            2. The legend of Ara and Semiramis                      10
+            3. Historical background of the legend of Ara and
+               Semiramis                                            11
+            4. The legend of Vahakn                                 14
+            5. The historic background of the legend of Vahakn      15
+            6. The period of national integration                   17
+            7. Legends of Artasches and Artavasd                    20
+            8. Conclusions                                          22
+
+Chapter III. Legends of the conversion to Christianity           24-38
+
+    Section 1. Pre-Christian mythology and religion                 24
+            2. Legends of Abgar, Thaddeus, and St. Bartholomew      27
+            3. Legends of Rhipsime and Gregory                      29
+            4. The Armenian church as a social force                34
+
+Chapter IV. Locality legends                                     39-44
+
+    Section 1. Ararat                                               39
+            2. Khor-Virap and Erzerum                               43
+
+Chapter V. Interpretation and conclusions                        45-48
+
+Part II. Festivals
+
+Chapter I. The Gregorian church                                  51-55
+
+Chapter II. Pagan folk festivals                                 56-66
+
+    Section 1. Vartavar and the Festival of Mihr                    56
+            2. The Day of the Dead and Vartan's Day                 58
+            3. Fortune-Telling Day                                  62
+
+Chapter III. Christian folk festivals                            67-78
+
+    Section 1. Christmas, Easter, and New Year                      67
+            2. Special church ceremonies                            71
+
+Chapter IV. Private festival occasions                           79-90
+
+    Section 1. Baptism                                              79
+            2. Betrothal                                            80
+            3. Marriage                                             83
+            4. Funeral                                              87
+
+Chapter V. Summary                                               91-96
+
+    Conclusions                                                     92
+
+Bibliography                                                    99-100
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The study which follows has a very definite objective apart from
+the mere gathering of materials, namely, to interpret as far as
+the subject-matter would permit, the social life of the Armenian
+people. The legends and festivals described have thus been selected
+from a larger mass of material with this principle in mind. I have,
+therefore, omitted such as seemed to me to be of little or no social
+value. Also, in full accordance with this plan, I have chosen to
+include certain church ceremonies which give rise to such festivals,
+and are of such social importance that I considered them an organic
+part of my subject. Otherwise I think I have kept within the strict
+confines as indicated by the title of this study.
+
+It must, therefore, be evident that neither Part One on legends,
+nor Part Two on festivals, is exhaustive, and this is necessarily
+so, not only because of my selective plan, but also because much of
+the work on this and kindred subjects has been done by the French,
+and is available only on the continent. All of the sources used are,
+however, original in two possible constructions of the term; that
+is, they are the works of Armenians who have lived for many years in
+their native land, or of foreigners, generally French or English, who
+have traveled through the country and gathered their material first
+hand. A large portion of this matter I have been able to check up
+and add to through my wife, an Armenian, who lived in Constantinople
+most of her life, and who is naturally versed in the folk-lore of her
+native land. While this has been the chief source of my interest,
+it is not the only one, for during my three years' work in Beirut,
+Syria, I became acquainted with many Armenians.
+
+To describe a legend, or a festival, and to tag it Armenian, is about
+as purposeful and enlightening as to explain Plato's idea of social
+unity to a person who has no picture of Greek civilization. I have,
+therefore, found it necessary to fit these legends and festivals into
+the particular settings that seemed to me most natural. The legends
+that date from pagan times are meaningless apart from their historical
+background; the church legends and festivals are without value apart
+from their religious-historical setting, while such legends as those
+of Ararat require a description of the natural environment to which
+they belong. The conclusions and interpretation which this study gives
+rise to, as well as the manner in which I have organized and attempted
+to weave the material together into a unified fabric, are my own.
+
+Most of the books used have been supplied by the Case Memorial
+Library of Hartford Theological Seminary, and I owe the Reverend
+M. H. Ananikian of that institution my thanks for his gracious
+coöperation in suggesting materials and providing me with them. I am
+also deeply indebted to Professor J. W. Beach for his painstaking
+criticism and valuable suggestions, and for the corrections
+and suggestions offered by Professor W. S. Davis and Professor
+A. E. Jenks. To Professor A. J. Todd I am especially grateful,
+for it was under his direction and supervision that this study was
+carried out.
+
+
+    Louis A. Boettiger
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PART ONE
+
+LEGENDS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE GEOGRAPHY OF ARMENIA
+
+
+Armenia is a huge plateau, a westward extension of the great Iranian
+highland, bounded by the Caucasus Mountains on the north, the Taurus
+Mountains and Kurdistan on the south, the Persian lowlands on the
+southeast, and the Black and Caspian seas. The average height of
+the plateau is 6,000 feet. As it ends abruptly at the Black Sea on
+one side, so on the other it breaks down in rugged terraces to the
+Mesopotamian lowlands; on the east it sinks gradually to the lower
+levels of Persia, and on the west to the plains of Asia Minor. The
+chief mountain ranges run from northeast to southwest, rising above
+the general level of the plateau to an altitude ranging from 8,000
+to 12,000 feet and culminating in Ararat, the lofty summit of which
+stands 17,000 feet above sea level. Broad, elevated, and fertile
+valleys range themselves between the mountains, the main lines of which
+are determined by the four chief rivers of the country, the Tigris,
+the Euphrates, the Aras, and the Kur. All four rise in the plateau,
+the two former emptying into the Persian Gulf, and the latter two
+into the Caspian Sea. The Euphrates divides the country into what is
+known as great and little Armenia, or Armenia major and Armenia minor,
+Armenia major on the east and Armenia minor on the west. Although the
+valleys are generally broad expanses of arable land, grass covered
+and treeless, the gorges of the Euphrates and Tigris can not be
+surpassed in grandeur and wildness. The winters are long and severe,
+and the summers short, dry, and hot. In the city of Erzerum the range
+of temperature is from -22° to 84°, and snow is usually present in
+June. [1]
+
+In consequence of the long and severe winters the villages are
+built on gentle slopes of the hillsides in which the houses are
+excavated. Robert Curzon, who traveled through the country about 1850,
+has written the best description of them. [2] A rectangular plot of
+ground about the size of an English acre is laid out and excavated to
+a depth of seven or eight feet at the back side, decreasing gradually
+with the slope of the hill to a depth of about two feet. After a
+careful leveling of the ground, trunks of straight trees are cut
+and arranged in rows for the support of the ceiling, which consists
+of cross-beams interspersed by a wooden frame-work upon which the
+removed soil is laid to a considerable thickness. The walls are made of
+stone. In entering the habitation at the lower slope of the hillside,
+one is obliged to descend three or four steps to the outer door,
+which opens to a passage six to ten feet in length, at the end of
+which is a second door, constructed of wood like the first. This door
+swings to through the operation of a curious wooden weight passed over
+a kind of pulley, in order to keep the outside cold from entering the
+inner chamber. The inside of the door is usually covered with a rough,
+red-dyed goatskin. Directly before the inner door is a wooden platform
+raised some two feet above the ground and known in Turkish as the
+"Salamlik," the hall of reception of the head of the family. Chairs
+and tables it possesses none, only divans richly draped with Kurdish
+stuffs placed against the stone walls that bound the two sides of
+the platform. The floor is carpeted with tekeke, a kind of grey felt,
+and the walls are decorated with swords, knives, pistols, and other
+weapons. On the other two sides, the Salamlik is bounded by wooden
+rails to keep away the sheep and cattle which occupy the greatest
+proportion of floor space, and whose breathing helps materially to
+keep the chamber warm. The other members of the household are confined
+behind the stone wall where the space is sometimes split up into
+two or more chambers for the various families of the patriarchal
+household. One of these rooms is the common eating-room, and is
+provided with an open hearth, fireplace, and chimney which leans
+forward over the fireplace and draws up the smoke through a hole in
+the turf-covered roof. A great stone is placed over the chimney to
+keep children at play and grazing animals from falling through. In
+traveling through the country on horseback, particular care must be
+taken lest the horse step through an old chimney hole and break his
+leg. The windows are funnel shaped holes through the ceiling spanned
+with oiled paper.
+
+Such is the Armenian household in which the people live day and night
+during eight winter months of the year in the coldest section of the
+country, as Erzerum and Mush. That many of the evenings were passed in
+listening to the tales and gossip of a wandering minstrel, or to the
+legends and folk-beliefs of the grey-haired members of the family,
+there can be no doubt. That the national tradition was passed on in
+this manner from the aged to the younger, to be again passed on in
+their turn, is a matter of as much certainty as that part at least
+of this same tradition has been preserved through the continually
+recurring storms of the passing centuries. The recounting of national
+legends and folk-lore is a chief means of amusement even in the warmer
+sections of the country, where the climate makes a free community life
+possible. How much more place, then, must it have had in these colder
+sections where only the head of the family ever left the household
+in winter-time, and then only in case of absolute necessity.
+
+As has been suggested, this style of dwelling-place is not common to
+all parts of Armenia. In some places the houses are built entirely
+above ground, usually of stone, and sometimes, especially in the
+case of the poorer inhabitants, of mud. Though the winters are not so
+long or severe as in the district of Erzerum, they are nevertheless
+sufficiently cold to require a fire six or seven months of the
+year. The characteristic feature of every living- and dining-room is
+the large "toneer" or circular fireplace dug out to a depth of three
+to four feet in the center of the room. Here the fire is built in the
+morning, usually with "tezek," the most common variety of fuel which
+is a sun-baked mixture of straw and sheep or cow dung. The bread is
+baked and the meals are cooked in the "toneer" and when it is time
+to eat, the members sit about the open space, letting their feet
+hang over the fire to keep warm. In the hut described by Montpèreux,
+there was but a single opening in the roof which served for window
+and chimney at the same time, and which was often carefully sealed
+up with straw to keep out the cold. [3] This author has given a clear
+picture of the common family fireplace and sleeping chamber in which
+each person fell asleep as best he might upon rugs and skins, keeping
+as near the "toneer" as possible. And if the traditions, legends, and
+folk-lore that will make up the body of this thesis are the common
+possession of the people, as I have reason to believe them to be,
+in spite of drastic measures taken to suppress them, how better could
+they have been told and retold than while lounging about the "toneer"
+during long winter evenings before sleeping time? [4]
+
+In what other respects the natural environment of the people moulded
+the common life, one can only conjecture. That the cold winters
+and deep river valleys have tended to the formation of isolated
+communities, clannishness, and provincialism, as is contended by
+some writers, has not generally been true. Tidal waves of conquering
+civilizations have passed over the country too frequently to make
+such an influence possible. [5] Furthermore the people are bound
+together by a national religion, whose chief officials are chosen
+by the lay members and priesthood of the many communities. [6] These
+representatives to the national religious assemblies return to their
+own people brimming with news and reports of political as well as
+religious and social matters. Such facts together with a common
+ancestry, a common tradition, and a common language have moulded
+a nation, and not a thousand differentiated groups among a people
+who were once a nation. They have tended to solidify and unify the
+national character, and it is just this process of solidification
+that gives significance to the whole fabric of beliefs, legends,
+and festivals of the people.
+
+As a nation, the Armenian people are exclusive, but this is an entirely
+different matter. For three years I have had occasion to observe groups
+of students belonging to different nations, chiefly Egyptians, Syrians,
+Greeks, Jews, Persians, Turks, and Armenians, and the latter always
+showed a most persistent determination to confine their friendships
+and social intercourse to themselves. Perhaps this is due to the fact
+that nearly all of the nations above mentioned have at one time or
+another dominated the Armenians; perhaps it is due to the persecution
+they have recently suffered, which, though it has been a sufficiently
+important fact to result in serious social and psychological changes,
+has by no means been characteristic of the history of the people,
+as it has been, for example, of the Jews; or perhaps it is due to the
+solidarity and oneness of the people as a whole. I am inclined rather
+to the latter explanation, and may perhaps be able to prove it so.
+
+Nevertheless, the singularity of the physical environment has placed
+its irremovable stamp upon the people. The words that best describe
+the country are not trees, hills, forests, gently flowing streams,
+such words as commonly express American landscape, but rather,
+gorges, mountain ranges, broad river valleys, treeless expanses of
+country. There is space to make one think of other worlds and other
+shores, and there are mountains suggestive of strength, that rise
+majestic above the plateau, to fill one with awe and wonder. Religious
+the people are naturally, but more than that, they are thoughtful,
+reflecting, considering. No writer that I have read but has spoken
+of the Armenian as intellectually alert and capable. That this
+thoughtfulness, this robust element in their idealism is in part the
+stamp of physical nature, there can be little doubt.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+ANCIENT HISTORICAL LEGENDS
+
+
+SECTION 1. THE LEGEND OF HAIC
+
+Armenians do not call themselves Armenians nor their country
+Armenia. They are descendants of Haic, as the legend goes, who was
+the son of Togarmah, the son of Japhet, who was the son of Noah, and
+they call their country Haiasdan after the patriarchal progenitor of
+their people. [7] Haic dwelt in the plain of Shinar and was a prefect
+or director in the building of the tower of Babel. He was beautiful
+as a god and strong as a giant, mighty in battle and especially adept
+in spear throwing. In the days of his youth, Bel or Nimrod, who was
+the patron god of Babylon, established himself over all and wished
+to be worshipped. But Haic refused to obey, and taking his sons, who
+numbered about three hundred, his daughters, his sheep and cattle,
+he journeyed north until he came to the land of Ararat. Bel tried in
+vain to persuade his rival to come back.
+
+"Thou hast departed and hast settled in a chill and frosty region,"
+urged the Assyrian god. "Soften thy hard pride, change thy coldness
+to geniality; be my subject and come and live a life of ease in my
+domain." [8]
+
+But Haic refused the cordial invitation, which so much angered Bel
+that the latter brought his army to force the Armenian hero into
+submission. Haic, however, was victorious, for he slew Bel with an
+arrow from his own bow. The place where Bel was buried is called
+"Kerezman," meaning grave, and is pointed out to this day. Armenians
+sing songs and tell stories of the great beauty and valor of Haic. He
+died at the age of four hundred in about 2028 B.C. [9]
+
+This oldest of Armenian legends, quaint and simple as it is in
+accounting for the beginnings of a people, savours of the Old
+Testament and is suggestive of the Assyrian invasion which took
+place about the ninth century before Christ. It is significant that
+the Armenians refused the protection of Bel, and that in the very
+beginning of their legendary history, they insisted on standing
+firm and maintaining their independence, for no single quality is
+more characteristic of this people than a proud, haughty, even at
+times disdainful independence. It is also suggestive that their
+patriarchal hero was no saint, but a mighty giant, beautiful as he
+was strong, whose greatest pride was in the throwing of a spear,
+for his descendants have not been a peaceful people. To be sure,
+they were the first nation to be converted to Christianity, which
+would say little for their firmness and independence, were it not
+that the priest with the cross was followed by a powerful king with a
+sword at the head of an army that had learned to fight as the Romans
+fought. [10] The songs that were sung in memory and honor of Haic
+are seldom sung to-day unless it be in some remote village where the
+civilization of the Turk has not yet pressed, and there are few such
+villages if any. For many of them breathe of a national spirit not
+beseeming a subject nation, and have been suppressed for many years.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. THE LEGEND OF ARA AND SEMIRAMIS
+
+Dating back to the Assyrian invasion which took place during the
+seventh and eighth centuries before Christ, one of the oldest of
+Armenian legends, that of Semiramis, queen of Assyria, and Ara, king
+of Armenia, is told. [11] Ara was very beautiful, and Semiramis having
+heard speech of his beauty for many years, wished to possess him. But
+she dared do nothing for fear of Ninus, protector over Armenia. After
+the death of Ninus, however, the queen sent messengers to Ara, with
+gifts and offerings, with prayers and promises of riches, begging
+him to come to her at Nineveh and either wed her and reign over all
+that Ninus had possessed, or fulfill her desire and return in peace to
+Armenia with many gifts. But when the messengers had been turned away
+repeatedly, Semiramis became angry, and taking her army she hastened
+to Armenia. The battle was fought on the plain of Ara, called after
+him Ararat; and although the queen had given careful orders to her
+generals to devise some means of saving the life of Ara, the Armenian
+king was slain. She found the dead body among the others that had
+fallen, and ordered her servants to place it in an upper chamber in
+her castle. And when the Armenian army again arose to drive away the
+foe and avenge the death of Ara, the queen said, "I have commanded
+the gods to lick his wounds and he shall live again." She tried to
+bring Ara back to life by witchcraft and charms, but the body began to
+decay and she commanded her servants to cast the corpse into a deep
+pit and to cover it. And having dressed up one of her men in secret,
+she caused the following proclamation to be spread among the people:
+"The gods have licked Ara and have brought him back to life again,
+thus fulfilling our prayers and our pleasures. Therefore from this
+time forth shall they be the more glorified and worshipped by us,
+for they are the givers of joy and the fulfillers of desire." And
+she erected a statue to the gods, making it seem as though they had
+brought Ara back to life again. This news was spread over all the
+country of Armenia, and having satisfied the people, she put an end
+to the fighting. The twelve-year-old son of the king was taken by the
+Assyrian queen and appointed ruler over Armenia. She called him Ara,
+in memory of her love for Ara the Beautiful.
+
+To Semiramis is attributed the building of the ancient city of
+Van on the shores of the beautiful lake of Van, where she made
+her summer residence until the time of her departure. [12] She
+might well have lingered there, for the Armenians have a proverb,
+"Van in this world, paradise in the next." Nevertheless, Semiramis
+and Ara are mythical characters, although the latter is spoken of in
+the history of St. Martin as having lived along about 1769 B.C. [13]
+As regards the popular belief in the legend, however, there is not
+the slightest doubt. This is proved by the fact that even to-day the
+city is called "Sham-iram-agerd" by the Armenians, meaning the city
+of Semiramis. Lynch says that Ara and Semiramis are Tannuz and Istar,
+the Adonis and the Aphrodite of the Hellenic myth, and that the quest
+of the Assyrian queen may be connected with the introduction into
+Armenia of the worship of Istar whose name is mentioned in one of the
+cuneiform inscriptions at Van. [14] However, the results of modern
+scholarship are by no means conclusive on this point, as we shall see.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE LEGEND OF ARA AND SEMIRAMIS
+
+Moses' history was read by St. Martin who became exceedingly interested
+in Van, and in the cuneiform inscriptions spoken of. It was due to
+him that the French government dispatched a mission to Armenia in
+1827, under the direction of a young German Professor, Friedrich
+Edward Schulz. Schulz was murdered by the Kurds, a thing which
+rarely happens in Armenia, and his work was left incomplete. He had
+succeeded, however, in making copies of forty-two inscriptions, which
+were published in 1840, and proved to be remarkably accurate. Shortly
+afterward, orientalists made great discoveries in the Mesopotamian
+valley, but the inscriptions at Van did not tally with any syllabaries
+discovered up to that time, nor could they be translated in any known
+language. A number of them were found to be Assyrian, but the great
+majority were peculiar to Van, and entirely baffled the students. Not
+until 1880 were they finally unravelled. M. S. Guyard discovered at
+that time that the concluding phrase of many Vannic texts represented
+an imprecatory formula found in exactly the same place in Assyrian
+counterparts. This discovery enabled Professor Sayce, of Oxford,
+to decipher the inscriptions at a rapid rate.
+
+Among the important facts discovered were that the nation was a
+rival nation of Assyria, and that its people were called Khaldeans,
+or children of Khaldis, much in the same way as the Assyrians reflected
+the name of their god, Assur. The country was a theocracy and Khaldis
+was supreme. In the tablets, his wrath was invoked against whomever
+should destroy them. The capital city was Dhuspus, modern Van, which
+is the Disp, or Tsp of Armenian writers, and the Turuspa of Assyrian
+annals. The Assyrians styled the kingdom Urardhu, or Urarthu, which
+is the name appearing in the Bible in the familiar form Ararat.
+
+The earliest inscriptions date back to the ninth century before
+Christ, and as the language is neither Semitic nor Indo-European,
+the people could neither have been Assyrians whose language was
+Semitic, nor Armenians, whose language is Indo-European. The first
+mention made of Urardhu was in the reign of Ashur-Nazir-Pal (885-860
+B.C.) whose successor, Shalmanasar II (860-825 B.C.) was the first
+Assyrian king to invade Armenia. [15] Raffi, however, (the son of the
+famous Armenian poet) speaks of an account given by Assur-Nazir-Haban
+(1882-1857 B.C.) of one of his victories. "They" (i.e., the people
+of Ararat or Urarthu), he said, "fled to the impregnable mountains
+so that I might not be able to get at them, for the mighty summits
+were like drawn swords pointing to the skies. Only the birds of
+heaven soaring on their wings could reach them. In three days I was
+there spreading terror in places where they had taken refuge. Their
+corpses like autumn leaves filled the clefts. The rest escaped to
+distant inaccessible heights." [16] This, clearly, is a much older
+record than any that Lynch found trace of, and although Raffi cites no
+authority for the quotation, I presume that it has been taken from a
+recent discovery. If this be true the Khaldeans were a very ancient
+people. One of the tablets shows that King Memas was the principal
+author of the magnificent canal which conducts the water of the river
+Khoshab to the suburbs of Van, and which is to-day called "Shamiram-Su"
+or river of Semiramis. [17] The line of Vannic kings is traceable as
+far down as 644 B.C.
+
+Most of these inscriptions are to be found on a huge isolated rock,
+situated in the curve of the bay, and known as the "rock of Van." [18]
+Among them are inscriptions left by Xerxes (485 B.C.), the Persian
+conqueror whose father's empire (Darius, 521-486 B.C.) succeeded the
+loose Scythian rule.
+
+But the ancient Khaldean kingdom had already vanished when Xerxes'
+victorious army overran the country, for shortly after the great influx
+of Scythians and the break-up of Assyria, came another horde from the
+west, perhaps to fill up the void left by the Scythian ravages. It is
+at this time that the Armenian people are first heard from, and it is
+this horde, therefore, that is regarded as the foundation stock of
+the Armenian people. They seem to have been an Indo-European people
+residing in the territory north of the Black Sea, for, coming from
+the west they must have entered Asia from Europe by crossing the
+straits. The ancient Khaldeans were assimilated to some extent,
+but for the most part, they were driven to the north and south,
+where they have left traces that have been recognized and recorded
+by Xenophon and Herodotus. [19]
+
+That the civilization and culture of the ancient Khaldeans were
+utilized is beyond doubt. Their most ancient cities, Van, Armavir,
+were foundations of Vannic kings, while recently it has been disclosed
+that the city of Hajk, southeast of Van, shows some of the familiar
+features of a Khaldean settlement. But their supreme god during the
+pre-Christian era was not Khaldis, but the Persian Ormuzd, which
+indicates that the Persians exercised an even greater influence.
+
+How then could Semiramis ever have come to Van in quest of an Armenian
+king, since it seems that the Scythians had already conquered Assyria
+before the great influx of Armenian hordes? Nor does it seem that the
+city of Van was built by the Assyrian queen, for the inscriptions
+make no mention of her name. King Memas who, in the view of Lynch,
+constructed the famous canal, was in all probability the author of
+the garden city. The belief, according to Lynch, as already stated,
+is that this legend is the Armenian version of the old Hellenic myth of
+Aphrodite and Adonis, taken over during the domination of the Seleucid
+dynasty which followed the conquest of Alexander about 325 B.C. [20]
+
+But this is unreasonable. That a myth should be taken over by a subject
+people and the characters rechristened is not difficult to understand,
+but that the name of one of them should be applied to the ancient
+city is very improbable to say the least. Furthermore, the legend is
+flavored rather strongly with Persian voluptuousness, and is not at
+all suggestive of Greek delicacy and refinement. Nor is the fact that
+the horde overran the country after the destruction of Assyria in any
+way conclusive, for if there were any assimilation at all, as there
+must unquestionably have been, the Khaldean culture and history was to
+that extent the actual possession of the Armenians. Even intermarriage
+would perhaps be unnecessary, for what Irishman who has been in the
+United States two months does not speak of Benjamin Franklin and George
+Washington as his forefathers? It is to be noted also that to this day
+the canal spoken of is called "Shamiram-Su" or river of Semiramis, by
+all Armenians. [21] On the whole it seems to me conclusive, therefore,
+that the legend of Semiramis and Ara has its roots in Armenian history,
+and is not at all a version of the Hellenic myth.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 4. THE LEGEND OF VAHAKN
+
+The legend of Vahakn, king and god of Armenians, is very clearly
+attributable to the Greek period, which followed the Persian conquest
+under Xerxes. Vahakn was deified because of his great valor and made
+the fire-god of the Armenian people. [22] He was called "Vishapakagh,"
+uprooter of dragons, since he cleared Armenia of monsters and saved
+it from evil influences. His exploits were known in the abode of the
+gods as well as in Armenia. The most famous of them was the theft of
+corn from the barns of King Barsham of Assyria, from whom he ran away
+and tried to hide in heaven. Because of the ears he dropped in his
+rapid flight, there arose the Milky Way which is called in Armenian
+the "track of the corn stealer." [23]
+
+Moses of Khorene writes as follows:
+
+
+    Concerning the birth of this king the legends say,
+
+
+        "Heaven and earth were in travail,
+        And the crimson waters were in travail,
+        And in the water, the crimson reed
+        Was also in travail.
+        From the mouth of the reed issued smoke,
+        From the mouth of the reed issued flame,
+        And out of the flame sprang the young child,
+        His hair was of fire, a beard had he of flame,
+        And his eyes were suns." [24]
+
+
+    With our own ears did we hear these words sung to the accompaniment
+    of the harp. They sing moreover that he did fight with the dragons,
+    and overcame them; and some say that his valiant deeds were like
+    unto Hercules. Others declare that he was a god, and that a great
+    image of him stood in the land of Georgia, where it was worshipped,
+    with sacrifices. [25]
+
+
+The wife of Vahakn was Astghik, the goddess of beauty, a
+personification of the moon, corresponding to the Phoenician and
+Sidonian Astarte. This is suggestive of Greek influence, for Venus, the
+Greek goddess of beauty, was also the wife of a fire-god, Vulcan. [26]
+
+The flight of Vahakn before the Assyrian king is certainly more
+suggestive of the fear in which the Assyrians must have been regarded
+than of the valor of their god. The originators of the legend were
+good psychologists, however, in regarding the instincts of fear and
+of pugnacity as compatible. For even the slayer of demons must some
+day face his superiors in strength, and when he does, will he not be
+afraid? In fact he would be more afraid than another, for he could
+not well impute more mercy to his superior than he himself had shown
+to his inferiors.
+
+The vein of humor is too rich to be left unnoted. If the Greeks could
+laugh at their gods, and even mock them, the Armenians could also
+make sport of them. For what could be more delightfully humorous than
+the picture of a bearded god, a slayer of dragons, whose hair was
+of flame and whose eyes like suns, stealing corn from the Assyrian
+king and dropping the ears from his shoulders in his hasty flight
+across heaven? The character thus brought out, together with the
+richness of imaginative quality, especially in the song of his birth,
+the wholesome and unveiled anthropomorphism (wholesome because it is
+unveiled), and the correspondence between the Greek fire-god Vulcan
+whose wife was Venus, the goddess of beauty, with the fire-god Vahakn
+whose wife Astghik was also goddess of beauty, stamp the legend with
+its unmistakable origin in Greek mythology.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 5. THE HISTORIC BACKGROUND OF THE LEGEND OF VAHAKN
+
+The Greek period from which this legend dates began with the defeat
+of the Armenian king Vahy, who was overcome by Alexander the Great
+somewhere about 328 B.C. [27] The Greeks chose their own representative
+to rule over the province, who at the time of Alexander's death was
+Seleucus. Historians have taken the name of this governor to indicate
+the dynasty of Greek supremacy which followed; i.e., the Seleucid
+dynasty. This method of the Greeks of selecting their own man to
+govern a subject people, which was of course in pursuance of their
+policy of superimposing their own culture upon all subject nations,
+was contrary to the policy of the Parthians, Romans, and Persians,
+who allowed the Armenians to maintain their national independence
+provided they permitted the use of their armies and duly paid their
+taxes. And it is this policy of the Greeks that accounts for the fact
+that large portions of Greek mythology and religion were taken over
+by the Armenians.
+
+Although the period of political supremacy was short-lived, the
+influence of Greek culture continued to permeate the social life
+of the people through the reign of the Arsacid kings. [28] In 246
+B.C. Arsaces, a Parthian, made himself master of the Parthians,
+Persians, Medes, Babylonians, and lastly Armenians. [29] His grandson,
+Arsaces the Great, conquered as far as India, and after seating himself
+securely upon the throne of Persia, placed his brother Valarsace upon
+the Armenian throne, so founding the Persian and Armenian Arsacid
+dynasties (150 B.C.). [30] The Persian Arsacidae became extinct in
+A.D. 226 when they were overthrown by the Persian Sasanidae, whereas
+the Armenian Arsacidae line continued up until A.D. 428, when the
+Armenian kingdom was divided between Persia and Rome by Shapuh,
+the Persian monarch, and Theodosius II. [31] This makes a period
+of 578 years (150 B.C.-A.D. 428) during which Armenia was governed
+by her own line of kings, and enjoyed the liberties of national
+independence. To be sure after the conquest of Lucullus and Pompey
+(66 B.C.) Armenia became tributary to Rome, but the right of succession
+remained with the Armenian royal family, even during Roman supremacy,
+so that the national life was in no manner interfered with. [32] The
+greatest Armenian king of the Arsacidae line was Tigranes the Great,
+who extended his domains by conquest and established himself in his
+capital, Tigranacerta, with a court of matchless splendor. [33] He
+is spoken of by historians as a king of kings, and as having ruled
+with a pomp, splendor, and pride never before known. Defeated by
+Pompey within the walls of his own capital city, his kingdom became
+tributary to Rome.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 6. THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION
+
+The continuity of the period of the Armenian Arsacidae makes it the
+time when the process of national solidification and unification was
+carried out to the point that made Armenia a nation, and beyond this
+point. Raffi asserts that the introduction of Greek culture during
+the Arsacid dynasty not only changed the religion of Armenians,
+but also so affected their language and customs that they became
+different from the Persians, which is proof that a process of social
+readjustment was going on. [34] It was during this period that the
+wandering minstrels spoken of by Langlois journeyed from one end of
+the nation to the other, singing their songs, repeating the national
+legends, relating the news of the world and the court gossip which
+probably made up the largest portion of it.
+
+
+    Les chants de l'antique Arménie rappellent principalement des
+    événements la plupart héroiques et légendaires, accomplis à des
+    époques très différentes, ce qui donne à penser qu'ils ont dû être
+    composés à diverses reprises, par des rhapsodes dont les noms
+    ne nous sont point parvenus. Les sujets traités dans ces chants
+    demontrent clairement qu'ils n'ont été inspirés ni à des prêtres
+    païens, ni à des poètes qui auraient vécu sous leur influence,
+    en vue d'être recités dans des fêtes religieuses ou en face des
+    autels. Au contraire, on reconnait de prime abord que ces chants
+    sont l'oeuvre de bardes nationaux, ayant un libre acces dans les
+    palais des souverains et à la cour des satrapes. C'est ce qui
+    fait supposer que ces poèmes sont peutêtre dûs à des ménestrels,
+    à la solde des rois et des nobles et ayant pour emploi de célébrer
+    leurs vertus et leurs prouesses. [35]
+
+
+This is putting the case conservatively, for Moses speaks often of
+"les chantres" and "les chants." They traveled as far as Persia and
+returned, for it is related by the Italian Countess Evelyn Martinengo
+how a wandering minstrel, who had just returned from that country,
+was entertained by an Armenian patriarchal family living in the
+kind of underground habitation described in the beginning of this
+thesis. [36] No one was ever more welcome than the minstrel. He was
+assigned to the guest chamber usually prepared especially for him,
+and always the best chamber in the household. His head and feet were
+washed for him by the wife of the patriarch, and at meal time all the
+delicacies of the household were spread before him. All guests were
+welcome, but no guest more welcome than the minstrel. They must have
+listened to his tales in a kind of petrified awe, and heard him sing
+his songs in speechless enjoyment.
+
+It was a practice among the minstrels of the time to compete with
+each other in public, and it is related how two minstrels entertained
+by a Persian prince were led out upon an open grass plot and seated,
+one facing the other. Five thousand people made a circle around the
+competitors while the rivals contended in song and verse, riddle
+and repartee. Each began where the other left off, until finally one
+failed to perceive the drift of his adversary, and answering at random,
+the spectators proclaimed him beaten. The triumphant bard was led to
+the vanquished, whose lyre was taken from him and broken. Robed in
+a prince's mantle, the victor was taken to the highest seat in the
+banquet hall.
+
+That the people were the judges of the contest, indicates how well
+they must have been acquainted with the current folk-songs, legends,
+and tradition. How generally and frequently the custom of minstrel
+competition was practiced throughout Armenia is not known, but it
+certainly is proof, besides Moses' own statements to the same effect,
+that the national legends and folk-songs were the possession of the
+common people. And what is more important, this same body of legends,
+folk-songs, and tradition did more than any other one thing to weld
+the sentiments of the people into a single national sentiment, which
+crystallized into a real patriotism, a real loyalty and devotion
+to any cause that was a national cause, because it was the natural,
+spontaneous expression of the life and thought of the people, and no
+mean, artificial thing superimposed from outside. [37]
+
+There are other reasons for giving this period the social importance
+that I have ascribed to it. The conversion of the people to
+Christianity about the third century after Christ was achieved in
+no sentimental fashion, but, as I believe, in a manner in which it
+alone could have been done, namely, at the point of the sword of their
+own king, Tiridates, who was converted from paganism to Christianity
+by Gregory the Illuminator. The traditions in connection with this
+important event will be told later. Suffice it to say at this point
+that the whole process of conversion was carried out so thoroughly
+and completely, that it may be described as a national volte-face,
+and therefore did not result in the disintegration, civil strife,
+and social chaos that would unquestionably have been the result
+had the process been carried out by means of peaceful penetration
+and propaganda.
+
+The third and last argument in support of the social and national
+importance of the period of the Arsacid kings is in respect to the
+alphabet which was compiled by St. Mesrob Maschtotz. St. Mesrob was
+a former secretary of the king, and desired to extirpate the last
+remnants of paganism in the province of Akoulis, but in the absence of
+an alphabet he was unable to carry out any scheme of propaganda. He
+therefore besought the king, Vramschapouh, to put an end to this
+state of things and the latter, in response to the request, placed
+all available material at the disposal of the saint. The task was
+accomplished in 404, somewhat at the expense of the future devotees
+of the language, for the alphabet contains thirty-eight letters. [38]
+Nevertheless, most of the sounds of foreign languages were represented,
+making it particularly useful as a foundation language for other
+languages. St. Mesrob, with a body of translators trained by himself
+and St. Sahak, then proceeded to the translation of the Bible,
+which was not completed until 433. Liturgies and song-books quickly
+followed. To be sure the effect of the invention of the alphabet and
+the distribution of the various religious publications that followed
+were not felt during the period of the Arsacidae, for the Bible was
+not published until after the break-up of the kingdom in 428, when it
+was divided between Persia and Rome. But the important point is that
+the time had come when the need for an alphabet was making itself very
+strongly felt, and this could not have been true of a diversified,
+heterogeneous population.
+
+For the three reasons above mentioned, i.e., first, the work of
+minstrels, second, the Christianizing of the nation, and third,
+the invention of the alphabet, all occurring during the successive
+reigns of the Arsacid kings, I should ascribe to this period (150
+B.C.-A.D. 428) the integration of the Armenian people into a national
+unit. [39] Christianity must have come as a disrupting force, as a
+terrible shock, necessitating a complete social readjustment, but the
+fact that the readjustment was made shows that the people were ready
+for it. For better or for worse the yoke of Christianity was fastened
+to the neck of the people, and with it they had to replow the social
+soil. The job was a good one, for the Armenian church has been the
+chief power during the last ten or fifteen centuries in keeping alive
+the streams of national life, and in holding the people together in
+the face of invasion and repeated attempts at proselytization by the
+Persians and by the Greek and Roman Catholic churches.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 7. LEGENDS OF ARTASCHES AND ARTAVASD
+
+The legends of Artasches and Satenik, and of Artavasd, the son of
+Artasches, belong to the Arsacid period, for Artavasd and Artasches
+are Armenian kings of the Arsacid dynasty, according to Moses. [40]
+The Alans who, according to the legend, were a neighboring people
+residing in the mountain region in the vicinity of Georgia, spread
+themselves over Armenia while Artasches, the Armenian king, collected
+a great army and forced the Alans to retreat across the river Kur
+where they pitched camp. The son of the Alan king was taken captive
+and brought to Artasches, which forced the former to seek peace on
+whatever terms the Armenian king might wish, provided only his son
+was returned in safety. But Artasches refused, whereupon the sister
+of the captured boy came to the river bank, and standing upon a great
+rock spoke to the camp of Artasches by means of interpreters saying:
+"Oh brave Artasches, who hast vanquished the great nation of Alans,
+unto thee I speak. Come, hearken unto the bright-eyed daughter of
+the Alan king and give back the youth. For it is not the way of
+heroes to destroy life at the root, nor for the sake of humbling
+and enslaving a hostage to establish everlasting enmity between two
+great nations." [41] Artasches, having heard of these sayings went
+to the river bank and having seen that the girl was beautiful,
+and listened to her words of wisdom, wished to marry her. His
+chamberlain considered it a wise stroke of policy, and therefore
+went to the Alan king, soliciting the hand of the princess for his
+master, whose oaths and assurances of peace he vouched for, together
+with the promise to return the boy. The king of the Alans answered,
+"From whence shall brave Artasches give thousands upon thousands,
+and ten thousands upon tens of thousands in return for the maiden?"
+
+Writes Moses:
+
+    Concerning this, the poets of that land sing in their songs:
+
+
+       "Brave King Artasches
+        Mounted his fine black charger,
+        And took the red leathern cord
+        With the golden ring.
+        Like a swift winged eagle
+        He passed over the river
+        And cast the golden ring
+        Round the waist of the Alan Princess;
+        Causing much pain to the tender maiden
+        As he bore her swiftly back to his camp."
+
+
+    Which being interpreted meaneth that he was commanded to give
+    much gold, leather, and crimson dye in exchange for the maiden. So
+    also they sing of the wedding:
+
+
+       "It rained showers of gold when Artasches became a bridegroom,
+        It rained pearls when Satenik became a bride."
+
+
+    For it was the custom of our kings to scatter coins amongst the
+    people when they arrived at the doors of the temple for their
+    wedding, as also for the queens to scatter pearls in their
+    bride-chamber. [42]
+
+
+The couplet quoted is still sung by the Armenians, and it is still
+customary for the bridegroom to scatter money on his way to the
+church, and though it may be for queens to scatter pearls, the
+Armenian bride is not to be outdone. She is given a partly opened
+pomegranate which she throws at the door of the bridegroom upon the
+arrival at the bridegroom's home after the ceremony at the church,
+the bits of pomegranate scattering themselves about as pearls.
+
+After fifty-one years of a very prosperous reign, Artasches, who was
+very much beloved by his people, died. The funeral procession was a
+most magnificent one, and many of the people killed themselves, out
+of love for their dead king, according to the custom of the time. And
+when the body was laid in the grave they threw precious jewels, gold,
+and silver after it. Nor did the lamenting and suicide stop after
+his burial, for upon the grave of their dead king the nobles and
+the people continued to kill themselves. So great was the slaughter
+that Artavasd, son of Artasches, and king after his father's death,
+addressed the spirit of his dead father, saying, "Behold, thou art
+taking all with thee; dost thou leave me to rule over ruins and the
+dead?" The words given by Moses of Khorene are: "Now that thou art
+gone, and hast taken with thee the whole land, how shall I reign over
+the ruins?" [43] Whereupon the spirit of Artasches cursed him and said,
+
+
+        "When thou ridest forth to hunt
+        Over the free heights of Ararat,
+        The strong ones shall have thee,
+        And shall take thee up
+        On to the free heights of Ararat.
+        There shalt thou abide,
+        And never more see the light." [44]
+
+
+These words together with those of Artavasd spoken to his father's
+spirit were sung by the singers of the time. [45]
+
+One day while out hunting Artavasd was seized by some visionary terror
+and lost his reason. Urging his horse down a steep bank he fell into
+a chasm where he sank and disappeared. Old women told how he was
+confined in a cavern and bound with iron chains which his two dogs
+gnawed at daily in order to set him free. But somehow at the sound
+of the hammers striking on the anvils, the chains were continually
+strengthened, and it was customary among the blacksmiths of the time
+to strike the anvil three or four times to strengthen, as they said,
+the chains of Artavasd. And so the tradition was kept up by singers and
+blacksmiths; the blacksmiths and old women having consigned the jealous
+king to the world's nethermost regions, while the singers left him
+to the solitude of Ararat in accordance with the curse of Artasches.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 8. CONCLUSIONS
+
+Such are the ancient legends of Armenia, in their respective historical
+settings: the legends of Haic, of Semiramis and Ara, of Vahakn,
+of Artasches and Satenik, and of Artavasd. All of them antedate the
+Christian era, and some of them by many centuries. Each one of them
+is told by Moses of Khorene. But as to origin and probable historic
+roots Moses was silent, for he was writing a history. He constantly
+laments the absolute dearth of material and sources and begins his
+accounts of these legends with the words "This is as it is told,"
+or "the singers say," indicating that his only sources for them
+were the songs and reports current among the people during his own
+time. The legends of Haic and of Semiramis and Ara are told by Moses
+as though he believed them historic fact, but of course Moses had no
+materials to serve as a basis of criticism. He is careful to quote
+Mar Apas Catina as his only source for this material. The other three
+legends are regarded as such. Artavasd is spoken of as an historical
+king who lost his reason while riding horseback and fell into a deep
+chasm. The practice of suicide at the death of Artasches, his father,
+was a pagan custom. The curse of the spirit of the dead father, the
+chains, the dogs, and the anvils were of course recognized as the work
+of ingenious fancy. In view therefore, of the questionable character
+of Moses' sources these legends have very little historic value. They
+do, however, have a high social value inasmuch as the common knowledge
+of them among the people was the only ultimate source at the disposal
+of the historian.
+
+The second conclusion is that these legends formed a very important
+part of the larger mass of tradition and songs that served to cement
+the people into a nation. Just how important, it would be difficult
+to say, but the fact that they were current at the time Moses wrote
+indicates that they were current and passed on from generation to
+generation during the whole period of the Arsacidae kings. And as
+the people had no alphabet during this whole period, they must have
+been passed on by song and word of mouth. This was a time of special
+activity on the part of the minstrels and singers, and therefore
+the development of the national consciousness characteristic of the
+period must have been brought about in a large measure through the
+medium of these legendary beliefs.
+
+Furthermore these legends are known by the Armenian people to-day
+and are taught in the schools that are not too severely under the
+rules of Turkish and Russian censorship. Naturally enough, they are
+a source of great pride since they breathe national independence and
+loyalty. But of course, the Turks and Russians have suppressed all
+public singing of songs, and public teaching of history and legend
+that may possibly be construed as partaking of the national spirit.
+
+It may be argued that these legends slumbered between the covers
+of Moses' history during the centuries known as the dark ages, and
+that they had no social value until the contagion of the European
+spirit of the Renaissance awoke the legends and the people at
+the same time. But the mere dearth of record is no proof of this
+Rip Van Winkle theory. There is at least one reliable authority
+sufficient to disprove it, viz., Grigor Magistros, a scholar of the
+eleventh century who wrote that he heard the Artasches epic sung
+by minstrels. [46] Besides the unreasonableness of the supposition,
+there is the added fact of an independent Armenian kingdom known as
+the Bagradouni dynasty, whose capital seat was at the famous city
+of Ani. This kingdom included greater Armenia and continued from
+A.D. 887 to 1079. [47] But 1079 does not mark the end of Armenian
+independence though it marks the destruction of Ani, for Reuben,
+a member of the royal family, made his way into Cilicia in the year
+1080, and rallying a handful of Armenians about him, overpowered the
+Greeks and founded what is known as the Rupenian Kingdom of Cilicia,
+which continued during a period of 300 years. So that here again is a
+period of very nearly five hundred years (889-1380), during which time
+the Armenian people enjoyed national political independence. [48] And
+this during the very period of the dark ages, about which we know so
+little! We could not, therefore, for a moment suppose the traditions
+and legends to have had no social importance during these centuries,
+for such an assumption would be in flat contradiction to the witness
+of Grigor Magistros, and to the facts of Armenian history.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+LEGENDS OF THE CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY
+
+
+SECTION 1. PRE-CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION
+
+The second body of legends which I wish to consider is
+chiefly concerned with the introduction of Christianity into the
+country. These, together with the traditional beliefs centered about
+the chief geographical feature of the land, Mt. Ararat, constitute
+a group bearing a very distinct religious stamp. For this reason,
+and also because they have a later origin, they are to be marked
+off very distinctly from those already taken up. In view of their
+religious bearing I shall introduce them with a brief account of the
+various forms of pagan worship that preceded the Christianization of
+the people.
+
+The chief religious influences have been the Assyrian, the Persian,
+and the Greek. It seems, however, that a kind of monotheism prevailed
+before the gods of any of these were taken over. The very ancient
+Armenian kings planted groves of poplars around their cities and the
+worship was carried on in these groves. [49] An altar was placed among
+the trees, where the first male descendant of the royal family (and
+perhaps other families) offered sacrifices to the one God, while the
+priests derived oracles from the rustling of the leaves. Even now the
+poplar groves are held in uncommon regard. This is a survival of the
+old belief that they were the dwelling place of God, and of the later
+practice of consecrating children in them. The belief that God dwelt
+among the leaves must have been suggested by the slightest trembling
+of the leaves, even at the gentlest breeze, and one can well imagine
+the people looking up at them in the impressive silence of the forest
+with an awe and wonder no other environment could possibly induce. The
+Armenian for poplar, "Sossi" is used to-day as a name for girls, and
+the poplar tree, although not held sacred by Armenian people to-day,
+is certainly regarded with great reverence. [50]
+
+The influence of Persian worship is more clear. Aramazd, the architect
+of the universe, lord and creator of all things, was the chief
+Armenian god, and is unquestionably the Persian Ormuzd named in the
+inscription of Xerxes on the rock of Van. Armenians have given him
+the title of "father of the gods," and the qualifications "great,
+and strong, creator of heaven and earth, and god of fertility and
+of abundance." The Greeks identified him with Zeus. [51] There were
+numerous sanctuaries erected in his honor, and at the annual festival
+celebrated in his name, white animals, especially goats, horses,
+and mules, were sacrificed and their blood used to fill silver and
+golden goblets. [52] Tir, or "Grogh" meaning in Armenian "to write"
+was his attendant spirit, whose chief business it was to watch over
+mankind, recording their good and evil deeds. [53] Upon the death of a
+person "Grogh" conducted the soul of the departed before his master,
+who opened the great book, and balancing the good and evil deeds,
+assigned a reward or punishment. Grogh is also the personification
+of hope and fear, and the expression "may Grogh take you" is still
+very commonly used among the people, especially by servant girls
+and those whose language has not undergone the purification of a
+season of "Sturm und Drang." It is interesting to note that this
+and some other expressions owe their survival to usage among women
+rather than among men, which is not difficult of explanation when one
+considers the social restrictions that women are generally subject
+to. "Viele Seiten des alten heidnischen Glaubens sind in dem heutigen
+Volksglauben, besonders bei den tiefer stehenden Volksschichten, bei
+alten Bauerinnen, als überbleibsel der Vergangenheit erhalten." [54]
+
+The god Mihr represented fire, and was the son of Aramazd. [55]
+He guided heroes in battle, and was commemorated by a festival held
+in the beginning of spring. Fires were kindled in the open market
+place in his honor, and a lantern lit from one of these fires was
+kept burning in his temple throughout the year. [56] It is still a
+festival among the people, although it has a different significance,
+and will be described more in detail later on. This is practiced not
+only by the Armenians, but also by the Syrian Maronites who reside
+in the Lebanon. I have seen the mountainsides literally aglow with
+a thousand fires in celebration of a Christian festival that has
+its roots in the pagan ceremony in honor of Mihr. The practice of a
+continually burning lantern was also carried over by some branches
+of the Christian church.
+
+Both Persians and Armenians were worshippers of Mihr (fire-worship),
+although there was a very distinct difference between the two. The
+Armenian sacred fire was invisible, whereas the Persian was material
+and kept up throughout the whole year. It is for this reason that
+the Armenians called the Persians fire-worshippers. The only visible
+fire-god worshipped by the Armenians was the sun, to which temples
+were dedicated, and after which the Armenian calendar month "Areg" was
+named. [57] The "Children of the Sun" as they were called, offered the
+most persistent opposition to the introduction of Christianity, and a
+community of them continued their worship in the face of persecution
+after Christianity became the religion of the state. The phrase "let
+me die for your sun," and the oath "let the sun of my son be witness,"
+are language survivals of this particular worship.
+
+The Greek worship, introduced first during the Seleucid dynasty, and
+emphasized and encouraged by the line of Arsacidae kings up to the
+introduction of Christianity, exercised an even stronger influence
+than the Persian. Many of the Greek divinities were rechristened
+and adopted by the people. Chief of these was Anahit, "Mother of
+Chastity," known also as the "Pure and Spotless Goddess," who was the
+daughter of Aramazd, and corresponded to the Greek Artemid and the
+Roman Diana. [58] She was also regarded as the benefactress of the
+people. Writes Agathangelus: "Through her (Anahit) the Armenian land
+exists; from her it draws its life, she is the glory of our nation and
+its protectress." [59] Images and shrines were dedicated to her name
+under the titles, "The Golden Mother," "The Being of Golden Birth." A
+summer festival was celebrated in her honor at which a dove and a
+rose were offered to her golden image. The day was called "Vartavar,"
+meaning "the flaming of the rose." The temples of Anahit and the golden
+image were destroyed with the conversion of the people to Christianity,
+but the festival has continued as a regular church festival under
+the same name "Vartavar" though of course with a different meaning.
+
+The second and third daughters of Aramazd were Astghik, the goddess
+of beauty, and Nane, or Noone, the goddess of contrivance. [60] The
+former was the wife of Vahakn, the mythical king-god, the legend in
+respect to whom has been told, and corresponded to the Phoenician
+and Sidonian Astarte. It is stated by Raffi that the goddess of
+contrivance was a necessary power to womankind, for then as now woman
+had to make big things out of small. Sandaramet, the wife of Aramazd,
+was an invisible goddess and personification of the earth. Her master
+sent rain upon her, and brought forth vegetation. Later she became
+the synonym for Hades. Perhaps the best summary of Armenian worship
+as existing before the Christian time is that given by St. Martin.
+
+
+    La religion Arménienne était probablement un mélange des opinions
+    de Zoroastre, fort alterés par le cult des divinités grecques. On
+    voyait dans les temples de l'Arménie un grand nombre de statues
+    de divinités, auxquelles on faisait des sacrifices d'animaux,
+    ce qui ne se pratiquait point dans la religion de Zoroastre, qui,
+    à proprement parler, n'admettait pas l'existence d'autre divinité
+    que le temps sans bornes, appelé Zerwan. [61] Les plus puissants
+    des dieux étaient Aramazd (Ormuzd), Anahid (Venus), Mihir (Mihr),
+    ou Mithra. On y adorait encore d'autres divinités inférieures.
+
+
+Anahit, however, was goddess of chastity, and did not therefore
+correspond to Venus. [62]
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. LEGENDS OF ABGAR, THADDEUS, AND ST. BARTHOLOMEW
+
+The first connection that Armenians had with Christianity occurred
+in the reign of King Abgar, whose capital was at Edessa (now Ourfa)
+during the time of Christ's teaching in Palestine. [63] The story
+is legendary and very popular. Abgar was called a great man because
+of his exceeding meekness and wisdom. As the result of several
+severe military campaigns, the health of the king began to give
+way. This led to complications which developed into a very painful
+disease. It was at this time that Abgar sent two of his messengers
+to the Roman governor, Marinus, to show the Roman a treaty of peace
+that had been made between Ardasches and his brother of Persia, who
+had quarreled and had been reconciled by their kinsman Abgar; for the
+Romans suspected that Abgar had gone to Persia in order to collect
+and direct a Persian-Armenian army against the Romans. [64] To clear
+himself of all suspicion, therefore, those two messengers were sent
+to show the treaty of peace to the Roman governor. On their return
+the messengers went up to Jerusalem in order to see Christ, having
+heard of his wonderful deeds. And when they returned to their king,
+Abgar, they told of the works of Christ, at which the king marveled,
+and believed him to be the very Son of God. The king, because of his
+sickness, sent Christ a letter asking him to come and heal him of
+his disease. The letter is quoted as follows:
+
+
+    The letter of Abgarus to our Saviour Jesus Christ. "Abgarus,
+    a prince of the world, unto Jesus the Saviour and Benefactor,
+    who hast appeared in the City of Jerusalem, Greetings.
+
+    "I have heard of thee, and of the healings wrought by thy hands,
+    without drugs and without roots; for it is said that thou givest
+    sight to the blind, thou makest the lame to walk, and thou cleanest
+    the lepers; thou curest those who have been long tormented by
+    diseases, and raisest even the dead. And when I heard all this
+    concerning thee, I thought that either thou art God come down from
+    heaven that workest these things, or the Son of God. I have written
+    unto thee, that thou shouldst trouble thyself to come unto me,
+    and heal me of my disease. I have heard also that the Jews murmur
+    against thee, and think to torture thee. My city is a small one,
+    but it is beautiful, and it is sufficient for us twain." [65]
+
+
+The messengers delivered the message to Jesus in Jerusalem, to which
+the gospel bears witness in the words, "There were some amongst the
+heathen that came up to him." But Jesus could do no more than to send
+a letter in reply.
+
+
+    The answer to the letter of Abgarus, written at the command of our
+    Saviour by the Apostle Thomas: "Blessed is he who believeth on me,
+    though he hath not seen me. For it is written concerning me thus:
+    'they that have seen me believed not on me, but they that have not
+    seen me shall believe and live.' And concerning that which thou
+    hast written unto me to come down unto thee, it is needful that I
+    fulfill all that for which I was sent; and when I have fulfilled
+    it I will ascend unto Him that sent me. And after my ascension I
+    will send one of my disciples, who shall heal thee of thy disease,
+    and give life unto thee and unto all that are with thee." [66]
+
+
+This letter was duly delivered to Abgar, with the image of the Saviour,
+which was still kept in Edessa at the time of Moses' writing. The
+legend concerning the image is somewhat as follows. One of the three
+messengers sent to Jesus with the letter of Abgar was an artist who
+was told to paint a portrait of Jesus in case the latter found it
+impossible to take the journey. The artist tried in vain to paint a
+good picture, and having noticed him, Jesus took a handkerchief and
+passing it over his face a most exact likeness was stamped upon it,
+which he gave to the artist to be given to the king.
+
+The quaint ending of Abgar's letter is worth the whole legend. What
+could be simpler or more seductive than the invitation, "My city is
+a small one, but it is beautiful, and it is sufficient for us twain."
+
+The tradition of the Armenian church, or the Gregorian church, as it
+is more commonly called, acknowledges St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew
+as the original founders, who are therefore designated as the first
+illuminators of Armenia. [67] Concerning the recognition of the
+tradition of St. Bartholomew, which includes his apostolic journeys,
+his preaching, and his martyrdom in Armenia, all Christian churches
+are unanimous. The name Albanus given as the place of his martyrdom, is
+the same as the name Albacus, hallowed by the Armenian tradition. His
+mission covered a period of sixteen years (A.D. 44-60). There is
+difference of opinion, however, in regard to the dates.
+
+The traditions about St. Thaddeus vary. Some suppose him to have
+been the brother of St. Thomas, and according to these, he traveled
+to Ardaze by way of Edessa. There is an anachronism, however,
+in this tradition which would transfer the mission of Thaddeus to
+the second century. According to a second tradition he is not the
+brother of Thomas, but one St. Judas Thaddeus, surnamed Lebbeus, who
+also is said to have established a sanctuary of worship at Ardaze,
+a circumstance admitted by the Greek and Latin churches. The Armenian
+church places the time of this mission as a period of eight years
+from 35-43. That this has been done to lay a strong foundation for
+the claim of apostolic origin may be suspected, especially in view
+of the belief that apostolic origin is essential to every Christian
+church, in order, as stated by Ormanian, "to place her in union
+with her Divine Founder." The church, however, has us at its mercy,
+for conclusive evidence one way or another is lacking. Nevertheless,
+the fact of Thaddeus' mission to Armenia wherever and whenever it
+might have occurred, is undisputed. [68]
+
+The matter is not especially important except to theologians with
+their doctrines of "apostolic origins." What is perfectly clear is
+that both these men did their work in comparative silence, and that
+they did not make very much headway, for if they had there would
+have been less doubt concerning the traditions. The great work
+was done by King Tiridates, and Gregory, who converted him about
+A.D. 301. The traditions concerning these men are among the most
+cherished possessions of the Armenian church.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 3. LEGENDS OF RHIPSIME AND GREGORY
+
+These traditions have their historical setting in the reign of
+Tiridates, and of Chosroes the father of Tiridates. [69] Just as
+there was an Arsacid dynasty in Armenia, dating and originating in
+the Parthian conquests and supremacy, so also was there an Arsacid
+dynasty of Persia. The Persian king at the time of Chosroes was a
+kinsman of the latter, called Ardavan, who was overthrown (A.D. 227)
+by a Persian prince of the province of Fars, named Ardashir. [70]
+His dynasty, a very powerful one, known as the Sassanid dynasty,
+supplanted the Arsacid dynasty of Persia. Chosroes of Armenia,
+fearing future difficulty with the new Persian monarch, ardently
+supported his dethroned kinsman. The next year (228), therefore,
+he led a huge army beyond the frontiers of Persia, and laid waste
+her provinces to the gates of Ctesiphon. [71] The war was continued
+for ten years, during which time the Armenian capital, Vagharshapat,
+was filled with the booty of successful raids. The reigning Caesar,
+Severus, also alarmed by the success of the new Persian king,
+headed a Roman army against Ardashir. Realizing the jeopardy of his
+position, the Persian resolved to put Chosroes out of the way by
+whatever means possible. A Parthian of the royal blood, Anak by name,
+consented to execute his king's desire, and went with his family to
+Vagharshapat as a refugee. A friendship sprang up between himself and
+his future victim, enabling him to execute his purpose, which he did
+in company with his brother while preparation was being made for a
+spring campaign. But the murderers were cut off in their escape by
+Armenian horsemen and precipitated into the Araxes, while the dying
+king gave orders to massacre the family of Anak. Only two of the
+children were rescued, one of whom was Gregory, the Illuminator,
+founder of the Armenian national church, called also the Gregorian
+church. The child Gregory was taken to Cesarea where he was educated
+in the tenets of Christianity. [72]
+
+Ardashir died shortly after the murder of his foe, and thus failed
+to follow up his advantage except for a few raids into Armenian
+territory. Tiridates, a child at this time, was the oldest son of
+Chosroes, and as heir to the Armenian throne was the chief obstacle in
+the way of the ambitions of his uncles, whose treatment of the young
+king compelled him to take refuge in Rome where he was educated. [73]
+Having distinguished himself by personal bravery in a Gothic campaign,
+his nation's dominions were restored to him by the support of a
+Roman army, for during his absence Armenia was invaded by Shapur,
+the successor of Ardashir. The Persian king had taken advantage of the
+disputes of Tiridates' uncles. The remainder of the story is legendary.
+
+Gregory had been informed in the meantime of his father's deed,
+and seeking to make such amends for it as he could, he journeyed
+to Rome, where he attached himself as a servant to the exiled king,
+Tiridates. The latter, after his victory over the Persians and his
+re-accession to the Armenian throne, entered the temple of Anahit
+in company with his faithful servant Gregory, to offer sacrifices of
+thanksgiving. A feast followed the ceremony, at which many guests were
+present, and Tiridates, who must have known of Gregory's attachment to
+Christianity, commanded the latter to make an offering of garlands to
+the great goddess. Gregory refused. The king was angry. "How dare you,"
+exclaimed the king, "adore a god whom I do not adore?" Persuasion
+and finally torture were used to coerce the pious and firm-minded
+youth, but to no avail. In the meantime, Tiridates had been informed
+as to Gregory's identity, i.e., that he was the son of his father's
+murderer, whereupon the king commanded that Gregory be cast into a
+deep pit where he was left to perish. [74]
+
+For thirteen years Gregory languished in his well, and was only
+saved from death by the ministrations of a widow who resided in the
+castle of Artaxata just by the pit. This was done in great secret,
+for Tiridates had issued an edict which admonished his subjects to
+beware of the resentment of the gods, of Aramazd, Anahit, and Vahakn,
+and following the practice of the Romans, to lay hands on all offenders
+against the gods, chief of whom, evidently, were the Christians. They
+were to be bound hand and foot, brought before the gate of the palace,
+and if found guilty their lands and chattels were assigned to their
+accusers. [75]
+
+While Christians were being robbed, and Gregory was slowly perishing
+of misery in his prison well, there arrived at Vagharshapat a Roman
+virgin of exquisite beauty, named Rhipsime, in company with her nurse
+Gaiane, and thirty-three followers who were also virgins. They had fled
+from the Emperor Diocletian, who had selected Rhipsime for his spouse,
+after a most careful search of his kingdom for the most beautiful of
+women. [76] Rhipsime, unfortunately had taken a vow of chastity, and
+there was nothing to do but to flee. Meanwhile an ambassador from Rome
+arrived at the court of the Armenian king bearing a letter in which
+Tiridates was informed of the flight of the virgin to his land, and
+bidden to discover the refugees, to send Rhipsime to Rome, and to kill
+her companions. The emperor added, however, in truly generous fashion,
+that he might himself marry her if he was overcome by her charms.
+
+The band was found, Rhipsime was recognized, and the king sent an
+escort of litters to bring them to his court. As Diocletian suspected,
+the Armenian king also fell in love, for the maiden, having refused
+the pomp of a royal equipage, was forced to appear before him
+in court. The Armenian's suit was likewise a failure. Rhipsime
+would marry, provided he became Christian, which the king took as
+mockery. Again the girl succeeded in escaping, but she was tracked,
+overtaken with her companions, bound with cords, and put to death with
+great cruelty. Both Rhipsime and her nurse Gaiane are commemorated on
+the calendar of saints, and at Etchmiadzin, the religious center of
+the nation, there are three edifices; the largest and most important
+bears the name of St. Gregory, while the other two respectively bear
+the names of the two saints, Rhipsime and Gaiane.
+
+Agathangelus relates the legend in his Histoire du Règne de Tiridate
+but unfortunately the book has been tampered with and now contains much
+questionable material. [77] There are mentioned ominous thunderclaps,
+openings of heaven, divine voices exhorting Rhipsime to stand firm
+in her faith, and the transformation of Tiridates into a grass-eating
+boar which was the punishment for his great crime. The sister of the
+king, Khosrovitukht, had a vision, in which she was told that the only
+remedy was to send for a prisoner named Gregory, who had been cast
+into a well some thirteen years before. A rope was let down into the
+cavern, and to the astonishment of all, there emerged a human form,
+blackened to the color of coal. It was none other than Gregory. He also
+saw visions and heard divine voices speak through curious openings in
+heaven. Strange columns of fire and flaming crosses of light appeared
+to him in the places where Rhipsime and Gaiane suffered martyrdom;
+and there appeared a great deal more to him which is recorded, even as
+there must have appeared yet more which is not recorded. The result of
+all of this was that Gregory ordered the construction of two chapels,
+one to be erected in honor of Rhipsime, the other in memory of Gaiane,
+both of which are still standing in Etchmiadzin. Etchmiadzin means,
+"the place where the Only-Begotten descended" for it was at this
+place that Gregory beheld his miraculous vision. Having prayed for
+the healing of the king, the horns fell from the royal head, and
+Tiridates, now a Christian, shared in the work of constructing the
+chapels. [78] He ascended Ararat and returned with huge blocks of
+stone which he laid at the portals of the chapels in expiation of his
+sin. It was customary among Armenians to place huge blocks of stone
+at the entrance of a church by way of offering. Dubois de Montpèreux
+saw a number of such stones, six or seven feet high, in front of the
+cathedral at Etchmiadzin, but Lynch found no trace of them. [79]
+
+Such are the legends of Gregory and of Tiridates' conversion to
+Christianity. In all justice, the highly imaginative material
+which was probably the work of an enthusiast, and in all certainty
+a surreptitious insertion in the work of the historian, should
+be distinguished from the less fanciful material concerning the
+imprisonment of Gregory and the martyrdom of the virgins, which though
+legendary, may probably be connected with the events of history.
+
+Although Dubois de Montpèreux recognizes that all traditions point to
+the conversion of Armenia as having taken place before the conversion
+of Constantine (in 312), he does not consider this as probable, for
+Tiridates, as a tributary king, and imitator of the Romans in all
+things, could not have had the courage to take so important a step
+except in following out the policy of the emperor. [80] Gregory,
+according to the view of Dubois, remained in his prison well until
+Constantine accepted Christianity, when the Armenian king called for
+him and was converted as a matter of diplomacy after listening to
+his exhortations.
+
+But this is not accepted by modern writers, any more than it was by
+the ancient historians. Bryce places the conversion at 302, and states
+that the so-called conversion of Constantine happened either twelve
+or thirty-seven years later, according as one reckons to the battle
+of the Milvian Bridge, or his baptism. [81] Armenia, therefore,
+was the first country that adopted Christianity as a religion of
+state, a matter of no small pride to the Gregorians, and it has been
+maintained as the national religion ever since in a form so intact as
+to surpass the dreams of the most ultra-conservative. And this, too,
+in the face of attacks by Persian fire-worshippers who attempted
+to force their religion upon the people, Greek and Latin popes,
+Mohammedan khalifs, and Turkish sultans. Ormanian, former Armenian
+patriarch at Constantinople, who gives the date as 301, considers the
+existence of the churches of St. Rhipsime and St. Gaiane with their
+inscriptions as positive proof, and mentions also the testimony in
+the writings of Eusebius, who cites the war of the year 311 which
+the Emperor Maximianus, the Dacian, declared against Armenians on
+account of their, at that time, recent conversion. [82] The critical
+studies made since the journey of Dubois (1837) are conclusive at
+least in this, that the conversion of Tiridates and of the nation
+could not have taken place later than the year 302, and there is no
+doubt therefore of the claim that the Gregorian church is the oldest
+national Christian church of the world.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 4. THE ARMENIAN CHURCH AS A SOCIAL FORCE
+
+The conversion of the people followed close upon the conversion of the
+king, for Gregory was a temple-building priest not without ambition,
+and the king was an acknowledged hero. The business of converting
+the nation was not a matter of priests and preaching as suggested
+by Dubois; [83] as indicated before, it was rather a matter of fire
+and sword. Ormanian supposes that it was due to the work of the
+Christian communities already established, whose work was stimulated
+and encouraged by the king's conversion. [84] "Indeed," he says, "the
+almost instant conversion of the whole of Armenia at the beginning
+of the fourth century, can not be explained but by the preëxistence
+of a Christian element which had taken root in the country." And
+again, "The first nucleus of the faithful, by its steadfast energy,
+at length succeeded in gaining the mastery over both obstacles and
+persecutions." This does not seem to me to be correct, for in the
+first place the Christianity of the first, second, and third centuries
+was not the Christianity of Gregory; it was one of the many forms of
+worship killed by Gregory; and in the second place there are sufficient
+records to prove the wholesale destruction of pagan temples, images,
+idols, and inscriptions as carried out by the king and saint, and of
+the use of the sword in forcing the people to change their faith. [85]
+
+First, then, what was the Christianity of the first centuries? It
+is clear that the ideal was one of communal simplicity of life. That
+it was opposed to all hierarchies and established priesthoods there
+can be no question. The irksome round of daily toil was idealized
+in the fellowship of a common faith, the central point of which
+was the indwelling of the Spirit of God. Hence baptism was the
+all-important event, for through baptism the Holy Spirit descended
+into the human heart even as into Christ when he was baptized by
+John in the Jordan. Jesus was no God come to earth in human form by
+a miraculous conception; he was the son of Joseph and Mary. Feeling
+his kinship with God he was baptized, which ceremony was merely
+symbolic of the Indwelling Spirit. These early Christians have been
+called adoptionists, for the ceremony of baptism is said to represent
+the adoption of the individual by God, or by the Holy Spirit, both
+expressions having been used synonymously. Simple and pure, it seems
+that the adoptionists came as near carrying out the spirit of the
+teachings of Jesus as any Christian sect that ever existed. [86]
+But how utterly opposed, how perfectly contradictory to the brick
+and mortar religion of Gregory! That the adoptionists were objects
+of persecution by the orthodox church is a certainty, and it was
+very probably this sect that was referred to in "that stubborn
+heresy of their native land" mentioned so frequently by Armenian
+writers. The following picture was clearly set forth in a disputation
+between two Armenian church-men occurring at the close of the third
+century. "Tell me," says Archelaus, "over whom it was that the Holy
+Spirit descended like a dove? Who is this one whom John baptized? If
+he was already perfect, if he was already the Son, if he was already
+Virtue, the Holy Spirit could not have entered into him. A kingdom
+can not enter into a kingdom." [87] What is also to the point is the
+celebrated formula of Nice (325) at which the nature of Christ was
+defined as essentially and continuously divine. "Christ a very God,
+begotten of God, but not a creature of God; Son of God, of one nature
+with God; who came down from heaven and took flesh, and became man,
+and suffered and ascended unto heaven; who was before he was begotten,
+and who has always been." The decision was in absolute contradiction to
+the adoptionist faith, and it was legislated by this august council,
+that the members of such faith, who were called Paulicians, after
+their leader Paul of Samosata, should be rebaptized before admission
+to the church. [88] The recalcitrants were driven to the mountains,
+where they increased in number as in strength until the persecution
+of the ninth century. Both Agathangelus and Faustus of Byzantium were
+silent concerning these people, and, one suspects, advisedly so.
+
+Such was pre-Gregorian Christianity. How ridiculous to suppose that the
+conversion of the nation was due to the firm roots already established
+by the Christians when the Christians themselves had to be converted!
+
+On the contrary, it was the right of might that established the new
+religion. The troops of the capital city were led by the king and
+priest in such an image- and temple-smashing campaign as was never
+before seen. Proceeding down the Araxes valley, the temple of the
+god Dir was levelled to the ground; the temple of Anahit was stoutly
+defended but to no avail; the temple was burned. One after another
+of the most famous sanctuaries were destroyed; temples of Aramazd,
+of Mithra, of Nane, and of Anahit, many of which were defended by the
+vanquished until overpowered. [89] Shrines of Vahakn and of Astghik
+were laid to waste to be replaced by Christian churches which grew
+up over the ruins as if overnight; and if a temple was destroyed, it
+was only to build a Christian church in its stead. So construction
+followed in the wake of destruction, the old was supplanted by the
+new, and when all armed resistance was beaten down, the king and
+priest continued the work by preaching.
+
+When the work was fairly under way the ambitious priest journeyed to
+Cesarea in Cappadocia where he got himself ordained. This Gregory was
+no meek-spirited adoptionist. He was the son of Anak, of royal blood,
+ambitious, zealous, suffering and doing all things to gain his ends.
+
+In view, therefore, of the actual character of preëxisting
+Christianity, and of the methods employed in converting the people, how
+can one reasonably suppose that the "instant conversion of the whole
+of Armenia to Christianity can not be explained but by the preëxistence
+of a Christian element which had taken root in the country"?
+
+The state-authorized religion, however, did take root in the country,
+and became inextricably interwoven with the self-consciousness of
+the nation. It became the organ of national expression, and for many
+centuries has been the very backbone of the people. If the molten
+metals of national life had hardened during the reign of the Arsacidae
+kings they were at the time of the conversion in a molten state, ready
+to be remolded. This did not require much time. Old festivals were
+carried over intact, except that they were given a new meaning. The
+old national traditions, legends, and folk-lore were in the common
+possession of the people, and there was no reason for discouraging
+them. In fact the Armenian church even more than the state encouraged
+them, for it recognized in them a source of solidarity and national
+unity, as essential to the life of the church as its hierarchies,
+liturgy, and calendar of saints. So much then was old; part of the past
+carried over into the present to be carried over into the future. What
+then was new? First the legends and traditions, already mentioned,
+imbedded in the immediately past events of the new order. Legends of
+Abgar, of Gregory, of Thaddeus, of Rhipsime, of Tiridates, passed like
+magic fire from person to person, creating a common sentiment which
+made the foundations of the new church absolutely secure. How firmly
+this foundation was established is indicated by the reaction of the
+church to the decisions at the Council of Chalcedon, where the dogma
+of the dual nature of Christ was affirmed, in perfect contradiction
+to the Nicæan dogma, and by the reaction against the Persian proposals
+to accept fire-worship as the state religion.
+
+I shall consider the second point first. As already stated, the year
+428 marked the end of the Armenian Arsacid dynasty. The nation was
+divided between Persia and Rome at this time, largely as a result of
+internal dissensions. In the year 450 the Persian king sent a letter
+to the Armenian princes, setting forth the excellence of fire-worship
+and the foolishness of Christianity, and summoned the Armenians to
+accept the Persian religion. [90] A council of bishops and laymen was
+held and a reply of unanimous refusal was drawn up. "From this faith
+no one can move us, neither angels nor men, neither sword nor fire,
+nor water, nor any deadly punishment." [91] A rather impertinent
+reply from a subject nation to one which dominated it; but thoroughly
+characteristic of the Armenians. The Persians did use fire and sword,
+and defeated the Armenians in the plain of Avarair under Mount Ararat
+(451). But they did not gain their end. An old historian wrote of the
+battle, "swords of slayers grew dull, but their necks were not weary,"
+and the Persian high priest having seen the utter hopelessness of
+his project wrote, "these people have put on Christianity, not like
+a garment, but like flesh and blood." [92]
+
+Already, only one hundred fifty years after the conversion, the
+foundation of the church was secure. This of course was made possible
+by the completeness of the work of its founders; but this in itself
+would not have been sufficient. A common favorable sentiment had
+been created, which grew up under the natural conditions of life,
+and inasmuch as the legends described are part of the common beliefs
+of the people, it may be inferred that they played an important rôle
+in the formation of this sentiment. The church, on the other hand,
+has incorporated these legendary beliefs in its ritual and ceremony,
+and in that way has given them the necessary sanction by which they
+are passed on from generation to generation. They thus form part of
+the permanent social tradition of the Armenian people.
+
+The security of the church at this early time (450) was indicated
+not only by the reaction of the nation to the Persian proposals of
+fire-worship, but also by the reaction to the decision of the Council
+of Chalcedon, at which, as stated, the dual nature of Christ was
+dogmatically affirmed, in contradiction to the dogma established at
+the Council of Nicæa (325), accepted by the Armenian church. But at
+the time of the Chalcedonian council, the Persian difficulties were
+taking place, the battle of Avarair having occurred during the same
+year, and it was not until 491 that the Armenians held a synod of
+their own which assembled at Vagharshapat, in order to take decisive
+action. [93] The decisions of the Council of Chalcedon were rejected
+and the action was repeated at subsequent synods. Of the three sees
+or patriarchates, the Roman at Rome, the Greek at Alexandria, and
+the Byzantine at Constantinople, the latter was gaining in power,
+and it was at the Council of Chalcedon that the precedence of the see
+of Constantinople was recognized. Naturally, neither the Roman nor
+Greek sees acknowledged the decision of the council, but later both
+Greek and Latin churches revoked their opposition, and recognized it
+as the fourth OEcumenic Council. But the Armenian church would have
+nothing to do with Chalcedon, in spite of Greek and Latin approval,
+and since that time she has stood alone, absolutely independent
+of Greek and Latin churches. Ormanian states: "She set herself to
+resist every new dogmatic utterance said to emanate from revelation,
+as well as any innovation which could in any way pervert the primitive
+faith." [94] The "primitive faith" may be a slight stretch of point,
+but the fact that the Armenian church adopted an absolutely independent
+policy, which separated her from all other Christian churches, and
+to which she has steadfastly adhered in spite of persistent Greek and
+Latin influence and efforts at domination, is in clear support of my
+assertion that the social foundations of the church were firmly and
+securely established as early as 450, only one hundred fifty years
+after the work of Gregory and Tiridates.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+LOCALITY LEGENDS
+
+
+SECTION 1. ARARAT
+
+There is a third and last body of Armenian legends more closely related
+to the second group discussed than to the first, and yet marked off in
+some respects from the second as well. They have a distinct religious
+stamp like those we have just finished describing, and they are all
+related in some way to the stories of the Old Testament. The legend of
+Haic is related to the Old Testament, for Haic was the great-grandson
+of Noah, but it clearly belongs to the first group taken up, for the
+reason that it has to do with the origin of the Armenian nation. The
+first body, including Haic, and the legends of Semiramis and Ara,
+Vahakn, Artasches and Satenik, and Artavazd, are all concerned
+with ancient Armenian kings, real or mythical, and all go back to
+a time before the introduction of Christianity. Vahakn was deified,
+but that does not exclude him since he was first a king. The second
+group, including the legends of Abgar, Rhipsime and Gaiane, Gregory,
+Thaddeus, and Tiridates, are all concerned with historical figures,
+real or supposed, and there is no doubt about their historic reality,
+with the exception of Rhipsime and Gaiane. But what marks them off from
+the other groups is that they are all concerned with the introduction
+of Christianity into the country. Those of the third group have no
+historic value whatever. They are legends based upon legends that date
+back to a period even more remote than the legend of Haic, and their
+social value does not approach that of the first two groups. They
+are all connected in some way, either with the Old Testament legend
+of Noah, or with the legend of the origin of man. No traveler ever
+passed through Armenia without hearing of one or more of them.
+
+"In the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, the ark
+rested upon the mountains of Ararat." [95] Every Armenian, and others,
+too, believe that this is the Ararat of Armenia, or Masis as it is
+called, and it is true that there is absolutely nothing to disprove
+such a belief. James Bryce has given a careful consideration to
+the question, and states in conclusion that full liberty is left to
+the traveler to consider the "snowy sovereign of the Araxes plain"
+to be the true Ararat. [96] There are several points that may be
+noted. First, there is nothing in the statement of Genesis to show
+that the Ararat mentioned was a mountain called by that name; it seems
+rather that Ararat was a section of country, for the passage states
+that the ark rested "upon the mountains of Ararat." In the second
+place, the mountain is not called Ararat by Armenians, but Masis. And
+thirdly, there is no independent Armenian tradition of the flood so
+far as is known, for it can not be shown that the modern tradition
+is older than the Christian era.
+
+These facts would be conclusive evidence that Armenian Ararat is
+not the traditional Ararat of the Old Testament, were it not, first,
+for the fact that there was in the region of the mountain a province
+of Airarat which in all probability corresponds to the biblical
+Ararat. Secondly, the biblical Ararat unquestionably corresponds
+to the Assyrian Urarthu which is the section of country about Lake
+Van and Mount Ararat. So that, although not absolutely conclusive,
+the Armenian tradition enjoys a very high degree of probability.
+
+In this connection the legend of the village of Nakhitchevan is worth
+noting. It is situated just to the north of the mountain on the left
+bank of the Araxes. Armenians believe it to be the place where Noah
+first landed, and as proof, the name of the village, which means,
+"the first place of landing," is cited. One might suppose the name to
+have been given by the Christians after the conversion to Christianity,
+were it not that Ptolemy places in the same spot a city named Naxuana
+which is the exact Greek for the Armenian name. Also Josephus, fifty
+years before Ptolemy speaks of the place, as quoted by St. Martin:
+"Les Arméniens appellent ce lieu l'endroit de la descente parce
+que c'est là que l'arche trouva un endroit de salut, et qu'encore
+actuellement les indigènes montrent ses débris." [97] Tavernier who
+traveled through the country along about 1700 speaks of Nakhitchevan as
+the "oldest city of the world" and gives the tradition. [98] But many
+Jews, who undoubtedly gave the village its name, lived in Armenia,
+long before the Christian era.
+
+Situated on a broad plain four or five thousand feet above sea
+level, Ararat rises majestic and solitary to a height of 17,000
+feet. There are no lesser peaks or ranges to destroy the grandeur
+of the effect. Except for its companion, Little Ararat, which rises
+beside it on a common base to a height of 12,840 feet, it stands
+alone as monarch of the broad plain it surveys. Little Ararat is in
+the form of a perfect cone, whereas Ararat is broad-shouldered and
+dome-shaped, supported by huge buttresses and capped with snow a
+considerable distance down the slope through the entire year. It is
+truly symbolic of strength and majesty.
+
+Such is the mountain about which a thousand legends cluster. Marco
+Polo says of the mountain: "There is an exceeding great mountain
+on which it is said the ark of Noah rested, and for this cause
+it is called the mountain of the Ark of Noah." In 1254, a little
+before Marco Polo's time, a Franciscan friar, William of Rubruck
+passed by the mountain upon which the ark is said to have rested,
+which mountain, he said, could not be ascended, though the earnest
+prayers of a pious monk prevailed so far that a piece of the wood
+of the ark was brought to him by an angel, which piece, he said,
+is still preserved in a church near by as a holy relic. He gives
+Masis as the name of the mountain and adds that it is the Mother of
+the World. According to a Persian tradition it is called "Cradle of
+the Human Race." Still more interesting is the account by Sir John
+Maundeville, part of which runs as follows: "Fro Artyroun go men to an
+Hille, that is clept Sabisocolle. And there besyde is another Hille,
+that men clepen Ararathe: but the Jews clepen it Taneez, where Noas
+Schipp rested: and zit is upon that Montayne and men may see it a
+ferr in clear wedre: and that Montayne is well a myle high. And sum
+men seyn that they have seen and touched the Schipp; and put here
+Fyngres in the parties where the Feend went out when that Noe seyd
+'Benedicta.' But they that seyn such Wordes seyn here Willie, for a
+man may not gon up the Montayne for gret plenties of Snow that is alle
+weys on that Montayne nouther Somer ne Winter: so that no man may gon
+up there: ne never man did, sithe the time of Noe: Saf a Monk that be
+the grace of God brought one of the Plankes down, that zit is in the
+Mynstre at the foot of the Montayne. And beside is the Cytes of Dayne
+that Noe founded. And faste by it is the Cytee of Any, in which were
+1000 churches. But upon that Montayne to gon up this monk had gret
+desir; and so upon a day he went up and when he was the third part
+of the Montayne he was so wery that he mighte not furthere, and so
+he rested him and felle to slep, and when he awoke he fonde himself
+liggyie at the foot of the Montayne. And then he preyde devoutly to
+God that he wold vouch saf to suffre him gon up. And an angelle cam
+to him and seyde that he scholde gon up; and so he did. And sithe that
+Time never non. Wherefore men scholde not beleeve such Woordes." [99]
+
+The legend of the monk is usually given in a form which confirms still
+more the sacredness of the mountain. St. Jacob, as the monk was named,
+tried three successive times to climb the mountain. Each time he fell
+asleep intending to resume his journey the next morning, only to wake
+up finding himself at the same point he had started from the preceding
+day. An angel came to him after the third time, and told him that God
+had forbidden mortal foot ever to tread on the sacred summit, but that
+he should be given a fragment of the ark in which mankind had been
+preserved as a reward for his devout perseverance. [100] This treasure
+is still preserved at Etchmiadzin and the saint is commemorated by
+the little monastery of St. Jacob, which till 1840, when a tremendous
+shaking of the mountain showered the little monastery with rocks of
+destruction, stood above the valley of Arghuri on the slopes of Ararat.
+
+The little village of Arghuri, the single village on the mountainside,
+was the city of Noah's vineyard, and contained a little church which
+is said to hallow the spot where Noah first set up an altar. [101]
+But this village, too, was completely destroyed by the avalanche of
+1840. Not the slightest trace of it remains, though only three years
+before its destruction, Dubois de Montpèreux visited the little city
+and described it together with the church of Noah, Noah's vineyard,
+and the monastery of St. Jacob. [102] In the garden of the city were
+planted pear trees, apple, plum, cherry, apricot, peach, and nut
+trees. This very garden was the site of the first vine on which the
+old patriarch became drunk, and the inhabitants showed Dubois some
+bits of creepers to prove it. "Dieu," they said, "pour punir les
+ceps qui avaient ainsi entrainé le pauvre patriarche dans le péché,
+les condamna a ne plus porter de raisins." Naïve, yes, but very
+sweetly so. And the church, the people said, marked the place where
+Noah offered his first sacrifice after the deluge. Except for the
+garden of Arghuri, wrote Dubois, this great mountain was absolutely
+destitute of verdure; an old stunted willow, wound about with snow and
+ice was the only other exception to this. According to the legend,
+it marked the spot where a board of Noah's ark had taken root and
+sprung up into a living tree which the people venerated. One was not
+permitted to take away even the smallest of its feeble branches.
+
+All of this was blotted out so completely by the shower of falling
+rocks and boulders that it is hard to imagine the places as ever
+having existed. The primeval willow, the vineyard, the sacred church,
+and the little monastery of St. Jacob have left not the slightest
+trace. The bell of the old church is no more heard; the Christian
+service is not chanted any longer on the sacred mountain of the Ark.
+
+Of the numerous other legends associated with the mountain I shall
+mention only two. One of them regards the summit of the mountain as the
+site of Chaldean star-worship, and asserts that a pillar with a figure
+of a star stood upon it. [103] According to the same legend, twelve
+wise men stood beside the pillar to watch for the star of the East,
+which three of them followed to Bethlehem. The other is in respect
+to the spring situated above the spot where stood the monastery. A
+bird, called by the Armenians tetagush, feeds on the locusts which
+are such a plague to the country, and curiously enough, the bird
+is attracted by the waters of the spring. When the locusts appear,
+the people carry their bottles to the spring and filling them with
+the peculiarly charmed water, take them back to their fields where
+they are placed on the ground to attract the tetagush. The people of
+Syria and Palestine were much in need of tetagush and Ararat spring
+water during the spring and summer of 1915, for the swarms of locusts
+not only devoured the crops but also the leaves and barks of the trees.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. KHOR-VIRAP AND ERZERUM
+
+On the bank of the Araxes, in the plain of Armenia, and in full view
+of Ararat are located the monastery of Khor-Virap and the chapel of
+St. Gregory close beside it. An Armenian inscription is cut in the
+walls of the portico of the monastery which marks the spot where a
+monk, Johannes by name, appeared twice after his death saying that he
+had seen Gregory the Illuminator. The chapel of St. Gregory covers
+the traditional well into which he was thrown and imprisoned for
+thirteen years by King Tiridates. Dubois descended into a sort of
+tunnel, fifteen or sixteen feet below the pavement of the chapel,
+which is part of an old fortress, and was shown the worn stones of
+a niche where the saint prayed, as evidence of the thirteen years,
+quite as though other pilgrims who knelt in the same place could
+not have assisted somewhat the pious work of the saint. [104] The
+spot is only a few steps from the famous temple dedicated to the
+principal god of the Armenians, Aramazd, and it seems clear that
+the pagan king intended to make a sacrifice to his gods in casting
+the young fanatic into the well. The temple was called Achelichad,
+meaning "many sacrifices" because of the many offerings here given up
+to Aramazd. With the era of Christianity, the name Achelichad gave way
+to the name Khor Virap, meaning dry well. Gregorius Magistros, already
+mentioned, brought the body of the saint from Constantinople and placed
+it in the bottom of the well, where it served to cure sick pilgrims.
+
+There is a tradition that the Armenian city of Erzerum, not far
+from the source of the Euphrates, marks the vicinity of the Garden
+of Eden. The Persian king Khosref Purveez is said to have encamped
+in the neighborhood and to have received a message from the prophet
+Mohammed during his sojourn, in which he was offered the protection
+of Islam if he would embrace the faith. But the king spurned the
+proposal and tossed the letter into the Euphrates. Nature, horrified
+at the sacrilege, dried up the flowers and fruits of the ancient
+garden and even parched up the sources of the river itself. And so
+the last relic of Eden became waste. [105]
+
+In the same connection, there is a plaintive Armenian elegy, composed
+in the person of Adam, who, sitting at the gate of paradise and
+beholding cherubim and seraphim enter the garden, makes the following
+defence: he did not eat the forbidden fruit until after he had
+witnessed its fatal effects upon Eve, when, seeing her despoiled of
+all her glory, he was touched with pity and tasted the immortal fruit
+in the hope that the Creator, contemplating both in the same plight
+might with paternal love take compassion on them. But in vain. "The
+Lord cursed the serpent and Eve," pathetically cries Adam, "and I
+was enslaved between them." The elegy closes most touchingly,--"When
+ye enter Eden, shut not the gate of paradise, but place me standing
+at the gate. I will look in a moment and then bring me back. Ah! I
+remember ye, O flowers and sweet smelling fountains. Ah! I remember
+ye, O birds, sweet singing, And ye, O beasts." [106]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS
+
+
+Because these legends are for the most part based upon older legends,
+and also because some of them are known only locally, they can not be
+said to have played so important a rôle in Armenian social life as the
+first two groups of legends. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose
+that all of the Ararat legends have merely a local value. Ararat
+is the center of the nation, the grand geographical feature of
+the country, and many of the beliefs clustered about it are held in
+common. In fact there is a very old belief which considers the sacred
+mountain to be the center of the world, and to-day it is the common
+point of meeting of the boundaries of Russian, Turkish, and Persian
+Armenia. And this is no accident; it is because of the veneration
+in which the mountain is held, and consequently, the realization
+of the importance the mountain gives to any territory in which it
+may be located. The belief that Ararat is the mountain of the Ark,
+the legend of Noah's vineyard, and the legend of St. Jacob are very
+commonly accepted. The primeval willow, the church of Arghuri, the
+legend, or perhaps one should say, the superstition of the tetagush,
+and the legend of the wise men in search of the star of the East,
+enjoy a more restricted circulation. Furthermore, it is natural to
+suppose that the legends centered in the destroyed city of Arghuri have
+not been told as frequently as of old, and are therefore dying out
+gradually, although they seem still to be very much alive. A legend
+or tradition that is objectified in an old willow, in a monastery,
+or in a garden, is likely to die out gradually with the destruction of
+its object. But some of them will never die out, object or no object,
+as for example the legend of the devout monk who tried to gain the
+summit of Ararat in order to see the holy Ark. There is something in
+his waking up each successive morning only to find himself at the same
+point he had started from the preceding day, which will keep its hold,
+whether there be a monastery erected in his name or not. And if the
+vineyard has been destroyed the people may very soon find another. In
+fact I should be surprised if in traveling through the mountain region
+of Ararat, I was not shown the legendary vineyard. This, however,
+would more likely be true of a legend that had a commercial value
+to the community because of the frequency of travelers, which could
+certainly not be said of Ararat legends. The same general valuation
+may be placed upon the Erzerum legends. A legend of this sort is
+not believed to be true, unless the legend upon which it is based
+is commonly believed in, and it is certainly safe to suppose that a
+majority of the Armenian people accept the Old Testament legends. This
+is important, for when a legend is not a matter of implicit belief
+by a people it has little social value. The elegy of Adam can not be
+properly said to be a legend at all.
+
+The preceding pages point out certain points of resemblance, and
+certain points of difference between the two words, legend and
+tradition, which require to be brought out at this point, first,
+because of vague and loose current usage, and second, in order to
+establish my own use of these terms. In the first place they are
+beliefs, and here lies the secret of their social value. Let them
+be disbelieved in and they may furnish material for entertaining
+after-dinner conversation, but they no more have the power of welding
+a people together into a nation, a caste, or a sect; they no longer
+have the power of creating a common sentiment among a large number
+of people or of creating a national consciousness.
+
+And in the second place, both the tradition and the legend are passed
+on from person to person, and from generation to generation. When a
+tradition is defined as a belief that is handed down orally from father
+to son, it is not at all differentiated from the legend which is also
+a belief, and which may also be passed on orally from generation to
+generation. Neither does a legend or a tradition change its character
+when the meaning is represented by symbols cut in rock, inscribed on
+papyrus, or written on paper. The event of inscription is very often
+a part of their history.
+
+But when it comes to a question of historic value we mark the
+parting of the ways. A tradition, used in the sense with which we
+are concerned here, is always rooted in an indisputable historic
+fact. Consider the traditions of Islam that are centered about
+the prophet Mohammed. They may have a thousand variations, may have
+embodied falsehood after falsehood in the course of their transmission
+from place to place, and from generation to generation, as most of
+them unquestionably have, but they are traditions, nevertheless,
+because they are associated with a character who is an undisputed
+historic figure. The refusal of St. Gregory to offer garlands to the
+goddess Anahit, and his imprisonment in the well during a period of
+thirteen years is a tradition because the belief is associated with
+a historic character. Compare this with the beliefs concerning Haic,
+Vahakn, Semiramis and Ara, and the distinction is clear, for these
+characters are all mythical. Artasches and Artavasd are generally
+recognized as historical kings, and are so spoken of by Moses. As such
+the beliefs concerning them should be classed as traditions. However,
+Moses as a historian has been relegated to a secondary position by
+Carrière, who gave the work a critical examination. This would make
+the beliefs concerning Artasches and Satenik and Artavasd purely
+legendary, unless further research establishes more reliable sources
+of which we do not know. The first group therefore are legends.
+
+In regard to the second group of beliefs all having to do with
+the introduction of Christianity, Bartholomew, Thaddeus, Gregory,
+and Tiridates are unquestionably historic; Rhipsime and Gaiane are
+mythical; the historic authenticity of Abgar is also questionable. We
+should therefore speak of the legends of Rhipsime, Gaiane and Abgar,
+and of the traditions of Bartholomew, Thaddeus, Gregory, and Tiridates.
+
+The Ararat and Erzerum group are of course legends with one or two
+exceptions. The belief concerning the scorning of the proposal of
+Mohammed by the Persian king who was encamped on the Euphrates as
+explaining the barrenness of the Garden of Eden certainly has to
+do with an historic figure, and perhaps two. But it is a legend,
+nevertheless, because both the prophet of Arabia and the Persian king
+are accidental rather than fundamental to the belief. The fundamental
+basis of belief is the legend of the Garden of Eden. The elegy of Adam
+in explanation of his sinful conduct is neither legend nor tradition,
+and the belief concerning the tetagush and the spring of Ararat is
+a superstition. It results in a distinct type of conduct marking it
+off from both tradition and legend.
+
+I have stated my conclusions at various places, and it would be
+pointless repetition to summarize them all. I shall therefore sum up
+only the important ones. The first is that the legends and traditions
+of Part One are an important part of a larger body of Armenian legends,
+traditions, folk-songs, and folk-lore, and that their social value lies
+in the power they have of creating a national sentiment. This national
+sentiment is the direct result of a social process accomplished through
+the medium of the traditions, legends, and folk-songs spoken of. An
+analysis of the national sentiment of ancient Armenia would lead us
+to the conclusion that it was made up of at least three elements:
+first, a sentiment of loyalty to the state; secondly, a sentiment
+of reverence amounting almost to worship for the past glory of the
+nation; and thirdly, a sentiment of love for the country.
+
+The last sentiment is an especially real experience to all
+Armenians. Objectified as it was at first in the vast plains, the
+broad river valleys, the mountain ranges, or simply in the soil that
+brought forth its vegetation, it came to be objectified in a spirit
+of independence and in the ideals of freedom and strength. These two
+objects of the national sentiment of love, the one material, the other
+immaterial, are not, however, to be dissociated in the social mind,
+as I have dissociated them on paper. They are inseparable, the material
+and the spiritual, and simply do not exist apart from each other. Only
+the emphasis varies, symbolized in one case by the peasant's kissing
+his native soil, and in the other by the far-away look toward the
+summit of some distant mountain. And when this sentiment of love is
+the most important of those sentiments that go to make up a national
+sentiment, that is, when it dominates all the others, holding them
+in subjection, there has come to be a national self. A continuous
+stream of consciousness envelopes the national self, and inasmuch
+as it implies a highly-organized and well-developed national self,
+national-self-consciousness is the larger term. It may be objectified
+and examined especially at a time of injustice from without, and even
+at the time of an obvious act of injustice by the state which usually
+results in civil strife. The latter case is illustrative of how one of
+the sentiments that make up the national sentiment may be under the
+domination of another, the sentiment of loyalty to the state being
+subordinate to the sentiment of love for the country in this case.
+
+That the national self is organic, i.e., that it is functional, a
+vital, living thing which grows and dies is clearly brought out by
+the second group of legends considered. This is the second general
+conclusion. The legends and traditions mentioned in this group are
+of course again part of a larger body, all of which have to do with
+the introduction of Christianity into the country. The important
+point is that from this larger body of beliefs there resulted a new
+national sentiment, new because something had come to be incorporated
+within it which was not there before. This something was a sentiment
+of loyalty to the church, evidenced in the readiness to uphold and
+protect the church with all its recognized encumbrances of hierarchies
+and paraphernalia against all foreign intrusion, whether peaceful
+or military in character. With the destruction of the state, this
+sentiment of loyalty to the church largely absorbed the sentiment
+of loyalty to the state. Reverence for the past glory of the nation
+went on unchanged except in so far as the church intensified it as
+a means of intensifying the whole national sentiment.
+
+A loosely organized, heterogeneous group of people can not boast of
+a national sentiment, nor of the united action necessary in times
+of national crisis, as when a people go to war. This united action
+is only possible where the diverse sentiments of a more or less
+heterogeneous people have been woven into a national sentiment of the
+kind spoken of. This weaving process, as I have shown, is essentially
+a social process, and the materials by means of which it is carried
+on are largely such as I have been describing, namely, the legends,
+traditions, and folk-lore that have somehow grown up among a people.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PART TWO
+
+FESTIVALS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE GREGORIAN CHURCH
+
+
+As the materials of Part One are part of a larger mass of legends,
+traditions, and folk-lore, the social value of which lies in their
+power of creating a national or group sentiment, so the festivals
+and ceremonies to be taken up in Part Two are part of a larger mass
+of festivals, ceremonies, and rites whose social value lies in the
+fact that they constitute a necessary vehicle of expression for this
+same national sentiment. The festivals are a necessary counterpart
+of the legends, as the latter are a necessary counterpart of the
+former. Activity is one of the most fundamental of nature's laws. The
+sentiment of love for an individual dies eventually in the absence
+of some formal mode of active expression. But be the action ever so
+little a thing, such as the laying of flowers upon the grave of the
+dead, the visiting of a shrine, or the sight of some hallowed spot
+of sacred memory, the sentiment is kept alive. To be sure a sentiment
+may smoulder for a lifetime, even as a national sentiment may slumber
+for centuries without a mode of expression, and then all of a sudden
+burst forth into a flame, or awaken into life at a mere suggestion from
+outside. Bereft of statehood, the sentiment of loyalty for the state
+has slumbered for centuries within the breast of the Armenian people,
+but how often, how too sadly often, has it not suddenly awakened into
+hot, new life only to be pacified into slumber again. But the last
+glow, the little flicker at the end is all that separates the living
+embers from the dead ash.
+
+How the Armenian church recognized the truth of this by putting
+into operation a thousand various modes of action in which the new
+national sentiment that it created has kept itself alive and fresh,
+may well serve as an object lesson to many another church. She did
+not make the mistake of imposing an entirely new body of festivals and
+ceremonies upon the people; she utilized the past and carried over a
+number of pagan festivals absolutely intact, which she clothed with
+a new meaning slowly recognized by the people. These form the first
+group to be considered. In the course of time she created certain new
+festivals which constitute the second group. And then she identified
+herself with all of the ceremonies of common life, such as betrothal,
+marriage, and funeral ceremonies.
+
+In this way the Armenian church has become absolutely and inseparably
+identified with the life of the people, and the people in turn
+have been held together into a nation which has continued to give
+its artists and artisans to the world. [107] What is Armenia? The
+national Gregorian church; much as Louis XIV, when asked "What is
+the state?" replied, "I am the state." This is unquestionably an
+exaggerated view, but not as much so as might be supposed, since
+the social life of the people is so completely bound up with the
+church. The only betrothal and marriage recognized is that sanctioned
+by the church. Whenever there is a common danger, as has been the
+case repeatedly during the past twenty years, the people flock to
+the church for protection. Such secret revolutionary propaganda as
+has been carried on has been done largely through the church. The
+young Armenian who returns from his academic life in Paris, a
+sceptic if not an unbeliever, and certainly opposed to the dogma and
+ultra-conservatism of his church, does not alienate himself, for he
+realizes his utter impotence in any kind of work for his people should
+he do so. In spite of the division of Armenia into three slices,
+Turkish, Persian, and Russian, the church has retained its hold,
+and if the position of the people as subject to Turkey, Persia,
+and Russia has placed her (the church) at a decided disadvantage in
+coping with the ever constant influence and propaganda, schools, and
+missionaries of the Greek, Latin, and Protestant churches, she has not
+at all given in, for the number of Catholic Armenians amounts to only
+3 per cent of the number of orthodox Armenians, while the number of
+Protestant Armenians is only 1 per cent. [108] Considering, as I say,
+the utter helplessness of the church in combating outside influences,
+these figures indicate how closely the life of the people is identified
+with her. Perhaps her very helplessness has been a source of strength.
+
+These facts together with such little practices as I have mentioned
+(and I might also note the custom of the Armenian peasant of crossing
+himself daily at the altar of his community church before beginning his
+day of toil) [109] are sufficient to show that the church has been the
+chief means of keeping alive the currents of national life, that it is
+a national church, and that it has identified itself with the common
+life of the people. The festivals and ceremonies which constitute
+the second part of my paper thus form the vehicle of expression of
+the national sentiment, and are all connected with the church.
+
+The participation of the laity in church matters, especially in
+the election of its officials, is a chief reason for the essential
+oneness of church and people. Priests, bishops, and patriarchs,
+who constitute the three chief grades in the religious hierarchy,
+are chosen by the people. [110] The approval of higher authorities
+is necessary in most cases, but this only slightly detracts from
+the importance of the rôle of the people. A married priest is the
+religious head of every parish, and he is elected either by a direct
+process of voting or by a deed of presentation. The religious council
+of the diocese proceeds to examine the ability and qualifications of
+the candidate, who is ordained if his examination proves successful;
+if unsuccessful, a new candidate must be presented, for a bishop can
+not of his own initiative ordain a priest. The laity have no voice
+in the election of the celibate priesthood, which is only natural
+since the celibate priests are not in any way connected with the
+life of the community. Furthermore, they do not constitute a very
+important element, for when Ormanian wrote in 1911, there were only
+400 celibate priests as against 4,000 married priests. [111]
+
+The married priest is very closely identified with his community. He
+not only makes a regular practice of visiting the various households
+of the parish, but he is sole confessor of the people. [112] As he
+officiates at masses and church ceremonies and promotes a general
+participation in the festivals, so also no betrothal, marriage,
+baptism, or funeral can be sanctioned without his presence. He is as
+well a kind of marriage agency, employment agency, and relief agency,
+acting always of course in coöperation with the council of elders of
+his parish. A priest called at the home of an Armenian lady I know,
+and remarked casually that he was aware she had a daughter, whom he
+was very anxious to see, for there were two young men of the community
+who were very desirous to marry. So the people inform the priest of
+their need and the priest does all in his power to help them. He does
+not receive a regular compensation, being absolutely dependent upon
+the voluntary offerings of his flock and the voluntary fees received
+for official services rendered. [113] This works out sometimes to
+his advantage, but more often not, depending generally on whether
+his parish is poverty stricken or well-to-do.
+
+There are several very curious usages practiced by the married
+priest. He is recruited from all classes of society, but more often
+there is a succession from father to son. [114] The conditions
+demanded, besides parochial election, are acquaintance with
+ecclesiastical and liturgical matters, an exemplary life, and the
+consent of his wife. After his ordination he must fast for forty
+days. He then prepares himself for his first mass by a life of retreat
+in the church, restricting himself to a vegetable diet for twenty-four
+hours. [115] The wife, who enjoys a certain precedence in society,
+observes a customary abstinence in the absence of her husband. One week
+or at least three days before the celebration of the mass, he keeps
+away from home, passing the nights within the church. He may engage in
+domestic or even professional work so long as this does not interfere
+with the duties of his calling. Should his wife die, he may not marry
+again unless he lays aside his priestly robe, nor may a priest ever
+marry a widow. These practices are not dead letters, except that the
+custom of sojourning within the church for three nights before mass
+has, in Constantinople at least, been reduced to a single night.
+
+The bishops are chosen as chiefs of dioceses by the council of the
+diocese, six sevenths of whose members are laymen, the remainder
+being ecclesiastics. [116] The patriarchs, including the Katholikos,
+the supreme authority of the church whose seat is at Etchmiadzin, the
+religious center of the nation, are chosen by an electoral assembly
+of the religious heads (bishops or archbishops) and lay deputies who
+are nominated by the dioceses as a whole. [117] The eight members
+of the synod, which is an advisory body to the Katholikos, and the
+seven oldest members of the congregation at Etchmiadzin have equal
+share in voting. The electoral assembly, so constituted, chooses two
+candidates, one of whom is selected by the Czar. The Czar, after his
+selection is made, sends a deputy to meet the successful candidate,
+who is decorated and escorted with due ceremony to Etchmiadzin where he
+is officially ordained. There are only two patriarchates besides the
+see of Etchmiadzin, i.e., those of Constantinople and Jerusalem. The
+corresponding patriarchs are likewise chosen by a national assembly,
+six sevenths of whose members belong to the laity. The patriarchs
+of both Jerusalem and of Constantinople acknowledge the supremacy
+of the Katholikos of Etchmiadzin, who is thus head of the church,
+though not infallible.
+
+The site of Etchmiadzin is the old capital city, Vagharshapat, the
+ruins of which are all but washed away; and it marks the spot where
+St. Gregory in his vision saw the descent of Jesus Christ. Etchmiadzin
+means, "Descent of the Only Begotten." The particular spot is
+commemorated by the central altar of the Cathedral, which is the chief
+church of the nation. This Cathedral is situated in the center of a
+huge court bounded in the form of a large rectangle by the cells of
+the monks, the long refectory building, the library, the theological
+seminary, and the residence of the Katholikos. Outside this rectangle
+are ranged buildings and open spaces, including the garden of the
+Katholikos, the court for pilgrims, the printing establishment, and
+dwellings for various uses, all of which is bounded by a huge wall
+in the form of a still larger rectangle about 1,000 feet in length
+and 700 feet in width. [118] The chapels of the martyrs are some
+distance from the monastery, the church of St. Gaiane, commemorating
+the spot of her martyrdom, being about one fourth of a mile distant,
+while the church of St. Rhipsime, which likewise honors the spot of
+Rhipsime's martyrdom, is about three fourths of a mile distant. The
+buildings now standing can hardly be those built by the saint. [119]
+
+Etchmiadzin has been for many years a place of pilgrimage for the
+faithful. There is not only the sacred Cathedral where Jesus Christ is
+believed to have appeared; there is also the chamber of holy relics
+in the rear of the Cathedral which is perhaps the chief attraction
+and glory of the place. The most important of the relics here kept
+is a hand of St. Gregory, or rather right arm, "atch," as it is
+called, now preserved in a silver case, and which was considered at
+one time to be a necessary appanage of the patriarchal dignity. The
+poor hand of the saint has been the cause of many peregrinations in
+consequence. [120] One patriarch seized it and carried it off with him
+in order to justify his claims. Another restole it and brought it back
+to Etchmiadzin, while others have pretended possession of the holy
+"atch," in order to make good their claims. It was with this relic
+as well as with the holy chrism that consecrations were performed,
+which made possession of it a necessary condition of the patriarchal
+authority. Another much revered relic is the fragment of the ark,
+which the angel who appeared to St. Jacob gave to him as a reward for
+his perseverance in attempting so impossible a task as the climbing
+of Ararat. Still another is the head of the "holy spear" which was
+thrust into the side of Christ by the Roman soldier at Golgotha. [121]
+There are others of lesser importance, some of which are believed to
+possess the power of effecting cures.
+
+Such in brief are the broader and more important facts relating to the
+church, which has thus come to sanction the festivals and ceremonies
+that make up the second part of this thesis. These, as I have said,
+naturally divide themselves into three groups, first those that
+have been taken over bodily from the past; second, new festivals and
+ceremonies created by the church; and third the ceremonies of common
+life with which the church has identified itself. In the first group
+are included the midsummer festival of Vartavar, the spring festival,
+the festival in commemoration of the dead, Fortune-Telling Day, and
+the festival of Vartan's Day. All except the last have their origin
+in pagan festivals; each one has been taken over by the church and
+made its own.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PAGAN FOLK FESTIVALS
+
+
+SECTION 1. VARTAVAR AND THE FESTIVAL OF MIHR
+
+Vartavar, meaning "flaming of the rose," was celebrated in pagan
+times in honor of Anahit, goddess of chastity, at midsummer. The
+central act of the festival was the offering of a dove and a rose to
+her golden image. With the introduction of Christianity the temple
+and the image were destroyed, and it may be noted that upon the site
+of the Temple of Anahit in Vagharshapat was built the Cathedral of
+Etchmiadzin. This would lead to the strange conclusion that in the
+vision of St. Gregory, Jesus Christ descended upon a pagan temple. The
+fact seems to be that this marvelous vision was seen by a pious monk
+who published a life of St. Gregory some two or three centuries after
+the Illuminator's death. [122] But the festival became the "Festival
+of the Transfiguration of Christ," although the name Vartavar still
+remains, and doves are still set flying. [123]
+
+The festival is celebrated differently in various places. Upon the
+mountains of Armenia every family brings a sheep for sacrifice, adorned
+with colored papers and pigments, and as the sheep approach the shrine,
+lighted candles are fixed upon their horns. [124] Sheaves of grain,
+fruit, flowers, and doves are also brought as sacrifices, while dust
+from beside the altar is carried home to children as a talisman to
+help them to learn their A B C's. In the absence of a church on the
+mountainside, which is usually the case, a large white tent with
+crosses is put up beside some sacred spring, with which the country
+abounds. The spring is necessary, for on this day the people amuse
+themselves by throwing water upon each other. For this reason the day
+is often called Armenian Water Day. After the doves are set flying,
+the priest sprinkles the people, and they in turn sprinkle water over
+each other. This practice probably dates to the legend of the deluge,
+the Universal Baptism with which God cleansed His sinful earth. The
+dove and the baptism are also suggestive of the baptism of Jesus by
+John in the waters of Jordan. This part of the festival is probably
+an addition to the pagan rite, for the sprinkling of the water is
+symbolic of love and forgiveness; it is carried on with much laughing
+and merry-making. The festival includes also a kind of fair, for the
+people have to show what progress they have made during the year in
+art and the various handicrafts. Races, competitions, and games are
+held, and the victors are crowned with wreaths of roses, so that even
+the rose continues to have an important place in the festivities as
+it had in pagan days. The sprinkling of water, the games, the races,
+show how happy a time the people must have on this day; the exhibition
+of the year's accomplishment in handicraft and art points out the more
+serious side; while the essential religious symbolism is very clearly
+emphasized. What may also be noted is that there is entertainment for
+all, old and young, serious and frivolous. The pious-minded may sit
+on the mountainside contemplating the religious aspect of it all;
+the gay and light-hearted may sprinkle water over each other; the
+young and strong may run races and play games; men and women of a
+practical turn of mind may visit the fair and note the progress made
+during the year; and children may roll about on the mountainsides or
+gather roses, for these are in full bloom at this time.
+
+The pagan spring festival in honor of Mihr, the god of fire, was taken
+over by the church to commemorate the bringing of the Babe Jesus to
+the temple, where Mary sacrificed two doves according to the custom
+of purification. [125] The ancient rite consisted of kindling fires
+in the open market places in honor of the god Mihr, and of lighting
+a lantern from one of the newly kindled fires, which was kept burning
+in the temple throughout the year. As now celebrated, on February 26,
+every young man who has been married within the year brings a load
+of aromatic shrubs, making a huge pile of them in the yard of the
+church. A religious service is held in the open air at evening-time,
+after which the priest sets fire to the pile. All the villagers, men,
+women, and children, dance about the fire, while boys and young men
+show their agility and courage by leaping over it. When the flames
+die down, each person carries home a glowing brand and places it on
+the hearthstone for good luck.
+
+The description of the festival by Abeghian shows how a general
+celebration of this kind varies in particulars from place to
+place. [126] On the afternoon of the 13th of February, [127] which
+is the day before the church festival of the purification, a pile of
+wood consisting usually of thorn-wood, cane, and straw is gathered
+together in the churchyard. The entire community comes together in
+the church on the night of the same day, each person provided with
+a candle. After the vespers all stand about the pile of shrub and
+wood, the newly married during the year making the first row. The
+candles are lighted from the church light, and after the priest has
+blessed the pile, it is set ablaze from all sides, after which the
+candles are put out. As soon as the fire has died down, the candles
+are relighted from the glowing embers which are regarded as sacred,
+and carried home where they are used to light a pile of shrub and wood
+that has been gathered on the roof of the house. The young people jump
+over the fire while the young women and married women march around
+it saying, "May it not itch me, and may I not receive any scabs,"
+taking care just to singe the border of their dresses. The ashes,
+as well as the half-burned wood-stuffs are preserved, or scattered
+in the four corners of the barn, over the fields or in the garden,
+for the ashes and flames of the firebrands are believed to protect
+people and cattle from sickness and the fruit trees from worms and
+caterpillars. In the homes of the newly married the festival is
+celebrated with music and dance, the young couples especially making
+it a point to dance about the sacred flames, while in some places
+special food is prepared in honor of the occasion.
+
+Various prophesies are made during the festival, for example, if the
+flame and smoke blows to the east, it is a sign of a good harvest
+for the coming year, if toward the west, a bad growth is expected.
+
+In recent years the religious authorities at Etchmiadzin printed the
+following prohibition in the church calendar: "It is forbidden to run
+about the fire." But the festival is celebrated nevertheless. [128]
+That it originates in the pagan festival held in honor of Mihr there
+is little doubt, for the month of February corresponds to the ancient
+Armenian month Mehakan, which, translated into modern Armenian,
+Mihragan, means belonging to Mihr, or more loosely, the Festival
+of Mihr.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. THE DAY OF THE DEAD AND VARTAN'S DAY
+
+The festival in commemoration of the dead is celebrated on the first
+day after Easter, and may be regarded as a reaction against the
+lenten fasts. Families of Armenians, loaded with picnic baskets,
+packages of food, and bottles of wine, flock to their cemeteries
+in great numbers. Priests are paid small fees for standing over
+the graves of the dead to chant prayers for the salvation of the
+departed souls. Over the graves of the recently dead stand the
+bereaved relatives of the deceased, lamenting loudly and bewailing
+a fate which they know must some day be their own. A more maudlin
+spectacle could not be imagined. Here and there are seated groups
+of families eating and drinking and laughing all the more heartily
+for the enforced abstinence of the preceding weeks; while standing
+beside this grave or that is a priest in black robe and high hat,
+chanting a prayer for the dead, and incidentally earning his daily
+bread. Eating seems to be the chief amusement; even the mourners eat
+after they have faithfully mourned, and the priests too come in for
+their shares after all possible fees have been earned. Altogether it
+is a post-lenten festival in the full meaning of the term, and much
+in contrast to the wholesome enjoyment and the light-hearted gaiety so
+characteristic of Vartavar. It has been witnessed in Constantinople by
+Armenians I know, who have given accounts to me. Whether or not it is
+carried out in this manner in the villages and rural districts I am not
+aware, but I should be very much surprised to learn that it was, for I
+should certainly regard the festival in this form as a product of the
+artificiality of city life. In the absence of wholesome amusements and
+of the community solidarity characteristic of the Armenian village,
+contact with city-bred folk would inevitably result in a shift of
+standards of judgment and valuation, together with a break-up in
+old habits of thought and life; and as the people have no common
+play-ground, so to speak, except the poor denuded cemetery allotted
+them by the Turkish government, one can well excuse the ugliness of
+the spectacle. The Armenian has Vartavar, a real festival, and need
+not look with shame upon this festival in commemoration of the dead.
+
+This same offering of sacrifice for the dead is carried on in a
+variety of ways. In Armenian villages the family of the deceased
+prepares a lamb or a kid with rice, and on the day of the funeral
+pieces of it are given to the attendants; given, as they say, and
+taken, in sacrifice for the dead. The practice in Constantinople is
+somewhat different, although the idea is exactly the same. Forty days
+after the death of an individual, or perhaps on the anniversary of
+the death, the bereaved family prepares a lamb or a kid with rice,
+which is distributed to the people in small pots, and given, as they
+say, in sacrifice for the dead. The Greek custom in this respect is
+most absurd. At the head of the casket, which is left open, two men
+march in the funeral procession carrying a wide tray filled with boiled
+wheat and sugar, and trailing a piece of black crape. After the burial
+this is distributed to the mourners in handfuls, again in sacrifice
+for the dead. Libations set aside and poured out in Roman days are
+illustrative of the same thing. That these practices are not Christian
+but distinct survivals of pagan festivals and customs is very clear.
+
+The above conclusions, namely, first that the festival as I
+described it is an aberration of city life, and second, that although
+identified with the church it is distinctly pagan in character, are
+borne out by Abeghian, whose material, as an Armenian who for many
+years lived in the little Armenian village of Astapat, is distinctly
+first-hand. [129] Worship of the deceased, he says, begins immediately
+after death. Each departed soul, and especially those of elderly
+people, requires particular honor on the first day after death, and
+during the ensuing year. It is for this reason a great misfortune for
+an Armenian peasant not to have a child. A still greater misfortune,
+however, it is to die in a strange land where there are none to care
+for the departed soul. That a curious evolution has taken place in
+these requirements is very clear. In the beginning, satisfactions
+of a material kind were required, something to eat and to drink, and
+accordingly the custom arose of placing bread upon the heart of the
+dead, or sanctified bread in the cavity of the mouth and incense in
+the nostrils. Then there arose the idea of facilitating the journey
+of the departed into the beyond, and of making the future life
+of the soul a happier one. For example, Armenians generally bathe
+the bodies of their dead in blessed water, and wash the clothes of
+the deceased on the day following burial for the purification of
+the soul so that it may arrive spotless at its destination. Since
+the soul has been cleansed of all sin through the symbolic washing
+of the body and clothes, no more covering is required for the body
+than a large white cloth. No other color is permissible. Should the
+deceased be more than ten years of age, candles or oil lamps are
+burned during eight days over the spot where the body was bathed
+in order to lighten the way of the soul into the beyond. According
+to old beliefs, the destination of the departed soul is a place of
+darkness, and hence two candles are placed in the hands of the dead
+immediately after the bath in order that he may recognize his friends
+and relatives in the world beyond. At frequent intervals during the
+first year, food and drink are brought to the cemetery, and placed
+upon the grave. There is weeping, eating, and drinking at these times,
+and what food is left over is always placed over the grave.
+
+The souls of the righteous are thought of as luminous, the wicked as
+black. Accordingly the blessed are called "spirits of light." [130]
+In order to possess a bright soul one must have performed good works,
+of which giving alms to the poor is considered the most important. Such
+spirits are also called "generous," "charitable." It is a current
+belief that the blackened souls become brighter through the good works
+of descendants, as well as through their prayers. Offspring are thus
+especially desirable, and the old Armenian liturgy, the Maschtotz
+prepared by St. Mesrob, the inventor of the Armenian alphabet in
+the fifth century, contains innumerable prayers for the dead. [131]
+The prayers are short and their power is relative to the frequency
+of repetition rather than to the length. Some sort of short prayer
+is repeated with every thought of the dead, as for example, "May God
+have mercy upon his soul"; "May his soul become lightened"; or only
+"The illuminated soul."
+
+Several days of the year are set apart for particular remembrance
+of the dead. [132] At these times the departed spirits are supposed
+to come down from heaven and to roam about the vicinity of their
+graves or in the homes of their relatives. On the eve of these
+days it is necessary to do honor to their memory with incense and
+candles, which are regarded as offerings. The odor of the incense
+is especially pleasant to spirits, for the incense-tree also blooms
+in paradise. [133] Saturday night is very commonly devoted to such
+intercession and worship. Incense is burned upon the hearth while
+prayers are repeated, or a flame is ignited upon a plate which is
+carried into all the corners of the house, or barn, or wherever it
+is believed the departed spirit may be wandering. In some places it
+is customary to maintain the "light of the dead" throughout the night
+in order that the spirits may enter the house. If they find the house
+dark in looking through the roof window, they make away, cursing. Water
+is not drunk in the dark during these nights, for it is believed that
+to do so would be to take it away from the thirsty spirits of the dead.
+
+On the Day of the Dead the spirits are especially honored, for they
+love most to wander in the neighborhood of their graves. People
+actually feel themselves to be among the souls of the dead on this
+celebration day. The latter are very happy to be thought of, and
+are especially glad to have their graves blessed by the priests. But
+to please them most one must bring wood and incense and leave it to
+be burned over their graves. Three days the spirits remain upon the
+earth, after which they return to heaven, their visit having been duly
+honored. If they come to find themselves forgotten, they curse their
+relatives and fly away in despair. Occasionally they come down to be of
+service; especially is this true of the dead father and his living son,
+for the former is especially remembered, and his grave is regarded
+as holy. Armenians swear by the graves, or by the spirits of their
+fathers, and call upon them for help in time of especial need. [134]
+
+Tavernier described the same festival in his Voyages and noticed that
+it was considered the greatest infamy to eat with a "Mordischou,"
+the person who washed the dead. [135] No single festival and group of
+relevant beliefs is more instructive in showing how much of Armenian
+folk-belief and custom is the survival of paganism.
+
+There is yet another festival of this group, which, however, is not to
+be traced to paganism, and it would be a mistake to suppose that the
+church is connected with it in the same way and to the same extent
+as it is with the first three festivals considered. The festival is
+called Vartan's Day, and although the church sanctions the festival
+and sets apart a day for the celebration, it comes about as near being
+apart from the church as any single festival. Vartan was the general
+of the Armenian army defeated at the battle of Avarair, spoken of in
+Part One, by the Persian fire-worshippers who endeavored to impose
+their religion upon the Armenians at a time when part of Armenia
+was under the domination of Persia, and the remainder tributary to
+Rome. But though defeated in battle, the moral victory, as people
+now use the term, was Armenian, for the battle proved the utter
+failure of the Persians to convert the Armenian people to their
+religion. [136] Vartan saved the nation for Gregorian Christianity,
+and it is significant that the people look upon Vartan as saviour of
+the nation rather than as saviour of their religion, showing how the
+religion was and still is identified with the nation.
+
+It is in his honor that the people hold a festival on the anniversary
+day of the battle of Avarair. School children sing songs and
+wreath Vartan's picture with red flowers. The belief is that this
+peculiar kind of red flower sprang up from the blood of the Christian
+army. Recitations and national patriotic plays are given, and as the
+children participate in singing songs, reciting pieces, and rendering
+plays, the older people participate in attending them. [137]
+
+Besides the belief of the red flower there are numerous other beliefs
+hallowed by the day. Nightingales that fly over the battlefield are
+supposed to sing "Vartan, Vartan," and there is a species of antelope
+with a pouch of fragrant musk under its throat which is said to have
+acquired its fragrance by browsing on herbage wet with the blood of
+Armenian heroes. [138]
+
+Altogether it is the kind of festival to give expression to the
+sentiment I have spoken of as love for the country, for its mountains,
+rivers, and valleys, and for its ideals of freedom, independence,
+and strength. In the presence of the state the festival probably
+would be utilized to foster and give expression to the sentiment of
+loyalty to the state. There would be specially chosen speakers to talk
+of patriotism, waving of banners, and carefully designed methods of
+instilling hatred for a real or supposed enemy, much as French school
+children have been taught to hate Englishmen. But in the absence of
+the state, the sentiment expressed must be a purer sentiment, loftier
+and freer, and one can not but regret that Vartan's Day and similar
+festivals have been suppressed by the Turkish government. And yet,
+one could not reasonably expect otherwise.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 3. FORTUNE-TELLING DAY
+
+Most charming and most picturesque of festivals is that participated
+in by the romantic Armenian maidens on the early dawn of Ascension
+Day. [139] On the eve of the same day the young girls who wish their
+fortunes told, decorate a large bowl with specially selected flowers,
+after which each girl casts a token, a ring, a brooch, a thimble,
+into the bowl. Flowers of several kinds are then put in, and the
+bowl is filled with water drawn from seven springs. Then they cover
+it with an embroidered cloth and take it by night to the priest who
+says a prayer over it. The most carefully and daintily prepared bowl
+is then placed out in the moonlight, open to the stars where it is
+left until dawn. At early daybreak of the next morning, the maidens,
+furnished with provisions for the entire day, go out of the village
+carrying their bowl to the side of a spring, the foot of a mountain,
+or into an open field, gathering on the way various kinds of flowers
+with which they deck themselves. Having arrived at their place of
+festival, they play games, dance, and sing, after which they take
+a beautiful little girl, too young to tell where the sun rises,
+who has been previously chosen and gaily dressed for the occasion,
+to draw the various articles out of the bowl. The face of the child
+is covered with a richly wrought veil that she may not see what is
+in the bowl, and she then proceeds to withdraw the articles which
+she holds in her hand one at a time. While this is done some one of
+the party recites a charm song, and the owner of each token takes
+the song which accompanies it as her fortune. There are thousands
+of these charm songs, most of which have been written especially for
+the festival, of which I shall give but a few.
+
+
+                      1.
+
+        Snowless hang the clouds to-night,
+        Through the darkness comes a light;
+            On this lonely pillow now,
+        Never more shall sleep alight.
+
+                      2.
+
+        Like a star whose brightness grows
+        On the earth my beauty shows;
+            Thou shalt long for yet, and seek
+        My dark eyes and arching brows.
+
+                      3.
+
+        Long and lone this night to me
+        Passing slow and wearily;
+            Passing full of sighs and tears--
+        Love, what doth it bring to thee?
+
+                      4.
+
+        Eden's smile my vineyard wore,
+        Flowers bloomed, a goodly store;
+            Handsome youth and ugly maid--
+        This was never seen before! [140]
+
+
+Thus each one carries its bit of prophesy, daintily and prettily
+expressed, which when sung at the foot of some mountain, in the bright
+eastern sunlight of the morning, while a little child is holding
+tokens beside a bowl surrounded by the group of beflowered maidens,
+makes as complete and charming a picture as one could well imagine.
+
+Many curious beliefs, superstitions, customs, and legends are
+directly related to Ascension Day. It is believed, for example,
+that on the eve of this day the water of the springs, brooks,
+and rivers lies peacefully motionless for a single moment during
+the night. At the same moment heaven and earth, mountain and stone,
+trees and flowers beckon and congratulate one another. First heaven
+congratulates and kisses the earth, then one star beckons to another,
+one flower to another, and so forth until all of nature's objects
+have expressed their mutual good feeling. Even plants and "soulless"
+objects receive the gift of speech and share their secrets one with
+the other at this time. He who hides himself in a stone crevice of the
+mountainside may listen to the conversation of stones and flowers,
+and understand what they tell each other. They tell on this night
+what sort of sicknesses they and the springs will heal, and many
+people endeavor to attend at this moment, but only a few succeed. [141]
+
+At midnight the waters are believed to have the power of healing, and
+people bathe themselves in the streams. As the children are not to be
+troubled during the night, water is warmed for them the next morning,
+bits of grass are thrown in and the children are bathed. During the
+magic moment the door of the cavern of "Maher," the revered hero god
+who dwells upon earth, is opened: and one may enter to see him, his
+steed, and the "wheel of the starred heavens" or the wheel of fate. In
+one of the national epics (David of Sassun) Maher is represented
+as the strongest of the heroes, and is supposed to dwell in a rocky
+cave in the vicinity of Van [142] (probably the rock of Van). In this
+cave all of the world's riches are heaped up, and the "wheel of the
+world," the wheel of fate which constantly turns assigning to people
+their destinies, stands there. Maher looks continually at the wheel
+and if it should stand still, he comes out of his cavern to ravage
+the world. The door of the cave is made of stone and covered with
+cuneiform inscriptions. It is locked during the entire year except
+for the night of the ascension of Christ, when it is opened during
+the single magic moment. Whosoever perceives this moment may step
+into the cave and take as much gold as he pleases. The idea of the
+"wheel of fortune" is considerably extant, although it is not always
+understood as separated from heaven and connected with Maher. [143]
+That the idea of fate or of fortune is generally associated with the
+day, not only by romantic maidens, but by the people, is very evident.
+
+The flowing waters are believed to change into gold during the silent
+minute, and if one places an object in the water and wishes at the
+same time that it become gold, the object turns to gold. Accordingly
+the young men and women go to the springs and rivers in order to
+draw water, trusting their fates that they may select the happy
+moment. Superstitions and magic are not lacking, for while one member
+of a party seats himself upon a pair of fire-tongs in the fashion
+of a rider, another performs likewise upon a long-handled spit. The
+iron tools are also regarded as a necessary protection against the
+calls that one hears behind after the water has been drawn, for if one
+should look back perchance, he would surely fall under the influence
+of the evil spirits. The oldest of the party carries a gourd flask
+full of wheat and barley, which is poured into the stream towards
+midnight with the words "I give you wheat and barley; you give me
+everything that is good." Thereupon he fills the gourd flask with
+water, and the party hurries homeward to discover the gold. [144]
+
+The fortune-telling festival is given by Abeghian as he observed it in
+his home village, and I shall give a free translation of his account
+at this point because of a few interesting variations. In Astapet,
+the festival is called the "Festival of the Mother of Flowers." On the
+day before Ascension Day the girls and young women of the village
+divide themselves into two groups, one to gather special sorts
+of flowers from the mountainside, while the other goes to "steal"
+water from seven springs, or seven rivers. The "thieves" must not
+see each other, nor must the people of the village know aught of what
+is happening. Having filled their vessels with water, each throws a
+stone into the spring and then they turn back, taking care neither
+to look about, to set down their vessels, nor to talk. They imagine
+that the mountains, the valleys, trees, and meadows call out behind
+them and if they should turn about they would be turned to stone. [145]
+
+At night of the same day the "water thieves" and flower gatherers meet
+together in a garden to prepare the "Havgir" or magic bowl in which
+is poured the water from the seven springs, and in which seven stones
+from the seven sources, together with leaves of the gathered flowers
+are dropped. Each one who wishes her fortune told now throws in a charm
+token, such as mentioned before. Those who are not present send their
+tokens in order to have them thrown into the "Havgir" by others. The
+bowl is then adorned with flowers, after which the "Vicak" meaning
+destiny or fate, is prepared. This consists of two pieces of wood tied
+together in the form of a cross, which is dressed and adorned with
+jewels and pearls to make it appear as a newly-married doll-bride. The
+"Vicak" is fastened to the "Havgir," and both are placed under the
+stars, in order that these who are the real destinies, may work the
+proper magic upon the charm tokens. [146] A few girls guard it during
+the whole night against the young men who try to steal it.
+
+Early the next morning the maidens gather together in the garden
+laden with food baskets and prepared to make a day of it. The "Havgir"
+and strangely fashioned "Vicak" are carried to a nearby spring, the
+young girls decking themselves with flowers as they go. The spring
+is decorated about with flowers, green leaves, and branches, and the
+"Havgir" is placed in the middle, and then after they have prepared
+everything and eaten, the oldest among them takes the "Vicak," kisses
+it, gives it to another, who does likewise, and so it passes from
+hand to hand. Finally a seven-year-old girl receives it. She sets
+herself in the middle of the group and holds the "Vicak" while the
+"Havgir" stands before her. The little girl is called "bride," is the
+interpreter of the "Vicak" and is specially selected and dressed for
+the occasion. When she has received the "Vicak" a red veil is passed
+over both, and all is ready for the central event of the festival. A
+charm song is sung by the group, and after each stanza the "bride"
+draws a token from the vessel. The preceding verse reveals the fate
+of the one to whom the token belongs. [147]
+
+The fortune-telling festival of Ascension morning stands quite
+alone. Bodeful of the future and suggestive of the past, it can
+not but have a serious tenor, for there are maidens whose lovers
+have not been born, as there are also sadder ones. Perhaps they do
+not take their verses very seriously. Whether they do or not there
+is always the charm of sunrise colors, and the out-of-doors that
+makes it as beautiful as it is romantic. The best of the future,
+their brightest hope, the best of the present, warmth of sunshine
+and color, and the best of the past, their golden dreams of youth,
+are brought together on this day and given a common expression in a
+way that must charm them as it charms the observer. Festivals to be
+perfect festivals must be out-of-doors and the day must be bright.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+CHRISTIAN FOLK FESTIVALS
+
+
+The second group of festivals comprises those newly created by the
+church, such as the Blessing of the Grapes, New Year, Easter, and
+Christmas. I wish also to include in this group a few of the peculiarly
+characteristic church ceremonies which also have a distinct festival
+value for the people, i.e., the ceremony of the "Washing of Feet"
+on Maundy Thursday, "Khatchanguist" or the "Blessing of Water," the
+consecration of the Katholikos, and the manufacture of the "holy oil."
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 1. CHRISTMAS, EASTER, AND NEW YEAR
+
+The service of the church on any one of the festival days is
+exclusively connected with the divine mystery, so called. These include
+the Assumption, or Immaculate Conception, celebrated by the people
+in the festival "the Blessing of the Grapes"; the miraculous birth,
+which corresponds to the Christmas festival; the Transfiguration,
+or the folk-festival Vartavar; the Redemption, to which the Easter
+festival corresponds; and the Resurrection, including Ascension or
+Fortune-Telling Day. There are other festivals celebrated by the
+church, such as the festival of the Holy Cross, and of the Holy
+Church, which I omit because there is not a corresponding social
+expression. Grand mass is said at the church, and the particular
+passages of scripture that have a direct bearing on the occasion
+are read. The Armenian calendar is curious in that many of the
+festivals occupy a succession of days; there are, for example,
+39 days for the Resurrection, 3 days for the Transfiguration, 10
+days for the Ascension, etc., which make up a grand total of 136
+days in the year to which festivals are assigned. As there are 160
+days devoted to abstinence, 117 of which are liturgical abstinence,
+that is, days of penitence mentioned in the liturgy, there are left
+only 112 days for the commemoration of saints, which have necessarily
+to be grouped together, since there are more than 112 saints. [148]
+Because, therefore, of the continuity of festival days, one could not
+expect any one of the festivals to have any social value from the
+standpoint of the church service. But there is never any conflict
+between the services of the church and the festivities without,
+which are thus sanctioned by the church and in many cases directed
+and carried out by church officials. It has been noticed that the
+blessing of the priest was secured for the magic bowl, before it was
+placed underneath the stars on the eve of Ascension Day.
+
+The festival of the Virgin Mary, or the "Blessing of the Grapes,"
+is more actively participated in by the church. It may be designed
+to keep the people from eating green grapes, but more probably was
+intended to give a social expression to an otherwise dull and very
+monotonous church ceremony. The people are all expected to maintain
+a strict abstinence from eating grapes until the middle of August,
+the day set apart for the festival. The grapes are then gathered
+in great quantities, some of which are carried to the church and
+placed on a large tray, which is set at the foot of the altar. After
+the ceremony of the church, the priest turns to the tray of grapes
+before him, which he blesses with his cross. The tray is then taken
+to the door of the church, where each member of the congregation is
+given a bunch as he passes out. The fast is thus broken with the
+taste of "blessed grapes," and there is no end of grape eating on
+that day. During the remainder of the day every woman named Mary,
+or named with a possible attribute of the Virgin Mary, as "Kudsa,"
+meaning "saintly," or "Dirouhi," meaning "Mother of the Lord,"
+keeps open house for the friends who drop in to eat grapes and to
+congratulate her. In rural places or villages where vineyards are
+abundant, social groups may be seen eating grapes from the vines
+while talking or playing as they are inclined. Grapes ripen earlier
+in some parts of Armenia than in others, and where this is true the
+festival is merged with the festival of Vartavar. [149]
+
+For the festival of New Year's Eve no religious coöperation whatever
+is necessary; it comes as near to being distinct from the church as
+any of the Armenian festivals. The preparation consists largely in
+making or purchasing gifts for the various members of the family,
+in cracking bowls of nuts and getting all kinds of dried fruits
+ready. Armenian and Greek New Year's Eve fall on the same night,
+and in Constantinople there is much agitation and animation in the
+streets. Singing and music fill the air, and as soon as dusk falls,
+groups of boys, some carrying small lanterns, others provided with
+tom-toms or hand-organs, begin the circuit of the streets. Thus they
+go from house to house singing the New Year's song and playing their
+hand-organs, receiving pennies as they go. After the boys have passed
+along, the porters, watchmen, and firemen make a noisy procession down
+the streets, they too playing hand-organs and stopping at one house
+after another where they receive a drink, some sweets and nuts, and
+most important of all, a tip. As midnight approaches, the excitement
+increases; the pounding of the tom-toms becomes unbearable, all the
+organs of the neighborhood are making music, and there is such a
+noise of singing, shouting, and laughing as can be compared only to
+a night of political election. Inside the homes of the better-to-do,
+the children are put to bed for a time while the enormous New Year's
+table is set. Besides several specially prepared New Year's dishes,
+every home must be provided with a dish of every kind of fruit, dried
+or fresh. Small candles are stuck around the plates, and the presents
+are heaped up on a side table. At midnight the candles are all lit,
+and the family ranges itself around the table while the eldest, usually
+the grandmother, blesses all and prays. After the prayer she wishes
+to all the best things for the coming year, for the young ladies good
+husbands, for the young men prosperity and good wives, happiness for
+the little children, and comfort and health for the older ones. These
+wishes having been given, all kiss the hands of the older members of
+the family, after which the children kiss each others' hands. The
+presents are exchanged; fruits, candies, and nuts are partaken of,
+and the fun goes on until dawn. [150] In the interior of Armenia,
+two elders of the church go from door to door of the more fortunate
+ones on the day before New Year, carrying bags which they fill with
+the offerings received at every house. These are carefully parceled
+out and at dusk are left at the doors of poor families who would
+otherwise have no New Year's cheer.
+
+The church makes up amply in the Easter festival for any lack of
+participation at New Year. Forty-eight days of rigid lenten abstinence,
+during which time no meat is eaten, precede the festivities of Easter
+Day. The first two or three days of the Holy Week are given over to
+housecleaning, which however must be finished by Thursday in order
+that the people may attend the ceremonies at church which continue
+until Easter Day. On Thursday afternoon "the Washing of the Feet,"
+to be described later, commences, and the service continues until past
+midnight. On Saturday all go to the bath, which is made an essential
+part of the week's celebrations, and on the afternoon of the same day
+the real Easter service, called the Lighting of the Lights, begins. The
+church is first illuminated on Easter Eve, for on the three preceding
+days of mourning and sorrow the altar shrine is kept closed and no
+candles are lit. Even the congregation holds lighted wax candles while
+the triumphal songs are chanted by the robed choir of little boys.
+
+At the evening meal of the day before Easter the lenten fast is partly
+broken by eating fish and boiled eggs, but no meat. [151] The denial
+of the flesh recommences, however, at bedtime, for not a morsel is
+eaten until Easter midday. Early dawn sees the people putting on their
+new clothes, especially new shoes which are considered a necessity
+on this day, and all, newly attired, go to church where communion is
+celebrated. The church is usually filled with flowers and its most
+brilliant ornaments are displayed, the service ending at midday in time
+for the usual feast of stuffed roast lamb, the customary red eggs, and
+the egg bread made only at Easter time. In the afternoon the men visit
+from house to house and something dainty is always served, a cocktail
+or a cup of coffee with sweets like Turkish delight or bonbons. The
+formula repeated by the guest upon entering a house is always the same;
+"Christ is risen from the dead," he exclaims, and is answered by the
+host with the usual formula, "Blessed is the resurrection of Christ."
+
+Perhaps the boys enjoy Easter most of all. Provided with red Easter
+eggs, they collect in groups, whereupon there follows a most vivacious
+competition to win each other's eggs by clashing them together. The
+champion egg is used until it is broken, when a new champion is quickly
+brought forth. This process continues as long as there are two or
+more unbroken eggs, the game being won when all of the broken eggs are
+in the possession of the boy who holds the champion egg. Picnic day,
+or the "Day of the Dead," follows Easter Day, as I have described it,
+and it is singularly strange that a "day of resurrection" should be
+followed by a "day of the dead," when prayers are said and offerings
+given in sacrifice for the departed. But people are not mindful of
+such little incongruities; they are simple and carry out the festival
+celebrated by their fathers, much as their fathers celebrated it.
+
+The week before Christmas is likewise devoted to a thorough
+housecleaning by the Armenian housewife, and on the day before,
+special dishes are prepared for the next day's feast. Again there
+is the customary bath which is observed by all the members of the
+household. On Christmas Eve the abstinence of the preceding days
+is partly broken, usually with fried fish, lettuce, and boiled
+spinach. Boiled spinach is the rule because it is believed that this
+dish made up the supper of the Virgin Mary on the eve of Christ's
+birth. At church special vespers are sung and there is much emphasis
+laid upon special selections from the prophets which are also sung. An
+hour before dawn the sexton alone, or with a group of choir boys,
+goes from door to door singing what is called "the good tidings." It
+is the signal for the faithful to awake, don their best clothes and go
+to church again without eating breakfast. The holy bread and wine are
+not to be profaned by the people having eaten a breakfast of ordinary
+food, with the consequence that not a few faint during the service,
+even as at Easter time. But the ceremony is finished by half past ten,
+after which the women go home to prepare the midday feast while the
+men visit the homes of their friends. The never-failing formula of
+the guest upon entering the house of a friend is, "Christ is born and
+manifested to-day," which is responded to by the host with "Blessed is
+the manifestation of Christ." Each visit lasts about fifteen minutes
+and sweets and coffee are served. At midday the Christmas feast is
+partaken of, all make merry around the table, and in the afternoon
+more calls are paid and received. The festivities are observed for
+three days, the third being ladies' day, which is devoted by the
+ladies to giving and receiving visits. They offer their salutations
+and good wishes to each other, eating dainties even as the men. Shops
+and business places of Armenians are usually kept closed for three
+days. [152]
+
+There is thus considerable similarity between Easter and the Christmas
+festivities, which is probably due to more or less sameness in the
+church ceremonies. These ceremonies, always well attended, are made
+attractive to the people by beautiful displays of flowers, vested choir
+boys, the charm of whose singing can only be understood by those who
+have heard them; also by special singing, not by the congregation,
+but by those who can sing, and with such enticing little additions
+as the Lighting of Lights. The services are thus as much and as
+real a part of the day's rejoicings as the feasts and social visits,
+and if they are designed consciously or unconsciously to give active
+expression to the sentiment of loyalty to the church one must admit
+that the expression is a perfectly free and natural one. Abstinences
+do not make the festivities attractive, to be sure, and there are
+more unfortunate communities who can not afford so lavish a display
+as others; but flowers need only to be picked from the fields, and
+boys there are always, even in the poorest churches. The holiday
+rejoicing has somewhat more of the serious blend which is to be
+contrasted with the more perfect gaiety of New Year's Day, and is
+probably due to the weightiness of its religious significance of which
+one is constantly reminded, not only by the services at the church
+but also by the salutations of visitors and the necessary replies,
+always the same. But even the gaiety of New Year is not to be compared
+with the perfect lightness and freedom of merriment that characterize
+some aspects of Vartavar, nor do any of the Christian folk festivals
+have the completeness of Vartavar.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. SPECIAL CHURCH CEREMONIES
+
+Together with this second group of festivals including as they do
+Christmas, Easter, New Year, and the Blessing of the Grapes, I wish
+to include a short series of church ceremonies all of which have a
+very distinct festival value, beside their value in being singularly
+characteristic of the Armenian church. They are distinctly different
+from the festivals of the preceding section, in that the festivities
+are incidental to a ceremony peculiar to the Armenian church. The
+"Washing of Feet," the "Blessing of the Water," the consecration
+of the Katholikos, and the manufacture of the holy oil, are those I
+desire to describe.
+
+The "Washing of Feet" occurs on Maundy Thursday, three days before
+Easter. [153] This day is the first of three successive days of
+mourning spoken of, during which the altar is closed, and no lights
+are lit. After the mass the bishop puts away his brocaded robes,
+and kneeling in imitation of Christ washing the feet of His disciples
+on the night of the betrayal, he washes the feet of the priests and
+choristers, of whom there are usually eleven. Christ washed the feet
+of twelve, but one of them was unworthy. The service then continues
+until midnight, and while the ceremony is in progress, the lights are
+put out one by one, to remain out until the "Lighting of the Lights"
+on Easter eve. If the church is a parish church in which a priest
+officiates, a number of little boys are ranged in order for the
+"Washing of Feet," which in this case is performed by the priest,
+who anoints the soles of their feet with oil after he has washed
+them. Each boy is given a walnut shell and before he moves from his
+place he carefully scrapes some of the oil into his shell, and carries
+it home to place in the butter. If he does this it is believed that
+the supply of butter will not fail throughout the year.
+
+This same service was observed by a writer in the Survey, in a church
+on East 27th Street, New York, rented by a company of Armenian folk
+residing in that city. [154] The same symbolic "Washing of Feet" was
+carried out on the evening of Maundy Thursday in much the same fashion
+as it is carried out in the home-land. The symbolism, the pageantry,
+the color of oriental Armenian worship, the silver-mounted Bible on
+the altar in the center, the rising steps, the crosses, the lighted
+candles, and the incense were all there. A white-robed choir with green
+velvet copes filed in, singing long chants. The choir was followed
+by two priests, and the priests by the bishop with his mitre, robe
+of crimson and gold, and his ivory cross held in the right hand with
+a kerchief of crimson silk. A shining crozier held in his left hand
+marked his office as shepherd of the flock; a large jewel locket and
+cross hung from his breast and was probably the gift of the Czar. The
+choir chant that continues all the while was described as an intricate,
+rhythmless tune, now passionate, now wailing and altogether "oriental,"
+accompanied by a few older folk here and there who were humming in
+unison with the choir and the leader, who was beating time. Beside
+the humming the congregation took no part in the service except that
+it stood up for the psalm and prayer. Suddenly a sound to the right
+brought the observer's attention to an old woman lying prostrate
+in the aisle. No one helped her, no one even seemed to notice her,
+but presently she rose to a kneeling posture and lifted her eyes in
+prayer to the altar. Again she prostrated herself, and again rose to
+lift her eyes to the altar, which performance was repeated a third
+time before the old woman took her seat. "Der Voghormia" meaning
+"Lord have mercy upon us," was repeated ten times by the interceding
+bishop in a voice loud and intense, and a second ten times, and a
+third ten times. The chant quickened, and as the aged priest took the
+Bible from its place and held it toward the audience the bishop gave
+his benediction of peace to the "four corners of the earth." There
+was another chant after which the washing of the feet commenced. With
+deep seriousness the bishop placed his staff by the altar, laid aside
+his mitre and brocaded robes, and beginning with the aged priest,
+he knelt beside a bowl of water to wash his feet. Ten more of those
+who came forward shared in the ceremony. "I can not so serve you
+all," he said at the close of his address, "I am sorry. Take as
+symbolic what is done." There was a short intermission, but before
+ten o'clock the penitential service recommenced and continued until
+midnight. The story of Christ's betrayal in the garden was read, and
+the chants continued, wilder, sadder, and more wailing, accompanied
+by murmurs and occasionally by low cries from the people. As midnight
+approached the lights were dimmed one by one, and the emotion became
+more intense. As the hour struck, the congregation rose, and with
+clasped hands joined in a closing song and prayer. There were only
+a few score people present.
+
+The prostration of the old woman reminds one of the spiritually
+wounded who lay prostrate over the floor during the times of the
+Kentucky revivals, but the fact is there is nothing hysterical in
+this particular phase of Armenian worship. The attitude is commonly
+practiced by Armenians, especially among the peasant classes. They lie
+flat touching their heads to the ground. [155] But the posture is more
+peculiarly oriental than it is peculiarly Armenian. No sight is more
+common in the countries of Islam than the faithful Moslem who spreads
+his bit of carpet upon which he kneels with gaze fixed toward Mecca,
+prostrating himself repeatedly as he murmurs his prayers.
+
+Although the picture given by Dubois of a simple church service he
+attended in Koulpe, Armenia, is not the ceremony of Maundy Thursday,
+it has one or two strokes of native color that make it impossible to
+omit. [156] The church was poor and simple, the walls were built of
+stone cemented by clay or bad lime. Two rows of large beams neither
+squared nor trimmed supported the earthen roof in the manner of
+columns. At the farther end was a kind of niche, partitioned off by
+means of soiled curtains, thus forming a sanctuary where stood the
+priest, clothed in torn robe, to read the prayers. All of the little
+boys of the village encircled him, kneeling and chanting or reciting
+prayers, turn by turn. The eldest placed themselves outside of the
+choir and knelt on straw mats or on sheep's skins which marked their
+customary places, and kissed the earth, or murmured very low the words
+of the priest, or responded to the chanting at high pitch. The women
+held themselves apart, their faces half veiled, filling the back of
+the church behind the men, and, with lowered heads, were the first
+to leave.
+
+The kneeling posture and the prostration is again clearly in
+evidence, which together with what has been said is sufficient to
+show that this attitude, especially among the common people, is a
+very ordinary one and is therefore to be regarded merely as a very
+generally recognized posture of worship, and not at all significant
+necessarily of "conviction of sin" or a "feeling of penitence," which
+is nevertheless suggested. The church at Koulpe must have been a very
+poor one not to have benches, but it had its little chorus of boys,
+and the people participated in much the same way as in the little
+church in New York, although nearly a hundred years have passed since
+Dubois attended the simple service.
+
+"Khatchahankist," meaning literally, "repose of the cross," is the
+second of the four church ceremonies I shall describe. The ceremony
+might better be named "the Blessing of the Water," for that is what it
+really consists of. In the towns of Turkey the churches devote one day
+each week to the performance of this rite, but in other churches it
+occurs at the end of a special mass, as for example on Ascension Day,
+or on the commemoration day of St. Gregory. [157] There is always a
+very great gathering on this occasion largely because of the various
+superstitions connected with it. A large silver bowl of water is
+brought and placed on a stand at the foot of the altar, after which
+the officiating priest comes forward with relics of the Holy Cross, of
+the saints, or a simple silver cross in his hand. The more frequently
+used relics are those of St. Gregory the Illuminator, St. John the
+Baptist, St. James of Nisibis, or St. George the Martyr. The priest
+reads prayers over the water, which are answered by the chants from
+the choir, after which he dips the relic or the cross into the water
+three times, finally making the sign of the cross over the bowl. The
+Lord's prayer is repeated, after which a ladle is placed on one side
+of the vessel, while the priest kneels on the other, cross or relic
+in hand. Now the people crowd about, cross their faces and kiss the
+cross, and then take up the ladle to drink of the water thus blessed
+especially for drinking purposes. It is used also for ablutions,
+for popular belief endows the sacred liquid with curative power.
+
+Some of the prayers that are repeated and the texts that are read
+during this ceremony are well worth noting, for they illustrate the
+candid interest of all participating. After the reading of the texts,
+the deacon repeats the following proclamation: "Let us pray unto God
+who loveth mankind and hath given for hope and refuge his victorious
+holy cross, which is armor invincible against the inworkings of Satan,
+to the end that whatsoever it touches, this water and all creatures. He
+shall through the same vouchsafe both healing and mercy." The priest
+then prays: "Bless, O Lord, this water, and hallow it with thy holy
+cross, in order that the flocks and sheep which may approach and drink
+of the same, may derive therefrom freedom from disease and sterility;
+for from them we select sacrifices of fragrant sweetness and offer them
+as victims to thyself." And again the priest prays: "Bless, O Lord,
+this water with the life-giving powers of the cross that everyone who
+shall drink thereof may derive therefrom a medicine of soul and body,
+and a health from the diseases which afflict him." Again: "Bless,
+O Lord, this water with thy holy cross, that it may impart to the
+fields where it is sprinkled profitable harvests, and that all plants
+and herbs may be more than ever increased in fruitfulness." [158]
+The cross is then passed three times over the water with the words,
+"Let this water be blessed and hallowed in the name of the Father,
+and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." This is followed by a
+short proclamation by the deacon and a closing prayer by the priest,
+after which the assembled people receive of the magic water as above
+described.
+
+This frank personal interest is characteristic of many of the church
+ceremonies. For example in the sacrament of holy communion, incense
+is offered with the prayer, "Do thou in its stead send upon us the
+graces and gifts of thine Holy Spirit." [159]
+
+Of central importance to the nation as to the religion is the ceremony
+of the consecration of the Katholikos, the supreme authority of the
+church, which is held in front of the Cathedral at Etchmiadzin. [160]
+People from near and far gather together to witness this event,
+and lest they should fail to see the central act of the ceremony,
+the roofs near-by are all used for the greater advantage they give
+to the observer. The banner of the Katholikos is set flying from
+the belfry tower; in front of the entrance to the Cathedral is set
+a wooden dais covered with carpets and costly embroideries whereon
+the ceremony is performed; the procession is formed and all is then
+in readiness. A service is held in the Cathedral, after which the
+procession issues from the church, and the various state and church
+officials including representatives from the Russian government,
+the choir and deacons, all take their places about the platform. The
+twelve bishops who reside at Etchmiadzin, and whose business it is
+to wait upon the Katholikos, now appear gorgeously attired, escorting
+the central figure of the day, over whose head two attendants carry a
+richly embroidered canopy. The patriarch falls on his knees, his feet
+beneath his body in full accordance with the ordinary posture. One
+bishop now reads, after which another advances bearing in his hands the
+image of a dove wrought in gold. It is the receptacle of the holy oil,
+which is a mixture of the sacred oil blessed by St. Gregory, sparingly
+used and carefully preserved in the treasury of the Cathedral, and
+of the specially prepared oil consecrated in Sis in Cilicia. While
+one bishop is pouring the holy oil from the neck of the golden dove
+over the head of the patriarch, the other bishops gather around to
+spread the oil about with their thumbs, making at the same time the
+sign of the cross. A piece of cloth is now placed over his head, his
+face being covered at the same time by a veil which is attached to
+the cloth. After a brief interval the newly consecrated Katholikos,
+followed by the bishops, officials, and procession, reenters the
+church in order to complete the ceremony. When the procession again
+files out escorting the pontiff to his residence, the choir sings,
+and the Russian band plays. Festivities continue throughout the day
+and into the night, including mainly the banquet with its toasts
+and songs by the choir, and the concert furnished by the band in the
+evening. The band is a foreign innovation, although the particular
+band observed by Lynch consisted mostly of Armenians.
+
+The holy oil used in the consecration consists for the most part of
+the preparation manufactured in Sis, as stated, and with which there
+is a special ceremony connected, which is of general importance,
+for the oil is also used for the various necessary consecrations
+of all the churches. In the church at Sis is treasured a gorgeous
+silver bowl, decorated with turrets and pinnacles, in which "Muron"
+as it is called, or holy oil is made every four years. Pilgrims
+come from far to witness the event. The bowl, which holds about a
+gallon of oil is placed outside the church, and in it are placed
+a hundred and one kinds of flowers amid prayers and chants. [161]
+These flowers are stirred with the arm of St. Gregory, after which
+the lid is put on and the mixture made to boil. [162] The privilege
+of lifting off the lid is auctioned, and it is said that £100 was
+once paid for the distinction. The oil is then sold to the pilgrims,
+all of whom take a phial of it along to their homes where it is used
+in baptism, marriage, and burial ceremonies. It is also believed to
+have wonderful medicinal properties.
+
+The chief social value of these ceremonies lies in the fact that they
+bring large groups of people together under unusual circumstances,
+all of which adds importance to the various rites and festivities
+of the occasion. Especially is this true of the consecration of the
+Katholikos, which may occur twice or at the most three times in a
+generation. For this reason and also because of the authority and
+position of the Katholikos, not only as head of the church, but also
+in a very real sense, as head of the nation, this ceremony is attended
+by many pilgrims from the various sections of the country. Having
+assembled, the occasion is thus made a great deal more of than if it
+were an ordinary event. The day is a festival day in the full meaning
+of the term. Besides the services there is the banquet, the special
+choir, and the band. The relics kept in the treasury, which it is
+probable that most people who come have not seen before; also the
+holy churches of St. Gaiane and St. Rhipsime, which are visited by
+small groups throughout the day; and most of all the sacred altar of
+the Cathedral, where Christ descended in the vision of St. Gregory,
+are special attractions. And then there is the library where many
+ancient and precious manuscripts are exhibited, the institution of
+the monastery, the garden of the Katholikos, the printing press, and
+the seminary, all of which are of interest to the spectator. In fact
+there is sufficient to induce the pilgrims to remain for a number of
+days, which many of them do. The grounds are provided with a pilgrim's
+court surrounded by guest chambers utilized at this time. Naturally
+enough the various monuments suggest the traditions and legends with
+which they are connected, such as the traditions of St. Gregory,
+Tiridates, the legends of St. Rhipsime and St. Gaiane, and the other
+legends associated with the introduction of Christianity. Although
+centered about a religious ceremony which probably lasts no longer
+than fifteen minutes, the occasion is thus made a festival, and is
+about as important in fostering a real sentiment of patriotism and
+of church loyalty as any other single festival.
+
+The ceremony of the manufacture of the holy oil is not of such central
+importance. It also, however, has the advantage of not occurring very
+frequently, coming as it does only once in every four years. This
+together with the general utility of the oil in all of the various
+church ceremonies, plus the superstitions connected with it, is
+sufficient to induce pilgrims to make the journey to Sis in Cilicia,
+where the ceremony is held. It is again this assembly of pilgrims
+that gives the ceremony a social importance. In a nation like the
+United States where all parts are connected by railroads, telegraphs,
+and telephones, such a pilgrimage would have comparatively little
+social value. Except for government centers, there are no telegraphs
+in Armenia, the telephone is known only in a few cities, and railroads
+there are none. This lack of communication gives such ceremonies to
+which pilgrimages are made a very special social value which they
+otherwise would not at all have. The electoral assemblies spoken of
+have the same value, and for the same reason. The Armenian is not a
+person to be silent, and talks even when prudence is the better part
+of valour. He criticizes, condemns, and praises openly, fearlessly,
+and carelessly, and such a gathering of pilgrims, or electors, if
+it means anything, would mean a wholesale exchange of facts relating
+to current events, opinions, and rumors with reference to politics,
+religion, and every phase of social and industrial life.
+
+The Blessing of the Water can not be said to have so great a social
+value, occurring as it does in some parts of the country once every
+week. And yet this service is unusually well attended, largely because
+of the superstitions connected with the blessed water. Religion here
+appears to offer its biggest attraction to the less fortunate, such
+as the rheumatic, the tubercular, the dyspeptic, the epileptic, and
+the feeble-minded. But enough facts have been mentioned to show that
+the Armenian church is something more than an institution of cure and
+relief. It has identified itself too completely with the common life
+by keeping alive the streams and cross currents of social activity
+to admit of such a supposition.
+
+The ceremony of Maundy Thursday, or Washing of the Feet, is, of
+the four I have mentioned, of the least social importance. But it
+is generally attended, especially by the women who are compelled
+by the ban of custom to complete their house-cleaning before this
+service begins. And then too, it is the commencement of the Easter
+celebration, and as such has a distinct festival value. I have
+reviewed them therefore in the order of their social importance. The
+consecration of the Katholikos first; second the making of holy oil;
+third, the Blessing of the Water, and finally, the Washing of the Feet,
+which complete the second group of festivals.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+PRIVATE FESTIVAL OCCASIONS
+
+
+SECTION 1. BAPTISM
+
+The third group of festivals comprises those connected with the common
+life of the people, including the ceremonies of baptism, betrothal,
+marriage, and funeral. The church is vitally related to each of them,
+and they are of importance here because of their social value, which
+I shall again endeavor to point out.
+
+First after birth, the most important event in the life of every
+Armenian child is that of baptism, for the belief is that the
+unbaptized child has no soul. The infant is therefore generally
+baptized on the day after birth, and when this is impossible always
+within eight days of birth. If the child is sick there is all the more
+reason to hurry; in this case the essential parts of the ceremony are
+performed in the home, the remainder being celebrated at the church at
+some later time. The very first thing to be done therefore after the
+birth of a child is to make the necessary preparations for baptism,
+which are very elaborate in the case of the first-born, especially if
+the child is a boy. [163] A girl is always better than no child at all,
+but not much better. A godfather and godmother are selected, presents
+are exchanged between them and the parents of the child, invitations
+are sent to friends and relations, and at a fixed time the assembled
+people form a procession to the church, led by the midwife holding the
+child. The godfather pays all expenses, and therefore such splendor as
+the ceremony may have in the way of special ornaments for the altar,
+numbers of priests, and a large choir, is determined by him. After the
+group has properly assembled at the church, the priest takes the child
+from the midwife and gives it to the godfather. The profession of faith
+follows immediately and then the priest turns to the west to abjure the
+devil and to the east to invoke the Trinity. [164] Having placed the
+hem of his chasuble upon the babe, the priest proceeds to the sacristy
+reciting a psalm, and followed by the people. The central event now
+takes place. The baptism consists of three immersions in the name of
+the Holy Trinity. First water is poured over the head of the child,
+after which the whole body is plunged into the water. Confirmation is
+administered right after the ceremony of immersion, and takes place
+upon the altar of the church proper, before the image of the Blessed
+Virgin. The forehead, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hands, back, breast
+and upper part of the feet of the infant are anointed with holy oil,
+and two wax tapers are placed in the hands of the godfather while
+carrying the child. The priest then takes the tapers and the babe,
+consecrates and confirms him by three profound inclinations before
+the altar, gives candles and child back to the godfather and blesses
+both. Now the child may be called by its Christian name, which is
+usually that of a saint. [165] Led by the priest and the singing
+choir, the procession now starts back to the home of the little one,
+still carried by the godfather who continues to hold the candles. When
+he reaches the door of the mother, she kneels and prostrates herself
+before him. He in turn delivers the child to the mother's arms who may
+now kiss it for the first time, the child not having been kissed by
+any one from the moment of birth to the delivering over to the mother
+by the godfather after baptism. Others may now also kiss the babe,
+and each endeavors to be the first, for there is a superstitious value
+attached to the first kiss following the mother's after baptism. The
+priests and the family of the godfather spend the evening in the
+child's home. They are served constantly by the father who does not
+himself sit down. For forty days the mother must keep her room, and
+walk only in such parts of the house as are exposed to the sun. [166]
+Having completed the fortieth day she and her babe are taken to
+church by the grandmother. [167] On this occasion the young mother
+must bring an offering, which in times past was a rich Persian rug,
+but is now merely a package of tapers. She waits at the door of the
+sacristy until the priest comes and leads her in before the high altar
+where both mother and child receive a blessing. After this ceremony
+she must visit the godfather and kiss his hand in token of gratitude.
+
+If a funeral passes during the first forty days of the child's life,
+the little one must be snatched up from the cradle and be carried
+upright. People now come to offer their felicitations. The greeting
+of the guest is always, "May God raise the child in the shadow of its
+parents," to which answer is given, "May God bless you according to
+your desire," or "May your tongue be always in good health."
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. BETROTHAL
+
+It is the popular belief among Armenians that the practice of
+early marriages dates from the proclamation of a Persian shah of
+the sixteenth century, to whom part of Armenia was tributary. [168]
+This edict was intended to wipe out Christianity, and provided for the
+marriage of Armenian boys and girls with Persian children. In order to
+evade the edict, the Armenian parents ran secretly from house to house
+for several nights marrying off their children to each other. The
+custom on the part of the parents of arranging for the marriage of
+their children without the knowledge of the latter is supposed also
+to be rooted in this event. Whether the explanation be true or not,
+it certainly is not uncommon for children to marry at sixteen in the
+interior of Armenia, and it is still generally true that arrangements
+for the marriages of children are made without the knowledge of those
+most concerned. [169] The girl does occasionally exercise choice, but
+when the unfortunate suitor is not desired by the parents the feeling
+of obligation on the girl's part, simply because she has lived at her
+father's table, is sufficient to induce her to submit. [170] And the
+same may be said of the young man, although the greater independence
+of a son gives him a little more ground for acting contrary to his
+father's wishes, than in the case of the daughter. But even when the
+choice of the children is accepted, the arrangements and ceremony of
+betrothal are always carried out by the parents.
+
+These arrangements are something as follows. The parents of a young man
+consult his grandparents, and choose a young girl who to them seems
+eligible. They then inform a woman match-maker of their decision,
+and it is her business to sound the ground, so to speak, before a
+proposal is made, since a refusal would ruin the boy's reputation. The
+matchmaker is often a professional woman, and can therefore be relied
+upon not to make a bungle of the job. Among other things, she finds
+out what gifts the bridegroom-to-be must make to his future bride,
+which can of course be done only after the proposal has met with a
+favorable response on the part of the parents of the girl. "What can he
+offer his bride," is the all important question from the standpoint of
+the girl's family. Among the rich, but in times past, gold bracelets
+bejeweled with diamonds or strings of gold pieces for adorning the
+head or neck were common varieties of gifts. To-day silver plate, or
+expensive heirlooms are given. After these matters have been decided
+upon, preparations are made for the ceremony of betrothal, usually
+held in the evening. The friends of the young man are notified to
+meet together in his house at an appointed hour with the priest who
+is given a ring which he blesses. The procession of the bridegroom's
+friends headed by the priest now starts for the house of the bride. All
+are provided with lighted wax candles which they hold in their hands
+as they proceed down the streets accompanied by the sound of violin,
+clarinets, drum, and joyful singing. Sometimes a detour is made in
+order to lengthen the procession.
+
+Having arrived at their destination, the father and mother of the
+girl pretend to know nothing whatever of the reason for the coming
+of the guests, and conversation proceeds for a considerable time
+without the slightest allusion to the matter of chief moment. The
+priest finally makes the following statement amid profound silence:
+"According to the law of the supreme Creator, and following the
+usages of human society, we have the happiness of demanding the
+hand of Miss X, for Mr. Y." The father of the girl pretends not to
+wish to accept, stating that she is too young, or that her mother
+is very desirous to keep her at home. But upon further pressing on
+the part of the parents of the boy, the acceptance is given. It is
+now the turn of the girl to be consulted; she, however, is nowhere
+to be found. The priest searches, and when finally discovered she
+does not speak a word. The former, however, knows, and offering his
+hand he says, "If you consent, kiss the hand," which is straightway
+done, for the girl has been informed beforehand that the kiss is to
+be forthcoming. This part of the procedure takes place apart from
+the crowd, and is followed by the presentation of the ring and the
+benediction which must take place before the public. But since custom
+forbids the girl to appear during the entire evening, a brother or
+a sister comes forward and kneels before the priest to receive the
+ring. The rest all kneel at the same time, and the priest gives the
+benediction. The ring is carried by the child to the fiancée, the
+health of the couple is drunk in rose-syrup, and congratulations and
+compliments are exchanged. Whatever else is eaten or drunk, rose-syrup
+must be at hand, for this is essential and peculiar to the ceremony.
+
+All this while the young man is within the walls of his own
+home. Custom forbids him to appear at the house of his bride-to-be
+until the wedding day, and if perchance the two should meet, he must
+turn his head away while she hides herself. Towards ten o'clock the
+party breaks up, and each guest is given a wax candle. All try to steal
+something from the house before leaving, such as a bottle, a glass,
+or a spoon, and if the thieves are not caught before they leave the
+house, the articles are returned only at the price of a supper from
+the head of the family. The party now returns to the home of the future
+bridegroom, accompanied by the friends and relatives of the girl. The
+procession formed, there is the same lighting of wax candles received
+from the host, brightening the otherwise darkened streets, and the same
+music and singing to triumph over the silence of the night. The young
+man must stand upright before his future father-in-law all through the
+visit. For him the great moment comes when the brother of his fiancée
+takes him aside and offers him a glass of syrup prepared by her own
+hands. The whole night is passed in song and amusement. During the
+following fortnight both families receive visits of congratulation,
+and at every visit the host or hostess must offer the syrup drunk at
+the betrothal ceremony.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 3. MARRIAGE
+
+Elaborate and gay as are the festivities of betrothal, the celebrations
+of marriage are so much more so that one is inclined to look upon the
+essential religious ceremony as a pretext for the merry-making. [171]
+The interval of a month which ordinarily intervenes between engagement
+and marriage is devoted to making the necessary preparations for
+the wedding. The bridegroom must get ready the promised ornaments,
+a white wedding-dress for his bride, a fine veil to cover her face,
+and a pair of shoes, a rather strange combination of gifts. One
+wonders also why the necessary gloves and silk stockings are not
+included. The young lady on her part prepares her trousseau including
+garments of various sorts, bits of jewelry, a wooden chest filled with
+her clothing, a mirror, a nuptial bed with the necessary accessories,
+and a few cooking utensils; altogether an outfit quite as varied and
+singular as the gifts of the bridegroom, but certainly practical
+and sensible enough. Two days before the wedding, which usually
+occurs on a Sunday afternoon, invitations are sent out to friends and
+relatives, and musicians are secured. On the eve of the ceremony, the
+godfather invites the bridegroom with his friends to a Turkish bath,
+where they go to the accompaniment of music and singing. This part
+of the celebration is full of laughter and song, and is continued on
+the forenoon of the next day in the home of the bridegroom, when the
+barber comes to shave him in the presence of the guests and musicians,
+who sing and play as on the preceding evening at the bath. The occasion
+is one of importance for the barber, who brings all sorts of perfumes
+which are purchased by the guests and poured over the bridegroom;
+he receives not only a large fee for his service but also a double
+price for the scented extracts. The young man is then dressed up
+while the priest and choir children who have arrived sing canticles.
+
+In the meantime very similar festivities occur in the home of the
+bride, participated in by her young girl friends and relatives,
+except that they are not characterized by the same spirit of loud
+laughter and rejoicing. On the eve of the wedding the girls gather
+around her to sing melancholy songs, in considerable contrast with
+the gay, spirited music and singing taking place in the Turkish
+bath at the same time. Having shared the sadness, they place a rose
+leaf on the palm of each hand of the bride, which is covered with
+henneh, a green Persian powder made into paste, after which each
+hand is carefully bandaged up. So the poor sad girl must go to bed,
+to sleep if she can. On the next morning her friends again arrive
+to take the bandages off her hands, to dress her, and to sing and
+dance about her. Except for the print of the rose leaf, the henneh
+leaves the hands orange red, which is supposed to be beautiful. The
+songs and dancing are again of a decidedly melancholy tone. Her white
+dress, together with the coat of the bridegroom, must be blessed by
+the priest, a ceremony which the church functionary performs alone,
+both articles being sent to him early in the morning. Preliminary to
+the day's events, and before breakfast, both bride and bridegroom,
+being previously confessed, go separately to church, where they take
+communion. This done, the festivities described follow, bride and
+bridegroom are dressed, and all is in readiness for the ceremony
+which occurs in the late afternoon or evening.
+
+The bride must ride to church on horseback, and having arrived she
+is dismounted, and later remounted without touching her feet to the
+ground, which rather cumbersome performance is accomplished through
+the help of a brother or relative, who also rides the bride's steed
+while the ceremony takes place within, for the horse is not to
+be left riderless. The procession to the church is accompanied by
+musicians. Before the rail which separates the choir from the body
+of the church, two wooden chairs are placed, upon which the couple
+sit down while the people present kneel on the mats covering the
+floor. When the time comes for the blessing of the priest, the couple
+arise, step inside the choir space, and stand facing each other between
+the high altar and two witnesses, their foreheads touching. In this
+position they receive the sacrament of matrimony, answering in the
+affirmative the questions of the priest regarding their duties to
+each other and to their children. Of the bride is demanded perfect
+faithfulness to conjugal duties, entire obedience to the husband
+of whom care, patience, wisdom, and love are required. The priest,
+taking the right hand of the bride and placing it in the hand of
+the bridegroom, says, "According to the divine order God gave to our
+ancestors, I give thee now this wife in subjection. Wilt thou be her
+master?" "Through the help of God I will," answers the bridegroom. The
+priest then asks the woman, "Wilt thou be obedient to him?" to which
+is answered, "I am obedient according to the order of God." These
+questions are repeated and replied to thrice, in evident implicit
+belief that once would not be sufficient. Finally, the priest ties
+to each of their heads a cord and cross, which is again removed by
+him late at night in the home with special ceremony, and it is only
+after this performance that the couple may enter the nuptial chamber.
+
+After the ceremony at the church the procession starts back for the
+home of the bridegroom's father, the bride riding upon her horse,
+musician playing, and choir boys singing. The water-carriers, who
+have supplied drinking water, break their jars noisily before the
+bridegroom, drenching his marriage costume and giving rather an abrupt
+signal to the godfather whose business it is to tip them. Noisily
+the procession moves along the streets until it arrives at the
+gate of the house. In days past it was the custom at this point in
+the ceremony to place a sheep ready to be sacrificed at the feet
+of the young couple, the poorer people contenting themselves with
+chickens. The butcher put his knife to the neck of the sheep saying,
+"May God thus put all your enemies under your feet, Amen, Amen." Then
+pieces of coin mixed with raisins, pistachios, and other bits of nuts
+or dried fruits are showered over the people from the windows above,
+while the godfather leads the bridegroom within to the crowd of men,
+and the godmother leads the bride to the women, everybody trying
+to kiss the cross on their heads. The bride is then placed in the
+seat of honor and in her arms is laid first a little boy, and then a
+little girl, so that the first child may be a boy and if perchance
+the will of God be otherwise at least a girl. Each guest now comes
+to the bride to place at her feet a fruit in season. The bridegroom
+is called "the prince of the feast" and must never quit his seat of
+honor. If he does leave his chair he must place an object belonging
+to him upon his seat, and if he should at any time omit to do so,
+the assembly makes the godfather pay the necessary forfeit, which is
+usually a dinner. Towards nine, the guests take their leave, having
+eaten and sung to their uttermost desire. [172]
+
+Living in the home of her patriarchal father-in-law, the young
+wife is subject to the severest restraints. She must wear a lightly
+fitting veil enclosing her face below the eyes, without which she
+can not appear even in the house. [173] She wears a close fitting
+bodice fastened at the neck with silver clasps, full trousers of
+rose colored silk gathered in at the ankles by a filet of silver;
+her feet are bare, a silver girdle of curious workmanship loosely
+encircles her waist, and a long padded garment, open down the front,
+hangs from her shoulders. Not a single word must she utter to any
+member of the household, except when alone with her husband, and then
+only such as may be absolutely necessary, until she has given birth
+to her first child. Then she may speak to her nursling, after a while
+to her mother-in-law, later to her own mother, and by and by to the
+young girls of the household, but never in all her life may she have
+word with a young man not a relative. During her first year of married
+life, she may not go out of the house except for two visits to the
+church. Every morning and at the end of each meal she must pour water
+over the hands of her father- and mother-in-law, and for a certain
+time after marriage, when visitors come, she must kiss their hands,
+except of course, for men, before whom she may not even appear. [174]
+Apart from these troublesome restraints the young wife is treated
+with the utmost solicitude, and in some parts, even the peasant
+wife is not allowed to do outdoor work. In the mountain villages of
+Persian Armenia, however, the women do all the tilling in the fields,
+wearing their veils over their mouths as they work. [175] The author
+here quoted states that husbands never see the mouths of their wives,
+who not only must not speak during the first year of married life,
+or until a child is born, but also may not converse freely with their
+husbands until six years of married life have elapsed. [176]
+
+In such fashion the sanctity of the marriage relation is strictly
+guarded, and as one would suppose, illegitimate births are unknown in
+Armenia. Intermarriage among relations is forbidden, and until recent
+years, divorce has been unknown. [177] As for the taboo on speech,
+it is calculated not so much as an inducement to the production of
+offspring as to preserve harmonious relations between the various
+members of the patriarchal household. Even the patriarch with all
+his authority would find difficulty in preserving proper decorum of
+speech and manners in so heterogeneous a household, if every newly
+acquired daughter-in-law were given a free rein in the use of her
+tongue. As the neophyte is made to understand his position by a
+brutal initiation, so the young wife is kept from assuming command
+over the female household by the placing of a moral valuation upon
+the silence which alone is compatible with the essential modesty
+regarded as the first and chief of virtues among wives. In the
+household of the patriarch there is a great deal to be done in common,
+and unfortunately the occasion for mutual aid is not sufficient to
+bring about the desired coöperation. Hence singleness of command and
+authority is a necessary condition, not only of efficiency, but also
+of peace, for it can not be supposed that so many daughters-in-law
+would work together in harmony. It would be a mistake, therefore,
+to regard the customary silence as an inducement to child-bearing.
+
+Identifying itself with the common events of life, such as birth,
+marriage, and death, the church has not only given a religious meaning
+to these occasions but has also sanctioned and even encouraged the
+festivities that accompany them. These festivities have up to this
+point been occasions for rejoicing, with the single and significant
+exception of the melancholy singing of the bride's friends on the
+eve and day of her wedding. There is a perfect naturalness about
+all the merry-making and festivals so far considered, and this is
+no less characteristic of the funeral celebrations now to be taken
+up. The description of these will conclude my treatment of the last
+group of festivals, which are more properly festival-ceremonies,
+or ceremonies that have been made the occasion of festivity.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 4. FUNERAL
+
+The funerals, as one would naturally suppose, are more ceremonious,
+more ritualistic, and although there is now generally a minimum of
+festivity connected with them, this has not always been so. [178]
+When the condition of a sick person is beyond hope, the priest is
+notified and the person is given confession, communion, and extreme
+unction. After death the eyes and mouth are closed, the body washed and
+dressed up in the newest and cleanest clothes to be had, and the arms
+crossed on the breast. [179] Two candles are kept burning until the day
+of the funeral, one at the foot and one at the head of the coffin. Sad,
+wooden bells are sounded, and guests are invited to pay their last
+respects. Coffee is served to them, but without sugar, as a sign of
+grief. Mourning women are secured, who eulogize the departed and weep
+and lament until the priests begin their chanting. The corpse is now
+taken to the church in a special coffin which is covered with a black
+velvet cloth adorned with small white crosses, among the wealthy, but
+among the poor the body is wrapped in linen and laid in a simple bier,
+carried by relatives and friends. At the head of the procession, which
+marches very slowly and chants on the way, there are carried a great
+cross and two lighted torches, followed by the priests and then by
+the coffin. The passer-by must stop and cross himself many times. At
+the church the coffin is laid down, and if the relatives are wealthy
+each person in the church is provided with a small wax candle which
+is kept lighted during the service. While the ceremony proceeds the
+body is blessed with holy water and perfumed with incense, after which
+the procession re-forms to accompany the body to the cemetery. The
+chanting is kept up all the way. At the cemetery the body is lowered
+into its last resting-place, and the priest, after making the sign of
+the cross on the four corners of the grave, throws three shovelfuls
+of earth into it and three more on the coffin. The people imitate
+by throwing three handfuls of dust, and the ceremony completed, all
+return to the home of the deceased where they partake of steaming
+broth prepared by the neighbors and friends, and recite prayers for
+the soul of the dead. This latter practice, as said before, is a pagan
+survival, as is also the chanting of mass for the departed, which
+occurs three days later, at which time broth is again distributed,
+but this time to the poor as a sacrifice to the dead. The grave is
+blessed on the third day, again on the ninth, at the close of the
+third month, and for the last time, at the close of the year.
+
+The funeral of a priest is performed with much splendor. [180]
+The procession makes a circuit of all the churches, and stopping at
+different places, portions of the gospel are read. If the priest be
+of high rank, as an archbishop, or a bishop, he is carried in an open
+coffin and in a sitting posture, dressed up in official vestments, in
+which position he is interred in the courtyard of the church. Farmers
+send sheep to be killed and given to the poor as a sacrifice. The
+Greeks in Constantinople also carry their dead in an open coffin,
+but this is because a Greek official who was a refugee prisoner in
+Constantinople at the time of the war of the Turks with the Greeks,
+endeavored to get himself carried out of the country by feigning death
+and boxing himself up in a coffin. But the Turks discovered the ruse
+and it was enacted by the sultan that thereafter all Greeks must be
+carried to their graves in open coffins. The custom in respect to
+the Armenian bishops, however, has no connection with this.
+
+In some parts of Armenia, as for example in Erzerum, the snow lies
+so deep in winter-time that burial is well-nigh impossible. During
+spring-time, with the melting of the snow, coffins have been found
+perched up on tree tops. This was related by an Armenian boy I know
+of, who lived in the vicinity of Erzerum. Curious customs of the past
+have left their marks. In Tarsus, for example, there are Armenian
+graves ranged about a tree which is asserted to have been planted
+by St. Paul, each provided with a stone upon which has been carved a
+symbol of the deceased, for the merchant, a representation of weights
+and measures, for the blacksmith, an anvil and hammer, for the scribe,
+an inkstand and pen, and for the industrious housewife, a distaff
+and spindle. In the cemetery of Nakhitchevan is a large building
+in which the mourners have a great repast after the funeral, and in
+certain other graveyards, Dubois found innumerable pieces of broken
+pitchers and crockery, which were probably broken, as the custom is,
+to ward off the evil spirit of the dead.
+
+These four ceremonies complete the third and last group of festivals
+described. I have called them ceremonies because fundamentally that is
+what they are, but they are to be distinguished sharply from the many
+church ceremonies I have not so much as mentioned, by reason of their
+festival or social value which alone makes them proper subject-matter
+for this thesis. The relation between these ceremonies as revealed in
+the common procession, as well as in the religious ceremony necessary
+to each is due largely to the fact that they have to do with the
+most ordinary, and yet most extraordinary of life's events, birth,
+betrothal, marriage, and death.
+
+Reviewing them from the standpoint of their social or festival value,
+it is obvious that the marriage celebration easily takes first place,
+the betrothal festivities second, baptism and funeral third. There is
+the rather uncouth, perhaps, but none the less spontaneous gaiety of
+the friends of the bridegroom, not only on the eve of the wedding-day
+when they go to the bath, but also on the morning of the wedding-day
+when the unfortunate youth is assuredly cured of any addiction he
+might have to the use of perfumes. I should imagine that the music
+would begin to bore the young men by the time the barber arrives,
+since the musicians also accompany the rejoicing of the night before,
+and yet it may be said that there could be nothing more convenient
+or ingenious devised to carry over a lull in the merry-making, for
+after all, the young men could not well be singing, joking, laughing,
+and teasing all the time. In striking contrast is the melancholy
+rejoicing of the party of young women at the home of the bride. But
+where there is dancing and singing there can not well be weeping,
+although no doubt it is more natural for the bride to be thoughtful
+on her wedding-day, than for the bridegroom, for it is the former
+who leaves her home to spend the rest of her days in a very new,
+very strange, perhaps even unkindly world. There is still another
+reason for the melancholy, in that the girl must know she is bidding
+farewell forever to the delights and joys and freedom of childhood,
+for although to-day she may speak and sing and make merry, to-morrow
+morning she must be silent and prepared to pour water over the hands
+of her father- and mother-in-law. Henceforth it is for her to be
+submissive, obedient, docile, uncomplaining even at heart, for what
+use will it be to complain, and though her most cherished dreams
+may be of motherhood, does she not also have spirit, and why must
+it be broken? Is she then only a chattel to be sold into everlasting
+bondage? It is all too evident, even to the dullest of brides, that
+the happiness of childhood is forever past, and the brighter one can
+hardly fail to feel that she has been bartered for the bit of gold
+about her waist or neck.
+
+There is then the very highest of social value to be attributed to both
+of these festivities, and largely because in each group of people,
+the young men on one side, the young women on the other, there is
+perfect community of feeling, mutual understanding, and freedom
+of thought and expression. In comparison with these gatherings,
+the mixed assembly at the house of the bridegroom after the marriage
+ceremony is of little importance. The succession of events covering a
+period of nearly thirty-six hours, of which only a few, and perhaps
+none at all, are spent in sleep by the members of the bridal party,
+must certainly begin to have its effect by the time the little baby
+doll is placed in the lap of the bride.
+
+The betrothal party is always out for a good time, for they realize
+that the merry-making is to be an all-night affair. There is the
+procession with its candles lighting up the darkened streets, the music
+and singing filling all space, the humorous little artificialities in
+the house of the bride,--real enough, at least ceremoniously, from
+the standpoint of the family,--the syrup, the attempted stealing of
+utensils, the return procession, the singing, music, and dancing at
+the home of the young bridegroom-to-be, without stop until dawn. All
+of this makes a rather complete occasion, even for young people.
+
+Baptism and funeral rites come nearest being pure ceremonies. But
+even the baptismal rite has its procession to and from the church
+participated in by all the friends and relatives of the family, and
+though the event is an occasion neither for rejoicing nor for sorrow,
+it is important enough, occurring as it does but once in the lifetime
+of each individual. There are, to be sure, the social calls that follow
+the ceremony. But the event can not be said to have any attraction
+for the young; and if this is true of baptism, it is still more true
+of funerals. Nevertheless there is the distinct psychological value
+of each, calling up as they do various associations, as the baptism
+of this one, or the death of another one, and thus keeping alive
+the deepest experiences of life. If they are crude and offensive
+to more delicate tastes, it must be remembered that a belief is
+represented in the concrete fashion essential to the simple mind,
+a mode of representation necessary to the best of intellects even
+though on another plane.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+Such are the festivals treated in the second and last part of this
+thesis. Is it true that they form a vehicle of expression for the
+national sentiment created by the large mass of social material
+of which the legends of Part One are a considerable and important
+portion? Again it will be necessary to remind ourselves of the
+chief sentiments included within Armenian national sentiment, i.e.,
+the sentiment of loyalty to the church, the sentiment of reverence
+amounting almost to worship for the ancient glory of the nation,
+and the sentiment of love for the country. It would be ridiculous
+to suppose that every festival was designed to give expression to
+some one of these sentiments. But that these sentiments are given
+very clear, very real outward expression in the great majority of the
+celebrations described, should be so evident at this point as to make
+further exposition unnecessary. In the summer Festival of Vartavar,
+the spring Festival of Mihr, Vartan's Day, and in the consecration
+of the Katholikos there is the proud and reverent looking back to the
+times when Armenia was an independent nation; the festival ceremonies
+of the third group, baptism, betrothal, marriage, and funeral, though
+they are not positive expressions of the sentiments of loyalty to the
+church, are yet so completely interwoven with the church and dependent
+upon it that one is compelled to regard the feeling as something to be
+taken for granted, while in most of the festivals of the second group,
+Christmas, Easter, Maundy Thursday, and the Blessing of the Grapes
+especially, the sentiment is given a more positive expression. As for
+the sentiment of love for the country, that is identified especially
+with Vartavar and Vartan's Day. It is evident, therefore, that each
+of these festivals and festival-ceremonies forms a medium more or
+less evident as the case may be, for the expression of one or more or
+all of the sentiments that make up Armenian national sentiment. Some
+of them are not to be classified as readily as this, as for example,
+the festival of Ascension morning, or Fortune-Telling Day, in which
+the dominant sentiment is one of romantic love, or in the Blessing
+of the Water, where the desire for a gain in health or wealth is the
+main psychological fact.
+
+Each one of these festivals, however, is a great deal more than the
+putting into activity of some of the above sentiments. In many of them
+the play-instinct is clearly evident, while in a few such as Vartavar,
+the whole self, with all its sentiments, instincts, tendencies,
+and emotions, is given the fullest and most unrestrained freedom. A
+festival, if it is anything, is a letting loose of the reins;
+there is nothing to hinder, nothing to keep back, nothing to hide,
+nothing to fear, and the self reaches out in a higher consciousness of
+fullness and completeness of living. As such it would be the greatest
+of fallacies to suppose any one of the festivals to be restricted to
+a particular sentiment. Nevertheless, it is clear, that the festivals
+do constitute vehicles of expression for the sentiments that make up
+Armenian national sentiment.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS
+
+The general conclusions to which this study unmistakably gives rise are
+in respect to the national traits of the Armenian people. These traits
+have been brought out both explicitly and implicitly in connection with
+the various legends and festivals considered, and it is my purpose,
+therefore, to summarize and substantiate them at this point. They
+include, first, the superstitiousness, second, the conservatism,
+third, the self-sufficiency, and lastly the familism of the people.
+
+First of these qualities, superstitiousness, may be ascribed in large
+measure to geographical isolation. The country to be sure, is so
+situated as to form a highway from Europe to the Mesopotamian valley,
+and from Asiatic Russia to the Mediterranean, and although it has been
+overrun by Assyrians, Greeks, Parthians, Romans, Persians, Turks,
+Egyptians, and still others, yet we must speak of it as isolated,
+for the science that has brought remote countries into contact has
+not affected Armenia to any considerable degree. Subject to a backward
+nation, lacking all modern means of communication, the country is shut
+off and the plows of civilization have not yet furrowed the social
+soil of superstition. How general these superstitions are is brought
+out especially by the festivals described, many of which have given
+rise to a superstition or a group of superstitions. From Vartavar,
+there came the belief that the dust from the sacred altar served as a
+talisman for children learning their A B C's; the spring fire festival
+gave rise to the practice of taking home a glowing brand for good luck;
+there is the belief that the blessed water will cure various diseases,
+and that the oil scraped from the anointed foot with a walnut given by
+the priest after washing the feet at the ceremony of Maundy Thursday,
+will keep a supply of butter throughout the year. And then there are
+the beliefs in the miraculous power of the holy oil, manufactured with
+due ceremony every four years at Sis; in the healing power of the
+various sacred relics kept at Etchmiadzin and other places, and ten
+thousand others. There are also beliefs not of a religious character
+as the above, such as the one in regard to the tetagush, the little
+locust-eating bird, which is supposed to be attracted by Ararat spring
+water. The same superstition obtains in other parts of the country with
+the difference that the inconvenience of obtaining Ararat spring water
+makes it necessary for the people to believe in the peculiar efficacy
+of other springs. These illustrations are sufficient, and although it
+could hardly be proved that Armenians are more innately superstitious
+than the Anglo-Saxon ancestors who believed only a few generations
+ago in the power of the malignant eye, and that an innocent person
+might pass through fire unharmed, yet their superstitious nature and
+beliefs are present-day facts explained most completely on the ground
+of comparative isolation from the rest of the world.
+
+Second of the national characteristics of the people clearly
+brought out by this study is their conservatism. This may also be
+traced in large measure to their secluded condition, but in larger
+proportion is it due to the solidarity and national consciousness,
+which naturally consider innovations as foreign, and intrusions of
+foreign cultures, ideals, customs, and manners as hostile. That this
+is true is indicated conclusively by the fact that in Constantinople,
+where Armenian culture has naturally come in conflict with that of the
+Greek, the Turk, and the European, the Armenians have not at all given
+up their ways to imitate any of the three peoples mentioned. To be
+sure they have not adhered rigidly to the old beliefs and practices of
+the interior. Comparison has resulted in substitution, and conflict
+between the rational and irrational, the utile and the inutile,
+has meant displacement, but invariably by something distinctly
+different from the usages and practices current among Turk or
+European. That is, Armenians are themselves centers of imitation
+by fellow Armenians who, though they follow the lines suggested by
+their fellow countrymen, scorn to imitate even the European, whose
+superiority is generally recognized in Constantinople. The Armenian,
+recognizing no superior, has merely modified his own practices, usages,
+manners, and customs to suit his changed environment. And therefore
+I say that the characteristic Armenian conservatism is due rather to
+a strong feeling of nationality than to isolation.
+
+The conservatism of the church has been an important element. Refusing
+to have anything to do with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon,
+the church became independent and has maintained a policy of the most
+rigid ultra-conservatism ever since. Says Ormanian:
+
+
+    The Armenian church would have nothing to do with this transaction
+    (Chalcedon) which was prompted by a design that had no bearing
+    on theology. She remained firm in her original resolve, and ever
+    maintained an attitude of ultra-conservatism. She set herself
+    to resist every new dogmatic utterance said to emanate from
+    revelation, as well as every innovation which could in any way
+    pervert the primitive faith. [181]
+
+
+That this same spirit is reflected in the social life of the people
+is something one would naturally expect, in view of the important
+influence of the church over the entire life of the people. As the
+father of the Alan princess replied when requested to give the hand
+of his daughter to Artasches, "From whence shall brave Artasches give
+thousands upon thousands and ten thousands upon tens of thousands unto
+the Alans in return for the maiden?" so to-day the first question
+that is asked when the hand of a young Armenian girl is requested
+in marriage is "What can he give for his bride?" The practice of
+wife purchase has only changed in that the required riches are given
+to the bride instead of to the father of the bride. Occasionally a
+young man is pressed to the point of mortgaging property in order
+to obtain the necessary funds, and it has been known that in many
+such cases the young bride found her treasure gone shortly after
+her marriage, her master having taken it to pay off his mortgage. So
+parents arrange for the marriage of their children, the young wife is
+delivered up to her husband as the obedient and submissive servant,
+children are baptized after they have scarcely opened their eyes, and
+church ceremonies are conducted much as they have been for generations.
+
+The self-sufficiency of the Armenian people has been indicated in
+the repeated failures of missionary religions and foreign cultures to
+alter appreciably the native folkways and mores. In spite of political
+subordination to Islam, the Gregorian church has held tenaciously
+to its ideals and has successfully maintained its independence. The
+distinctive social tradition,--which includes the political and the
+religious traditions,--has remained intact in the face of recurrent
+invasion, vassalage, and persecution. The Armenian will not be
+assimilated. Death is preferable to the loss of those intangible
+realities that make the people a distinctive group. When Haic, the
+patriarchal progenitor of the race, was invited to "soften his hard
+pride," and to return to the kingdom of the god Bel, the alternative,
+war, was chosen. In the year 450, when the Persian fire-worshippers
+invited the Armenians to change their faith, the answer again
+was war. The reply to the decision of Chalcedon illustrates the
+same spirit. Likewise through the centuries of the immediate past
+the ever recurring answer to the Turk has been war. Powerless to
+assimilate the Armenian people, the Turk has had to annihilate or be
+annihilated. The self-sufficiency of the people thus reveals itself
+in the will to maintain the distinctive social tradition, regardless
+of cost or sacrifice.
+
+The characteristic familism reveals itself not only in the customs of
+family life, but also in the very nature of the Armenian. In Russian
+Armenia there is a very active propaganda carried on by Russian girls
+to secure Armenian husbands because of the domesticity of the latter,
+which is in striking contrast to the adventurous unfaithfulness of
+the Russian husband, whose house becomes his prison, from which
+he therefore flees, leaving his wife and children to shift for
+themselves. The discontented Russian may be a more attractive lover
+for his "Wanderlust" and restlessness, but he is a less attractive
+husband for the same reason. An Armenian husband belongs in his home,
+where he lives in the hope that some day he may be the father of
+a huge household of married sons and grandsons. A young Armenian I
+know spoke to me of his wish that some day his father might collect
+the scattered sons and unite them and their families in a single
+household. This desire is so general among Armenians as to make it
+evident that the family is the all-important social unit. No reputation
+is so great as that carried by a good family name, nor is there any
+so damning as that which goes with a bad family name. And why is the
+young bride kept silent for years if not to ensure the all-essential
+family-unity, family-solidarity, and family-continuity,--that is,
+continuity of family tradition, manners, and customs? And why is
+the "patria-potestas" well-nigh unlimited if not for precisely the
+same reason? Nor is the taboo upon the young bride, according to
+which she may not speak to any young man not a relative during her
+entire life of marriage, of no significance in this connection. It too
+precludes family disruption, or blemish on the family name. Divorce and
+infidelity are very rare, all family differences having no tribunal
+outside the patriarch, who considers his greatest misfortune to be a
+lack of family integrity or oneness. Thus a son who has been swayed
+by Protestantism dares not clash with his father, and has no choice
+but to run away, while a daughter whose wishes are contrary can
+be disobedient only at the cost of breaking the family connection,
+to prevent which she is usually ready to make any sacrifice. All of
+this is no accident. Forced to dwell within the circle of the family
+group for seven, eight, or nine months during the year without so much
+as opening his door, because of the severity of winter, the life of
+the patriarch is inevitably centered in his household, and therefore
+also the self of each member is merged into the larger unit. This
+familism throws additional light on some of the conclusions I have
+insisted upon, for nothing so fosters conservatism as a substantial
+family solidarity; what could be more instrumental in passing on the
+national sentiment, and finally, what could be more favorable to the
+development of the self-sufficiency, the independence of Armenian
+character? In speaking of "familism and the well-knit family" Ross
+says; "Worshippers of the spirit of the hearth, they are more aloof
+from their fellows, slower therefore to merge with them or be swept
+from their moorings by them. It seems to be communion by the fire-side
+rather than communion in the public resort that gives individuality
+long bracing roots. The withdrawn social self, although it lacks
+breadth, gains in depth, etc." [182]
+
+Any socially well-knit people possessing a distinctive social
+tradition, and characterized by a highly developed national
+consciousness, may make its contribution to the world's work, if
+it is given the necessary freedom. As the period of the Arsacidae
+kings brought forth the golden age of Armenian literature, so greater
+achievements may follow the political independence that is hoped for,
+and for which Armenians have valiantly struggled. Lord Bryce writes
+of the Armenian race, "It is the only one of the native races of
+Western Asia that is capable of restoring productive industry and
+assured prosperity to the now desolate region that was the earliest
+home of civilization." In the past, the energy of the people has
+been wasted in ceaseless conflict. Given a guarantee of territorial
+integrity, and participation in the affairs of government with the
+hope of future autonomy, the energies of strife will be diverted to
+the work of peace. Not until then can the high calling expressed in
+the words of Lord Bryce be realized.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+Abeghian, A. Der armenische Volksglaube. Leipzig. 1899.
+
+Agathange. Histoire du règne de Tiridate. In Langlois, Collection
+des historiens de l'Arménie.
+
+Anonymous. Easter service. Survey 36:167.
+
+---- Armenian folk-lore. Fraser's Magazine (n.s.) 13:283-97.
+
+Arnot, Robert. World's great classic series. Section on Armenian
+literature and folk-lore. New York. 1901.
+
+Bent, J. T. Travels amongst the Armenians. Contemporary Review 70:695.
+
+Blackwell, Alice, S. Preface to Seklemian's tales. New York. 1898.
+
+Boyadjian, Z. C. Armenian legends and poems. London. 1916.
+
+Brightman, F. E. Liturgies eastern and western. Oxford. 1896.
+
+Bryce, J. Transcaucasia and Ararat. London. 1896.
+
+Cesaresco, E. M. Folk-songs. London. 1886.
+
+Chikhachev, P. A. Reisen in Kleinasien und Armenien. Gotha. 1867.
+
+Clark, W. Armenian history. New Englander 22:507, 672.
+
+Conybeare, F. C. Armenian church. Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed.
+
+---- Armenian language and literature. Ibid.
+
+---- Key of truth. Oxford. 1898.
+
+---- Rituale Armenorum. Oxford. 1905.
+
+Curzon, Robert. Armenia. London. 1854.
+
+Dubois de Montpèreux. Voyages. Vols. 2, 3. Paris. 1839-43.
+
+Elisée Vartabed. Histoire de Vartan et de la guerre des Arméniens. In
+Langlois, Collection.
+
+Emin, M. Movses--Khorenatzi yev Hayotz Hin Veber. Tiflis. 1886.
+
+Faustus of Byzance. Bibliothèque historique. In Langlois, Collection.
+
+Fortescue, E. F. K. The Armenian church. London. 1872.
+
+Gelzer, H. Armenia. New Schaff Herzog Encyclopaedia.
+
+Gibbon, Ed. Decline and fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 3. New
+York. 1910.
+
+Hodgetts, E. A. B. Round about Armenia. London. 1896.
+
+Langlois, Victor. Collection des historiens de l'Arménie. Vols. 1,
+2. Paris. 1867-1869. Contains translations of various historians
+dating from 2nd century before Christ to 5th century after Christ.
+
+Lidgett, Elizabeth S. An ancient people. London. 1897.
+
+Lynch, H. F. B. Armenia. Vols. 1, 2. London. 1901.
+
+MacDougall, W. Social psychology. Boston. 1916.
+
+Mar Apas Catina. Histoire ancienne de l'Arménie. In Langlois,
+Collection.
+
+Mesrob, St. Maschtotz. Constantinople. No date given.
+
+Moise de Khorene. Histoire de l'Arménie. In Langlois, Collection.
+
+Ormanian, M. The Armenian church. London. 1912.
+
+Radloff, W. Volksliteratur türkischen Stämme. St. Petersburg. 1866.
+
+Raffi, A. Article on Armenia. In Boyadjian, Armenian legends and poems.
+
+Rockwell, W. Publications of Hakluyt Society. Series 2, IV, and other
+references under "Armenia."
+
+Ross, E. A. Social psychology. New York. 1917.
+
+St. Martin, J. Mémoire sur l'Arménie. Paris. 1818-1819.
+
+Seklemian, S. Golden maiden and other tales. New York. 1898.
+
+Stubbs, W. Lectures on mediæval kingdoms. Oxford. 1887.
+
+Tarde, G. Les lois sociales. Paris. 1898.
+
+Tavernier, J. B. Voyages en Turquie en Perse et aux
+Indes. Vol. 3. Utrecht. 1712.
+
+Terzian, P. Religious customs among Armenians. Catholic World 71:305,
+509.
+
+Trowbridge, T. C. Armenia and Armenians. New Englander 33:1.
+
+Ubicini, J. H. A. Letters on Turkey. London. 1856.
+
+Villari, Luigi. Fire and sword in the Caucasus. London. 1906.
+
+Wilson, C. W. Armenia. Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+[1] Detailed descriptions of geography and geology may be found
+in Lynch, Armenia; St. Martin, Mémoire sur l'Arménie, 2. Summary
+descriptions may be found in the New Schaff Herzog and Britannica
+encyclopedias.
+
+[2] Robert Curzon, Armenia.
+
+[3] Dubois de Montpèreux, Voyages 3:400.
+
+[4] There is a belief that the toneer is sacred. "Nur der alte T'onir,
+der offen Backofen, der von den Iraniern entlehnt ist und am fünften
+Jahrhundert schon gebraucht wird, gilt überall in Armenien als
+heilig." Abeghian, Der armenische Volksglaube p. 3.
+
+[5] Surrounded as Armenia was with almost all of the ancient
+civilizations, including the Parthians, Scythians, Medes, Assyrians,
+Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans, she was inevitably involved
+in continual warfare, while the central situation of the territory
+made it a common stamping ground for hostile armies. Langlois 1:ix.
+
+[6] Ormanian, The Church of Armenia pp. 151-54.
+
+[7] Mar Apas Catina. Langlois' Collection des Histoires de l'Arménie
+1:16.
+
+[8] St. Martin, Mémoire sur l'Arménie 1:281.
+
+[9] Mar Apas Catina. Langlois 1:15-18.
+
+Moses of Khorene. Langlois 3:63-64.
+
+[10] St. Martin 1:306.
+
+[11] Ibid. 1:282-3. Moses of Khorene 2:67-69.
+
+Mar Apas Catina 1:26-27.
+
+The first Arsacidae king of Armenia, Valarsace, whose reign began
+in 149 B.C. found the kingdom in general disorder and was the first
+to organize the country along national lines. As a Parthian he was
+unacquainted with the history and institutions of the people, and
+desiring to build upon the established foundation, such as it was,
+he sent a Syrian scholar, Mar Apas Catina by name, with a letter to
+his brother, Arsace, king of Persia, requesting the latter to allow the
+Syrian access to the royal archives with the view of finding a history
+of Armenia. Mar Apas Catina found an old MS containing a history
+of ancient Armenia which bore the name of no author, and which was
+translated from Chaldean to Greek by order of Alexander the Great. It
+was translated into Syriac by the Syrian scholar for the benefit of
+Valarsace, but the MS has been lost, and there is not the slightest
+trace of it anywhere. It must have been in existence however, during
+the fifth century after Christ for Moses of Khorene used it as his only
+source for Armenia's ancient history, in writing his general history
+of Armenia. The old MS being lost, the translation by Mar Apas Catina
+and the first part of the history of Moses are given as identical
+to each other in Langlois' collection of Armenian historians. The
+ancient history contains the legends of Haic, of Ara and Semiramis,
+and of Vahakn, some of the songs of heroes, still sung, and other
+matter which is strictly speaking not historical. As a history,
+therefore, it is unreliable and unauthentic, but from the standpoint
+of the social historian it is invaluable, for a belief is as important
+a fact to sociology as the dethronement of a king is to history.
+
+[12] Boyadjian, Armenian Legends and Poetry p. 33.
+
+[13] St. Martin 1:409.
+
+[14] Lynch 2:65.
+
+[15] Lynch, Armenia, chapter entitled "Van."
+
+[16] Raffi, article in Boyadjian's Armenian Legends and Poetry, p. 125.
+
+[17] Lynch, chapter on Van.
+
+[18] Moses of Khorene 2:69.
+
+[19] Ibid.
+
+[20] Lynch 2:65.
+
+[21] Moses of Khorene 2:68, 69.
+
+[22] St. Martin 1:285.
+
+[23] Raffi p. 129. Abeghian pp. 49, 50.
+
+[24] Moses of Khorene 2:76. Translation from Moses, Boyadjian p. 10.
+
+Mar Apas Catina 1:40.
+
+[25] Mar Apas Catina 1:41. Moses of Khorene p. 76.
+
+Moses of Khorene, called the Herodotus of Armenia, has written the best
+known history of the Armenian people. The work has been translated
+into Latin, Italian, French, German, and Russian. Moses lived in the
+fifth century, two centuries after the conversion of the nation to
+Christianity. He belonged to the second order of translators in the
+school of St. Sahag and St. Mesrob, and was sent to Syria, Egypt,
+Greece, and Rome in order to complete his studies. Upon returning to
+his country he found everything in disorder. St. Sahag and St. Mesrob
+were dead, the king had been overthrown, and he chose the life of
+solitude. Sometime later he was chosen bishop and requested by an
+Armenian prince, Sahag Bagratide, to write a history of his country,
+which task he took up with great enthusiasm. The translation of Mar
+Apas Catina was his only source for Armenian ancient history. He
+carefully differentiates hearsay from fact, never fails to stamp
+a fable or legend as such, and generally quotes his authorities
+where he has them. Considering the limitation of his materials, and
+the time in which he wrote, Moses wrote a really remarkable book,
+although the verdicts of a few critics have been unfavorable.
+
+[26] Raffi p. 129.
+
+[27] Lidgett, An Ancient People. St. Martin 1:409. Mar Apas Catina
+p. 41.
+
+[28] The influence of Greek culture is chiefly indicated by the fact
+that the pagan divinities were Greek and that many temples were erected
+to these gods and goddesses all over the country. (Agathange, Histoire
+du Règne de Tiridate. Langlois 1:164-70.) Secondly, there were formed
+by St. Sahag and St. Mesrob in the fifth century after the conversion
+of the nation to Christianity, schools of translators, who studied in
+Greece, Egypt, and Rome and whose chief works were translations from
+the Greek. With the conversion (301) came the necessity for a written
+language, the characters of which were invented by St. Mesrob in
+404. Thereupon were organized the schools of translators whose chief
+study of necessity was Greek, and whose translations and original
+works have given to the fifth century the title of "Golden Age of
+Armenian Literature." (Langlois 1:xxi-xxvi, 2:vii.)
+
+[29] St. Martin 1:288, 289. Mar Apas Catina 1:41.
+
+Moses of Khorene 2:81.
+
+[30] Ibid.
+
+[31] Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 3:393.
+
+Moses of Khorene 2:155.
+
+[32] Ibid. pp. 88, 89.
+
+[33] St. Martin 1:291. Moses of Khorene p. 88.
+
+[34] Raffi p. 126.
+
+[35] Langlois 1:ix, x. These songs of which Moses of Khorene very
+frequently speaks are classified by Langlois into songs of the first
+order, the second order, and the third order. The first are relative
+to the prowess of Armenian kings and gods; the second concern a long
+series of military exploits accomplished against the Assyrians, Medes,
+and Persians; the third refer especially to traditions in connection
+with the Assyrians. The birth-song of Vahakn is an illustration of
+the songs of the first order (p. x, xi). Flint in his History of the
+Philosophy of History, p. 42, speaks of this period of minstrelsy
+as necessarily preceding the use of letters everywhere. "The myth
+and legend interest primitive man more than real fact. His vision is
+more largely of the imagination than of the sense of judgment. It is
+an error to regard the rude minstrelsy which generally preceded the
+use of letters as essentially historical."
+
+[36] Countess Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, Essays in the Study of
+Folk-Songs, chapter on Armenia.
+
+[37] The battle of Avarair under the leadership of the celebrated
+Vartan, where Armenia defended her national ideals against the
+intrusion of Persia, is proof of this.
+
+[38] Ormanian p. 22. Moses of Khorene p. 158.
+
+[39] There are further proofs that may be cited. The history of English
+and French literature shows that the golden age of their literature
+followed a period of social integration along national lines. And
+it is true that the golden age of Armenian literature dawned with
+the closing decades of the Arsacidae dynasty, and continued several
+decades beyond. And finally, when Valarsace, the first Arsacidae,
+ascended the throne of Armenia, finding everything in a state of
+disorder, he organized the country along national lines. Dividing
+the kingdom into provinces he placed his governors at the heads
+of them; he organized a standing army, appointed guardians of the
+granaries, established courts of justice, a royal guard, and minutely
+regulated court life. What is most interesting is that he appointed two
+reporters, one to remind him in his anger, "le bien à faire," the other
+to remind him of the necessity for doing justice. Ibid. pp. 82-85.
+
+[40] St. Martin 1:300. Moses of Khorene pp. 105-6.
+
+[41] Ibid. p. 106.
+
+[42] Boyadjian p. 49. Moses of Khorene p. 106. Moses as translated by
+Langlois, relates the story as legend, for after telling the tale, and
+quoting the songs he writes, "Voici maintenant le fait dans toute sa
+verité comme le cuir rouge est trés-estimé chez les Alains, Artaschés
+donne beaucoup de peaux de cette couleur, et beaucoup d'or en dot,
+et il obtient la jeune princesse Satenig. C'est là la lanière de cuir
+rouge garnie d'anneaux d'or. Ainsi dans les noces, ils chantent des
+légendes, en disant,
+
+
+        'Une pluie d'or tombait
+        Au marriage d'Artaschés;
+        Les perles pleuvait
+        Aux noces de Satenig.'"
+
+
+Moses likewise relegates the legend and songs of Artavasd to their
+proper places.
+
+[43] Moses of Khorene p. 111.
+
+[44] Translation from Moses by Boyadjian p. 65.
+
+[45] Moses of Khorene p. 111.
+
+[46] Raffi p. 42.
+
+[47] St. Martin 1:appendix.
+
+[48] Ibid.
+
+[49] Clark, New Englander 22:507, 672. Raffi p. 127.
+
+[50] That trees are worshipped even to-day, and that certain
+superstitions are bound up with them is clearly shown by Abeghian. "In
+den Gegenden Armeniens, wo das Land mit Wäldern bedeckt ist, werden
+viele sehr alte und grosse Bäume für heilig gehalten und ähnlicher
+Weise wie die Quellen verehrt. Man brennt vor ihnen Lichter. Weihrauch,
+opfert ihnen Hähne und Hammel, küsst sie, kriecht durch ihren
+gespaltenen Stamm durch, oder lässt magere Kinder durch ihre Löcher
+schlüpfen, um die Einwirkung der bosen Geister aufzuheben. Man glaubt
+dass vom Himmel Lichter auf die heiligen Bäume kommen, oder Heilige
+sich auf denselben aufhalten. Auch die Bäume geben Gesundheit, einige
+heilen alle Krankheiten.... Um von Bäumen Heilung zu bekommen soll man
+ein Stück von seiner Kleidung abreissen und damit den Baum umwickeln
+oder es auf den Baum nageln. Man glaubt dadurch seine Krankheit auf
+den Baum zu übertragen." Abeghian pp. 58, 59.
+
+[51] Agathangelus p. 127. Emin, Recherches sur le Paganisme Arménien
+p. 9.
+
+[52] Raffi, article in Boyadjian's Armenian Legends and Poetry.
+
+[53] Tir is mentioned only once by Agathangelus (p. 164) and he is not
+mentioned by any other Armenian writers (Langlois 1:164). Emin compares
+him to the Greek Hermes or Mercury, probably because Agathangelus
+speaks of him as the recorder or reporter of Aramazd. (Emin p. 20,
+note 1.)
+
+[54] Abeghian p. 4.
+
+[55] He corresponds to the Persian Mithra and is hence of Persian
+origin and not Greek. The Greek translation of Agathangelus
+regards him as analogous to Vulcan, which Emin considers to be
+incorrect. (Agathangelus p. 168; Emin p. 20.)
+
+[56] Raffi, article in Boyadjian's Armenian Legends and Poetry.
+
+Seklemian's Tales. Preface by Blackwell.
+
+[57] "Und auch heute pflegt man stellenweise niederzuknieen und zu
+beten: 'O du göttliche strahlende Sonne! Dein Fuss ruhe auf meinem
+Antlitz! Bewahre meine Kinder.'" u. s. w. Abeghian p. 43.
+
+[58] Although the Greeks have identified Anahit with their goddess
+of chastity, Artemid, the Armenian goddess is not of Greek, but of
+Assyro-Babylonian origin according to Emin. Her name "Anahato" in
+ancient Persian means "Spotless." Agathangelus p. 126; Emin p. 10.
+
+[59] Agathangelus. Langlois 1:127.
+
+[60] Raffi p. 129.
+
+Both Nane and Astghik are mentioned by Agathangelus who speaks of the
+latter as the Aphrodite of the Greeks. (Agathangelus p. 173.) Emin
+likens Nane to Venus. The fact is that very little is known of
+either. (Agathangelus p. 168; Emin, p. 16.)
+
+[61] St. Martin 1:305, 306.
+
+[62] In the reigns of Artasches I and Tigranes II, many Greek
+statues were imported from abroad, and the latter king not only
+constructed temples for the worship of Greek divinities, but also
+ordered all to offer sacrifices and to worship newly acquired gods
+and goddesses. (Moses of Khorene pp. 86-88.)
+
+[63] St. Martin 1:295.
+
+[64] Moses of Khorene p. 95.
+
+[65] Moses of Khorene p. 96.
+
+[66] Ibid.
+
+[67] Ormanian p. 3.
+
+[68] There is another legend of St. Thaddeus, according to which
+he converted Abgar and his whole court to Christianity, curing the
+king of his disease at the same time. (Moses p. 97.) Abgar, who died
+shortly afterword, divided his kingdom between his son and nephew. The
+former at once resumed the pagan worship while the latter was forced
+to apostatize. But the preaching and martyrdom of St. Thaddeus at the
+hand of Sanatruk, the nephew, is recorded by Faustus of Byzantium,
+one of the most reliable of early Armenian historians. (Faustus of
+Byzantium. Langlois 1:210. See also Lynch, Armenia 1:278, and Moses
+of Khorene pp. 98-99.)
+
+[69] Lynch 1:286.
+
+[70] St. Martin pp. 302, 303.
+
+[71] Agathangelus. Langlois 1:115.
+
+[72] St. Martin p. 303.
+
+Agathangelus p. 122.
+
+[73] St. Martin p. 304. Agathangelus p. 121.
+
+[74] Agathangelus pp. 126-33.
+
+[75] Ibid. p. 135.
+
+[76] Lynch 1:256. Agathangelus p. 139.
+
+[77] Critics have distinguished Agathangelus, the historian,
+from Pseudo Agathangelus, the meddler, who evidently had religious
+interests at stake. The former lived in the fourth century, and was
+secretary to Tiridates, who unquestionably commissioned him to keep
+the records of the events of his reign. He is spoken of by Moses and
+other ancient historians as sincere and reliable. It is thus assumed
+that the original work has been destroyed or lost, and that the Greek
+and Armenian texts now existing are the work of an interpolater who
+desired to weave the straggling skeins of religious sentiment into
+a single garment by establishing an historic and literary sanction
+to the religious events of the period of the conversion. There are
+many indications of this, chief of which is the highly imaginative
+style of narrative, undoubtedly designed with the particular intent
+of capturing the minds of the people. (Langlois' introduction to
+Agathangelus 1:99-108.)
+
+[78] Langlois in his footnotes states that the chapel consecrated
+to St. Gaiane was constructed by the Katholikos Ezdras in the year
+630. and repaired in 1652. The church of St. Rhipsime was built by the
+Katholikos Gomidas in 618, and repaired in 1653. The main cathedral
+was built by St. Gregory. They are situated in Etchmiadzin. (Dubois
+3:213. Langlois 1:160, 162.)
+
+[79] Lynch 1:291, note.
+
+[80] Dubois 3:276.
+
+[81] Bryce pp. 314, 315.
+
+[82] Ormanian p. 13.
+
+[83] Dubois 3:276.
+
+[84] Ormanian p. 8.
+
+[85] Agathangelus pp. 164-66.
+
+[86] See Conybeare's translation and annotation of the Key of
+Truth, the book of the Paulicians (Adoptionists) of Thonrak. This
+book contains the baptismal and ordinal service of the Adoptionist
+church. (Especially pp. vi-xcxii.)
+
+[87] Conybeare p. xcvii. The original is given by Conybeare as follows:
+"Dic mihi," says Archelaus, "super quem Spiritus Sanctus sicut columba
+descendit. Quis est etiam qui baptizatur a Ioanne si perfectus erat,
+si Filius erat, si vertus erat, non poterat Spiritus ingredi; sicut
+nee regnum potest ingredi intra regnum."
+
+Lynch 1:279.
+
+[88] Ibid. 1:282.
+
+[89] Lynch 1:294.
+
+Agathangelus pp. 164-66.
+
+[90] St. Martin 1: appendix.
+
+Elisée Vartabed, Histoire de Vartan. Langlois 2:190-91.
+
+[91] Ibid. p. 195.
+
+[92] Lidgett, An Ancient People.
+
+The detailed events of this struggle against the Persians are
+told in the Histoire de Vartan et de la Guerre des Arméniens, by
+Elisée Vartabed who belonged to the second order of translators and
+served under General Vartan during the war, the history of which he
+narrates. After the sad ending of the series of dramatic incidents that
+made up this struggle for religious freedom, Elisée sought solitude
+and lived on herbs and roots in a mountainside cave which came to be
+known as the "cave of Elisée." Because of a growing social intimacy
+he was obliged to find a second cave in a more remote section of the
+country, where he completed his work and died. His history is written
+in the style of a religious mystic, is full of dramatic imagery,
+and has come down as an Armenian classic. (Langlois 2:179-82.)
+
+[93] Lynch 1:313.
+
+Ormanian p. 35.
+
+[94] Ibid. p. 36.
+
+[95] Genesis 8:4.
+
+[96] James Bryce, Transcaucasia and Ararat p. 210.
+
+St. Martin 1:264.
+
+[97] St. Martin 1:267-68.
+
+[98] Tavernier, Voyages 1:43.
+
+[99] Bryce, Transcaucasia and Ararat, chapter on Ararat.
+
+[100] Dubois 3:465.
+
+[101] Arghuri means "Il sema la vigne." St. Martin pp. 266, 267.
+
+[102] Dubois 3:465-68.
+
+[103] Bryce, chapter on Ararat.
+
+[104] Dubois 3:468.
+
+[105] Countess Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, chapter on Armenian
+folk-songs. Fraser's Magazine (n.s.) 13:283-97.
+
+[106] Fraser's Magazine (n.s.) 13:283-97.
+
+[107] Ormanian p. 224.
+
+Bertrand Bareilles, preface to the French edition of Ormanian p. xviii.
+
+[108] Ormanian p. 243.
+
+[109] Ibid. p. 177.
+
+[110] Ubicini, Letters on Turkey.
+
+Ormanian pp. 151, 152.
+
+[111] Ibid. p. 173.
+
+[112] Ibid. p. 141.
+
+[113] Ubicini, Letters on Turkey.
+
+[114] Ormanian p. 170.
+
+[115] Ibid.
+
+Ubicini, Letters on Turkey.
+
+Tavernier 1:498, 499.
+
+[116] Ormanian p. 152.
+
+[117] Ibid.
+
+[118] Lynch, chapter on Etchmiadzin.
+
+Dubois 3:362, 363.
+
+[119] See p. 30 of this thesis, note 32.
+
+[120] Ormanian p. 74.
+
+[121] Ibid.
+
+For the relation of the church to the Turkish and Russian Governments
+see Lynch 1:269, also Ubicini, Letters on Turkey.
+
+[122] That is, Pseudo Agathangelus.
+
+[123] Raffi p. 128.
+
+[124] Ibid.
+
+[125] Seklemian's Tales. Preface by Blackwell.
+
+[126] Abeghian pp. 72-74.
+
+[127] The 13th of February according to the old style calendar
+corresponds to the 26th of February of the Latin calender.
+
+[128] Abeghian p. 72.
+
+[129] Ibid. p 20.
+
+The remainder of the paragraph is a free translation of selected
+parts of pp. 20-22.
+
+[130] Abeghian p. 22.
+
+[131] Maschtotz, St. Mesrob. One third of the book is devoted to
+this purpose.
+
+[132] Ormanian p. 189.
+
+[133] Abeghian p. 23.
+
+[134] Ibid. This and preceding paragraph are a free translation from
+selected sentences of pp. 23 and 24.
+
+[135] Tavernier 1:507-9.
+
+[136] Elisée.
+
+[137] Lidgett, Ancient People.
+
+[138] Ibid.
+
+[139] Raffi p. 158.
+
+[140] Translated by Miss Boyadjian, Armenian Legends and Poetry.
+
+After the first and third lines of the charm song, the following line
+is sung, which I give in the German of Abeghian:
+
+
+    "Liebe Rose meine, liebe, liebe."
+
+
+and after the second and fourth lines:
+
+
+    "Liebe Blume meine, liebe, liebe." (Abeghian p. 65.)
+
+
+There are thousands of similarly constructed folk-songs treating
+a variety of subjects current among the people, many of which have
+been collected by an Armenian by the name of Tcheras, whose book,
+unfortunately, I have not been able to obtain. Miss Boyadjian has
+collected a few of them in her Armenian Legends and Poetry. However,
+I shall mention only such as are relevant to the festivals to be
+described.
+
+[141] Abeghian pp. 61-62.
+
+[142] World's Great Classic Series. Section on Armenian literature,
+with introduction by Robert Arnot. See David of Sassun pp. 57-79.
+
+[143] Abeghian p. 51, 52.
+
+Emin, Ancient Armenian Legends.
+
+[144] Abeghian p. 62.
+
+[145] These beliefs are analogous to those in connection with the
+bringing of healing water, or the water of perpetual life, the source
+of which is guarded by monsters, snakes, and scorpions. The hero steals
+cautiously to the source in order not to be observed by the watchmen,
+fills his vessel with water and hurries away, for the mountains and
+trees call out to warn the guardians of the source who awake and
+follow the hero. (Ibid. p. 63.)
+
+[146] This part of the festivities is also accompanied with song. In
+Astapet the following song is sung by way of introduction:
+
+
+    "Holt einen grossen Meister,
+    Lasset ihn den Hochzeitsrock meines geliebten zuschneiden
+    Die Sonne sei der Stoff
+    Der Mond diene als Futter.
+    Stellt aus Wolken die Einfassung her,
+    Wickelt aus dem Meer Seidengarn,
+    Befestigt die Sterne in einer Reihe als Knopfe,
+    Näht die ganze Liebe hinein." (Abeghian p. 64.)
+
+
+[147] Abeghian pp. 63-66.
+
+[148] Ormanian pp. 189-90.
+
+[149] For the ritual side of this festival, the church ceremony known
+as the Blessing of the Crops, or the Blessing of Harvest, and the
+prayers in connection therewith, F. C. Conybeare's Ritual Armenorum,
+and St. Mesrob's Maschtotz may be consulted. The social side I have
+gotten from my wife who has taken part in the festival several times.
+
+[150] A very common custom, especially in the interior villages of
+Armenia, is to give a lighted candle and an apple or orange in which
+small silver coins have been stuck, as gifts to the children. This
+is done by the eldest member of the family, usually the grandmother,
+at the time the younger ones come up to kiss her hand and receive
+her blessing.
+
+[151] For a description of the Easter and Christmas fasts, see
+Tavernier, Voyages 1:497-98.
+
+[152] The festivals of New Year's Day, Easter, and Christmas, I
+have described as related to me by my wife who has celebrated them
+in company with others in Constantinople. Such variations practiced
+in the interior of Armenia as I am aware of, I have indicated.
+
+[153] F. C. Conybeare, Ritual Armenorum pp. 213, 294.
+
+[154] Survey 36:167. Anonymous.
+
+[155] Tavernier, Voyages 1:496.
+
+[156] Dubois 3:441.
+
+[157] Ormanian p. 177.
+
+[158] F. C. Conybeare, Ritual Armenorum p. 224.
+
+[159] Brightman, Eastern Liturgies, chapter on Armenian Liturgy. For
+an interesting variation of this ceremony see Tavernier 1:502.
+
+Closely related to this ceremony is that of the blessing or purifying
+of a well. A well is not used until a priest has first blessed it,
+or if the water of a well becomes impure, it is necessary to purify it
+by the blessing of a priest. The latter takes a cross and a Bible and
+having requested the people to draw a pail of water which is thrown
+away, a second pail is drawn, over which the priest reads a psalm. The
+water is then blessed with the cross, incense is burned over the well,
+and the pail of water is emptied back. (Maschtotz.)
+
+[160] Lynch 1:203, 204.
+
+[161] Contemporary Review 70:695. J. T. Bent.
+
+Tavernier, 1:500, 501.
+
+[162] The people believe that the holy relic causes the mixture
+to boil.
+
+[163] Catholic World 11:301. Paul Terzian.
+
+[164] According to Maschtotz the devil is abjured and the Trinity
+invoked at the gate of the church. In the course of the ceremony
+the priest unclothes the babe and asks the godfather, "What seeks
+the child?" The godfather answers, "Faith, Hope, Love, and Baptism,
+to be cleansed from his sins and to be freed from the devils." The
+three immersions are symbolical of the three days of burial of
+Christ. (Maschtotz.)
+
+[165] In the description of baptism as witnessed by Tavernier, red
+and white threads were laid about the neck of the child at this point
+in the ceremony. They represent the blood and body of Christ and are
+probably believed to keep away the evil eye. Beads and various other
+charm tokens are commonly used for this purpose. (Tavernier 1:500.)
+
+[166] This is probably because evil spirits dwell in darkness, while
+the beneficent are light.
+
+[167] The similarity to the old Hebrew custom may be noted.
+
+[168] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:305.
+
+[169] Tavernier says that frequently two pregnant women who are on
+very friendly terms, will engage their future offspring, trusting to
+fortune that one will be a boy and the other a girl. (Tavernier 1:505.)
+
+[170] In fact when there is a variance of choice between parents
+and daughter it is common for the girl to regard the decision of her
+parents as being her fate. "Wenn eine junge Frau mit ihrer Heirat,
+die sie, nach dem Willen der Eltern geschlossen hat, unzufrieden ist,
+so singt sie:
+
+
+    'Was soll ich meinem Vater und meiner Mutter sagen?
+    Das war auf meine Stirn geschrieben.'" (Abeghian p. 54.)
+
+
+[171] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:305.
+
+[172] It is very evident that the expense of these festivities is a
+considerable item in the budget of the bridegroom's father. But it is
+a matter of social pride and respectability to live up to a certain
+standard of established usage. Accordingly many families involve
+themselves in life-long incumbrances, not only in the betrothal and
+marriage festivities but also in the ceremony of baptism, simply to
+come up to a recognized norm of expenditure. (Tavernier 1:504, 505.)
+
+[173] Cesaresco, chapter on Armenian folk-songs.
+
+[174] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:508.
+
+[175] Bent, Contemporary Review 70:701.
+
+[176] Tavernier states that in Persian Armenia a man frequently lives
+with his wife ten years without ever hearing her voice or seeing
+her face. Of course she does not sleep with her veil over her face,
+but she is always careful to blow out the candle before she removes
+the veil, as she is to rise before daybreak in order to put it on
+again. (Tavernier 1:507.)
+
+[177] Trowbridge, New Englander 33:1 ff.
+
+[178] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:509.
+
+[179] This statement is in contradiction to a previous statement that
+the body of the dead is merely wrapped in white cloth after it has
+been washed; (see page 60) the use of the white cloth is common among
+Gregorian Armenians.
+
+[180] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:509 ff.
+
+[181] Ormanian p. 36.
+
+[182] Ross, Social Psychology pp. 88-89.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Armenian Legends and Festivals, by 
+Louis A. Boettiger
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Armenian Legends and Festivals, by Louis A. Boettiger
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Armenian Legends and Festivals
+
+Author: Louis A. Boettiger
+
+Release Date: November 25, 2011 [EBook #38129]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMENIAN LEGENDS AND FESTIVALS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div class="front">
+<div class="div1 cover"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first"></p>
+<div class="figure xd20e117width"><img src="images/cover.jpg" alt=
+"Original Front Cover." width="445" height="720"></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="div1 titlepage"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first"></p>
+<div class="figure xd20e123width"><img src="images/titlepage.gif" alt=
+"Original Title Page." width="445" height="720"></div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="titlePage">
+<div class="docTitle">
+<div class="seriesTitle">Research Publications of the University of
+Minnesota</div>
+<div class="seriesTitle">Studies in the Social Sciences<br>
+Number 14</div>
+<div class="mainTitle">Armenian Legends and Festivals</div>
+</div>
+<div class="byline">By<br>
+<span class="docAuthor">Louis A. Boettiger, M.A.</span></div>
+<div class="docImprint">Price: 75 Cents<br>
+<i>Published by the University of Minnesota<br>
+Minneapolis, January, 1920</i></div>
+</div>
+<div class="div1 copyright"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first xd20e154"><span class="sc">Copyright 1920<br>
+by the<br>
+University of Minnesota</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="div1 preface"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="main">Preface</h2>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The author of the study which follows responded to the
+lure of his task for both theoretical and practical reasons. He seemed,
+because of his intimate personal relationship to Armenian life, to be
+peculiarly qualified to study and interpret a cross-section of that
+country&rsquo;s life. It is particularly urgent that we as Americans
+have authentic studies of Armenia and Armenian social life. Heretofore
+there has been a striking lack of such materials readily accessible in
+English. Because of the not inconsiderable immigration which reaches us
+from Armenia, and because also there has been a call for the United
+States to act as mandatory for this country under the peace treaty, we
+should penetrate more deeply into the Armenian heart than we have been
+able to do so far, if we are to carry through successfully our job
+either as assimilator or as friendly guardian. Moreover there is
+incumbent upon the United States in particular the duty of
+understanding a country like Armenia, since we have been foremost in
+proclaiming the doctrine of the rights of small nationalities. Those
+are the practical purposes from the standpoint of social politics which
+have given rise to and confer full warrant upon this study.</p>
+<p>Of no less importance, however, is the contribution which Mr.
+Boettiger&rsquo;s study makes to theoretical sociology. He has sketched
+out for us the picture of a refractory culture which refuses to
+amalgamate with or yield to or be permeated by rival cultures. The
+social history of this sturdy people offers us a very clear-cut example
+of what really makes a society or a nation. Not mountains, not
+dynasties, not blood, but common interests, common traditions, common
+beliefs; in short, mental community.</p>
+<p>The theoretical joins with the practical service of this study if it
+can strengthen our understanding that only as our own blood and that of
+our Armenian friends reach the place where they boil at the same
+temperature, or are cooled by the same application of reason, can we
+minister to each other or carry out the new partnership which may lie
+immediately ahead of us in the re&euml;stablishment of peace and the
+reorganization of world comity.</p>
+<p class="signed"><span class="sc">Arthur J. Todd</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="toc" class="div1 contents"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="main">Contents</h2>
+<table class="tocList">
+<tr>
+<td class="tocDivNum"></td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum"><span class="sc">Pages</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tocDivNum"></td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href=
+"#intro">Introduction</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">1&ndash;2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Part I.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#pt1">Legends</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Chapter I.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="4"><a href="#ch1.1">The geography of
+Armenia</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">5&ndash;8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Chapter II.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="4"><a href="#ch1.2">Ancient historical
+legends</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">9&ndash;23</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Section 1.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.2.1">The legend, of
+Haic</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">2.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.2.2">The legend of
+Ara and Semiramis</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">3.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.2.3">Historical
+background of the legend of Ara and Semiramis</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">4.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.2.4">The legend of
+Vahakn</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">14</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">5.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.2.5">The historic
+background of the legend of Vahakn</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">15</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">6.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.2.6">The period of
+national integration</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">17</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">7.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.2.7">Legends of
+Artasches and Artavasd</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">8.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href=
+"#ch1.2.8">Conclusions</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">22</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Chapter III.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="4"><a href="#ch1.3">Legends of the
+conversion to Christianity</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">24&ndash;38</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Section 1.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.3.1">Pre-Christian
+mythology and religion</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">24</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">2.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.3.2">Legends of
+Abgar, Thaddeus, and St. Bartholomew</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">27</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">3.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.3.3">Legends of
+Rhipsime and Gregory</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">29</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">4.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.3.4">The Armenian
+church as a social force</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">34</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Chapter IV.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="4"><a href="#ch1.4">Locality
+legends</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">39&ndash;44</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Section 1.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.4.1">Ararat</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">39</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">2.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch1.4.2">Khor-Virap and
+Erzerum</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">43</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Chapter V.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="4"><a href="#ch1.5">Interpretation and
+conclusions</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">45&ndash;48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Part II.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href="#pt2">Festivals</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Chapter I.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="4"><a href="#ch2.1">The Gregorian
+church</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">51&ndash;55</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Chapter II.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="4"><a href="#ch2.2">Pagan folk
+festivals</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">56&ndash;66</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Section 1.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch2.2.1">Vartavar and the
+Festival of Mihr</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">56</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">2.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch2.2.2">The Day of the
+Dead and Vartan&rsquo;s Day</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">58</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">3.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch2.2.3">Fortune-Telling
+Day</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">62</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Chapter III.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="4"><a href="#ch2.3">Christian folk
+festivals</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">67&ndash;78</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Section 1.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch2.3.1">Christmas,
+Easter, and New Year</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">67</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">2.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch2.3.2">Special church
+ceremonies</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">71</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Chapter IV.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="4"><a href="#ch2.4">Private festival
+occasions</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">79&ndash;90</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Section 1.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch2.4.1">Baptism</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">79</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">2.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href=
+"#ch2.4.2">Betrothal</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">80</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">3.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href=
+"#ch2.4.3">Marriage</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">83</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">4.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href="#ch2.4.4">Funeral</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">87</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum">Chapter V.</td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="4"><a href="#ch2.5">Summary</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">91&ndash;96</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tocDivNum"></td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="3"><a href=
+"#ch2.5.1">Conclusions</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">92</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tocDivNum"></td>
+<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"><a href=
+"#bibl">Bibliography</a></td>
+<td class="tocPageNum">99&ndash;100</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb1" href="#pb1" name=
+"pb1">1</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="intro" class="div1 introduction"><span class=
+"pagenum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="main">Introduction</h2>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The study which follows has a very definite objective
+apart from the mere gathering of materials, namely, to interpret as far
+as the subject-matter would permit, the social life of the Armenian
+people. The legends and festivals described have thus been selected
+from a larger mass of material with this principle in mind. I have,
+therefore, omitted such as seemed to me to be of little or no social
+value. Also, in full accordance with this plan, I have chosen to
+include certain church ceremonies which give rise to such festivals,
+and are of such social importance that I considered them an organic
+part of my subject. Otherwise I think I have kept within the strict
+confines as indicated by the title of this study.</p>
+<p>It must, therefore, be evident that neither Part One on legends, nor
+Part Two on festivals, is exhaustive, and this is necessarily so, not
+only because of my selective plan, but also because much of the work on
+this and kindred subjects has been done by the French, and is available
+only on the continent. All of the sources used are, however, original
+in two possible constructions of the term; that is, they are the works
+of Armenians who have lived for many years in their native land, or of
+foreigners, generally French or English, who have traveled through the
+country and gathered their material first hand. A large portion of this
+matter I have been able to check up and add to through my wife, an
+Armenian, who lived in Constantinople most of her life, and who is
+naturally versed in the folk-lore of her native land. While this has
+been the chief source of my interest, it is not the only one, for
+during my three years&rsquo; work in Beirut, Syria, I became acquainted
+with many Armenians.</p>
+<p>To describe a legend, or a festival, and to tag it Armenian, is
+about as purposeful and enlightening as to explain Plato&rsquo;s idea
+of social unity to a person who has no picture of Greek civilization. I
+have, therefore, found it necessary to fit these legends and festivals
+into the particular settings that seemed to me most natural. The
+legends that date from pagan times are meaningless apart from their
+historical background; the church legends and festivals are without
+value apart from their religious-historical setting, while such legends
+as those of Ararat require a description of the natural environment to
+which they belong. The conclusions and interpretation which this study
+gives rise to, as well as the manner in which I have organized and
+attempted to weave the material together into a unified fabric, are my
+own.</p>
+<p>Most of the books used have been supplied by the Case Memorial
+Library of Hartford Theological Seminary, and I owe the Reverend M. H.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb2" href="#pb2" name=
+"pb2">2</a>]</span>Ananikian of that institution my thanks for his
+gracious co&ouml;peration in suggesting materials and providing me with
+them. I am also deeply indebted to Professor J. W. Beach for his
+painstaking criticism and valuable suggestions, and for the corrections
+and suggestions offered by Professor W. S. Davis and Professor A. E.
+Jenks. To Professor A. J. Todd I am especially grateful, for it was
+under his direction and supervision that this study was carried
+out.</p>
+<p class="signed"><span class="sc">Louis A. Boettiger</span>
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb3" href="#pb3" name=
+"pb3">3</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="body">
+<div class="div0 part" id="pt1">
+<h2 class="label">Part One</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Legends</h2>
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb5" href="#pb5" name="pb5">5</a>]</span>
+<div id="ch1.1" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="label">Chapter I</h2>
+<h2 class="main">The Geography of Armenia</h2>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">Armenia is a huge plateau, a westward extension of the
+great Iranian highland, bounded by the Caucasus Mountains on the north,
+the Taurus Mountains and Kurdistan on the south, the Persian lowlands
+on the southeast, and the Black and Caspian seas. The average height of
+the plateau is 6,000 feet. As it ends abruptly at the Black Sea on one
+side, so on the other it breaks down in rugged terraces to the
+Mesopotamian lowlands; on the east it sinks gradually to the lower
+levels of Persia, and on the west to the plains of Asia Minor. The
+chief mountain ranges run from northeast to southwest, rising above the
+general level of the plateau to an altitude ranging from 8,000 to
+12,000 feet and culminating in Ararat, the lofty summit of which stands
+17,000 feet above sea level. Broad, elevated, and fertile valleys range
+themselves between the mountains, the main lines of which are
+determined by the four chief rivers of the country, the Tigris, the
+Euphrates, the Aras, and the Kur. All four rise in the plateau, the two
+former emptying into the Persian Gulf, and the latter two into the
+Caspian Sea. The Euphrates divides the country into what is known as
+great and little Armenia, or Armenia major and Armenia minor, Armenia
+major on the east and Armenia minor on the west. Although the valleys
+are generally broad expanses of arable land, grass covered and
+treeless, the gorges of the Euphrates and Tigris can not be surpassed
+in grandeur and wildness. The winters are long and severe, and the
+summers short, dry, and hot. In the city of Erzerum the range of
+temperature is from -22&deg; to 84&deg;, and snow is usually present in
+June.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e600src" href="#xd20e600" name=
+"xd20e600src">1</a></p>
+<p>In consequence of the long and severe winters the villages are built
+on gentle slopes of the hillsides in which the houses are excavated.
+Robert Curzon, who traveled through the country about 1850, has written
+the best description of them.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e611src" href=
+"#xd20e611" name="xd20e611src">2</a> A rectangular plot of ground about
+the size of an English acre is laid out and excavated to a depth of
+seven or eight feet at the back side, decreasing gradually with the
+slope of the hill to a depth of about two feet. After a careful
+leveling of the ground, trunks of straight trees are cut and arranged
+in rows for the support of the ceiling, which consists of cross-beams
+interspersed by a wooden frame-work upon which the removed soil is laid
+to a considerable thickness. The walls are made of stone. In entering
+the habitation at the lower slope of the hillside, one is obliged to
+descend three or four steps to the outer door, which <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb6" href="#pb6" name="pb6">6</a>]</span>opens to a
+passage six to ten feet in length, at the end of which is a second
+door, constructed of wood like the first. This door swings to through
+the operation of a curious wooden weight passed over a kind of pulley,
+in order to keep the outside cold from entering the inner chamber. The
+inside of the door is usually covered with a rough, red-dyed goatskin.
+Directly before the inner door is a wooden platform raised some two
+feet above the ground and known in Turkish as the
+&ldquo;Salamlik,&rdquo; the hall of reception of the head of the
+family. Chairs and tables it possesses none, only divans richly draped
+with Kurdish stuffs placed against the stone walls that bound the two
+sides of the platform. The floor is carpeted with tekeke, a kind of
+grey felt, and the walls are decorated with swords, knives, pistols,
+and other weapons. On the other two sides, the Salamlik is bounded by
+wooden rails to keep away the sheep and cattle which occupy the
+greatest proportion of floor space, and whose breathing helps
+materially to keep the chamber warm. The other members of the household
+are confined behind the stone wall where the space is sometimes split
+up into two or more chambers for the various families of the
+patriarchal household. One of these rooms is the common eating-room,
+and is provided with an open hearth, fireplace, and chimney which leans
+forward over the fireplace and draws up the smoke through a hole in the
+turf-covered roof. A great stone is placed over the chimney to keep
+children at play and grazing animals from falling through. In traveling
+through the country on horseback, particular care must be taken lest
+the horse step through an old chimney hole and break his leg. The
+windows are funnel shaped holes through the ceiling spanned with oiled
+paper.</p>
+<p>Such is the Armenian household in which the people live day and
+night during eight winter months of the year in the coldest section of
+the country, as Erzerum and Mush. That many of the evenings were passed
+in listening to the tales and gossip of a wandering minstrel, or to the
+legends and folk-beliefs of the grey-haired members of the family,
+there can be no doubt. That the national tradition was passed on in
+this manner from the aged to the younger, to be again passed on in
+their turn, is a matter of as much certainty as that part at least of
+this same tradition has been preserved through the continually
+recurring storms of the passing centuries. The recounting of national
+legends and folk-lore is a chief means of amusement even in the warmer
+sections of the country, where the climate makes a free community life
+possible. How much more place, then, must it have had in these colder
+sections where only the head of the family ever left the household in
+winter-time, and then only in case of absolute necessity.</p>
+<p>As has been suggested, this style of dwelling-place is not common to
+all parts of Armenia. In some places the houses are built entirely
+above ground, usually of stone, and sometimes, especially in the case
+of the poorer inhabitants, of mud. Though the winters are not so long
+or severe as in <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb7" href="#pb7" name=
+"pb7">7</a>]</span>the district of Erzerum, they are nevertheless
+sufficiently cold to require a fire six or seven months of the year.
+The characteristic feature of every living- and dining-room is the
+large &ldquo;toneer&rdquo; or circular fireplace dug out to a depth of
+three to four feet in the center of the room. Here the fire is built in
+the morning, usually with &ldquo;tezek,&rdquo; the most common variety
+of fuel which is a sun-baked mixture of straw and sheep or cow dung.
+The bread is baked and the meals are cooked in the &ldquo;toneer&rdquo;
+and when it is time to eat, the members sit about the open space,
+letting their feet hang over the fire to keep warm. In the hut
+described by Montp&egrave;reux, there was but a single opening in the
+roof which served for window and chimney at the same time, and which
+was often carefully sealed up with straw to keep out the cold.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e625src" href="#xd20e625" name="xd20e625src">3</a>
+This author has given a clear picture of the common family fireplace
+and sleeping chamber in which each person fell asleep as best he might
+upon rugs and skins, keeping as near the &ldquo;toneer&rdquo; as
+possible. And if the traditions, legends, and folk-lore that will make
+up the body of this thesis are the common possession of the people, as
+I have reason to believe them to be, in spite of drastic measures taken
+to suppress them, how better could they have been told and retold than
+while lounging about the &ldquo;toneer&rdquo; during long winter
+evenings before sleeping time?<a class="noteref" id="xd20e631src" href=
+"#xd20e631" name="xd20e631src">4</a></p>
+<p>In what other respects the natural environment of the people moulded
+the common life, one can only conjecture. That the cold winters and
+deep river valleys have tended to the formation of isolated
+communities, clannishness, and provincialism, as is contended by some
+writers, has not generally been true. Tidal waves of conquering
+civilizations have passed over the country too frequently to make such
+an influence possible.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e641src" href=
+"#xd20e641" name="xd20e641src">5</a> Furthermore the people are bound
+together by a national religion, whose chief officials are chosen by
+the lay members and priesthood of the many communities.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e644src" href="#xd20e644" name="xd20e644src">6</a>
+These representatives to the national religious assemblies return to
+their own people brimming with news and reports of political as well as
+religious and social matters. Such facts together with a common
+ancestry, a common tradition, and a common language have moulded a
+nation, and not a thousand differentiated groups among a people who
+were once a nation. They have tended to solidify and unify the national
+character, and it is just this process of solidification that gives
+significance to the whole fabric of beliefs, legends, and festivals of
+the people. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb8" href="#pb8" name=
+"pb8">8</a>]</span></p>
+<p>As a nation, the Armenian people are exclusive, but this is an
+entirely different matter. For three years I have had occasion to
+observe groups of students belonging to different nations, chiefly
+Egyptians, Syrians, Greeks, Jews, Persians, Turks, and Armenians, and
+the latter always showed a most persistent determination to confine
+their friendships and social intercourse to themselves. Perhaps this is
+due to the fact that nearly all of the nations above mentioned have at
+one time or another dominated the Armenians; perhaps it is due to the
+persecution they have recently suffered, which, though it has been a
+sufficiently important fact to result in serious social and
+psychological changes, has by no means been characteristic of the
+history of the people, as it has been, for example, of the Jews; or
+perhaps it is due to the solidarity and oneness of the people as a
+whole. I am inclined rather to the latter explanation, and may perhaps
+be able to prove it so.</p>
+<p>Nevertheless, the singularity of the physical environment has placed
+its irremovable stamp upon the people. The words that best describe the
+country are not trees, hills, forests, gently flowing streams, such
+words as commonly express American landscape, but rather, gorges,
+mountain ranges, broad river valleys, treeless expanses of country.
+There is space to make one think of other worlds and other shores, and
+there are mountains suggestive of strength, that rise majestic above
+the plateau, to fill one with awe and wonder. Religious the people are
+naturally, but more than that, they are thoughtful, reflecting,
+considering. No writer that I have read but has spoken of the Armenian
+as intellectually alert and capable. That this thoughtfulness, this
+robust element in their idealism is in part the stamp of physical
+nature, there can be little doubt. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb9"
+href="#pb9" name="pb9">9</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e600" href="#xd20e600src" name="xd20e600">1</a></span> Detailed
+descriptions of geography and geology may be found in Lynch,
+<i>Armenia</i>; St. Martin, <i lang="fr">M&eacute;moire sur
+l&rsquo;Arm&eacute;nie</i>, 2. Summary descriptions may be found in the
+New Schaff Herzog and Britannica encyclopedias.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e611" href="#xd20e611src" name="xd20e611">2</a></span> Robert
+Curzon, <i>Armenia</i>.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e625" href="#xd20e625src" name="xd20e625">3</a></span> Dubois de
+Montp&egrave;reux, <i lang="fr">Voyages</i> 3:400.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e631" href="#xd20e631src" name="xd20e631">4</a></span> There is a
+belief that the toneer is sacred. <span lang="de">&ldquo;Nur der alte
+T&rsquo;onir, der offen Backofen, der von den Iraniern entlehnt ist und
+am f&uuml;nften Jahrhundert schon gebraucht wird, gilt &uuml;berall in
+Armenien als heilig.&rdquo; Abeghian, <i>Der armenische
+Volksglaube</i></span> p. 3.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e641" href="#xd20e641src" name="xd20e641">5</a></span> Surrounded
+as Armenia was with almost all of the ancient civilizations, including
+the Parthians, Scythians, Medes, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians,
+Greeks, and Romans, she was inevitably involved in continual warfare,
+while the central situation of the territory made it a common stamping
+ground for hostile armies. Langlois 1:ix.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e644" href="#xd20e644src" name="xd20e644">6</a></span> Ormanian,
+<i>The Church of Armenia</i> pp. 151&ndash;54.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.2" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="label">Chapter II</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Ancient Historical Legends</h2>
+<div id="ch1.2.1" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 1. The Legend of Haic</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">Armenians do not call themselves Armenians nor their
+country Armenia. They are descendants of Haic, as the legend goes, who
+was the son of Togarmah, the son of Japhet, who was the son of Noah,
+and they call their country Haiasdan after the patriarchal progenitor
+of their people.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e666src" href="#xd20e666"
+name="xd20e666src">1</a> Haic dwelt in the plain of Shinar and was a
+prefect or director in the building of the tower of Babel. He was
+beautiful as a god and strong as a giant, mighty in battle and
+especially adept in spear throwing. In the days of his youth, Bel or
+Nimrod, who was the patron god of Babylon, established himself over all
+and wished to be worshipped. But Haic refused to obey, and taking his
+sons, who numbered about three hundred, his daughters, his sheep and
+cattle, he journeyed north until he came to the land of Ararat. Bel
+tried in vain to persuade his rival to come back.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;Thou hast departed and hast settled in a chill and frosty
+region,&rdquo; urged the Assyrian god. &ldquo;Soften thy hard pride,
+change thy coldness to geniality; be my subject and come and live a
+life of ease in my domain.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e674src"
+href="#xd20e674" name="xd20e674src">2</a></p>
+<p>But Haic refused the cordial invitation, which so much angered Bel
+that the latter brought his army to force the Armenian hero into
+submission. Haic, however, was victorious, for he slew Bel with an
+arrow from his own bow. The place where Bel was buried is called
+&ldquo;Kerezman,&rdquo; meaning grave, and is pointed out to this day.
+Armenians sing songs and tell stories of the great beauty and valor of
+Haic. He died at the age of four hundred in about 2028 B.C.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e682src" href="#xd20e682" name=
+"xd20e682src">3</a></p>
+<p>This oldest of Armenian legends, quaint and simple as it is in
+accounting for the beginnings of a people, savours of the Old Testament
+and is suggestive of the Assyrian invasion which took place about the
+ninth century before Christ. It is significant that the Armenians
+refused the protection of Bel, and that in the very beginning of their
+legendary history, they insisted on standing firm and maintaining their
+independence, for no single quality is more characteristic of this
+people than a proud, haughty, even at times disdainful independence. It
+is also suggestive that their patriarchal hero was no saint, but a
+mighty giant, beautiful as he was strong, whose greatest pride was in
+the throwing of a spear, for his descendants have not been a peaceful
+people. To be sure, they were the first nation to be converted to
+Christianity, which would say little for <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"pb10" href="#pb10" name="pb10">10</a>]</span>their firmness and
+independence, were it not that the priest with the cross was followed
+by a powerful king with a sword at the head of an army that had learned
+to fight as the Romans fought.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e692src" href=
+"#xd20e692" name="xd20e692src">4</a> The songs that were sung in memory
+and honor of Haic are seldom sung to-day unless it be in some remote
+village where the civilization of the Turk has not yet pressed, and
+there are few such villages if any. For many of them breathe of a
+national spirit not beseeming a subject nation, and have been
+suppressed for many years.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.2.2" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 2. The Legend of Ara and Semiramis</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">Dating back to the Assyrian invasion which took place
+during the seventh and eighth centuries before Christ, one of the
+oldest of Armenian legends, that of Semiramis, queen of Assyria, and
+Ara, king of Armenia, is told.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e700src" href=
+"#xd20e700" name="xd20e700src">5</a> Ara was very beautiful, and
+Semiramis having heard speech of his beauty for many years, wished to
+possess him. But she dared do nothing for fear of Ninus, protector over
+Armenia. After the death of Ninus, however, the queen sent messengers
+to Ara, with gifts and offerings, with prayers and promises of riches,
+begging him to come to her at Nineveh and either wed her and reign over
+all that Ninus had possessed, or <span class="corr" id="xd20e710"
+title="Source: fulfil">fulfill</span> her desire and return in peace to
+Armenia with many gifts. But when the messengers had been turned away
+repeatedly, Semiramis became angry, and taking her army she hastened to
+Armenia. The battle was fought on the plain of Ara, called after him
+Ararat; and although the queen had given careful orders to her generals
+to devise some means of saving the life of Ara, the Armenian king was
+slain. She found the dead body among the others that had fallen, and
+ordered her servants to place it in an upper chamber in her castle. And
+when the Armenian army again arose to drive away the foe and avenge the
+death of Ara, the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb11" href="#pb11"
+name="pb11">11</a>]</span>queen said, &ldquo;I have commanded the gods
+to lick his wounds and he shall live again.&rdquo; She tried to bring
+Ara back to life by witchcraft and charms, but the body began to decay
+and she commanded her servants to cast the corpse into a deep pit and
+to cover it. And having dressed up one of her men in secret, she caused
+the following proclamation to be spread among the people: &ldquo;The
+gods have licked Ara and have brought him back to life again, thus
+fulfilling our prayers and our pleasures. Therefore from this time
+forth shall they be the more glorified and worshipped by us, for they
+are the givers of joy and the fulfillers of desire.&rdquo; And she
+erected a statue to the gods, making it seem as though they had brought
+Ara back to life again. This news was spread over all the country of
+Armenia, and having satisfied the people, she put an end to the
+fighting. The twelve-year-old son of the king was taken by the Assyrian
+queen and appointed ruler over Armenia. She called him Ara, in memory
+of her love for Ara the Beautiful.</p>
+<p>To Semiramis is attributed the building of the ancient city of Van
+on the shores of the beautiful lake of Van, where she made her summer
+residence until the time of her departure.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e717src" href="#xd20e717" name="xd20e717src">6</a> She might well
+have lingered there, for the Armenians have a proverb, &ldquo;Van in
+this world, paradise in the next.&rdquo; Nevertheless, Semiramis and
+Ara are mythical characters, although the latter is spoken of in the
+history of St. Martin as having lived along about 1769 B.C.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e723src" href="#xd20e723" name="xd20e723src">7</a> As
+regards the popular belief in the legend, however, there is not the
+slightest doubt. This is proved by the fact that even to-day the city
+is called &ldquo;Sham-iram-agerd&rdquo; by the Armenians, meaning the
+city of Semiramis. Lynch says that Ara and Semiramis are Tannuz and
+Istar, the Adonis and the Aphrodite of the Hellenic myth, and that the
+quest of the Assyrian queen may be connected with the introduction into
+Armenia of the worship of Istar whose name is mentioned in one of the
+cuneiform inscriptions at Van.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e726src" href=
+"#xd20e726" name="xd20e726src">8</a> However, the results of modern
+scholarship are by no means conclusive on this point, as we shall
+see.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.2.3" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 3. Historical Background of the Legend of Ara
+and Semiramis</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">Moses&rsquo; history was read by St. Martin who became
+exceedingly interested in Van, and in the cuneiform inscriptions spoken
+of. It was due to him that the French government dispatched a mission
+to Armenia in 1827, under the direction of a young German Professor,
+Friedrich Edward Schulz. Schulz was murdered by the Kurds, a thing
+which rarely happens in Armenia, and his work was left incomplete. He
+had succeeded, however, in making copies of forty-two inscriptions,
+which were published <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb12" href="#pb12"
+name="pb12">12</a>]</span>in 1840, and proved to be remarkably
+accurate. Shortly afterward, orientalists made great discoveries in the
+Mesopotamian valley, but the inscriptions at Van did not tally with any
+syllabaries discovered up to that time, nor could they be translated in
+any known language. A number of them were found to be Assyrian, but the
+great majority were peculiar to Van, and entirely baffled the students.
+Not until 1880 were they finally unravelled. M. S. Guyard discovered at
+that time that the concluding phrase of many Vannic texts represented
+an imprecatory formula found in exactly the same place in Assyrian
+counterparts. This discovery enabled Professor Sayce, of Oxford, to
+decipher the inscriptions at a rapid rate.</p>
+<p>Among the important facts discovered were that the nation was a
+rival nation of Assyria, and that its people were called Khaldeans, or
+children of Khaldis, much in the same way as the Assyrians reflected
+the name of their god, Assur. The country was a theocracy and Khaldis
+was supreme. In the tablets, his wrath was invoked against whomever
+should destroy them. The capital city was Dhuspus, modern Van, which is
+the Disp, or Tsp of Armenian writers, and the Turuspa of Assyrian
+annals. The Assyrians styled the kingdom Urardhu, or Urarthu, which is
+the name appearing in the Bible in the familiar form Ararat.</p>
+<p>The earliest inscriptions date back to the ninth century before
+Christ, and as the language is neither Semitic nor Indo-European, the
+people could neither have been Assyrians whose language was Semitic,
+nor Armenians, whose language is Indo-European. The first mention made
+of Urardhu was in the reign of Ashur-Nazir-Pal (885&ndash;860 B.C.)
+whose successor, Shalmanasar II (860&ndash;825 B.C.) was the first
+Assyrian king to invade Armenia.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e740src"
+href="#xd20e740" name="xd20e740src">9</a> Raffi, however, (the son of
+the famous Armenian poet) speaks of an account given by
+Assur-Nazir-Haban (1882&ndash;1857 B.C.) of one of his victories.
+&ldquo;They&rdquo; (i.e., the people of Ararat or Urarthu), he said,
+&ldquo;fled to the impregnable mountains so that I might not be able to
+get at them, for the mighty summits were like drawn swords pointing to
+the skies. Only the birds of heaven soaring on their wings could reach
+them. In three days I was there spreading terror in places where they
+had taken refuge. Their corpses like autumn leaves filled the clefts.
+The rest escaped to distant inaccessible heights.&rdquo;<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e746src" href="#xd20e746" name="xd20e746src">10</a>
+This, clearly, is a much older record than any that Lynch found trace
+of, and although Raffi cites no authority for the quotation, I presume
+that it has been taken from a recent discovery. If this be true the
+Khaldeans were a very ancient people. One of the tablets shows that
+King Memas was the principal author of the magnificent canal which
+conducts the water of the river <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb13"
+href="#pb13" name="pb13">13</a>]</span>Khoshab to the suburbs of Van,
+and which is to-day called &ldquo;Shamiram-Su&rdquo; or river of
+Semiramis.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e756src" href="#xd20e756" name=
+"xd20e756src">11</a> The line of Vannic kings is traceable as far down
+as 644 B.C.</p>
+<p>Most of these inscriptions are to be found on a huge isolated rock,
+situated in the curve of the bay, and known as the &ldquo;rock of
+Van.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e761src" href="#xd20e761" name=
+"xd20e761src">12</a> Among them are inscriptions left by Xerxes (485
+B.C.), the Persian conqueror whose father&rsquo;s empire (Darius,
+521&ndash;486 B.C.) succeeded the loose Scythian rule.</p>
+<p>But the ancient Khaldean kingdom had already vanished when
+Xerxes&rsquo; victorious army overran the country, for shortly after
+the great influx of Scythians and the break-up of Assyria, came another
+horde from the west, perhaps to fill up the void left by the Scythian
+ravages. It is at this time that the Armenian people are first heard
+from, and it is this horde, therefore, that is regarded as the
+foundation stock of the Armenian people. They seem to have been an
+Indo-European people residing in the territory north of the Black Sea,
+for, coming from the west they must have entered Asia from Europe by
+crossing the straits. The ancient Khaldeans were assimilated to some
+extent, but for the most part, they were driven to the north and south,
+where they have left traces that have been recognized and recorded by
+Xenophon and Herodotus.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e766src" href=
+"#xd20e766" name="xd20e766src">13</a></p>
+<p>That the civilization and culture of the ancient Khaldeans were
+utilized is beyond doubt. Their most ancient cities, Van, Armavir, were
+foundations of Vannic kings, while recently it has been disclosed that
+the city of Hajk, southeast of Van, shows some of the familiar features
+of a Khaldean settlement. But their supreme god during the
+pre-Christian era was not Khaldis, but the Persian Ormuzd, which
+indicates that the Persians exercised an even greater influence.</p>
+<p>How then could Semiramis ever have come to Van in quest of an
+Armenian king, since it seems that the Scythians had already conquered
+Assyria before the great influx of Armenian hordes? Nor does it seem
+that the city of Van was built by the Assyrian queen, for the
+inscriptions make no mention of her name. King Memas who, in the view
+of Lynch, constructed the famous canal, was in all probability the
+author of the garden city. The belief, according to Lynch, as already
+stated, is that this legend is the Armenian version of the old Hellenic
+myth of Aphrodite and Adonis, taken over during the domination of the
+Seleucid dynasty which followed the conquest of Alexander about 325
+B.C.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e774src" href="#xd20e774" name=
+"xd20e774src">14</a></p>
+<p>But this is unreasonable. That a myth should be taken over by a
+subject people and the characters rechristened is not difficult to
+understand, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb14" href="#pb14" name=
+"pb14">14</a>]</span>but that the name of one of them should be applied
+to the ancient city is very improbable to say the least. Furthermore,
+the legend is flavored rather strongly with Persian voluptuousness, and
+is not at all suggestive of Greek delicacy and refinement. Nor is the
+fact that the horde overran the country after the destruction of
+Assyria in any way conclusive, for if there were any assimilation at
+all, as there must unquestionably have been, the Khaldean culture and
+history was to that extent the actual possession of the Armenians. Even
+intermarriage would perhaps be unnecessary, for what Irishman who has
+been in the United States two months does not speak of Benjamin
+Franklin and George Washington as his forefathers? It is to be noted
+also that to this day the canal spoken of is called
+&ldquo;Shamiram-Su&rdquo; or river of Semiramis, by all
+Armenians.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e781src" href="#xd20e781" name=
+"xd20e781src">15</a> On the whole it seems to me conclusive, therefore,
+that the legend of Semiramis and Ara has its roots in Armenian history,
+and is not at all a version of the Hellenic myth.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.2.4" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 4. The Legend of Vahakn</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The legend of Vahakn, king and god of Armenians, is
+very clearly attributable to the Greek period, which followed the
+Persian conquest under Xerxes. Vahakn was deified because of his great
+valor and made the fire-god of the Armenian people.<a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e789src" href="#xd20e789" name="xd20e789src">16</a> He was
+called &ldquo;Vishapakagh,&rdquo; uprooter of dragons, since he cleared
+Armenia of monsters and saved it from evil influences. His exploits
+were known in the abode of the gods as well as in Armenia. The most
+famous of them was the theft of corn from the barns of King Barsham of
+Assyria, from whom he ran away and tried to hide in heaven. Because of
+the ears he dropped in his rapid flight, there arose the Milky Way
+which is called in Armenian the &ldquo;track of the corn
+stealer.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e792src" href="#xd20e792"
+name="xd20e792src">17</a></p>
+<p>Moses of Khorene writes as follows:</p>
+<div class="blockquote">
+<p class="first">Concerning the birth of this king the legends say,</p>
+<div class="q">
+<div class="body">
+<div class="lgouter">
+<p class="line hangqq">&ldquo;Heaven and earth were in travail,</p>
+<p class="line">And the crimson waters were in travail,</p>
+<p class="line">And in the water, the crimson reed</p>
+<p class="line">Was also in travail.</p>
+<p class="line">From the mouth of the reed issued smoke,</p>
+<p class="line">From the mouth of the reed issued flame,</p>
+<p class="line">And out of the flame sprang the young child,</p>
+<p class="line">His hair was of fire, a beard had he of flame,</p>
+<p class="line">And his eyes were suns.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e822src" href="#xd20e822" name="xd20e822src">18</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb15" href="#pb15" name=
+"pb15">15</a>]</span></p>
+<p>With our own ears did we hear these words sung to the accompaniment
+of the harp. They sing moreover that he did fight with the dragons, and
+overcame them; and some say that his valiant deeds were like unto
+Hercules. Others declare that he was a god, and that a great image of
+him stood in the land of Georgia, where it was worshipped, with
+sacrifices.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e832src" href="#xd20e832" name=
+"xd20e832src">19</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>The wife of Vahakn was Astghik, the goddess of beauty, a
+personification of the moon, corresponding to the Phoenician and
+Sidonian Astarte. This is suggestive of Greek influence, for Venus, the
+Greek goddess of beauty, was also the wife of a fire-god,
+Vulcan.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e840src" href="#xd20e840" name=
+"xd20e840src">20</a></p>
+<p>The flight of Vahakn before the Assyrian king is certainly more
+suggestive of the fear in which the Assyrians must have been regarded
+than of the valor of their god. The originators of the legend were good
+psychologists, however, in regarding the instincts of fear and of
+pugnacity as compatible. For even the slayer of demons must some day
+face his superiors in strength, and when he does, will he not be
+afraid? In fact he would be more afraid than another, for he could not
+well impute more mercy to his superior than he himself had shown to his
+inferiors.</p>
+<p>The vein of humor is too rich to be left unnoted. If the Greeks
+could laugh at their gods, and even mock them, the Armenians could also
+make sport of them. For what could be more delightfully humorous than
+the picture of a bearded god, a slayer of dragons, whose hair was of
+flame and whose eyes like suns, stealing corn from the Assyrian king
+and dropping the ears from his shoulders in his hasty flight across
+heaven? The character thus brought out, together with the richness of
+imaginative quality, especially in the song of his birth, the wholesome
+and unveiled anthropomorphism (wholesome because it is unveiled), and
+the correspondence between the Greek fire-god Vulcan whose wife was
+Venus, the goddess of beauty, with the fire-god Vahakn whose wife
+Astghik was also goddess of beauty, stamp the legend with its
+unmistakable origin in Greek mythology.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.2.5" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 5. The Historic Background of the Legend of
+Vahakn</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The Greek period from which this legend dates began
+with the defeat of the Armenian king Vahy, who was overcome by
+Alexander the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb16" href="#pb16" name=
+"pb16">16</a>]</span>Great somewhere about 328 B.C.<a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e854src" href="#xd20e854" name="xd20e854src">21</a> The Greeks
+chose their own representative to rule over the province, who at the
+time of Alexander&rsquo;s death was Seleucus. Historians have taken the
+name of this governor to indicate the dynasty of Greek supremacy which
+followed; i.e., the Seleucid dynasty. This method of the Greeks of
+selecting their own man to govern a subject people, which was of course
+in pursuance of their policy of superimposing their own culture upon
+all subject nations, was contrary to the policy of the Parthians,
+Romans, and Persians, who allowed the Armenians to maintain their
+national independence provided they permitted the use of their armies
+and duly paid their taxes. And it is this policy of the Greeks that
+accounts for the fact that large portions of Greek mythology and
+religion were taken over by the Armenians.</p>
+<p>Although the period of political supremacy was short-lived, the
+influence of Greek culture continued to permeate the social life of the
+people through the reign of the Arsacid kings.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e862src" href="#xd20e862" name="xd20e862src">22</a> In 246 B.C.
+Arsaces, a Parthian, made himself master of the Parthians, Persians,
+Medes, Babylonians, and lastly Armenians.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e868src" href="#xd20e868" name="xd20e868src">23</a> His grandson,
+Arsaces the Great, conquered as far as India, and after seating himself
+securely upon the throne of Persia, placed his brother Valarsace upon
+the Armenian throne, so founding the Persian and Armenian Arsacid
+dynasties (150 B.C.).<a class="noteref" id="xd20e874src" href=
+"#xd20e874" name="xd20e874src">24</a> The Persian Arsacidae became
+extinct in A.D. 226 when they were overthrown by the Persian Sasanidae,
+whereas the Armenian Arsacidae line continued up until A.D. 428, when
+the Armenian kingdom was divided between Persia and Rome by Shapuh, the
+Persian monarch, and Theodosius II.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e878src"
+href="#xd20e878" name="xd20e878src">25</a> This makes a period of 578
+years (150 B.C.-A.D. 428) during which Armenia was governed by her own
+line of kings, and enjoyed the liberties of national independence. To
+be sure after the conquest of Lucullus and Pompey (66 B.C.) Armenia
+became tributary to Rome, but the right of succession remained with the
+Armenian royal family, even during Roman supremacy, so that the
+national life was in no manner interfered with.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e887src" href="#xd20e887" name="xd20e887src">26</a> <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb17" href="#pb17" name="pb17">17</a>]</span>The
+greatest Armenian king of the Arsacidae line was Tigranes the Great,
+who extended his domains by conquest and established himself in his
+capital, Tigranacerta, with a court of matchless splendor.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e895src" href="#xd20e895" name="xd20e895src">27</a>
+He is spoken of by historians as a king of kings, and as having ruled
+with a pomp, splendor, and pride never before known. Defeated by Pompey
+within the walls of his own capital city, his kingdom became tributary
+to Rome.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.2.6" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 6. The Period of National Integration</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The continuity of the period of the Armenian Arsacidae
+makes it the time when the process of national solidification and
+unification was carried out to the point that made Armenia a nation,
+and beyond this point. Raffi asserts that the introduction of Greek
+culture during the Arsacid dynasty not only changed the religion of
+Armenians, but also so affected their language and customs that they
+became different from the Persians, which is proof that a process of
+social readjustment was going on.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e903src"
+href="#xd20e903" name="xd20e903src">28</a> It was during this period
+that the wandering minstrels spoken of by Langlois journeyed from one
+end of the nation to the other, singing their songs, repeating the
+national legends, relating the news of the world and the court gossip
+which probably made up the largest portion of it.</p>
+<div lang="fr" class="blockquote">
+<p class="first">Les chants de l&rsquo;antique Arm&eacute;nie
+rappellent principalement des &eacute;v&eacute;nements la plupart
+h&eacute;roiques et l&eacute;gendaires, accomplis &agrave; des
+&eacute;poques tr&egrave;s diff&eacute;rentes, ce qui donne &agrave;
+penser qu&rsquo;ils ont d&ucirc; &ecirc;tre compos&eacute;s &agrave;
+diverses reprises, par des rhapsodes dont les noms ne nous sont point
+parvenus. Les sujets trait&eacute;s dans ces chants demontrent
+clairement qu&rsquo;ils n&rsquo;ont &eacute;t&eacute; inspir&eacute;s
+ni &agrave; des pr&ecirc;tres pa&iuml;ens, ni &agrave; des
+po&egrave;tes qui auraient v&eacute;cu sous leur influence, en vue
+d&rsquo;&ecirc;tre recit&eacute;s dans des f&ecirc;tes religieuses ou
+en face des autels. Au contraire, on reconnait de prime abord que ces
+chants sont l&rsquo;oeuvre de bardes nationaux, ayant un libre acces
+dans les palais des souverains et &agrave; la cour des satrapes.
+C&rsquo;est ce qui fait supposer que ces po&egrave;mes sont
+peut&ecirc;tre d&ucirc;s &agrave; des m&eacute;nestrels, &agrave; la
+solde des rois et des nobles et ayant pour emploi de
+c&eacute;l&eacute;brer leurs vertus et leurs prouesses.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e909src" href="#xd20e909" name=
+"xd20e909src">29</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>This is putting the case conservatively, for Moses speaks often of
+&ldquo;<span lang="fr">les chantres</span>&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;<span lang="fr">les chants</span>.&rdquo; They traveled as far
+as Persia and returned, for it is related by the Italian Countess
+Evelyn Martinengo how a wandering minstrel, who had just returned from
+that country, was entertained by an Armenian patriarchal family living
+in the kind of underground <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb18" href=
+"#pb18" name="pb18">18</a>]</span>habitation described in the beginning
+of this thesis.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e925src" href="#xd20e925"
+name="xd20e925src">30</a> No one was ever more welcome than the
+minstrel. He was assigned to the guest chamber usually prepared
+especially for him, and always the best chamber in the household. His
+head and feet were washed for him by the wife of the patriarch, and at
+meal time all the delicacies of the household were spread before him.
+All guests were welcome, but no guest more welcome than the minstrel.
+They must have listened to his tales in a kind of petrified awe, and
+heard him sing his songs in speechless enjoyment.</p>
+<p>It was a practice among the minstrels of the time to compete with
+each other in public, and it is related how two minstrels entertained
+by a Persian prince were led out upon an open grass plot and seated,
+one facing the other. Five thousand people made a circle around the
+competitors while the rivals contended in song and verse, riddle and
+repartee. Each began where the other left off, until finally one failed
+to perceive the drift of his adversary, and answering at random, the
+spectators proclaimed him beaten. The triumphant bard was led to the
+vanquished, whose lyre was taken from him and broken. Robed in a
+prince&rsquo;s mantle, the victor was taken to the highest seat in the
+banquet hall.</p>
+<p>That the people were the judges of the contest, indicates how well
+they must have been acquainted with the current folk-songs, legends,
+and tradition. How generally and frequently the custom of minstrel
+competition was practiced throughout Armenia is not known, but it
+certainly is proof, besides Moses&rsquo; own statements to the same
+effect, that the national legends and folk-songs were the possession of
+the common people. And what is more important, this same body of
+legends, folk-songs, and tradition did more than any other one thing to
+weld the sentiments of the people into a single national sentiment,
+which crystallized into a real patriotism, a real loyalty and devotion
+to any cause that was a national cause, because it was the natural,
+spontaneous expression of the life and thought of the people, and no
+mean, artificial thing superimposed from outside.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e935src" href="#xd20e935" name="xd20e935src">31</a></p>
+<p>There are other reasons for giving this period the social importance
+that I have ascribed to it. The conversion of the people to
+Christianity about the third century after Christ was achieved in no
+sentimental fashion, but, as I believe, in a manner in which it alone
+could have been done, namely, at the point of the sword of their own
+king, Tiridates, who was converted from paganism to Christianity by
+Gregory the Illuminator. The traditions in connection with this
+important event will be told later. Suffice it to say at this point
+that the whole process of conversion was carried out so thoroughly and
+completely, that it may be described as a national volte-face, and
+therefore did not result in the disintegration, <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb19" href="#pb19" name="pb19">19</a>]</span>civil
+strife, and social chaos that would unquestionably have been the result
+had the process been carried out by means of peaceful penetration and
+propaganda.</p>
+<p>The third and last argument in support of the social and national
+importance of the period of the Arsacid kings is in respect to the
+alphabet which was compiled by St. Mesrob Maschtotz. St. Mesrob was a
+former secretary of the king, and desired to extirpate the last
+remnants of paganism in the province of Akoulis, but in the absence of
+an alphabet he was unable to carry out any scheme of propaganda. He
+therefore besought the king, Vramschapouh, to put an end to this state
+of things and the latter, in response to the request, placed all
+available material at the disposal of the saint. The task was
+accomplished in 404, somewhat at the expense of the future devotees of
+the language, for the alphabet contains thirty-eight letters.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e944src" href="#xd20e944" name="xd20e944src">32</a>
+Nevertheless, most of the sounds of foreign languages were represented,
+making it particularly useful as a foundation language for other
+languages. St. Mesrob, with a body of translators trained by himself
+and St. Sahak, then proceeded to the translation of the Bible, which
+was not completed until 433. Liturgies and song-books quickly followed.
+To be sure the effect of the invention of the alphabet and the
+distribution of the various religious publications that followed were
+not felt during the period of the Arsacidae, for the Bible was not
+published until after the break-up of the kingdom in 428, when it was
+divided between Persia and Rome. But the important point is that the
+time had come when the need for an alphabet was making itself very
+strongly felt, and this could not have been true of a diversified,
+heterogeneous population.</p>
+<p>For the three reasons above mentioned, i.e., first, the work of
+minstrels, second, the Christianizing of the nation, and third, the
+invention of the alphabet, all occurring during the successive reigns
+of the Arsacid kings, I should ascribe to this period (150 B.C.-A.D.
+428) the integration of the Armenian people into a national
+unit.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e949src" href="#xd20e949" name=
+"xd20e949src">33</a> Christianity must have come as a disrupting force,
+as a terrible shock, necessitating a complete social readjustment, but
+the fact that the readjustment was made shows that the people were
+ready for it. For better or for worse the yoke of Christianity was
+fastened to the neck of the people, and with it they had to
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb20" href="#pb20" name=
+"pb20">20</a>]</span>replow the social soil. The job was a good one,
+for the Armenian church has been the chief power during the last ten or
+fifteen centuries in keeping alive the streams of national life, and in
+holding the people together in the face of invasion and repeated
+attempts at proselytization by the Persians and by the Greek and Roman
+Catholic churches.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.2.7" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 7. Legends of Artasches and Artavasd</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The legends of Artasches and Satenik, and of Artavasd,
+the son of Artasches, belong to the Arsacid period, for Artavasd and
+Artasches are Armenian kings of the Arsacid dynasty, according to
+Moses.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e965src" href="#xd20e965" name=
+"xd20e965src">34</a> The Alans who, according to the legend, were a
+neighboring people residing in the mountain region in the vicinity of
+Georgia, spread themselves over Armenia while Artasches, the Armenian
+king, collected a great army and forced the Alans to retreat across the
+river Kur where they pitched camp. The son of the Alan king was taken
+captive and brought to Artasches, which forced the former to seek peace
+on whatever terms the Armenian king might wish, provided only his son
+was returned in safety. But Artasches refused, whereupon the sister of
+the captured boy came to the river bank, and standing upon a great rock
+spoke to the camp of Artasches by means of interpreters saying:
+&ldquo;Oh brave Artasches, who hast vanquished the great nation of
+Alans, unto thee I speak. Come, hearken unto the bright-eyed daughter
+of the Alan king and give back the youth. For it is not the way of
+heroes to destroy life at the root, nor for the sake of humbling and
+enslaving a hostage to establish everlasting enmity between two great
+nations.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e968src" href="#xd20e968"
+name="xd20e968src">35</a> Artasches, having heard of these sayings went
+to the river bank and having seen that the girl was beautiful, and
+listened to her words of wisdom, wished to marry her. His chamberlain
+considered it a wise stroke of policy, and therefore went to the Alan
+king, soliciting the hand of the princess for his master, whose oaths
+and assurances of peace he vouched for, together with the promise to
+return the boy. The king of the Alans answered, &ldquo;From whence
+shall brave Artasches give thousands upon thousands, and ten thousands
+upon tens of thousands in return for the maiden?&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Writes Moses:</p>
+<div class="blockquote">
+<p class="first">Concerning this, the poets of that land sing in their
+songs:</p>
+<div class="q">
+<div class="body">
+<div class="lgouter">
+<p class="line hangqq">&ldquo;Brave King Artasches</p>
+<p class="line">Mounted his fine black charger,</p>
+<p class="line">And took the red leathern cord</p>
+<p class="line">With the golden ring.</p>
+<p class="line">Like a swift winged eagle</p>
+<p class="line">He passed over the river</p>
+<p class="line">And cast the golden ring</p>
+<p class="line">Round the waist of the Alan Princess; <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb21" href="#pb21" name="pb21">21</a>]</span></p>
+<p class="line">Causing much pain to the tender maiden</p>
+<p class="line">As he bore her swiftly back to his camp.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>Which being interpreted meaneth that he was commanded to give much
+gold, leather, and crimson dye in exchange for the maiden. So also they
+sing of the wedding:</p>
+<div class="q">
+<div class="body">
+<div class="lgouter">
+<p class="line hangqq">&ldquo;It rained showers of gold when Artasches
+became a bridegroom,</p>
+<p class="line">It rained pearls when Satenik became a
+bride.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>For it was the custom of our kings to scatter coins amongst the
+people when they arrived at the doors of the temple for their wedding,
+as also for the queens to scatter pearls in their
+bride-chamber.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1017src" href="#xd20e1017"
+name="xd20e1017src">36</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>The couplet quoted is still sung by the Armenians, and it is still
+customary for the bridegroom to scatter money on his way to the church,
+and though it may be for queens to scatter pearls, the Armenian bride
+is not to be outdone. She is given a partly opened pomegranate which
+she throws at the door of the bridegroom upon the arrival at the
+bridegroom&rsquo;s home after the ceremony at the church, the bits of
+pomegranate scattering themselves about as pearls.</p>
+<p>After fifty-one years of a very prosperous reign, Artasches, who was
+very much beloved by his people, died. The funeral procession was a
+most magnificent one, and many of the people killed themselves, out of
+love for their dead king, according to the custom of the time. And when
+the body was laid in the grave they threw precious jewels, gold, and
+silver after it. Nor did the lamenting and suicide stop after his
+burial, for upon the grave of their dead king the nobles and the people
+continued to kill themselves. So great was the slaughter that Artavasd,
+son of Artasches, and king after his father&rsquo;s death, addressed
+the spirit of his dead father, saying, &ldquo;Behold, thou art taking
+all with thee; dost thou leave me to rule over ruins and the
+dead?&rdquo; The words given by Moses of Khorene are: &ldquo;Now that
+thou art gone, and hast taken with thee the whole land, how shall I
+reign over the ruins?&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1043src" href=
+"#xd20e1043" name="xd20e1043src">37</a> Whereupon the spirit of
+Artasches cursed him and said,</p>
+<div class="lgouter">
+<p class="line hangqq">&ldquo;When thou ridest forth to hunt</p>
+<p class="line">Over the free heights of Ararat,</p>
+<p class="line">The strong ones shall have thee,</p>
+<p class="line">And shall take thee up</p>
+<p class="line">On to the free heights of Ararat.</p>
+<p class="line">There shalt thou abide,</p>
+<p class="line">And never more see the light.&rdquo;<a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e1061src" href="#xd20e1061" name="xd20e1061src">38</a></p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb22" href="#pb22" name=
+"pb22">22</a>]</span></p>
+<p>These words together with those of Artavasd spoken to his
+father&rsquo;s spirit were sung by the singers of the time.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1066src" href="#xd20e1066" name=
+"xd20e1066src">39</a></p>
+<p>One day while out hunting Artavasd was seized by some visionary
+terror and lost his reason. Urging his horse down a steep bank he fell
+into a chasm where he sank and disappeared. Old women told how he was
+confined in a cavern and bound with iron chains which his two dogs
+gnawed at daily in order to set him free. But somehow at the sound of
+the hammers striking on the anvils, the chains were continually
+strengthened, and it was customary among the blacksmiths of the time to
+strike the anvil three or four times to strengthen, as they said, the
+chains of Artavasd. And so the tradition was kept up by singers and
+blacksmiths; the blacksmiths and old women having consigned the jealous
+king to the world&rsquo;s nethermost regions, while the singers left
+him to the solitude of Ararat in accordance with the curse of
+Artasches.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.2.8" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 8. Conclusions</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">Such are the ancient legends of Armenia, in their
+respective historical settings: the legends of Haic, of Semiramis and
+Ara, of Vahakn, of Artasches and Satenik, and of Artavasd. All of them
+antedate the Christian era, and some of them by many centuries. Each
+one of them is told by Moses of Khorene. But as to origin and probable
+historic roots Moses was silent, for he was writing a history. He
+constantly laments the absolute dearth of material and sources and
+begins his accounts of these legends with the words &ldquo;This is as
+it is told,&rdquo; or &ldquo;the singers say,&rdquo; indicating that
+his only sources for them were the songs and reports current among the
+people during his own time. The legends of Haic and of Semiramis and
+Ara are told by Moses as though he believed them historic fact, but of
+course Moses had no materials to serve as a basis of criticism. He is
+careful to quote Mar Apas Catina as his only source for this material.
+The other three legends are regarded as such. Artavasd is spoken of as
+an historical king who lost his reason while riding horseback and fell
+into a deep chasm. The practice of suicide at the death of Artasches,
+his father, was a pagan custom. The curse of the spirit of the dead
+father, the chains, the dogs, and the anvils were of course recognized
+as the work of ingenious fancy. In view therefore, of the questionable
+character of Moses&rsquo; sources these legends have very little
+historic value. They do, however, have a high social value inasmuch as
+the common knowledge of them among the people was the only ultimate
+source at the disposal of the historian.</p>
+<p>The second conclusion is that these legends formed a very important
+part of the larger mass of tradition and songs that served to cement
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb23" href="#pb23" name=
+"pb23">23</a>]</span>the people into a nation. Just how important, it
+would be difficult to say, but the fact that they were current at the
+time Moses wrote indicates that they were current and passed on from
+generation to generation during the whole period of the Arsacidae
+kings. And as the people had no alphabet during this whole period, they
+must have been passed on by song and word of mouth. This was a time of
+special activity on the part of the minstrels and singers, and
+therefore the development of the national consciousness characteristic
+of the period must have been brought about in a large measure through
+the medium of these legendary beliefs.</p>
+<p>Furthermore these legends are known by the Armenian people to-day
+and are taught in the schools that are not too severely under the rules
+of Turkish and Russian censorship. Naturally enough, they are a source
+of great pride since they breathe national independence and loyalty.
+But of course, the Turks and Russians have suppressed all public
+singing of songs, and public teaching of history and legend that may
+possibly be construed as partaking of the national spirit.</p>
+<p>It may be argued that these legends slumbered between the covers of
+Moses&rsquo; history during the centuries known as the dark ages, and
+that they had no social value until the contagion of the European
+spirit of the Renaissance awoke the legends and the people at the same
+time. But the mere dearth of record is no proof of this Rip Van Winkle
+theory. There is at least one reliable authority sufficient to disprove
+it, viz., Grigor Magistros, a scholar of the eleventh century who wrote
+that he heard the Artasches epic sung by minstrels.<a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e1084src" href="#xd20e1084" name="xd20e1084src">40</a> Besides
+the unreasonableness of the supposition, there is the added fact of an
+independent Armenian kingdom known as the Bagradouni dynasty, whose
+capital seat was at the famous city of Ani. This kingdom included
+greater Armenia and continued from A.D. 887 to 1079.<a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e1087src" href="#xd20e1087" name="xd20e1087src">41</a> But 1079
+does not mark the end of Armenian independence though it marks the
+destruction of Ani, for Reuben, a member of the royal family, made his
+way into Cilicia in the year 1080, and rallying a handful of Armenians
+about him, overpowered the Greeks and founded what is known as the
+Rupenian Kingdom of Cilicia, which continued during a period of 300
+years. So that here again is a period of very nearly five hundred years
+(889&ndash;1380), during which time the Armenian people enjoyed
+national political independence.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1090src"
+href="#xd20e1090" name="xd20e1090src">42</a> And this during the very
+period of the dark ages, about which we know so little! We could not,
+therefore, for a moment suppose the traditions and legends to have had
+no social importance during these centuries, for such an assumption
+would be in flat contradiction to the witness of Grigor Magistros, and
+to the facts of Armenian history. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb24"
+href="#pb24" name="pb24">24</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e666" href="#xd20e666src" name="xd20e666">1</a></span> Mar Apas
+Catina. Langlois&rsquo; <i lang="fr">Collection des Histoires de
+l&rsquo;Arm&eacute;nie</i> 1:16.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e674" href="#xd20e674src" name="xd20e674">2</a></span> St. Martin,
+<i lang="fr">M&eacute;moire sur l&rsquo;Arm&eacute;nie</i> 1:281.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e682" href="#xd20e682src" name="xd20e682">3</a></span> Mar Apas
+Catina. Langlois 1:15&ndash;18.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Moses of Khorene. Langlois 3:63&ndash;64.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e692" href="#xd20e692src" name="xd20e692">4</a></span> St. Martin
+1:306.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e700" href="#xd20e700src" name="xd20e700">5</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 1:282&ndash;3. Moses of Khorene 2:67&ndash;69.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Mar Apas Catina 1:26&ndash;27.</p>
+<p class="footnote">The first Arsacidae king of Armenia, Valarsace,
+whose reign began in 149 B.C. found the kingdom in general disorder and
+was the first to organize the country along national lines. As a
+Parthian he was unacquainted with the history and institutions of the
+people, and desiring to build upon the established foundation, such as
+it was, he sent a Syrian scholar, Mar Apas Catina by name, with a
+letter to his brother, Arsace, king of Persia, requesting the latter to
+allow the Syrian access to the royal archives with the view of finding
+a history of Armenia. Mar Apas Catina found an old MS containing a
+history of ancient Armenia which bore the name of no author, and which
+was translated from Chaldean to Greek by order of Alexander the Great.
+It was translated into Syriac by the Syrian scholar for the benefit of
+Valarsace, but the MS has been lost, and there is not the slightest
+trace of it anywhere. It must have been in existence however, during
+the fifth century after Christ for Moses of Khorene used it as his only
+source for Armenia&rsquo;s ancient history, in writing his general
+history of Armenia. The old MS being lost, the translation by Mar Apas
+Catina and the first part of the history of Moses are given as
+identical to each other in Langlois&rsquo; collection of Armenian
+historians. The ancient history contains the legends of Haic, of Ara
+and Semiramis, and of Vahakn, some of the songs of heroes, still sung,
+and other matter which is strictly speaking not historical. As a
+history, therefore, it is unreliable and unauthentic, but from the
+standpoint of the social historian it is invaluable, for a belief is as
+important a fact to sociology as the dethronement of a king is to
+history.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e717" href="#xd20e717src" name="xd20e717">6</a></span> Boyadjian,
+<i>Armenian Legends and Poetry</i> p. 33.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e723" href="#xd20e723src" name="xd20e723">7</a></span> St. Martin
+1:409.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e726" href="#xd20e726src" name="xd20e726">8</a></span> Lynch
+2:65.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e740" href="#xd20e740src" name="xd20e740">9</a></span> Lynch,
+<i>Armenia</i>, chapter entitled &ldquo;Van.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e746" href="#xd20e746src" name="xd20e746">10</a></span> Raffi,
+article in Boyadjian&rsquo;s <i>Armenian Legends and
+Poetry</i><span class="corr" id="xd20e750" title=
+"Not in source">,</span> p. 125.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e756" href="#xd20e756src" name="xd20e756">11</a></span> Lynch,
+chapter on Van.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e761" href="#xd20e761src" name="xd20e761">12</a></span> Moses of
+Khorene 2:69.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e766" href="#xd20e766src" name="xd20e766">13</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i></p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e774" href="#xd20e774src" name="xd20e774">14</a></span> Lynch
+2:65.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e781" href="#xd20e781src" name="xd20e781">15</a></span> Moses of
+Khorene 2:68, 69.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e789" href="#xd20e789src" name="xd20e789">16</a></span> St. Martin
+1:285.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e792" href="#xd20e792src" name="xd20e792">17</a></span> Raffi p.
+129. Abeghian pp. 49, 50.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e822" href="#xd20e822src" name="xd20e822">18</a></span> Moses of
+Khorene 2:76. Translation from Moses, Boyadjian p. 10.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Mar Apas Catina 1:40.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e832" href="#xd20e832src" name="xd20e832">19</a></span> Mar Apas
+Catina 1:41. Moses of Khorene p. 76.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Moses of Khorene, called the Herodotus of Armenia,
+has written the best known history of the Armenian people. The work has
+been translated into Latin, Italian, French, German, and Russian. Moses
+lived in the fifth century, two centuries after the conversion of the
+nation to Christianity. He belonged to the second order of translators
+in the school of St. Sahag and St. Mesrob, and was sent to Syria,
+Egypt, Greece, and Rome in order to complete his studies. Upon
+returning to his country he found everything in disorder. St. Sahag and
+St. Mesrob were dead, the king had been overthrown, and he chose the
+life of solitude. Sometime later he was chosen bishop and requested by
+an Armenian prince, Sahag Bagratide, to write a history of his country,
+which task he took up with great enthusiasm. The translation of Mar
+Apas Catina was his only source for Armenian ancient history. He
+carefully differentiates hearsay from fact, never fails to stamp a
+fable or legend as such, and generally quotes his authorities where he
+has them. Considering the limitation of his materials, and the time in
+which he wrote, Moses wrote a really remarkable book, although the
+verdicts of a few critics have been unfavorable.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e840" href="#xd20e840src" name="xd20e840">20</a></span> Raffi p.
+129.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e854" href="#xd20e854src" name="xd20e854">21</a></span> Lidgett,
+<i>An Ancient People</i>. St. Martin 1:409. Mar Apas Catina p. 41.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e862" href="#xd20e862src" name="xd20e862">22</a></span> The
+influence of Greek culture is chiefly indicated by the fact that the
+pagan divinities were Greek and that many temples were erected to these
+gods and goddesses all over the country. (Agathange, <i lang=
+"fr">Histoire du R&egrave;gne de Tiridate</i>. Langlois
+1:164&ndash;70.) Secondly, there were formed by St. Sahag and St.
+Mesrob in the fifth century after the conversion of the nation to
+Christianity, schools of translators, who studied in Greece, Egypt, and
+Rome and whose chief works were translations from the Greek. With the
+conversion (301) came the necessity for a written language, the
+characters of which were invented by St. Mesrob in 404. Thereupon were
+organized the schools of translators whose chief study of necessity was
+Greek, and whose translations and original works have given to the
+fifth century the title of &ldquo;Golden Age of Armenian
+Literature.&rdquo; (Langlois 1:xxi&ndash;xxvi, 2:vii.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e868" href="#xd20e868src" name="xd20e868">23</a></span> St. Martin
+1:288, 289. Mar Apas Catina 1:41.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Moses of Khorene 2:81.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e874" href="#xd20e874src" name="xd20e874">24</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i></p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e878" href="#xd20e878src" name="xd20e878">25</a></span> Gibbon,
+<i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> 3:393.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Moses of Khorene 2:155.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e887" href="#xd20e887src" name="xd20e887">26</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> pp. 88, 89.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e895" href="#xd20e895src" name="xd20e895">27</a></span> St. Martin
+1:291. Moses of Khorene p. 88.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e903" href="#xd20e903src" name="xd20e903">28</a></span> Raffi p.
+126.</p>
+<p class="footnote" lang="en"><span class="label"><a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e909" href="#xd20e909src" name="xd20e909">29</a></span>
+Langlois 1:ix, x. These songs of which Moses of Khorene very frequently
+speaks are classified by Langlois into songs of the first order, the
+second order, and the third order. The first are relative to the
+prowess of Armenian kings and gods; the second concern a long series of
+military exploits accomplished against the Assyrians, Medes, and
+Persians; the third refer especially to traditions in connection with
+the Assyrians. The birth-song of Vahakn is an illustration of the songs
+of the first order (p. x, xi). Flint in his <i>History of the
+Philosophy of History</i>, p. 42, speaks of this period of minstrelsy
+as necessarily preceding the use of letters everywhere. &ldquo;The myth
+and legend interest primitive man more than real fact. His vision is
+more largely of the imagination than of the sense of judgment. It is an
+error to regard the rude minstrelsy which generally preceded the use of
+letters as essentially historical.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e925" href="#xd20e925src" name="xd20e925">30</a></span> Countess
+Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, <i>Essays in the Study of Folk-Songs</i>,
+chapter on Armenia.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e935" href="#xd20e935src" name="xd20e935">31</a></span> The battle
+of Avarair under the leadership of the celebrated Vartan, where Armenia
+defended her national ideals against the intrusion of Persia, is proof
+of this.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e944" href="#xd20e944src" name="xd20e944">32</a></span> Ormanian
+p. 22. Moses of Khorene p. 158.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e949" href="#xd20e949src" name="xd20e949">33</a></span> There are
+further proofs that may be cited. The history of English and French
+literature shows that the golden age of their literature followed a
+period of social integration along national lines. And it is true that
+the golden age of Armenian literature dawned with the closing decades
+of the Arsacidae dynasty, and continued several decades beyond. And
+finally, when Valarsace, the first Arsacidae, ascended the throne of
+Armenia, finding everything in a state of disorder, he organized the
+country along national lines. Dividing the kingdom into provinces he
+placed his governors at the heads of them; he organized a standing
+army, appointed guardians of the granaries, established courts of
+justice, a royal guard, and minutely regulated court life. What is most
+interesting is that he appointed two reporters, one to remind him in
+his anger, &ldquo;<span lang="fr">le bien &agrave; faire</span>,&rdquo;
+the other to remind him of the necessity for doing justice.
+<i>Ibid.</i> pp. 82&ndash;85.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e965" href="#xd20e965src" name="xd20e965">34</a></span> St. Martin
+1:300. Moses of Khorene pp. 105&ndash;6.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e968" href="#xd20e968src" name="xd20e968">35</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> p. 106.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1017" href="#xd20e1017src" name="xd20e1017">36</a></span>
+Boyadjian p. 49. Moses of Khorene p. 106. Moses as translated by
+Langlois, relates the story as legend, for after telling the tale, and
+quoting the songs he writes, &ldquo;<span lang="fr">Voici maintenant le
+fait dans toute sa verit&eacute; comme le cuir rouge est
+tr&eacute;s-estim&eacute; chez les Alains, Artasch&eacute;s donne
+beaucoup de peaux de cette couleur, et beaucoup d&rsquo;or en dot, et
+il obtient la jeune princesse Satenig. C&rsquo;est l&agrave; la
+lani&egrave;re de cuir rouge garnie d&rsquo;anneaux d&rsquo;or. Ainsi
+dans les noces, ils chantent des l&eacute;gendes, en disant,</span></p>
+<div class="q">
+<div class="body">
+<div lang="fr" class="lgouter footnote">
+<p class="line hangq">&lsquo;Une pluie d&rsquo;or tombait</p>
+<p class="line">Au marriage d&rsquo;Artasch&eacute;s;</p>
+<p class="line">Les perles pleuvait</p>
+<p class="line">Aux noces de Satenig.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p class="footnote">Moses likewise relegates the legend and songs of
+Artavasd to their proper places.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1043" href="#xd20e1043src" name="xd20e1043">37</a></span> Moses
+of Khorene p. 111.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1061" href="#xd20e1061src" name="xd20e1061">38</a></span>
+Translation from Moses by Boyadjian p. 65.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1066" href="#xd20e1066src" name="xd20e1066">39</a></span> Moses
+of Khorene p. 111.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1084" href="#xd20e1084src" name="xd20e1084">40</a></span> Raffi
+p. 42.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1087" href="#xd20e1087src" name="xd20e1087">41</a></span> St.
+Martin 1:appendix.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1090" href="#xd20e1090src" name="xd20e1090">42</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.3" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="label">Chapter III</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Legends of the Conversion to Christianity</h2>
+<div id="ch1.3.1" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 1. Pre-Christian Mythology and Religion</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The second body of legends which I wish to consider is
+chiefly concerned with the introduction of Christianity into the
+country. These, together with the traditional beliefs centered about
+the chief geographical feature of the land, Mt. Ararat, constitute a
+group bearing a very distinct religious stamp. For this reason, and
+also because they have a later origin, they are to be marked off very
+distinctly from those already taken up. In view of their religious
+bearing I shall introduce them with a brief account of the various
+forms of pagan worship that preceded the Christianization of the
+people.</p>
+<p>The chief religious influences have been the Assyrian, the Persian,
+and the Greek. It seems, however, that a kind of monotheism prevailed
+before the gods of any of these were taken over. The very ancient
+Armenian kings planted groves of poplars around their cities and the
+worship was carried on in these groves.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1107src" href="#xd20e1107" name="xd20e1107src">1</a> An altar was
+placed among the trees, where the first male descendant of the royal
+family (and perhaps other families) offered sacrifices to the one God,
+while the priests derived oracles from the rustling of the leaves. Even
+now the poplar groves are held in uncommon regard. This is a survival
+of the old belief that they were the dwelling place of God, and of the
+later practice of consecrating children in them. The belief that God
+dwelt among the leaves must have been suggested by the slightest
+trembling of the leaves, even at the gentlest breeze, and one can well
+imagine the people looking up at them in the impressive silence of the
+forest with an awe and wonder no other environment could possibly
+induce. The Armenian for poplar, &ldquo;Sossi&rdquo; is used to-day as
+a name for girls, and the poplar tree, although not held sacred by
+Armenian people to-day, is certainly regarded with great
+reverence.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1113src" href="#xd20e1113" name=
+"xd20e1113src">2</a></p>
+<p>The influence of Persian worship is more clear. Aramazd, the
+architect of the universe, lord and creator of all things, was the
+chief <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb25" href="#pb25" name=
+"pb25">25</a>]</span>Armenian god, and is unquestionably the Persian
+Ormuzd named in the inscription of Xerxes on the rock of Van. Armenians
+have given him the title of &ldquo;father of the gods,&rdquo; and the
+qualifications &ldquo;great, and strong, creator of heaven and earth,
+and god of fertility and of abundance.&rdquo; The Greeks identified him
+with Zeus.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1123src" href="#xd20e1123" name=
+"xd20e1123src">3</a> There were numerous sanctuaries erected in his
+honor, and at the annual festival celebrated in his name, white
+animals, especially goats, horses, and mules, were sacrificed and their
+blood used to fill silver and golden goblets.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1129src" href="#xd20e1129" name="xd20e1129src">4</a> Tir, or
+&ldquo;Grogh&rdquo; meaning in Armenian &ldquo;to write&rdquo; was his
+attendant spirit, whose chief business it was to watch over mankind,
+recording their good and evil deeds.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1135src" href="#xd20e1135" name="xd20e1135src">5</a> Upon the
+death of a person &ldquo;Grogh&rdquo; conducted the soul of the
+departed before his master, who opened the great book, and balancing
+the good and evil deeds, assigned a reward or punishment. Grogh is also
+the personification of hope and fear, and the expression &ldquo;may
+Grogh take you&rdquo; is still very commonly used among the people,
+especially by servant girls and those whose language has not undergone
+the purification of a season of &ldquo;<span lang="de">Sturm und
+Drang.</span>&rdquo; It is interesting to note that this and some other
+expressions owe their survival to usage among women rather than among
+men, which is not difficult of explanation when one considers the
+social restrictions that women are generally subject to.
+&ldquo;<span lang="de">Viele Seiten des alten heidnischen Glaubens sind
+in dem heutigen Volksglauben, besonders bei den tiefer stehenden
+Volksschichten, bei alten Bauerinnen, als &uuml;berbleibsel der
+Vergangenheit erhalten.</span>&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1145src" href="#xd20e1145" name="xd20e1145src">6</a></p>
+<p>The god Mihr represented fire, and was the son of Aramazd.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1150src" href="#xd20e1150" name="xd20e1150src">7</a>
+He guided heroes in battle, and was commemorated by a festival held in
+the beginning of spring. Fires were kindled in the open market place in
+his honor, and a lantern lit from one of these fires was kept burning
+in his temple throughout the year.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1156src"
+href="#xd20e1156" name="xd20e1156src">8</a> It is still a festival
+among the people, although it has a different significance, and will be
+described more in detail later on. This is practiced not only by the
+Armenians, but also by the Syrian Maronites who reside in the Lebanon.
+I have seen the mountainsides literally aglow with a thousand fires in
+celebration of a Christian festival that has its roots in the pagan
+ceremony in honor of Mihr. The practice of a continually burning
+lantern was also carried over by some branches of the Christian church.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb26" href="#pb26" name=
+"pb26">26</a>]</span></p>
+<p>Both Persians and Armenians were worshippers of Mihr (fire-worship),
+although there was a very distinct difference between the two. The
+Armenian sacred fire was invisible, whereas the Persian was material
+and kept up throughout the whole year. It is for this reason that the
+Armenians called the Persians fire-worshippers. The only visible
+fire-god worshipped by the Armenians was the sun, to which temples were
+dedicated, and after which the Armenian calendar month
+&ldquo;Areg&rdquo; was named.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1171src" href=
+"#xd20e1171" name="xd20e1171src">9</a> The &ldquo;Children of the
+Sun&rdquo; as they were called, offered the most persistent opposition
+to the introduction of Christianity, and a community of them continued
+their worship in the face of persecution after Christianity became the
+religion of the state. The phrase &ldquo;let me die for your
+sun,&rdquo; and the oath &ldquo;let the sun of my son be
+witness,&rdquo; are language survivals of this particular worship.</p>
+<p>The Greek worship, introduced first during the Seleucid dynasty, and
+emphasized and encouraged by the line of Arsacidae kings up to the
+introduction of Christianity, exercised an even stronger influence than
+the Persian. Many of the Greek divinities were rechristened and adopted
+by the people. Chief of these was Anahit, &ldquo;Mother of
+Chastity,&rdquo; known also as the &ldquo;Pure and Spotless
+Goddess,&rdquo; who was the daughter of Aramazd, and corresponded to
+the Greek Artemid and the Roman Diana.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1176src" href="#xd20e1176" name="xd20e1176src">10</a> She was
+also regarded as the benefactress of the people. Writes Agathangelus:
+&ldquo;Through her (Anahit) the Armenian land exists; from her it draws
+its life, she is the glory of our nation and its
+protectress.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1179src" href=
+"#xd20e1179" name="xd20e1179src">11</a> Images and shrines were
+dedicated to her name under the titles, &ldquo;The Golden
+Mother,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Being of Golden Birth.&rdquo; A summer
+festival was celebrated in her honor at which a dove and a rose were
+offered to her golden image. The day was called &ldquo;Vartavar,&rdquo;
+meaning &ldquo;the flaming of the rose.&rdquo; The temples of Anahit
+and the golden image were destroyed with the conversion of the people
+to Christianity, but the festival has continued as a regular church
+festival under the same name &ldquo;Vartavar&rdquo; though of course
+with a different meaning.</p>
+<p>The second and third daughters of Aramazd were Astghik, the goddess
+of beauty, and Nane, or Noone, the goddess of contrivance.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1184src" href="#xd20e1184" name=
+"xd20e1184src">12</a> The former was the wife of Vahakn, the mythical
+king-god, the legend in respect to whom has been told, and corresponded
+to the Phoenician and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb27" href="#pb27"
+name="pb27">27</a>]</span>Sidonian Astarte. It is stated by Raffi that
+the goddess of contrivance was a necessary power to womankind, for then
+as now woman had to make big things out of small. Sandaramet, the wife
+of Aramazd, was an invisible goddess and personification of the earth.
+Her master sent rain upon her, and brought forth vegetation. Later she
+became the synonym for Hades. Perhaps the best summary of Armenian
+worship as existing before the Christian time is that given by St.
+Martin.</p>
+<div lang="fr" class="blockquote">
+<p class="first">La religion Arm&eacute;nienne &eacute;tait
+probablement un m&eacute;lange des opinions de Zoroastre, fort
+alter&eacute;s par le cult des divinit&eacute;s grecques. On voyait
+dans les temples de l&rsquo;Arm&eacute;nie un grand nombre de statues
+de divinit&eacute;s, auxquelles on faisait des sacrifices
+d&rsquo;animaux, ce qui ne se pratiquait point dans la religion de
+Zoroastre, qui, &agrave; proprement parler, n&rsquo;admettait pas
+l&rsquo;existence d&rsquo;autre divinit&eacute; que le temps sans
+bornes, appel&eacute; Zerwan.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1195src" href=
+"#xd20e1195" name="xd20e1195src">13</a> Les plus puissants des dieux
+&eacute;taient Aramazd (Ormuzd), Anahid (Venus), Mihir (Mihr), ou
+Mithra. On y adorait encore d&rsquo;autres divinit&eacute;s
+inf&eacute;rieures.</p>
+</div>
+<p>Anahit, however, was goddess of chastity, and did not therefore
+correspond to Venus.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1201src" href=
+"#xd20e1201" name="xd20e1201src">14</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.3.2" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 2. Legends of Abgar, Thaddeus, and St.
+Bartholomew</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The first connection that Armenians had with
+Christianity occurred in the reign of King Abgar, whose capital was at
+Edessa (now Ourfa) during the time of Christ&rsquo;s teaching in
+Palestine.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1209src" href="#xd20e1209" name=
+"xd20e1209src">15</a> The story is legendary and very popular. Abgar
+was called a great man because of his exceeding meekness and wisdom. As
+the result of several severe military campaigns, the health of the king
+began to give way. This led to complications which developed into a
+very painful disease. It was at this time that Abgar sent two of his
+messengers to the Roman governor, Marinus, to show the Roman a treaty
+of peace that had been made between Ardasches and his brother of
+Persia, who had quarreled and had been reconciled by their kinsman
+Abgar; for the Romans suspected that Abgar had gone to Persia in order
+to collect and direct a Persian-Armenian army against the
+Romans.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1212src" href="#xd20e1212" name=
+"xd20e1212src">16</a> To clear himself of all suspicion, therefore,
+those two messengers were sent to show the treaty of peace to the Roman
+governor. On their return the messengers went up to Jerusalem in order
+to see Christ, having heard of his wonderful deeds. And when they
+returned to their king, Abgar, they told of the works of Christ, at
+which the king marveled, and believed him to be the very Son of God.
+The king, because of his sickness, sent Christ <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb28" href="#pb28" name="pb28">28</a>]</span>a letter
+asking him to come and heal him of his disease. The letter is quoted as
+follows:</p>
+<div class="blockquote">
+<p class="first">The letter of Abgarus to our Saviour Jesus Christ.
+&ldquo;Abgarus, a prince of the world, unto Jesus the Saviour and
+Benefactor, who hast appeared in the City of Jerusalem, Greetings.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;I have heard of thee, and of the healings wrought by thy
+hands, without drugs and without roots; for it is said that thou givest
+sight to the blind, thou makest the lame to walk, and thou cleanest the
+lepers; thou curest those who have been long tormented by diseases, and
+raisest even the dead. And when I heard all this concerning thee, I
+thought that either thou art God come down from heaven that workest
+these things, or the Son of God. I have written unto thee, that thou
+shouldst trouble thyself to come unto me, and heal me of my disease. I
+have heard also that the Jews murmur against thee, and think to torture
+thee. My city is a small one, but it is beautiful, and it is sufficient
+for us twain.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1222src" href=
+"#xd20e1222" name="xd20e1222src">17</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>The messengers delivered the message to Jesus in Jerusalem, to which
+the gospel bears witness in the words, &ldquo;There were some amongst
+the heathen that came up to him.&rdquo; But Jesus could do no more than
+to send a letter in reply.</p>
+<div class="blockquote">
+<p class="first">The answer to the letter of Abgarus, written at the
+command of our Saviour by the Apostle Thomas: &ldquo;Blessed is he who
+believeth on me, though he hath not seen me. For it is written
+concerning me thus: &lsquo;they that have seen me believed not on me,
+but they that have not seen me shall believe and live.&rsquo; And
+concerning that which thou hast written unto me to come down unto thee,
+it is needful that I fulfill all that for which I was sent; and when I
+have fulfilled it I will ascend unto Him that sent me. And after my
+ascension I will send one of my disciples, who shall heal thee of thy
+disease, and give life unto thee and unto all that are with
+thee.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1230src" href="#xd20e1230"
+name="xd20e1230src">18</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>This letter was duly delivered to Abgar, with the image of the
+Saviour, which was still kept in Edessa at the time of Moses&rsquo;
+writing. The legend concerning the image is somewhat as follows. One of
+the three messengers sent to Jesus with the letter of Abgar was an
+artist who was told to paint a portrait of Jesus in case the latter
+found it impossible to take the journey. The artist tried in vain to
+paint a good picture, and having noticed him, Jesus took a handkerchief
+and passing it over his face a most exact likeness was stamped upon it,
+which he gave to the artist to be given to the king.</p>
+<p>The quaint ending of Abgar&rsquo;s letter is worth the whole legend.
+What could be simpler or more seductive than the invitation, &ldquo;My
+city is a small one, but it is beautiful, and it is sufficient for us
+twain.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>The tradition of the Armenian church, or the Gregorian church, as it
+is more commonly called, acknowledges St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew
+as the original founders, who are therefore designated as the first
+illuminators of Armenia.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1240src" href=
+"#xd20e1240" name="xd20e1240src">19</a> Concerning the recognition of
+the tradition <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb29" href="#pb29" name=
+"pb29">29</a>]</span>of St. Bartholomew, which includes his apostolic
+journeys, his preaching, and his martyrdom in Armenia, all Christian
+churches are unanimous. The name Albanus given as the place of his
+martyrdom, is the same as the name Albacus, hallowed by the Armenian
+tradition. His mission covered a period of sixteen years (A.D.
+44&ndash;60). There is difference of opinion, however, in regard to the
+dates.</p>
+<p>The traditions about St. Thaddeus vary. Some suppose him to have
+been the brother of St. Thomas, and according to these, he traveled to
+Ardaze by way of Edessa. There is an anachronism, however, in this
+tradition which would transfer the mission of Thaddeus to the second
+century. According to a second tradition he is not the brother of
+Thomas, but one St. Judas Thaddeus, surnamed Lebbeus, who also is said
+to have established a sanctuary of worship at Ardaze, a circumstance
+admitted by the Greek and Latin churches. The Armenian church places
+the time of this mission as a period of eight years from 35&ndash;43.
+That this has been done to lay a strong foundation for the claim of
+apostolic origin may be suspected, especially in view of the belief
+that apostolic origin is essential to every Christian church, in order,
+as stated by Ormanian, &ldquo;to place her in union with her Divine
+Founder.&rdquo; The church, however, has us at its mercy, for
+conclusive evidence one way or another is lacking. Nevertheless, the
+fact of Thaddeus&rsquo; mission to Armenia wherever and whenever it
+might have occurred, is undisputed.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1247src"
+href="#xd20e1247" name="xd20e1247src">20</a></p>
+<p>The matter is not especially important except to theologians with
+their doctrines of &ldquo;apostolic origins.&rdquo; What is perfectly
+clear is that both these men did their work in comparative silence, and
+that they did not make very much headway, for if they had there would
+have been less doubt concerning the traditions. The great work was done
+by King Tiridates, and Gregory, who converted him about A.D. 301. The
+traditions concerning these men are among the most cherished
+possessions of the Armenian church.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.3.3" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 3. Legends of Rhipsime and Gregory</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">These traditions have their historical setting in the
+reign of Tiridates, and of Chosroes the father of Tiridates.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1260src" href="#xd20e1260" name=
+"xd20e1260src">21</a> Just as there was an Arsacid dynasty in Armenia,
+dating and originating in the Parthian conquests and supremacy, so also
+was there an Arsacid dynasty of Persia. The Persian king at the time of
+Chosroes was a kinsman of the latter, called <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb30" href="#pb30" name="pb30">30</a>]</span>Ardavan,
+who was overthrown (A.D. 227) by a Persian prince of the province of
+Fars, named Ardashir.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1265src" href=
+"#xd20e1265" name="xd20e1265src">22</a> His dynasty, a very powerful
+one, known as the Sassanid dynasty, supplanted the Arsacid dynasty of
+Persia. Chosroes of Armenia, fearing future difficulty with the new
+Persian monarch, ardently supported his dethroned kinsman. The next
+year (228), therefore, he led a huge army beyond the frontiers of
+Persia, and laid waste her provinces to the gates of
+Ctesiphon.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1268src" href="#xd20e1268" name=
+"xd20e1268src">23</a> The war was continued for ten years, during which
+time the Armenian capital, Vagharshapat, was filled with the booty of
+successful raids. The reigning Caesar, Severus, also alarmed by the
+success of the new Persian king, headed a Roman army against Ardashir.
+Realizing the jeopardy of his position, the Persian resolved to put
+Chosroes out of the way by whatever means possible. A Parthian of the
+royal blood, Anak by name, consented to execute his king&rsquo;s
+desire, and went with his family to Vagharshapat as a refugee. A
+friendship sprang up between himself and his future victim, enabling
+him to execute his purpose, which he did in company with his brother
+while preparation was being made for a spring campaign. But the
+murderers were cut off in their escape by Armenian horsemen and
+precipitated into the Araxes, while the dying king gave orders to
+massacre the family of Anak. Only two of the children were rescued, one
+of whom was Gregory, the Illuminator, founder of the Armenian national
+church, called also the Gregorian church. The child Gregory was taken
+to Cesarea where he was educated in the tenets of
+Christianity.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1271src" href="#xd20e1271"
+name="xd20e1271src">24</a></p>
+<p>Ardashir died shortly after the murder of his foe, and thus failed
+to follow up his advantage except for a few raids into Armenian
+territory. Tiridates, a child at this time, was the oldest son of
+Chosroes, and as heir to the Armenian throne was the chief obstacle in
+the way of the ambitions of his uncles, whose treatment of the young
+king compelled him to take refuge in Rome where he was
+educated.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1279src" href="#xd20e1279" name=
+"xd20e1279src">25</a> Having distinguished himself by personal bravery
+in a Gothic campaign, his nation&rsquo;s dominions were restored to him
+by the support of a Roman army, for during his absence Armenia was
+invaded by Shapur, the successor of Ardashir. The Persian king had
+taken advantage of the disputes of Tiridates&rsquo; uncles. The
+remainder of the story is legendary.</p>
+<p>Gregory had been informed in the meantime of his father&rsquo;s
+deed, and seeking to make such amends for it as he could, he journeyed
+to Rome, where he attached himself as a servant to the exiled king,
+Tiridates. The latter, after his victory over the Persians and his
+re-accession to the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb31" href="#pb31"
+name="pb31">31</a>]</span>Armenian throne, entered the temple of Anahit
+in company with his faithful servant Gregory, to offer sacrifices of
+thanksgiving. A feast followed the ceremony, at which many guests were
+present, and Tiridates, who must have known of Gregory&rsquo;s
+attachment to Christianity, commanded the latter to make an offering of
+garlands to the great goddess. Gregory refused. The king was angry.
+&ldquo;How dare you,&rdquo; exclaimed the king, &ldquo;adore a god whom
+I do not adore?&rdquo; Persuasion and finally torture were used to
+coerce the pious and firm-minded youth, but to no avail. In the
+meantime, Tiridates had been informed as to Gregory&rsquo;s identity,
+i.e., that he was the son of his father&rsquo;s murderer, whereupon the
+king commanded that Gregory be cast into a deep pit where he was left
+to perish.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1286src" href="#xd20e1286" name=
+"xd20e1286src">26</a></p>
+<p>For thirteen years Gregory languished in his well, and was only
+saved from death by the ministrations of a widow who resided in the
+castle of Artaxata just by the pit. This was done in great secret, for
+Tiridates had issued an edict which admonished his subjects to beware
+of the resentment of the gods, of Aramazd, Anahit, and Vahakn, and
+following the practice of the Romans, to lay hands on all offenders
+against the gods, chief of whom, evidently, were the Christians. They
+were to be bound hand and foot, brought before the gate of the palace,
+and if found guilty their lands and chattels were assigned to their
+accusers.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1291src" href="#xd20e1291" name=
+"xd20e1291src">27</a></p>
+<p>While Christians were being robbed, and Gregory was slowly perishing
+of misery in his prison well, there arrived at Vagharshapat a Roman
+virgin of exquisite beauty, named Rhipsime, in company with her nurse
+Gaiane, and thirty-three followers who were also virgins. They had fled
+from the Emperor Diocletian, who had selected Rhipsime for his spouse,
+after a most careful search of his kingdom for the most beautiful of
+women.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1298src" href="#xd20e1298" name=
+"xd20e1298src">28</a> Rhipsime, unfortunately had taken a vow of
+chastity, and there was nothing to do but to flee. Meanwhile an
+ambassador from Rome arrived at the court of the Armenian king bearing
+a letter in which Tiridates was informed of the flight of the virgin to
+his land, and bidden to discover the refugees, to send Rhipsime to
+Rome, and to kill her companions. The emperor added, however, in truly
+generous fashion, that he might himself marry her if he was overcome by
+her charms.</p>
+<p>The band was found, Rhipsime was recognized, and the king sent an
+escort of litters to bring them to his court. As Diocletian suspected,
+the Armenian king also fell in love, for the maiden, having refused the
+pomp of a royal equipage, was forced to appear before him in court. The
+Armenian&rsquo;s suit was likewise a failure. Rhipsime would marry,
+provided he became Christian, which the king took as mockery. Again the
+girl <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb32" href="#pb32" name=
+"pb32">32</a>]</span>succeeded in escaping, but she was tracked,
+overtaken with her companions, bound with cords, and put to death with
+great cruelty. Both Rhipsime and her nurse Gaiane are commemorated on
+the calendar of saints, and at Etchmiadzin, the religious center of the
+nation, there are three edifices; the largest and most important bears
+the name of St. Gregory, while the other two respectively bear the
+names of the two saints, Rhipsime and Gaiane.</p>
+<p>Agathangelus relates the legend in his <i lang="fr">Histoire du
+R&egrave;gne de Tiridate</i> but unfortunately the book has been
+tampered with and now contains much questionable material.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1310src" href="#xd20e1310" name=
+"xd20e1310src">29</a> There are mentioned ominous thunderclaps,
+openings of heaven, divine voices exhorting Rhipsime to stand firm in
+her faith, and the transformation of Tiridates into a grass-eating boar
+which was the punishment for his great crime. The sister of the king,
+Khosrovitukht, had a vision, in which she was told that the only remedy
+was to send for a prisoner named Gregory, who had been cast into a well
+some thirteen years before. A rope was let down into the cavern, and to
+the astonishment of all, there emerged a human form, blackened to the
+color of coal. It was none other than Gregory. He also saw visions and
+heard divine voices speak through curious openings in heaven. Strange
+columns of fire and flaming crosses of light appeared to him in the
+places where Rhipsime and Gaiane suffered martyrdom; and there appeared
+a great deal more to him which is recorded, even as there must have
+appeared yet more which is not recorded. The result of all of this was
+that Gregory ordered the construction of two chapels, one to be erected
+in honor of Rhipsime, the other in memory of Gaiane, both of which are
+still standing in Etchmiadzin. Etchmiadzin means, &ldquo;the place
+where the Only-Begotten descended&rdquo; for it was at this place that
+Gregory beheld his miraculous vision. Having prayed for the healing of
+the king, the horns fell from the royal head, and Tiridates, now a
+Christian, shared in the work of constructing the chapels.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1313src" href="#xd20e1313" name=
+"xd20e1313src">30</a> He ascended Ararat and returned with huge blocks
+of stone which he laid at the portals of the chapels in expiation of
+his sin. It was customary among Armenians to place <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb33" href="#pb33" name="pb33">33</a>]</span>huge
+blocks of stone at the entrance of a church by way of offering. Dubois
+de Montp&egrave;reux saw a number of such stones, six or seven feet
+high, in front of the cathedral at Etchmiadzin, but Lynch found no
+trace of them.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1318src" href="#xd20e1318"
+name="xd20e1318src">31</a></p>
+<p>Such are the legends of Gregory and of Tiridates&rsquo; conversion
+to Christianity. In all justice, the highly imaginative material which
+was probably the work of an enthusiast, and in all certainty a
+surreptitious insertion in the work of the historian, should be
+distinguished from the less fanciful material concerning the
+imprisonment of Gregory and the martyrdom of the virgins, which though
+legendary, may probably be connected with the events of history.</p>
+<p>Although Dubois de Montp&egrave;reux recognizes that all traditions
+point to the conversion of Armenia as having taken place before the
+conversion of Constantine (in 312), he does not consider this as
+probable, for Tiridates, as a tributary king, and imitator of the
+Romans in all things, could not have had the courage to take so
+important a step except in following out the policy of the
+emperor.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1325src" href="#xd20e1325" name=
+"xd20e1325src">32</a> Gregory, according to the view of Dubois,
+remained in his prison well until Constantine accepted Christianity,
+when the Armenian king called for him and was converted as a matter of
+diplomacy after listening to his exhortations.</p>
+<p>But this is not accepted by modern writers, any more than it was by
+the ancient historians. Bryce places the conversion at 302, and states
+that the so-called conversion of Constantine happened either twelve or
+thirty-seven years later, according as one reckons to the battle of the
+Milvian Bridge, or his baptism.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1330src"
+href="#xd20e1330" name="xd20e1330src">33</a> Armenia, therefore, was
+the first country that adopted Christianity as a religion of state, a
+matter of no small pride to the Gregorians, and it has been maintained
+as the national religion ever since in a form so intact as to surpass
+the dreams of the most ultra-conservative. And this, too, in the face
+of attacks by Persian fire-worshippers who attempted to force their
+religion upon the people, Greek and Latin popes, Mohammedan khalifs,
+and Turkish sultans. Ormanian, former Armenian patriarch at
+Constantinople, who gives the date as 301, considers the existence of
+the churches of St. Rhipsime and St. Gaiane with their inscriptions as
+positive proof, and mentions also the testimony in the writings of
+Eusebius, who cites the war of the year 311 which the Emperor
+Maximianus, the Dacian, declared against Armenians on account of their,
+at that time, recent conversion.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1333src"
+href="#xd20e1333" name="xd20e1333src">34</a> The critical studies made
+since the journey of Dubois (1837) are conclusive at least in this,
+that the conversion of Tiridates and of the nation could not have taken
+place later <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb34" href="#pb34" name=
+"pb34">34</a>]</span>than the year 302, and there is no doubt therefore
+of the claim that the Gregorian church is the oldest national Christian
+church of the world.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.3.4" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 4. The Armenian Church as a Social Force</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The conversion of the people followed close upon the
+conversion of the king, for Gregory was a temple-building priest not
+without ambition, and the king was an acknowledged hero. The business
+of converting the nation was not a matter of priests and preaching as
+suggested by Dubois;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1343src" href=
+"#xd20e1343" name="xd20e1343src">35</a> as indicated before, it was
+rather a matter of fire and sword. Ormanian supposes that it was due to
+the work of the Christian communities already established, whose work
+was stimulated and encouraged by the king&rsquo;s conversion.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1346src" href="#xd20e1346" name=
+"xd20e1346src">36</a> &ldquo;Indeed,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;the almost
+instant conversion of the whole of Armenia at the beginning of the
+fourth century, can not be explained but by the pre&euml;xistence of a
+Christian element which had taken root in the country.&rdquo; And
+again, &ldquo;The first nucleus of the faithful, by its steadfast
+energy, at length succeeded in gaining the mastery over both obstacles
+and persecutions.&rdquo; This does not seem to me to be correct, for in
+the first place the Christianity of the first, second, and third
+centuries was not the Christianity of Gregory; it was one of the many
+forms of worship killed by Gregory; and in the second place there are
+sufficient records to prove the wholesale destruction of pagan temples,
+images, idols, and inscriptions as carried out by the king and saint,
+and of the use of the sword in forcing the people to change their
+faith.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1349src" href="#xd20e1349" name=
+"xd20e1349src">37</a></p>
+<p>First, then, what was the Christianity of the first centuries? It is
+clear that the ideal was one of communal simplicity of life. That it
+was opposed to all hierarchies and established priesthoods there can be
+no question. The irksome round of daily toil was idealized in the
+fellowship of a common faith, the central point of which was the
+indwelling of the Spirit of God. Hence baptism was the all-important
+event, for through baptism the Holy Spirit descended into the human
+heart even as into Christ when he was baptized by John in the Jordan.
+Jesus was no God come to earth in human form by a miraculous
+conception; he was the son of Joseph and Mary. Feeling his kinship with
+God he was baptized, which ceremony was merely symbolic of the
+Indwelling Spirit. These early Christians have been called
+adoptionists, for the ceremony of baptism is said to represent the
+adoption of the individual by God, or by the Holy Spirit, both
+expressions having been used synonymously. Simple and pure, it seems
+that the adoptionists came as near carrying out the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb35" href="#pb35" name="pb35">35</a>]</span>spirit
+of the teachings of Jesus as any Christian sect that ever
+existed.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1356src" href="#xd20e1356" name=
+"xd20e1356src">38</a> But how utterly opposed, how perfectly
+contradictory to the brick and mortar religion of Gregory! That the
+adoptionists were objects of persecution by the orthodox church is a
+certainty, and it was very probably this sect that was referred to in
+&ldquo;that stubborn heresy of their native land&rdquo; mentioned so
+frequently by Armenian writers. The following picture was clearly set
+forth in a disputation between two Armenian church-men occurring at the
+close of the third century. &ldquo;Tell me,&rdquo; says Archelaus,
+&ldquo;over whom it was that the Holy Spirit descended like a dove? Who
+is this one whom John baptized? If he was already perfect, if he was
+already the Son, if he was already Virtue, the Holy Spirit could not
+have entered into him. A kingdom can not enter into a
+kingdom.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1362src" href="#xd20e1362"
+name="xd20e1362src">39</a> What is also to the point is the celebrated
+formula of Nice (325) at which the nature of Christ was defined as
+essentially and continuously divine. &ldquo;Christ a very God, begotten
+of God, but not a creature of God; Son of God, of one nature with God;
+who came down from heaven and took flesh, and became man, and suffered
+and ascended unto heaven; who was before he was begotten, and who has
+always been.&rdquo; The decision was in absolute contradiction to the
+adoptionist faith, and it was legislated by this august council, that
+the members of such faith, who were called Paulicians, after their
+leader Paul of Samosata, should be rebaptized before admission to the
+church.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1376src" href="#xd20e1376" name=
+"xd20e1376src">40</a> The recalcitrants were driven to the mountains,
+where they increased in number as in strength until the persecution of
+the ninth century. Both Agathangelus and Faustus of Byzantium were
+silent concerning these people, and, one suspects, advisedly so.</p>
+<p>Such was pre-Gregorian Christianity. How ridiculous to suppose that
+the conversion of the nation was due to the firm roots already
+established by the Christians when the Christians themselves had to be
+converted!</p>
+<p>On the contrary, it was the right of might that established the new
+religion. The troops of the capital city were led by the king and
+priest in such an image- and temple-smashing campaign as was never
+before seen. Proceeding down the Araxes valley, the temple of the god
+Dir was levelled to the ground; the temple of Anahit was stoutly
+defended but to no avail; the temple was burned. One after another of
+the most famous sanctuaries were destroyed; temples of Aramazd, of
+Mithra, of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb36" href="#pb36" name=
+"pb36">36</a>]</span>Nane, and of Anahit, many of which were defended
+by the vanquished until overpowered.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1387src" href="#xd20e1387" name="xd20e1387src">41</a> Shrines of
+Vahakn and of Astghik were laid to waste to be replaced by Christian
+churches which grew up over the ruins as if overnight; and if a temple
+was destroyed, it was only to build a Christian church in its stead. So
+construction followed in the wake of destruction, the old was
+supplanted by the new, and when all armed resistance was beaten down,
+the king and priest continued the work by preaching.</p>
+<p>When the work was fairly under way the ambitious priest journeyed to
+Cesarea in Cappadocia where he got himself ordained. This Gregory was
+no meek-spirited adoptionist. He was the son of Anak, of royal blood,
+ambitious, zealous, suffering and doing all things to gain his
+ends.</p>
+<p>In view, therefore, of the actual character of pre&euml;xisting
+Christianity, and of the methods employed in converting the people, how
+can one reasonably suppose that the &ldquo;instant conversion of the
+whole of Armenia to Christianity can not be explained but by the
+pre&euml;xistence of a Christian element which had taken root in the
+country&rdquo;?</p>
+<p>The state-authorized religion, however, did take root in the
+country, and became inextricably interwoven with the self-consciousness
+of the nation. It became the organ of national expression, and for many
+centuries has been the very backbone of the people. If the molten
+metals of national life had hardened during the reign of the Arsacidae
+kings they were at the time of the conversion in a molten state, ready
+to be remolded. This did not require much time. Old festivals were
+carried over intact, except that they were given a new meaning. The old
+national traditions, legends, and folk-lore were in the common
+possession of the people, and there was no reason for discouraging
+them. In fact the Armenian church even more than the state encouraged
+them, for it recognized in them a source of solidarity and national
+unity, as essential to the life of the church as its hierarchies,
+liturgy, and calendar of saints. So much then was old; part of the past
+carried over into the present to be carried over into the future. What
+then was new? First the legends and traditions, already mentioned,
+imbedded in the immediately past events of the new order. Legends of
+Abgar, of Gregory, of Thaddeus, of Rhipsime, of Tiridates, passed like
+magic fire from person to person, creating a common sentiment which
+made the foundations of the new church absolutely secure. How firmly
+this foundation was established is indicated by the reaction of the
+church to the decisions at the Council of Chalcedon, where the dogma of
+the dual nature of Christ was affirmed, in perfect contradiction to the
+Nic&aelig;an dogma, and by the reaction against the Persian proposals
+to accept fire-worship as the state religion. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb37" href="#pb37" name="pb37">37</a>]</span></p>
+<p>I shall consider the second point first. As already stated, the year
+428 marked the end of the Armenian Arsacid dynasty. The nation was
+divided between Persia and Rome at this time, largely as a result of
+internal dissensions. In the year 450 the Persian king sent a letter to
+the Armenian princes, setting forth the excellence of fire-worship and
+the foolishness of Christianity, and summoned the Armenians to accept
+the Persian religion.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1402src" href=
+"#xd20e1402" name="xd20e1402src">42</a> A council of bishops and laymen
+was held and a reply of unanimous refusal was drawn up. &ldquo;From
+this faith no one can move us, neither angels nor men, neither sword
+nor fire, nor water, nor any deadly punishment.&rdquo;<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1414src" href="#xd20e1414" name=
+"xd20e1414src">43</a> A rather impertinent reply from a subject nation
+to one which dominated it; but thoroughly characteristic of the
+Armenians. The Persians did use fire and sword, and defeated the
+Armenians in the plain of Avarair under Mount Ararat (451). But they
+did not gain their end. An old historian wrote of the battle,
+&ldquo;swords of slayers grew dull, but their necks were not
+weary,&rdquo; and the Persian high priest having seen the utter
+hopelessness of his project wrote, &ldquo;these people have put on
+Christianity, not like a garment, but like flesh and
+blood.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1419src" href="#xd20e1419"
+name="xd20e1419src">44</a></p>
+<p>Already, only one hundred fifty years after the conversion, the
+foundation of the church was secure. This of course was made possible
+by the completeness of the work of its founders; but this in itself
+would not have been sufficient. A common favorable sentiment had been
+created, which grew up under the natural conditions of life, and
+inasmuch as the legends described are part of the common beliefs of the
+people, it may be inferred that they played an important r&ocirc;le in
+the formation of this sentiment. The church, on the other hand, has
+incorporated these legendary beliefs in its ritual and ceremony, and in
+that way has given them the necessary sanction by which they are passed
+on from generation to generation. They thus form part of the permanent
+social tradition of the Armenian people.</p>
+<p>The security of the church at this early time (450) was indicated
+not only by the reaction of the nation to the Persian proposals of
+fire-worship, but also by the reaction to the decision of the Council
+of Chalcedon, at which, as stated, the dual nature of Christ was
+dogmatically affirmed, in contradiction to the dogma established at the
+Council of Nic&aelig;a (325), <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb38" href=
+"#pb38" name="pb38">38</a>]</span>accepted by the Armenian church. But
+at the time of the Chalcedonian council, the Persian difficulties were
+taking place, the battle of Avarair having occurred during the same
+year, and it was not until 491 that the Armenians held a synod of their
+own which assembled at Vagharshapat, in order to take decisive
+action.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1443src" href="#xd20e1443" name=
+"xd20e1443src">45</a> The decisions of the Council of Chalcedon were
+rejected and the action was repeated at subsequent synods. Of the three
+sees or patriarchates, the Roman at Rome, the Greek at Alexandria, and
+the Byzantine at Constantinople, the latter was gaining in power, and
+it was at the Council of Chalcedon that the precedence of the see of
+Constantinople was recognized. Naturally, neither the Roman nor Greek
+sees acknowledged the decision of the council, but later both Greek and
+Latin churches revoked their opposition, and recognized it as the
+fourth &OElig;cumenic Council. But the Armenian church would have
+nothing to do with Chalcedon, in spite of Greek and Latin approval, and
+since that time she has stood alone, absolutely independent of Greek
+and Latin churches. Ormanian states: &ldquo;She set herself to resist
+every new dogmatic utterance said to emanate from revelation, as well
+as any innovation which could in any way pervert the primitive
+faith.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1449src" href="#xd20e1449"
+name="xd20e1449src">46</a> The &ldquo;primitive faith&rdquo; may be a
+slight stretch of point, but the fact that the Armenian church adopted
+an absolutely independent policy, which separated her from all other
+Christian churches, and to which she has steadfastly adhered in spite
+of persistent Greek and Latin influence and efforts at domination, is
+in clear support of my assertion that the social foundations of the
+church were firmly and securely established as early as 450, only one
+hundred fifty years after the work of Gregory and Tiridates.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb39" href="#pb39" name=
+"pb39">39</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1107" href="#xd20e1107src" name="xd20e1107">1</a></span> Clark,
+<i>New Englander</i> 22:507, 672. Raffi p. 127.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1113" href="#xd20e1113src" name="xd20e1113">2</a></span> That
+trees are worshipped even to-day, and that certain superstitions are
+bound up with them is clearly shown by Abeghian. &ldquo;<span lang=
+"de">In den Gegenden Armeniens, wo das Land mit W&auml;ldern bedeckt
+ist, werden viele sehr alte und grosse B&auml;ume f&uuml;r heilig
+gehalten und &auml;hnlicher Weise wie die Quellen verehrt. Man brennt
+vor ihnen Lichter. Weihrauch, opfert ihnen H&auml;hne und Hammel,
+k&uuml;sst sie, kriecht durch ihren gespaltenen Stamm durch, oder
+l&auml;sst magere Kinder durch ihre L&ouml;cher schl&uuml;pfen, um die
+Einwirkung der bosen Geister aufzuheben. Man glaubt dass vom Himmel
+Lichter auf die heiligen B&auml;ume kommen, oder Heilige sich auf
+denselben aufhalten. Auch die B&auml;ume geben Gesundheit, einige
+heilen alle Krankheiten.... Um von B&auml;umen Heilung zu bekommen soll
+man ein St&uuml;ck von seiner Kleidung abreissen und damit den Baum
+umwickeln oder es auf den Baum nageln. Man glaubt dadurch seine
+Krankheit auf den Baum zu &uuml;bertragen.</span>&rdquo; Abeghian pp.
+58, 59.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1123" href="#xd20e1123src" name="xd20e1123">3</a></span>
+Agathangelus p. 127. Emin, <i lang="fr">Recherches sur le Paganisme
+Arm&eacute;nien</i> p. 9.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1129" href="#xd20e1129src" name="xd20e1129">4</a></span> Raffi,
+article in Boyadjian&rsquo;s <i>Armenian Legends and Poetry</i>.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1135" href="#xd20e1135src" name="xd20e1135">5</a></span> Tir is
+mentioned only once by Agathangelus (p. 164) and he is not mentioned by
+any other Armenian writers (Langlois 1:164). Emin compares him to the
+Greek Hermes or Mercury, probably because Agathangelus speaks of him as
+the recorder or reporter of Aramazd. (Emin p. 20, note 1.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1145" href="#xd20e1145src" name="xd20e1145">6</a></span> Abeghian
+p. 4.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1150" href="#xd20e1150src" name="xd20e1150">7</a></span> He
+corresponds to the Persian Mithra and is hence of Persian origin and
+not Greek. The Greek translation of Agathangelus regards him as
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e1152" title=
+"Source: analagous">analogous</span> to Vulcan, which Emin considers to
+be incorrect. (Agathangelus p. 168; Emin p. 20.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1156" href="#xd20e1156src" name="xd20e1156">8</a></span> Raffi,
+article in Boyadjian&rsquo;s <i>Armenian Legends and Poetry</i>.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Seklemian&rsquo;s <i>Tales</i>. Preface by
+Blackwell.</p>
+<p class="footnote" lang="de"><span class="label"><a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e1171" href="#xd20e1171src" name="xd20e1171">9</a></span>
+&ldquo;Und auch heute pflegt man stellenweise niederzuknieen und zu
+beten: &lsquo;O du g&ouml;ttliche strahlende Sonne! Dein Fuss ruhe auf
+meinem Antlitz! Bewahre meine Kinder.&rsquo;&rdquo; u. s. w. Abeghian
+p. 43.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1176" href="#xd20e1176src" name="xd20e1176">10</a></span>
+Although the Greeks have identified Anahit with their goddess of
+chastity, Artemid, the Armenian goddess is not of Greek, but of
+Assyro-Babylonian origin according to Emin. Her name
+&ldquo;Anahato&rdquo; in ancient Persian means &ldquo;Spotless.&rdquo;
+Agathangelus p. 126; Emin p. 10.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1179" href="#xd20e1179src" name="xd20e1179">11</a></span>
+Agathangelus. Langlois 1:127.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1184" href="#xd20e1184src" name="xd20e1184">12</a></span> Raffi
+p. 129.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Both Nane and Astghik are mentioned by Agathangelus
+who speaks of the latter as the Aphrodite of the Greeks. (Agathangelus
+p. 173.) Emin likens Nane to Venus. The fact is that very little is
+known of either. (Agathangelus p. 168; Emin, p. 16.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1195" href="#xd20e1195src" name="xd20e1195">13</a></span> St.
+Martin 1:305, 306.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1201" href="#xd20e1201src" name="xd20e1201">14</a></span> In the
+reigns of Artasches I and Tigranes II, many Greek statues were imported
+from abroad, and the latter king not only constructed temples for the
+worship of Greek divinities, but also ordered all to offer sacrifices
+and to worship newly acquired gods and goddesses. (Moses of Khorene pp.
+86&ndash;88.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1209" href="#xd20e1209src" name="xd20e1209">15</a></span> St.
+Martin 1:295.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1212" href="#xd20e1212src" name="xd20e1212">16</a></span> Moses
+of Khorene p. 95.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1222" href="#xd20e1222src" name="xd20e1222">17</a></span> Moses
+of Khorene p. 96.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1230" href="#xd20e1230src" name="xd20e1230">18</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i></p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1240" href="#xd20e1240src" name="xd20e1240">19</a></span>
+Ormanian p. 3.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1247" href="#xd20e1247src" name="xd20e1247">20</a></span> There
+is another legend of St. Thaddeus, according to which he converted
+Abgar and his whole court to Christianity, curing the king of his
+disease at the same time. (Moses p. 97.) Abgar, who died shortly
+afterword, divided his kingdom between his son and nephew. The former
+at once resumed the pagan worship while the latter was forced to
+apostatize. But the preaching and martyrdom of St. Thaddeus at the hand
+of Sanatruk, the nephew, is recorded by Faustus of Byzantium, one of
+the most reliable of early Armenian historians. (Faustus of Byzantium.
+Langlois 1:210. See also Lynch, <i>Armenia</i> 1:278, and Moses of
+Khorene pp. 98&ndash;99.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1260" href="#xd20e1260src" name="xd20e1260">21</a></span> Lynch
+1:286.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1265" href="#xd20e1265src" name="xd20e1265">22</a></span> St.
+Martin pp. 302, 303.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1268" href="#xd20e1268src" name="xd20e1268">23</a></span>
+Agathangelus. Langlois 1:115.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1271" href="#xd20e1271src" name="xd20e1271">24</a></span> St.
+Martin p. 303.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Agathangelus p. 122.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1279" href="#xd20e1279src" name="xd20e1279">25</a></span> St.
+Martin p. 304. Agathangelus p. 121.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1286" href="#xd20e1286src" name="xd20e1286">26</a></span>
+Agathangelus pp. 126&ndash;33.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1291" href="#xd20e1291src" name="xd20e1291">27</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> p. 135.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1298" href="#xd20e1298src" name="xd20e1298">28</a></span> Lynch
+1:256. Agathangelus p. 139.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1310" href="#xd20e1310src" name="xd20e1310">29</a></span> Critics
+have distinguished Agathangelus, the historian, from Pseudo
+Agathangelus, the meddler, who evidently had religious interests at
+stake. The former lived in the fourth century, and was secretary to
+Tiridates, who unquestionably commissioned him to keep the records of
+the events of his reign. He is spoken of by Moses and other ancient
+historians as sincere and reliable. It is thus assumed that the
+original work has been destroyed or lost, and that the Greek and
+Armenian texts now existing are the work of an interpolater who desired
+to weave the straggling skeins of religious sentiment into a single
+garment by establishing an historic and literary sanction to the
+religious events of the period of the conversion. There are many
+indications of this, chief of which is the highly imaginative style of
+narrative, undoubtedly designed with the particular intent of capturing
+the minds of the people. (Langlois&rsquo; introduction to Agathangelus
+1:99&ndash;108.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1313" href="#xd20e1313src" name="xd20e1313">30</a></span>
+Langlois in his footnotes states that the chapel consecrated to St.
+Gaiane was constructed by the Katholikos Ezdras in the year 630. and
+repaired in 1652. The church of St. Rhipsime was built by the
+Katholikos Gomidas in 618, and repaired in 1653. The main cathedral was
+built by St. Gregory. They are situated in Etchmiadzin. (Dubois 3:213.
+Langlois 1:160, 162.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1318" href="#xd20e1318src" name="xd20e1318">31</a></span> Lynch
+1:291, note.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1325" href="#xd20e1325src" name="xd20e1325">32</a></span> Dubois
+3:276.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1330" href="#xd20e1330src" name="xd20e1330">33</a></span> Bryce
+pp. 314, 315.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1333" href="#xd20e1333src" name="xd20e1333">34</a></span>
+Ormanian p. 13.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1343" href="#xd20e1343src" name="xd20e1343">35</a></span> Dubois
+3:276.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1346" href="#xd20e1346src" name="xd20e1346">36</a></span>
+Ormanian p. 8.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1349" href="#xd20e1349src" name="xd20e1349">37</a></span>
+Agathangelus pp. 164&ndash;66.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1356" href="#xd20e1356src" name="xd20e1356">38</a></span> See
+Conybeare&rsquo;s translation and annotation of the <i>Key of
+Truth</i>, the book of the Paulicians (Adoptionists) of Thonrak. This
+book contains the baptismal and ordinal service of the Adoptionist
+church. (Especially pp. vi&ndash;xcxii.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1362" href="#xd20e1362src" name="xd20e1362">39</a></span>
+Conybeare p. xcvii. The original is given by Conybeare as follows:
+&ldquo;<span lang="la">Dic mihi</span>,&rdquo; says Archelaus,
+&ldquo;<span lang="la">super quem Spiritus Sanctus sicut columba
+descendit. Quis est etiam qui baptizatur a Ioanne si perfectus erat, si
+Filius erat, si vertus erat, non poterat Spiritus ingredi; sicut nee
+regnum potest ingredi intra regnum<span class="corr" id="xd20e1370"
+title="Not in source">.</span></span>&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="footnote">Lynch 1:279.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1376" href="#xd20e1376src" name="xd20e1376">40</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> 1:282.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1387" href="#xd20e1387src" name="xd20e1387">41</a></span> Lynch
+1:294.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Agathangelus pp. 164&ndash;66.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1402" href="#xd20e1402src" name="xd20e1402">42</a></span> St.
+Martin 1: appendix.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Elis&eacute;e Vartabed<span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e1407" title="Source: .">,</span> <i lang="fr">Histoire de
+Vartan</i>. Langlois 2:190&ndash;91.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1414" href="#xd20e1414src" name="xd20e1414">43</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> p. 195.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1419" href="#xd20e1419src" name="xd20e1419">44</a></span>
+Lidgett<span class="corr" id="xd20e1422" title="Source: .">,</span>
+<i>An Ancient People</i>.</p>
+<p class="footnote">The detailed events of this struggle against the
+Persians are told in the <i lang="fr">Histoire de Vartan et de la
+Guerre des Arm&eacute;niens</i>, by Elis&eacute;e Vartabed who belonged
+to the second order of translators and served under General Vartan
+during the war, the history of which he narrates<span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e1433" title="Not in source">.</span> After the sad ending of the
+series of dramatic incidents that made up this struggle for religious
+freedom, Elis&eacute;e sought solitude and lived on herbs and roots in
+a mountainside cave which came to be known as the &ldquo;cave of
+Elis&eacute;e.&rdquo; Because of a growing social intimacy he was
+obliged to find a second cave in a more remote section of the country,
+where he completed his work and died. His history is written in the
+style of a religious mystic, is full of dramatic imagery, and has come
+down as an Armenian classic. (Langlois 2:179&ndash;82.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1443" href="#xd20e1443src" name="xd20e1443">45</a></span> Lynch
+1:313.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Ormanian p. 35.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1449" href="#xd20e1449src" name="xd20e1449">46</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> p. 36.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.4" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="label">Chapter IV</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Locality Legends</h2>
+<div id="ch1.4.1" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 1. Ararat</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">There is a third and last body of Armenian legends
+more closely related to the second group discussed than to the first,
+and yet marked off in some respects from the second as well. They have
+a distinct religious stamp like those we have just finished describing,
+and they are all related in some way to the stories of the Old
+Testament. The legend of Haic is related to the Old Testament, for Haic
+was the great-grandson of Noah, but it clearly belongs to the first
+group taken up, for the reason that it has to do with the origin of the
+Armenian nation. The first body, including Haic, and the legends of
+Semiramis and Ara, Vahakn, Artasches and Satenik, and Artavazd, are all
+concerned with ancient Armenian kings, real or mythical, and all go
+back to a time before the introduction of Christianity. Vahakn was
+deified, but that does not exclude him since he was first a king. The
+second group, including the legends of Abgar, Rhipsime and Gaiane,
+Gregory, Thaddeus, and Tiridates, are all concerned with historical
+figures, real or supposed, and there is no doubt about their historic
+reality, with the exception of Rhipsime and Gaiane. But what marks them
+off from the other groups is that they are all concerned with the
+introduction of Christianity into the country. Those of the third group
+have no historic value whatever. They are legends based upon legends
+that date back to a period even more remote than the legend of Haic,
+and their social value does not approach that of the first two groups.
+They are all connected in some way, either with the Old Testament
+legend of Noah, or with the legend of the origin of man. No traveler
+ever passed through Armenia without hearing of one or more of them.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;In the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month,
+the ark rested upon the mountains of Ararat.&rdquo;<a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e1467src" href="#xd20e1467" name="xd20e1467src">1</a> Every
+Armenian, and others, too, believe that this is the Ararat of Armenia,
+or Masis as it is called, and it is true that there is absolutely
+nothing to disprove such a belief. James Bryce has given a careful
+consideration to the question, and states in conclusion that full
+liberty is left to the traveler to consider the &ldquo;snowy sovereign
+of the Araxes plain&rdquo; to be the true Ararat.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1470src" href="#xd20e1470" name="xd20e1470src">2</a> There are
+several points that may be noted. First, there is nothing in the
+statement of Genesis to show that the Ararat mentioned was a mountain
+called by that <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb40" href="#pb40" name=
+"pb40">40</a>]</span>name; it seems rather that Ararat was a section of
+country, for the passage states that the ark rested &ldquo;upon the
+mountains of Ararat.&rdquo; In the second place, the mountain is not
+called Ararat by Armenians, but Masis. And thirdly, there is no
+independent Armenian tradition of the flood so far as is known, for it
+can not be shown that the modern tradition is older than the Christian
+era.</p>
+<p>These facts would be conclusive evidence that Armenian Ararat is not
+the traditional Ararat of the Old Testament, were it not, first, for
+the fact that there was in the region of the mountain a province of
+Airarat which in all probability corresponds to the biblical Ararat.
+Secondly, the biblical Ararat unquestionably corresponds to the
+Assyrian Urarthu which is the section of country about Lake Van and
+Mount Ararat. So that, although not absolutely conclusive, the Armenian
+tradition enjoys a very high degree of probability.</p>
+<p>In this connection the legend of the village of Nakhitchevan is
+worth noting. It is situated just to the north of the mountain on the
+left bank of the Araxes. Armenians believe it to be the place where
+Noah first landed, and as proof, the name of the village, which means,
+&ldquo;the first place of landing,&rdquo; is cited. One might suppose
+the name to have been given by the Christians after the conversion to
+Christianity, were it not that Ptolemy places in the same spot a city
+named Naxuana which is the exact Greek for the Armenian name. Also
+Josephus, fifty years before Ptolemy speaks of the place, as quoted by
+St. Martin<span class="corr" id="xd20e1485" title="Source: ;">:</span>
+&ldquo;<span lang="fr">Les Arm&eacute;niens appellent ce lieu
+l&rsquo;endroit de la descente parce que c&rsquo;est l&agrave; que
+l&rsquo;arche trouva un endroit de salut, et qu&rsquo;encore
+actuellement les indig&egrave;nes montrent ses
+d&eacute;bris.</span>&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1491src" href=
+"#xd20e1491" name="xd20e1491src">3</a> Tavernier who traveled through
+the country along about 1700 speaks of Nakhitchevan as the
+&ldquo;oldest city of the world&rdquo; and gives the
+tradition.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1494src" href="#xd20e1494" name=
+"xd20e1494src">4</a> But many Jews, who undoubtedly gave the village
+its name, lived in Armenia, long before the Christian era.</p>
+<p>Situated on a broad plain four or five thousand feet above sea
+level, Ararat rises majestic and solitary to a height of 17,000 feet.
+There are no lesser peaks or ranges to destroy the grandeur of the
+effect. Except for its companion<span class="corr" id="xd20e1502"
+title="Source: .">,</span> Little Ararat, which rises beside it on a
+common base to a height of 12,840 feet, it stands alone as monarch of
+the broad plain it surveys. Little Ararat is in the form of a perfect
+cone, whereas Ararat is broad-shouldered and dome-shaped, supported by
+huge buttresses and capped with snow a considerable distance down the
+slope through the entire year. It is truly symbolic of strength and
+majesty.</p>
+<p>Such is the mountain about which a thousand legends cluster. Marco
+Polo says of the mountain: &ldquo;There is an exceeding great mountain
+on which <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb41" href="#pb41" name=
+"pb41">41</a>]</span>it is said the ark of Noah rested, and for this
+cause it is called the mountain of the Ark of Noah.&rdquo; In 1254, a
+little before Marco Polo&rsquo;s time, a Franciscan friar, William of
+Rubruck passed by the mountain upon which the ark is said to have
+rested, which mountain, he said, could not be ascended, though the
+earnest prayers of a pious monk prevailed so far that a piece of the
+wood of the ark was brought to him by an angel, which piece, he said,
+is still preserved in a church near by as a holy relic. He gives Masis
+as the name of the mountain and adds that it is the Mother of the
+World. According to a Persian tradition it is called &ldquo;Cradle of
+the Human Race.&rdquo; Still more interesting is the account by Sir
+John Maundeville, part of which runs as follows: &ldquo;<span lang=
+"en-1200">Fro Artyroun go men to an Hille, that is clept Sabisocolle.
+And there besyde is another Hille, that men clepen Ararathe: but the
+Jews clepen it Taneez, where Noas Schipp rested: and zit is upon that
+Montayne and men may see it a ferr in clear wedre: and that Montayne is
+well a myle high. And sum men seyn that they have seen and touched the
+Schipp; and put here Fyngres in the parties where the Feend went out
+when that Noe seyd &lsquo;Benedicta.&rsquo; But they that seyn such
+Wordes seyn here Willie, for a man may not gon up the Montayne for gret
+plenties of Snow that is alle weys on that Montayne nouther Somer ne
+Winter: so that no man may gon up there: ne never man did, sithe the
+time of Noe: Saf a Monk that be the grace of God brought one of the
+Plankes down, that zit is in the Mynstre at the foot of the Montayne.
+And beside is the Cytes of Dayne that Noe founded. And faste by it is
+the Cytee of Any, in which were 1000 churches. But upon that Montayne
+to gon up this monk had gret desir; and so upon a day he went up and
+when he was the third part of the Montayne he was so wery that he
+mighte not furthere, and so he rested him and felle to slep, and when
+he awoke he fonde himself liggyie at the foot of the Montayne. And then
+he preyde devoutly to God that he wold vouch saf to suffre him gon up.
+And an angelle cam to him and seyde that he scholde gon up; and so he
+did. And sithe that Time never non. Wherefore men scholde not beleeve
+such Woordes.</span>&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1512src" href=
+"#xd20e1512" name="xd20e1512src">5</a></p>
+<p>The legend of the monk is usually given in a form which confirms
+still more the sacredness of the mountain. St. Jacob, as the monk was
+named, tried three successive times to climb the mountain. Each time he
+fell asleep intending to resume his journey the next morning, only to
+wake up finding himself at the same point he had started from the
+preceding day. An angel came to him after the third time, and told him
+that God had forbidden mortal foot ever to tread on the sacred summit,
+but that he should be given a fragment of the ark in which mankind had
+been preserved as a reward for his devout perseverance.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1520src" href="#xd20e1520" name="xd20e1520src">6</a>
+This treasure is still <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb42" href="#pb42"
+name="pb42">42</a>]</span>preserved at Etchmiadzin and the saint is
+commemorated by the little monastery of St. Jacob, which till 1840,
+when a tremendous shaking of the mountain showered the little monastery
+with rocks of destruction, stood above the valley of Arghuri on the
+slopes of Ararat.</p>
+<p>The little village of Arghuri, the single village on the
+mountainside, was the city of Noah&rsquo;s vineyard, and contained a
+little church which is said to hallow the spot where Noah first set up
+an altar.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1527src" href="#xd20e1527" name=
+"xd20e1527src">7</a> But this village<span class="corr" id="xd20e1533"
+title="Not in source">,</span> too, was completely destroyed by the
+avalanche of 1840. Not the slightest trace of it remains, though only
+three years before its destruction, Dubois de Montp&egrave;reux visited
+the little city and described it together with the church of Noah,
+Noah&rsquo;s vineyard, and the monastery of St. Jacob.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1536src" href="#xd20e1536" name="xd20e1536src">8</a>
+In the garden of the city were planted pear trees, apple, plum, cherry,
+apricot, peach, and nut trees. This very garden was the site of the
+first vine on which the old patriarch became drunk, and the inhabitants
+showed Dubois some bits of creepers to prove it. &ldquo;<span lang=
+"fr">Dieu,</span>&rdquo; they said, &ldquo;<span lang="fr">pour punir
+les ceps qui avaient ainsi entrain&eacute; le pauvre patriarche dans le
+p&eacute;ch&eacute;, les condamna a ne plus porter de
+raisins.</span>&rdquo; Na&iuml;ve, yes, but very sweetly so. And the
+church, the people said, marked the place where Noah offered his first
+sacrifice after the deluge. Except for the garden of Arghuri, wrote
+Dubois, this great mountain was absolutely destitute of verdure; an old
+stunted willow, wound about with snow and ice was the only other
+exception to this. According to the legend, it marked the spot where a
+board of Noah&rsquo;s ark had taken root and sprung up into a living
+tree which the people venerated. One was not permitted to take away
+even the smallest of its feeble branches.</p>
+<p>All of this was blotted out so completely by the shower of falling
+rocks and boulders that it is hard to imagine the places as ever having
+existed. The primeval willow, the vineyard, the sacred church, and the
+little monastery of St. Jacob have left not the slightest trace. The
+bell of the old church is no more heard; the Christian service is not
+chanted any longer on the sacred mountain of the Ark.</p>
+<p>Of the numerous other legends associated with the mountain I shall
+mention only two. One of them regards the summit of the mountain as the
+site of Chaldean star-worship, and asserts that a pillar with a figure
+of a star stood upon it.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1549src" href=
+"#xd20e1549" name="xd20e1549src">9</a> According to the same legend,
+twelve wise men stood beside the pillar to watch for the star of the
+East, which three of them followed to Bethlehem. The other is in
+respect to the spring situated above the spot where stood the
+monastery. A bird, called by the Armenians tetagush, feeds on the
+locusts which are such a plague to <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb43"
+href="#pb43" name="pb43">43</a>]</span>the country, and curiously
+enough, the bird is attracted by the waters of the spring. When the
+locusts appear, the people carry their bottles to the spring and
+filling them with the peculiarly charmed water, take them back to their
+fields where they are placed on the ground to attract the tetagush. The
+people of Syria and Palestine were much in need of tetagush and Ararat
+spring water during the spring and summer of 1915, for the swarms of
+locusts not only devoured the crops but also the leaves and barks of
+the trees.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.4.2" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 2. Khor-Virap and Erzerum</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">On the bank of the Araxes, in the plain of Armenia,
+and in full view of Ararat are located the monastery of Khor-Virap and
+the chapel of St. Gregory close beside it. An Armenian inscription is
+cut in the walls of the portico of the monastery which marks the spot
+where a monk, Johannes by name, appeared twice after his death saying
+that he had seen Gregory the Illuminator. The chapel of St. Gregory
+covers the traditional well into which he was thrown and imprisoned for
+thirteen years by King Tiridates. Dubois descended into a sort of
+tunnel, fifteen or sixteen feet below the pavement of the chapel, which
+is part of an old fortress, and was shown the worn stones of a niche
+where the saint prayed, as evidence of the thirteen years, quite as
+though other pilgrims who knelt in the same place could not have
+assisted somewhat the pious work of the saint.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1559src" href="#xd20e1559" name="xd20e1559src">10</a> The spot is
+only a few steps from the famous temple dedicated to the principal god
+of the Armenians, Aramazd, and it seems clear that the pagan king
+intended to make a sacrifice to his gods in casting the young fanatic
+into the well. The temple was called Achelichad, meaning &ldquo;many
+sacrifices&rdquo; because of the many offerings here given up to
+Aramazd. With the era of Christianity, the name Achelichad gave way to
+the name Khor Virap, meaning dry well. Gregorius Magistros, already
+mentioned, brought the body of the saint from Constantinople and placed
+it in the bottom of the well, where it served to cure sick
+pilgrims.</p>
+<p>There is a tradition that the Armenian city of Erzerum, not far from
+the source of the Euphrates, marks the vicinity of the Garden of Eden.
+The Persian king Khosref Purveez is said to have encamped in the
+neighborhood and to have received a message from the prophet Mohammed
+during his sojourn, in which he was offered the protection of Islam if
+he would embrace the faith. But the king spurned the proposal and
+tossed the letter into the Euphrates. Nature, horrified at the
+sacrilege, dried up the flowers and fruits of the ancient garden and
+even parched up the sources of the river itself. And so the last relic
+of Eden became waste.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1564src" href=
+"#xd20e1564" name="xd20e1564src">11</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"pb44" href="#pb44" name="pb44">44</a>]</span></p>
+<p>In the same connection, there is a plaintive Armenian elegy,
+composed in the person of Adam, who, sitting at the gate of paradise
+and beholding cherubim and seraphim enter the garden, makes the
+following defence: he did not eat the forbidden fruit until after he
+had witnessed its fatal effects upon Eve, when, seeing her despoiled of
+all her glory, he was touched with pity and tasted the immortal fruit
+in the hope that the Creator, contemplating both in the same plight
+might with paternal love take compassion on them. But in vain.
+&ldquo;The Lord cursed the serpent and Eve,&rdquo; pathetically cries
+Adam, &ldquo;and I was enslaved between them.&rdquo; The elegy closes
+most touchingly,&mdash;&ldquo;When ye enter Eden, shut not the gate of
+paradise, but place me standing at the gate. I will look in a moment
+and then bring me back. Ah! I remember ye, O flowers and sweet smelling
+fountains. Ah! I remember ye, O birds, sweet singing, And ye, O
+beasts.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1573src" href="#xd20e1573"
+name="xd20e1573src">12</a> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb45" href=
+"#pb45" name="pb45">45</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1467" href="#xd20e1467src" name="xd20e1467">1</a></span> Genesis
+8:4.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1470" href="#xd20e1470src" name="xd20e1470">2</a></span> James
+Bryce, <i>Transcaucasia and Ararat</i> p. 210.</p>
+<p class="footnote">St. Martin 1:264.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1491" href="#xd20e1491src" name="xd20e1491">3</a></span> St.
+Martin 1:267&ndash;68.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1494" href="#xd20e1494src" name="xd20e1494">4</a></span>
+Tavernier, <i>Voyages</i> 1:43.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1512" href="#xd20e1512src" name="xd20e1512">5</a></span> Bryce,
+<i>Transcaucasia and Ararat</i>, chapter on Ararat.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1520" href="#xd20e1520src" name="xd20e1520">6</a></span> Dubois
+3:465.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1527" href="#xd20e1527src" name="xd20e1527">7</a></span> Arghuri
+means &ldquo;<span lang="it">Il sema la vigne</span>.&rdquo; St. Martin
+pp. 266, 267.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1536" href="#xd20e1536src" name="xd20e1536">8</a></span> Dubois
+3:465&ndash;68.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1549" href="#xd20e1549src" name="xd20e1549">9</a></span> Bryce,
+chapter on Ararat.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1559" href="#xd20e1559src" name="xd20e1559">10</a></span> Dubois
+3:468.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1564" href="#xd20e1564src" name="xd20e1564">11</a></span>
+Countess Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, chapter on Armenian folk-songs.
+<i>Fraser&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (n.s.) 13:283&ndash;97.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1573" href="#xd20e1573src" name="xd20e1573">12</a></span>
+<i>Fraser&rsquo;s Magazine</i> (n.s.) 13:283&ndash;97.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch1.5" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="label">Chapter V</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Interpretation and Conclusions</h2>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">Because these legends are for the most part based upon
+older legends, and also because some of them are known only locally,
+they can not be said to have played so important a r&ocirc;le in
+Armenian social life as the first two groups of legends. It would be a
+mistake, however, to suppose that all of the Ararat legends have merely
+a local value. Ararat is the center of the nation, the grand
+geographical feature of the country, and many of the beliefs clustered
+about it are held in common. In fact there is a very old belief which
+considers the sacred mountain to be the center of the world, and to-day
+it is the common point of meeting of the boundaries of Russian,
+Turkish, and Persian Armenia. And this is no accident; it is because of
+the veneration in which the mountain is held, and consequently, the
+realization of the importance the mountain gives to any territory in
+which it may be located. The belief that Ararat is the mountain of the
+Ark, the legend of Noah&rsquo;s vineyard, and the legend of St. Jacob
+are very commonly accepted. The primeval willow, the church of Arghuri,
+the legend, or perhaps one should say, the superstition of the
+tetagush, and the legend of the wise men in search of the star of the
+East, enjoy a more restricted circulation. Furthermore, it is natural
+to suppose that the legends centered in the destroyed city of Arghuri
+have not been told as frequently as of old, and are therefore dying out
+gradually, although they seem still to be very much alive. A legend or
+tradition that is objectified in an old willow, in a monastery, or in a
+garden, is likely to die out gradually with the destruction of its
+object. But some of them will never die out, object or no object, as
+for example the legend of the devout monk who tried to gain the summit
+of Ararat in order to see the holy Ark. There is something in his
+waking up each successive morning only to find himself at the same
+point he had started from the preceding day, which will keep its hold,
+whether there be a monastery erected in his name or not. And if the
+vineyard has been destroyed the people may very soon find another. In
+fact I should be surprised if in traveling through the mountain region
+of Ararat, I was not shown the legendary vineyard. This, however, would
+more likely be true of a legend that had a commercial value to the
+community because of the frequency of travelers, which could certainly
+not be said of Ararat legends. The same general valuation may be placed
+upon the Erzerum legends. A legend of this sort is not believed to be
+true, unless the legend upon which it is based is commonly believed in,
+and it is certainly safe to suppose that a majority of the Armenian
+people accept the Old Testament legends. This is important, for when a
+legend <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb46" href="#pb46" name=
+"pb46">46</a>]</span>is not a matter of implicit belief by a people it
+has little social value. The elegy of Adam can not be properly said to
+be a legend at all.</p>
+<p>The preceding pages point out certain points of resemblance, and
+certain points of difference between the two words, legend and
+tradition, which require to be brought out at this point, first,
+because of vague and loose current usage, and second, in order to
+establish my own use of these terms. In the first place they are
+beliefs, and here lies the secret of their social value. Let them be
+disbelieved in and they may furnish material for entertaining
+after-dinner conversation, but they no more have the power of welding a
+people together into a nation, a caste, or a sect; they no longer have
+the power of creating a common sentiment among a large number of people
+or of creating a national consciousness.</p>
+<p>And in the second place, both the tradition and the legend are
+passed on from person to person, and from generation to generation.
+When a tradition is defined as a belief that is handed down orally from
+father to son, it is not at all differentiated from the legend which is
+also a belief, and which may also be passed on orally from generation
+to generation. Neither does a legend or a tradition change its
+character when the meaning is represented by symbols cut in rock,
+inscribed on papyrus, or written on paper. The event of inscription is
+very often a part of their history.</p>
+<p>But when it comes to a question of historic value we mark the
+parting of the ways. A tradition, used in the sense with which we are
+concerned here, is always rooted in an indisputable historic fact.
+Consider the traditions of Islam that are centered about the prophet
+Mohammed. They may have a thousand variations, may have embodied
+falsehood after falsehood in the course of their transmission from
+place to place, and from generation to generation, as most of them
+unquestionably have, but they are traditions, nevertheless, because
+they are associated with a character who is an undisputed historic
+figure. The refusal of St. Gregory to offer garlands to the goddess
+Anahit, and his imprisonment in the well during a period of thirteen
+years is a tradition because the belief is associated with a historic
+character. Compare this with the beliefs concerning Haic, Vahakn,
+Semiramis and Ara, and the distinction is clear, for these characters
+are all mythical. Artasches and Artavasd are generally recognized as
+historical kings, and are so spoken of by Moses. As such the beliefs
+concerning them should be classed as traditions. However, Moses as a
+historian has been relegated to a secondary position by
+Carri&egrave;re, who gave the work a critical examination. This would
+make the beliefs concerning Artasches and Satenik and Artavasd purely
+legendary, unless further research establishes more reliable sources of
+which we do not know. The first group therefore are legends.</p>
+<p>In regard to the second group of beliefs all having to do with the
+introduction of Christianity, Bartholomew, Thaddeus, Gregory, and
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb47" href="#pb47" name=
+"pb47">47</a>]</span>Tiridates are unquestionably historic; Rhipsime
+and Gaiane are mythical; the historic authenticity of Abgar is also
+questionable. We should therefore speak of the legends of Rhipsime,
+Gaiane and Abgar, and of the traditions of Bartholomew, Thaddeus,
+Gregory, and Tiridates.</p>
+<p>The Ararat and Erzerum group are of course legends with one or two
+exceptions. The belief concerning the scorning of the proposal of
+Mohammed by the Persian king who was encamped on the Euphrates as
+explaining the barrenness of the Garden of Eden certainly has to do
+with an historic figure, and perhaps two. But it is a legend,
+nevertheless, because both the prophet of Arabia and the Persian king
+are accidental rather than fundamental to the belief. The fundamental
+basis of belief is the legend of the Garden of Eden. The elegy of Adam
+in explanation of his sinful conduct is neither legend nor tradition,
+and the belief concerning the tetagush and the spring of Ararat is a
+superstition. It results in a distinct type of conduct marking it off
+from both tradition and legend.</p>
+<p>I have stated my conclusions at various places, and it would be
+pointless repetition to summarize them all. I shall therefore sum up
+only the important ones. The first is that the legends and traditions
+of Part One are an important part of a larger body of Armenian legends,
+traditions, folk-songs, and folk-lore, and that their social value lies
+in the power they have of creating a national sentiment. This national
+sentiment is the direct result of a social process accomplished through
+the medium of the traditions, legends, and folk-songs spoken of. An
+analysis of the national sentiment of ancient Armenia would lead us to
+the conclusion that it was made up of at least three elements: first, a
+sentiment of loyalty to the state; secondly, a sentiment of reverence
+amounting almost to worship for the past glory of the nation; and
+thirdly, a sentiment of love for the country.</p>
+<p>The last sentiment is an especially real experience to all
+Armenians. Objectified as it was at first in the vast plains, the broad
+river valleys, the mountain ranges, or simply in the soil that brought
+forth its vegetation, it came to be objectified in a spirit of
+independence and in the ideals of freedom and strength. These two
+objects of the national sentiment of love, the one material, the other
+immaterial, are not, however, to be dissociated in the social mind, as
+I have dissociated them on paper. They are inseparable, the material
+and the spiritual, and simply do not exist apart from each other. Only
+the emphasis varies, symbolized in one case by the peasant&rsquo;s
+kissing his native soil, and in the other by the far-away look toward
+the summit of some distant mountain. And when this sentiment of love is
+the most important of those sentiments that go to make up a national
+sentiment, that is, when it dominates all the others, holding them in
+subjection, there has come to be a national self. A continuous stream
+of consciousness envelopes the national self, and inasmuch as it
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb48" href="#pb48" name=
+"pb48">48</a>]</span>implies a highly-organized and well-developed
+national self, national-self-consciousness is the larger term. It may
+be objectified and examined especially at a time of injustice from
+without, and even at the time of an obvious act of injustice by the
+state which usually results in civil strife. The latter case is
+illustrative of how one of the sentiments that make up the national
+sentiment may be under the domination of another, the sentiment of
+loyalty to the state being subordinate to the sentiment of love for the
+country in this case.</p>
+<p>That the national self is organic, i.e., that it is functional, a
+vital, living thing which grows and dies is clearly brought out by the
+second group of legends considered. This is the second general
+conclusion. The legends and traditions mentioned in this group are of
+course again part of a larger body, all of which have to do with the
+introduction of Christianity into the country. The important point is
+that from this larger body of beliefs there resulted a new national
+sentiment, new because something had come to be incorporated within it
+which was not there before. This something was a sentiment of loyalty
+to the church, evidenced in the readiness to uphold and protect the
+church with all its recognized encumbrances of hierarchies and
+paraphernalia against all foreign intrusion, whether peaceful or
+military in character. With the destruction of the state, this
+sentiment of loyalty to the church largely absorbed the sentiment of
+loyalty to the state. Reverence for the past glory of the nation went
+on unchanged except in so far as the church intensified it as a means
+of intensifying the whole national sentiment.</p>
+<p>A loosely organized, heterogeneous group of people can not boast of
+a national sentiment, nor of the united action necessary in times of
+national crisis, as when a people go to war. This united action is only
+possible where the diverse sentiments of a more or less heterogeneous
+people have been woven into a national sentiment of the kind spoken of.
+This weaving process, as I have shown, is essentially a social process,
+and the materials by means of which it is carried on are largely such
+as I have been describing, namely, the legends, traditions, and
+folk-lore that have somehow grown up among a people. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb49" href="#pb49" name="pb49">49</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="div0 part" id="pt2">
+<h2 class="label">Part Two</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Festivals</h2>
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb51" href="#pb51" name=
+"pb51">51</a>]</span>
+<div id="ch2.1" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="label">Chapter I</h2>
+<h2 class="main">The Gregorian Church</h2>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">As the materials of Part One are part of a larger mass
+of legends, traditions, and folk-lore, the social value of which lies
+in their power of creating a national or group sentiment, so the
+festivals and ceremonies to be taken up in Part Two are part of a
+larger mass of festivals, ceremonies, and rites whose social value lies
+in the fact that they constitute a necessary vehicle of expression for
+this same national sentiment. The festivals are a necessary counterpart
+of the legends, as the latter are a necessary counterpart of the
+former. Activity is one of the most fundamental of nature&rsquo;s laws.
+The sentiment of love for an individual dies eventually in the absence
+of some formal mode of active expression. But be the action ever so
+little a thing, such as the laying of flowers upon the grave of the
+dead, the visiting of a shrine, or the sight of some hallowed spot of
+sacred memory, the sentiment is kept alive. To be sure a sentiment may
+smoulder for a lifetime, even as a national sentiment may slumber for
+centuries without a mode of expression, and then all of a sudden burst
+forth into a flame, or awaken into life at a mere suggestion from
+outside. Bereft of statehood, the sentiment of loyalty for the state
+has slumbered for centuries within the breast of the Armenian people,
+but how often, how too sadly often, has it not suddenly awakened into
+hot, new life only to be pacified into slumber again. But the last
+glow, the little flicker at the end is all that separates the living
+embers from the dead ash.</p>
+<p>How the Armenian church recognized the truth of this by putting into
+operation a thousand various modes of action in which the new national
+sentiment that it created has kept itself alive and fresh, may well
+serve as an object lesson to many another church. She did not make the
+mistake of imposing an entirely new body of festivals and ceremonies
+upon the people; she utilized the past and carried over a number of
+pagan festivals absolutely intact, which she clothed with a new meaning
+slowly recognized by the people. These form the first group to be
+considered. In the course of time she created certain new festivals
+which constitute the second group. And then she identified herself with
+all of the ceremonies of common life, such as betrothal, marriage, and
+funeral ceremonies.</p>
+<p>In this way the Armenian church has become absolutely and
+inseparably identified with the life of the people, and the people in
+turn have been held together into a nation which has continued to give
+its artists and artisans to the world.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1629src" href="#xd20e1629" name="xd20e1629src">1</a> What is
+Armenia? The national Gregorian church; much as Louis XIV, when asked
+&ldquo;What is the state?&rdquo; replied, <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"pb52" href="#pb52" name="pb52">52</a>]</span>&ldquo;I am the
+state.&rdquo; This is unquestionably an exaggerated view, but not as
+much so as might be supposed, since the social life of the people is so
+completely bound up with the church. The only betrothal and marriage
+recognized is that sanctioned by the church. Whenever there is a common
+danger, as has been the case repeatedly during the past twenty years,
+the people flock to the church for protection. Such secret
+revolutionary propaganda as has been carried on has been done largely
+through the church. The young Armenian who returns from his academic
+life in Paris, a sceptic if not an unbeliever, and certainly opposed to
+the dogma and ultra-conservatism of his church, does not alienate
+himself, for he realizes his utter impotence in any kind of work for
+his people should he do so. In spite of the division of Armenia into
+three slices, Turkish, Persian, and Russian, the church has retained
+its hold, and if the position of the people as subject to Turkey,
+Persia, and Russia has placed her (the church) at a decided
+disadvantage in coping with the ever constant influence and propaganda,
+schools, and missionaries of the Greek, Latin, and Protestant churches,
+she has not at all given in, for the number of Catholic Armenians
+amounts to only 3 per cent of the number of orthodox Armenians, while
+the number of Protestant Armenians is only 1 per cent.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1637src" href="#xd20e1637" name="xd20e1637src">2</a>
+Considering, as I say, the utter helplessness of the church in
+combating outside influences, these figures indicate how closely the
+life of the people is identified with her. Perhaps her very
+helplessness has been a source of strength.</p>
+<p>These facts together with such little practices as I have mentioned
+(and I might also note the custom of the Armenian peasant of crossing
+himself daily at the altar of his community church before beginning his
+day of toil)<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1642src" href="#xd20e1642"
+name="xd20e1642src">3</a> are sufficient to show that the church has
+been the chief means of keeping alive the currents of national life,
+that it is a national church, and that it has identified itself with
+the common life of the people. The festivals and ceremonies which
+constitute the second part of my paper thus form the vehicle of
+expression of the national sentiment, and are all connected with the
+church.</p>
+<p>The participation of the laity in church matters, especially in the
+election of its officials, is a chief reason for the essential oneness
+of church and people. Priests, bishops, and patriarchs, who constitute
+the three chief grades in the religious hierarchy, are chosen by the
+people.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1649src" href="#xd20e1649" name=
+"xd20e1649src">4</a> The approval of higher authorities is necessary in
+most cases, but this only slightly detracts from the importance of the
+r&ocirc;le of the people. A married priest is the religious head of
+every parish, and he is elected either by a <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb53" href="#pb53" name="pb53">53</a>]</span>direct
+process of voting or by a deed of presentation. The religious council
+of the diocese proceeds to examine the ability and qualifications of
+the candidate, who is ordained if his examination proves successful; if
+unsuccessful, a new candidate must be presented, for a bishop can not
+of his own initiative ordain a priest. The laity have no voice in the
+election of the celibate priesthood, which is only natural since the
+celibate priests are not in any way connected with the life of the
+community. Furthermore, they do not constitute a very important
+element, for when Ormanian wrote in 1911, there were only 400 celibate
+priests as against 4,000 married priests.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1660src" href="#xd20e1660" name="xd20e1660src">5</a></p>
+<p>The married priest is very closely identified with his community. He
+not only makes a regular practice of visiting the various households of
+the parish, but he is sole confessor of the people.<a class="noteref"
+id="xd20e1667src" href="#xd20e1667" name="xd20e1667src">6</a> As he
+officiates at masses and church ceremonies and promotes a general
+participation in the festivals, so also no betrothal, marriage,
+baptism, or funeral can be sanctioned without his presence. He is as
+well a kind of marriage agency, employment agency, and relief agency,
+acting always of course in co&ouml;peration with the council of elders
+of his parish. A priest called at the home of an Armenian lady I know,
+and remarked casually that he was aware she had a daughter, whom he was
+very anxious to see, for there were two young men of the community who
+were very desirous to marry. So the people inform the priest of their
+need and the priest does all in his power to help them. He does not
+receive a regular compensation, being absolutely dependent upon the
+voluntary offerings of his flock and the voluntary fees received for
+official services rendered.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1672src" href=
+"#xd20e1672" name="xd20e1672src">7</a> This works out sometimes to his
+advantage, but more often not, depending generally on whether his
+parish is poverty stricken or well-to-do.</p>
+<p>There are several very curious usages practiced by the married
+priest. He is recruited from all classes of society, but more often
+there is a succession from father to son.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1680src" href="#xd20e1680" name="xd20e1680src">8</a> The
+conditions demanded, besides parochial election, are acquaintance with
+ecclesiastical and liturgical matters, an exemplary life, and the
+consent of his wife. After his ordination he must fast for forty days.
+He then prepares himself for his first mass by a life of retreat in the
+church, restricting himself to a vegetable diet for twenty-four
+hours.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1683src" href="#xd20e1683" name=
+"xd20e1683src">9</a> The wife, who enjoys a certain precedence in
+society, observes a customary abstinence in the absence of her husband.
+One week or at least three days before the celebration of the mass, he
+keeps away from <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb54" href="#pb54" name=
+"pb54">54</a>]</span>home, passing the nights within the church. He may
+engage in domestic or even professional work so long as this does not
+interfere with the duties of his calling. Should his wife die, he may
+not marry again unless he lays aside his priestly robe, nor may a
+priest ever marry a widow. These practices are not dead letters, except
+that the custom of sojourning within the church for three nights before
+mass has, in Constantinople at least, been reduced to a single
+night.</p>
+<p>The bishops are chosen as chiefs of dioceses by the council of the
+diocese, six sevenths of whose members are laymen, the remainder being
+ecclesiastics.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1700src" href="#xd20e1700"
+name="xd20e1700src">10</a> The patriarchs, including the Katholikos,
+the supreme authority of the church whose seat is at Etchmiadzin, the
+religious center of the nation, are chosen by an electoral assembly of
+the religious heads (bishops or archbishops) and lay deputies who are
+nominated by the dioceses as a whole.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1703src" href="#xd20e1703" name="xd20e1703src">11</a> The eight
+members of the synod, which is an advisory body to the Katholikos, and
+the seven oldest members of the congregation at Etchmiadzin have equal
+share in voting. The electoral assembly, so constituted, chooses two
+candidates, one of whom is selected by the Czar. The Czar, after his
+selection is made, sends a deputy to meet the successful candidate, who
+is decorated and escorted with due ceremony to Etchmiadzin where he is
+officially ordained. There are only two patriarchates besides the see
+of Etchmiadzin, i.e., those of Constantinople and Jerusalem. The
+corresponding patriarchs are likewise chosen by a national assembly,
+six sevenths of whose members belong to the laity. The patriarchs of
+both Jerusalem and of Constantinople acknowledge the supremacy of the
+Katholikos of Etchmiadzin, who is thus head of the church, though not
+infallible.</p>
+<p>The site of Etchmiadzin is the old capital city, Vagharshapat, the
+ruins of which are all but washed away; and it marks the spot where St.
+Gregory in his vision saw the descent of Jesus Christ. Etchmiadzin
+means, &ldquo;Descent of the Only Begotten.&rdquo; The particular spot
+is commemorated by the central altar of the Cathedral, which is the
+chief church of the nation. This Cathedral is situated in the center of
+a huge court bounded in the form of a large rectangle by the cells of
+the monks, the long refectory building, the library, the theological
+seminary, and the residence of the Katholikos. Outside this rectangle
+are ranged buildings and open spaces, including the garden of the
+Katholikos, the court for pilgrims, the printing establishment, and
+dwellings for various uses, all of which is bounded by a huge wall in
+the form of a still larger rectangle about 1,000 feet in length and 700
+feet in width.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1709src" href="#xd20e1709"
+name="xd20e1709src">12</a> The chapels of the martyrs are some distance
+from the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb55" href="#pb55" name=
+"pb55">55</a>]</span>monastery, the church of St. Gaiane, commemorating
+the spot of her martyrdom, being about one fourth of a mile distant,
+while the church of St. Rhipsime, which likewise honors the spot of
+Rhipsime&rsquo;s martyrdom, is about three fourths of a mile distant.
+The buildings now standing can hardly be those built by the
+saint.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1717src" href="#xd20e1717" name=
+"xd20e1717src">13</a></p>
+<p>Etchmiadzin has been for many years a place of pilgrimage for the
+faithful. There is not only the sacred Cathedral where Jesus Christ is
+believed to have appeared; there is also the chamber of holy relics in
+the rear of the Cathedral which is perhaps the chief attraction and
+glory of the place. The most important of the relics here kept is a
+hand of St. Gregory, or rather right arm, &ldquo;atch,&rdquo; as it is
+called, now preserved in a silver case, and which was considered at one
+time to be a necessary appanage of the patriarchal dignity. The poor
+hand of the saint has been the cause of many peregrinations in
+consequence.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1723src" href="#xd20e1723"
+name="xd20e1723src">14</a> One patriarch seized it and carried it off
+with him in order to justify his claims. Another restole it and brought
+it back to Etchmiadzin, while others have pretended possession of the
+holy &ldquo;atch,&rdquo; in order to make good their claims. It was
+with this relic as well as with the holy chrism that consecrations were
+performed, which made possession of it a necessary condition of the
+patriarchal authority. Another much revered relic is the fragment of
+the ark, which the angel who appeared to St. Jacob gave to him as a
+reward for his perseverance in attempting so impossible a task as the
+climbing of Ararat. Still another is the head of the &ldquo;holy
+spear&rdquo; which was thrust into the side of Christ by the Roman
+soldier at Golgotha.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1726src" href=
+"#xd20e1726" name="xd20e1726src">15</a> There are others of lesser
+importance, some of which are believed to possess the power of
+effecting cures.</p>
+<p>Such in brief are the broader and more important facts relating to
+the church, which has thus come to sanction the festivals and
+ceremonies that make up the second part of this thesis. These, as I
+have said, naturally divide themselves into three groups, first those
+that have been taken over bodily from the past; second, new festivals
+and ceremonies created by the church; and third the ceremonies of
+common life with which the church has identified itself. In the first
+group are included the midsummer festival of Vartavar, the spring
+festival, the festival in commemoration of the dead, Fortune-Telling
+Day, and the festival of Vartan&rsquo;s Day. All except the last have
+their origin in pagan festivals; each one has been taken over by the
+church and made its own. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb56" href=
+"#pb56" name="pb56">56</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1629" href="#xd20e1629src" name="xd20e1629">1</a></span> Ormanian
+p. 224.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Bertrand Bareilles, preface to the French edition
+of Ormanian p. xviii.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1637" href="#xd20e1637src" name="xd20e1637">2</a></span> Ormanian
+p. 243.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1642" href="#xd20e1642src" name="xd20e1642">3</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> p. 177.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1649" href="#xd20e1649src" name="xd20e1649">4</a></span> Ubicini,
+<i>Letters on Turkey</i>.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Ormanian pp. 151, 152.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1660" href="#xd20e1660src" name="xd20e1660">5</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> p. 173.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1667" href="#xd20e1667src" name="xd20e1667">6</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> p. 141.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1672" href="#xd20e1672src" name="xd20e1672">7</a></span> Ubicini,
+<i>Letters on Turkey</i>.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1680" href="#xd20e1680src" name="xd20e1680">8</a></span> Ormanian
+p. 170.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1683" href="#xd20e1683src" name="xd20e1683">9</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i></p>
+<p class="footnote">Ubicini, <i>Letters on Turkey.</i></p>
+<p class="footnote">Tavernier 1:498, 499.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1700" href="#xd20e1700src" name="xd20e1700">10</a></span>
+Ormanian p. 152.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1703" href="#xd20e1703src" name="xd20e1703">11</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i></p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1709" href="#xd20e1709src" name="xd20e1709">12</a></span> Lynch,
+chapter on Etchmiadzin.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Dubois 3:362, 363.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1717" href="#xd20e1717src" name="xd20e1717">13</a></span> See p.
+30 of this thesis, note 32.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1723" href="#xd20e1723src" name="xd20e1723">14</a></span>
+Ormanian p. 74.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1726" href="#xd20e1726src" name="xd20e1726">15</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i></p>
+<p class="footnote">For the relation of the church to the Turkish and
+Russian Governments see Lynch 1:269, also Ubicini, <i>Letters on
+Turkey</i>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch2.2" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="label">Chapter II</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Pagan Folk Festivals</h2>
+<div id="ch2.2.1" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 1. Vartavar and the Festival of Mihr</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">Vartavar, meaning &ldquo;flaming of the rose,&rdquo;
+was celebrated in pagan times in honor of Anahit, goddess of chastity,
+at midsummer. The central act of the festival was the offering of a
+dove and a rose to her golden image. With the introduction of
+Christianity the temple and the image were destroyed, and it may be
+noted that upon the site of the Temple of Anahit in Vagharshapat was
+built the Cathedral of Etchmiadzin. This would lead to the strange
+conclusion that in the vision of St. Gregory, Jesus Christ descended
+upon a pagan temple. The fact seems to be that this marvelous vision
+was seen by a pious monk who published a life of St. Gregory some two
+or three centuries after the Illuminator&rsquo;s death.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1750src" href="#xd20e1750" name="xd20e1750src">1</a>
+But the festival became the &ldquo;Festival of the Transfiguration of
+Christ,&rdquo; although the name Vartavar still remains, and doves are
+still set flying.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1753src" href="#xd20e1753"
+name="xd20e1753src">2</a></p>
+<p>The festival is celebrated differently in various places. Upon the
+mountains of Armenia every family brings a sheep for sacrifice, adorned
+with colored papers and pigments, and as the sheep approach the shrine,
+lighted candles are fixed upon their horns.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1758src" href="#xd20e1758" name="xd20e1758src">3</a> Sheaves of
+grain, fruit, flowers, and doves are also brought as sacrifices, while
+dust from beside the altar is carried home to children as a talisman to
+help them to learn their A B C&rsquo;s. In the absence of a church on
+the mountainside, which is usually the case, a large white tent with
+crosses is put up beside some sacred spring, with which the country
+abounds. The spring is necessary, for on this day the people amuse
+themselves by throwing water upon each other. For this reason the day
+is often called Armenian Water Day. After the doves are set flying, the
+priest sprinkles the people, and they in turn sprinkle water over each
+other. This practice probably dates to the legend of the deluge, the
+Universal Baptism with which God cleansed His sinful earth. The dove
+and the baptism are also suggestive of the baptism of Jesus by John in
+the waters of Jordan. This part of the festival is probably an addition
+to the pagan rite, for the sprinkling of the water is symbolic of love
+and forgiveness; it is carried on with much laughing and merry-making.
+The festival includes also a kind of fair, for the people have to show
+what progress they have made during the year in art and the various
+handicrafts. Races, competitions, and games are held, and the victors
+are crowned with wreaths of roses, so that even the rose continues to
+have <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb57" href="#pb57" name=
+"pb57">57</a>]</span>an important place in the festivities as it had in
+pagan days. The sprinkling of water, the games, the races, show how
+happy a time the people must have on this day; the exhibition of the
+year&rsquo;s accomplishment in handicraft and art points out the more
+serious side; while the essential religious symbolism is very clearly
+emphasized. What may also be noted is that there is entertainment for
+all, old and young, serious and frivolous. The pious-minded may sit on
+the mountainside contemplating the religious aspect of it all; the gay
+and light-hearted may sprinkle water over each other; the young and
+strong may run races and play games; men and women of a practical turn
+of mind may visit the fair and note the progress made during the year;
+and children may roll about on the mountainsides or gather roses, for
+these are in full bloom at this time.</p>
+<p>The pagan spring festival in honor of Mihr, the god of fire, was
+taken over by the church to commemorate the bringing of the Babe Jesus
+to the temple, where Mary sacrificed two doves according to the custom
+of purification.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1766src" href="#xd20e1766"
+name="xd20e1766src">4</a> The ancient rite consisted of kindling fires
+in the open market places in honor of the god Mihr, and of lighting a
+lantern from one of the newly kindled fires, which was kept burning in
+the temple throughout the year. As now celebrated, on February 26,
+every young man who has been married within the year brings a load of
+aromatic shrubs, making a huge pile of them in the yard of the church.
+A religious service is held in the open air at evening-time, after
+which the priest sets fire to the pile. All the villagers, men, women,
+and children, dance about the fire, while boys and young men show their
+agility and courage by leaping over it. When the flames die down, each
+person carries home a glowing brand and places it on the hearthstone
+for good luck.</p>
+<p>The description of the festival by Abeghian shows how a general
+celebration of this kind varies in particulars from place to
+place.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1774src" href="#xd20e1774" name=
+"xd20e1774src">5</a> On the afternoon of the 13th of February,<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1777src" href="#xd20e1777" name="xd20e1777src">6</a>
+which is the day before the church festival of the purification, a pile
+of wood consisting usually of thorn-wood, cane, and straw is gathered
+together in the churchyard. The entire community comes together in the
+church on the night of the same day, each person provided with a
+candle. After the vespers all stand about the pile of shrub and wood,
+the newly married during the year making the first row. The candles are
+lighted from the church light, and after the priest has blessed the
+pile, it is set ablaze from all sides, after which the candles are put
+out. As soon as the fire has died down, the candles are relighted from
+the glowing embers which are regarded as sacred, and carried home
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb58" href="#pb58" name=
+"pb58">58</a>]</span>where they are used to light a pile of shrub and
+wood that has been gathered on the roof of the house. The young people
+jump over the fire while the young women and married women march around
+it saying, &ldquo;May it not itch me, and may I not receive any
+scabs,&rdquo; taking care just to singe the border of their dresses.
+The ashes, as well as the half-burned wood-stuffs are preserved, or
+scattered in the four corners of the barn, over the fields or in the
+garden, for the ashes and flames of the firebrands are believed to
+protect people and cattle from sickness and the fruit trees from worms
+and caterpillars. In the homes of the newly married the festival is
+celebrated with music and dance, the young couples especially making it
+a point to dance about the sacred flames, while in some places special
+food is prepared in honor of the occasion.</p>
+<p>Various prophesies are made during the festival, for example, if the
+flame and smoke blows to the east, it is a sign of a good harvest for
+the coming year, if toward the west, a bad growth is expected.</p>
+<p>In recent years the religious authorities at Etchmiadzin printed the
+following prohibition in the church calendar: &ldquo;It is forbidden to
+run about the fire.&rdquo; But the festival is celebrated
+nevertheless.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1786src" href="#xd20e1786"
+name="xd20e1786src">7</a> That it originates in the pagan festival held
+in honor of Mihr there is little doubt, for the month of February
+corresponds to the ancient Armenian month Mehakan, which, translated
+into modern Armenian, Mihragan, means belonging to Mihr, or more
+loosely, the Festival of Mihr.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch2.2.2" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 2. The Day of the Dead and Vartan&rsquo;s
+Day</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The festival in commemoration of the dead is
+celebrated on the first day after Easter, and may be regarded as a
+reaction against the lenten fasts. Families of Armenians, loaded with
+picnic baskets, packages of food, and bottles of wine, flock to their
+cemeteries in great numbers. Priests are paid small fees for standing
+over the graves of the dead to chant prayers for the salvation of the
+departed souls. Over the graves of the recently dead stand the bereaved
+relatives of the deceased, lamenting loudly and bewailing a fate which
+they know must some day be their own. A more maudlin spectacle could
+not be imagined. Here and there are seated groups of families eating
+and drinking and laughing all the more heartily for the enforced
+abstinence of the preceding weeks; while standing beside this grave or
+that is a priest in black robe and high hat, chanting a prayer for the
+dead, and incidentally earning his daily bread. Eating seems to be the
+chief amusement; even the mourners eat after they have faithfully
+mourned, and the priests too come in for their shares after all
+possible fees have been earned. Altogether it is a post-lenten festival
+in the full meaning of the term, and much in contrast to the wholesome
+enjoyment and the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb59" href="#pb59"
+name="pb59">59</a>]</span>light-hearted gaiety so characteristic of
+Vartavar. It has been witnessed in Constantinople by Armenians I know,
+who have given accounts to me. Whether or not it is carried out in this
+manner in the villages and rural districts I am not aware, but I should
+be very much surprised to learn that it was, for I should certainly
+regard the festival in this form as a product of the artificiality of
+city life. In the absence of wholesome amusements and of the community
+solidarity characteristic of the Armenian village, contact with
+city-bred folk would inevitably result in a shift of standards of
+judgment and valuation, together with a break-up in old habits of
+thought and life; and as the people have no common play-ground, so to
+speak, except the poor denuded cemetery allotted them by the Turkish
+government, one can well excuse the ugliness of the spectacle. The
+Armenian has Vartavar, a real festival, and need not look with shame
+upon this festival in commemoration of the dead.</p>
+<p>This same offering of sacrifice for the dead is carried on in a
+variety of ways. In Armenian villages the family of the deceased
+prepares a lamb or a kid with rice, and on the day of the funeral
+pieces of it are given to the attendants; given, as they say, and
+taken, in sacrifice for the dead. The practice in Constantinople is
+somewhat different, although the idea is exactly the same. Forty days
+after the death of an individual, or perhaps on the anniversary of the
+death, the bereaved family prepares a lamb or a kid with rice, which is
+distributed to the people in small pots, and given, as they say, in
+sacrifice for the dead. The Greek custom in this respect is most
+absurd. At the head of the casket, which is left open, two men march in
+the funeral procession carrying a wide tray filled with boiled wheat
+and sugar, and trailing a piece of black crape. After the burial this
+is distributed to the mourners in handfuls, again in sacrifice for the
+dead. Libations set aside and poured out in Roman days are illustrative
+of the same thing. That these practices are not Christian but distinct
+survivals of pagan festivals and customs is very clear.</p>
+<p>The above conclusions, namely, first that the festival as I
+described it is an aberration of city life, and second, that although
+identified with the church it is distinctly pagan in character, are
+borne out by Abeghian, whose material, as an Armenian who for many
+years lived in the little Armenian village of Astapat, is distinctly
+first-hand.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1800src" href="#xd20e1800" name=
+"xd20e1800src">8</a> Worship of the deceased, he says, begins
+immediately after death. Each departed soul, and especially those of
+elderly people, requires particular honor on the first day after death,
+and during the ensuing year. It is for this reason a great misfortune
+for an Armenian peasant not to have a child. A still greater
+misfortune, however, it is to die in a strange land where there are
+none to care for the departed soul. That a curious evolution has taken
+place <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb60" href="#pb60" name=
+"pb60">60</a>]</span>in these requirements is very clear. In the
+beginning, satisfactions of a material kind were required, something to
+eat and to drink, and accordingly the custom arose of placing bread
+upon the heart of the dead, or sanctified bread in the cavity of the
+mouth and incense in the nostrils. Then there arose the idea of
+facilitating the journey of the departed into the beyond, and of making
+the future life of the soul a happier one. For example, Armenians
+generally bathe the bodies of their dead in blessed water, and wash the
+clothes of the deceased on the day following burial for the
+purification of the soul so that it may arrive spotless at its
+destination. Since the soul has been cleansed of all sin through the
+symbolic washing of the body and clothes, no more covering is required
+for the body than a large white cloth. No other color is permissible.
+Should the deceased be more than ten years of age, candles or oil lamps
+are burned during eight days over the spot where the body was bathed in
+order to lighten the way of the soul into the beyond. According to old
+beliefs, the destination of the departed soul is a place of darkness,
+and hence two candles are placed in the hands of the dead immediately
+after the bath in order that he may recognize his friends and relatives
+in the world beyond. At frequent intervals during the first year, food
+and drink are brought to the cemetery, and placed upon the grave. There
+is weeping, eating, and drinking at these times, and what food is left
+over is always placed over the grave.</p>
+<p>The souls of the righteous are thought of as luminous, the wicked as
+black. Accordingly the blessed are called &ldquo;spirits of
+light.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1812src" href="#xd20e1812"
+name="xd20e1812src">9</a> In order to possess a bright soul one must
+have performed good works, of which giving alms to the poor is
+considered the most important. Such spirits are also called
+&ldquo;generous,&rdquo; &ldquo;charitable.&rdquo; It is a current
+belief that the blackened souls become brighter through the good works
+of descendants, as well as through their prayers. Offspring are thus
+especially desirable, and the old Armenian liturgy, the
+<i>Maschtotz</i> prepared by St. Mesrob, the inventor of the Armenian
+alphabet in the fifth century, contains innumerable prayers for the
+dead.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1818src" href="#xd20e1818" name=
+"xd20e1818src">10</a> The prayers are short and their power is relative
+to the frequency of repetition rather than to the length. Some sort of
+short prayer is repeated with every thought of the dead, as for
+example, &ldquo;May God have mercy upon his soul&rdquo;; &ldquo;May his
+soul become lightened&rdquo;; or only &ldquo;The illuminated
+soul.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Several days of the year are set apart for particular remembrance of
+the dead.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1825src" href="#xd20e1825" name=
+"xd20e1825src">11</a> At these times the departed spirits are supposed
+to come down from heaven and to roam about the vicinity of their graves
+or in the homes of their relatives. On the eve of these days it is
+necessary to do honor to <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb61" href=
+"#pb61" name="pb61">61</a>]</span>their memory with incense and
+candles, which are regarded as offerings. The odor of the incense is
+especially pleasant to spirits, for the incense-tree also blooms in
+paradise.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1830src" href="#xd20e1830" name=
+"xd20e1830src">12</a> Saturday night is very commonly devoted to such
+intercession and worship. Incense is burned upon the hearth while
+prayers are repeated, or a flame is ignited upon a plate which is
+carried into all the corners of the house, or barn, or wherever it is
+believed the departed spirit may be wandering. In some places it is
+customary to maintain the &ldquo;light of the dead&rdquo; throughout
+the night in order that the spirits may enter the house. If they find
+the house dark in looking through the roof window, they make away,
+cursing. Water is not drunk in the dark during these nights, for it is
+believed that to do so would be to take it away from the thirsty
+spirits of the dead.</p>
+<p>On the Day of the Dead the spirits are especially honored, for they
+love most to wander in the neighborhood of their graves. People
+actually feel themselves to be among the souls of the dead on this
+celebration day. The latter are very happy to be thought of, and are
+especially glad to have their graves blessed by the priests. But to
+please them most one must bring wood and incense and leave it to be
+burned over their graves. Three days the spirits remain upon the earth,
+after which they return to heaven, their visit having been duly
+honored. If they come to find themselves forgotten, they curse their
+relatives and fly away in despair. Occasionally they come down to be of
+service; especially is this true of the dead father and his living son,
+for the former is especially remembered, and his grave is regarded as
+holy. Armenians swear by the graves, or by the spirits of their
+fathers, and call upon them for help in time of especial need.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1835src" href="#xd20e1835" name=
+"xd20e1835src">13</a></p>
+<p>Tavernier described the same festival in his <i>Voyages</i> and
+noticed that it was considered the greatest infamy to eat with a
+&ldquo;Mordischou,&rdquo; the person who washed the dead.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1845src" href="#xd20e1845" name=
+"xd20e1845src">14</a> No single festival and group of relevant beliefs
+is more instructive in showing how much of Armenian folk-belief and
+custom is the survival of paganism.</p>
+<p>There is yet another festival of this group, which, however, is not
+to be traced to paganism, and it would be a mistake to suppose that the
+church is connected with it in the same way and to the same extent as
+it is with the first three festivals considered. The festival is called
+Vartan&rsquo;s Day, and although the church sanctions the festival and
+sets apart a day for the celebration, it comes about as near being
+apart from the church as any single festival. Vartan was the general of
+the Armenian army defeated at the battle of Avarair, spoken of in Part
+One, by the Persian fire-worshippers who endeavored to impose their
+religion upon the Armenians at a time when part of Armenia was under
+the domination of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb62" href="#pb62"
+name="pb62">62</a>]</span>Persia, and the remainder tributary to Rome.
+But though defeated in battle, the moral victory, as people now use the
+term, was Armenian, for the battle proved the utter failure of the
+Persians to convert the Armenian people to their religion.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1852src" href="#xd20e1852" name=
+"xd20e1852src">15</a> Vartan saved the nation for Gregorian
+Christianity, and it is significant that the people look upon Vartan as
+saviour of the nation rather than as saviour of their religion, showing
+how the religion was and still is identified with the nation.</p>
+<p>It is in his honor that the people hold a festival on the
+anniversary day of the battle of Avarair. School children sing songs
+and wreath Vartan&rsquo;s picture with red flowers. The belief is that
+this peculiar kind of red flower sprang up from the blood of the
+Christian army. Recitations and national patriotic plays are given, and
+as the children participate in singing songs, reciting pieces, and
+rendering plays, the older people participate in attending
+them.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1857src" href="#xd20e1857" name=
+"xd20e1857src">16</a></p>
+<p>Besides the belief of the red flower there are numerous other
+beliefs hallowed by the day. Nightingales that fly over the battlefield
+are supposed to sing &ldquo;Vartan, Vartan,&rdquo; and there is a
+species of antelope with a pouch of fragrant musk under its throat
+which is said to have acquired its fragrance by browsing on herbage wet
+with the blood of Armenian heroes.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1865src"
+href="#xd20e1865" name="xd20e1865src">17</a></p>
+<p>Altogether it is the kind of festival to give expression to the
+sentiment I have spoken of as love for the country, for its mountains,
+rivers, and valleys, and for its ideals of freedom, independence, and
+strength. In the presence of the state the festival probably would be
+utilized to foster and give expression to the sentiment of loyalty to
+the state. There would be specially chosen speakers to talk of
+patriotism, waving of banners, and carefully designed methods of
+instilling hatred for a real or supposed enemy, much as French school
+children have been taught to hate Englishmen. But in the absence of the
+state, the sentiment expressed must be a purer sentiment, loftier and
+freer, and one can not but regret that Vartan&rsquo;s Day and similar
+festivals have been suppressed by the Turkish government. And yet, one
+could not reasonably expect otherwise.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch2.2.3" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 3. Fortune-Telling Day</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">Most charming and most picturesque of festivals is
+that participated in by the romantic Armenian maidens on the early dawn
+of Ascension Day.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1877src" href="#xd20e1877"
+name="xd20e1877src">18</a> On the eve of the same day the young girls
+who wish their fortunes told, decorate a large bowl with specially
+selected flowers, after which each girl casts a token, a ring, a
+brooch, a thimble, into the bowl. Flowers of several kinds are then put
+in, and the bowl is filled with water <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"pb63" href="#pb63" name="pb63">63</a>]</span>drawn from seven springs.
+Then they cover it with an embroidered cloth and take it by night to
+the priest who says a prayer over it. The most carefully and daintily
+prepared bowl is then placed out in the moonlight, open to the stars
+where it is left until dawn. At early daybreak of the next morning, the
+maidens, furnished with provisions for the entire day, go out of the
+village carrying their bowl to the side of a spring, the foot of a
+mountain, or into an open field, gathering on the way various kinds of
+flowers with which they deck themselves. Having arrived at their place
+of festival, they play games, dance, and sing, after which they take a
+beautiful little girl, too young to tell where the sun rises, who has
+been previously chosen and gaily dressed for the occasion, to draw the
+various articles out of the bowl. The face of the child is covered with
+a richly wrought veil that she may not see what is in the bowl, and she
+then proceeds to withdraw the articles which she holds in her hand one
+at a time. While this is done some one of the party recites a charm
+song, and the owner of each token takes the song which accompanies it
+as her fortune. There are thousands of these charm songs, most of which
+have been written especially for the festival, of which I shall give
+but a few.</p>
+<div class="lgouter">
+<div class="lg">
+<h4>1.</h4>
+<p class="line">Snowless hang the clouds to-night,</p>
+<p class="line">Through the darkness comes a light;</p>
+<p class="line xd20e1890">On this lonely pillow now,</p>
+<p class="line">Never more shall sleep alight.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="lg">
+<h4>2.</h4>
+<p class="line">Like a star whose brightness grows</p>
+<p class="line">On the earth my beauty shows;</p>
+<p class="line xd20e1890">Thou shalt long for yet, and seek</p>
+<p class="line">My dark eyes and arching brows.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="lg">
+<h4>3.</h4>
+<p class="line">Long and lone this night to me</p>
+<p class="line">Passing slow and wearily;</p>
+<p class="line xd20e1890">Passing full of sighs and tears&mdash;</p>
+<p class="line">Love, what doth it bring to thee?</p>
+</div>
+<div class="lg">
+<h4>4.</h4>
+<p class="line">Eden&rsquo;s smile my vineyard wore,</p>
+<p class="line">Flowers bloomed, a goodly store;</p>
+<p class="line xd20e1890">Handsome youth and ugly maid&mdash;</p>
+<p class="line">This was never seen before!<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1927src" href="#xd20e1927" name="xd20e1927src">19</a></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb64" href="#pb64" name=
+"pb64">64</a>]</span></p>
+<p>Thus each one carries its bit of prophesy, daintily and prettily
+expressed, which when sung at the foot of some mountain, in the bright
+eastern sunlight of the morning, while a little child is holding tokens
+beside a bowl surrounded by the group of beflowered maidens, makes as
+complete and charming a picture as one could well imagine.</p>
+<p>Many curious beliefs, superstitions, customs, and legends are
+directly related to Ascension Day. It is believed, for example, that on
+the eve of this day the water of the springs, brooks, and rivers lies
+peacefully motionless for a single moment during the night. At the same
+moment heaven and earth, mountain and stone, trees and flowers beckon
+and congratulate one another. First heaven congratulates and kisses the
+earth, then one star beckons to another, one flower to another, and so
+forth until all of nature&rsquo;s objects have expressed their mutual
+good feeling. Even plants and &ldquo;soulless&rdquo; objects receive
+the gift of speech and share their secrets one with the other at this
+time. He who hides himself in a stone crevice of the mountainside may
+listen to the conversation of stones and flowers, and understand what
+they tell each other. They tell on this night what sort of sicknesses
+they and the springs will heal, and many people endeavor to attend at
+this moment, but only a few succeed.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1962src" href="#xd20e1962" name="xd20e1962src">20</a></p>
+<p>At midnight the waters are believed to have the power of healing,
+and people bathe themselves in the streams. As the children are not to
+be troubled during the night, water is warmed for them the next
+morning, bits of grass are thrown in and the children are bathed.
+During the magic moment the door of the cavern of &ldquo;Maher,&rdquo;
+the revered hero god who dwells upon earth, is opened: and one may
+enter to see him, his steed, and the &ldquo;wheel of the starred
+heavens&rdquo; or the wheel of fate. In one of the national epics
+(David of Sassun) Maher is represented as the strongest of the heroes,
+and is supposed to dwell in a rocky cave in the vicinity of
+Van<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1967src" href="#xd20e1967" name=
+"xd20e1967src">21</a> (probably the rock of Van). In this cave all of
+the world&rsquo;s riches are heaped up, and the &ldquo;wheel of the
+world,&rdquo; the wheel of fate which constantly turns assigning to
+people their destinies, stands there. Maher looks continually at the
+wheel and if it should stand still, he comes out of his cavern to
+ravage the world. The door of the cave is made of stone and covered
+with cuneiform inscriptions. It is locked during the entire year except
+for the night of the ascension of Christ, when it is opened during the
+single magic moment. Whosoever perceives this moment may step into the
+cave and take as much gold as he pleases. The idea of the &ldquo;wheel
+of fortune&rdquo; is considerably extant, although it is not always
+understood as separated from heaven and connected with Maher.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e1972src" href="#xd20e1972" name=
+"xd20e1972src">22</a> That <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb65" href=
+"#pb65" name="pb65">65</a>]</span>the idea of fate or of fortune is
+generally associated with the day, not only by romantic maidens, but by
+the people, is very evident.</p>
+<p>The flowing waters are believed to change into gold during the
+silent minute, and if one places an object in the water and wishes at
+the same time that it become gold, the object turns to gold.
+Accordingly the young men and women go to the springs and rivers in
+order to draw water, trusting their fates that they may select the
+happy moment. Superstitions and magic are not lacking, for while one
+member of a party seats himself upon a pair of fire-tongs in the
+fashion of a rider, another performs likewise upon a long-handled spit.
+The iron tools are also regarded as a necessary protection against the
+calls that one hears behind after the water has been drawn, for if one
+should look back perchance, he would surely fall under the influence of
+the evil spirits. The oldest of the party carries a gourd flask full of
+wheat and barley, which is poured into the stream towards midnight with
+the words &ldquo;I give you wheat and barley; you give me everything
+that is good.&rdquo; Thereupon he fills the gourd flask with water, and
+the party hurries homeward to discover the gold.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1985src" href="#xd20e1985" name="xd20e1985src">23</a></p>
+<p>The fortune-telling festival is given by Abeghian as he observed it
+in his home village, and I shall give a free translation of his account
+at this point because of a few interesting variations. In Astapet, the
+festival is called the &ldquo;Festival of the Mother of Flowers.&rdquo;
+On the day before Ascension Day the girls and young women of the
+village divide themselves into two groups, one to gather special sorts
+of flowers from the mountainside, while the other goes to
+&ldquo;steal&rdquo; water from seven springs, or seven rivers. The
+&ldquo;thieves&rdquo; must not see each other, nor must the people of
+the village know aught of what is happening. Having filled their
+vessels with water, each throws a stone into the spring and then they
+turn back, taking care neither to look about, to set down their
+vessels, nor to talk. They imagine that the mountains, the valleys,
+trees, and meadows call out behind them and if they should turn about
+they would be turned to stone.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e1990src"
+href="#xd20e1990" name="xd20e1990src">24</a></p>
+<p>At night of the same day the &ldquo;water thieves&rdquo; and flower
+gatherers meet together in a garden to prepare the &ldquo;Havgir&rdquo;
+or magic bowl in which is poured the water from the seven springs, and
+in which seven stones from the seven sources, together with leaves of
+the gathered flowers are dropped. Each one who wishes her fortune told
+now throws in a charm token, such as mentioned before. Those who are
+not present send their tokens in order to have them thrown into the
+&ldquo;Havgir&rdquo; by others. The bowl is then adorned with flowers,
+after which the &ldquo;Vicak&rdquo; meaning <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb66" href="#pb66" name="pb66">66</a>]</span>destiny
+or fate, is prepared. This consists of two pieces of wood tied together
+in the form of a cross, which is dressed and adorned with jewels and
+pearls to make it appear as a newly-married doll-bride. The
+&ldquo;Vicak&rdquo; is fastened to the &ldquo;Havgir,&rdquo; and both
+are placed under the stars, in order that these who are the real
+destinies, may work the proper magic upon the charm tokens.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e2000src" href="#xd20e2000" name=
+"xd20e2000src">25</a> A few girls guard it during the whole night
+against the young men who try to steal it.</p>
+<p>Early the next morning the maidens gather together in the garden
+laden with food baskets and prepared to make a day of it. The
+&ldquo;Havgir&rdquo; and strangely fashioned &ldquo;Vicak&rdquo; are
+carried to a nearby spring, the young girls decking themselves with
+flowers as they go. The spring is decorated about with flowers, green
+leaves, and branches, and the &ldquo;Havgir&rdquo; is placed in the
+middle, and then after they have prepared everything and eaten, the
+oldest among them takes the &ldquo;Vicak,&rdquo; kisses it, gives it to
+another, who does likewise, and so it passes from hand to hand. Finally
+a seven-year-old girl receives it. She sets herself in the middle of
+the group and holds the &ldquo;Vicak&rdquo; while the
+&ldquo;Havgir&rdquo; stands before her. The little girl is called
+&ldquo;bride,&rdquo; is the interpreter of the &ldquo;Vicak&rdquo; and
+is specially selected and dressed for the occasion. When she has
+received the &ldquo;Vicak&rdquo; a red veil is passed over both, and
+all is ready for the central event of the festival. A charm song is
+sung by the group, and after each stanza the &ldquo;bride&rdquo; draws
+a token from the vessel. The preceding verse reveals the fate of the
+one to whom the token belongs.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2025src"
+href="#xd20e2025" name="xd20e2025src">26</a></p>
+<p>The fortune-telling festival of Ascension morning stands quite
+alone. Bodeful of the future and suggestive of the past, it can not but
+have a serious tenor, for there are maidens whose lovers have not been
+born, as there are also sadder ones. Perhaps they do not take their
+verses very seriously. Whether they do or not there is always the charm
+of sunrise colors, and the out-of-doors that makes it as beautiful as
+it is romantic. The best of the future, their brightest hope, the best
+of the present, warmth of sunshine and color, and the best of the past,
+their golden dreams of youth, are brought together on this day and
+given a common expression in a way that must charm them as it charms
+the observer. Festivals to be perfect festivals must be out-of-doors
+and the day must be bright. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb67" href=
+"#pb67" name="pb67">67</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1750" href="#xd20e1750src" name="xd20e1750">1</a></span> That is,
+Pseudo Agathangelus.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1753" href="#xd20e1753src" name="xd20e1753">2</a></span> Raffi p.
+128.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1758" href="#xd20e1758src" name="xd20e1758">3</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i></p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1766" href="#xd20e1766src" name="xd20e1766">4</a></span>
+Seklemian&rsquo;s <i>Tales</i>. Preface by Blackwell.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1774" href="#xd20e1774src" name="xd20e1774">5</a></span> Abeghian
+pp. 72&ndash;74.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1777" href="#xd20e1777src" name="xd20e1777">6</a></span> The 13th
+of February according to the old style calendar corresponds to the 26th
+of February of the Latin calender.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1786" href="#xd20e1786src" name="xd20e1786">7</a></span> Abeghian
+p. 72.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1800" href="#xd20e1800src" name="xd20e1800">8</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> p 20.</p>
+<p class="footnote">The remainder of the paragraph is a free
+translation of selected parts of pp. 20&ndash;22.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1812" href="#xd20e1812src" name="xd20e1812">9</a></span> Abeghian
+p. 22.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1818" href="#xd20e1818src" name="xd20e1818">10</a></span>
+<i>Maschtotz</i>, St. Mesrob. One third of the book is devoted to this
+purpose.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1825" href="#xd20e1825src" name="xd20e1825">11</a></span>
+Ormanian p. 189.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1830" href="#xd20e1830src" name="xd20e1830">12</a></span>
+Abeghian p. 23.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1835" href="#xd20e1835src" name="xd20e1835">13</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i> This and preceding paragraph are a free translation from
+selected sentences of pp. 23 and 24.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1845" href="#xd20e1845src" name="xd20e1845">14</a></span>
+Tavernier 1:507&ndash;9.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1852" href="#xd20e1852src" name="xd20e1852">15</a></span>
+Elis&eacute;e.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1857" href="#xd20e1857src" name="xd20e1857">16</a></span>
+Lidgett, <i>Ancient People</i>.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1865" href="#xd20e1865src" name="xd20e1865">17</a></span>
+<i>Ibid.</i></p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1877" href="#xd20e1877src" name="xd20e1877">18</a></span> Raffi
+p. 158.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1927" href="#xd20e1927src" name="xd20e1927">19</a></span>
+Translated by Miss Boyadjian, <i>Armenian Legends and Poetry</i>.</p>
+<p class="footnote">After the first and third lines of the charm song,
+the following line is sung, which I give in the German of Abeghian:</p>
+<div class="q">
+<div class="body">
+<div lang="de" class="lgouter footnote">
+<p class="line">&ldquo;Liebe Rose meine, liebe, liebe.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p class="footnote">and after the second and fourth lines:</p>
+<div class="q">
+<div class="body">
+<div lang="de" class="lgouter footnote">
+<p class="line">&ldquo;Liebe Blume meine, liebe, liebe.&rdquo;
+(Abeghian p. 65.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p class="footnote">There are thousands of similarly constructed
+folk-songs treating a variety of subjects current among the people,
+many of which have been collected by an Armenian by the name of
+Tcheras, whose book, unfortunately, I have not been able to obtain.
+Miss Boyadjian has collected a few of them in her <i>Armenian Legends
+and Poetry</i>. However, I shall mention only such as are relevant to
+the festivals to be described.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1962" href="#xd20e1962src" name="xd20e1962">20</a></span>
+Abeghian pp. 61&ndash;62.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1967" href="#xd20e1967src" name="xd20e1967">21</a></span>
+<i>World&rsquo;s Great Classic Series.</i> Section on Armenian
+literature, with introduction by Robert Arnot. See David of Sassun pp.
+57&ndash;79.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1972" href="#xd20e1972src" name="xd20e1972">22</a></span>
+Abeghian p. 51, 52.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Emin, <i>Ancient Armenian Legends</i>.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1985" href="#xd20e1985src" name="xd20e1985">23</a></span>
+Abeghian p. 62.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e1990" href="#xd20e1990src" name="xd20e1990">24</a></span> These
+beliefs are analogous to those in connection with the bringing of
+healing water, or the water of perpetual life, the source of which is
+guarded by monsters, snakes, and scorpions. The hero steals cautiously
+to the source in order not to be observed by the watchmen, fills his
+vessel with water and hurries away, for the mountains and trees call
+out to warn the guardians of the source who awake and follow the hero.
+(<i>Ibid.</i> p. 63.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2000" href="#xd20e2000src" name="xd20e2000">25</a></span> This
+part of the festivities is also accompanied with song. In Astapet the
+following song is sung by way of introduction:</p>
+<div class="q">
+<div class="body">
+<div lang="de" class="lgouter footnote">
+<p class="line hangqq">&ldquo;Holt einen grossen Meister,</p>
+<p class="line">Lasset ihn den Hochzeitsrock meines geliebten
+zuschneiden</p>
+<p class="line">Die Sonne sei der Stoff</p>
+<p class="line">Der Mond diene als Futter.</p>
+<p class="line">Stellt aus Wolken die Einfassung her,</p>
+<p class="line">Wickelt aus dem Meer Seidengarn,</p>
+<p class="line">Befestigt die Sterne in einer Reihe als Knopfe,</p>
+<p class="line">N&auml;ht die ganze Liebe hinein.&rdquo; (Abeghian p.
+64.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2025" href="#xd20e2025src" name="xd20e2025">26</a></span>
+Abeghian pp. 63&ndash;66.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch2.3" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="label">Chapter III</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Christian Folk Festivals</h2>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The second group of festivals comprises those newly
+created by the church, such as the Blessing of the Grapes, New Year,
+Easter, and Christmas. I wish also to include in this group a few of
+the peculiarly characteristic church ceremonies which also have a
+distinct festival value for the people, i.e., the ceremony of the
+&ldquo;Washing of Feet&rdquo; on Maundy Thursday,
+&ldquo;Khatchanguist&rdquo; or the &ldquo;Blessing of Water,&rdquo; the
+consecration of the Katholikos, and the manufacture of the &ldquo;holy
+oil.&rdquo;</p>
+<div id="ch2.3.1" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 1. Christmas, Easter, and New Year</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The service of the church on any one of the festival
+days is exclusively connected with the divine mystery, so called. These
+include the Assumption, or Immaculate Conception, celebrated by the
+people in the festival &ldquo;the Blessing of the Grapes&rdquo;; the
+miraculous birth, which corresponds to the Christmas festival; the
+Transfiguration, or the folk-festival Vartavar; the Redemption, to
+which the Easter festival corresponds; and the Resurrection, including
+Ascension or Fortune-Telling Day. There are other festivals celebrated
+by the church, such as the festival of the Holy Cross, and of the Holy
+Church, which I omit because there is not a corresponding social
+expression. Grand mass is said at the church, and the particular
+passages of scripture that have a direct bearing on the occasion are
+read. The Armenian calendar is curious in that many of the festivals
+occupy a succession of days; there are, for example, 39 days for the
+Resurrection, 3 days for the Transfiguration, 10 days for the
+Ascension, etc., which make up a grand total of 136 days in the year to
+which festivals are assigned. As there are 160 days devoted to
+abstinence, 117 of which are liturgical abstinence, that is, days of
+penitence mentioned in the liturgy, there are left only 112 days for
+the commemoration of saints, which have necessarily to be grouped
+together, since there are more than 112 saints.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2044src" href="#xd20e2044" name="xd20e2044src">1</a> Because,
+therefore, of the continuity of festival days, one could not expect any
+one of the festivals to have any social value from the standpoint of
+the church service. But there is never any conflict between the
+services of the church and the festivities without, which are thus
+sanctioned by the church and in many cases directed and carried out by
+church officials. It has been noticed that the blessing of the priest
+was secured for the magic bowl, before it was placed underneath the
+stars on the eve of Ascension Day.</p>
+<p>The festival of the Virgin Mary, or the &ldquo;Blessing of the
+Grapes,&rdquo; is more actively participated in by the church. It may
+be designed to keep the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb68" href=
+"#pb68" name="pb68">68</a>]</span>people from eating green grapes, but
+more probably was intended to give a social expression to an otherwise
+dull and very monotonous church ceremony. The people are all expected
+to maintain a strict abstinence from eating grapes until the middle of
+August, the day set apart for the festival. The grapes are then
+gathered in great quantities, some of which are carried to the church
+and placed on a large tray, which is set at the foot of the altar.
+After the ceremony of the church, the priest turns to the tray of
+grapes before him, which he blesses with his cross. The tray is then
+taken to the door of the church, where each member of the congregation
+is given a bunch as he passes out. The fast is thus broken with the
+taste of &ldquo;blessed grapes,&rdquo; and there is no end of grape
+eating on that day. During the remainder of the day every woman named
+Mary, or named with a possible attribute of the Virgin Mary, as
+&ldquo;Kudsa,&rdquo; meaning &ldquo;saintly,&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;Dirouhi,&rdquo; meaning &ldquo;Mother of the Lord,&rdquo; keeps
+open house for the friends who drop in to eat grapes and to
+congratulate her. In rural places or villages where vineyards are
+abundant, social groups may be seen eating grapes from the vines while
+talking or playing as they are inclined. Grapes ripen earlier in some
+parts of Armenia than in others, and where this is true the festival is
+merged with the festival of Vartavar.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2051src" href="#xd20e2051" name="xd20e2051src">2</a></p>
+<p>For the festival of New Year&rsquo;s Eve no religious
+co&ouml;peration whatever is necessary; it comes as near to being
+distinct from the church as any of the Armenian festivals. The
+preparation consists largely in making or purchasing gifts for the
+various members of the family, in cracking bowls of nuts and getting
+all kinds of dried fruits ready. Armenian and Greek New Year&rsquo;s
+Eve fall on the same night, and in Constantinople there is much
+agitation and animation in the streets. Singing and music fill the air,
+and as soon as dusk falls, groups of boys, some carrying small
+lanterns, others provided with tom-toms or hand-organs, begin the
+circuit of the streets. Thus they go from house to house singing the
+New Year&rsquo;s song and playing their hand-organs, receiving pennies
+as they go. After the boys have passed along, the porters, watchmen,
+and firemen make a noisy procession down the streets, they too playing
+hand-organs and stopping at one house after another where they receive
+a drink, some sweets and nuts, and most important of all, a tip. As
+midnight approaches, the excitement increases; the pounding of the
+tom-toms becomes unbearable, all the organs of the neighborhood are
+making music, and there is such a noise of singing, shouting, and
+laughing as can be compared only to a night of political election.
+Inside the homes of the better-to-do, the children are put to bed for a
+time while the enormous New Year&rsquo;s table <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb69" href="#pb69" name="pb69">69</a>]</span>is set.
+Besides several specially prepared New Year&rsquo;s dishes, every home
+must be provided with a dish of every kind of fruit, dried or fresh.
+Small candles are stuck around the plates, and the presents are heaped
+up on a side table. At midnight the candles are all lit, and the family
+ranges itself around the table while the eldest, usually the
+grandmother, blesses all and prays. After the prayer she wishes to all
+the best things for the coming year, for the young ladies good
+husbands, for the young men prosperity and good wives, happiness for
+the little children, and comfort and health for the older ones. These
+wishes having been given, all kiss the hands of the older members of
+the family, after which the children kiss each others&rsquo; hands. The
+presents are exchanged; fruits, candies, and nuts are partaken of, and
+the fun goes on until dawn.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2064src" href=
+"#xd20e2064" name="xd20e2064src">3</a> In the interior of Armenia, two
+elders of the church go from door to door of the more fortunate ones on
+the day before New Year, carrying bags which they fill with the
+offerings received at every house. These are carefully parceled out and
+at dusk are left at the doors of poor families who would otherwise have
+no New Year&rsquo;s cheer.</p>
+<p>The church makes up amply in the Easter festival for any lack of
+participation at New Year. Forty-eight days of rigid lenten abstinence,
+during which time no meat is eaten, precede the festivities of Easter
+Day. The first two or three days of the Holy Week are given over to
+housecleaning, which however must be finished by Thursday in order that
+the people may attend the ceremonies at church which continue until
+Easter Day. On Thursday afternoon &ldquo;the Washing of the
+Feet,&rdquo; to be described later, commences, and the service
+continues until past midnight. On Saturday all go to the bath, which is
+made an essential part of the week&rsquo;s celebrations, and on the
+afternoon of the same day the real Easter service, called the Lighting
+of the Lights, begins. The church is first illuminated on Easter Eve,
+for on the three preceding days of mourning and sorrow the altar shrine
+is kept closed and no candles are lit. Even the congregation holds
+lighted wax candles while the triumphal songs are chanted by the robed
+choir of little boys.</p>
+<p>At the evening meal of the day before Easter the lenten fast is
+partly broken by eating fish and boiled eggs, but no meat.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e2071src" href="#xd20e2071" name="xd20e2071src">4</a>
+The denial of the flesh recommences, however, at bedtime, for not a
+morsel is eaten until Easter midday. Early dawn sees the people putting
+on their new clothes, especially new shoes which are considered a
+necessity on this day, and all, newly attired, go to church where
+communion is celebrated. The church is usually filled with flowers and
+its most brilliant ornaments are displayed, <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb70" href="#pb70" name="pb70">70</a>]</span>the
+service ending at midday in time for the usual feast of stuffed roast
+lamb, the customary red eggs, and the egg bread made only at Easter
+time. In the afternoon the men visit from house to house and something
+dainty is always served, a cocktail or a cup of coffee with sweets like
+Turkish delight or bonbons. The formula repeated by the guest upon
+entering a house is always the same; &ldquo;Christ is risen from the
+dead,&rdquo; he exclaims, and is answered by the host with the usual
+formula, &ldquo;Blessed is the resurrection of Christ.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>Perhaps the boys enjoy Easter most of all. Provided with red Easter
+eggs, they collect in groups, whereupon there follows a most vivacious
+competition to win each other&rsquo;s eggs by clashing them together.
+The champion egg is used until it is broken, when a new champion is
+quickly brought forth. This process continues as long as there are two
+or more unbroken eggs, the game being won when all of the broken eggs
+are in the possession of the boy who holds the champion egg. Picnic
+day, or the &ldquo;Day of the Dead,&rdquo; follows Easter Day, as I
+have described it, and it is singularly strange that a &ldquo;day of
+resurrection&rdquo; should be followed by a &ldquo;day of the
+dead,&rdquo; when prayers are said and offerings given in sacrifice for
+the departed. But people are not mindful of such little incongruities;
+they are simple and carry out the festival celebrated by their fathers,
+much as their fathers celebrated it.</p>
+<p>The week before Christmas is likewise devoted to a thorough
+housecleaning by the Armenian housewife, and on the day before, special
+dishes are prepared for the next day&rsquo;s feast. Again there is the
+customary bath which is observed by all the members of the household.
+On Christmas Eve the abstinence of the preceding days is partly broken,
+usually with fried fish, lettuce, and boiled spinach. Boiled spinach is
+the rule because it is believed that this dish made up the supper of
+the Virgin Mary on the eve of Christ&rsquo;s birth. At church special
+vespers are sung and there is much emphasis laid upon special
+selections from the prophets which are also sung. An hour before dawn
+the sexton alone, or with a group of choir boys, goes from door to door
+singing what is called &ldquo;the good tidings.&rdquo; It is the signal
+for the faithful to awake, don their best clothes and go to church
+again without eating breakfast. The holy bread and wine are not to be
+profaned by the people having eaten a breakfast of ordinary food, with
+the consequence that not a few faint during the service, even as at
+Easter time. But the ceremony is finished by half past ten, after which
+the women go home to prepare the midday feast while the men visit the
+homes of their friends. The never-failing formula of the guest upon
+entering the house of a friend is, &ldquo;Christ is born and manifested
+to-day,&rdquo; which is responded to by the host with &ldquo;Blessed is
+the manifestation of Christ.&rdquo; Each visit lasts about fifteen
+minutes and sweets and coffee are served. At midday the Christmas
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb71" href="#pb71" name=
+"pb71">71</a>]</span>feast is partaken of, all make merry around the
+table, and in the afternoon more calls are paid and received. The
+festivities are observed for three days, the third being ladies&rsquo;
+day, which is devoted by the ladies to giving and receiving visits.
+They offer their salutations and good wishes to each other, eating
+dainties even as the men. Shops and business places of Armenians are
+usually kept closed for three days.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2085src"
+href="#xd20e2085" name="xd20e2085src">5</a></p>
+<p>There is thus considerable similarity between Easter and the
+Christmas festivities, which is probably due to more or less sameness
+in the church ceremonies. These ceremonies, always well attended, are
+made attractive to the people by beautiful displays of flowers, vested
+choir boys, the charm of whose singing can only be understood by those
+who have heard them; also by special singing, not by the congregation,
+but by those who can sing, and with such enticing little additions as
+the Lighting of Lights. The services are thus as much and as real a
+part of the day&rsquo;s rejoicings as the feasts and social visits, and
+if they are designed consciously or unconsciously to give active
+expression to the sentiment of loyalty to the church one must admit
+that the expression is a perfectly free and natural one. Abstinences do
+not make the festivities attractive, to be sure, and there are more
+unfortunate communities who can not afford so lavish a display as
+others; but flowers need only to be picked from the fields, and boys
+there are always, even in the poorest churches. The holiday rejoicing
+has somewhat more of the serious blend which is to be contrasted with
+the more perfect gaiety of New Year&rsquo;s Day, and is probably due to
+the weightiness of its religious significance of which one is
+constantly reminded, not only by the services at the church but also by
+the salutations of visitors and the necessary replies, always the same.
+But even the gaiety of New Year is not to be compared with the perfect
+lightness and freedom of merriment that characterize some aspects of
+Vartavar, nor do any of the Christian folk festivals have the
+completeness of Vartavar.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch2.3.2" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 2. Special Church Ceremonies</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">Together with this second group of festivals including
+as they do Christmas, Easter, New Year, and the Blessing of the Grapes,
+I wish to include a short series of church ceremonies all of which have
+a very distinct festival value, beside their value in being singularly
+characteristic of the Armenian church. They are distinctly different
+from the festivals of the preceding section, in that the festivities
+are incidental to a ceremony peculiar to the Armenian church. The
+&ldquo;Washing of Feet,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Blessing of the Water,&rdquo;
+the consecration of the Katholikos, and the manufacture of the holy
+oil, are those I desire to describe. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"pb72" href="#pb72" name="pb72">72</a>]</span></p>
+<p>The &ldquo;Washing of Feet&rdquo; occurs on Maundy Thursday, three
+days before Easter.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2098src" href=
+"#xd20e2098" name="xd20e2098src">6</a> This day is the first of three
+successive days of mourning spoken of, during which the altar is
+closed, and no lights are lit. After the mass the bishop puts away his
+brocaded robes, and kneeling in imitation of Christ washing the feet of
+His disciples on the night of the betrayal, he washes the feet of the
+priests and choristers, of whom there are usually eleven. Christ washed
+the feet of twelve, but one of them was unworthy. The service then
+continues until midnight, and while the ceremony is in progress, the
+lights are put out one by one, to remain out until the &ldquo;Lighting
+of the Lights&rdquo; on Easter eve. If the church is a parish church in
+which a priest officiates, a number of little boys are ranged in order
+for the &ldquo;Washing of Feet,&rdquo; which in this case is performed
+by the priest, who anoints the soles of their feet with oil after he
+has washed them. Each boy is given a walnut shell and before he moves
+from his place he carefully scrapes some of the oil into his shell, and
+carries it home to place in the butter. If he does this it is believed
+that the supply of butter will not fail throughout the year.</p>
+<p>This same service was observed by a writer in the <i>Survey</i>, in
+a church on East 27th Street, New York, rented by a company of Armenian
+folk residing in that city.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2109src" href=
+"#xd20e2109" name="xd20e2109src">7</a> The same symbolic &ldquo;Washing
+of Feet&rdquo; was carried out on the evening of Maundy Thursday in
+much the same fashion as it is carried out in the home-land. The
+symbolism, the pageantry, the color of oriental Armenian worship, the
+silver-mounted Bible on the altar in the center, the rising steps, the
+crosses, the lighted candles, and the incense were all there. A
+white-robed choir with green velvet copes filed in, singing long
+chants. The choir was followed by two priests, and the priests by the
+bishop with his mitre, robe of crimson and gold, and his ivory cross
+held in the right hand with a kerchief of crimson silk. A shining
+crozier held in his left hand marked his office as shepherd of the
+flock; a large jewel locket and cross hung from his breast and was
+probably the gift of the Czar. The choir chant that continues all the
+while was described as an intricate, rhythmless tune, now passionate,
+now wailing and altogether &ldquo;oriental,&rdquo; accompanied by a few
+older folk here and there who were humming in unison with the choir and
+the leader, who was beating time. Beside the humming the congregation
+took no part in the service except that it stood up for the psalm and
+prayer. Suddenly a sound to the right brought the observer&rsquo;s
+attention to an old woman lying prostrate in the aisle. No one helped
+her, no one even seemed to notice her, but presently she rose to a
+kneeling posture and lifted her eyes in prayer to the altar. Again she
+prostrated herself, and again rose to lift her eyes to the altar, which
+performance was repeated a third time before the old woman <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb73" href="#pb73" name="pb73">73</a>]</span>took her
+seat. &ldquo;Der Voghormia&rdquo; meaning &ldquo;Lord have mercy upon
+us,&rdquo; was repeated ten times by the interceding bishop in a voice
+loud and intense, and a second ten times, and a third ten times. The
+chant quickened, and as the aged priest took the Bible from its place
+and held it toward the audience the bishop gave his benediction of
+peace to the &ldquo;four corners of the earth.&rdquo; There was another
+chant after which the washing of the feet commenced. With deep
+seriousness the bishop placed his staff by the altar, laid aside his
+mitre and brocaded robes, and beginning with the aged priest, he knelt
+beside a bowl of water to wash his feet. Ten more of those who came
+forward shared in the ceremony. &ldquo;I can not so serve you
+all,&rdquo; he said at the close of his address, &ldquo;I am sorry.
+Take as symbolic what is done.&rdquo; There was a short intermission,
+but before ten o&rsquo;clock the penitential service recommenced and
+continued until midnight. The story of Christ&rsquo;s betrayal in the
+garden was read, and the chants continued, wilder, sadder, and more
+wailing, accompanied by murmurs and occasionally by low cries from the
+people. As midnight approached the lights were dimmed one by one, and
+the emotion became more intense. As the hour struck, the congregation
+rose, and with clasped hands joined in a closing song and prayer. There
+were only a few score people present.</p>
+<p>The prostration of the old woman reminds one of the spiritually
+wounded who lay prostrate over the floor during the times of the
+Kentucky revivals, but the fact is there is nothing hysterical in this
+particular phase of Armenian worship. The attitude is commonly
+practiced by Armenians, especially among the peasant classes. They lie
+flat touching their heads to the ground.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2118src" href="#xd20e2118" name="xd20e2118src">8</a> But the
+posture is more peculiarly oriental than it is peculiarly Armenian. No
+sight is more common in the countries of Islam than the faithful Moslem
+who spreads his bit of carpet upon which he kneels with gaze fixed
+toward Mecca, prostrating himself repeatedly as he murmurs his
+prayers.</p>
+<p>Although the picture given by Dubois of a simple church service he
+attended in Koulpe, Armenia, is not the ceremony of Maundy Thursday, it
+has one or two strokes of native color that make it impossible to
+omit.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2126src" href="#xd20e2126" name=
+"xd20e2126src">9</a> The church was poor and simple, the walls were
+built of stone cemented by clay or bad lime. Two rows of large beams
+neither squared nor trimmed supported the earthen roof in the manner of
+columns. At the farther end was a kind of niche, partitioned off by
+means of soiled curtains, thus forming a sanctuary where stood the
+priest, clothed in torn robe, to read the prayers. All of the little
+boys of the village encircled him, kneeling and chanting or reciting
+prayers, turn by turn. The eldest placed themselves outside of the
+choir and knelt on straw mats or on sheep&rsquo;s skins which
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb74" href="#pb74" name=
+"pb74">74</a>]</span>marked their customary places, and kissed the
+earth, or murmured very low the words of the priest, or responded to
+the chanting at high pitch. The women held themselves apart, their
+faces half veiled, filling the back of the church behind the men, and,
+with lowered heads, were the first to leave.</p>
+<p>The kneeling posture and the prostration is again clearly in
+evidence, which together with what has been said is sufficient to show
+that this attitude, especially among the common people, is a very
+ordinary one and is therefore to be regarded merely as a very generally
+recognized posture of worship, and not at all significant necessarily
+of &ldquo;conviction of sin&rdquo; or a &ldquo;feeling of
+penitence,&rdquo; which is nevertheless suggested. The church at Koulpe
+must have been a very poor one not to have benches, but it had its
+little chorus of boys, and the people participated in much the same way
+as in the little church in New York, although nearly a hundred years
+have passed since Dubois attended the simple service.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;Khatchahankist,&rdquo; meaning literally, &ldquo;repose of
+the cross,&rdquo; is the second of the four church ceremonies I shall
+describe. The ceremony might better be named &ldquo;the Blessing of the
+Water,&rdquo; for that is what it really consists of. In the towns of
+Turkey the churches devote one day each week to the performance of this
+rite, but in other churches it occurs at the end of a special mass, as
+for example on Ascension Day, or on the commemoration day of St.
+Gregory.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2135src" href="#xd20e2135" name=
+"xd20e2135src">10</a> There is always a very great gathering on this
+occasion largely because of the various superstitions connected with
+it. A large silver bowl of water is brought and placed on a stand at
+the foot of the altar, after which the officiating priest comes forward
+with relics of the Holy Cross, of the saints, or a simple silver cross
+in his hand. The more frequently used relics are those of St. Gregory
+the Illuminator, St. John the Baptist, St. James of Nisibis, or St.
+George the Martyr. The priest reads prayers over the water, which are
+answered by the chants from the choir, after which he dips the relic or
+the cross into the water three times, finally making the sign of the
+cross over the bowl. The Lord&rsquo;s prayer is repeated, after which a
+ladle is placed on one side of the vessel, while the priest kneels on
+the other, cross or relic in hand. Now the people crowd about, cross
+their faces and kiss the cross, and then take up the ladle to drink of
+the water thus blessed especially for drinking purposes. It is used
+also for ablutions, for popular belief endows the sacred liquid with
+curative power.</p>
+<p>Some of the prayers that are repeated and the texts that are read
+during this ceremony are well worth noting, for they illustrate the
+candid interest of all participating. After the reading of the texts,
+the deacon repeats the following proclamation: &ldquo;Let us pray unto
+God who loveth <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb75" href="#pb75" name=
+"pb75">75</a>]</span>mankind and hath given for hope and refuge his
+victorious holy cross, which is armor invincible against the inworkings
+of Satan, to the end that whatsoever it touches, this water and all
+creatures. He shall through the same vouchsafe both healing and
+mercy.&rdquo; The priest then prays: &ldquo;Bless, O Lord, this water,
+and hallow it with thy holy cross, in order that the flocks and sheep
+which may approach and drink of the same, may derive therefrom freedom
+from disease and sterility; for from them we select sacrifices of
+fragrant sweetness and offer them as victims to thyself.&rdquo; And
+again the priest prays: &ldquo;Bless, O Lord, this water with the
+life-giving powers of the cross that everyone who shall drink thereof
+may derive therefrom a medicine of soul and body, and a health from the
+diseases which afflict him.&rdquo; Again: &ldquo;Bless, O Lord, this
+water with thy holy cross, that it may impart to the fields where it is
+sprinkled profitable harvests, and that all plants and herbs may be
+more than ever increased in fruitfulness.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2142src" href="#xd20e2142" name="xd20e2142src">11</a> The cross
+is then passed three times over the water with the words, &ldquo;Let
+this water be blessed and hallowed in the name of the Father, and of
+the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, Amen.&rdquo; This is followed by a
+short proclamation by the deacon and a closing prayer by the priest,
+after which the assembled people receive of the magic water as above
+described.</p>
+<p>This frank personal interest is characteristic of many of the church
+ceremonies. For example in the sacrament of holy communion, incense is
+offered with the prayer, &ldquo;Do thou in its stead send upon us the
+graces and gifts of thine Holy Spirit.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2150src" href="#xd20e2150" name="xd20e2150src">12</a></p>
+<p>Of central importance to the nation as to the religion is the
+ceremony of the consecration of the Katholikos, the supreme authority
+of the church, which is held in front of the Cathedral at
+Etchmiadzin.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2164src" href="#xd20e2164"
+name="xd20e2164src">13</a> People from near and far gather together to
+witness this event, and lest they should fail to see the central act of
+the ceremony, the roofs near-by are all used for the greater advantage
+they give to the observer. The banner of the Katholikos is set flying
+from the belfry tower; in front of the entrance to the Cathedral is set
+a wooden dais covered with carpets and costly embroideries whereon the
+ceremony is performed; the procession is formed and all is then in
+readiness. A service is held in the Cathedral, after which the
+procession issues from the church, and the various state and church
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb76" href="#pb76" name=
+"pb76">76</a>]</span>officials including representatives from the
+Russian government, the choir and deacons, all take their places about
+the platform. The twelve bishops who reside at Etchmiadzin, and whose
+business it is to wait upon the Katholikos, now appear gorgeously
+attired, escorting the central figure of the day, over whose head two
+attendants carry a richly embroidered canopy. The patriarch falls on
+his knees, his feet beneath his body in full accordance with the
+ordinary posture. One bishop now reads, after which another advances
+bearing in his hands the image of a dove wrought in gold. It is the
+receptacle of the holy oil, which is a mixture of the sacred oil
+blessed by St. Gregory, sparingly used and carefully preserved in the
+treasury of the Cathedral, and of the specially prepared oil
+consecrated in Sis in Cilicia. While one bishop is pouring the holy oil
+from the neck of the golden dove over the head of the <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e2169" title="Source: partiarch">patriarch</span>, the
+other bishops gather around to spread the oil about with their thumbs,
+making at the same time the sign of the cross. A piece of cloth is now
+placed over his head, his face being covered at the same time by a veil
+which is attached to the cloth. After a brief interval the newly
+consecrated Katholikos, followed by the bishops, officials, and
+procession, reenters the church in order to complete the ceremony. When
+the procession again files out escorting the pontiff to his residence,
+the choir sings, and the Russian band plays. Festivities continue
+throughout the day and into the night, including mainly the banquet
+with its toasts and songs by the choir, and the concert furnished by
+the band in the evening. The band is a foreign innovation, although the
+particular band observed by Lynch consisted mostly of Armenians.</p>
+<p>The holy oil used in the consecration consists for the most part of
+the preparation manufactured in Sis, as stated, and with which there is
+a special ceremony connected, which is of general importance, for the
+oil is also used for the various necessary consecrations of all the
+churches. In the church at Sis is treasured a gorgeous silver bowl,
+decorated with turrets and pinnacles, in which &ldquo;Muron&rdquo; as
+it is called, or holy oil is made every four years. Pilgrims come from
+far to witness the event. The bowl, which holds about a gallon of oil
+is placed outside the church, and in it are placed a hundred and one
+kinds of flowers amid prayers and chants.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2175src" href="#xd20e2175" name="xd20e2175src">14</a> These
+flowers are stirred with the arm of St. Gregory, after which the lid is
+put on and the mixture made to boil.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2183src" href="#xd20e2183" name="xd20e2183src">15</a> The
+privilege of lifting off the lid is auctioned, and it is said that
+&pound;100 was once paid for the distinction. The oil is then sold to
+the pilgrims, all of whom take a phial of it along to their homes where
+it is used in baptism, marriage, and burial ceremonies. It is also
+believed to have wonderful medicinal properties. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb77" href="#pb77" name="pb77">77</a>]</span></p>
+<p>The chief social value of these ceremonies lies in the fact that
+they bring large groups of people together under unusual circumstances,
+all of which adds importance to the various rites and festivities of
+the occasion. Especially is this true of the consecration of the
+Katholikos, which may occur twice or at the most three times in a
+generation. For this reason and also because of the authority and
+position of the Katholikos, not only as head of the church, but also in
+a very real sense, as head of the nation, this ceremony is attended by
+many pilgrims from the various sections of the country. Having
+assembled, the occasion is thus made a great deal more of than if it
+were an ordinary event. The day is a festival day in the full meaning
+of the term. Besides the services there is the banquet, the special
+choir, and the band. The relics kept in the treasury, which it is
+probable that most people who come have not seen before; also the holy
+churches of St. Gaiane and St. Rhipsime, which are visited by small
+groups throughout the day; and most of all the sacred altar of the
+Cathedral, where Christ descended in the vision of St. Gregory, are
+special attractions. And then there is the library where many ancient
+and precious manuscripts are exhibited, the institution of the
+monastery, the garden of the Katholikos, the printing press, and the
+seminary, all of which are of interest to the spectator. In fact there
+is sufficient to induce the pilgrims to remain for a number of days,
+which many of them do. The grounds are provided with a pilgrim&rsquo;s
+court surrounded by guest chambers utilized at this time. Naturally
+enough the various monuments suggest the traditions and legends with
+which they are connected, such as the traditions of St. Gregory,
+Tiridates, the legends of St. Rhipsime and St. Gaiane, and the other
+legends associated with the introduction of Christianity. Although
+centered about a religious ceremony which probably lasts no longer than
+fifteen minutes, the occasion is thus made a festival, and is about as
+important in fostering a real sentiment of patriotism and of church
+loyalty as any other single festival.</p>
+<p>The ceremony of the manufacture of the holy oil is not of such
+central importance. It also, however, has the advantage of not
+occurring very frequently, coming as it does only once in every four
+years. This together with the general utility of the oil in all of the
+various church ceremonies, plus the superstitions connected with it, is
+sufficient to induce pilgrims to make the journey to Sis in Cilicia,
+where the ceremony is held. It is again this assembly of pilgrims that
+gives the ceremony a social importance. In a nation like the United
+States where all parts are connected by railroads, telegraphs, and
+telephones, such a pilgrimage would have comparatively little social
+value. Except for government centers, there are no telegraphs in
+Armenia, the telephone is known only in a few cities, and railroads
+there are none. This lack of communication gives such ceremonies to
+which pilgrimages are made a very special social value which
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb78" href="#pb78" name=
+"pb78">78</a>]</span>they otherwise would not at all have. The
+electoral assemblies spoken of have the same value, and for the same
+reason. The Armenian is not a person to be silent, and talks even when
+prudence is the better part of valour. He criticizes, condemns, and
+praises openly, fearlessly, and carelessly, and such a gathering of
+pilgrims, or electors, if it means anything, would mean a wholesale
+exchange of facts relating to current events, opinions, and rumors with
+reference to politics, religion, and every phase of social and
+industrial life.</p>
+<p>The Blessing of the Water can not be said to have so great a social
+value, occurring as it does in some parts of the country once every
+week. And yet this service is unusually well attended, largely because
+of the superstitions connected with the blessed water. Religion here
+appears to offer its biggest attraction to the less fortunate, such as
+the rheumatic, the tubercular, the dyspeptic, the epileptic, and the
+feeble-minded. But enough facts have been mentioned to show that the
+Armenian church is something more than an institution of cure and
+relief. It has identified itself too completely with the common life by
+keeping alive the streams and cross currents of social activity to
+admit of such a supposition.</p>
+<p>The ceremony of Maundy Thursday, or Washing of the Feet, is, of the
+four I have mentioned, of the least social importance. But it is
+generally attended, especially by the women who are compelled by the
+ban of custom to complete their house-cleaning before this service
+begins. And then too, it is the commencement of the Easter celebration,
+and as such has a distinct festival value. I have reviewed them
+therefore in the order of their social importance. The consecration of
+the Katholikos first; second the making of holy oil; third, the
+Blessing of the Water, and finally, the Washing of the Feet, which
+complete the second group of festivals. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"pb79" href="#pb79" name="pb79">79</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2044" href="#xd20e2044src" name="xd20e2044">1</a></span> Ormanian
+pp. 189&ndash;90.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2051" href="#xd20e2051src" name="xd20e2051">2</a></span> For the
+ritual side of this festival, the church ceremony known as the Blessing
+of the Crops, or the Blessing of Harvest, and the prayers in connection
+therewith, F. C. Conybeare&rsquo;s <i>Ritual Armenorum</i>, and St.
+Mesrob&rsquo;s <i>Maschtotz</i> may be consulted. The social side I
+have gotten from my wife who has taken part in the festival several
+times.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2064" href="#xd20e2064src" name="xd20e2064">3</a></span> A very
+common custom, especially in the interior villages of Armenia, is to
+give a lighted candle and an apple or orange in which small silver
+coins have been stuck, as gifts to the children. This is done by the
+eldest member of the family, usually the grandmother, at the time the
+younger ones come up to kiss her hand and receive her blessing.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2071" href="#xd20e2071src" name="xd20e2071">4</a></span> For a
+description of the Easter and Christmas fasts, see Tavernier,
+<i>Voyages</i> 1:497&ndash;98.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2085" href="#xd20e2085src" name="xd20e2085">5</a></span> The
+festivals of New Year&rsquo;s Day, Easter, and Christmas, I have
+described as related to me by my wife who has celebrated them in
+company with others in Constantinople. Such variations practiced in the
+interior of Armenia as I am aware of, I have indicated.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2098" href="#xd20e2098src" name="xd20e2098">6</a></span> F. C.
+Conybeare, <i>Ritual Armenorum</i> pp. 213, 294.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2109" href="#xd20e2109src" name="xd20e2109">7</a></span>
+<i>Survey</i> 36:167. Anonymous.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2118" href="#xd20e2118src" name="xd20e2118">8</a></span>
+Tavernier, <i>Voyages</i> 1:496.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2126" href="#xd20e2126src" name="xd20e2126">9</a></span> Dubois
+3:441.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2135" href="#xd20e2135src" name="xd20e2135">10</a></span>
+Ormanian p. 177.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2142" href="#xd20e2142src" name="xd20e2142">11</a></span> F. C.
+Conybeare, <i>Ritual Armenorum</i> p. 224.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2150" href="#xd20e2150src" name="xd20e2150">12</a></span>
+Brightman, <i>Eastern Liturgies</i>, chapter on Armenian Liturgy. For
+an interesting variation of this ceremony see Tavernier 1:502.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Closely related to this ceremony is that of the
+blessing or purifying of a well. A well is not used until a priest has
+first blessed it, or if the water of a well becomes impure, it is
+necessary to purify it by the blessing of a priest. The latter takes a
+cross and a Bible and having requested the people to draw a pail of
+water which is thrown away, a second pail is drawn, over which the
+priest reads a psalm. The water is then blessed with the cross, incense
+is burned over the well, and the pail of water is emptied back.
+(<i>Maschtotz.</i>)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2164" href="#xd20e2164src" name="xd20e2164">13</a></span> Lynch
+1:203, 204.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2175" href="#xd20e2175src" name="xd20e2175">14</a></span>
+<i>Contemporary Review</i> 70:695. J. T. Bent.</p>
+<p class="footnote">Tavernier, 1:500, 501.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2183" href="#xd20e2183src" name="xd20e2183">15</a></span> The
+people believe that the holy relic causes the mixture to boil.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch2.4" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="label">Chapter IV</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Private Festival Occasions</h2>
+<div id="ch2.4.1" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 1. Baptism</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The third group of festivals comprises those connected
+with the common life of the people, including the ceremonies of
+baptism, betrothal, marriage, and funeral. The church is vitally
+related to each of them, and they are of importance here because of
+their social value, which I shall again endeavor to point out.</p>
+<p>First after birth, the most important event in the life of every
+Armenian child is that of baptism, for the belief is that the
+unbaptized child has no soul. The infant is therefore generally
+baptized on the day after birth, and when this is impossible always
+within eight days of birth. If the child is sick there is all the more
+reason to hurry; in this case the essential parts of the ceremony are
+performed in the home, the remainder being celebrated at the church at
+some later time. The very first thing to be done therefore after the
+birth of a child is to make the necessary preparations for baptism,
+which are very elaborate in the case of the first-born, especially if
+the child is a boy.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2210src" href=
+"#xd20e2210" name="xd20e2210src">1</a> A girl is always better than no
+child at all, but not much better. A godfather and godmother are
+selected, presents are exchanged between them and the parents of the
+child, invitations are sent to friends and relations, and at a fixed
+time the assembled people form a procession to the church, led by the
+midwife holding the child. The godfather pays all expenses, and
+therefore such splendor as the ceremony may have in the way of special
+ornaments for the altar, numbers of priests, and a large choir, is
+determined by him. After the group has properly assembled at the
+church, the priest takes the child from the midwife and gives it to the
+godfather. The profession of faith follows immediately and then the
+priest turns to the west to abjure the devil and to the east to invoke
+the Trinity.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2215src" href="#xd20e2215"
+name="xd20e2215src">2</a> Having placed the hem of his chasuble upon
+the babe, the priest proceeds to the sacristy reciting a psalm, and
+followed by the people. The central event now takes place. The baptism
+consists of three immersions in the name of the Holy Trinity. First
+water is poured over the head of the child, after which the whole body
+is plunged into the water. Confirmation is administered right after the
+ceremony of immersion, and takes place upon the altar of the church
+proper, before the image of the Blessed Virgin. The forehead, eyes,
+ears, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb80" href="#pb80" name=
+"pb80">80</a>]</span>nose, mouth, hands, back, breast and upper part of
+the feet of the infant are anointed with holy oil, and two wax tapers
+are placed in the hands of the godfather while carrying the child. The
+priest then takes the tapers and the babe, consecrates and confirms him
+by three profound inclinations before the altar, gives candles and
+child back to the godfather and blesses both. Now the child may be
+called by its Christian name, which is usually that of a
+saint.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2228src" href="#xd20e2228" name=
+"xd20e2228src">3</a> Led by the priest and the singing choir, the
+procession now starts back to the home of the little one, still carried
+by the godfather who continues to hold the candles. When he reaches the
+door of the mother, she kneels and prostrates herself before him. He in
+turn delivers the child to the mother&rsquo;s arms who may now kiss it
+for the first time, the child not having been kissed by any one from
+the moment of birth to the delivering over to the mother by the
+godfather after baptism. Others may now also kiss the babe, and each
+endeavors to be the first, for there is a superstitious value attached
+to the first kiss following the mother&rsquo;s after baptism. The
+priests and the family of the godfather spend the evening in the
+child&rsquo;s home. They are served constantly by the father who does
+not himself sit down. For forty days the mother must keep her room, and
+walk only in such parts of the house as are exposed to the
+sun.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2231src" href="#xd20e2231" name=
+"xd20e2231src">4</a> Having completed the fortieth day she and her babe
+are taken to church by the grandmother.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2235src" href="#xd20e2235" name="xd20e2235src">5</a> On this
+occasion the young mother must bring an offering, which in times past
+was a rich Persian rug, but is now merely a package of tapers. She
+waits at the door of the sacristy until the priest comes and leads her
+in before the high altar where both mother and child receive a
+blessing. After this ceremony she must visit the godfather and kiss his
+hand in token of gratitude.</p>
+<p>If a funeral passes during the first forty days of the child&rsquo;s
+life, the little one must be snatched up from the cradle and be carried
+upright. People now come to offer their felicitations. The greeting of
+the guest is always, &ldquo;May God raise the child in the shadow of
+its parents,&rdquo; to which answer is given, &ldquo;May God bless you
+according to your desire,&rdquo; or &ldquo;May your tongue be always in
+good health.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch2.4.2" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 2. Betrothal</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">It is the popular belief among Armenians that the
+practice of early marriages dates from the proclamation of a Persian
+shah of the sixteenth century, to whom part of Armenia was
+tributary.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2245src" href="#xd20e2245" name=
+"xd20e2245src">6</a> This edict was intended <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb81" href="#pb81" name="pb81">81</a>]</span>to wipe
+out Christianity, and provided for the marriage of Armenian boys and
+girls with Persian children. In order to evade the edict, the Armenian
+parents ran secretly from house to house for several nights marrying
+off their children to each other. The custom on the part of the parents
+of arranging for the marriage of their children without the knowledge
+of the latter is supposed also to be rooted in this event. Whether the
+explanation be true or not, it certainly is not uncommon for children
+to marry at sixteen in the interior of Armenia, and it is still
+generally true that arrangements for the marriages of children are made
+without the knowledge of those most concerned.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2253src" href="#xd20e2253" name="xd20e2253src">7</a> The girl
+does occasionally exercise choice, but when the unfortunate suitor is
+not desired by the parents the feeling of obligation on the
+girl&rsquo;s part, simply because she has lived at her father&rsquo;s
+table, is sufficient to induce her to submit.<a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2256src" href="#xd20e2256" name="xd20e2256src">8</a> And the same
+may be said of the young man, although the greater independence of a
+son gives him a little more ground for acting contrary to his
+father&rsquo;s wishes, than in the case of the daughter. But even when
+the choice of the children is accepted, the arrangements and ceremony
+of betrothal are always carried out by the parents.</p>
+<p>These arrangements are something as follows. The parents of a young
+man consult his grandparents, and choose a young girl who to them seems
+eligible. They then inform a woman match-maker of their decision, and
+it is her business to sound the ground, so to speak, before a proposal
+is made, since a refusal would ruin the boy&rsquo;s reputation. The
+matchmaker is often a professional woman, and can therefore be relied
+upon not to make a bungle of the job. Among other things, she finds out
+what gifts the bridegroom-to-be must make to his future bride, which
+can of course be done only after the proposal has met with a favorable
+response on the part of the parents of the girl. &ldquo;What can he
+offer his bride,&rdquo; is the all important question from the
+standpoint of the girl&rsquo;s family. Among the rich, but in times
+past, gold bracelets bejeweled with diamonds or strings of gold pieces
+for adorning the head or neck were common varieties of gifts. To-day
+silver plate, or expensive heirlooms are given. After these matters
+have been decided upon, preparations are made for the ceremony of
+betrothal, usually held in the evening. The friends of the young man
+are notified to meet together in his house at an appointed hour with
+the priest who is given a ring which he blesses. The procession of the
+bridegroom&rsquo;s friends headed by the priest now starts for the
+house of the bride. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb82" href="#pb82"
+name="pb82">82</a>]</span>All are provided with lighted wax candles
+which they hold in their hands as they proceed down the streets
+accompanied by the sound of violin, clarinets, drum, and joyful
+singing. Sometimes a detour is made in order to lengthen the
+procession.</p>
+<p>Having arrived at their destination, the father and mother of the
+girl pretend to know nothing whatever of the reason for the coming of
+the guests, and conversation proceeds for a considerable time without
+the slightest allusion to the matter of chief moment. The priest
+finally makes the following statement amid profound silence:
+&ldquo;According to the law of the supreme Creator, and following the
+usages of human society, we have the happiness of demanding the hand of
+Miss X, for Mr. Y.&rdquo; The father of the girl pretends not to wish
+to accept, stating that she is too young, or that her mother is very
+desirous to keep her at home. But upon further pressing on the part of
+the parents of the boy, the acceptance is given. It is now the turn of
+the girl to be consulted; she, however, is nowhere to be found. The
+priest searches, and when finally discovered she does not speak a word.
+The former, however, knows, and offering his hand he says, &ldquo;If
+you consent, kiss the hand,&rdquo; which is straightway done, for the
+girl has been informed beforehand that the kiss is to be forthcoming.
+This part of the procedure takes place apart from the crowd, and is
+followed by the presentation of the ring and the benediction which must
+take place before the public. But since custom forbids the girl to
+appear during the entire evening, a brother or a sister comes forward
+and kneels before the priest to receive the ring. The rest all kneel at
+the same time, and the priest gives the benediction. The ring is
+carried by the child to the fianc&eacute;e, the health of the couple is
+drunk in rose-syrup, and congratulations and compliments are exchanged.
+Whatever else is eaten or drunk, rose-syrup must be at hand, for this
+is essential and peculiar to the ceremony.</p>
+<p>All this while the young man is within the walls of his own home.
+Custom forbids him to appear at the house of his bride-to-be until the
+wedding day, and if perchance the two should meet, he must turn his
+head away while she hides herself. Towards ten o&rsquo;clock the party
+breaks up, and each guest is given a wax candle. All try to steal
+something from the house before leaving, such as a bottle, a glass, or
+a spoon, and if the thieves are not caught before they leave the house,
+the articles are returned only at the price of a supper from the head
+of the family. The party now returns to the home of the future
+bridegroom, accompanied by the friends and relatives of the girl. The
+procession formed, there is the same lighting of wax candles received
+from the host, brightening the otherwise darkened streets, and the same
+music and singing to triumph over the silence of the night. The young
+man must stand upright before his future father-in-law all through the
+visit. For him the great moment comes when the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb83" href="#pb83" name="pb83">83</a>]</span>brother
+of his fianc&eacute;e takes him aside and offers him a glass of syrup
+prepared by her own hands. The whole night is passed in song and
+amusement. During the following fortnight both families receive visits
+of congratulation, and at every visit the host or hostess must offer
+the syrup drunk at the betrothal ceremony.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch2.4.3" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 3. Marriage</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">Elaborate and gay as are the festivities of betrothal,
+the celebrations of marriage are so much more so that one is inclined
+to look upon the essential religious ceremony as a pretext for the
+merry-making.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2285src" href="#xd20e2285"
+name="xd20e2285src">9</a> The interval of a month which ordinarily
+intervenes between engagement and marriage is devoted to making the
+necessary preparations for the wedding. The bridegroom must get ready
+the promised ornaments, a white wedding-dress for his bride, a fine
+veil to cover her face, and a pair of shoes, a rather strange
+combination of gifts. One wonders also why the necessary gloves and
+silk stockings are not included. The young lady on her part prepares
+her trousseau including garments of various sorts, bits of jewelry, a
+wooden chest filled with her clothing, a mirror, a nuptial bed with the
+necessary accessories, and a few cooking utensils; altogether an outfit
+quite as varied and singular as the gifts of the bridegroom, but
+certainly practical and sensible enough. Two days before the wedding,
+which usually occurs on a Sunday afternoon, invitations are sent out to
+friends and relatives, and musicians are secured. On the eve of the
+ceremony, the godfather invites the bridegroom with his friends to a
+Turkish bath, where they go to the accompaniment of music and singing.
+This part of the celebration is full of laughter and song, and is
+continued on the forenoon of the next day in the home of the
+bridegroom, when the barber comes to shave him in the presence of the
+guests and musicians, who sing and play as on the preceding evening at
+the bath. The occasion is one of importance for the barber, who brings
+all sorts of perfumes which are purchased by the guests and poured over
+the bridegroom; he receives not only a large fee for his service but
+also a double price for the scented extracts. The young man is then
+dressed up while the priest and choir children who have arrived sing
+canticles.</p>
+<p>In the meantime very similar festivities occur in the home of the
+bride, participated in by her young girl friends and relatives, except
+that they are not characterized by the same spirit of loud laughter and
+rejoicing. On the eve of the wedding the girls gather around her to
+sing melancholy songs, in considerable contrast with the gay, spirited
+music and singing taking place in the Turkish bath at the same time.
+Having shared the sadness, they place a rose leaf on the palm of each
+hand of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb84" href="#pb84" name=
+"pb84">84</a>]</span>bride, which is covered with henneh, a green
+Persian powder made into paste, after which each hand is carefully
+bandaged up. So the poor sad girl must go to bed, to sleep if she can.
+On the next morning her friends again arrive to take the bandages off
+her hands, to dress her, and to sing and dance about her. Except for
+the print of the rose leaf, the henneh leaves the hands orange red,
+which is supposed to be beautiful. The songs and dancing are again of a
+decidedly melancholy tone. Her white dress, together with the coat of
+the bridegroom, must be blessed by the priest, a ceremony which the
+church functionary performs alone, both articles being sent to him
+early in the morning. Preliminary to the day&rsquo;s events, and before
+breakfast, both bride and bridegroom, being previously confessed, go
+separately to church, where they take communion. This done, the
+festivities described follow, bride and bridegroom are dressed, and all
+is in readiness for the ceremony which occurs in the late afternoon or
+evening.</p>
+<p>The bride must ride to church on horseback, and having arrived she
+is dismounted, and later remounted without touching her feet to the
+ground, which rather cumbersome performance is accomplished through the
+help of a brother or relative, who also rides the bride&rsquo;s steed
+while the ceremony takes place within, for the horse is not to be left
+riderless. The procession to the church is accompanied by musicians.
+Before the rail which separates the choir from the body of the church,
+two wooden chairs are placed, upon which the couple sit down while the
+people present kneel on the mats covering the floor. When the time
+comes for the blessing of the priest, the couple arise, step inside the
+choir space, and stand facing each other between the high altar and two
+witnesses, their foreheads touching. In this position they receive the
+sacrament of matrimony, answering in the affirmative the questions of
+the priest regarding their duties to each other and to their children.
+Of the bride is demanded perfect faithfulness to conjugal duties,
+entire obedience to the husband of whom care, patience, wisdom, and
+love are required. The priest, taking the right hand of the bride and
+placing it in the hand of the bridegroom, says, &ldquo;According to the
+divine order God gave to our ancestors, I give thee now this wife in
+subjection. Wilt thou be her master?&rdquo; &ldquo;Through the help of
+God I will,&rdquo; answers the bridegroom. The priest then asks the
+woman, &ldquo;Wilt thou be obedient to him?&rdquo; to which is
+answered, &ldquo;I am obedient according to the order of God.&rdquo;
+These questions are repeated and replied to thrice, in evident implicit
+belief that once would not be sufficient. Finally, the priest ties to
+each of their heads a cord and cross, which is again removed by him
+late at night in the home with special ceremony, and it is only after
+this performance that the couple may enter the nuptial chamber.</p>
+<p>After the ceremony at the church the procession starts back for the
+home of the bridegroom&rsquo;s father, the bride riding upon her horse,
+musician <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb85" href="#pb85" name=
+"pb85">85</a>]</span>playing, and choir boys singing. The
+water-carriers, who have supplied drinking water, break their jars
+noisily before the bridegroom, drenching his marriage costume and
+giving rather an abrupt signal to the godfather whose business it is to
+tip them. Noisily the procession moves along the streets until it
+arrives at the gate of the house. In days past it was the custom at
+this point in the ceremony to place a sheep ready to be sacrificed at
+the feet of the young couple, the poorer people contenting themselves
+with chickens. The butcher put his knife to the neck of the sheep
+saying, &ldquo;May God thus put all your enemies under your feet, Amen,
+Amen.&rdquo; Then pieces of coin mixed with raisins, pistachios, and
+other bits of nuts or dried fruits are showered over the people from
+the windows above, while the godfather leads the bridegroom within to
+the crowd of men, and the godmother leads the bride to the women,
+everybody trying to kiss the cross on their heads. The bride is then
+placed in the seat of honor and in her arms is laid first a little boy,
+and then a little girl, so that the first child may be a boy and if
+perchance the will of God be otherwise at least a girl. Each guest now
+comes to the bride to place at her feet a fruit in season. The
+bridegroom is called &ldquo;the prince of the feast&rdquo; and must
+never quit his seat of honor. If he does leave his chair he must place
+an object belonging to him upon his seat, and if he should at any time
+omit to do so, the assembly makes the godfather pay the necessary
+forfeit, which is usually a dinner. Towards nine, the guests take their
+leave, having eaten and sung to their uttermost desire.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e2301src" href="#xd20e2301" name=
+"xd20e2301src">10</a></p>
+<p>Living in the home of her patriarchal father-in-law, the young wife
+is subject to the severest restraints. She must wear a lightly fitting
+veil enclosing her face below the eyes, without which she can not
+appear even in the house.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2306src" href=
+"#xd20e2306" name="xd20e2306src">11</a> She wears a close fitting
+bodice fastened at the neck with silver clasps, full trousers of rose
+colored silk gathered in at the ankles by a filet of silver; her feet
+are bare, a silver girdle of curious workmanship loosely encircles her
+waist, and a long padded garment, open down the front, hangs from her
+shoulders. Not a single word must she utter to any member of the
+household, except when alone with her husband, and then only such as
+may be absolutely necessary, until she has given birth to her first
+child. Then she may speak to her nursling, after a while to her
+mother-in-law, later to her own mother, and by and by to the young
+girls of the household, but never in all her life may she have word
+with a young man not a relative. During her first year of married life,
+she may not go out of the house except for two visits to the church.
+Every morning and at <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb86" href="#pb86"
+name="pb86">86</a>]</span>the end of each meal she must pour water over
+the hands of her father- and mother-in-law, and for a certain time
+after marriage, when visitors come, she must kiss their hands, except
+of course, for men, before whom she may not even appear.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e2311src" href="#xd20e2311" name=
+"xd20e2311src">12</a> Apart from these troublesome restraints the young
+wife is treated with the utmost solicitude, and in some parts, even the
+peasant wife is not allowed to do outdoor work. In the mountain
+villages of Persian Armenia, however, the women do all the tilling in
+the fields, wearing their veils over their mouths as they
+work.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2317src" href="#xd20e2317" name=
+"xd20e2317src">13</a> The author here quoted states that husbands never
+see the mouths of their wives, who not only must not speak during the
+first year of married life, or until a child is born, but also may not
+converse freely with their husbands until six years of married life
+have elapsed.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2323src" href="#xd20e2323"
+name="xd20e2323src">14</a></p>
+<p>In such fashion the sanctity of the marriage relation is strictly
+guarded, and as one would suppose, illegitimate births are unknown in
+Armenia. Intermarriage among relations is forbidden, and until recent
+years, divorce has been unknown.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2328src"
+href="#xd20e2328" name="xd20e2328src">15</a> As for the taboo on
+speech, it is calculated not so much as an inducement to the production
+of offspring as to preserve harmonious relations between the various
+members of the patriarchal household. Even the patriarch with all his
+authority would find difficulty in preserving proper decorum of speech
+and manners in so heterogeneous a household, if every newly acquired
+daughter-in-law were given a free rein in the use of her tongue. As the
+neophyte is made to understand his position by a brutal initiation, so
+the young wife is kept from assuming command over the female household
+by the placing of a moral valuation upon the silence which alone is
+compatible with the essential modesty regarded as the first and chief
+of virtues among wives. In the household of the patriarch there is a
+great deal to be done in common, and unfortunately the occasion for
+mutual aid is not sufficient to bring about the desired
+co&ouml;peration. Hence singleness of command and authority is a
+necessary condition, not only of efficiency, but also of peace, for it
+can not be supposed that so many daughters-in-law would work together
+in harmony. It would be a mistake, therefore, to regard the customary
+silence as an inducement to child-bearing.</p>
+<p>Identifying itself with the common events of life, such as birth,
+marriage, and death, the church has not only given a religious meaning
+to these occasions but has also sanctioned and even encouraged the
+festivities that accompany them. These festivities have up to this
+point been <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb87" href="#pb87" name=
+"pb87">87</a>]</span>occasions for rejoicing, with the single and
+significant exception of the melancholy singing of the bride&rsquo;s
+friends on the eve and day of her wedding. There is a perfect
+naturalness about all the merry-making and festivals so far considered,
+and this is no less characteristic of the funeral celebrations now to
+be taken up. The description of these will conclude my treatment of the
+last group of festivals, which are more properly festival-ceremonies,
+or ceremonies that have been made the occasion of festivity.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch2.4.4" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Section 4. Funeral</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The funerals, as one would naturally suppose, are more
+ceremonious, more ritualistic, and although there is now generally a
+minimum of festivity connected with them, this has not always been
+so.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2343src" href="#xd20e2343" name=
+"xd20e2343src">16</a> When the condition of a sick person is beyond
+hope, the priest is notified and the person is given confession,
+communion, and extreme unction. After death the eyes and mouth are
+closed, the body washed and dressed up in the newest and cleanest
+clothes to be had, and the arms crossed on the breast.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e2349src" href="#xd20e2349" name=
+"xd20e2349src">17</a> Two candles are kept burning until the day of the
+funeral, one at the foot and one at the head of the coffin. Sad, wooden
+bells are sounded, and guests are invited to pay their last respects.
+Coffee is served to them, but without sugar, as a sign of grief.
+Mourning women are secured, who eulogize the departed and weep and
+lament until the priests begin their chanting. The corpse is now taken
+to the church in a special coffin which is covered with a black velvet
+cloth adorned with small white crosses, among the wealthy, but among
+the poor the body is wrapped in linen and laid in a simple bier,
+carried by relatives and friends. At the head of the procession, which
+marches very slowly and chants on the way, there are carried a great
+cross and two lighted torches, followed by the priests and then by the
+coffin. The passer-by must stop and cross himself many times. At the
+church the coffin is laid down, and if the relatives are wealthy each
+person in the church is provided with a small wax candle which is kept
+lighted during the service. While the ceremony proceeds the body is
+blessed with holy water and perfumed with incense, after which the
+procession re-forms to accompany the body to the cemetery. The chanting
+is kept up all the way. At the cemetery the body is lowered into its
+last resting-place, and the priest, after making the sign of the cross
+on the four corners of the grave, throws three shovelfuls of earth into
+it and three more on the coffin. The people imitate by throwing three
+handfuls of dust, and the ceremony completed, all return to the home of
+the deceased where they <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb88" href=
+"#pb88" name="pb88">88</a>]</span>partake of steaming broth prepared by
+the neighbors and friends, and recite prayers for the soul of the dead.
+This latter practice, as said before, is a pagan survival, as is also
+the chanting of mass for the departed, which occurs three days later,
+at which time broth is again distributed, but this time to the poor as
+a sacrifice to the dead. The grave is blessed on the third day, again
+on the ninth, at the close of the third month, and for the last time,
+at the close of the year.</p>
+<p>The funeral of a priest is performed with much splendor.<a class=
+"noteref" id="xd20e2356src" href="#xd20e2356" name=
+"xd20e2356src">18</a> The procession makes a circuit of all the
+churches, and stopping at different places, portions of the gospel are
+read. If the priest be of high rank, as an archbishop, or a bishop, he
+is carried in an open coffin and in a sitting posture, dressed up in
+official vestments, in which position he is interred in the courtyard
+of the church. Farmers send sheep to be killed and given to the poor as
+a sacrifice. The Greeks in Constantinople also carry their dead in an
+open coffin, but this is because a Greek official who was a refugee
+prisoner in Constantinople at the time of the war of the Turks with the
+Greeks, endeavored to get himself carried out of the country by
+feigning death and boxing himself up in a coffin. But the Turks
+discovered the ruse and it was enacted by the sultan that thereafter
+all Greeks must be carried to their graves in open coffins. The custom
+in respect to the Armenian bishops, however, has no connection with
+this.</p>
+<p>In some parts of Armenia, as for example in Erzerum, the snow lies
+so deep in winter-time that burial is well-nigh impossible. During
+spring-time, with the melting of the snow, coffins have been found
+perched up on tree tops. This was related by an Armenian boy I know of,
+who lived in the vicinity of Erzerum. Curious customs of the past have
+left their marks. In Tarsus, for example, there are Armenian graves
+ranged about a tree which is asserted to have been planted by St. Paul,
+each provided with a stone upon which has been carved a symbol of the
+deceased, for the merchant, a representation of weights and measures,
+for the blacksmith, an anvil and hammer, for the scribe, an inkstand
+and pen, and for the industrious housewife, a distaff and spindle. In
+the cemetery of Nakhitchevan is a large building in which the mourners
+have a great repast after the funeral, and in certain other graveyards,
+Dubois found innumerable pieces of broken pitchers and crockery, which
+were probably broken, as the custom is, to ward off the evil spirit of
+the dead.</p>
+<p>These four ceremonies complete the third and last group of festivals
+described. I have called them ceremonies because fundamentally that is
+what they are, but they are to be distinguished sharply from the many
+church ceremonies I have not so much as mentioned, by reason
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb89" href="#pb89" name=
+"pb89">89</a>]</span>of their festival or social value which alone
+makes them proper subject-matter for this thesis. The relation between
+these ceremonies as revealed in the common procession, as well as in
+the religious ceremony necessary to each is due largely to the fact
+that they have to do with the most ordinary, and yet most extraordinary
+of life&rsquo;s events, birth, betrothal, marriage, and death.</p>
+<p>Reviewing them from the standpoint of their social or festival
+value, it is obvious that the marriage celebration easily takes first
+place, the betrothal festivities second, baptism and funeral third.
+There is the rather uncouth, perhaps, but none the less spontaneous
+gaiety of the friends of the bridegroom, not only on the eve of the
+wedding-day when they go to the bath, but also on the morning of the
+wedding-day when the unfortunate youth is assuredly cured of any
+addiction he might have to the use of perfumes. I should imagine that
+the music would begin to bore the young men by the time the barber
+arrives, since the musicians also accompany the rejoicing of the night
+before, and yet it may be said that there could be nothing more
+convenient or ingenious devised to carry over a lull in the
+merry-making, for after all, the young men could not well be singing,
+joking, laughing, and teasing all the time. In striking contrast is the
+melancholy rejoicing of the party of young women at the home of the
+bride. But where there is dancing and singing there can not well be
+weeping, although no doubt it is more natural for the bride to be
+thoughtful on her wedding-day, than for the bridegroom, for it is the
+former who leaves her home to spend the rest of her days in a very new,
+very strange, perhaps even unkindly world. There is still another
+reason for the melancholy, in that the girl must know she is bidding
+farewell forever to the delights and joys and freedom of childhood, for
+although to-day she may speak and sing and make merry, to-morrow
+morning she must be silent and prepared to pour water over the hands of
+her father- and mother-in-law. Henceforth it is for her to be
+submissive, obedient, docile, uncomplaining even at heart, for what use
+will it be to complain, and though her most cherished dreams may be of
+motherhood, does she not also have spirit, and why must it be broken?
+Is she then only a chattel to be sold into everlasting bondage? It is
+all too evident, even to the dullest of brides, that the happiness of
+childhood is forever past, and the brighter one can hardly fail to feel
+that she has been bartered for the bit of gold about her waist or
+neck.</p>
+<p>There is then the very highest of social value to be attributed to
+both of these festivities, and largely because in each group of people,
+the young men on one side, the young women on the other, there is
+perfect community of feeling, mutual understanding, and freedom of
+thought and expression. In comparison with these gatherings, the mixed
+assembly at the house of the bridegroom after the marriage ceremony is
+of little importance. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb90" href="#pb90"
+name="pb90">90</a>]</span>The succession of events covering a period of
+nearly thirty-six hours, of which only a few, and perhaps none at all,
+are spent in sleep by the members of the bridal party, must certainly
+begin to have its effect by the time the little baby doll is placed in
+the lap of the bride.</p>
+<p>The betrothal party is always out for a good time, for they realize
+that the merry-making is to be an all-night affair. There is the
+procession with its candles lighting up the darkened streets, the music
+and singing filling all space, the humorous little artificialities in
+the house of the bride,&mdash;real enough, at least ceremoniously, from
+the standpoint of the family,&mdash;the syrup, the attempted stealing
+of utensils, the return procession, the singing, music, and dancing at
+the home of the young bridegroom-to-be, without stop until dawn. All of
+this makes a rather complete occasion, even for young people.</p>
+<p>Baptism and funeral rites come nearest being pure ceremonies. But
+even the baptismal rite has its procession to and from the church
+participated in by all the friends and relatives of the family, and
+though the event is an occasion neither for rejoicing nor for sorrow,
+it is important enough, occurring as it does but once in the lifetime
+of each individual. There are, to be sure, the social calls that follow
+the ceremony. But the event can not be said to have any attraction for
+the young; and if this is true of baptism, it is still more true of
+funerals. Nevertheless there is the distinct psychological value of
+each, calling up as they do various associations, as the baptism of
+this one, or the death of another one, and thus keeping alive the
+deepest experiences of life. If they are crude and offensive to more
+delicate tastes, it must be remembered that a belief is represented in
+the concrete fashion essential to the simple mind, a mode of
+representation necessary to the best of intellects even though on
+another plane. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb91" href="#pb91" name=
+"pb91">91</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2210" href="#xd20e2210src" name="xd20e2210">1</a></span>
+<i>Catholic World</i> 11:301. Paul Terzian.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2215" href="#xd20e2215src" name="xd20e2215">2</a></span>
+According to <i>Maschtotz</i> the devil is abjured and the Trinity
+invoked at the gate of the church. In the course of the ceremony the
+priest unclothes the babe and asks the godfather, &ldquo;What seeks the
+child?&rdquo; The godfather answers, &ldquo;Faith, Hope, Love, and
+Baptism, to be cleansed from his sins and to be freed from the
+devils.&rdquo; The three immersions are symbolical of the three days of
+burial of Christ. (<i><span class="corr" id="xd20e2221" title=
+"Source: Maschottz">Maschtotz</span>.</i>)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2228" href="#xd20e2228src" name="xd20e2228">3</a></span> In the
+description of baptism as witnessed by Tavernier, red and white threads
+were laid about the neck of the child at this point in the ceremony.
+They represent the blood and body of Christ and are probably believed
+to keep away the evil eye. Beads and various other charm tokens are
+commonly used for this purpose. (Tavernier 1:500.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2231" href="#xd20e2231src" name="xd20e2231">4</a></span> This is
+probably because evil spirits dwell in darkness, while the beneficent
+are light.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2235" href="#xd20e2235src" name="xd20e2235">5</a></span> The
+similarity to the old Hebrew custom may be noted.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2245" href="#xd20e2245src" name="xd20e2245">6</a></span> Paul
+Terzian, <i>Catholic World</i> 71:305.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2253" href="#xd20e2253src" name="xd20e2253">7</a></span>
+Tavernier says that frequently two pregnant women who are on very
+friendly terms, will engage their future offspring, trusting to fortune
+that one will be a boy and the other a girl. (Tavernier 1:505.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2256" href="#xd20e2256src" name="xd20e2256">8</a></span> In fact
+when there is a variance of choice between parents and daughter it is
+common for the girl to regard the decision of her parents as being her
+fate. &ldquo;<span lang="de">Wenn eine junge Frau mit ihrer Heirat, die
+sie, nach dem Willen der Eltern geschlossen hat, unzufrieden ist, so
+singt sie:</span></p>
+<div class="q">
+<div class="body">
+<div lang="de" class="lgouter footnote">
+<p class="line hangq">&lsquo;Was soll ich meinem Vater und meiner
+Mutter sagen?</p>
+<p class="line">Das war auf meine Stirn geschrieben.&rsquo;&rdquo;
+(Abeghian p. 54.)</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2285" href="#xd20e2285src" name="xd20e2285">9</a></span> Paul
+Terzian, <i>Catholic World</i> 71:305.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2301" href="#xd20e2301src" name="xd20e2301">10</a></span> It is
+very evident that the expense of these festivities is a considerable
+item in the budget of the bridegroom&rsquo;s father. But it is a matter
+of social pride and respectability to live up to a certain standard of
+established usage. Accordingly many families involve themselves in
+life-long incumbrances, not only in the betrothal and marriage
+festivities but also in the ceremony of baptism, simply to come up to a
+recognized norm of expenditure. (Tavernier 1:504, 505.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2306" href="#xd20e2306src" name="xd20e2306">11</a></span>
+Cesaresco, chapter on Armenian folk-songs.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2311" href="#xd20e2311src" name="xd20e2311">12</a></span> Paul
+Terzian, <i>Catholic World</i> 71:508.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2317" href="#xd20e2317src" name="xd20e2317">13</a></span> Bent,
+<i>Contemporary Review</i> 70:701.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2323" href="#xd20e2323src" name="xd20e2323">14</a></span>
+Tavernier states that in Persian Armenia a man frequently lives with
+his wife ten years without ever hearing her voice or seeing her face.
+Of course she does not sleep with her veil over her face, but she is
+always careful to blow out the candle before she removes the veil, as
+she is to rise before daybreak in order to put it on again. (Tavernier
+1:507.)</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2328" href="#xd20e2328src" name="xd20e2328">15</a></span>
+Trowbridge, <i>New Englander</i> 33:1 ff.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2343" href="#xd20e2343src" name="xd20e2343">16</a></span> Paul
+Terzian, <i>Catholic World</i> 71:509.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2349" href="#xd20e2349src" name="xd20e2349">17</a></span> This
+statement is in contradiction to a previous statement that the body of
+the dead is merely wrapped in white cloth after it has been washed;
+(see page 60) the use of the white cloth is common among Gregorian
+Armenians.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2356" href="#xd20e2356src" name="xd20e2356">18</a></span> Paul
+Terzian, <i>Catholic World</i> 71:509 ff.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div id="ch2.5" class="div1 chapter"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="label">Chapter V</h2>
+<h2 class="main">Summary</h2>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">Such are the festivals treated in the second and last
+part of this thesis. Is it true that they form a vehicle of expression
+for the national sentiment created by the large mass of social material
+of which the legends of Part One are a considerable and important
+portion? Again it will be necessary to remind ourselves of the chief
+sentiments included within Armenian national sentiment, i.e., the
+sentiment of loyalty to the church, the sentiment of reverence
+amounting almost to worship for the ancient glory of the nation, and
+the sentiment of love for the country. It would be ridiculous to
+suppose that every festival was designed to give expression to some one
+of these sentiments. But that these sentiments are given very clear,
+very real outward expression in the great majority of the celebrations
+described, should be so evident at this point as to make further
+exposition unnecessary. In the summer Festival of Vartavar, the spring
+Festival of Mihr, Vartan&rsquo;s Day, and in the consecration of the
+Katholikos there is the proud and reverent looking back to the times
+when Armenia was an independent nation; the festival ceremonies of the
+third group, baptism, betrothal, marriage, and funeral, though they are
+not positive expressions of the sentiments of loyalty to the church,
+are yet so completely interwoven with the church and dependent upon it
+that one is compelled to regard the feeling as something to be taken
+for granted, while in most of the festivals of the second group,
+Christmas, Easter, Maundy Thursday, and the Blessing of the Grapes
+especially, the sentiment is given a more positive expression. As for
+the sentiment of love for the country, that is identified especially
+with Vartavar and Vartan&rsquo;s Day. It is evident, therefore, that
+each of these festivals and festival-ceremonies forms a medium more or
+less evident as the case may be, for the expression of one or more or
+all of the sentiments that make up Armenian national sentiment. Some of
+them are not to be classified as readily as this, as for example, the
+festival of Ascension morning, or Fortune-Telling Day, in which the
+dominant sentiment is one of romantic love, or in the Blessing of the
+Water, where the desire for a gain in health or wealth is the main
+psychological fact.</p>
+<p>Each one of these festivals, however, is a great deal more than the
+putting into activity of some of the above sentiments. In many of them
+the play-instinct is clearly evident, while in a few such as Vartavar,
+the whole self, with all its sentiments, instincts, tendencies, and
+emotions, is given the fullest and most unrestrained freedom. A
+festival, if it is anything, is a letting loose of the reins; there is
+nothing to hinder, nothing <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb92" href=
+"#pb92" name="pb92">92</a>]</span>to keep back, nothing to hide,
+nothing to fear, and the self reaches out in a higher consciousness of
+fullness and completeness of living. As such it would be the greatest
+of fallacies to suppose any one of the festivals to be restricted to a
+particular sentiment. Nevertheless, it is clear, that the festivals do
+constitute vehicles of expression for the sentiments that make up
+Armenian national sentiment.</p>
+<div id="ch2.5.1" class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Conclusions</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">The general conclusions to which this study
+unmistakably gives rise are in respect to the national traits of the
+Armenian people. These traits have been brought out both explicitly and
+implicitly in connection with the various legends and festivals
+considered, and it is my purpose, therefore, to summarize and
+substantiate them at this point. They include, first, the
+superstitiousness, second, the conservatism, third, the
+self-sufficiency, and lastly the familism of the people.</p>
+<p>First of these qualities, superstitiousness, may be ascribed in
+large measure to geographical isolation. The country to be sure, is so
+situated as to form a highway from Europe to the Mesopotamian valley,
+and from Asiatic Russia to the Mediterranean, and although it has been
+overrun by Assyrians, Greeks, Parthians, Romans, Persians, Turks,
+Egyptians, and still others, yet we must speak of it as isolated, for
+the science that has brought remote countries into contact has not
+affected Armenia to any considerable degree. Subject to a backward
+nation, lacking all modern means of communication, the country is shut
+off and the plows of civilization have not yet furrowed the social soil
+of superstition. How general these superstitions are is brought out
+especially by the festivals described, many of which have given rise to
+a superstition or a group of superstitions. From Vartavar, there came
+the belief that the dust from the sacred altar served as a talisman for
+children learning their A B C&rsquo;s; the spring fire festival gave
+rise to the practice of taking home a glowing brand for good luck;
+there is the belief that the blessed water will cure various diseases,
+and that the oil scraped from the anointed foot with a walnut given by
+the priest after washing the feet at the ceremony of Maundy Thursday,
+will keep a supply of butter throughout the year. And then there are
+the beliefs in the miraculous power of the holy oil, manufactured with
+due ceremony every four years at Sis; in the healing power of the
+various sacred relics kept at Etchmiadzin and other places, and ten
+thousand others. There are also beliefs not of a religious character as
+the above, such as the one in regard to the tetagush, the little
+locust-eating bird, which is supposed to be attracted by Ararat spring
+water. The same superstition obtains in other parts of the country with
+the difference that the inconvenience of obtaining Ararat spring water
+makes it necessary for the people to believe in the peculiar efficacy
+of other springs. These <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb93" href=
+"#pb93" name="pb93">93</a>]</span>illustrations are sufficient, and
+although it could hardly be proved that Armenians are more innately
+superstitious than the Anglo-Saxon ancestors who believed only a few
+generations ago in the power of the malignant eye, and that an innocent
+person might pass through fire unharmed, yet their superstitious nature
+and beliefs are present-day facts explained most completely on the
+ground of comparative isolation from the rest of the world.</p>
+<p>Second of the national characteristics of the people clearly brought
+out by this study is their conservatism. This may also be traced in
+large measure to their secluded condition, but in larger proportion is
+it due to the solidarity and national consciousness, which naturally
+consider innovations as foreign, and intrusions of foreign cultures,
+ideals, customs, and manners as hostile. That this is true is indicated
+conclusively by the fact that in Constantinople, where Armenian culture
+has naturally come in conflict with that of the Greek, the Turk, and
+the European, the Armenians have not at all given up their ways to
+imitate any of the three peoples mentioned. To be sure they have not
+adhered rigidly to the old beliefs and practices of the interior.
+Comparison has resulted in substitution, and conflict between the
+rational and irrational, the utile and the inutile, has meant
+displacement, but invariably by something distinctly different from the
+usages and practices current among Turk or European. That is, Armenians
+are themselves centers of imitation by fellow Armenians who, though
+they follow the lines suggested by their fellow countrymen, scorn to
+imitate even the European, whose superiority is generally recognized in
+Constantinople. The Armenian, recognizing no superior, has merely
+modified his own practices, usages, manners, and customs to suit his
+changed environment. And therefore I say that the characteristic
+Armenian conservatism is due rather to a strong feeling of nationality
+than to isolation.</p>
+<p>The conservatism of the church has been an important element.
+Refusing to have anything to do with the decisions of the Council of
+Chalcedon, the church became independent and has maintained a policy of
+the most rigid ultra-conservatism ever since. Says Ormanian:</p>
+<div class="blockquote">
+<p class="first">The Armenian church would have nothing to do with this
+transaction (Chalcedon) which was prompted by a design that had no
+bearing on theology. She remained firm in her original resolve, and
+ever maintained an attitude of ultra-conservatism. She set herself to
+resist every new dogmatic utterance said to emanate from revelation, as
+well as every innovation which could in any way pervert the primitive
+faith.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2406src" href="#xd20e2406" name=
+"xd20e2406src">1</a></p>
+</div>
+<p>That this same spirit is reflected in the social life of the people
+is something one would naturally expect, in view of the important
+influence of the church over the entire life of the people. As the
+father of the Alan princess <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb94" href=
+"#pb94" name="pb94">94</a>]</span>replied when requested to give the
+hand of his daughter to Artasches, &ldquo;From whence shall brave
+Artasches give thousands upon thousands and ten thousands upon tens of
+thousands unto the Alans in return for the maiden?&rdquo; so to-day the
+first question that is asked when the hand of a young Armenian girl is
+requested in marriage is &ldquo;What can he give for his bride?&rdquo;
+The practice of wife purchase has only changed in that the required
+riches are given to the bride instead of to the father of the bride.
+Occasionally a young man is pressed to the point of mortgaging property
+in order to obtain the necessary funds, and it has been known that in
+many such cases the young bride found her treasure gone shortly after
+her marriage, her master having taken it to pay off his mortgage. So
+parents arrange for the marriage of their children, the young wife is
+delivered up to her husband as the obedient and submissive servant,
+children are baptized after they have scarcely opened their eyes, and
+church ceremonies are conducted much as they have been for
+generations.</p>
+<p>The self-sufficiency of the Armenian people has been indicated in
+the repeated failures of missionary religions and foreign cultures to
+alter appreciably the native folkways and mores. In spite of political
+subordination to Islam, the Gregorian church has held tenaciously to
+its ideals and has successfully maintained its independence. The
+distinctive social tradition,&mdash;which includes the political and
+the religious traditions,&mdash;has remained intact in the face of
+recurrent invasion, vassalage, and persecution. The Armenian will not
+be assimilated. Death is preferable to the loss of those intangible
+realities that make the people a distinctive group. When Haic, the
+patriarchal progenitor of the race, was invited to &ldquo;soften his
+hard pride,&rdquo; and to return to the kingdom of the god Bel, the
+alternative, war, was chosen. In the year 450, when the Persian
+fire-worshippers invited the Armenians to change their faith, the
+answer again was war. The reply to the decision of Chalcedon
+illustrates the same spirit. Likewise through the centuries of the
+immediate past the ever recurring answer to the Turk has been war.
+Powerless to assimilate the Armenian people, the Turk has had to
+annihilate or be annihilated. The self-sufficiency of the people thus
+reveals itself in the will to maintain the distinctive social
+tradition, regardless of cost or sacrifice.</p>
+<p>The characteristic familism reveals itself not only in the customs
+of family life, but also in the very nature of the Armenian. In Russian
+Armenia there is a very active propaganda carried on by Russian girls
+to secure Armenian husbands because of the domesticity of the latter,
+which is in striking contrast to the adventurous unfaithfulness of the
+Russian husband, whose house becomes his prison, from which he
+therefore flees, leaving his wife and children to shift for themselves.
+The discontented Russian may be a more attractive lover for his
+&ldquo;Wanderlust&rdquo; and restlessness, <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="pb95" href="#pb95" name="pb95">95</a>]</span>but he
+is a less attractive husband for the same reason. An Armenian husband
+belongs in his home, where he lives in the hope that some day he may be
+the father of a huge household of married sons and grandsons. A young
+Armenian I know spoke to me of his wish that some day his father might
+collect the scattered sons and unite them and their families in a
+single household. This desire is so general among Armenians as to make
+it evident that the family is the all-important social unit. No
+reputation is so great as that carried by a good family name, nor is
+there any so damning as that which goes with a bad family name. And why
+is the young bride kept silent for years if not to ensure the
+all-essential family-unity, family-solidarity, and
+family-continuity,&mdash;that is, continuity of family tradition,
+manners, and customs? And why is the &ldquo;patria-potestas&rdquo;
+well-nigh unlimited if not for precisely the same reason? Nor is the
+taboo upon the young bride, according to which she may not speak to any
+young man not a relative during her entire life of marriage, of no
+significance in this connection. It too precludes family disruption, or
+blemish on the family name. Divorce and infidelity are very rare, all
+family differences having no tribunal outside the patriarch, who
+considers his greatest misfortune to be a lack of family integrity or
+oneness. Thus a son who has been swayed by Protestantism dares not
+clash with his father, and has no choice but to run away, while a
+daughter whose wishes are contrary can be disobedient only at the cost
+of breaking the family connection, to prevent which she is usually
+ready to make any sacrifice. All of this is no accident. Forced to
+dwell within the circle of the family group for seven, eight, or nine
+months during the year without so much as opening his door, because of
+the severity of winter, the life of the patriarch is inevitably
+centered in his household, and therefore also the self of each member
+is merged into the larger unit. This familism throws additional light
+on some of the conclusions I have insisted upon, for nothing so fosters
+conservatism as a substantial family solidarity; what could be more
+instrumental in passing on the national sentiment, and finally, what
+could be more favorable to the development of the self-sufficiency, the
+independence of Armenian character? In speaking of &ldquo;familism and
+the well-knit family&rdquo; Ross says; &ldquo;Worshippers of the spirit
+of the hearth, they are more aloof from their fellows, slower therefore
+to merge with them or be swept from their moorings by them. It seems to
+be communion by the fire-side rather than communion in the public
+resort that gives individuality long bracing roots. The withdrawn
+social self, although it lacks breadth, gains in depth,
+etc.&rdquo;<a class="noteref" id="xd20e2419src" href="#xd20e2419" name=
+"xd20e2419src">2</a></p>
+<p>Any socially well-knit people possessing a distinctive social
+tradition, and characterized by a highly developed national
+consciousness, may make its contribution to the world&rsquo;s work, if
+it is given the necessary freedom. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb96"
+href="#pb96" name="pb96">96</a>]</span>As the period of the Arsacidae
+kings brought forth the golden age of Armenian literature, so greater
+achievements may follow the political independence that is hoped for,
+and for which Armenians have valiantly struggled. Lord Bryce writes of
+the Armenian race, &ldquo;It is the only one of the native races of
+Western Asia that is capable of restoring productive industry and
+assured prosperity to the now desolate region that was the earliest
+home of civilization.&rdquo; In the past, the energy of the people has
+been wasted in ceaseless conflict. Given a guarantee of territorial
+integrity, and participation in the affairs of government with the hope
+of future autonomy, the energies of strife will be diverted to the work
+of peace. Not until then can the high calling expressed in the words of
+Lord Bryce be realized. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb97" href=
+"#pb97" name="pb97">97</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2406" href="#xd20e2406src" name="xd20e2406">1</a></span> Ormanian
+p. 36.</p>
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e2419" href="#xd20e2419src" name="xd20e2419">2</a></span> Ross,
+<i>Social Psychology</i> pp. 88&ndash;89.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="back">
+<div id="bibl" class="div1 bibliography"><span class=
+"pagenum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb99" href="#pb99" name=
+"pb99">99</a>]</span></p>
+<h2 class="main">Bibliography</h2>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p lang="de" class="first"><span class="sc">Abeghian, A.</span> Der
+armenische Volksglaube. Leipzig. 1899.</p>
+<p lang="fr"><span class="sc">Agathange.</span> Histoire du
+r&egrave;gne de Tiridate. In Langlois, Collection des historiens de
+l&rsquo;Arm&eacute;nie.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Anonymous.</span> Easter service. <i>Survey</i>
+36:167.</p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Armenian folk-lore. <i>Fraser&rsquo;s Magazine</i>
+(n.s.) 13:283&ndash;97.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Arnot, Robert.</span> World&rsquo;s great classic
+series. Section on Armenian literature and folk-lore. New York.
+1901.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Bent, J. T.</span> Travels amongst the Armenians.
+<i>Contemporary Review</i> 70:695.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Blackwell, Alice, S.</span> Preface to
+Seklemian&rsquo;s tales. New York. 1898.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Boyadjian, Z. C.</span> Armenian legends and poems.
+London. 1916.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Brightman, F. E.</span> Liturgies eastern and
+western. Oxford. 1896.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Bryce, J.</span> Transcaucasia and Ararat. London.
+1896.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Cesaresco, E. M.</span> <a class="pglink xd20e41"
+title="Link to Project Gutenberg ebook" href=
+"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36222">Folk-songs</a>. London.
+1886.</p>
+<p lang="de"><span class="sc">Chikhachev, P. A.</span> Reisen in
+Kleinasien und Armenien. Gotha. 1867.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Clark, W.</span> Armenian history. <i>New
+Englander</i> 22:507, 672.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Conybeare, F. C.</span> Armenian church.
+<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> 11th ed.</p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Armenian language and literature. <i>Ibid.</i></p>
+<p>&mdash;&mdash; Key of truth. Oxford. 1898.</p>
+<p lang="la">&mdash;&mdash; Rituale Armenorum. Oxford. 1905.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Curzon, Robert.</span> Armenia. London. 1854.</p>
+<p lang="fr"><span class="sc">Dubois de Montp&egrave;reux.</span>
+Voyages. Vols. 2, 3. Paris. 1839&ndash;43.</p>
+<p lang="fr"><span class="sc">Elis&eacute;e Vartabed.</span> Histoire
+de Vartan et de la guerre des Arm&eacute;niens. In Langlois,
+Collection.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Emin, M.</span> Movses&mdash;Khorenatzi yev Hayotz
+Hin Veber. Tiflis. 1886.</p>
+<p lang="fr"><span class="sc">Faustus of Byzance.</span>
+Biblioth&egrave;que historique. In Langlois, Collection.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Fortescue, E. F. K.</span> The Armenian church.
+London. 1872.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Gelzer, H.</span> Armenia. <i>New Schaff Herzog
+Encyclopaedia.</i></p>
+<p><span class="sc">Gibbon</span>, Ed. <a class="pglink xd20e41" title=
+"Link to Project Gutenberg ebook" href=
+"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/733">Decline and fall of the Roman
+Empire</a>. Vol. 3. New York. 1910.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Hodgetts, E. A. B.</span> Round about Armenia.
+London. 1896.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Langlois, Victor.</span> <span lang="fr">Collection
+des historiens de l&rsquo;Arm&eacute;nie.</span> Vols. 1, 2. Paris.
+1867&ndash;1869. Contains translations of various historians dating
+from 2nd century before Christ to 5th century after Christ.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Lidgett, Elizabeth S.</span> An ancient people.
+London. 1897.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Lynch, H. F. B.</span> Armenia. Vols. 1, 2. London.
+1901.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">MacDougall, W.</span> Social psychology. Boston.
+1916.</p>
+<p lang="fr"><span class="sc">Mar Apas Catina.</span> Histoire ancienne
+de l&rsquo;Arm&eacute;nie. In Langlois, Collection.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Mesrob, St.</span> Maschtotz. Constantinople. No
+date given.</p>
+<p lang="fr"><span class="sc">Moise de Khorene.</span> Histoire de
+l&rsquo;Arm&eacute;nie. In Langlois, Collection.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ormanian, M.</span> The Armenian church. London.
+1912.</p>
+<p lang="de"><span class="sc">Radloff, W.</span> Volksliteratur
+t&uuml;rkischen St&auml;mme. St. Petersburg. 1866.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Raffi, A.</span> Article on Armenia. In Boyadjian,
+Armenian legends and poems.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Rockwell, W.</span> Publications of Hakluyt
+Society. Series 2, IV, and other references under
+&ldquo;Armenia.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ross, E. A.</span> Social psychology. New York.
+1917.</p>
+<p lang="fr"><span class="sc">St. Martin, J.</span> M&eacute;moire sur
+l&rsquo;Arm&eacute;nie. Paris. 1818&ndash;1819.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Seklemian, S.</span> Golden maiden and other tales.
+New York. 1898.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Stubbs, W.</span> Lectures on medi&aelig;val
+kingdoms. Oxford. 1887.</p>
+<p lang="fr"><span class="sc">Tarde, G.</span> Les lois sociales.
+Paris. 1898. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="pb100" href="#pb100" name=
+"pb100">100</a>]</span></p>
+<p lang="fr"><span class="sc">Tavernier, J. B.</span> Voyages en
+Turquie en Perse et aux Indes. Vol. 3. Utrecht. 1712.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Terzian, P.</span> Religious customs among
+Armenians. <i>Catholic World</i> 71:305, 509.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Trowbridge, T. C.</span> Armenia and Armenians.
+<i>New Englander</i> 33:1.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Ubicini, J. H. A.</span> Letters on Turkey. London.
+1856.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Villari, Luigi.</span> Fire and sword in the
+Caucasus. London. 1906.</p>
+<p><span class="sc">Wilson, C. W.</span> Armenia. <i>Encyclopaedia
+Britannica</i> 11th ed.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="div1 ads"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h2 class="main">Research Publications of the University of
+Minnesota</h2>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">These publications contain the results of research
+work from various departments of the University and are offered for
+exchange with universities, scientific societies, and other
+institutions. Papers will be published as separate monographs numbered
+in several series. There is no stated interval of publication.
+Application for any of these publications should be made to the
+University Librarian.</p>
+<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Studies in the Social Sciences</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">1. <span class="sc">Thompson and Warber</span>, Social
+and Economic Survey of a Rural Township in Southern Minnesota. 1913.
+$0.50.</p>
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Matthias Nordberg Orfield</span>, Federal Land
+Grants to the States, with Special Reference to Minnesota. 1915.
+$1.00.</p>
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Edward Van Dyke Robinson</span>, Early Economic
+Conditions and the Development of Agriculture in Minnesota. 1915.
+$1.50.</p>
+<p>4. <span class="sc">L. D. H. Weld and Others</span>, Studies in the
+Marketing of Farm Products. 1915. $0.50.</p>
+<p>5. <span class="sc">Ben Palmer</span>, Swamp Land Drainage, with
+Special Reference to Minnesota. 1915. $0.50.</p>
+<p>6. <span class="sc">Albert Ernest Jenks</span>, Indian-White
+Amalgamation: An Anthropometric Study. 1916. $0.50.</p>
+<p>7. <span class="sc">C. D. Allin</span>, A History of the Tariff
+Relations of the Australian Colonies. 1918. $0.75.</p>
+<p>8. <span class="sc">Frances H. Relf</span>, The Petition of Right.
+1917. $0.75.</p>
+<p>9. <span class="sc">Gilbert L. Wilson</span>, Agriculture of the
+Hidatsa Indians: An Indian Interpretation. 1917. $0.75.</p>
+<p>10. <span class="sc">Notestein and Relf</span>, <i>Editors</i>,
+Commons Debates for 1629. In press.</p>
+<p>11. <span class="sc">Raymond A. Kent</span>, A Study of State Aid to
+Public Schools in Minnesota. 1918. $1.00.</p>
+<p>12. <span class="sc">Rupert C. Lodge</span>, The Meaning and
+Function of Simple Modes in the Philosophy of John Locke. 1918.
+$0.75.</p>
+<p>13. <span class="sc">Florence R. Curtis</span>, The Libraries of the
+American State and National Institutions for Defectives, Dependents,
+and Delinquents. 1918. $0.50.</p>
+<p>14. <span class="sc">Louis A. Boettiger</span>, Armenian Legends and
+Festivals. 1920. $0.75.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Studies in the Physical Sciences and Mathematics</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">1. <span class="sc">Frankforter and Frary</span>,
+Equilibria in Systems Containing Alcohols, Salts, and Water. 1912.
+$0.50.</p>
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Frankforter and Kritchevsky</span>, A New Phase
+of Catalysis. 1914. $0.50.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Studies in Engineering</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">1. <span class="sc">George Alfred Maney</span>,
+Secondary Stresses and Other Problems in Rigid Frames: A New Method of
+Solution. 1915. $0.25.</p>
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Charles Franklin Shoop</span>, An Investigation
+of the Concrete Road-Making Properties of Minnesota Stone and Gravel.
+1915. $0.25.</p>
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Franklin R. McMillan</span>, Shrinkage and Time
+Effects in Reinforced Concrete. 1915. $0.25.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Studies in the Biological Sciences</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">1. <span class="sc">Herbert G. Lampson</span>, A Study
+on the Spread of Tuberculosis in Families. 1913. $0.50.</p>
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Julius V. Hofmann</span>, The Importance of Seed
+Characteristics in the Natural Reproduction of Coniferous Forests.
+1918. $0.25.</p>
+<p>3. <span class="sc">William Moore</span> and <span class="sc">A. D.
+Hirschfelder</span>, An Investigation of the Louse Problem. 1919.
+$0.50.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Studies in Language and Literature</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">1. <span class="sc">Esther L. Swenson</span>, An
+Inquiry into the Composition and Structure of <i>Ludus Coventriae</i>:
+<span class="sc">Hardin Craig</span>, Note on the Home of <i>Ludus
+Coventriae</i>. 1914. $0.50.</p>
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Elmer Edgar Stoll</span>, <i>Othello</i>: An
+Historical and Comparative Study. 1915. $0.50.</p>
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Colbert Searles</span>, <i lang="fr">Les
+Sentiments de l&rsquo;Acad&eacute;mie Fran&ccedil;aise sur le Cid</i>:
+Edition of the Text, with an Introduction. 1916. $1.00.</p>
+<p>4. <span class="sc">Paul Edward Kretzmann</span>, The Liturgical
+Element in the Earliest Forms of the Medieval Drama. 1916. $1.00.</p>
+<p>5. <span class="sc">Arthur Jerrold Tieje</span>, The Theory of
+Characterization in Prose Fiction prior to 1740. 1916. $0.75.</p>
+<p>6. <span class="sc">Marie C. Lyle</span>, The Original Identity of
+the York and Towneley Cycles. 1919. $0.75.</p>
+<p>7. <span class="sc">Elmer Edgar Stoll</span>, <i>Hamlet</i>: An
+Historical and Comparative Study. 1919. $1.00.</p>
+<p>8. <span class="sc">Martin B. Ruud</span>, An Essay toward a History
+of Shakespeare in Denmark. In press.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="div2 section"><span class="pagenum">[<a href=
+"#toc">Contents</a>]</span>
+<div class="divHead">
+<h3 class="main">Current Problems</h3>
+</div>
+<div class="divBody">
+<p class="first">1. <span class="sc">William Anderson</span>, The Work
+of Public Service Commissions. 1913. $0.15.</p>
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Benjamin F. Pittenger</span>, Rural
+Teachers&rsquo; Training Departments in Minnesota High Schools. 1914.
+$0.15.</p>
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Gerhard A. Gesell</span>, Minnesota Public
+Utility Rates. 1914. $0.25.</p>
+<p>4. <span class="sc">L. D. H. Weld</span>, Social and Economic Survey
+of a Community in the Red River Valley. 1915. $0.25.</p>
+<p>5. <span class="sc">Gustav P. Warber</span>, Social and Economic
+Survey of a Community in Northeastern Minnesota. 1915. $0.25.</p>
+<p>6. <span class="sc">Joseph B. Pike</span>, Bulletin for Teachers of
+Latin. 1915. $0.25.</p>
+<p>7. <span class="sc">August C. Krey</span>, Bulletin for Teachers of
+History. 1915. $0.25.</p>
+<p>8. <span class="sc">Carl Schlenker</span>, Bulletin for Teachers of
+German. 1916. $0.25.</p>
+<p>9. <span class="sc">William Watts Folwell</span>, Economic
+Addresses. 1918. $0.50.</p>
+<p>10. <span class="sc">Margaret Kent Beard</span>, The Relation
+between Dependency and Retardation: A Study of 1,351 Public School
+Children Known to the Minneapolis Associated Charities. 1919.
+$0.25.</p>
+<p>11. <span class="sc">Thomas S. Roberts</span>, A Review of the
+Ornithology of Minnesota. 1919. $0.25.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="transcribernote">
+<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2>
+<h3 class="main">Availability</h3>
+<p class="first">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no
+cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give
+it away or re-use it under the terms of the <a class="exlink xd20e41"
+title="External link" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/license" rel=
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+online at <a class="exlink xd20e41" title="External link" href=
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+<p>This eBook is produced by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+at <a class="exlink xd20e41" title="External link" href=
+"https://www.pgdp.net/">www.pgdp.net</a>.</p>
+<p>Scans for this book are available from the Internet Archive
+(<a class="exlink xd20e41" title="External link" href=
+"http://www.archive.org/details/armenianlegends01boetgoog">1</a>,
+<a class="exlink xd20e41" title="External link" href=
+"http://www.archive.org/details/armenianlegends00boetgoog">2</a>,
+<a class="exlink xd20e41" title="External link" href=
+"http://www.archive.org/details/armenianlegendsf00boet">3</a>).</p>
+<p>Related Library of Congress catalog page: <a class="catlink" href=
+"http://lccn.loc.gov/21027270">21027270</a>.</p>
+<p>Related Open Library catalog page (for source): <a class="catlink"
+href="http://openlibrary.org/books/OL23278842M">OL23278842M</a>.</p>
+<p>Related Open Library catalog page (for work): <a class="catlink"
+href="http://openlibrary.org/works/OL7627262W">OL7627262W</a>.</p>
+<p>Related WorldCat catalog page: <a class="catlink" href=
+"http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/7770661">7770661</a>.</p>
+<h3 class="main">Encoding</h3>
+<p class="first"></p>
+<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3>
+<ul>
+<li>2011-11-22 Started.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3 class="main">External References</h3>
+<p>This Project Gutenberg eBook contains external references. These
+links may not work for you.</p>
+<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3>
+<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p>
+<table class="correctiontable" summary=
+"Overview of corrections applied to the text.">
+<tr>
+<th>Page</th>
+<th>Source</th>
+<th>Correction</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e710">10</a></td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">fulfil</td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">fulfill</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e750">12</a>,
+<a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1533">42</a></td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1152">25</a></td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">analagous</td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">analogous</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1370">35</a>,
+<a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1433">37</a></td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1407">37</a>,
+<a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1422">37</a>, <a class="pageref" href=
+"#xd20e1502">40</a></td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">.</td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1485">40</a></td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">;</td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">:</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2169">76</a></td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">partiarch</td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">patriarch</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2221">79</a></td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">Maschottz</td>
+<td class="width40 bottom">Maschtotz</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Armenian Legends and Festivals, by 
+Louis A. Boettiger
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMENIAN LEGENDS AND FESTIVALS ***
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+Project Gutenberg's Armenian Legends and Festivals, by Louis A. Boettiger
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Armenian Legends and Festivals
+
+Author: Louis A. Boettiger
+
+Release Date: November 25, 2011 [EBook #38129]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARMENIAN LEGENDS AND FESTIVALS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+          Research Publications of the University of Minnesota
+
+                     Studies in the Social Sciences
+                               Number 14
+
+                     ARMENIAN LEGENDS AND FESTIVALS
+
+                                   By
+                        LOUIS A. BOETTIGER, M.A.
+
+
+
+                Published by the University of Minnesota
+                       Minneapolis, January, 1920
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                             Copyright 1920
+                                 by the
+                        University of Minnesota
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+The author of the study which follows responded to the lure of
+his task for both theoretical and practical reasons. He seemed,
+because of his intimate personal relationship to Armenian life, to
+be peculiarly qualified to study and interpret a cross-section of
+that country's life. It is particularly urgent that we as Americans
+have authentic studies of Armenia and Armenian social life. Heretofore
+there has been a striking lack of such materials readily accessible in
+English. Because of the not inconsiderable immigration which reaches
+us from Armenia, and because also there has been a call for the United
+States to act as mandatory for this country under the peace treaty,
+we should penetrate more deeply into the Armenian heart than we have
+been able to do so far, if we are to carry through successfully
+our job either as assimilator or as friendly guardian. Moreover
+there is incumbent upon the United States in particular the duty of
+understanding a country like Armenia, since we have been foremost in
+proclaiming the doctrine of the rights of small nationalities. Those
+are the practical purposes from the standpoint of social politics
+which have given rise to and confer full warrant upon this study.
+
+Of no less importance, however, is the contribution which
+Mr. Boettiger's study makes to theoretical sociology. He has sketched
+out for us the picture of a refractory culture which refuses to
+amalgamate with or yield to or be permeated by rival cultures. The
+social history of this sturdy people offers us a very clear-cut
+example of what really makes a society or a nation. Not mountains,
+not dynasties, not blood, but common interests, common traditions,
+common beliefs; in short, mental community.
+
+The theoretical joins with the practical service of this study if
+it can strengthen our understanding that only as our own blood and
+that of our Armenian friends reach the place where they boil at the
+same temperature, or are cooled by the same application of reason,
+can we minister to each other or carry out the new partnership which
+may lie immediately ahead of us in the reestablishment of peace and
+the reorganization of world comity.
+
+
+    Arthur J. Todd
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                 Pages
+
+Introduction                                                       1-2
+
+Part I. Legends
+
+Chapter I. The geography of Armenia                                5-8
+
+Chapter II. Ancient historical legends                            9-23
+
+    Section 1. The legend, of Haic                                   9
+            2. The legend of Ara and Semiramis                      10
+            3. Historical background of the legend of Ara and
+               Semiramis                                            11
+            4. The legend of Vahakn                                 14
+            5. The historic background of the legend of Vahakn      15
+            6. The period of national integration                   17
+            7. Legends of Artasches and Artavasd                    20
+            8. Conclusions                                          22
+
+Chapter III. Legends of the conversion to Christianity           24-38
+
+    Section 1. Pre-Christian mythology and religion                 24
+            2. Legends of Abgar, Thaddeus, and St. Bartholomew      27
+            3. Legends of Rhipsime and Gregory                      29
+            4. The Armenian church as a social force                34
+
+Chapter IV. Locality legends                                     39-44
+
+    Section 1. Ararat                                               39
+            2. Khor-Virap and Erzerum                               43
+
+Chapter V. Interpretation and conclusions                        45-48
+
+Part II. Festivals
+
+Chapter I. The Gregorian church                                  51-55
+
+Chapter II. Pagan folk festivals                                 56-66
+
+    Section 1. Vartavar and the Festival of Mihr                    56
+            2. The Day of the Dead and Vartan's Day                 58
+            3. Fortune-Telling Day                                  62
+
+Chapter III. Christian folk festivals                            67-78
+
+    Section 1. Christmas, Easter, and New Year                      67
+            2. Special church ceremonies                            71
+
+Chapter IV. Private festival occasions                           79-90
+
+    Section 1. Baptism                                              79
+            2. Betrothal                                            80
+            3. Marriage                                             83
+            4. Funeral                                              87
+
+Chapter V. Summary                                               91-96
+
+    Conclusions                                                     92
+
+Bibliography                                                    99-100
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The study which follows has a very definite objective apart from
+the mere gathering of materials, namely, to interpret as far as
+the subject-matter would permit, the social life of the Armenian
+people. The legends and festivals described have thus been selected
+from a larger mass of material with this principle in mind. I have,
+therefore, omitted such as seemed to me to be of little or no social
+value. Also, in full accordance with this plan, I have chosen to
+include certain church ceremonies which give rise to such festivals,
+and are of such social importance that I considered them an organic
+part of my subject. Otherwise I think I have kept within the strict
+confines as indicated by the title of this study.
+
+It must, therefore, be evident that neither Part One on legends,
+nor Part Two on festivals, is exhaustive, and this is necessarily
+so, not only because of my selective plan, but also because much of
+the work on this and kindred subjects has been done by the French,
+and is available only on the continent. All of the sources used are,
+however, original in two possible constructions of the term; that
+is, they are the works of Armenians who have lived for many years in
+their native land, or of foreigners, generally French or English, who
+have traveled through the country and gathered their material first
+hand. A large portion of this matter I have been able to check up
+and add to through my wife, an Armenian, who lived in Constantinople
+most of her life, and who is naturally versed in the folk-lore of her
+native land. While this has been the chief source of my interest,
+it is not the only one, for during my three years' work in Beirut,
+Syria, I became acquainted with many Armenians.
+
+To describe a legend, or a festival, and to tag it Armenian, is about
+as purposeful and enlightening as to explain Plato's idea of social
+unity to a person who has no picture of Greek civilization. I have,
+therefore, found it necessary to fit these legends and festivals into
+the particular settings that seemed to me most natural. The legends
+that date from pagan times are meaningless apart from their historical
+background; the church legends and festivals are without value apart
+from their religious-historical setting, while such legends as those
+of Ararat require a description of the natural environment to which
+they belong. The conclusions and interpretation which this study gives
+rise to, as well as the manner in which I have organized and attempted
+to weave the material together into a unified fabric, are my own.
+
+Most of the books used have been supplied by the Case Memorial
+Library of Hartford Theological Seminary, and I owe the Reverend
+M. H. Ananikian of that institution my thanks for his gracious
+cooperation in suggesting materials and providing me with them. I am
+also deeply indebted to Professor J. W. Beach for his painstaking
+criticism and valuable suggestions, and for the corrections
+and suggestions offered by Professor W. S. Davis and Professor
+A. E. Jenks. To Professor A. J. Todd I am especially grateful,
+for it was under his direction and supervision that this study was
+carried out.
+
+
+    Louis A. Boettiger
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PART ONE
+
+LEGENDS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE GEOGRAPHY OF ARMENIA
+
+
+Armenia is a huge plateau, a westward extension of the great Iranian
+highland, bounded by the Caucasus Mountains on the north, the Taurus
+Mountains and Kurdistan on the south, the Persian lowlands on the
+southeast, and the Black and Caspian seas. The average height of
+the plateau is 6,000 feet. As it ends abruptly at the Black Sea on
+one side, so on the other it breaks down in rugged terraces to the
+Mesopotamian lowlands; on the east it sinks gradually to the lower
+levels of Persia, and on the west to the plains of Asia Minor. The
+chief mountain ranges run from northeast to southwest, rising above
+the general level of the plateau to an altitude ranging from 8,000
+to 12,000 feet and culminating in Ararat, the lofty summit of which
+stands 17,000 feet above sea level. Broad, elevated, and fertile
+valleys range themselves between the mountains, the main lines of which
+are determined by the four chief rivers of the country, the Tigris,
+the Euphrates, the Aras, and the Kur. All four rise in the plateau,
+the two former emptying into the Persian Gulf, and the latter two
+into the Caspian Sea. The Euphrates divides the country into what is
+known as great and little Armenia, or Armenia major and Armenia minor,
+Armenia major on the east and Armenia minor on the west. Although the
+valleys are generally broad expanses of arable land, grass covered
+and treeless, the gorges of the Euphrates and Tigris can not be
+surpassed in grandeur and wildness. The winters are long and severe,
+and the summers short, dry, and hot. In the city of Erzerum the range
+of temperature is from -22 deg. to 84 deg., and snow is usually present in
+June. [1]
+
+In consequence of the long and severe winters the villages are
+built on gentle slopes of the hillsides in which the houses are
+excavated. Robert Curzon, who traveled through the country about 1850,
+has written the best description of them. [2] A rectangular plot of
+ground about the size of an English acre is laid out and excavated to
+a depth of seven or eight feet at the back side, decreasing gradually
+with the slope of the hill to a depth of about two feet. After a
+careful leveling of the ground, trunks of straight trees are cut
+and arranged in rows for the support of the ceiling, which consists
+of cross-beams interspersed by a wooden frame-work upon which the
+removed soil is laid to a considerable thickness. The walls are made of
+stone. In entering the habitation at the lower slope of the hillside,
+one is obliged to descend three or four steps to the outer door,
+which opens to a passage six to ten feet in length, at the end of
+which is a second door, constructed of wood like the first. This door
+swings to through the operation of a curious wooden weight passed over
+a kind of pulley, in order to keep the outside cold from entering the
+inner chamber. The inside of the door is usually covered with a rough,
+red-dyed goatskin. Directly before the inner door is a wooden platform
+raised some two feet above the ground and known in Turkish as the
+"Salamlik," the hall of reception of the head of the family. Chairs
+and tables it possesses none, only divans richly draped with Kurdish
+stuffs placed against the stone walls that bound the two sides of
+the platform. The floor is carpeted with tekeke, a kind of grey felt,
+and the walls are decorated with swords, knives, pistols, and other
+weapons. On the other two sides, the Salamlik is bounded by wooden
+rails to keep away the sheep and cattle which occupy the greatest
+proportion of floor space, and whose breathing helps materially to
+keep the chamber warm. The other members of the household are confined
+behind the stone wall where the space is sometimes split up into
+two or more chambers for the various families of the patriarchal
+household. One of these rooms is the common eating-room, and is
+provided with an open hearth, fireplace, and chimney which leans
+forward over the fireplace and draws up the smoke through a hole in
+the turf-covered roof. A great stone is placed over the chimney to
+keep children at play and grazing animals from falling through. In
+traveling through the country on horseback, particular care must be
+taken lest the horse step through an old chimney hole and break his
+leg. The windows are funnel shaped holes through the ceiling spanned
+with oiled paper.
+
+Such is the Armenian household in which the people live day and night
+during eight winter months of the year in the coldest section of the
+country, as Erzerum and Mush. That many of the evenings were passed in
+listening to the tales and gossip of a wandering minstrel, or to the
+legends and folk-beliefs of the grey-haired members of the family,
+there can be no doubt. That the national tradition was passed on in
+this manner from the aged to the younger, to be again passed on in
+their turn, is a matter of as much certainty as that part at least
+of this same tradition has been preserved through the continually
+recurring storms of the passing centuries. The recounting of national
+legends and folk-lore is a chief means of amusement even in the warmer
+sections of the country, where the climate makes a free community life
+possible. How much more place, then, must it have had in these colder
+sections where only the head of the family ever left the household
+in winter-time, and then only in case of absolute necessity.
+
+As has been suggested, this style of dwelling-place is not common to
+all parts of Armenia. In some places the houses are built entirely
+above ground, usually of stone, and sometimes, especially in the
+case of the poorer inhabitants, of mud. Though the winters are not so
+long or severe as in the district of Erzerum, they are nevertheless
+sufficiently cold to require a fire six or seven months of the
+year. The characteristic feature of every living- and dining-room is
+the large "toneer" or circular fireplace dug out to a depth of three
+to four feet in the center of the room. Here the fire is built in the
+morning, usually with "tezek," the most common variety of fuel which
+is a sun-baked mixture of straw and sheep or cow dung. The bread is
+baked and the meals are cooked in the "toneer" and when it is time
+to eat, the members sit about the open space, letting their feet
+hang over the fire to keep warm. In the hut described by Montpereux,
+there was but a single opening in the roof which served for window
+and chimney at the same time, and which was often carefully sealed
+up with straw to keep out the cold. [3] This author has given a clear
+picture of the common family fireplace and sleeping chamber in which
+each person fell asleep as best he might upon rugs and skins, keeping
+as near the "toneer" as possible. And if the traditions, legends, and
+folk-lore that will make up the body of this thesis are the common
+possession of the people, as I have reason to believe them to be,
+in spite of drastic measures taken to suppress them, how better could
+they have been told and retold than while lounging about the "toneer"
+during long winter evenings before sleeping time? [4]
+
+In what other respects the natural environment of the people moulded
+the common life, one can only conjecture. That the cold winters
+and deep river valleys have tended to the formation of isolated
+communities, clannishness, and provincialism, as is contended by
+some writers, has not generally been true. Tidal waves of conquering
+civilizations have passed over the country too frequently to make
+such an influence possible. [5] Furthermore the people are bound
+together by a national religion, whose chief officials are chosen
+by the lay members and priesthood of the many communities. [6] These
+representatives to the national religious assemblies return to their
+own people brimming with news and reports of political as well as
+religious and social matters. Such facts together with a common
+ancestry, a common tradition, and a common language have moulded
+a nation, and not a thousand differentiated groups among a people
+who were once a nation. They have tended to solidify and unify the
+national character, and it is just this process of solidification
+that gives significance to the whole fabric of beliefs, legends,
+and festivals of the people.
+
+As a nation, the Armenian people are exclusive, but this is an entirely
+different matter. For three years I have had occasion to observe groups
+of students belonging to different nations, chiefly Egyptians, Syrians,
+Greeks, Jews, Persians, Turks, and Armenians, and the latter always
+showed a most persistent determination to confine their friendships
+and social intercourse to themselves. Perhaps this is due to the fact
+that nearly all of the nations above mentioned have at one time or
+another dominated the Armenians; perhaps it is due to the persecution
+they have recently suffered, which, though it has been a sufficiently
+important fact to result in serious social and psychological changes,
+has by no means been characteristic of the history of the people,
+as it has been, for example, of the Jews; or perhaps it is due to the
+solidarity and oneness of the people as a whole. I am inclined rather
+to the latter explanation, and may perhaps be able to prove it so.
+
+Nevertheless, the singularity of the physical environment has placed
+its irremovable stamp upon the people. The words that best describe
+the country are not trees, hills, forests, gently flowing streams,
+such words as commonly express American landscape, but rather,
+gorges, mountain ranges, broad river valleys, treeless expanses of
+country. There is space to make one think of other worlds and other
+shores, and there are mountains suggestive of strength, that rise
+majestic above the plateau, to fill one with awe and wonder. Religious
+the people are naturally, but more than that, they are thoughtful,
+reflecting, considering. No writer that I have read but has spoken
+of the Armenian as intellectually alert and capable. That this
+thoughtfulness, this robust element in their idealism is in part the
+stamp of physical nature, there can be little doubt.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+ANCIENT HISTORICAL LEGENDS
+
+
+SECTION 1. THE LEGEND OF HAIC
+
+Armenians do not call themselves Armenians nor their country
+Armenia. They are descendants of Haic, as the legend goes, who was
+the son of Togarmah, the son of Japhet, who was the son of Noah, and
+they call their country Haiasdan after the patriarchal progenitor of
+their people. [7] Haic dwelt in the plain of Shinar and was a prefect
+or director in the building of the tower of Babel. He was beautiful
+as a god and strong as a giant, mighty in battle and especially adept
+in spear throwing. In the days of his youth, Bel or Nimrod, who was
+the patron god of Babylon, established himself over all and wished
+to be worshipped. But Haic refused to obey, and taking his sons, who
+numbered about three hundred, his daughters, his sheep and cattle,
+he journeyed north until he came to the land of Ararat. Bel tried in
+vain to persuade his rival to come back.
+
+"Thou hast departed and hast settled in a chill and frosty region,"
+urged the Assyrian god. "Soften thy hard pride, change thy coldness
+to geniality; be my subject and come and live a life of ease in my
+domain." [8]
+
+But Haic refused the cordial invitation, which so much angered Bel
+that the latter brought his army to force the Armenian hero into
+submission. Haic, however, was victorious, for he slew Bel with an
+arrow from his own bow. The place where Bel was buried is called
+"Kerezman," meaning grave, and is pointed out to this day. Armenians
+sing songs and tell stories of the great beauty and valor of Haic. He
+died at the age of four hundred in about 2028 B.C. [9]
+
+This oldest of Armenian legends, quaint and simple as it is in
+accounting for the beginnings of a people, savours of the Old
+Testament and is suggestive of the Assyrian invasion which took
+place about the ninth century before Christ. It is significant that
+the Armenians refused the protection of Bel, and that in the very
+beginning of their legendary history, they insisted on standing
+firm and maintaining their independence, for no single quality is
+more characteristic of this people than a proud, haughty, even at
+times disdainful independence. It is also suggestive that their
+patriarchal hero was no saint, but a mighty giant, beautiful as he
+was strong, whose greatest pride was in the throwing of a spear,
+for his descendants have not been a peaceful people. To be sure,
+they were the first nation to be converted to Christianity, which
+would say little for their firmness and independence, were it not
+that the priest with the cross was followed by a powerful king with a
+sword at the head of an army that had learned to fight as the Romans
+fought. [10] The songs that were sung in memory and honor of Haic
+are seldom sung to-day unless it be in some remote village where the
+civilization of the Turk has not yet pressed, and there are few such
+villages if any. For many of them breathe of a national spirit not
+beseeming a subject nation, and have been suppressed for many years.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. THE LEGEND OF ARA AND SEMIRAMIS
+
+Dating back to the Assyrian invasion which took place during the
+seventh and eighth centuries before Christ, one of the oldest of
+Armenian legends, that of Semiramis, queen of Assyria, and Ara, king
+of Armenia, is told. [11] Ara was very beautiful, and Semiramis having
+heard speech of his beauty for many years, wished to possess him. But
+she dared do nothing for fear of Ninus, protector over Armenia. After
+the death of Ninus, however, the queen sent messengers to Ara, with
+gifts and offerings, with prayers and promises of riches, begging
+him to come to her at Nineveh and either wed her and reign over all
+that Ninus had possessed, or fulfill her desire and return in peace to
+Armenia with many gifts. But when the messengers had been turned away
+repeatedly, Semiramis became angry, and taking her army she hastened
+to Armenia. The battle was fought on the plain of Ara, called after
+him Ararat; and although the queen had given careful orders to her
+generals to devise some means of saving the life of Ara, the Armenian
+king was slain. She found the dead body among the others that had
+fallen, and ordered her servants to place it in an upper chamber in
+her castle. And when the Armenian army again arose to drive away the
+foe and avenge the death of Ara, the queen said, "I have commanded
+the gods to lick his wounds and he shall live again." She tried to
+bring Ara back to life by witchcraft and charms, but the body began to
+decay and she commanded her servants to cast the corpse into a deep
+pit and to cover it. And having dressed up one of her men in secret,
+she caused the following proclamation to be spread among the people:
+"The gods have licked Ara and have brought him back to life again,
+thus fulfilling our prayers and our pleasures. Therefore from this
+time forth shall they be the more glorified and worshipped by us,
+for they are the givers of joy and the fulfillers of desire." And
+she erected a statue to the gods, making it seem as though they had
+brought Ara back to life again. This news was spread over all the
+country of Armenia, and having satisfied the people, she put an end
+to the fighting. The twelve-year-old son of the king was taken by the
+Assyrian queen and appointed ruler over Armenia. She called him Ara,
+in memory of her love for Ara the Beautiful.
+
+To Semiramis is attributed the building of the ancient city of
+Van on the shores of the beautiful lake of Van, where she made
+her summer residence until the time of her departure. [12] She
+might well have lingered there, for the Armenians have a proverb,
+"Van in this world, paradise in the next." Nevertheless, Semiramis
+and Ara are mythical characters, although the latter is spoken of in
+the history of St. Martin as having lived along about 1769 B.C. [13]
+As regards the popular belief in the legend, however, there is not
+the slightest doubt. This is proved by the fact that even to-day the
+city is called "Sham-iram-agerd" by the Armenians, meaning the city
+of Semiramis. Lynch says that Ara and Semiramis are Tannuz and Istar,
+the Adonis and the Aphrodite of the Hellenic myth, and that the quest
+of the Assyrian queen may be connected with the introduction into
+Armenia of the worship of Istar whose name is mentioned in one of the
+cuneiform inscriptions at Van. [14] However, the results of modern
+scholarship are by no means conclusive on this point, as we shall see.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE LEGEND OF ARA AND SEMIRAMIS
+
+Moses' history was read by St. Martin who became exceedingly interested
+in Van, and in the cuneiform inscriptions spoken of. It was due to
+him that the French government dispatched a mission to Armenia in
+1827, under the direction of a young German Professor, Friedrich
+Edward Schulz. Schulz was murdered by the Kurds, a thing which
+rarely happens in Armenia, and his work was left incomplete. He had
+succeeded, however, in making copies of forty-two inscriptions, which
+were published in 1840, and proved to be remarkably accurate. Shortly
+afterward, orientalists made great discoveries in the Mesopotamian
+valley, but the inscriptions at Van did not tally with any syllabaries
+discovered up to that time, nor could they be translated in any known
+language. A number of them were found to be Assyrian, but the great
+majority were peculiar to Van, and entirely baffled the students. Not
+until 1880 were they finally unravelled. M. S. Guyard discovered at
+that time that the concluding phrase of many Vannic texts represented
+an imprecatory formula found in exactly the same place in Assyrian
+counterparts. This discovery enabled Professor Sayce, of Oxford,
+to decipher the inscriptions at a rapid rate.
+
+Among the important facts discovered were that the nation was a
+rival nation of Assyria, and that its people were called Khaldeans,
+or children of Khaldis, much in the same way as the Assyrians reflected
+the name of their god, Assur. The country was a theocracy and Khaldis
+was supreme. In the tablets, his wrath was invoked against whomever
+should destroy them. The capital city was Dhuspus, modern Van, which
+is the Disp, or Tsp of Armenian writers, and the Turuspa of Assyrian
+annals. The Assyrians styled the kingdom Urardhu, or Urarthu, which
+is the name appearing in the Bible in the familiar form Ararat.
+
+The earliest inscriptions date back to the ninth century before
+Christ, and as the language is neither Semitic nor Indo-European,
+the people could neither have been Assyrians whose language was
+Semitic, nor Armenians, whose language is Indo-European. The first
+mention made of Urardhu was in the reign of Ashur-Nazir-Pal (885-860
+B.C.) whose successor, Shalmanasar II (860-825 B.C.) was the first
+Assyrian king to invade Armenia. [15] Raffi, however, (the son of the
+famous Armenian poet) speaks of an account given by Assur-Nazir-Haban
+(1882-1857 B.C.) of one of his victories. "They" (i.e., the people
+of Ararat or Urarthu), he said, "fled to the impregnable mountains
+so that I might not be able to get at them, for the mighty summits
+were like drawn swords pointing to the skies. Only the birds of
+heaven soaring on their wings could reach them. In three days I was
+there spreading terror in places where they had taken refuge. Their
+corpses like autumn leaves filled the clefts. The rest escaped to
+distant inaccessible heights." [16] This, clearly, is a much older
+record than any that Lynch found trace of, and although Raffi cites no
+authority for the quotation, I presume that it has been taken from a
+recent discovery. If this be true the Khaldeans were a very ancient
+people. One of the tablets shows that King Memas was the principal
+author of the magnificent canal which conducts the water of the river
+Khoshab to the suburbs of Van, and which is to-day called "Shamiram-Su"
+or river of Semiramis. [17] The line of Vannic kings is traceable as
+far down as 644 B.C.
+
+Most of these inscriptions are to be found on a huge isolated rock,
+situated in the curve of the bay, and known as the "rock of Van." [18]
+Among them are inscriptions left by Xerxes (485 B.C.), the Persian
+conqueror whose father's empire (Darius, 521-486 B.C.) succeeded the
+loose Scythian rule.
+
+But the ancient Khaldean kingdom had already vanished when Xerxes'
+victorious army overran the country, for shortly after the great influx
+of Scythians and the break-up of Assyria, came another horde from the
+west, perhaps to fill up the void left by the Scythian ravages. It is
+at this time that the Armenian people are first heard from, and it is
+this horde, therefore, that is regarded as the foundation stock of
+the Armenian people. They seem to have been an Indo-European people
+residing in the territory north of the Black Sea, for, coming from
+the west they must have entered Asia from Europe by crossing the
+straits. The ancient Khaldeans were assimilated to some extent,
+but for the most part, they were driven to the north and south,
+where they have left traces that have been recognized and recorded
+by Xenophon and Herodotus. [19]
+
+That the civilization and culture of the ancient Khaldeans were
+utilized is beyond doubt. Their most ancient cities, Van, Armavir,
+were foundations of Vannic kings, while recently it has been disclosed
+that the city of Hajk, southeast of Van, shows some of the familiar
+features of a Khaldean settlement. But their supreme god during the
+pre-Christian era was not Khaldis, but the Persian Ormuzd, which
+indicates that the Persians exercised an even greater influence.
+
+How then could Semiramis ever have come to Van in quest of an Armenian
+king, since it seems that the Scythians had already conquered Assyria
+before the great influx of Armenian hordes? Nor does it seem that the
+city of Van was built by the Assyrian queen, for the inscriptions
+make no mention of her name. King Memas who, in the view of Lynch,
+constructed the famous canal, was in all probability the author of
+the garden city. The belief, according to Lynch, as already stated,
+is that this legend is the Armenian version of the old Hellenic myth of
+Aphrodite and Adonis, taken over during the domination of the Seleucid
+dynasty which followed the conquest of Alexander about 325 B.C. [20]
+
+But this is unreasonable. That a myth should be taken over by a subject
+people and the characters rechristened is not difficult to understand,
+but that the name of one of them should be applied to the ancient
+city is very improbable to say the least. Furthermore, the legend is
+flavored rather strongly with Persian voluptuousness, and is not at
+all suggestive of Greek delicacy and refinement. Nor is the fact that
+the horde overran the country after the destruction of Assyria in any
+way conclusive, for if there were any assimilation at all, as there
+must unquestionably have been, the Khaldean culture and history was to
+that extent the actual possession of the Armenians. Even intermarriage
+would perhaps be unnecessary, for what Irishman who has been in the
+United States two months does not speak of Benjamin Franklin and George
+Washington as his forefathers? It is to be noted also that to this day
+the canal spoken of is called "Shamiram-Su" or river of Semiramis, by
+all Armenians. [21] On the whole it seems to me conclusive, therefore,
+that the legend of Semiramis and Ara has its roots in Armenian history,
+and is not at all a version of the Hellenic myth.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 4. THE LEGEND OF VAHAKN
+
+The legend of Vahakn, king and god of Armenians, is very clearly
+attributable to the Greek period, which followed the Persian conquest
+under Xerxes. Vahakn was deified because of his great valor and made
+the fire-god of the Armenian people. [22] He was called "Vishapakagh,"
+uprooter of dragons, since he cleared Armenia of monsters and saved
+it from evil influences. His exploits were known in the abode of the
+gods as well as in Armenia. The most famous of them was the theft of
+corn from the barns of King Barsham of Assyria, from whom he ran away
+and tried to hide in heaven. Because of the ears he dropped in his
+rapid flight, there arose the Milky Way which is called in Armenian
+the "track of the corn stealer." [23]
+
+Moses of Khorene writes as follows:
+
+
+    Concerning the birth of this king the legends say,
+
+
+        "Heaven and earth were in travail,
+        And the crimson waters were in travail,
+        And in the water, the crimson reed
+        Was also in travail.
+        From the mouth of the reed issued smoke,
+        From the mouth of the reed issued flame,
+        And out of the flame sprang the young child,
+        His hair was of fire, a beard had he of flame,
+        And his eyes were suns." [24]
+
+
+    With our own ears did we hear these words sung to the accompaniment
+    of the harp. They sing moreover that he did fight with the dragons,
+    and overcame them; and some say that his valiant deeds were like
+    unto Hercules. Others declare that he was a god, and that a great
+    image of him stood in the land of Georgia, where it was worshipped,
+    with sacrifices. [25]
+
+
+The wife of Vahakn was Astghik, the goddess of beauty, a
+personification of the moon, corresponding to the Phoenician and
+Sidonian Astarte. This is suggestive of Greek influence, for Venus, the
+Greek goddess of beauty, was also the wife of a fire-god, Vulcan. [26]
+
+The flight of Vahakn before the Assyrian king is certainly more
+suggestive of the fear in which the Assyrians must have been regarded
+than of the valor of their god. The originators of the legend were
+good psychologists, however, in regarding the instincts of fear and
+of pugnacity as compatible. For even the slayer of demons must some
+day face his superiors in strength, and when he does, will he not be
+afraid? In fact he would be more afraid than another, for he could
+not well impute more mercy to his superior than he himself had shown
+to his inferiors.
+
+The vein of humor is too rich to be left unnoted. If the Greeks could
+laugh at their gods, and even mock them, the Armenians could also
+make sport of them. For what could be more delightfully humorous than
+the picture of a bearded god, a slayer of dragons, whose hair was
+of flame and whose eyes like suns, stealing corn from the Assyrian
+king and dropping the ears from his shoulders in his hasty flight
+across heaven? The character thus brought out, together with the
+richness of imaginative quality, especially in the song of his birth,
+the wholesome and unveiled anthropomorphism (wholesome because it is
+unveiled), and the correspondence between the Greek fire-god Vulcan
+whose wife was Venus, the goddess of beauty, with the fire-god Vahakn
+whose wife Astghik was also goddess of beauty, stamp the legend with
+its unmistakable origin in Greek mythology.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 5. THE HISTORIC BACKGROUND OF THE LEGEND OF VAHAKN
+
+The Greek period from which this legend dates began with the defeat
+of the Armenian king Vahy, who was overcome by Alexander the Great
+somewhere about 328 B.C. [27] The Greeks chose their own representative
+to rule over the province, who at the time of Alexander's death was
+Seleucus. Historians have taken the name of this governor to indicate
+the dynasty of Greek supremacy which followed; i.e., the Seleucid
+dynasty. This method of the Greeks of selecting their own man to
+govern a subject people, which was of course in pursuance of their
+policy of superimposing their own culture upon all subject nations,
+was contrary to the policy of the Parthians, Romans, and Persians,
+who allowed the Armenians to maintain their national independence
+provided they permitted the use of their armies and duly paid their
+taxes. And it is this policy of the Greeks that accounts for the fact
+that large portions of Greek mythology and religion were taken over
+by the Armenians.
+
+Although the period of political supremacy was short-lived, the
+influence of Greek culture continued to permeate the social life
+of the people through the reign of the Arsacid kings. [28] In 246
+B.C. Arsaces, a Parthian, made himself master of the Parthians,
+Persians, Medes, Babylonians, and lastly Armenians. [29] His grandson,
+Arsaces the Great, conquered as far as India, and after seating himself
+securely upon the throne of Persia, placed his brother Valarsace upon
+the Armenian throne, so founding the Persian and Armenian Arsacid
+dynasties (150 B.C.). [30] The Persian Arsacidae became extinct in
+A.D. 226 when they were overthrown by the Persian Sasanidae, whereas
+the Armenian Arsacidae line continued up until A.D. 428, when the
+Armenian kingdom was divided between Persia and Rome by Shapuh,
+the Persian monarch, and Theodosius II. [31] This makes a period
+of 578 years (150 B.C.-A.D. 428) during which Armenia was governed
+by her own line of kings, and enjoyed the liberties of national
+independence. To be sure after the conquest of Lucullus and Pompey
+(66 B.C.) Armenia became tributary to Rome, but the right of succession
+remained with the Armenian royal family, even during Roman supremacy,
+so that the national life was in no manner interfered with. [32] The
+greatest Armenian king of the Arsacidae line was Tigranes the Great,
+who extended his domains by conquest and established himself in his
+capital, Tigranacerta, with a court of matchless splendor. [33] He
+is spoken of by historians as a king of kings, and as having ruled
+with a pomp, splendor, and pride never before known. Defeated by
+Pompey within the walls of his own capital city, his kingdom became
+tributary to Rome.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 6. THE PERIOD OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION
+
+The continuity of the period of the Armenian Arsacidae makes it the
+time when the process of national solidification and unification was
+carried out to the point that made Armenia a nation, and beyond this
+point. Raffi asserts that the introduction of Greek culture during
+the Arsacid dynasty not only changed the religion of Armenians,
+but also so affected their language and customs that they became
+different from the Persians, which is proof that a process of social
+readjustment was going on. [34] It was during this period that the
+wandering minstrels spoken of by Langlois journeyed from one end of
+the nation to the other, singing their songs, repeating the national
+legends, relating the news of the world and the court gossip which
+probably made up the largest portion of it.
+
+
+    Les chants de l'antique Armenie rappellent principalement des
+    evenements la plupart heroiques et legendaires, accomplis a des
+    epoques tres differentes, ce qui donne a penser qu'ils ont du etre
+    composes a diverses reprises, par des rhapsodes dont les noms
+    ne nous sont point parvenus. Les sujets traites dans ces chants
+    demontrent clairement qu'ils n'ont ete inspires ni a des pretres
+    paiens, ni a des poetes qui auraient vecu sous leur influence,
+    en vue d'etre recites dans des fetes religieuses ou en face des
+    autels. Au contraire, on reconnait de prime abord que ces chants
+    sont l'oeuvre de bardes nationaux, ayant un libre acces dans les
+    palais des souverains et a la cour des satrapes. C'est ce qui
+    fait supposer que ces poemes sont peutetre dus a des menestrels,
+    a la solde des rois et des nobles et ayant pour emploi de celebrer
+    leurs vertus et leurs prouesses. [35]
+
+
+This is putting the case conservatively, for Moses speaks often of
+"les chantres" and "les chants." They traveled as far as Persia and
+returned, for it is related by the Italian Countess Evelyn Martinengo
+how a wandering minstrel, who had just returned from that country,
+was entertained by an Armenian patriarchal family living in the
+kind of underground habitation described in the beginning of this
+thesis. [36] No one was ever more welcome than the minstrel. He was
+assigned to the guest chamber usually prepared especially for him,
+and always the best chamber in the household. His head and feet were
+washed for him by the wife of the patriarch, and at meal time all the
+delicacies of the household were spread before him. All guests were
+welcome, but no guest more welcome than the minstrel. They must have
+listened to his tales in a kind of petrified awe, and heard him sing
+his songs in speechless enjoyment.
+
+It was a practice among the minstrels of the time to compete with
+each other in public, and it is related how two minstrels entertained
+by a Persian prince were led out upon an open grass plot and seated,
+one facing the other. Five thousand people made a circle around the
+competitors while the rivals contended in song and verse, riddle
+and repartee. Each began where the other left off, until finally one
+failed to perceive the drift of his adversary, and answering at random,
+the spectators proclaimed him beaten. The triumphant bard was led to
+the vanquished, whose lyre was taken from him and broken. Robed in
+a prince's mantle, the victor was taken to the highest seat in the
+banquet hall.
+
+That the people were the judges of the contest, indicates how well
+they must have been acquainted with the current folk-songs, legends,
+and tradition. How generally and frequently the custom of minstrel
+competition was practiced throughout Armenia is not known, but it
+certainly is proof, besides Moses' own statements to the same effect,
+that the national legends and folk-songs were the possession of the
+common people. And what is more important, this same body of legends,
+folk-songs, and tradition did more than any other one thing to weld
+the sentiments of the people into a single national sentiment, which
+crystallized into a real patriotism, a real loyalty and devotion
+to any cause that was a national cause, because it was the natural,
+spontaneous expression of the life and thought of the people, and no
+mean, artificial thing superimposed from outside. [37]
+
+There are other reasons for giving this period the social importance
+that I have ascribed to it. The conversion of the people to
+Christianity about the third century after Christ was achieved in
+no sentimental fashion, but, as I believe, in a manner in which it
+alone could have been done, namely, at the point of the sword of their
+own king, Tiridates, who was converted from paganism to Christianity
+by Gregory the Illuminator. The traditions in connection with this
+important event will be told later. Suffice it to say at this point
+that the whole process of conversion was carried out so thoroughly
+and completely, that it may be described as a national volte-face,
+and therefore did not result in the disintegration, civil strife,
+and social chaos that would unquestionably have been the result
+had the process been carried out by means of peaceful penetration
+and propaganda.
+
+The third and last argument in support of the social and national
+importance of the period of the Arsacid kings is in respect to the
+alphabet which was compiled by St. Mesrob Maschtotz. St. Mesrob was
+a former secretary of the king, and desired to extirpate the last
+remnants of paganism in the province of Akoulis, but in the absence of
+an alphabet he was unable to carry out any scheme of propaganda. He
+therefore besought the king, Vramschapouh, to put an end to this
+state of things and the latter, in response to the request, placed
+all available material at the disposal of the saint. The task was
+accomplished in 404, somewhat at the expense of the future devotees
+of the language, for the alphabet contains thirty-eight letters. [38]
+Nevertheless, most of the sounds of foreign languages were represented,
+making it particularly useful as a foundation language for other
+languages. St. Mesrob, with a body of translators trained by himself
+and St. Sahak, then proceeded to the translation of the Bible,
+which was not completed until 433. Liturgies and song-books quickly
+followed. To be sure the effect of the invention of the alphabet and
+the distribution of the various religious publications that followed
+were not felt during the period of the Arsacidae, for the Bible was
+not published until after the break-up of the kingdom in 428, when it
+was divided between Persia and Rome. But the important point is that
+the time had come when the need for an alphabet was making itself very
+strongly felt, and this could not have been true of a diversified,
+heterogeneous population.
+
+For the three reasons above mentioned, i.e., first, the work of
+minstrels, second, the Christianizing of the nation, and third,
+the invention of the alphabet, all occurring during the successive
+reigns of the Arsacid kings, I should ascribe to this period (150
+B.C.-A.D. 428) the integration of the Armenian people into a national
+unit. [39] Christianity must have come as a disrupting force, as a
+terrible shock, necessitating a complete social readjustment, but the
+fact that the readjustment was made shows that the people were ready
+for it. For better or for worse the yoke of Christianity was fastened
+to the neck of the people, and with it they had to replow the social
+soil. The job was a good one, for the Armenian church has been the
+chief power during the last ten or fifteen centuries in keeping alive
+the streams of national life, and in holding the people together in
+the face of invasion and repeated attempts at proselytization by the
+Persians and by the Greek and Roman Catholic churches.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 7. LEGENDS OF ARTASCHES AND ARTAVASD
+
+The legends of Artasches and Satenik, and of Artavasd, the son of
+Artasches, belong to the Arsacid period, for Artavasd and Artasches
+are Armenian kings of the Arsacid dynasty, according to Moses. [40]
+The Alans who, according to the legend, were a neighboring people
+residing in the mountain region in the vicinity of Georgia, spread
+themselves over Armenia while Artasches, the Armenian king, collected
+a great army and forced the Alans to retreat across the river Kur
+where they pitched camp. The son of the Alan king was taken captive
+and brought to Artasches, which forced the former to seek peace on
+whatever terms the Armenian king might wish, provided only his son
+was returned in safety. But Artasches refused, whereupon the sister
+of the captured boy came to the river bank, and standing upon a great
+rock spoke to the camp of Artasches by means of interpreters saying:
+"Oh brave Artasches, who hast vanquished the great nation of Alans,
+unto thee I speak. Come, hearken unto the bright-eyed daughter of
+the Alan king and give back the youth. For it is not the way of
+heroes to destroy life at the root, nor for the sake of humbling
+and enslaving a hostage to establish everlasting enmity between two
+great nations." [41] Artasches, having heard of these sayings went
+to the river bank and having seen that the girl was beautiful,
+and listened to her words of wisdom, wished to marry her. His
+chamberlain considered it a wise stroke of policy, and therefore
+went to the Alan king, soliciting the hand of the princess for his
+master, whose oaths and assurances of peace he vouched for, together
+with the promise to return the boy. The king of the Alans answered,
+"From whence shall brave Artasches give thousands upon thousands,
+and ten thousands upon tens of thousands in return for the maiden?"
+
+Writes Moses:
+
+    Concerning this, the poets of that land sing in their songs:
+
+
+       "Brave King Artasches
+        Mounted his fine black charger,
+        And took the red leathern cord
+        With the golden ring.
+        Like a swift winged eagle
+        He passed over the river
+        And cast the golden ring
+        Round the waist of the Alan Princess;
+        Causing much pain to the tender maiden
+        As he bore her swiftly back to his camp."
+
+
+    Which being interpreted meaneth that he was commanded to give
+    much gold, leather, and crimson dye in exchange for the maiden. So
+    also they sing of the wedding:
+
+
+       "It rained showers of gold when Artasches became a bridegroom,
+        It rained pearls when Satenik became a bride."
+
+
+    For it was the custom of our kings to scatter coins amongst the
+    people when they arrived at the doors of the temple for their
+    wedding, as also for the queens to scatter pearls in their
+    bride-chamber. [42]
+
+
+The couplet quoted is still sung by the Armenians, and it is still
+customary for the bridegroom to scatter money on his way to the
+church, and though it may be for queens to scatter pearls, the
+Armenian bride is not to be outdone. She is given a partly opened
+pomegranate which she throws at the door of the bridegroom upon the
+arrival at the bridegroom's home after the ceremony at the church,
+the bits of pomegranate scattering themselves about as pearls.
+
+After fifty-one years of a very prosperous reign, Artasches, who was
+very much beloved by his people, died. The funeral procession was a
+most magnificent one, and many of the people killed themselves, out
+of love for their dead king, according to the custom of the time. And
+when the body was laid in the grave they threw precious jewels, gold,
+and silver after it. Nor did the lamenting and suicide stop after
+his burial, for upon the grave of their dead king the nobles and
+the people continued to kill themselves. So great was the slaughter
+that Artavasd, son of Artasches, and king after his father's death,
+addressed the spirit of his dead father, saying, "Behold, thou art
+taking all with thee; dost thou leave me to rule over ruins and the
+dead?" The words given by Moses of Khorene are: "Now that thou art
+gone, and hast taken with thee the whole land, how shall I reign over
+the ruins?" [43] Whereupon the spirit of Artasches cursed him and said,
+
+
+        "When thou ridest forth to hunt
+        Over the free heights of Ararat,
+        The strong ones shall have thee,
+        And shall take thee up
+        On to the free heights of Ararat.
+        There shalt thou abide,
+        And never more see the light." [44]
+
+
+These words together with those of Artavasd spoken to his father's
+spirit were sung by the singers of the time. [45]
+
+One day while out hunting Artavasd was seized by some visionary terror
+and lost his reason. Urging his horse down a steep bank he fell into
+a chasm where he sank and disappeared. Old women told how he was
+confined in a cavern and bound with iron chains which his two dogs
+gnawed at daily in order to set him free. But somehow at the sound
+of the hammers striking on the anvils, the chains were continually
+strengthened, and it was customary among the blacksmiths of the time
+to strike the anvil three or four times to strengthen, as they said,
+the chains of Artavasd. And so the tradition was kept up by singers and
+blacksmiths; the blacksmiths and old women having consigned the jealous
+king to the world's nethermost regions, while the singers left him
+to the solitude of Ararat in accordance with the curse of Artasches.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 8. CONCLUSIONS
+
+Such are the ancient legends of Armenia, in their respective historical
+settings: the legends of Haic, of Semiramis and Ara, of Vahakn,
+of Artasches and Satenik, and of Artavasd. All of them antedate the
+Christian era, and some of them by many centuries. Each one of them
+is told by Moses of Khorene. But as to origin and probable historic
+roots Moses was silent, for he was writing a history. He constantly
+laments the absolute dearth of material and sources and begins his
+accounts of these legends with the words "This is as it is told,"
+or "the singers say," indicating that his only sources for them
+were the songs and reports current among the people during his own
+time. The legends of Haic and of Semiramis and Ara are told by Moses
+as though he believed them historic fact, but of course Moses had no
+materials to serve as a basis of criticism. He is careful to quote
+Mar Apas Catina as his only source for this material. The other three
+legends are regarded as such. Artavasd is spoken of as an historical
+king who lost his reason while riding horseback and fell into a deep
+chasm. The practice of suicide at the death of Artasches, his father,
+was a pagan custom. The curse of the spirit of the dead father, the
+chains, the dogs, and the anvils were of course recognized as the work
+of ingenious fancy. In view therefore, of the questionable character
+of Moses' sources these legends have very little historic value. They
+do, however, have a high social value inasmuch as the common knowledge
+of them among the people was the only ultimate source at the disposal
+of the historian.
+
+The second conclusion is that these legends formed a very important
+part of the larger mass of tradition and songs that served to cement
+the people into a nation. Just how important, it would be difficult
+to say, but the fact that they were current at the time Moses wrote
+indicates that they were current and passed on from generation to
+generation during the whole period of the Arsacidae kings. And as
+the people had no alphabet during this whole period, they must have
+been passed on by song and word of mouth. This was a time of special
+activity on the part of the minstrels and singers, and therefore
+the development of the national consciousness characteristic of the
+period must have been brought about in a large measure through the
+medium of these legendary beliefs.
+
+Furthermore these legends are known by the Armenian people to-day
+and are taught in the schools that are not too severely under the
+rules of Turkish and Russian censorship. Naturally enough, they are
+a source of great pride since they breathe national independence and
+loyalty. But of course, the Turks and Russians have suppressed all
+public singing of songs, and public teaching of history and legend
+that may possibly be construed as partaking of the national spirit.
+
+It may be argued that these legends slumbered between the covers
+of Moses' history during the centuries known as the dark ages, and
+that they had no social value until the contagion of the European
+spirit of the Renaissance awoke the legends and the people at
+the same time. But the mere dearth of record is no proof of this
+Rip Van Winkle theory. There is at least one reliable authority
+sufficient to disprove it, viz., Grigor Magistros, a scholar of the
+eleventh century who wrote that he heard the Artasches epic sung
+by minstrels. [46] Besides the unreasonableness of the supposition,
+there is the added fact of an independent Armenian kingdom known as
+the Bagradouni dynasty, whose capital seat was at the famous city
+of Ani. This kingdom included greater Armenia and continued from
+A.D. 887 to 1079. [47] But 1079 does not mark the end of Armenian
+independence though it marks the destruction of Ani, for Reuben,
+a member of the royal family, made his way into Cilicia in the year
+1080, and rallying a handful of Armenians about him, overpowered the
+Greeks and founded what is known as the Rupenian Kingdom of Cilicia,
+which continued during a period of 300 years. So that here again is a
+period of very nearly five hundred years (889-1380), during which time
+the Armenian people enjoyed national political independence. [48] And
+this during the very period of the dark ages, about which we know so
+little! We could not, therefore, for a moment suppose the traditions
+and legends to have had no social importance during these centuries,
+for such an assumption would be in flat contradiction to the witness
+of Grigor Magistros, and to the facts of Armenian history.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+LEGENDS OF THE CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY
+
+
+SECTION 1. PRE-CHRISTIAN MYTHOLOGY AND RELIGION
+
+The second body of legends which I wish to consider is
+chiefly concerned with the introduction of Christianity into the
+country. These, together with the traditional beliefs centered about
+the chief geographical feature of the land, Mt. Ararat, constitute
+a group bearing a very distinct religious stamp. For this reason,
+and also because they have a later origin, they are to be marked
+off very distinctly from those already taken up. In view of their
+religious bearing I shall introduce them with a brief account of the
+various forms of pagan worship that preceded the Christianization of
+the people.
+
+The chief religious influences have been the Assyrian, the Persian,
+and the Greek. It seems, however, that a kind of monotheism prevailed
+before the gods of any of these were taken over. The very ancient
+Armenian kings planted groves of poplars around their cities and the
+worship was carried on in these groves. [49] An altar was placed among
+the trees, where the first male descendant of the royal family (and
+perhaps other families) offered sacrifices to the one God, while the
+priests derived oracles from the rustling of the leaves. Even now the
+poplar groves are held in uncommon regard. This is a survival of the
+old belief that they were the dwelling place of God, and of the later
+practice of consecrating children in them. The belief that God dwelt
+among the leaves must have been suggested by the slightest trembling
+of the leaves, even at the gentlest breeze, and one can well imagine
+the people looking up at them in the impressive silence of the forest
+with an awe and wonder no other environment could possibly induce. The
+Armenian for poplar, "Sossi" is used to-day as a name for girls, and
+the poplar tree, although not held sacred by Armenian people to-day,
+is certainly regarded with great reverence. [50]
+
+The influence of Persian worship is more clear. Aramazd, the architect
+of the universe, lord and creator of all things, was the chief
+Armenian god, and is unquestionably the Persian Ormuzd named in the
+inscription of Xerxes on the rock of Van. Armenians have given him
+the title of "father of the gods," and the qualifications "great,
+and strong, creator of heaven and earth, and god of fertility and
+of abundance." The Greeks identified him with Zeus. [51] There were
+numerous sanctuaries erected in his honor, and at the annual festival
+celebrated in his name, white animals, especially goats, horses,
+and mules, were sacrificed and their blood used to fill silver and
+golden goblets. [52] Tir, or "Grogh" meaning in Armenian "to write"
+was his attendant spirit, whose chief business it was to watch over
+mankind, recording their good and evil deeds. [53] Upon the death of a
+person "Grogh" conducted the soul of the departed before his master,
+who opened the great book, and balancing the good and evil deeds,
+assigned a reward or punishment. Grogh is also the personification
+of hope and fear, and the expression "may Grogh take you" is still
+very commonly used among the people, especially by servant girls
+and those whose language has not undergone the purification of a
+season of "Sturm und Drang." It is interesting to note that this
+and some other expressions owe their survival to usage among women
+rather than among men, which is not difficult of explanation when one
+considers the social restrictions that women are generally subject
+to. "Viele Seiten des alten heidnischen Glaubens sind in dem heutigen
+Volksglauben, besonders bei den tiefer stehenden Volksschichten, bei
+alten Bauerinnen, als ueberbleibsel der Vergangenheit erhalten." [54]
+
+The god Mihr represented fire, and was the son of Aramazd. [55]
+He guided heroes in battle, and was commemorated by a festival held
+in the beginning of spring. Fires were kindled in the open market
+place in his honor, and a lantern lit from one of these fires was
+kept burning in his temple throughout the year. [56] It is still a
+festival among the people, although it has a different significance,
+and will be described more in detail later on. This is practiced not
+only by the Armenians, but also by the Syrian Maronites who reside
+in the Lebanon. I have seen the mountainsides literally aglow with
+a thousand fires in celebration of a Christian festival that has
+its roots in the pagan ceremony in honor of Mihr. The practice of a
+continually burning lantern was also carried over by some branches
+of the Christian church.
+
+Both Persians and Armenians were worshippers of Mihr (fire-worship),
+although there was a very distinct difference between the two. The
+Armenian sacred fire was invisible, whereas the Persian was material
+and kept up throughout the whole year. It is for this reason that
+the Armenians called the Persians fire-worshippers. The only visible
+fire-god worshipped by the Armenians was the sun, to which temples
+were dedicated, and after which the Armenian calendar month "Areg" was
+named. [57] The "Children of the Sun" as they were called, offered the
+most persistent opposition to the introduction of Christianity, and a
+community of them continued their worship in the face of persecution
+after Christianity became the religion of the state. The phrase "let
+me die for your sun," and the oath "let the sun of my son be witness,"
+are language survivals of this particular worship.
+
+The Greek worship, introduced first during the Seleucid dynasty, and
+emphasized and encouraged by the line of Arsacidae kings up to the
+introduction of Christianity, exercised an even stronger influence
+than the Persian. Many of the Greek divinities were rechristened
+and adopted by the people. Chief of these was Anahit, "Mother of
+Chastity," known also as the "Pure and Spotless Goddess," who was the
+daughter of Aramazd, and corresponded to the Greek Artemid and the
+Roman Diana. [58] She was also regarded as the benefactress of the
+people. Writes Agathangelus: "Through her (Anahit) the Armenian land
+exists; from her it draws its life, she is the glory of our nation and
+its protectress." [59] Images and shrines were dedicated to her name
+under the titles, "The Golden Mother," "The Being of Golden Birth." A
+summer festival was celebrated in her honor at which a dove and a
+rose were offered to her golden image. The day was called "Vartavar,"
+meaning "the flaming of the rose." The temples of Anahit and the golden
+image were destroyed with the conversion of the people to Christianity,
+but the festival has continued as a regular church festival under
+the same name "Vartavar" though of course with a different meaning.
+
+The second and third daughters of Aramazd were Astghik, the goddess
+of beauty, and Nane, or Noone, the goddess of contrivance. [60] The
+former was the wife of Vahakn, the mythical king-god, the legend in
+respect to whom has been told, and corresponded to the Phoenician
+and Sidonian Astarte. It is stated by Raffi that the goddess of
+contrivance was a necessary power to womankind, for then as now woman
+had to make big things out of small. Sandaramet, the wife of Aramazd,
+was an invisible goddess and personification of the earth. Her master
+sent rain upon her, and brought forth vegetation. Later she became
+the synonym for Hades. Perhaps the best summary of Armenian worship
+as existing before the Christian time is that given by St. Martin.
+
+
+    La religion Armenienne etait probablement un melange des opinions
+    de Zoroastre, fort alteres par le cult des divinites grecques. On
+    voyait dans les temples de l'Armenie un grand nombre de statues
+    de divinites, auxquelles on faisait des sacrifices d'animaux,
+    ce qui ne se pratiquait point dans la religion de Zoroastre, qui,
+    a proprement parler, n'admettait pas l'existence d'autre divinite
+    que le temps sans bornes, appele Zerwan. [61] Les plus puissants
+    des dieux etaient Aramazd (Ormuzd), Anahid (Venus), Mihir (Mihr),
+    ou Mithra. On y adorait encore d'autres divinites inferieures.
+
+
+Anahit, however, was goddess of chastity, and did not therefore
+correspond to Venus. [62]
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. LEGENDS OF ABGAR, THADDEUS, AND ST. BARTHOLOMEW
+
+The first connection that Armenians had with Christianity occurred
+in the reign of King Abgar, whose capital was at Edessa (now Ourfa)
+during the time of Christ's teaching in Palestine. [63] The story
+is legendary and very popular. Abgar was called a great man because
+of his exceeding meekness and wisdom. As the result of several
+severe military campaigns, the health of the king began to give
+way. This led to complications which developed into a very painful
+disease. It was at this time that Abgar sent two of his messengers
+to the Roman governor, Marinus, to show the Roman a treaty of peace
+that had been made between Ardasches and his brother of Persia, who
+had quarreled and had been reconciled by their kinsman Abgar; for the
+Romans suspected that Abgar had gone to Persia in order to collect
+and direct a Persian-Armenian army against the Romans. [64] To clear
+himself of all suspicion, therefore, those two messengers were sent
+to show the treaty of peace to the Roman governor. On their return
+the messengers went up to Jerusalem in order to see Christ, having
+heard of his wonderful deeds. And when they returned to their king,
+Abgar, they told of the works of Christ, at which the king marveled,
+and believed him to be the very Son of God. The king, because of his
+sickness, sent Christ a letter asking him to come and heal him of
+his disease. The letter is quoted as follows:
+
+
+    The letter of Abgarus to our Saviour Jesus Christ. "Abgarus,
+    a prince of the world, unto Jesus the Saviour and Benefactor,
+    who hast appeared in the City of Jerusalem, Greetings.
+
+    "I have heard of thee, and of the healings wrought by thy hands,
+    without drugs and without roots; for it is said that thou givest
+    sight to the blind, thou makest the lame to walk, and thou cleanest
+    the lepers; thou curest those who have been long tormented by
+    diseases, and raisest even the dead. And when I heard all this
+    concerning thee, I thought that either thou art God come down from
+    heaven that workest these things, or the Son of God. I have written
+    unto thee, that thou shouldst trouble thyself to come unto me,
+    and heal me of my disease. I have heard also that the Jews murmur
+    against thee, and think to torture thee. My city is a small one,
+    but it is beautiful, and it is sufficient for us twain." [65]
+
+
+The messengers delivered the message to Jesus in Jerusalem, to which
+the gospel bears witness in the words, "There were some amongst the
+heathen that came up to him." But Jesus could do no more than to send
+a letter in reply.
+
+
+    The answer to the letter of Abgarus, written at the command of our
+    Saviour by the Apostle Thomas: "Blessed is he who believeth on me,
+    though he hath not seen me. For it is written concerning me thus:
+    'they that have seen me believed not on me, but they that have not
+    seen me shall believe and live.' And concerning that which thou
+    hast written unto me to come down unto thee, it is needful that I
+    fulfill all that for which I was sent; and when I have fulfilled
+    it I will ascend unto Him that sent me. And after my ascension I
+    will send one of my disciples, who shall heal thee of thy disease,
+    and give life unto thee and unto all that are with thee." [66]
+
+
+This letter was duly delivered to Abgar, with the image of the Saviour,
+which was still kept in Edessa at the time of Moses' writing. The
+legend concerning the image is somewhat as follows. One of the three
+messengers sent to Jesus with the letter of Abgar was an artist who
+was told to paint a portrait of Jesus in case the latter found it
+impossible to take the journey. The artist tried in vain to paint a
+good picture, and having noticed him, Jesus took a handkerchief and
+passing it over his face a most exact likeness was stamped upon it,
+which he gave to the artist to be given to the king.
+
+The quaint ending of Abgar's letter is worth the whole legend. What
+could be simpler or more seductive than the invitation, "My city is
+a small one, but it is beautiful, and it is sufficient for us twain."
+
+The tradition of the Armenian church, or the Gregorian church, as it
+is more commonly called, acknowledges St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew
+as the original founders, who are therefore designated as the first
+illuminators of Armenia. [67] Concerning the recognition of the
+tradition of St. Bartholomew, which includes his apostolic journeys,
+his preaching, and his martyrdom in Armenia, all Christian churches
+are unanimous. The name Albanus given as the place of his martyrdom, is
+the same as the name Albacus, hallowed by the Armenian tradition. His
+mission covered a period of sixteen years (A.D. 44-60). There is
+difference of opinion, however, in regard to the dates.
+
+The traditions about St. Thaddeus vary. Some suppose him to have
+been the brother of St. Thomas, and according to these, he traveled
+to Ardaze by way of Edessa. There is an anachronism, however,
+in this tradition which would transfer the mission of Thaddeus to
+the second century. According to a second tradition he is not the
+brother of Thomas, but one St. Judas Thaddeus, surnamed Lebbeus, who
+also is said to have established a sanctuary of worship at Ardaze,
+a circumstance admitted by the Greek and Latin churches. The Armenian
+church places the time of this mission as a period of eight years
+from 35-43. That this has been done to lay a strong foundation for
+the claim of apostolic origin may be suspected, especially in view
+of the belief that apostolic origin is essential to every Christian
+church, in order, as stated by Ormanian, "to place her in union
+with her Divine Founder." The church, however, has us at its mercy,
+for conclusive evidence one way or another is lacking. Nevertheless,
+the fact of Thaddeus' mission to Armenia wherever and whenever it
+might have occurred, is undisputed. [68]
+
+The matter is not especially important except to theologians with
+their doctrines of "apostolic origins." What is perfectly clear is
+that both these men did their work in comparative silence, and that
+they did not make very much headway, for if they had there would
+have been less doubt concerning the traditions. The great work
+was done by King Tiridates, and Gregory, who converted him about
+A.D. 301. The traditions concerning these men are among the most
+cherished possessions of the Armenian church.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 3. LEGENDS OF RHIPSIME AND GREGORY
+
+These traditions have their historical setting in the reign of
+Tiridates, and of Chosroes the father of Tiridates. [69] Just as
+there was an Arsacid dynasty in Armenia, dating and originating in
+the Parthian conquests and supremacy, so also was there an Arsacid
+dynasty of Persia. The Persian king at the time of Chosroes was a
+kinsman of the latter, called Ardavan, who was overthrown (A.D. 227)
+by a Persian prince of the province of Fars, named Ardashir. [70]
+His dynasty, a very powerful one, known as the Sassanid dynasty,
+supplanted the Arsacid dynasty of Persia. Chosroes of Armenia,
+fearing future difficulty with the new Persian monarch, ardently
+supported his dethroned kinsman. The next year (228), therefore,
+he led a huge army beyond the frontiers of Persia, and laid waste
+her provinces to the gates of Ctesiphon. [71] The war was continued
+for ten years, during which time the Armenian capital, Vagharshapat,
+was filled with the booty of successful raids. The reigning Caesar,
+Severus, also alarmed by the success of the new Persian king,
+headed a Roman army against Ardashir. Realizing the jeopardy of his
+position, the Persian resolved to put Chosroes out of the way by
+whatever means possible. A Parthian of the royal blood, Anak by name,
+consented to execute his king's desire, and went with his family to
+Vagharshapat as a refugee. A friendship sprang up between himself and
+his future victim, enabling him to execute his purpose, which he did
+in company with his brother while preparation was being made for a
+spring campaign. But the murderers were cut off in their escape by
+Armenian horsemen and precipitated into the Araxes, while the dying
+king gave orders to massacre the family of Anak. Only two of the
+children were rescued, one of whom was Gregory, the Illuminator,
+founder of the Armenian national church, called also the Gregorian
+church. The child Gregory was taken to Cesarea where he was educated
+in the tenets of Christianity. [72]
+
+Ardashir died shortly after the murder of his foe, and thus failed
+to follow up his advantage except for a few raids into Armenian
+territory. Tiridates, a child at this time, was the oldest son of
+Chosroes, and as heir to the Armenian throne was the chief obstacle in
+the way of the ambitions of his uncles, whose treatment of the young
+king compelled him to take refuge in Rome where he was educated. [73]
+Having distinguished himself by personal bravery in a Gothic campaign,
+his nation's dominions were restored to him by the support of a
+Roman army, for during his absence Armenia was invaded by Shapur,
+the successor of Ardashir. The Persian king had taken advantage of the
+disputes of Tiridates' uncles. The remainder of the story is legendary.
+
+Gregory had been informed in the meantime of his father's deed,
+and seeking to make such amends for it as he could, he journeyed
+to Rome, where he attached himself as a servant to the exiled king,
+Tiridates. The latter, after his victory over the Persians and his
+re-accession to the Armenian throne, entered the temple of Anahit
+in company with his faithful servant Gregory, to offer sacrifices of
+thanksgiving. A feast followed the ceremony, at which many guests were
+present, and Tiridates, who must have known of Gregory's attachment to
+Christianity, commanded the latter to make an offering of garlands to
+the great goddess. Gregory refused. The king was angry. "How dare you,"
+exclaimed the king, "adore a god whom I do not adore?" Persuasion
+and finally torture were used to coerce the pious and firm-minded
+youth, but to no avail. In the meantime, Tiridates had been informed
+as to Gregory's identity, i.e., that he was the son of his father's
+murderer, whereupon the king commanded that Gregory be cast into a
+deep pit where he was left to perish. [74]
+
+For thirteen years Gregory languished in his well, and was only
+saved from death by the ministrations of a widow who resided in the
+castle of Artaxata just by the pit. This was done in great secret,
+for Tiridates had issued an edict which admonished his subjects to
+beware of the resentment of the gods, of Aramazd, Anahit, and Vahakn,
+and following the practice of the Romans, to lay hands on all offenders
+against the gods, chief of whom, evidently, were the Christians. They
+were to be bound hand and foot, brought before the gate of the palace,
+and if found guilty their lands and chattels were assigned to their
+accusers. [75]
+
+While Christians were being robbed, and Gregory was slowly perishing
+of misery in his prison well, there arrived at Vagharshapat a Roman
+virgin of exquisite beauty, named Rhipsime, in company with her nurse
+Gaiane, and thirty-three followers who were also virgins. They had fled
+from the Emperor Diocletian, who had selected Rhipsime for his spouse,
+after a most careful search of his kingdom for the most beautiful of
+women. [76] Rhipsime, unfortunately had taken a vow of chastity, and
+there was nothing to do but to flee. Meanwhile an ambassador from Rome
+arrived at the court of the Armenian king bearing a letter in which
+Tiridates was informed of the flight of the virgin to his land, and
+bidden to discover the refugees, to send Rhipsime to Rome, and to kill
+her companions. The emperor added, however, in truly generous fashion,
+that he might himself marry her if he was overcome by her charms.
+
+The band was found, Rhipsime was recognized, and the king sent an
+escort of litters to bring them to his court. As Diocletian suspected,
+the Armenian king also fell in love, for the maiden, having refused
+the pomp of a royal equipage, was forced to appear before him
+in court. The Armenian's suit was likewise a failure. Rhipsime
+would marry, provided he became Christian, which the king took as
+mockery. Again the girl succeeded in escaping, but she was tracked,
+overtaken with her companions, bound with cords, and put to death with
+great cruelty. Both Rhipsime and her nurse Gaiane are commemorated on
+the calendar of saints, and at Etchmiadzin, the religious center of
+the nation, there are three edifices; the largest and most important
+bears the name of St. Gregory, while the other two respectively bear
+the names of the two saints, Rhipsime and Gaiane.
+
+Agathangelus relates the legend in his Histoire du Regne de Tiridate
+but unfortunately the book has been tampered with and now contains much
+questionable material. [77] There are mentioned ominous thunderclaps,
+openings of heaven, divine voices exhorting Rhipsime to stand firm
+in her faith, and the transformation of Tiridates into a grass-eating
+boar which was the punishment for his great crime. The sister of the
+king, Khosrovitukht, had a vision, in which she was told that the only
+remedy was to send for a prisoner named Gregory, who had been cast
+into a well some thirteen years before. A rope was let down into the
+cavern, and to the astonishment of all, there emerged a human form,
+blackened to the color of coal. It was none other than Gregory. He also
+saw visions and heard divine voices speak through curious openings in
+heaven. Strange columns of fire and flaming crosses of light appeared
+to him in the places where Rhipsime and Gaiane suffered martyrdom;
+and there appeared a great deal more to him which is recorded, even as
+there must have appeared yet more which is not recorded. The result of
+all of this was that Gregory ordered the construction of two chapels,
+one to be erected in honor of Rhipsime, the other in memory of Gaiane,
+both of which are still standing in Etchmiadzin. Etchmiadzin means,
+"the place where the Only-Begotten descended" for it was at this
+place that Gregory beheld his miraculous vision. Having prayed for
+the healing of the king, the horns fell from the royal head, and
+Tiridates, now a Christian, shared in the work of constructing the
+chapels. [78] He ascended Ararat and returned with huge blocks of
+stone which he laid at the portals of the chapels in expiation of his
+sin. It was customary among Armenians to place huge blocks of stone
+at the entrance of a church by way of offering. Dubois de Montpereux
+saw a number of such stones, six or seven feet high, in front of the
+cathedral at Etchmiadzin, but Lynch found no trace of them. [79]
+
+Such are the legends of Gregory and of Tiridates' conversion to
+Christianity. In all justice, the highly imaginative material
+which was probably the work of an enthusiast, and in all certainty
+a surreptitious insertion in the work of the historian, should
+be distinguished from the less fanciful material concerning the
+imprisonment of Gregory and the martyrdom of the virgins, which though
+legendary, may probably be connected with the events of history.
+
+Although Dubois de Montpereux recognizes that all traditions point to
+the conversion of Armenia as having taken place before the conversion
+of Constantine (in 312), he does not consider this as probable, for
+Tiridates, as a tributary king, and imitator of the Romans in all
+things, could not have had the courage to take so important a step
+except in following out the policy of the emperor. [80] Gregory,
+according to the view of Dubois, remained in his prison well until
+Constantine accepted Christianity, when the Armenian king called for
+him and was converted as a matter of diplomacy after listening to
+his exhortations.
+
+But this is not accepted by modern writers, any more than it was by
+the ancient historians. Bryce places the conversion at 302, and states
+that the so-called conversion of Constantine happened either twelve
+or thirty-seven years later, according as one reckons to the battle
+of the Milvian Bridge, or his baptism. [81] Armenia, therefore,
+was the first country that adopted Christianity as a religion of
+state, a matter of no small pride to the Gregorians, and it has been
+maintained as the national religion ever since in a form so intact as
+to surpass the dreams of the most ultra-conservative. And this, too,
+in the face of attacks by Persian fire-worshippers who attempted
+to force their religion upon the people, Greek and Latin popes,
+Mohammedan khalifs, and Turkish sultans. Ormanian, former Armenian
+patriarch at Constantinople, who gives the date as 301, considers the
+existence of the churches of St. Rhipsime and St. Gaiane with their
+inscriptions as positive proof, and mentions also the testimony in
+the writings of Eusebius, who cites the war of the year 311 which
+the Emperor Maximianus, the Dacian, declared against Armenians on
+account of their, at that time, recent conversion. [82] The critical
+studies made since the journey of Dubois (1837) are conclusive at
+least in this, that the conversion of Tiridates and of the nation
+could not have taken place later than the year 302, and there is no
+doubt therefore of the claim that the Gregorian church is the oldest
+national Christian church of the world.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 4. THE ARMENIAN CHURCH AS A SOCIAL FORCE
+
+The conversion of the people followed close upon the conversion of the
+king, for Gregory was a temple-building priest not without ambition,
+and the king was an acknowledged hero. The business of converting
+the nation was not a matter of priests and preaching as suggested
+by Dubois; [83] as indicated before, it was rather a matter of fire
+and sword. Ormanian supposes that it was due to the work of the
+Christian communities already established, whose work was stimulated
+and encouraged by the king's conversion. [84] "Indeed," he says, "the
+almost instant conversion of the whole of Armenia at the beginning
+of the fourth century, can not be explained but by the preexistence
+of a Christian element which had taken root in the country." And
+again, "The first nucleus of the faithful, by its steadfast energy,
+at length succeeded in gaining the mastery over both obstacles and
+persecutions." This does not seem to me to be correct, for in the
+first place the Christianity of the first, second, and third centuries
+was not the Christianity of Gregory; it was one of the many forms of
+worship killed by Gregory; and in the second place there are sufficient
+records to prove the wholesale destruction of pagan temples, images,
+idols, and inscriptions as carried out by the king and saint, and of
+the use of the sword in forcing the people to change their faith. [85]
+
+First, then, what was the Christianity of the first centuries? It
+is clear that the ideal was one of communal simplicity of life. That
+it was opposed to all hierarchies and established priesthoods there
+can be no question. The irksome round of daily toil was idealized
+in the fellowship of a common faith, the central point of which
+was the indwelling of the Spirit of God. Hence baptism was the
+all-important event, for through baptism the Holy Spirit descended
+into the human heart even as into Christ when he was baptized by
+John in the Jordan. Jesus was no God come to earth in human form by
+a miraculous conception; he was the son of Joseph and Mary. Feeling
+his kinship with God he was baptized, which ceremony was merely
+symbolic of the Indwelling Spirit. These early Christians have been
+called adoptionists, for the ceremony of baptism is said to represent
+the adoption of the individual by God, or by the Holy Spirit, both
+expressions having been used synonymously. Simple and pure, it seems
+that the adoptionists came as near carrying out the spirit of the
+teachings of Jesus as any Christian sect that ever existed. [86]
+But how utterly opposed, how perfectly contradictory to the brick
+and mortar religion of Gregory! That the adoptionists were objects
+of persecution by the orthodox church is a certainty, and it was
+very probably this sect that was referred to in "that stubborn
+heresy of their native land" mentioned so frequently by Armenian
+writers. The following picture was clearly set forth in a disputation
+between two Armenian church-men occurring at the close of the third
+century. "Tell me," says Archelaus, "over whom it was that the Holy
+Spirit descended like a dove? Who is this one whom John baptized? If
+he was already perfect, if he was already the Son, if he was already
+Virtue, the Holy Spirit could not have entered into him. A kingdom
+can not enter into a kingdom." [87] What is also to the point is the
+celebrated formula of Nice (325) at which the nature of Christ was
+defined as essentially and continuously divine. "Christ a very God,
+begotten of God, but not a creature of God; Son of God, of one nature
+with God; who came down from heaven and took flesh, and became man,
+and suffered and ascended unto heaven; who was before he was begotten,
+and who has always been." The decision was in absolute contradiction to
+the adoptionist faith, and it was legislated by this august council,
+that the members of such faith, who were called Paulicians, after
+their leader Paul of Samosata, should be rebaptized before admission
+to the church. [88] The recalcitrants were driven to the mountains,
+where they increased in number as in strength until the persecution
+of the ninth century. Both Agathangelus and Faustus of Byzantium were
+silent concerning these people, and, one suspects, advisedly so.
+
+Such was pre-Gregorian Christianity. How ridiculous to suppose that the
+conversion of the nation was due to the firm roots already established
+by the Christians when the Christians themselves had to be converted!
+
+On the contrary, it was the right of might that established the new
+religion. The troops of the capital city were led by the king and
+priest in such an image- and temple-smashing campaign as was never
+before seen. Proceeding down the Araxes valley, the temple of the
+god Dir was levelled to the ground; the temple of Anahit was stoutly
+defended but to no avail; the temple was burned. One after another
+of the most famous sanctuaries were destroyed; temples of Aramazd,
+of Mithra, of Nane, and of Anahit, many of which were defended by the
+vanquished until overpowered. [89] Shrines of Vahakn and of Astghik
+were laid to waste to be replaced by Christian churches which grew
+up over the ruins as if overnight; and if a temple was destroyed, it
+was only to build a Christian church in its stead. So construction
+followed in the wake of destruction, the old was supplanted by the
+new, and when all armed resistance was beaten down, the king and
+priest continued the work by preaching.
+
+When the work was fairly under way the ambitious priest journeyed to
+Cesarea in Cappadocia where he got himself ordained. This Gregory was
+no meek-spirited adoptionist. He was the son of Anak, of royal blood,
+ambitious, zealous, suffering and doing all things to gain his ends.
+
+In view, therefore, of the actual character of preexisting
+Christianity, and of the methods employed in converting the people, how
+can one reasonably suppose that the "instant conversion of the whole
+of Armenia to Christianity can not be explained but by the preexistence
+of a Christian element which had taken root in the country"?
+
+The state-authorized religion, however, did take root in the country,
+and became inextricably interwoven with the self-consciousness of
+the nation. It became the organ of national expression, and for many
+centuries has been the very backbone of the people. If the molten
+metals of national life had hardened during the reign of the Arsacidae
+kings they were at the time of the conversion in a molten state, ready
+to be remolded. This did not require much time. Old festivals were
+carried over intact, except that they were given a new meaning. The
+old national traditions, legends, and folk-lore were in the common
+possession of the people, and there was no reason for discouraging
+them. In fact the Armenian church even more than the state encouraged
+them, for it recognized in them a source of solidarity and national
+unity, as essential to the life of the church as its hierarchies,
+liturgy, and calendar of saints. So much then was old; part of the past
+carried over into the present to be carried over into the future. What
+then was new? First the legends and traditions, already mentioned,
+imbedded in the immediately past events of the new order. Legends of
+Abgar, of Gregory, of Thaddeus, of Rhipsime, of Tiridates, passed like
+magic fire from person to person, creating a common sentiment which
+made the foundations of the new church absolutely secure. How firmly
+this foundation was established is indicated by the reaction of the
+church to the decisions at the Council of Chalcedon, where the dogma
+of the dual nature of Christ was affirmed, in perfect contradiction
+to the Nicaean dogma, and by the reaction against the Persian proposals
+to accept fire-worship as the state religion.
+
+I shall consider the second point first. As already stated, the year
+428 marked the end of the Armenian Arsacid dynasty. The nation was
+divided between Persia and Rome at this time, largely as a result of
+internal dissensions. In the year 450 the Persian king sent a letter
+to the Armenian princes, setting forth the excellence of fire-worship
+and the foolishness of Christianity, and summoned the Armenians to
+accept the Persian religion. [90] A council of bishops and laymen was
+held and a reply of unanimous refusal was drawn up. "From this faith
+no one can move us, neither angels nor men, neither sword nor fire,
+nor water, nor any deadly punishment." [91] A rather impertinent
+reply from a subject nation to one which dominated it; but thoroughly
+characteristic of the Armenians. The Persians did use fire and sword,
+and defeated the Armenians in the plain of Avarair under Mount Ararat
+(451). But they did not gain their end. An old historian wrote of the
+battle, "swords of slayers grew dull, but their necks were not weary,"
+and the Persian high priest having seen the utter hopelessness of
+his project wrote, "these people have put on Christianity, not like
+a garment, but like flesh and blood." [92]
+
+Already, only one hundred fifty years after the conversion, the
+foundation of the church was secure. This of course was made possible
+by the completeness of the work of its founders; but this in itself
+would not have been sufficient. A common favorable sentiment had
+been created, which grew up under the natural conditions of life,
+and inasmuch as the legends described are part of the common beliefs
+of the people, it may be inferred that they played an important role
+in the formation of this sentiment. The church, on the other hand,
+has incorporated these legendary beliefs in its ritual and ceremony,
+and in that way has given them the necessary sanction by which they
+are passed on from generation to generation. They thus form part of
+the permanent social tradition of the Armenian people.
+
+The security of the church at this early time (450) was indicated
+not only by the reaction of the nation to the Persian proposals of
+fire-worship, but also by the reaction to the decision of the Council
+of Chalcedon, at which, as stated, the dual nature of Christ was
+dogmatically affirmed, in contradiction to the dogma established at
+the Council of Nicaea (325), accepted by the Armenian church. But at
+the time of the Chalcedonian council, the Persian difficulties were
+taking place, the battle of Avarair having occurred during the same
+year, and it was not until 491 that the Armenians held a synod of
+their own which assembled at Vagharshapat, in order to take decisive
+action. [93] The decisions of the Council of Chalcedon were rejected
+and the action was repeated at subsequent synods. Of the three sees
+or patriarchates, the Roman at Rome, the Greek at Alexandria, and
+the Byzantine at Constantinople, the latter was gaining in power,
+and it was at the Council of Chalcedon that the precedence of the see
+of Constantinople was recognized. Naturally, neither the Roman nor
+Greek sees acknowledged the decision of the council, but later both
+Greek and Latin churches revoked their opposition, and recognized it
+as the fourth OEcumenic Council. But the Armenian church would have
+nothing to do with Chalcedon, in spite of Greek and Latin approval,
+and since that time she has stood alone, absolutely independent
+of Greek and Latin churches. Ormanian states: "She set herself to
+resist every new dogmatic utterance said to emanate from revelation,
+as well as any innovation which could in any way pervert the primitive
+faith." [94] The "primitive faith" may be a slight stretch of point,
+but the fact that the Armenian church adopted an absolutely independent
+policy, which separated her from all other Christian churches, and
+to which she has steadfastly adhered in spite of persistent Greek and
+Latin influence and efforts at domination, is in clear support of my
+assertion that the social foundations of the church were firmly and
+securely established as early as 450, only one hundred fifty years
+after the work of Gregory and Tiridates.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+LOCALITY LEGENDS
+
+
+SECTION 1. ARARAT
+
+There is a third and last body of Armenian legends more closely related
+to the second group discussed than to the first, and yet marked off in
+some respects from the second as well. They have a distinct religious
+stamp like those we have just finished describing, and they are all
+related in some way to the stories of the Old Testament. The legend of
+Haic is related to the Old Testament, for Haic was the great-grandson
+of Noah, but it clearly belongs to the first group taken up, for the
+reason that it has to do with the origin of the Armenian nation. The
+first body, including Haic, and the legends of Semiramis and Ara,
+Vahakn, Artasches and Satenik, and Artavazd, are all concerned
+with ancient Armenian kings, real or mythical, and all go back to
+a time before the introduction of Christianity. Vahakn was deified,
+but that does not exclude him since he was first a king. The second
+group, including the legends of Abgar, Rhipsime and Gaiane, Gregory,
+Thaddeus, and Tiridates, are all concerned with historical figures,
+real or supposed, and there is no doubt about their historic reality,
+with the exception of Rhipsime and Gaiane. But what marks them off from
+the other groups is that they are all concerned with the introduction
+of Christianity into the country. Those of the third group have no
+historic value whatever. They are legends based upon legends that date
+back to a period even more remote than the legend of Haic, and their
+social value does not approach that of the first two groups. They
+are all connected in some way, either with the Old Testament legend
+of Noah, or with the legend of the origin of man. No traveler ever
+passed through Armenia without hearing of one or more of them.
+
+"In the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, the ark
+rested upon the mountains of Ararat." [95] Every Armenian, and others,
+too, believe that this is the Ararat of Armenia, or Masis as it is
+called, and it is true that there is absolutely nothing to disprove
+such a belief. James Bryce has given a careful consideration to
+the question, and states in conclusion that full liberty is left to
+the traveler to consider the "snowy sovereign of the Araxes plain"
+to be the true Ararat. [96] There are several points that may be
+noted. First, there is nothing in the statement of Genesis to show
+that the Ararat mentioned was a mountain called by that name; it seems
+rather that Ararat was a section of country, for the passage states
+that the ark rested "upon the mountains of Ararat." In the second
+place, the mountain is not called Ararat by Armenians, but Masis. And
+thirdly, there is no independent Armenian tradition of the flood so
+far as is known, for it can not be shown that the modern tradition
+is older than the Christian era.
+
+These facts would be conclusive evidence that Armenian Ararat is
+not the traditional Ararat of the Old Testament, were it not, first,
+for the fact that there was in the region of the mountain a province
+of Airarat which in all probability corresponds to the biblical
+Ararat. Secondly, the biblical Ararat unquestionably corresponds
+to the Assyrian Urarthu which is the section of country about Lake
+Van and Mount Ararat. So that, although not absolutely conclusive,
+the Armenian tradition enjoys a very high degree of probability.
+
+In this connection the legend of the village of Nakhitchevan is worth
+noting. It is situated just to the north of the mountain on the left
+bank of the Araxes. Armenians believe it to be the place where Noah
+first landed, and as proof, the name of the village, which means,
+"the first place of landing," is cited. One might suppose the name to
+have been given by the Christians after the conversion to Christianity,
+were it not that Ptolemy places in the same spot a city named Naxuana
+which is the exact Greek for the Armenian name. Also Josephus, fifty
+years before Ptolemy speaks of the place, as quoted by St. Martin:
+"Les Armeniens appellent ce lieu l'endroit de la descente parce
+que c'est la que l'arche trouva un endroit de salut, et qu'encore
+actuellement les indigenes montrent ses debris." [97] Tavernier who
+traveled through the country along about 1700 speaks of Nakhitchevan as
+the "oldest city of the world" and gives the tradition. [98] But many
+Jews, who undoubtedly gave the village its name, lived in Armenia,
+long before the Christian era.
+
+Situated on a broad plain four or five thousand feet above sea
+level, Ararat rises majestic and solitary to a height of 17,000
+feet. There are no lesser peaks or ranges to destroy the grandeur
+of the effect. Except for its companion, Little Ararat, which rises
+beside it on a common base to a height of 12,840 feet, it stands
+alone as monarch of the broad plain it surveys. Little Ararat is in
+the form of a perfect cone, whereas Ararat is broad-shouldered and
+dome-shaped, supported by huge buttresses and capped with snow a
+considerable distance down the slope through the entire year. It is
+truly symbolic of strength and majesty.
+
+Such is the mountain about which a thousand legends cluster. Marco
+Polo says of the mountain: "There is an exceeding great mountain
+on which it is said the ark of Noah rested, and for this cause
+it is called the mountain of the Ark of Noah." In 1254, a little
+before Marco Polo's time, a Franciscan friar, William of Rubruck
+passed by the mountain upon which the ark is said to have rested,
+which mountain, he said, could not be ascended, though the earnest
+prayers of a pious monk prevailed so far that a piece of the wood
+of the ark was brought to him by an angel, which piece, he said,
+is still preserved in a church near by as a holy relic. He gives
+Masis as the name of the mountain and adds that it is the Mother of
+the World. According to a Persian tradition it is called "Cradle of
+the Human Race." Still more interesting is the account by Sir John
+Maundeville, part of which runs as follows: "Fro Artyroun go men to an
+Hille, that is clept Sabisocolle. And there besyde is another Hille,
+that men clepen Ararathe: but the Jews clepen it Taneez, where Noas
+Schipp rested: and zit is upon that Montayne and men may see it a
+ferr in clear wedre: and that Montayne is well a myle high. And sum
+men seyn that they have seen and touched the Schipp; and put here
+Fyngres in the parties where the Feend went out when that Noe seyd
+'Benedicta.' But they that seyn such Wordes seyn here Willie, for a
+man may not gon up the Montayne for gret plenties of Snow that is alle
+weys on that Montayne nouther Somer ne Winter: so that no man may gon
+up there: ne never man did, sithe the time of Noe: Saf a Monk that be
+the grace of God brought one of the Plankes down, that zit is in the
+Mynstre at the foot of the Montayne. And beside is the Cytes of Dayne
+that Noe founded. And faste by it is the Cytee of Any, in which were
+1000 churches. But upon that Montayne to gon up this monk had gret
+desir; and so upon a day he went up and when he was the third part
+of the Montayne he was so wery that he mighte not furthere, and so
+he rested him and felle to slep, and when he awoke he fonde himself
+liggyie at the foot of the Montayne. And then he preyde devoutly to
+God that he wold vouch saf to suffre him gon up. And an angelle cam
+to him and seyde that he scholde gon up; and so he did. And sithe that
+Time never non. Wherefore men scholde not beleeve such Woordes." [99]
+
+The legend of the monk is usually given in a form which confirms still
+more the sacredness of the mountain. St. Jacob, as the monk was named,
+tried three successive times to climb the mountain. Each time he fell
+asleep intending to resume his journey the next morning, only to wake
+up finding himself at the same point he had started from the preceding
+day. An angel came to him after the third time, and told him that God
+had forbidden mortal foot ever to tread on the sacred summit, but that
+he should be given a fragment of the ark in which mankind had been
+preserved as a reward for his devout perseverance. [100] This treasure
+is still preserved at Etchmiadzin and the saint is commemorated by
+the little monastery of St. Jacob, which till 1840, when a tremendous
+shaking of the mountain showered the little monastery with rocks of
+destruction, stood above the valley of Arghuri on the slopes of Ararat.
+
+The little village of Arghuri, the single village on the mountainside,
+was the city of Noah's vineyard, and contained a little church which
+is said to hallow the spot where Noah first set up an altar. [101]
+But this village, too, was completely destroyed by the avalanche of
+1840. Not the slightest trace of it remains, though only three years
+before its destruction, Dubois de Montpereux visited the little city
+and described it together with the church of Noah, Noah's vineyard,
+and the monastery of St. Jacob. [102] In the garden of the city were
+planted pear trees, apple, plum, cherry, apricot, peach, and nut
+trees. This very garden was the site of the first vine on which the
+old patriarch became drunk, and the inhabitants showed Dubois some
+bits of creepers to prove it. "Dieu," they said, "pour punir les
+ceps qui avaient ainsi entraine le pauvre patriarche dans le peche,
+les condamna a ne plus porter de raisins." Naive, yes, but very
+sweetly so. And the church, the people said, marked the place where
+Noah offered his first sacrifice after the deluge. Except for the
+garden of Arghuri, wrote Dubois, this great mountain was absolutely
+destitute of verdure; an old stunted willow, wound about with snow and
+ice was the only other exception to this. According to the legend,
+it marked the spot where a board of Noah's ark had taken root and
+sprung up into a living tree which the people venerated. One was not
+permitted to take away even the smallest of its feeble branches.
+
+All of this was blotted out so completely by the shower of falling
+rocks and boulders that it is hard to imagine the places as ever
+having existed. The primeval willow, the vineyard, the sacred church,
+and the little monastery of St. Jacob have left not the slightest
+trace. The bell of the old church is no more heard; the Christian
+service is not chanted any longer on the sacred mountain of the Ark.
+
+Of the numerous other legends associated with the mountain I shall
+mention only two. One of them regards the summit of the mountain as the
+site of Chaldean star-worship, and asserts that a pillar with a figure
+of a star stood upon it. [103] According to the same legend, twelve
+wise men stood beside the pillar to watch for the star of the East,
+which three of them followed to Bethlehem. The other is in respect
+to the spring situated above the spot where stood the monastery. A
+bird, called by the Armenians tetagush, feeds on the locusts which
+are such a plague to the country, and curiously enough, the bird
+is attracted by the waters of the spring. When the locusts appear,
+the people carry their bottles to the spring and filling them with
+the peculiarly charmed water, take them back to their fields where
+they are placed on the ground to attract the tetagush. The people of
+Syria and Palestine were much in need of tetagush and Ararat spring
+water during the spring and summer of 1915, for the swarms of locusts
+not only devoured the crops but also the leaves and barks of the trees.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. KHOR-VIRAP AND ERZERUM
+
+On the bank of the Araxes, in the plain of Armenia, and in full view
+of Ararat are located the monastery of Khor-Virap and the chapel of
+St. Gregory close beside it. An Armenian inscription is cut in the
+walls of the portico of the monastery which marks the spot where a
+monk, Johannes by name, appeared twice after his death saying that he
+had seen Gregory the Illuminator. The chapel of St. Gregory covers
+the traditional well into which he was thrown and imprisoned for
+thirteen years by King Tiridates. Dubois descended into a sort of
+tunnel, fifteen or sixteen feet below the pavement of the chapel,
+which is part of an old fortress, and was shown the worn stones of
+a niche where the saint prayed, as evidence of the thirteen years,
+quite as though other pilgrims who knelt in the same place could
+not have assisted somewhat the pious work of the saint. [104] The
+spot is only a few steps from the famous temple dedicated to the
+principal god of the Armenians, Aramazd, and it seems clear that
+the pagan king intended to make a sacrifice to his gods in casting
+the young fanatic into the well. The temple was called Achelichad,
+meaning "many sacrifices" because of the many offerings here given up
+to Aramazd. With the era of Christianity, the name Achelichad gave way
+to the name Khor Virap, meaning dry well. Gregorius Magistros, already
+mentioned, brought the body of the saint from Constantinople and placed
+it in the bottom of the well, where it served to cure sick pilgrims.
+
+There is a tradition that the Armenian city of Erzerum, not far
+from the source of the Euphrates, marks the vicinity of the Garden
+of Eden. The Persian king Khosref Purveez is said to have encamped
+in the neighborhood and to have received a message from the prophet
+Mohammed during his sojourn, in which he was offered the protection
+of Islam if he would embrace the faith. But the king spurned the
+proposal and tossed the letter into the Euphrates. Nature, horrified
+at the sacrilege, dried up the flowers and fruits of the ancient
+garden and even parched up the sources of the river itself. And so
+the last relic of Eden became waste. [105]
+
+In the same connection, there is a plaintive Armenian elegy, composed
+in the person of Adam, who, sitting at the gate of paradise and
+beholding cherubim and seraphim enter the garden, makes the following
+defence: he did not eat the forbidden fruit until after he had
+witnessed its fatal effects upon Eve, when, seeing her despoiled of
+all her glory, he was touched with pity and tasted the immortal fruit
+in the hope that the Creator, contemplating both in the same plight
+might with paternal love take compassion on them. But in vain. "The
+Lord cursed the serpent and Eve," pathetically cries Adam, "and I
+was enslaved between them." The elegy closes most touchingly,--"When
+ye enter Eden, shut not the gate of paradise, but place me standing
+at the gate. I will look in a moment and then bring me back. Ah! I
+remember ye, O flowers and sweet smelling fountains. Ah! I remember
+ye, O birds, sweet singing, And ye, O beasts." [106]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS
+
+
+Because these legends are for the most part based upon older legends,
+and also because some of them are known only locally, they can not be
+said to have played so important a role in Armenian social life as the
+first two groups of legends. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose
+that all of the Ararat legends have merely a local value. Ararat
+is the center of the nation, the grand geographical feature of
+the country, and many of the beliefs clustered about it are held in
+common. In fact there is a very old belief which considers the sacred
+mountain to be the center of the world, and to-day it is the common
+point of meeting of the boundaries of Russian, Turkish, and Persian
+Armenia. And this is no accident; it is because of the veneration
+in which the mountain is held, and consequently, the realization
+of the importance the mountain gives to any territory in which it
+may be located. The belief that Ararat is the mountain of the Ark,
+the legend of Noah's vineyard, and the legend of St. Jacob are very
+commonly accepted. The primeval willow, the church of Arghuri, the
+legend, or perhaps one should say, the superstition of the tetagush,
+and the legend of the wise men in search of the star of the East,
+enjoy a more restricted circulation. Furthermore, it is natural to
+suppose that the legends centered in the destroyed city of Arghuri have
+not been told as frequently as of old, and are therefore dying out
+gradually, although they seem still to be very much alive. A legend
+or tradition that is objectified in an old willow, in a monastery,
+or in a garden, is likely to die out gradually with the destruction of
+its object. But some of them will never die out, object or no object,
+as for example the legend of the devout monk who tried to gain the
+summit of Ararat in order to see the holy Ark. There is something in
+his waking up each successive morning only to find himself at the same
+point he had started from the preceding day, which will keep its hold,
+whether there be a monastery erected in his name or not. And if the
+vineyard has been destroyed the people may very soon find another. In
+fact I should be surprised if in traveling through the mountain region
+of Ararat, I was not shown the legendary vineyard. This, however,
+would more likely be true of a legend that had a commercial value
+to the community because of the frequency of travelers, which could
+certainly not be said of Ararat legends. The same general valuation
+may be placed upon the Erzerum legends. A legend of this sort is
+not believed to be true, unless the legend upon which it is based
+is commonly believed in, and it is certainly safe to suppose that a
+majority of the Armenian people accept the Old Testament legends. This
+is important, for when a legend is not a matter of implicit belief
+by a people it has little social value. The elegy of Adam can not be
+properly said to be a legend at all.
+
+The preceding pages point out certain points of resemblance, and
+certain points of difference between the two words, legend and
+tradition, which require to be brought out at this point, first,
+because of vague and loose current usage, and second, in order to
+establish my own use of these terms. In the first place they are
+beliefs, and here lies the secret of their social value. Let them
+be disbelieved in and they may furnish material for entertaining
+after-dinner conversation, but they no more have the power of welding
+a people together into a nation, a caste, or a sect; they no longer
+have the power of creating a common sentiment among a large number
+of people or of creating a national consciousness.
+
+And in the second place, both the tradition and the legend are passed
+on from person to person, and from generation to generation. When a
+tradition is defined as a belief that is handed down orally from father
+to son, it is not at all differentiated from the legend which is also
+a belief, and which may also be passed on orally from generation to
+generation. Neither does a legend or a tradition change its character
+when the meaning is represented by symbols cut in rock, inscribed on
+papyrus, or written on paper. The event of inscription is very often
+a part of their history.
+
+But when it comes to a question of historic value we mark the
+parting of the ways. A tradition, used in the sense with which we
+are concerned here, is always rooted in an indisputable historic
+fact. Consider the traditions of Islam that are centered about
+the prophet Mohammed. They may have a thousand variations, may have
+embodied falsehood after falsehood in the course of their transmission
+from place to place, and from generation to generation, as most of
+them unquestionably have, but they are traditions, nevertheless,
+because they are associated with a character who is an undisputed
+historic figure. The refusal of St. Gregory to offer garlands to the
+goddess Anahit, and his imprisonment in the well during a period of
+thirteen years is a tradition because the belief is associated with
+a historic character. Compare this with the beliefs concerning Haic,
+Vahakn, Semiramis and Ara, and the distinction is clear, for these
+characters are all mythical. Artasches and Artavasd are generally
+recognized as historical kings, and are so spoken of by Moses. As such
+the beliefs concerning them should be classed as traditions. However,
+Moses as a historian has been relegated to a secondary position by
+Carriere, who gave the work a critical examination. This would make
+the beliefs concerning Artasches and Satenik and Artavasd purely
+legendary, unless further research establishes more reliable sources
+of which we do not know. The first group therefore are legends.
+
+In regard to the second group of beliefs all having to do with
+the introduction of Christianity, Bartholomew, Thaddeus, Gregory,
+and Tiridates are unquestionably historic; Rhipsime and Gaiane are
+mythical; the historic authenticity of Abgar is also questionable. We
+should therefore speak of the legends of Rhipsime, Gaiane and Abgar,
+and of the traditions of Bartholomew, Thaddeus, Gregory, and Tiridates.
+
+The Ararat and Erzerum group are of course legends with one or two
+exceptions. The belief concerning the scorning of the proposal of
+Mohammed by the Persian king who was encamped on the Euphrates as
+explaining the barrenness of the Garden of Eden certainly has to
+do with an historic figure, and perhaps two. But it is a legend,
+nevertheless, because both the prophet of Arabia and the Persian king
+are accidental rather than fundamental to the belief. The fundamental
+basis of belief is the legend of the Garden of Eden. The elegy of Adam
+in explanation of his sinful conduct is neither legend nor tradition,
+and the belief concerning the tetagush and the spring of Ararat is
+a superstition. It results in a distinct type of conduct marking it
+off from both tradition and legend.
+
+I have stated my conclusions at various places, and it would be
+pointless repetition to summarize them all. I shall therefore sum up
+only the important ones. The first is that the legends and traditions
+of Part One are an important part of a larger body of Armenian legends,
+traditions, folk-songs, and folk-lore, and that their social value lies
+in the power they have of creating a national sentiment. This national
+sentiment is the direct result of a social process accomplished through
+the medium of the traditions, legends, and folk-songs spoken of. An
+analysis of the national sentiment of ancient Armenia would lead us
+to the conclusion that it was made up of at least three elements:
+first, a sentiment of loyalty to the state; secondly, a sentiment
+of reverence amounting almost to worship for the past glory of the
+nation; and thirdly, a sentiment of love for the country.
+
+The last sentiment is an especially real experience to all
+Armenians. Objectified as it was at first in the vast plains, the
+broad river valleys, the mountain ranges, or simply in the soil that
+brought forth its vegetation, it came to be objectified in a spirit
+of independence and in the ideals of freedom and strength. These two
+objects of the national sentiment of love, the one material, the other
+immaterial, are not, however, to be dissociated in the social mind,
+as I have dissociated them on paper. They are inseparable, the material
+and the spiritual, and simply do not exist apart from each other. Only
+the emphasis varies, symbolized in one case by the peasant's kissing
+his native soil, and in the other by the far-away look toward the
+summit of some distant mountain. And when this sentiment of love is
+the most important of those sentiments that go to make up a national
+sentiment, that is, when it dominates all the others, holding them
+in subjection, there has come to be a national self. A continuous
+stream of consciousness envelopes the national self, and inasmuch
+as it implies a highly-organized and well-developed national self,
+national-self-consciousness is the larger term. It may be objectified
+and examined especially at a time of injustice from without, and even
+at the time of an obvious act of injustice by the state which usually
+results in civil strife. The latter case is illustrative of how one of
+the sentiments that make up the national sentiment may be under the
+domination of another, the sentiment of loyalty to the state being
+subordinate to the sentiment of love for the country in this case.
+
+That the national self is organic, i.e., that it is functional, a
+vital, living thing which grows and dies is clearly brought out by
+the second group of legends considered. This is the second general
+conclusion. The legends and traditions mentioned in this group are
+of course again part of a larger body, all of which have to do with
+the introduction of Christianity into the country. The important
+point is that from this larger body of beliefs there resulted a new
+national sentiment, new because something had come to be incorporated
+within it which was not there before. This something was a sentiment
+of loyalty to the church, evidenced in the readiness to uphold and
+protect the church with all its recognized encumbrances of hierarchies
+and paraphernalia against all foreign intrusion, whether peaceful
+or military in character. With the destruction of the state, this
+sentiment of loyalty to the church largely absorbed the sentiment
+of loyalty to the state. Reverence for the past glory of the nation
+went on unchanged except in so far as the church intensified it as
+a means of intensifying the whole national sentiment.
+
+A loosely organized, heterogeneous group of people can not boast of
+a national sentiment, nor of the united action necessary in times
+of national crisis, as when a people go to war. This united action
+is only possible where the diverse sentiments of a more or less
+heterogeneous people have been woven into a national sentiment of the
+kind spoken of. This weaving process, as I have shown, is essentially
+a social process, and the materials by means of which it is carried
+on are largely such as I have been describing, namely, the legends,
+traditions, and folk-lore that have somehow grown up among a people.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PART TWO
+
+FESTIVALS
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE GREGORIAN CHURCH
+
+
+As the materials of Part One are part of a larger mass of legends,
+traditions, and folk-lore, the social value of which lies in their
+power of creating a national or group sentiment, so the festivals
+and ceremonies to be taken up in Part Two are part of a larger mass
+of festivals, ceremonies, and rites whose social value lies in the
+fact that they constitute a necessary vehicle of expression for this
+same national sentiment. The festivals are a necessary counterpart
+of the legends, as the latter are a necessary counterpart of the
+former. Activity is one of the most fundamental of nature's laws. The
+sentiment of love for an individual dies eventually in the absence
+of some formal mode of active expression. But be the action ever so
+little a thing, such as the laying of flowers upon the grave of the
+dead, the visiting of a shrine, or the sight of some hallowed spot
+of sacred memory, the sentiment is kept alive. To be sure a sentiment
+may smoulder for a lifetime, even as a national sentiment may slumber
+for centuries without a mode of expression, and then all of a sudden
+burst forth into a flame, or awaken into life at a mere suggestion from
+outside. Bereft of statehood, the sentiment of loyalty for the state
+has slumbered for centuries within the breast of the Armenian people,
+but how often, how too sadly often, has it not suddenly awakened into
+hot, new life only to be pacified into slumber again. But the last
+glow, the little flicker at the end is all that separates the living
+embers from the dead ash.
+
+How the Armenian church recognized the truth of this by putting
+into operation a thousand various modes of action in which the new
+national sentiment that it created has kept itself alive and fresh,
+may well serve as an object lesson to many another church. She did
+not make the mistake of imposing an entirely new body of festivals and
+ceremonies upon the people; she utilized the past and carried over a
+number of pagan festivals absolutely intact, which she clothed with
+a new meaning slowly recognized by the people. These form the first
+group to be considered. In the course of time she created certain new
+festivals which constitute the second group. And then she identified
+herself with all of the ceremonies of common life, such as betrothal,
+marriage, and funeral ceremonies.
+
+In this way the Armenian church has become absolutely and inseparably
+identified with the life of the people, and the people in turn
+have been held together into a nation which has continued to give
+its artists and artisans to the world. [107] What is Armenia? The
+national Gregorian church; much as Louis XIV, when asked "What is
+the state?" replied, "I am the state." This is unquestionably an
+exaggerated view, but not as much so as might be supposed, since
+the social life of the people is so completely bound up with the
+church. The only betrothal and marriage recognized is that sanctioned
+by the church. Whenever there is a common danger, as has been the
+case repeatedly during the past twenty years, the people flock to
+the church for protection. Such secret revolutionary propaganda as
+has been carried on has been done largely through the church. The
+young Armenian who returns from his academic life in Paris, a
+sceptic if not an unbeliever, and certainly opposed to the dogma and
+ultra-conservatism of his church, does not alienate himself, for he
+realizes his utter impotence in any kind of work for his people should
+he do so. In spite of the division of Armenia into three slices,
+Turkish, Persian, and Russian, the church has retained its hold,
+and if the position of the people as subject to Turkey, Persia,
+and Russia has placed her (the church) at a decided disadvantage in
+coping with the ever constant influence and propaganda, schools, and
+missionaries of the Greek, Latin, and Protestant churches, she has not
+at all given in, for the number of Catholic Armenians amounts to only
+3 per cent of the number of orthodox Armenians, while the number of
+Protestant Armenians is only 1 per cent. [108] Considering, as I say,
+the utter helplessness of the church in combating outside influences,
+these figures indicate how closely the life of the people is identified
+with her. Perhaps her very helplessness has been a source of strength.
+
+These facts together with such little practices as I have mentioned
+(and I might also note the custom of the Armenian peasant of crossing
+himself daily at the altar of his community church before beginning his
+day of toil) [109] are sufficient to show that the church has been the
+chief means of keeping alive the currents of national life, that it is
+a national church, and that it has identified itself with the common
+life of the people. The festivals and ceremonies which constitute
+the second part of my paper thus form the vehicle of expression of
+the national sentiment, and are all connected with the church.
+
+The participation of the laity in church matters, especially in
+the election of its officials, is a chief reason for the essential
+oneness of church and people. Priests, bishops, and patriarchs,
+who constitute the three chief grades in the religious hierarchy,
+are chosen by the people. [110] The approval of higher authorities
+is necessary in most cases, but this only slightly detracts from
+the importance of the role of the people. A married priest is the
+religious head of every parish, and he is elected either by a direct
+process of voting or by a deed of presentation. The religious council
+of the diocese proceeds to examine the ability and qualifications of
+the candidate, who is ordained if his examination proves successful;
+if unsuccessful, a new candidate must be presented, for a bishop can
+not of his own initiative ordain a priest. The laity have no voice
+in the election of the celibate priesthood, which is only natural
+since the celibate priests are not in any way connected with the
+life of the community. Furthermore, they do not constitute a very
+important element, for when Ormanian wrote in 1911, there were only
+400 celibate priests as against 4,000 married priests. [111]
+
+The married priest is very closely identified with his community. He
+not only makes a regular practice of visiting the various households
+of the parish, but he is sole confessor of the people. [112] As he
+officiates at masses and church ceremonies and promotes a general
+participation in the festivals, so also no betrothal, marriage,
+baptism, or funeral can be sanctioned without his presence. He is as
+well a kind of marriage agency, employment agency, and relief agency,
+acting always of course in cooperation with the council of elders of
+his parish. A priest called at the home of an Armenian lady I know,
+and remarked casually that he was aware she had a daughter, whom he
+was very anxious to see, for there were two young men of the community
+who were very desirous to marry. So the people inform the priest of
+their need and the priest does all in his power to help them. He does
+not receive a regular compensation, being absolutely dependent upon
+the voluntary offerings of his flock and the voluntary fees received
+for official services rendered. [113] This works out sometimes to
+his advantage, but more often not, depending generally on whether
+his parish is poverty stricken or well-to-do.
+
+There are several very curious usages practiced by the married
+priest. He is recruited from all classes of society, but more often
+there is a succession from father to son. [114] The conditions
+demanded, besides parochial election, are acquaintance with
+ecclesiastical and liturgical matters, an exemplary life, and the
+consent of his wife. After his ordination he must fast for forty
+days. He then prepares himself for his first mass by a life of retreat
+in the church, restricting himself to a vegetable diet for twenty-four
+hours. [115] The wife, who enjoys a certain precedence in society,
+observes a customary abstinence in the absence of her husband. One week
+or at least three days before the celebration of the mass, he keeps
+away from home, passing the nights within the church. He may engage in
+domestic or even professional work so long as this does not interfere
+with the duties of his calling. Should his wife die, he may not marry
+again unless he lays aside his priestly robe, nor may a priest ever
+marry a widow. These practices are not dead letters, except that the
+custom of sojourning within the church for three nights before mass
+has, in Constantinople at least, been reduced to a single night.
+
+The bishops are chosen as chiefs of dioceses by the council of the
+diocese, six sevenths of whose members are laymen, the remainder
+being ecclesiastics. [116] The patriarchs, including the Katholikos,
+the supreme authority of the church whose seat is at Etchmiadzin, the
+religious center of the nation, are chosen by an electoral assembly
+of the religious heads (bishops or archbishops) and lay deputies who
+are nominated by the dioceses as a whole. [117] The eight members
+of the synod, which is an advisory body to the Katholikos, and the
+seven oldest members of the congregation at Etchmiadzin have equal
+share in voting. The electoral assembly, so constituted, chooses two
+candidates, one of whom is selected by the Czar. The Czar, after his
+selection is made, sends a deputy to meet the successful candidate,
+who is decorated and escorted with due ceremony to Etchmiadzin where he
+is officially ordained. There are only two patriarchates besides the
+see of Etchmiadzin, i.e., those of Constantinople and Jerusalem. The
+corresponding patriarchs are likewise chosen by a national assembly,
+six sevenths of whose members belong to the laity. The patriarchs
+of both Jerusalem and of Constantinople acknowledge the supremacy
+of the Katholikos of Etchmiadzin, who is thus head of the church,
+though not infallible.
+
+The site of Etchmiadzin is the old capital city, Vagharshapat, the
+ruins of which are all but washed away; and it marks the spot where
+St. Gregory in his vision saw the descent of Jesus Christ. Etchmiadzin
+means, "Descent of the Only Begotten." The particular spot is
+commemorated by the central altar of the Cathedral, which is the chief
+church of the nation. This Cathedral is situated in the center of a
+huge court bounded in the form of a large rectangle by the cells of
+the monks, the long refectory building, the library, the theological
+seminary, and the residence of the Katholikos. Outside this rectangle
+are ranged buildings and open spaces, including the garden of the
+Katholikos, the court for pilgrims, the printing establishment, and
+dwellings for various uses, all of which is bounded by a huge wall
+in the form of a still larger rectangle about 1,000 feet in length
+and 700 feet in width. [118] The chapels of the martyrs are some
+distance from the monastery, the church of St. Gaiane, commemorating
+the spot of her martyrdom, being about one fourth of a mile distant,
+while the church of St. Rhipsime, which likewise honors the spot of
+Rhipsime's martyrdom, is about three fourths of a mile distant. The
+buildings now standing can hardly be those built by the saint. [119]
+
+Etchmiadzin has been for many years a place of pilgrimage for the
+faithful. There is not only the sacred Cathedral where Jesus Christ is
+believed to have appeared; there is also the chamber of holy relics
+in the rear of the Cathedral which is perhaps the chief attraction
+and glory of the place. The most important of the relics here kept
+is a hand of St. Gregory, or rather right arm, "atch," as it is
+called, now preserved in a silver case, and which was considered at
+one time to be a necessary appanage of the patriarchal dignity. The
+poor hand of the saint has been the cause of many peregrinations in
+consequence. [120] One patriarch seized it and carried it off with him
+in order to justify his claims. Another restole it and brought it back
+to Etchmiadzin, while others have pretended possession of the holy
+"atch," in order to make good their claims. It was with this relic
+as well as with the holy chrism that consecrations were performed,
+which made possession of it a necessary condition of the patriarchal
+authority. Another much revered relic is the fragment of the ark,
+which the angel who appeared to St. Jacob gave to him as a reward for
+his perseverance in attempting so impossible a task as the climbing
+of Ararat. Still another is the head of the "holy spear" which was
+thrust into the side of Christ by the Roman soldier at Golgotha. [121]
+There are others of lesser importance, some of which are believed to
+possess the power of effecting cures.
+
+Such in brief are the broader and more important facts relating to the
+church, which has thus come to sanction the festivals and ceremonies
+that make up the second part of this thesis. These, as I have said,
+naturally divide themselves into three groups, first those that
+have been taken over bodily from the past; second, new festivals and
+ceremonies created by the church; and third the ceremonies of common
+life with which the church has identified itself. In the first group
+are included the midsummer festival of Vartavar, the spring festival,
+the festival in commemoration of the dead, Fortune-Telling Day, and
+the festival of Vartan's Day. All except the last have their origin
+in pagan festivals; each one has been taken over by the church and
+made its own.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PAGAN FOLK FESTIVALS
+
+
+SECTION 1. VARTAVAR AND THE FESTIVAL OF MIHR
+
+Vartavar, meaning "flaming of the rose," was celebrated in pagan
+times in honor of Anahit, goddess of chastity, at midsummer. The
+central act of the festival was the offering of a dove and a rose to
+her golden image. With the introduction of Christianity the temple
+and the image were destroyed, and it may be noted that upon the site
+of the Temple of Anahit in Vagharshapat was built the Cathedral of
+Etchmiadzin. This would lead to the strange conclusion that in the
+vision of St. Gregory, Jesus Christ descended upon a pagan temple. The
+fact seems to be that this marvelous vision was seen by a pious monk
+who published a life of St. Gregory some two or three centuries after
+the Illuminator's death. [122] But the festival became the "Festival
+of the Transfiguration of Christ," although the name Vartavar still
+remains, and doves are still set flying. [123]
+
+The festival is celebrated differently in various places. Upon the
+mountains of Armenia every family brings a sheep for sacrifice, adorned
+with colored papers and pigments, and as the sheep approach the shrine,
+lighted candles are fixed upon their horns. [124] Sheaves of grain,
+fruit, flowers, and doves are also brought as sacrifices, while dust
+from beside the altar is carried home to children as a talisman to
+help them to learn their A B C's. In the absence of a church on the
+mountainside, which is usually the case, a large white tent with
+crosses is put up beside some sacred spring, with which the country
+abounds. The spring is necessary, for on this day the people amuse
+themselves by throwing water upon each other. For this reason the day
+is often called Armenian Water Day. After the doves are set flying,
+the priest sprinkles the people, and they in turn sprinkle water over
+each other. This practice probably dates to the legend of the deluge,
+the Universal Baptism with which God cleansed His sinful earth. The
+dove and the baptism are also suggestive of the baptism of Jesus by
+John in the waters of Jordan. This part of the festival is probably
+an addition to the pagan rite, for the sprinkling of the water is
+symbolic of love and forgiveness; it is carried on with much laughing
+and merry-making. The festival includes also a kind of fair, for the
+people have to show what progress they have made during the year in
+art and the various handicrafts. Races, competitions, and games are
+held, and the victors are crowned with wreaths of roses, so that even
+the rose continues to have an important place in the festivities as
+it had in pagan days. The sprinkling of water, the games, the races,
+show how happy a time the people must have on this day; the exhibition
+of the year's accomplishment in handicraft and art points out the more
+serious side; while the essential religious symbolism is very clearly
+emphasized. What may also be noted is that there is entertainment for
+all, old and young, serious and frivolous. The pious-minded may sit
+on the mountainside contemplating the religious aspect of it all;
+the gay and light-hearted may sprinkle water over each other; the
+young and strong may run races and play games; men and women of a
+practical turn of mind may visit the fair and note the progress made
+during the year; and children may roll about on the mountainsides or
+gather roses, for these are in full bloom at this time.
+
+The pagan spring festival in honor of Mihr, the god of fire, was taken
+over by the church to commemorate the bringing of the Babe Jesus to
+the temple, where Mary sacrificed two doves according to the custom
+of purification. [125] The ancient rite consisted of kindling fires
+in the open market places in honor of the god Mihr, and of lighting
+a lantern from one of the newly kindled fires, which was kept burning
+in the temple throughout the year. As now celebrated, on February 26,
+every young man who has been married within the year brings a load
+of aromatic shrubs, making a huge pile of them in the yard of the
+church. A religious service is held in the open air at evening-time,
+after which the priest sets fire to the pile. All the villagers, men,
+women, and children, dance about the fire, while boys and young men
+show their agility and courage by leaping over it. When the flames
+die down, each person carries home a glowing brand and places it on
+the hearthstone for good luck.
+
+The description of the festival by Abeghian shows how a general
+celebration of this kind varies in particulars from place to
+place. [126] On the afternoon of the 13th of February, [127] which
+is the day before the church festival of the purification, a pile of
+wood consisting usually of thorn-wood, cane, and straw is gathered
+together in the churchyard. The entire community comes together in
+the church on the night of the same day, each person provided with
+a candle. After the vespers all stand about the pile of shrub and
+wood, the newly married during the year making the first row. The
+candles are lighted from the church light, and after the priest has
+blessed the pile, it is set ablaze from all sides, after which the
+candles are put out. As soon as the fire has died down, the candles
+are relighted from the glowing embers which are regarded as sacred,
+and carried home where they are used to light a pile of shrub and wood
+that has been gathered on the roof of the house. The young people jump
+over the fire while the young women and married women march around
+it saying, "May it not itch me, and may I not receive any scabs,"
+taking care just to singe the border of their dresses. The ashes,
+as well as the half-burned wood-stuffs are preserved, or scattered
+in the four corners of the barn, over the fields or in the garden,
+for the ashes and flames of the firebrands are believed to protect
+people and cattle from sickness and the fruit trees from worms and
+caterpillars. In the homes of the newly married the festival is
+celebrated with music and dance, the young couples especially making
+it a point to dance about the sacred flames, while in some places
+special food is prepared in honor of the occasion.
+
+Various prophesies are made during the festival, for example, if the
+flame and smoke blows to the east, it is a sign of a good harvest
+for the coming year, if toward the west, a bad growth is expected.
+
+In recent years the religious authorities at Etchmiadzin printed the
+following prohibition in the church calendar: "It is forbidden to run
+about the fire." But the festival is celebrated nevertheless. [128]
+That it originates in the pagan festival held in honor of Mihr there
+is little doubt, for the month of February corresponds to the ancient
+Armenian month Mehakan, which, translated into modern Armenian,
+Mihragan, means belonging to Mihr, or more loosely, the Festival
+of Mihr.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. THE DAY OF THE DEAD AND VARTAN'S DAY
+
+The festival in commemoration of the dead is celebrated on the first
+day after Easter, and may be regarded as a reaction against the
+lenten fasts. Families of Armenians, loaded with picnic baskets,
+packages of food, and bottles of wine, flock to their cemeteries
+in great numbers. Priests are paid small fees for standing over
+the graves of the dead to chant prayers for the salvation of the
+departed souls. Over the graves of the recently dead stand the
+bereaved relatives of the deceased, lamenting loudly and bewailing
+a fate which they know must some day be their own. A more maudlin
+spectacle could not be imagined. Here and there are seated groups
+of families eating and drinking and laughing all the more heartily
+for the enforced abstinence of the preceding weeks; while standing
+beside this grave or that is a priest in black robe and high hat,
+chanting a prayer for the dead, and incidentally earning his daily
+bread. Eating seems to be the chief amusement; even the mourners eat
+after they have faithfully mourned, and the priests too come in for
+their shares after all possible fees have been earned. Altogether it
+is a post-lenten festival in the full meaning of the term, and much
+in contrast to the wholesome enjoyment and the light-hearted gaiety so
+characteristic of Vartavar. It has been witnessed in Constantinople by
+Armenians I know, who have given accounts to me. Whether or not it is
+carried out in this manner in the villages and rural districts I am not
+aware, but I should be very much surprised to learn that it was, for I
+should certainly regard the festival in this form as a product of the
+artificiality of city life. In the absence of wholesome amusements and
+of the community solidarity characteristic of the Armenian village,
+contact with city-bred folk would inevitably result in a shift of
+standards of judgment and valuation, together with a break-up in
+old habits of thought and life; and as the people have no common
+play-ground, so to speak, except the poor denuded cemetery allotted
+them by the Turkish government, one can well excuse the ugliness of
+the spectacle. The Armenian has Vartavar, a real festival, and need
+not look with shame upon this festival in commemoration of the dead.
+
+This same offering of sacrifice for the dead is carried on in a
+variety of ways. In Armenian villages the family of the deceased
+prepares a lamb or a kid with rice, and on the day of the funeral
+pieces of it are given to the attendants; given, as they say, and
+taken, in sacrifice for the dead. The practice in Constantinople is
+somewhat different, although the idea is exactly the same. Forty days
+after the death of an individual, or perhaps on the anniversary of
+the death, the bereaved family prepares a lamb or a kid with rice,
+which is distributed to the people in small pots, and given, as they
+say, in sacrifice for the dead. The Greek custom in this respect is
+most absurd. At the head of the casket, which is left open, two men
+march in the funeral procession carrying a wide tray filled with boiled
+wheat and sugar, and trailing a piece of black crape. After the burial
+this is distributed to the mourners in handfuls, again in sacrifice
+for the dead. Libations set aside and poured out in Roman days are
+illustrative of the same thing. That these practices are not Christian
+but distinct survivals of pagan festivals and customs is very clear.
+
+The above conclusions, namely, first that the festival as I
+described it is an aberration of city life, and second, that although
+identified with the church it is distinctly pagan in character, are
+borne out by Abeghian, whose material, as an Armenian who for many
+years lived in the little Armenian village of Astapat, is distinctly
+first-hand. [129] Worship of the deceased, he says, begins immediately
+after death. Each departed soul, and especially those of elderly
+people, requires particular honor on the first day after death, and
+during the ensuing year. It is for this reason a great misfortune for
+an Armenian peasant not to have a child. A still greater misfortune,
+however, it is to die in a strange land where there are none to care
+for the departed soul. That a curious evolution has taken place in
+these requirements is very clear. In the beginning, satisfactions
+of a material kind were required, something to eat and to drink, and
+accordingly the custom arose of placing bread upon the heart of the
+dead, or sanctified bread in the cavity of the mouth and incense in
+the nostrils. Then there arose the idea of facilitating the journey
+of the departed into the beyond, and of making the future life
+of the soul a happier one. For example, Armenians generally bathe
+the bodies of their dead in blessed water, and wash the clothes of
+the deceased on the day following burial for the purification of
+the soul so that it may arrive spotless at its destination. Since
+the soul has been cleansed of all sin through the symbolic washing
+of the body and clothes, no more covering is required for the body
+than a large white cloth. No other color is permissible. Should the
+deceased be more than ten years of age, candles or oil lamps are
+burned during eight days over the spot where the body was bathed
+in order to lighten the way of the soul into the beyond. According
+to old beliefs, the destination of the departed soul is a place of
+darkness, and hence two candles are placed in the hands of the dead
+immediately after the bath in order that he may recognize his friends
+and relatives in the world beyond. At frequent intervals during the
+first year, food and drink are brought to the cemetery, and placed
+upon the grave. There is weeping, eating, and drinking at these times,
+and what food is left over is always placed over the grave.
+
+The souls of the righteous are thought of as luminous, the wicked as
+black. Accordingly the blessed are called "spirits of light." [130]
+In order to possess a bright soul one must have performed good works,
+of which giving alms to the poor is considered the most important. Such
+spirits are also called "generous," "charitable." It is a current
+belief that the blackened souls become brighter through the good works
+of descendants, as well as through their prayers. Offspring are thus
+especially desirable, and the old Armenian liturgy, the Maschtotz
+prepared by St. Mesrob, the inventor of the Armenian alphabet in
+the fifth century, contains innumerable prayers for the dead. [131]
+The prayers are short and their power is relative to the frequency
+of repetition rather than to the length. Some sort of short prayer
+is repeated with every thought of the dead, as for example, "May God
+have mercy upon his soul"; "May his soul become lightened"; or only
+"The illuminated soul."
+
+Several days of the year are set apart for particular remembrance
+of the dead. [132] At these times the departed spirits are supposed
+to come down from heaven and to roam about the vicinity of their
+graves or in the homes of their relatives. On the eve of these
+days it is necessary to do honor to their memory with incense and
+candles, which are regarded as offerings. The odor of the incense
+is especially pleasant to spirits, for the incense-tree also blooms
+in paradise. [133] Saturday night is very commonly devoted to such
+intercession and worship. Incense is burned upon the hearth while
+prayers are repeated, or a flame is ignited upon a plate which is
+carried into all the corners of the house, or barn, or wherever it
+is believed the departed spirit may be wandering. In some places it
+is customary to maintain the "light of the dead" throughout the night
+in order that the spirits may enter the house. If they find the house
+dark in looking through the roof window, they make away, cursing. Water
+is not drunk in the dark during these nights, for it is believed that
+to do so would be to take it away from the thirsty spirits of the dead.
+
+On the Day of the Dead the spirits are especially honored, for they
+love most to wander in the neighborhood of their graves. People
+actually feel themselves to be among the souls of the dead on this
+celebration day. The latter are very happy to be thought of, and
+are especially glad to have their graves blessed by the priests. But
+to please them most one must bring wood and incense and leave it to
+be burned over their graves. Three days the spirits remain upon the
+earth, after which they return to heaven, their visit having been duly
+honored. If they come to find themselves forgotten, they curse their
+relatives and fly away in despair. Occasionally they come down to be of
+service; especially is this true of the dead father and his living son,
+for the former is especially remembered, and his grave is regarded
+as holy. Armenians swear by the graves, or by the spirits of their
+fathers, and call upon them for help in time of especial need. [134]
+
+Tavernier described the same festival in his Voyages and noticed that
+it was considered the greatest infamy to eat with a "Mordischou,"
+the person who washed the dead. [135] No single festival and group of
+relevant beliefs is more instructive in showing how much of Armenian
+folk-belief and custom is the survival of paganism.
+
+There is yet another festival of this group, which, however, is not to
+be traced to paganism, and it would be a mistake to suppose that the
+church is connected with it in the same way and to the same extent
+as it is with the first three festivals considered. The festival is
+called Vartan's Day, and although the church sanctions the festival
+and sets apart a day for the celebration, it comes about as near being
+apart from the church as any single festival. Vartan was the general
+of the Armenian army defeated at the battle of Avarair, spoken of in
+Part One, by the Persian fire-worshippers who endeavored to impose
+their religion upon the Armenians at a time when part of Armenia
+was under the domination of Persia, and the remainder tributary to
+Rome. But though defeated in battle, the moral victory, as people
+now use the term, was Armenian, for the battle proved the utter
+failure of the Persians to convert the Armenian people to their
+religion. [136] Vartan saved the nation for Gregorian Christianity,
+and it is significant that the people look upon Vartan as saviour of
+the nation rather than as saviour of their religion, showing how the
+religion was and still is identified with the nation.
+
+It is in his honor that the people hold a festival on the anniversary
+day of the battle of Avarair. School children sing songs and
+wreath Vartan's picture with red flowers. The belief is that this
+peculiar kind of red flower sprang up from the blood of the Christian
+army. Recitations and national patriotic plays are given, and as the
+children participate in singing songs, reciting pieces, and rendering
+plays, the older people participate in attending them. [137]
+
+Besides the belief of the red flower there are numerous other beliefs
+hallowed by the day. Nightingales that fly over the battlefield are
+supposed to sing "Vartan, Vartan," and there is a species of antelope
+with a pouch of fragrant musk under its throat which is said to have
+acquired its fragrance by browsing on herbage wet with the blood of
+Armenian heroes. [138]
+
+Altogether it is the kind of festival to give expression to the
+sentiment I have spoken of as love for the country, for its mountains,
+rivers, and valleys, and for its ideals of freedom, independence,
+and strength. In the presence of the state the festival probably
+would be utilized to foster and give expression to the sentiment of
+loyalty to the state. There would be specially chosen speakers to talk
+of patriotism, waving of banners, and carefully designed methods of
+instilling hatred for a real or supposed enemy, much as French school
+children have been taught to hate Englishmen. But in the absence of
+the state, the sentiment expressed must be a purer sentiment, loftier
+and freer, and one can not but regret that Vartan's Day and similar
+festivals have been suppressed by the Turkish government. And yet,
+one could not reasonably expect otherwise.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 3. FORTUNE-TELLING DAY
+
+Most charming and most picturesque of festivals is that participated
+in by the romantic Armenian maidens on the early dawn of Ascension
+Day. [139] On the eve of the same day the young girls who wish their
+fortunes told, decorate a large bowl with specially selected flowers,
+after which each girl casts a token, a ring, a brooch, a thimble,
+into the bowl. Flowers of several kinds are then put in, and the
+bowl is filled with water drawn from seven springs. Then they cover
+it with an embroidered cloth and take it by night to the priest who
+says a prayer over it. The most carefully and daintily prepared bowl
+is then placed out in the moonlight, open to the stars where it is
+left until dawn. At early daybreak of the next morning, the maidens,
+furnished with provisions for the entire day, go out of the village
+carrying their bowl to the side of a spring, the foot of a mountain,
+or into an open field, gathering on the way various kinds of flowers
+with which they deck themselves. Having arrived at their place of
+festival, they play games, dance, and sing, after which they take
+a beautiful little girl, too young to tell where the sun rises,
+who has been previously chosen and gaily dressed for the occasion,
+to draw the various articles out of the bowl. The face of the child
+is covered with a richly wrought veil that she may not see what is
+in the bowl, and she then proceeds to withdraw the articles which
+she holds in her hand one at a time. While this is done some one of
+the party recites a charm song, and the owner of each token takes
+the song which accompanies it as her fortune. There are thousands
+of these charm songs, most of which have been written especially for
+the festival, of which I shall give but a few.
+
+
+                      1.
+
+        Snowless hang the clouds to-night,
+        Through the darkness comes a light;
+            On this lonely pillow now,
+        Never more shall sleep alight.
+
+                      2.
+
+        Like a star whose brightness grows
+        On the earth my beauty shows;
+            Thou shalt long for yet, and seek
+        My dark eyes and arching brows.
+
+                      3.
+
+        Long and lone this night to me
+        Passing slow and wearily;
+            Passing full of sighs and tears--
+        Love, what doth it bring to thee?
+
+                      4.
+
+        Eden's smile my vineyard wore,
+        Flowers bloomed, a goodly store;
+            Handsome youth and ugly maid--
+        This was never seen before! [140]
+
+
+Thus each one carries its bit of prophesy, daintily and prettily
+expressed, which when sung at the foot of some mountain, in the bright
+eastern sunlight of the morning, while a little child is holding
+tokens beside a bowl surrounded by the group of beflowered maidens,
+makes as complete and charming a picture as one could well imagine.
+
+Many curious beliefs, superstitions, customs, and legends are
+directly related to Ascension Day. It is believed, for example,
+that on the eve of this day the water of the springs, brooks,
+and rivers lies peacefully motionless for a single moment during
+the night. At the same moment heaven and earth, mountain and stone,
+trees and flowers beckon and congratulate one another. First heaven
+congratulates and kisses the earth, then one star beckons to another,
+one flower to another, and so forth until all of nature's objects
+have expressed their mutual good feeling. Even plants and "soulless"
+objects receive the gift of speech and share their secrets one with
+the other at this time. He who hides himself in a stone crevice of the
+mountainside may listen to the conversation of stones and flowers,
+and understand what they tell each other. They tell on this night
+what sort of sicknesses they and the springs will heal, and many
+people endeavor to attend at this moment, but only a few succeed. [141]
+
+At midnight the waters are believed to have the power of healing, and
+people bathe themselves in the streams. As the children are not to be
+troubled during the night, water is warmed for them the next morning,
+bits of grass are thrown in and the children are bathed. During the
+magic moment the door of the cavern of "Maher," the revered hero god
+who dwells upon earth, is opened: and one may enter to see him, his
+steed, and the "wheel of the starred heavens" or the wheel of fate. In
+one of the national epics (David of Sassun) Maher is represented
+as the strongest of the heroes, and is supposed to dwell in a rocky
+cave in the vicinity of Van [142] (probably the rock of Van). In this
+cave all of the world's riches are heaped up, and the "wheel of the
+world," the wheel of fate which constantly turns assigning to people
+their destinies, stands there. Maher looks continually at the wheel
+and if it should stand still, he comes out of his cavern to ravage
+the world. The door of the cave is made of stone and covered with
+cuneiform inscriptions. It is locked during the entire year except
+for the night of the ascension of Christ, when it is opened during
+the single magic moment. Whosoever perceives this moment may step
+into the cave and take as much gold as he pleases. The idea of the
+"wheel of fortune" is considerably extant, although it is not always
+understood as separated from heaven and connected with Maher. [143]
+That the idea of fate or of fortune is generally associated with the
+day, not only by romantic maidens, but by the people, is very evident.
+
+The flowing waters are believed to change into gold during the silent
+minute, and if one places an object in the water and wishes at the
+same time that it become gold, the object turns to gold. Accordingly
+the young men and women go to the springs and rivers in order to
+draw water, trusting their fates that they may select the happy
+moment. Superstitions and magic are not lacking, for while one member
+of a party seats himself upon a pair of fire-tongs in the fashion
+of a rider, another performs likewise upon a long-handled spit. The
+iron tools are also regarded as a necessary protection against the
+calls that one hears behind after the water has been drawn, for if one
+should look back perchance, he would surely fall under the influence
+of the evil spirits. The oldest of the party carries a gourd flask
+full of wheat and barley, which is poured into the stream towards
+midnight with the words "I give you wheat and barley; you give me
+everything that is good." Thereupon he fills the gourd flask with
+water, and the party hurries homeward to discover the gold. [144]
+
+The fortune-telling festival is given by Abeghian as he observed it in
+his home village, and I shall give a free translation of his account
+at this point because of a few interesting variations. In Astapet,
+the festival is called the "Festival of the Mother of Flowers." On the
+day before Ascension Day the girls and young women of the village
+divide themselves into two groups, one to gather special sorts
+of flowers from the mountainside, while the other goes to "steal"
+water from seven springs, or seven rivers. The "thieves" must not
+see each other, nor must the people of the village know aught of what
+is happening. Having filled their vessels with water, each throws a
+stone into the spring and then they turn back, taking care neither
+to look about, to set down their vessels, nor to talk. They imagine
+that the mountains, the valleys, trees, and meadows call out behind
+them and if they should turn about they would be turned to stone. [145]
+
+At night of the same day the "water thieves" and flower gatherers meet
+together in a garden to prepare the "Havgir" or magic bowl in which
+is poured the water from the seven springs, and in which seven stones
+from the seven sources, together with leaves of the gathered flowers
+are dropped. Each one who wishes her fortune told now throws in a charm
+token, such as mentioned before. Those who are not present send their
+tokens in order to have them thrown into the "Havgir" by others. The
+bowl is then adorned with flowers, after which the "Vicak" meaning
+destiny or fate, is prepared. This consists of two pieces of wood tied
+together in the form of a cross, which is dressed and adorned with
+jewels and pearls to make it appear as a newly-married doll-bride. The
+"Vicak" is fastened to the "Havgir," and both are placed under the
+stars, in order that these who are the real destinies, may work the
+proper magic upon the charm tokens. [146] A few girls guard it during
+the whole night against the young men who try to steal it.
+
+Early the next morning the maidens gather together in the garden
+laden with food baskets and prepared to make a day of it. The "Havgir"
+and strangely fashioned "Vicak" are carried to a nearby spring, the
+young girls decking themselves with flowers as they go. The spring
+is decorated about with flowers, green leaves, and branches, and the
+"Havgir" is placed in the middle, and then after they have prepared
+everything and eaten, the oldest among them takes the "Vicak," kisses
+it, gives it to another, who does likewise, and so it passes from
+hand to hand. Finally a seven-year-old girl receives it. She sets
+herself in the middle of the group and holds the "Vicak" while the
+"Havgir" stands before her. The little girl is called "bride," is the
+interpreter of the "Vicak" and is specially selected and dressed for
+the occasion. When she has received the "Vicak" a red veil is passed
+over both, and all is ready for the central event of the festival. A
+charm song is sung by the group, and after each stanza the "bride"
+draws a token from the vessel. The preceding verse reveals the fate
+of the one to whom the token belongs. [147]
+
+The fortune-telling festival of Ascension morning stands quite
+alone. Bodeful of the future and suggestive of the past, it can
+not but have a serious tenor, for there are maidens whose lovers
+have not been born, as there are also sadder ones. Perhaps they do
+not take their verses very seriously. Whether they do or not there
+is always the charm of sunrise colors, and the out-of-doors that
+makes it as beautiful as it is romantic. The best of the future,
+their brightest hope, the best of the present, warmth of sunshine
+and color, and the best of the past, their golden dreams of youth,
+are brought together on this day and given a common expression in a
+way that must charm them as it charms the observer. Festivals to be
+perfect festivals must be out-of-doors and the day must be bright.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+CHRISTIAN FOLK FESTIVALS
+
+
+The second group of festivals comprises those newly created by the
+church, such as the Blessing of the Grapes, New Year, Easter, and
+Christmas. I wish also to include in this group a few of the peculiarly
+characteristic church ceremonies which also have a distinct festival
+value for the people, i.e., the ceremony of the "Washing of Feet"
+on Maundy Thursday, "Khatchanguist" or the "Blessing of Water," the
+consecration of the Katholikos, and the manufacture of the "holy oil."
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 1. CHRISTMAS, EASTER, AND NEW YEAR
+
+The service of the church on any one of the festival days is
+exclusively connected with the divine mystery, so called. These include
+the Assumption, or Immaculate Conception, celebrated by the people
+in the festival "the Blessing of the Grapes"; the miraculous birth,
+which corresponds to the Christmas festival; the Transfiguration,
+or the folk-festival Vartavar; the Redemption, to which the Easter
+festival corresponds; and the Resurrection, including Ascension or
+Fortune-Telling Day. There are other festivals celebrated by the
+church, such as the festival of the Holy Cross, and of the Holy
+Church, which I omit because there is not a corresponding social
+expression. Grand mass is said at the church, and the particular
+passages of scripture that have a direct bearing on the occasion
+are read. The Armenian calendar is curious in that many of the
+festivals occupy a succession of days; there are, for example,
+39 days for the Resurrection, 3 days for the Transfiguration, 10
+days for the Ascension, etc., which make up a grand total of 136
+days in the year to which festivals are assigned. As there are 160
+days devoted to abstinence, 117 of which are liturgical abstinence,
+that is, days of penitence mentioned in the liturgy, there are left
+only 112 days for the commemoration of saints, which have necessarily
+to be grouped together, since there are more than 112 saints. [148]
+Because, therefore, of the continuity of festival days, one could not
+expect any one of the festivals to have any social value from the
+standpoint of the church service. But there is never any conflict
+between the services of the church and the festivities without,
+which are thus sanctioned by the church and in many cases directed
+and carried out by church officials. It has been noticed that the
+blessing of the priest was secured for the magic bowl, before it was
+placed underneath the stars on the eve of Ascension Day.
+
+The festival of the Virgin Mary, or the "Blessing of the Grapes,"
+is more actively participated in by the church. It may be designed
+to keep the people from eating green grapes, but more probably was
+intended to give a social expression to an otherwise dull and very
+monotonous church ceremony. The people are all expected to maintain
+a strict abstinence from eating grapes until the middle of August,
+the day set apart for the festival. The grapes are then gathered
+in great quantities, some of which are carried to the church and
+placed on a large tray, which is set at the foot of the altar. After
+the ceremony of the church, the priest turns to the tray of grapes
+before him, which he blesses with his cross. The tray is then taken
+to the door of the church, where each member of the congregation is
+given a bunch as he passes out. The fast is thus broken with the
+taste of "blessed grapes," and there is no end of grape eating on
+that day. During the remainder of the day every woman named Mary,
+or named with a possible attribute of the Virgin Mary, as "Kudsa,"
+meaning "saintly," or "Dirouhi," meaning "Mother of the Lord,"
+keeps open house for the friends who drop in to eat grapes and to
+congratulate her. In rural places or villages where vineyards are
+abundant, social groups may be seen eating grapes from the vines
+while talking or playing as they are inclined. Grapes ripen earlier
+in some parts of Armenia than in others, and where this is true the
+festival is merged with the festival of Vartavar. [149]
+
+For the festival of New Year's Eve no religious cooperation whatever
+is necessary; it comes as near to being distinct from the church as
+any of the Armenian festivals. The preparation consists largely in
+making or purchasing gifts for the various members of the family,
+in cracking bowls of nuts and getting all kinds of dried fruits
+ready. Armenian and Greek New Year's Eve fall on the same night,
+and in Constantinople there is much agitation and animation in the
+streets. Singing and music fill the air, and as soon as dusk falls,
+groups of boys, some carrying small lanterns, others provided with
+tom-toms or hand-organs, begin the circuit of the streets. Thus they
+go from house to house singing the New Year's song and playing their
+hand-organs, receiving pennies as they go. After the boys have passed
+along, the porters, watchmen, and firemen make a noisy procession down
+the streets, they too playing hand-organs and stopping at one house
+after another where they receive a drink, some sweets and nuts, and
+most important of all, a tip. As midnight approaches, the excitement
+increases; the pounding of the tom-toms becomes unbearable, all the
+organs of the neighborhood are making music, and there is such a
+noise of singing, shouting, and laughing as can be compared only to
+a night of political election. Inside the homes of the better-to-do,
+the children are put to bed for a time while the enormous New Year's
+table is set. Besides several specially prepared New Year's dishes,
+every home must be provided with a dish of every kind of fruit, dried
+or fresh. Small candles are stuck around the plates, and the presents
+are heaped up on a side table. At midnight the candles are all lit,
+and the family ranges itself around the table while the eldest, usually
+the grandmother, blesses all and prays. After the prayer she wishes
+to all the best things for the coming year, for the young ladies good
+husbands, for the young men prosperity and good wives, happiness for
+the little children, and comfort and health for the older ones. These
+wishes having been given, all kiss the hands of the older members of
+the family, after which the children kiss each others' hands. The
+presents are exchanged; fruits, candies, and nuts are partaken of,
+and the fun goes on until dawn. [150] In the interior of Armenia,
+two elders of the church go from door to door of the more fortunate
+ones on the day before New Year, carrying bags which they fill with
+the offerings received at every house. These are carefully parceled
+out and at dusk are left at the doors of poor families who would
+otherwise have no New Year's cheer.
+
+The church makes up amply in the Easter festival for any lack of
+participation at New Year. Forty-eight days of rigid lenten abstinence,
+during which time no meat is eaten, precede the festivities of Easter
+Day. The first two or three days of the Holy Week are given over to
+housecleaning, which however must be finished by Thursday in order
+that the people may attend the ceremonies at church which continue
+until Easter Day. On Thursday afternoon "the Washing of the Feet,"
+to be described later, commences, and the service continues until past
+midnight. On Saturday all go to the bath, which is made an essential
+part of the week's celebrations, and on the afternoon of the same day
+the real Easter service, called the Lighting of the Lights, begins. The
+church is first illuminated on Easter Eve, for on the three preceding
+days of mourning and sorrow the altar shrine is kept closed and no
+candles are lit. Even the congregation holds lighted wax candles while
+the triumphal songs are chanted by the robed choir of little boys.
+
+At the evening meal of the day before Easter the lenten fast is partly
+broken by eating fish and boiled eggs, but no meat. [151] The denial
+of the flesh recommences, however, at bedtime, for not a morsel is
+eaten until Easter midday. Early dawn sees the people putting on their
+new clothes, especially new shoes which are considered a necessity
+on this day, and all, newly attired, go to church where communion is
+celebrated. The church is usually filled with flowers and its most
+brilliant ornaments are displayed, the service ending at midday in time
+for the usual feast of stuffed roast lamb, the customary red eggs, and
+the egg bread made only at Easter time. In the afternoon the men visit
+from house to house and something dainty is always served, a cocktail
+or a cup of coffee with sweets like Turkish delight or bonbons. The
+formula repeated by the guest upon entering a house is always the same;
+"Christ is risen from the dead," he exclaims, and is answered by the
+host with the usual formula, "Blessed is the resurrection of Christ."
+
+Perhaps the boys enjoy Easter most of all. Provided with red Easter
+eggs, they collect in groups, whereupon there follows a most vivacious
+competition to win each other's eggs by clashing them together. The
+champion egg is used until it is broken, when a new champion is quickly
+brought forth. This process continues as long as there are two or
+more unbroken eggs, the game being won when all of the broken eggs are
+in the possession of the boy who holds the champion egg. Picnic day,
+or the "Day of the Dead," follows Easter Day, as I have described it,
+and it is singularly strange that a "day of resurrection" should be
+followed by a "day of the dead," when prayers are said and offerings
+given in sacrifice for the departed. But people are not mindful of
+such little incongruities; they are simple and carry out the festival
+celebrated by their fathers, much as their fathers celebrated it.
+
+The week before Christmas is likewise devoted to a thorough
+housecleaning by the Armenian housewife, and on the day before,
+special dishes are prepared for the next day's feast. Again there
+is the customary bath which is observed by all the members of the
+household. On Christmas Eve the abstinence of the preceding days
+is partly broken, usually with fried fish, lettuce, and boiled
+spinach. Boiled spinach is the rule because it is believed that this
+dish made up the supper of the Virgin Mary on the eve of Christ's
+birth. At church special vespers are sung and there is much emphasis
+laid upon special selections from the prophets which are also sung. An
+hour before dawn the sexton alone, or with a group of choir boys,
+goes from door to door singing what is called "the good tidings." It
+is the signal for the faithful to awake, don their best clothes and go
+to church again without eating breakfast. The holy bread and wine are
+not to be profaned by the people having eaten a breakfast of ordinary
+food, with the consequence that not a few faint during the service,
+even as at Easter time. But the ceremony is finished by half past ten,
+after which the women go home to prepare the midday feast while the
+men visit the homes of their friends. The never-failing formula of
+the guest upon entering the house of a friend is, "Christ is born and
+manifested to-day," which is responded to by the host with "Blessed is
+the manifestation of Christ." Each visit lasts about fifteen minutes
+and sweets and coffee are served. At midday the Christmas feast is
+partaken of, all make merry around the table, and in the afternoon
+more calls are paid and received. The festivities are observed for
+three days, the third being ladies' day, which is devoted by the
+ladies to giving and receiving visits. They offer their salutations
+and good wishes to each other, eating dainties even as the men. Shops
+and business places of Armenians are usually kept closed for three
+days. [152]
+
+There is thus considerable similarity between Easter and the Christmas
+festivities, which is probably due to more or less sameness in the
+church ceremonies. These ceremonies, always well attended, are made
+attractive to the people by beautiful displays of flowers, vested choir
+boys, the charm of whose singing can only be understood by those who
+have heard them; also by special singing, not by the congregation,
+but by those who can sing, and with such enticing little additions
+as the Lighting of Lights. The services are thus as much and as
+real a part of the day's rejoicings as the feasts and social visits,
+and if they are designed consciously or unconsciously to give active
+expression to the sentiment of loyalty to the church one must admit
+that the expression is a perfectly free and natural one. Abstinences
+do not make the festivities attractive, to be sure, and there are
+more unfortunate communities who can not afford so lavish a display
+as others; but flowers need only to be picked from the fields, and
+boys there are always, even in the poorest churches. The holiday
+rejoicing has somewhat more of the serious blend which is to be
+contrasted with the more perfect gaiety of New Year's Day, and is
+probably due to the weightiness of its religious significance of which
+one is constantly reminded, not only by the services at the church
+but also by the salutations of visitors and the necessary replies,
+always the same. But even the gaiety of New Year is not to be compared
+with the perfect lightness and freedom of merriment that characterize
+some aspects of Vartavar, nor do any of the Christian folk festivals
+have the completeness of Vartavar.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. SPECIAL CHURCH CEREMONIES
+
+Together with this second group of festivals including as they do
+Christmas, Easter, New Year, and the Blessing of the Grapes, I wish
+to include a short series of church ceremonies all of which have a
+very distinct festival value, beside their value in being singularly
+characteristic of the Armenian church. They are distinctly different
+from the festivals of the preceding section, in that the festivities
+are incidental to a ceremony peculiar to the Armenian church. The
+"Washing of Feet," the "Blessing of the Water," the consecration
+of the Katholikos, and the manufacture of the holy oil, are those I
+desire to describe.
+
+The "Washing of Feet" occurs on Maundy Thursday, three days before
+Easter. [153] This day is the first of three successive days of
+mourning spoken of, during which the altar is closed, and no lights
+are lit. After the mass the bishop puts away his brocaded robes,
+and kneeling in imitation of Christ washing the feet of His disciples
+on the night of the betrayal, he washes the feet of the priests and
+choristers, of whom there are usually eleven. Christ washed the feet
+of twelve, but one of them was unworthy. The service then continues
+until midnight, and while the ceremony is in progress, the lights are
+put out one by one, to remain out until the "Lighting of the Lights"
+on Easter eve. If the church is a parish church in which a priest
+officiates, a number of little boys are ranged in order for the
+"Washing of Feet," which in this case is performed by the priest,
+who anoints the soles of their feet with oil after he has washed
+them. Each boy is given a walnut shell and before he moves from his
+place he carefully scrapes some of the oil into his shell, and carries
+it home to place in the butter. If he does this it is believed that
+the supply of butter will not fail throughout the year.
+
+This same service was observed by a writer in the Survey, in a church
+on East 27th Street, New York, rented by a company of Armenian folk
+residing in that city. [154] The same symbolic "Washing of Feet" was
+carried out on the evening of Maundy Thursday in much the same fashion
+as it is carried out in the home-land. The symbolism, the pageantry,
+the color of oriental Armenian worship, the silver-mounted Bible on
+the altar in the center, the rising steps, the crosses, the lighted
+candles, and the incense were all there. A white-robed choir with green
+velvet copes filed in, singing long chants. The choir was followed
+by two priests, and the priests by the bishop with his mitre, robe
+of crimson and gold, and his ivory cross held in the right hand with
+a kerchief of crimson silk. A shining crozier held in his left hand
+marked his office as shepherd of the flock; a large jewel locket and
+cross hung from his breast and was probably the gift of the Czar. The
+choir chant that continues all the while was described as an intricate,
+rhythmless tune, now passionate, now wailing and altogether "oriental,"
+accompanied by a few older folk here and there who were humming in
+unison with the choir and the leader, who was beating time. Beside
+the humming the congregation took no part in the service except that
+it stood up for the psalm and prayer. Suddenly a sound to the right
+brought the observer's attention to an old woman lying prostrate
+in the aisle. No one helped her, no one even seemed to notice her,
+but presently she rose to a kneeling posture and lifted her eyes in
+prayer to the altar. Again she prostrated herself, and again rose to
+lift her eyes to the altar, which performance was repeated a third
+time before the old woman took her seat. "Der Voghormia" meaning
+"Lord have mercy upon us," was repeated ten times by the interceding
+bishop in a voice loud and intense, and a second ten times, and a
+third ten times. The chant quickened, and as the aged priest took the
+Bible from its place and held it toward the audience the bishop gave
+his benediction of peace to the "four corners of the earth." There
+was another chant after which the washing of the feet commenced. With
+deep seriousness the bishop placed his staff by the altar, laid aside
+his mitre and brocaded robes, and beginning with the aged priest,
+he knelt beside a bowl of water to wash his feet. Ten more of those
+who came forward shared in the ceremony. "I can not so serve you
+all," he said at the close of his address, "I am sorry. Take as
+symbolic what is done." There was a short intermission, but before
+ten o'clock the penitential service recommenced and continued until
+midnight. The story of Christ's betrayal in the garden was read, and
+the chants continued, wilder, sadder, and more wailing, accompanied
+by murmurs and occasionally by low cries from the people. As midnight
+approached the lights were dimmed one by one, and the emotion became
+more intense. As the hour struck, the congregation rose, and with
+clasped hands joined in a closing song and prayer. There were only
+a few score people present.
+
+The prostration of the old woman reminds one of the spiritually
+wounded who lay prostrate over the floor during the times of the
+Kentucky revivals, but the fact is there is nothing hysterical in
+this particular phase of Armenian worship. The attitude is commonly
+practiced by Armenians, especially among the peasant classes. They lie
+flat touching their heads to the ground. [155] But the posture is more
+peculiarly oriental than it is peculiarly Armenian. No sight is more
+common in the countries of Islam than the faithful Moslem who spreads
+his bit of carpet upon which he kneels with gaze fixed toward Mecca,
+prostrating himself repeatedly as he murmurs his prayers.
+
+Although the picture given by Dubois of a simple church service he
+attended in Koulpe, Armenia, is not the ceremony of Maundy Thursday,
+it has one or two strokes of native color that make it impossible to
+omit. [156] The church was poor and simple, the walls were built of
+stone cemented by clay or bad lime. Two rows of large beams neither
+squared nor trimmed supported the earthen roof in the manner of
+columns. At the farther end was a kind of niche, partitioned off by
+means of soiled curtains, thus forming a sanctuary where stood the
+priest, clothed in torn robe, to read the prayers. All of the little
+boys of the village encircled him, kneeling and chanting or reciting
+prayers, turn by turn. The eldest placed themselves outside of the
+choir and knelt on straw mats or on sheep's skins which marked their
+customary places, and kissed the earth, or murmured very low the words
+of the priest, or responded to the chanting at high pitch. The women
+held themselves apart, their faces half veiled, filling the back of
+the church behind the men, and, with lowered heads, were the first
+to leave.
+
+The kneeling posture and the prostration is again clearly in
+evidence, which together with what has been said is sufficient to
+show that this attitude, especially among the common people, is a
+very ordinary one and is therefore to be regarded merely as a very
+generally recognized posture of worship, and not at all significant
+necessarily of "conviction of sin" or a "feeling of penitence," which
+is nevertheless suggested. The church at Koulpe must have been a very
+poor one not to have benches, but it had its little chorus of boys,
+and the people participated in much the same way as in the little
+church in New York, although nearly a hundred years have passed since
+Dubois attended the simple service.
+
+"Khatchahankist," meaning literally, "repose of the cross," is the
+second of the four church ceremonies I shall describe. The ceremony
+might better be named "the Blessing of the Water," for that is what it
+really consists of. In the towns of Turkey the churches devote one day
+each week to the performance of this rite, but in other churches it
+occurs at the end of a special mass, as for example on Ascension Day,
+or on the commemoration day of St. Gregory. [157] There is always a
+very great gathering on this occasion largely because of the various
+superstitions connected with it. A large silver bowl of water is
+brought and placed on a stand at the foot of the altar, after which
+the officiating priest comes forward with relics of the Holy Cross, of
+the saints, or a simple silver cross in his hand. The more frequently
+used relics are those of St. Gregory the Illuminator, St. John the
+Baptist, St. James of Nisibis, or St. George the Martyr. The priest
+reads prayers over the water, which are answered by the chants from
+the choir, after which he dips the relic or the cross into the water
+three times, finally making the sign of the cross over the bowl. The
+Lord's prayer is repeated, after which a ladle is placed on one side
+of the vessel, while the priest kneels on the other, cross or relic
+in hand. Now the people crowd about, cross their faces and kiss the
+cross, and then take up the ladle to drink of the water thus blessed
+especially for drinking purposes. It is used also for ablutions,
+for popular belief endows the sacred liquid with curative power.
+
+Some of the prayers that are repeated and the texts that are read
+during this ceremony are well worth noting, for they illustrate the
+candid interest of all participating. After the reading of the texts,
+the deacon repeats the following proclamation: "Let us pray unto God
+who loveth mankind and hath given for hope and refuge his victorious
+holy cross, which is armor invincible against the inworkings of Satan,
+to the end that whatsoever it touches, this water and all creatures. He
+shall through the same vouchsafe both healing and mercy." The priest
+then prays: "Bless, O Lord, this water, and hallow it with thy holy
+cross, in order that the flocks and sheep which may approach and drink
+of the same, may derive therefrom freedom from disease and sterility;
+for from them we select sacrifices of fragrant sweetness and offer them
+as victims to thyself." And again the priest prays: "Bless, O Lord,
+this water with the life-giving powers of the cross that everyone who
+shall drink thereof may derive therefrom a medicine of soul and body,
+and a health from the diseases which afflict him." Again: "Bless,
+O Lord, this water with thy holy cross, that it may impart to the
+fields where it is sprinkled profitable harvests, and that all plants
+and herbs may be more than ever increased in fruitfulness." [158]
+The cross is then passed three times over the water with the words,
+"Let this water be blessed and hallowed in the name of the Father,
+and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, Amen." This is followed by a
+short proclamation by the deacon and a closing prayer by the priest,
+after which the assembled people receive of the magic water as above
+described.
+
+This frank personal interest is characteristic of many of the church
+ceremonies. For example in the sacrament of holy communion, incense
+is offered with the prayer, "Do thou in its stead send upon us the
+graces and gifts of thine Holy Spirit." [159]
+
+Of central importance to the nation as to the religion is the ceremony
+of the consecration of the Katholikos, the supreme authority of the
+church, which is held in front of the Cathedral at Etchmiadzin. [160]
+People from near and far gather together to witness this event,
+and lest they should fail to see the central act of the ceremony,
+the roofs near-by are all used for the greater advantage they give
+to the observer. The banner of the Katholikos is set flying from
+the belfry tower; in front of the entrance to the Cathedral is set
+a wooden dais covered with carpets and costly embroideries whereon
+the ceremony is performed; the procession is formed and all is then
+in readiness. A service is held in the Cathedral, after which the
+procession issues from the church, and the various state and church
+officials including representatives from the Russian government,
+the choir and deacons, all take their places about the platform. The
+twelve bishops who reside at Etchmiadzin, and whose business it is
+to wait upon the Katholikos, now appear gorgeously attired, escorting
+the central figure of the day, over whose head two attendants carry a
+richly embroidered canopy. The patriarch falls on his knees, his feet
+beneath his body in full accordance with the ordinary posture. One
+bishop now reads, after which another advances bearing in his hands the
+image of a dove wrought in gold. It is the receptacle of the holy oil,
+which is a mixture of the sacred oil blessed by St. Gregory, sparingly
+used and carefully preserved in the treasury of the Cathedral, and
+of the specially prepared oil consecrated in Sis in Cilicia. While
+one bishop is pouring the holy oil from the neck of the golden dove
+over the head of the patriarch, the other bishops gather around to
+spread the oil about with their thumbs, making at the same time the
+sign of the cross. A piece of cloth is now placed over his head, his
+face being covered at the same time by a veil which is attached to
+the cloth. After a brief interval the newly consecrated Katholikos,
+followed by the bishops, officials, and procession, reenters the
+church in order to complete the ceremony. When the procession again
+files out escorting the pontiff to his residence, the choir sings,
+and the Russian band plays. Festivities continue throughout the day
+and into the night, including mainly the banquet with its toasts
+and songs by the choir, and the concert furnished by the band in the
+evening. The band is a foreign innovation, although the particular
+band observed by Lynch consisted mostly of Armenians.
+
+The holy oil used in the consecration consists for the most part of
+the preparation manufactured in Sis, as stated, and with which there
+is a special ceremony connected, which is of general importance,
+for the oil is also used for the various necessary consecrations
+of all the churches. In the church at Sis is treasured a gorgeous
+silver bowl, decorated with turrets and pinnacles, in which "Muron"
+as it is called, or holy oil is made every four years. Pilgrims
+come from far to witness the event. The bowl, which holds about a
+gallon of oil is placed outside the church, and in it are placed
+a hundred and one kinds of flowers amid prayers and chants. [161]
+These flowers are stirred with the arm of St. Gregory, after which
+the lid is put on and the mixture made to boil. [162] The privilege
+of lifting off the lid is auctioned, and it is said that L100 was
+once paid for the distinction. The oil is then sold to the pilgrims,
+all of whom take a phial of it along to their homes where it is used
+in baptism, marriage, and burial ceremonies. It is also believed to
+have wonderful medicinal properties.
+
+The chief social value of these ceremonies lies in the fact that they
+bring large groups of people together under unusual circumstances,
+all of which adds importance to the various rites and festivities
+of the occasion. Especially is this true of the consecration of the
+Katholikos, which may occur twice or at the most three times in a
+generation. For this reason and also because of the authority and
+position of the Katholikos, not only as head of the church, but also
+in a very real sense, as head of the nation, this ceremony is attended
+by many pilgrims from the various sections of the country. Having
+assembled, the occasion is thus made a great deal more of than if it
+were an ordinary event. The day is a festival day in the full meaning
+of the term. Besides the services there is the banquet, the special
+choir, and the band. The relics kept in the treasury, which it is
+probable that most people who come have not seen before; also the
+holy churches of St. Gaiane and St. Rhipsime, which are visited by
+small groups throughout the day; and most of all the sacred altar of
+the Cathedral, where Christ descended in the vision of St. Gregory,
+are special attractions. And then there is the library where many
+ancient and precious manuscripts are exhibited, the institution of
+the monastery, the garden of the Katholikos, the printing press, and
+the seminary, all of which are of interest to the spectator. In fact
+there is sufficient to induce the pilgrims to remain for a number of
+days, which many of them do. The grounds are provided with a pilgrim's
+court surrounded by guest chambers utilized at this time. Naturally
+enough the various monuments suggest the traditions and legends with
+which they are connected, such as the traditions of St. Gregory,
+Tiridates, the legends of St. Rhipsime and St. Gaiane, and the other
+legends associated with the introduction of Christianity. Although
+centered about a religious ceremony which probably lasts no longer
+than fifteen minutes, the occasion is thus made a festival, and is
+about as important in fostering a real sentiment of patriotism and
+of church loyalty as any other single festival.
+
+The ceremony of the manufacture of the holy oil is not of such central
+importance. It also, however, has the advantage of not occurring very
+frequently, coming as it does only once in every four years. This
+together with the general utility of the oil in all of the various
+church ceremonies, plus the superstitions connected with it, is
+sufficient to induce pilgrims to make the journey to Sis in Cilicia,
+where the ceremony is held. It is again this assembly of pilgrims
+that gives the ceremony a social importance. In a nation like the
+United States where all parts are connected by railroads, telegraphs,
+and telephones, such a pilgrimage would have comparatively little
+social value. Except for government centers, there are no telegraphs
+in Armenia, the telephone is known only in a few cities, and railroads
+there are none. This lack of communication gives such ceremonies to
+which pilgrimages are made a very special social value which they
+otherwise would not at all have. The electoral assemblies spoken of
+have the same value, and for the same reason. The Armenian is not a
+person to be silent, and talks even when prudence is the better part
+of valour. He criticizes, condemns, and praises openly, fearlessly,
+and carelessly, and such a gathering of pilgrims, or electors, if
+it means anything, would mean a wholesale exchange of facts relating
+to current events, opinions, and rumors with reference to politics,
+religion, and every phase of social and industrial life.
+
+The Blessing of the Water can not be said to have so great a social
+value, occurring as it does in some parts of the country once every
+week. And yet this service is unusually well attended, largely because
+of the superstitions connected with the blessed water. Religion here
+appears to offer its biggest attraction to the less fortunate, such
+as the rheumatic, the tubercular, the dyspeptic, the epileptic, and
+the feeble-minded. But enough facts have been mentioned to show that
+the Armenian church is something more than an institution of cure and
+relief. It has identified itself too completely with the common life
+by keeping alive the streams and cross currents of social activity
+to admit of such a supposition.
+
+The ceremony of Maundy Thursday, or Washing of the Feet, is, of
+the four I have mentioned, of the least social importance. But it
+is generally attended, especially by the women who are compelled
+by the ban of custom to complete their house-cleaning before this
+service begins. And then too, it is the commencement of the Easter
+celebration, and as such has a distinct festival value. I have
+reviewed them therefore in the order of their social importance. The
+consecration of the Katholikos first; second the making of holy oil;
+third, the Blessing of the Water, and finally, the Washing of the Feet,
+which complete the second group of festivals.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+PRIVATE FESTIVAL OCCASIONS
+
+
+SECTION 1. BAPTISM
+
+The third group of festivals comprises those connected with the common
+life of the people, including the ceremonies of baptism, betrothal,
+marriage, and funeral. The church is vitally related to each of them,
+and they are of importance here because of their social value, which
+I shall again endeavor to point out.
+
+First after birth, the most important event in the life of every
+Armenian child is that of baptism, for the belief is that the
+unbaptized child has no soul. The infant is therefore generally
+baptized on the day after birth, and when this is impossible always
+within eight days of birth. If the child is sick there is all the more
+reason to hurry; in this case the essential parts of the ceremony are
+performed in the home, the remainder being celebrated at the church at
+some later time. The very first thing to be done therefore after the
+birth of a child is to make the necessary preparations for baptism,
+which are very elaborate in the case of the first-born, especially if
+the child is a boy. [163] A girl is always better than no child at all,
+but not much better. A godfather and godmother are selected, presents
+are exchanged between them and the parents of the child, invitations
+are sent to friends and relations, and at a fixed time the assembled
+people form a procession to the church, led by the midwife holding the
+child. The godfather pays all expenses, and therefore such splendor as
+the ceremony may have in the way of special ornaments for the altar,
+numbers of priests, and a large choir, is determined by him. After the
+group has properly assembled at the church, the priest takes the child
+from the midwife and gives it to the godfather. The profession of faith
+follows immediately and then the priest turns to the west to abjure the
+devil and to the east to invoke the Trinity. [164] Having placed the
+hem of his chasuble upon the babe, the priest proceeds to the sacristy
+reciting a psalm, and followed by the people. The central event now
+takes place. The baptism consists of three immersions in the name of
+the Holy Trinity. First water is poured over the head of the child,
+after which the whole body is plunged into the water. Confirmation is
+administered right after the ceremony of immersion, and takes place
+upon the altar of the church proper, before the image of the Blessed
+Virgin. The forehead, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, hands, back, breast
+and upper part of the feet of the infant are anointed with holy oil,
+and two wax tapers are placed in the hands of the godfather while
+carrying the child. The priest then takes the tapers and the babe,
+consecrates and confirms him by three profound inclinations before
+the altar, gives candles and child back to the godfather and blesses
+both. Now the child may be called by its Christian name, which is
+usually that of a saint. [165] Led by the priest and the singing
+choir, the procession now starts back to the home of the little one,
+still carried by the godfather who continues to hold the candles. When
+he reaches the door of the mother, she kneels and prostrates herself
+before him. He in turn delivers the child to the mother's arms who may
+now kiss it for the first time, the child not having been kissed by
+any one from the moment of birth to the delivering over to the mother
+by the godfather after baptism. Others may now also kiss the babe,
+and each endeavors to be the first, for there is a superstitious value
+attached to the first kiss following the mother's after baptism. The
+priests and the family of the godfather spend the evening in the
+child's home. They are served constantly by the father who does not
+himself sit down. For forty days the mother must keep her room, and
+walk only in such parts of the house as are exposed to the sun. [166]
+Having completed the fortieth day she and her babe are taken to
+church by the grandmother. [167] On this occasion the young mother
+must bring an offering, which in times past was a rich Persian rug,
+but is now merely a package of tapers. She waits at the door of the
+sacristy until the priest comes and leads her in before the high altar
+where both mother and child receive a blessing. After this ceremony
+she must visit the godfather and kiss his hand in token of gratitude.
+
+If a funeral passes during the first forty days of the child's life,
+the little one must be snatched up from the cradle and be carried
+upright. People now come to offer their felicitations. The greeting
+of the guest is always, "May God raise the child in the shadow of its
+parents," to which answer is given, "May God bless you according to
+your desire," or "May your tongue be always in good health."
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 2. BETROTHAL
+
+It is the popular belief among Armenians that the practice of
+early marriages dates from the proclamation of a Persian shah of
+the sixteenth century, to whom part of Armenia was tributary. [168]
+This edict was intended to wipe out Christianity, and provided for the
+marriage of Armenian boys and girls with Persian children. In order to
+evade the edict, the Armenian parents ran secretly from house to house
+for several nights marrying off their children to each other. The
+custom on the part of the parents of arranging for the marriage of
+their children without the knowledge of the latter is supposed also
+to be rooted in this event. Whether the explanation be true or not,
+it certainly is not uncommon for children to marry at sixteen in the
+interior of Armenia, and it is still generally true that arrangements
+for the marriages of children are made without the knowledge of those
+most concerned. [169] The girl does occasionally exercise choice, but
+when the unfortunate suitor is not desired by the parents the feeling
+of obligation on the girl's part, simply because she has lived at her
+father's table, is sufficient to induce her to submit. [170] And the
+same may be said of the young man, although the greater independence
+of a son gives him a little more ground for acting contrary to his
+father's wishes, than in the case of the daughter. But even when the
+choice of the children is accepted, the arrangements and ceremony of
+betrothal are always carried out by the parents.
+
+These arrangements are something as follows. The parents of a young man
+consult his grandparents, and choose a young girl who to them seems
+eligible. They then inform a woman match-maker of their decision,
+and it is her business to sound the ground, so to speak, before a
+proposal is made, since a refusal would ruin the boy's reputation. The
+matchmaker is often a professional woman, and can therefore be relied
+upon not to make a bungle of the job. Among other things, she finds
+out what gifts the bridegroom-to-be must make to his future bride,
+which can of course be done only after the proposal has met with a
+favorable response on the part of the parents of the girl. "What can he
+offer his bride," is the all important question from the standpoint of
+the girl's family. Among the rich, but in times past, gold bracelets
+bejeweled with diamonds or strings of gold pieces for adorning the
+head or neck were common varieties of gifts. To-day silver plate, or
+expensive heirlooms are given. After these matters have been decided
+upon, preparations are made for the ceremony of betrothal, usually
+held in the evening. The friends of the young man are notified to
+meet together in his house at an appointed hour with the priest who
+is given a ring which he blesses. The procession of the bridegroom's
+friends headed by the priest now starts for the house of the bride. All
+are provided with lighted wax candles which they hold in their hands
+as they proceed down the streets accompanied by the sound of violin,
+clarinets, drum, and joyful singing. Sometimes a detour is made in
+order to lengthen the procession.
+
+Having arrived at their destination, the father and mother of the
+girl pretend to know nothing whatever of the reason for the coming
+of the guests, and conversation proceeds for a considerable time
+without the slightest allusion to the matter of chief moment. The
+priest finally makes the following statement amid profound silence:
+"According to the law of the supreme Creator, and following the
+usages of human society, we have the happiness of demanding the
+hand of Miss X, for Mr. Y." The father of the girl pretends not to
+wish to accept, stating that she is too young, or that her mother
+is very desirous to keep her at home. But upon further pressing on
+the part of the parents of the boy, the acceptance is given. It is
+now the turn of the girl to be consulted; she, however, is nowhere
+to be found. The priest searches, and when finally discovered she
+does not speak a word. The former, however, knows, and offering his
+hand he says, "If you consent, kiss the hand," which is straightway
+done, for the girl has been informed beforehand that the kiss is to
+be forthcoming. This part of the procedure takes place apart from
+the crowd, and is followed by the presentation of the ring and the
+benediction which must take place before the public. But since custom
+forbids the girl to appear during the entire evening, a brother or
+a sister comes forward and kneels before the priest to receive the
+ring. The rest all kneel at the same time, and the priest gives the
+benediction. The ring is carried by the child to the fiancee, the
+health of the couple is drunk in rose-syrup, and congratulations and
+compliments are exchanged. Whatever else is eaten or drunk, rose-syrup
+must be at hand, for this is essential and peculiar to the ceremony.
+
+All this while the young man is within the walls of his own
+home. Custom forbids him to appear at the house of his bride-to-be
+until the wedding day, and if perchance the two should meet, he must
+turn his head away while she hides herself. Towards ten o'clock the
+party breaks up, and each guest is given a wax candle. All try to steal
+something from the house before leaving, such as a bottle, a glass,
+or a spoon, and if the thieves are not caught before they leave the
+house, the articles are returned only at the price of a supper from
+the head of the family. The party now returns to the home of the future
+bridegroom, accompanied by the friends and relatives of the girl. The
+procession formed, there is the same lighting of wax candles received
+from the host, brightening the otherwise darkened streets, and the same
+music and singing to triumph over the silence of the night. The young
+man must stand upright before his future father-in-law all through the
+visit. For him the great moment comes when the brother of his fiancee
+takes him aside and offers him a glass of syrup prepared by her own
+hands. The whole night is passed in song and amusement. During the
+following fortnight both families receive visits of congratulation,
+and at every visit the host or hostess must offer the syrup drunk at
+the betrothal ceremony.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 3. MARRIAGE
+
+Elaborate and gay as are the festivities of betrothal, the celebrations
+of marriage are so much more so that one is inclined to look upon the
+essential religious ceremony as a pretext for the merry-making. [171]
+The interval of a month which ordinarily intervenes between engagement
+and marriage is devoted to making the necessary preparations for
+the wedding. The bridegroom must get ready the promised ornaments,
+a white wedding-dress for his bride, a fine veil to cover her face,
+and a pair of shoes, a rather strange combination of gifts. One
+wonders also why the necessary gloves and silk stockings are not
+included. The young lady on her part prepares her trousseau including
+garments of various sorts, bits of jewelry, a wooden chest filled with
+her clothing, a mirror, a nuptial bed with the necessary accessories,
+and a few cooking utensils; altogether an outfit quite as varied and
+singular as the gifts of the bridegroom, but certainly practical
+and sensible enough. Two days before the wedding, which usually
+occurs on a Sunday afternoon, invitations are sent out to friends and
+relatives, and musicians are secured. On the eve of the ceremony, the
+godfather invites the bridegroom with his friends to a Turkish bath,
+where they go to the accompaniment of music and singing. This part
+of the celebration is full of laughter and song, and is continued on
+the forenoon of the next day in the home of the bridegroom, when the
+barber comes to shave him in the presence of the guests and musicians,
+who sing and play as on the preceding evening at the bath. The occasion
+is one of importance for the barber, who brings all sorts of perfumes
+which are purchased by the guests and poured over the bridegroom;
+he receives not only a large fee for his service but also a double
+price for the scented extracts. The young man is then dressed up
+while the priest and choir children who have arrived sing canticles.
+
+In the meantime very similar festivities occur in the home of the
+bride, participated in by her young girl friends and relatives,
+except that they are not characterized by the same spirit of loud
+laughter and rejoicing. On the eve of the wedding the girls gather
+around her to sing melancholy songs, in considerable contrast with
+the gay, spirited music and singing taking place in the Turkish
+bath at the same time. Having shared the sadness, they place a rose
+leaf on the palm of each hand of the bride, which is covered with
+henneh, a green Persian powder made into paste, after which each
+hand is carefully bandaged up. So the poor sad girl must go to bed,
+to sleep if she can. On the next morning her friends again arrive
+to take the bandages off her hands, to dress her, and to sing and
+dance about her. Except for the print of the rose leaf, the henneh
+leaves the hands orange red, which is supposed to be beautiful. The
+songs and dancing are again of a decidedly melancholy tone. Her white
+dress, together with the coat of the bridegroom, must be blessed by
+the priest, a ceremony which the church functionary performs alone,
+both articles being sent to him early in the morning. Preliminary to
+the day's events, and before breakfast, both bride and bridegroom,
+being previously confessed, go separately to church, where they take
+communion. This done, the festivities described follow, bride and
+bridegroom are dressed, and all is in readiness for the ceremony
+which occurs in the late afternoon or evening.
+
+The bride must ride to church on horseback, and having arrived she
+is dismounted, and later remounted without touching her feet to the
+ground, which rather cumbersome performance is accomplished through
+the help of a brother or relative, who also rides the bride's steed
+while the ceremony takes place within, for the horse is not to
+be left riderless. The procession to the church is accompanied by
+musicians. Before the rail which separates the choir from the body
+of the church, two wooden chairs are placed, upon which the couple
+sit down while the people present kneel on the mats covering the
+floor. When the time comes for the blessing of the priest, the couple
+arise, step inside the choir space, and stand facing each other between
+the high altar and two witnesses, their foreheads touching. In this
+position they receive the sacrament of matrimony, answering in the
+affirmative the questions of the priest regarding their duties to
+each other and to their children. Of the bride is demanded perfect
+faithfulness to conjugal duties, entire obedience to the husband
+of whom care, patience, wisdom, and love are required. The priest,
+taking the right hand of the bride and placing it in the hand of
+the bridegroom, says, "According to the divine order God gave to our
+ancestors, I give thee now this wife in subjection. Wilt thou be her
+master?" "Through the help of God I will," answers the bridegroom. The
+priest then asks the woman, "Wilt thou be obedient to him?" to which
+is answered, "I am obedient according to the order of God." These
+questions are repeated and replied to thrice, in evident implicit
+belief that once would not be sufficient. Finally, the priest ties
+to each of their heads a cord and cross, which is again removed by
+him late at night in the home with special ceremony, and it is only
+after this performance that the couple may enter the nuptial chamber.
+
+After the ceremony at the church the procession starts back for the
+home of the bridegroom's father, the bride riding upon her horse,
+musician playing, and choir boys singing. The water-carriers, who
+have supplied drinking water, break their jars noisily before the
+bridegroom, drenching his marriage costume and giving rather an abrupt
+signal to the godfather whose business it is to tip them. Noisily
+the procession moves along the streets until it arrives at the
+gate of the house. In days past it was the custom at this point in
+the ceremony to place a sheep ready to be sacrificed at the feet
+of the young couple, the poorer people contenting themselves with
+chickens. The butcher put his knife to the neck of the sheep saying,
+"May God thus put all your enemies under your feet, Amen, Amen." Then
+pieces of coin mixed with raisins, pistachios, and other bits of nuts
+or dried fruits are showered over the people from the windows above,
+while the godfather leads the bridegroom within to the crowd of men,
+and the godmother leads the bride to the women, everybody trying
+to kiss the cross on their heads. The bride is then placed in the
+seat of honor and in her arms is laid first a little boy, and then a
+little girl, so that the first child may be a boy and if perchance
+the will of God be otherwise at least a girl. Each guest now comes
+to the bride to place at her feet a fruit in season. The bridegroom
+is called "the prince of the feast" and must never quit his seat of
+honor. If he does leave his chair he must place an object belonging
+to him upon his seat, and if he should at any time omit to do so,
+the assembly makes the godfather pay the necessary forfeit, which is
+usually a dinner. Towards nine, the guests take their leave, having
+eaten and sung to their uttermost desire. [172]
+
+Living in the home of her patriarchal father-in-law, the young
+wife is subject to the severest restraints. She must wear a lightly
+fitting veil enclosing her face below the eyes, without which she
+can not appear even in the house. [173] She wears a close fitting
+bodice fastened at the neck with silver clasps, full trousers of
+rose colored silk gathered in at the ankles by a filet of silver;
+her feet are bare, a silver girdle of curious workmanship loosely
+encircles her waist, and a long padded garment, open down the front,
+hangs from her shoulders. Not a single word must she utter to any
+member of the household, except when alone with her husband, and then
+only such as may be absolutely necessary, until she has given birth
+to her first child. Then she may speak to her nursling, after a while
+to her mother-in-law, later to her own mother, and by and by to the
+young girls of the household, but never in all her life may she have
+word with a young man not a relative. During her first year of married
+life, she may not go out of the house except for two visits to the
+church. Every morning and at the end of each meal she must pour water
+over the hands of her father- and mother-in-law, and for a certain
+time after marriage, when visitors come, she must kiss their hands,
+except of course, for men, before whom she may not even appear. [174]
+Apart from these troublesome restraints the young wife is treated
+with the utmost solicitude, and in some parts, even the peasant
+wife is not allowed to do outdoor work. In the mountain villages of
+Persian Armenia, however, the women do all the tilling in the fields,
+wearing their veils over their mouths as they work. [175] The author
+here quoted states that husbands never see the mouths of their wives,
+who not only must not speak during the first year of married life,
+or until a child is born, but also may not converse freely with their
+husbands until six years of married life have elapsed. [176]
+
+In such fashion the sanctity of the marriage relation is strictly
+guarded, and as one would suppose, illegitimate births are unknown in
+Armenia. Intermarriage among relations is forbidden, and until recent
+years, divorce has been unknown. [177] As for the taboo on speech,
+it is calculated not so much as an inducement to the production of
+offspring as to preserve harmonious relations between the various
+members of the patriarchal household. Even the patriarch with all
+his authority would find difficulty in preserving proper decorum of
+speech and manners in so heterogeneous a household, if every newly
+acquired daughter-in-law were given a free rein in the use of her
+tongue. As the neophyte is made to understand his position by a
+brutal initiation, so the young wife is kept from assuming command
+over the female household by the placing of a moral valuation upon
+the silence which alone is compatible with the essential modesty
+regarded as the first and chief of virtues among wives. In the
+household of the patriarch there is a great deal to be done in common,
+and unfortunately the occasion for mutual aid is not sufficient to
+bring about the desired cooperation. Hence singleness of command and
+authority is a necessary condition, not only of efficiency, but also
+of peace, for it can not be supposed that so many daughters-in-law
+would work together in harmony. It would be a mistake, therefore,
+to regard the customary silence as an inducement to child-bearing.
+
+Identifying itself with the common events of life, such as birth,
+marriage, and death, the church has not only given a religious meaning
+to these occasions but has also sanctioned and even encouraged the
+festivities that accompany them. These festivities have up to this
+point been occasions for rejoicing, with the single and significant
+exception of the melancholy singing of the bride's friends on the
+eve and day of her wedding. There is a perfect naturalness about
+all the merry-making and festivals so far considered, and this is
+no less characteristic of the funeral celebrations now to be taken
+up. The description of these will conclude my treatment of the last
+group of festivals, which are more properly festival-ceremonies,
+or ceremonies that have been made the occasion of festivity.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION 4. FUNERAL
+
+The funerals, as one would naturally suppose, are more ceremonious,
+more ritualistic, and although there is now generally a minimum of
+festivity connected with them, this has not always been so. [178]
+When the condition of a sick person is beyond hope, the priest is
+notified and the person is given confession, communion, and extreme
+unction. After death the eyes and mouth are closed, the body washed and
+dressed up in the newest and cleanest clothes to be had, and the arms
+crossed on the breast. [179] Two candles are kept burning until the day
+of the funeral, one at the foot and one at the head of the coffin. Sad,
+wooden bells are sounded, and guests are invited to pay their last
+respects. Coffee is served to them, but without sugar, as a sign of
+grief. Mourning women are secured, who eulogize the departed and weep
+and lament until the priests begin their chanting. The corpse is now
+taken to the church in a special coffin which is covered with a black
+velvet cloth adorned with small white crosses, among the wealthy, but
+among the poor the body is wrapped in linen and laid in a simple bier,
+carried by relatives and friends. At the head of the procession, which
+marches very slowly and chants on the way, there are carried a great
+cross and two lighted torches, followed by the priests and then by
+the coffin. The passer-by must stop and cross himself many times. At
+the church the coffin is laid down, and if the relatives are wealthy
+each person in the church is provided with a small wax candle which
+is kept lighted during the service. While the ceremony proceeds the
+body is blessed with holy water and perfumed with incense, after which
+the procession re-forms to accompany the body to the cemetery. The
+chanting is kept up all the way. At the cemetery the body is lowered
+into its last resting-place, and the priest, after making the sign of
+the cross on the four corners of the grave, throws three shovelfuls
+of earth into it and three more on the coffin. The people imitate
+by throwing three handfuls of dust, and the ceremony completed, all
+return to the home of the deceased where they partake of steaming
+broth prepared by the neighbors and friends, and recite prayers for
+the soul of the dead. This latter practice, as said before, is a pagan
+survival, as is also the chanting of mass for the departed, which
+occurs three days later, at which time broth is again distributed,
+but this time to the poor as a sacrifice to the dead. The grave is
+blessed on the third day, again on the ninth, at the close of the
+third month, and for the last time, at the close of the year.
+
+The funeral of a priest is performed with much splendor. [180]
+The procession makes a circuit of all the churches, and stopping at
+different places, portions of the gospel are read. If the priest be
+of high rank, as an archbishop, or a bishop, he is carried in an open
+coffin and in a sitting posture, dressed up in official vestments, in
+which position he is interred in the courtyard of the church. Farmers
+send sheep to be killed and given to the poor as a sacrifice. The
+Greeks in Constantinople also carry their dead in an open coffin,
+but this is because a Greek official who was a refugee prisoner in
+Constantinople at the time of the war of the Turks with the Greeks,
+endeavored to get himself carried out of the country by feigning death
+and boxing himself up in a coffin. But the Turks discovered the ruse
+and it was enacted by the sultan that thereafter all Greeks must be
+carried to their graves in open coffins. The custom in respect to
+the Armenian bishops, however, has no connection with this.
+
+In some parts of Armenia, as for example in Erzerum, the snow lies
+so deep in winter-time that burial is well-nigh impossible. During
+spring-time, with the melting of the snow, coffins have been found
+perched up on tree tops. This was related by an Armenian boy I know
+of, who lived in the vicinity of Erzerum. Curious customs of the past
+have left their marks. In Tarsus, for example, there are Armenian
+graves ranged about a tree which is asserted to have been planted
+by St. Paul, each provided with a stone upon which has been carved a
+symbol of the deceased, for the merchant, a representation of weights
+and measures, for the blacksmith, an anvil and hammer, for the scribe,
+an inkstand and pen, and for the industrious housewife, a distaff
+and spindle. In the cemetery of Nakhitchevan is a large building
+in which the mourners have a great repast after the funeral, and in
+certain other graveyards, Dubois found innumerable pieces of broken
+pitchers and crockery, which were probably broken, as the custom is,
+to ward off the evil spirit of the dead.
+
+These four ceremonies complete the third and last group of festivals
+described. I have called them ceremonies because fundamentally that is
+what they are, but they are to be distinguished sharply from the many
+church ceremonies I have not so much as mentioned, by reason of their
+festival or social value which alone makes them proper subject-matter
+for this thesis. The relation between these ceremonies as revealed in
+the common procession, as well as in the religious ceremony necessary
+to each is due largely to the fact that they have to do with the
+most ordinary, and yet most extraordinary of life's events, birth,
+betrothal, marriage, and death.
+
+Reviewing them from the standpoint of their social or festival value,
+it is obvious that the marriage celebration easily takes first place,
+the betrothal festivities second, baptism and funeral third. There is
+the rather uncouth, perhaps, but none the less spontaneous gaiety of
+the friends of the bridegroom, not only on the eve of the wedding-day
+when they go to the bath, but also on the morning of the wedding-day
+when the unfortunate youth is assuredly cured of any addiction he
+might have to the use of perfumes. I should imagine that the music
+would begin to bore the young men by the time the barber arrives,
+since the musicians also accompany the rejoicing of the night before,
+and yet it may be said that there could be nothing more convenient
+or ingenious devised to carry over a lull in the merry-making, for
+after all, the young men could not well be singing, joking, laughing,
+and teasing all the time. In striking contrast is the melancholy
+rejoicing of the party of young women at the home of the bride. But
+where there is dancing and singing there can not well be weeping,
+although no doubt it is more natural for the bride to be thoughtful
+on her wedding-day, than for the bridegroom, for it is the former
+who leaves her home to spend the rest of her days in a very new,
+very strange, perhaps even unkindly world. There is still another
+reason for the melancholy, in that the girl must know she is bidding
+farewell forever to the delights and joys and freedom of childhood,
+for although to-day she may speak and sing and make merry, to-morrow
+morning she must be silent and prepared to pour water over the hands
+of her father- and mother-in-law. Henceforth it is for her to be
+submissive, obedient, docile, uncomplaining even at heart, for what
+use will it be to complain, and though her most cherished dreams
+may be of motherhood, does she not also have spirit, and why must
+it be broken? Is she then only a chattel to be sold into everlasting
+bondage? It is all too evident, even to the dullest of brides, that
+the happiness of childhood is forever past, and the brighter one can
+hardly fail to feel that she has been bartered for the bit of gold
+about her waist or neck.
+
+There is then the very highest of social value to be attributed to both
+of these festivities, and largely because in each group of people,
+the young men on one side, the young women on the other, there is
+perfect community of feeling, mutual understanding, and freedom
+of thought and expression. In comparison with these gatherings,
+the mixed assembly at the house of the bridegroom after the marriage
+ceremony is of little importance. The succession of events covering a
+period of nearly thirty-six hours, of which only a few, and perhaps
+none at all, are spent in sleep by the members of the bridal party,
+must certainly begin to have its effect by the time the little baby
+doll is placed in the lap of the bride.
+
+The betrothal party is always out for a good time, for they realize
+that the merry-making is to be an all-night affair. There is the
+procession with its candles lighting up the darkened streets, the music
+and singing filling all space, the humorous little artificialities in
+the house of the bride,--real enough, at least ceremoniously, from
+the standpoint of the family,--the syrup, the attempted stealing of
+utensils, the return procession, the singing, music, and dancing at
+the home of the young bridegroom-to-be, without stop until dawn. All
+of this makes a rather complete occasion, even for young people.
+
+Baptism and funeral rites come nearest being pure ceremonies. But
+even the baptismal rite has its procession to and from the church
+participated in by all the friends and relatives of the family, and
+though the event is an occasion neither for rejoicing nor for sorrow,
+it is important enough, occurring as it does but once in the lifetime
+of each individual. There are, to be sure, the social calls that follow
+the ceremony. But the event can not be said to have any attraction
+for the young; and if this is true of baptism, it is still more true
+of funerals. Nevertheless there is the distinct psychological value
+of each, calling up as they do various associations, as the baptism
+of this one, or the death of another one, and thus keeping alive
+the deepest experiences of life. If they are crude and offensive
+to more delicate tastes, it must be remembered that a belief is
+represented in the concrete fashion essential to the simple mind,
+a mode of representation necessary to the best of intellects even
+though on another plane.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+Such are the festivals treated in the second and last part of this
+thesis. Is it true that they form a vehicle of expression for the
+national sentiment created by the large mass of social material
+of which the legends of Part One are a considerable and important
+portion? Again it will be necessary to remind ourselves of the
+chief sentiments included within Armenian national sentiment, i.e.,
+the sentiment of loyalty to the church, the sentiment of reverence
+amounting almost to worship for the ancient glory of the nation,
+and the sentiment of love for the country. It would be ridiculous
+to suppose that every festival was designed to give expression to
+some one of these sentiments. But that these sentiments are given
+very clear, very real outward expression in the great majority of the
+celebrations described, should be so evident at this point as to make
+further exposition unnecessary. In the summer Festival of Vartavar,
+the spring Festival of Mihr, Vartan's Day, and in the consecration
+of the Katholikos there is the proud and reverent looking back to the
+times when Armenia was an independent nation; the festival ceremonies
+of the third group, baptism, betrothal, marriage, and funeral, though
+they are not positive expressions of the sentiments of loyalty to the
+church, are yet so completely interwoven with the church and dependent
+upon it that one is compelled to regard the feeling as something to be
+taken for granted, while in most of the festivals of the second group,
+Christmas, Easter, Maundy Thursday, and the Blessing of the Grapes
+especially, the sentiment is given a more positive expression. As for
+the sentiment of love for the country, that is identified especially
+with Vartavar and Vartan's Day. It is evident, therefore, that each
+of these festivals and festival-ceremonies forms a medium more or
+less evident as the case may be, for the expression of one or more or
+all of the sentiments that make up Armenian national sentiment. Some
+of them are not to be classified as readily as this, as for example,
+the festival of Ascension morning, or Fortune-Telling Day, in which
+the dominant sentiment is one of romantic love, or in the Blessing
+of the Water, where the desire for a gain in health or wealth is the
+main psychological fact.
+
+Each one of these festivals, however, is a great deal more than the
+putting into activity of some of the above sentiments. In many of them
+the play-instinct is clearly evident, while in a few such as Vartavar,
+the whole self, with all its sentiments, instincts, tendencies,
+and emotions, is given the fullest and most unrestrained freedom. A
+festival, if it is anything, is a letting loose of the reins;
+there is nothing to hinder, nothing to keep back, nothing to hide,
+nothing to fear, and the self reaches out in a higher consciousness of
+fullness and completeness of living. As such it would be the greatest
+of fallacies to suppose any one of the festivals to be restricted to
+a particular sentiment. Nevertheless, it is clear, that the festivals
+do constitute vehicles of expression for the sentiments that make up
+Armenian national sentiment.
+
+
+
+
+CONCLUSIONS
+
+The general conclusions to which this study unmistakably gives rise are
+in respect to the national traits of the Armenian people. These traits
+have been brought out both explicitly and implicitly in connection with
+the various legends and festivals considered, and it is my purpose,
+therefore, to summarize and substantiate them at this point. They
+include, first, the superstitiousness, second, the conservatism,
+third, the self-sufficiency, and lastly the familism of the people.
+
+First of these qualities, superstitiousness, may be ascribed in large
+measure to geographical isolation. The country to be sure, is so
+situated as to form a highway from Europe to the Mesopotamian valley,
+and from Asiatic Russia to the Mediterranean, and although it has been
+overrun by Assyrians, Greeks, Parthians, Romans, Persians, Turks,
+Egyptians, and still others, yet we must speak of it as isolated,
+for the science that has brought remote countries into contact has
+not affected Armenia to any considerable degree. Subject to a backward
+nation, lacking all modern means of communication, the country is shut
+off and the plows of civilization have not yet furrowed the social
+soil of superstition. How general these superstitions are is brought
+out especially by the festivals described, many of which have given
+rise to a superstition or a group of superstitions. From Vartavar,
+there came the belief that the dust from the sacred altar served as a
+talisman for children learning their A B C's; the spring fire festival
+gave rise to the practice of taking home a glowing brand for good luck;
+there is the belief that the blessed water will cure various diseases,
+and that the oil scraped from the anointed foot with a walnut given by
+the priest after washing the feet at the ceremony of Maundy Thursday,
+will keep a supply of butter throughout the year. And then there are
+the beliefs in the miraculous power of the holy oil, manufactured with
+due ceremony every four years at Sis; in the healing power of the
+various sacred relics kept at Etchmiadzin and other places, and ten
+thousand others. There are also beliefs not of a religious character
+as the above, such as the one in regard to the tetagush, the little
+locust-eating bird, which is supposed to be attracted by Ararat spring
+water. The same superstition obtains in other parts of the country with
+the difference that the inconvenience of obtaining Ararat spring water
+makes it necessary for the people to believe in the peculiar efficacy
+of other springs. These illustrations are sufficient, and although it
+could hardly be proved that Armenians are more innately superstitious
+than the Anglo-Saxon ancestors who believed only a few generations
+ago in the power of the malignant eye, and that an innocent person
+might pass through fire unharmed, yet their superstitious nature and
+beliefs are present-day facts explained most completely on the ground
+of comparative isolation from the rest of the world.
+
+Second of the national characteristics of the people clearly
+brought out by this study is their conservatism. This may also be
+traced in large measure to their secluded condition, but in larger
+proportion is it due to the solidarity and national consciousness,
+which naturally consider innovations as foreign, and intrusions of
+foreign cultures, ideals, customs, and manners as hostile. That this
+is true is indicated conclusively by the fact that in Constantinople,
+where Armenian culture has naturally come in conflict with that of the
+Greek, the Turk, and the European, the Armenians have not at all given
+up their ways to imitate any of the three peoples mentioned. To be
+sure they have not adhered rigidly to the old beliefs and practices of
+the interior. Comparison has resulted in substitution, and conflict
+between the rational and irrational, the utile and the inutile,
+has meant displacement, but invariably by something distinctly
+different from the usages and practices current among Turk or
+European. That is, Armenians are themselves centers of imitation
+by fellow Armenians who, though they follow the lines suggested by
+their fellow countrymen, scorn to imitate even the European, whose
+superiority is generally recognized in Constantinople. The Armenian,
+recognizing no superior, has merely modified his own practices, usages,
+manners, and customs to suit his changed environment. And therefore
+I say that the characteristic Armenian conservatism is due rather to
+a strong feeling of nationality than to isolation.
+
+The conservatism of the church has been an important element. Refusing
+to have anything to do with the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon,
+the church became independent and has maintained a policy of the most
+rigid ultra-conservatism ever since. Says Ormanian:
+
+
+    The Armenian church would have nothing to do with this transaction
+    (Chalcedon) which was prompted by a design that had no bearing
+    on theology. She remained firm in her original resolve, and ever
+    maintained an attitude of ultra-conservatism. She set herself
+    to resist every new dogmatic utterance said to emanate from
+    revelation, as well as every innovation which could in any way
+    pervert the primitive faith. [181]
+
+
+That this same spirit is reflected in the social life of the people
+is something one would naturally expect, in view of the important
+influence of the church over the entire life of the people. As the
+father of the Alan princess replied when requested to give the hand
+of his daughter to Artasches, "From whence shall brave Artasches give
+thousands upon thousands and ten thousands upon tens of thousands unto
+the Alans in return for the maiden?" so to-day the first question
+that is asked when the hand of a young Armenian girl is requested
+in marriage is "What can he give for his bride?" The practice of
+wife purchase has only changed in that the required riches are given
+to the bride instead of to the father of the bride. Occasionally a
+young man is pressed to the point of mortgaging property in order
+to obtain the necessary funds, and it has been known that in many
+such cases the young bride found her treasure gone shortly after
+her marriage, her master having taken it to pay off his mortgage. So
+parents arrange for the marriage of their children, the young wife is
+delivered up to her husband as the obedient and submissive servant,
+children are baptized after they have scarcely opened their eyes, and
+church ceremonies are conducted much as they have been for generations.
+
+The self-sufficiency of the Armenian people has been indicated in
+the repeated failures of missionary religions and foreign cultures to
+alter appreciably the native folkways and mores. In spite of political
+subordination to Islam, the Gregorian church has held tenaciously
+to its ideals and has successfully maintained its independence. The
+distinctive social tradition,--which includes the political and the
+religious traditions,--has remained intact in the face of recurrent
+invasion, vassalage, and persecution. The Armenian will not be
+assimilated. Death is preferable to the loss of those intangible
+realities that make the people a distinctive group. When Haic, the
+patriarchal progenitor of the race, was invited to "soften his hard
+pride," and to return to the kingdom of the god Bel, the alternative,
+war, was chosen. In the year 450, when the Persian fire-worshippers
+invited the Armenians to change their faith, the answer again
+was war. The reply to the decision of Chalcedon illustrates the
+same spirit. Likewise through the centuries of the immediate past
+the ever recurring answer to the Turk has been war. Powerless to
+assimilate the Armenian people, the Turk has had to annihilate or be
+annihilated. The self-sufficiency of the people thus reveals itself
+in the will to maintain the distinctive social tradition, regardless
+of cost or sacrifice.
+
+The characteristic familism reveals itself not only in the customs of
+family life, but also in the very nature of the Armenian. In Russian
+Armenia there is a very active propaganda carried on by Russian girls
+to secure Armenian husbands because of the domesticity of the latter,
+which is in striking contrast to the adventurous unfaithfulness of
+the Russian husband, whose house becomes his prison, from which
+he therefore flees, leaving his wife and children to shift for
+themselves. The discontented Russian may be a more attractive lover
+for his "Wanderlust" and restlessness, but he is a less attractive
+husband for the same reason. An Armenian husband belongs in his home,
+where he lives in the hope that some day he may be the father of
+a huge household of married sons and grandsons. A young Armenian I
+know spoke to me of his wish that some day his father might collect
+the scattered sons and unite them and their families in a single
+household. This desire is so general among Armenians as to make it
+evident that the family is the all-important social unit. No reputation
+is so great as that carried by a good family name, nor is there any
+so damning as that which goes with a bad family name. And why is the
+young bride kept silent for years if not to ensure the all-essential
+family-unity, family-solidarity, and family-continuity,--that is,
+continuity of family tradition, manners, and customs? And why is
+the "patria-potestas" well-nigh unlimited if not for precisely the
+same reason? Nor is the taboo upon the young bride, according to
+which she may not speak to any young man not a relative during her
+entire life of marriage, of no significance in this connection. It too
+precludes family disruption, or blemish on the family name. Divorce and
+infidelity are very rare, all family differences having no tribunal
+outside the patriarch, who considers his greatest misfortune to be a
+lack of family integrity or oneness. Thus a son who has been swayed
+by Protestantism dares not clash with his father, and has no choice
+but to run away, while a daughter whose wishes are contrary can
+be disobedient only at the cost of breaking the family connection,
+to prevent which she is usually ready to make any sacrifice. All of
+this is no accident. Forced to dwell within the circle of the family
+group for seven, eight, or nine months during the year without so much
+as opening his door, because of the severity of winter, the life of
+the patriarch is inevitably centered in his household, and therefore
+also the self of each member is merged into the larger unit. This
+familism throws additional light on some of the conclusions I have
+insisted upon, for nothing so fosters conservatism as a substantial
+family solidarity; what could be more instrumental in passing on the
+national sentiment, and finally, what could be more favorable to the
+development of the self-sufficiency, the independence of Armenian
+character? In speaking of "familism and the well-knit family" Ross
+says; "Worshippers of the spirit of the hearth, they are more aloof
+from their fellows, slower therefore to merge with them or be swept
+from their moorings by them. It seems to be communion by the fire-side
+rather than communion in the public resort that gives individuality
+long bracing roots. The withdrawn social self, although it lacks
+breadth, gains in depth, etc." [182]
+
+Any socially well-knit people possessing a distinctive social
+tradition, and characterized by a highly developed national
+consciousness, may make its contribution to the world's work, if
+it is given the necessary freedom. As the period of the Arsacidae
+kings brought forth the golden age of Armenian literature, so greater
+achievements may follow the political independence that is hoped for,
+and for which Armenians have valiantly struggled. Lord Bryce writes
+of the Armenian race, "It is the only one of the native races of
+Western Asia that is capable of restoring productive industry and
+assured prosperity to the now desolate region that was the earliest
+home of civilization." In the past, the energy of the people has
+been wasted in ceaseless conflict. Given a guarantee of territorial
+integrity, and participation in the affairs of government with the
+hope of future autonomy, the energies of strife will be diverted to
+the work of peace. Not until then can the high calling expressed in
+the words of Lord Bryce be realized.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+
+Abeghian, A. Der armenische Volksglaube. Leipzig. 1899.
+
+Agathange. Histoire du regne de Tiridate. In Langlois, Collection
+des historiens de l'Armenie.
+
+Anonymous. Easter service. Survey 36:167.
+
+---- Armenian folk-lore. Fraser's Magazine (n.s.) 13:283-97.
+
+Arnot, Robert. World's great classic series. Section on Armenian
+literature and folk-lore. New York. 1901.
+
+Bent, J. T. Travels amongst the Armenians. Contemporary Review 70:695.
+
+Blackwell, Alice, S. Preface to Seklemian's tales. New York. 1898.
+
+Boyadjian, Z. C. Armenian legends and poems. London. 1916.
+
+Brightman, F. E. Liturgies eastern and western. Oxford. 1896.
+
+Bryce, J. Transcaucasia and Ararat. London. 1896.
+
+Cesaresco, E. M. Folk-songs. London. 1886.
+
+Chikhachev, P. A. Reisen in Kleinasien und Armenien. Gotha. 1867.
+
+Clark, W. Armenian history. New Englander 22:507, 672.
+
+Conybeare, F. C. Armenian church. Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed.
+
+---- Armenian language and literature. Ibid.
+
+---- Key of truth. Oxford. 1898.
+
+---- Rituale Armenorum. Oxford. 1905.
+
+Curzon, Robert. Armenia. London. 1854.
+
+Dubois de Montpereux. Voyages. Vols. 2, 3. Paris. 1839-43.
+
+Elisee Vartabed. Histoire de Vartan et de la guerre des Armeniens. In
+Langlois, Collection.
+
+Emin, M. Movses--Khorenatzi yev Hayotz Hin Veber. Tiflis. 1886.
+
+Faustus of Byzance. Bibliotheque historique. In Langlois, Collection.
+
+Fortescue, E. F. K. The Armenian church. London. 1872.
+
+Gelzer, H. Armenia. New Schaff Herzog Encyclopaedia.
+
+Gibbon, Ed. Decline and fall of the Roman Empire. Vol. 3. New
+York. 1910.
+
+Hodgetts, E. A. B. Round about Armenia. London. 1896.
+
+Langlois, Victor. Collection des historiens de l'Armenie. Vols. 1,
+2. Paris. 1867-1869. Contains translations of various historians
+dating from 2nd century before Christ to 5th century after Christ.
+
+Lidgett, Elizabeth S. An ancient people. London. 1897.
+
+Lynch, H. F. B. Armenia. Vols. 1, 2. London. 1901.
+
+MacDougall, W. Social psychology. Boston. 1916.
+
+Mar Apas Catina. Histoire ancienne de l'Armenie. In Langlois,
+Collection.
+
+Mesrob, St. Maschtotz. Constantinople. No date given.
+
+Moise de Khorene. Histoire de l'Armenie. In Langlois, Collection.
+
+Ormanian, M. The Armenian church. London. 1912.
+
+Radloff, W. Volksliteratur tuerkischen Staemme. St. Petersburg. 1866.
+
+Raffi, A. Article on Armenia. In Boyadjian, Armenian legends and poems.
+
+Rockwell, W. Publications of Hakluyt Society. Series 2, IV, and other
+references under "Armenia."
+
+Ross, E. A. Social psychology. New York. 1917.
+
+St. Martin, J. Memoire sur l'Armenie. Paris. 1818-1819.
+
+Seklemian, S. Golden maiden and other tales. New York. 1898.
+
+Stubbs, W. Lectures on mediaeval kingdoms. Oxford. 1887.
+
+Tarde, G. Les lois sociales. Paris. 1898.
+
+Tavernier, J. B. Voyages en Turquie en Perse et aux
+Indes. Vol. 3. Utrecht. 1712.
+
+Terzian, P. Religious customs among Armenians. Catholic World 71:305,
+509.
+
+Trowbridge, T. C. Armenia and Armenians. New Englander 33:1.
+
+Ubicini, J. H. A. Letters on Turkey. London. 1856.
+
+Villari, Luigi. Fire and sword in the Caucasus. London. 1906.
+
+Wilson, C. W. Armenia. Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+NOTES
+
+
+[1] Detailed descriptions of geography and geology may be found
+in Lynch, Armenia; St. Martin, Memoire sur l'Armenie, 2. Summary
+descriptions may be found in the New Schaff Herzog and Britannica
+encyclopedias.
+
+[2] Robert Curzon, Armenia.
+
+[3] Dubois de Montpereux, Voyages 3:400.
+
+[4] There is a belief that the toneer is sacred. "Nur der alte T'onir,
+der offen Backofen, der von den Iraniern entlehnt ist und am fuenften
+Jahrhundert schon gebraucht wird, gilt ueberall in Armenien als
+heilig." Abeghian, Der armenische Volksglaube p. 3.
+
+[5] Surrounded as Armenia was with almost all of the ancient
+civilizations, including the Parthians, Scythians, Medes, Assyrians,
+Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans, she was inevitably involved
+in continual warfare, while the central situation of the territory
+made it a common stamping ground for hostile armies. Langlois 1:ix.
+
+[6] Ormanian, The Church of Armenia pp. 151-54.
+
+[7] Mar Apas Catina. Langlois' Collection des Histoires de l'Armenie
+1:16.
+
+[8] St. Martin, Memoire sur l'Armenie 1:281.
+
+[9] Mar Apas Catina. Langlois 1:15-18.
+
+Moses of Khorene. Langlois 3:63-64.
+
+[10] St. Martin 1:306.
+
+[11] Ibid. 1:282-3. Moses of Khorene 2:67-69.
+
+Mar Apas Catina 1:26-27.
+
+The first Arsacidae king of Armenia, Valarsace, whose reign began
+in 149 B.C. found the kingdom in general disorder and was the first
+to organize the country along national lines. As a Parthian he was
+unacquainted with the history and institutions of the people, and
+desiring to build upon the established foundation, such as it was,
+he sent a Syrian scholar, Mar Apas Catina by name, with a letter to
+his brother, Arsace, king of Persia, requesting the latter to allow the
+Syrian access to the royal archives with the view of finding a history
+of Armenia. Mar Apas Catina found an old MS containing a history
+of ancient Armenia which bore the name of no author, and which was
+translated from Chaldean to Greek by order of Alexander the Great. It
+was translated into Syriac by the Syrian scholar for the benefit of
+Valarsace, but the MS has been lost, and there is not the slightest
+trace of it anywhere. It must have been in existence however, during
+the fifth century after Christ for Moses of Khorene used it as his only
+source for Armenia's ancient history, in writing his general history
+of Armenia. The old MS being lost, the translation by Mar Apas Catina
+and the first part of the history of Moses are given as identical
+to each other in Langlois' collection of Armenian historians. The
+ancient history contains the legends of Haic, of Ara and Semiramis,
+and of Vahakn, some of the songs of heroes, still sung, and other
+matter which is strictly speaking not historical. As a history,
+therefore, it is unreliable and unauthentic, but from the standpoint
+of the social historian it is invaluable, for a belief is as important
+a fact to sociology as the dethronement of a king is to history.
+
+[12] Boyadjian, Armenian Legends and Poetry p. 33.
+
+[13] St. Martin 1:409.
+
+[14] Lynch 2:65.
+
+[15] Lynch, Armenia, chapter entitled "Van."
+
+[16] Raffi, article in Boyadjian's Armenian Legends and Poetry, p. 125.
+
+[17] Lynch, chapter on Van.
+
+[18] Moses of Khorene 2:69.
+
+[19] Ibid.
+
+[20] Lynch 2:65.
+
+[21] Moses of Khorene 2:68, 69.
+
+[22] St. Martin 1:285.
+
+[23] Raffi p. 129. Abeghian pp. 49, 50.
+
+[24] Moses of Khorene 2:76. Translation from Moses, Boyadjian p. 10.
+
+Mar Apas Catina 1:40.
+
+[25] Mar Apas Catina 1:41. Moses of Khorene p. 76.
+
+Moses of Khorene, called the Herodotus of Armenia, has written the best
+known history of the Armenian people. The work has been translated
+into Latin, Italian, French, German, and Russian. Moses lived in the
+fifth century, two centuries after the conversion of the nation to
+Christianity. He belonged to the second order of translators in the
+school of St. Sahag and St. Mesrob, and was sent to Syria, Egypt,
+Greece, and Rome in order to complete his studies. Upon returning to
+his country he found everything in disorder. St. Sahag and St. Mesrob
+were dead, the king had been overthrown, and he chose the life of
+solitude. Sometime later he was chosen bishop and requested by an
+Armenian prince, Sahag Bagratide, to write a history of his country,
+which task he took up with great enthusiasm. The translation of Mar
+Apas Catina was his only source for Armenian ancient history. He
+carefully differentiates hearsay from fact, never fails to stamp
+a fable or legend as such, and generally quotes his authorities
+where he has them. Considering the limitation of his materials, and
+the time in which he wrote, Moses wrote a really remarkable book,
+although the verdicts of a few critics have been unfavorable.
+
+[26] Raffi p. 129.
+
+[27] Lidgett, An Ancient People. St. Martin 1:409. Mar Apas Catina
+p. 41.
+
+[28] The influence of Greek culture is chiefly indicated by the fact
+that the pagan divinities were Greek and that many temples were erected
+to these gods and goddesses all over the country. (Agathange, Histoire
+du Regne de Tiridate. Langlois 1:164-70.) Secondly, there were formed
+by St. Sahag and St. Mesrob in the fifth century after the conversion
+of the nation to Christianity, schools of translators, who studied in
+Greece, Egypt, and Rome and whose chief works were translations from
+the Greek. With the conversion (301) came the necessity for a written
+language, the characters of which were invented by St. Mesrob in
+404. Thereupon were organized the schools of translators whose chief
+study of necessity was Greek, and whose translations and original
+works have given to the fifth century the title of "Golden Age of
+Armenian Literature." (Langlois 1:xxi-xxvi, 2:vii.)
+
+[29] St. Martin 1:288, 289. Mar Apas Catina 1:41.
+
+Moses of Khorene 2:81.
+
+[30] Ibid.
+
+[31] Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire 3:393.
+
+Moses of Khorene 2:155.
+
+[32] Ibid. pp. 88, 89.
+
+[33] St. Martin 1:291. Moses of Khorene p. 88.
+
+[34] Raffi p. 126.
+
+[35] Langlois 1:ix, x. These songs of which Moses of Khorene very
+frequently speaks are classified by Langlois into songs of the first
+order, the second order, and the third order. The first are relative
+to the prowess of Armenian kings and gods; the second concern a long
+series of military exploits accomplished against the Assyrians, Medes,
+and Persians; the third refer especially to traditions in connection
+with the Assyrians. The birth-song of Vahakn is an illustration of
+the songs of the first order (p. x, xi). Flint in his History of the
+Philosophy of History, p. 42, speaks of this period of minstrelsy
+as necessarily preceding the use of letters everywhere. "The myth
+and legend interest primitive man more than real fact. His vision is
+more largely of the imagination than of the sense of judgment. It is
+an error to regard the rude minstrelsy which generally preceded the
+use of letters as essentially historical."
+
+[36] Countess Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, Essays in the Study of
+Folk-Songs, chapter on Armenia.
+
+[37] The battle of Avarair under the leadership of the celebrated
+Vartan, where Armenia defended her national ideals against the
+intrusion of Persia, is proof of this.
+
+[38] Ormanian p. 22. Moses of Khorene p. 158.
+
+[39] There are further proofs that may be cited. The history of English
+and French literature shows that the golden age of their literature
+followed a period of social integration along national lines. And
+it is true that the golden age of Armenian literature dawned with
+the closing decades of the Arsacidae dynasty, and continued several
+decades beyond. And finally, when Valarsace, the first Arsacidae,
+ascended the throne of Armenia, finding everything in a state of
+disorder, he organized the country along national lines. Dividing
+the kingdom into provinces he placed his governors at the heads
+of them; he organized a standing army, appointed guardians of the
+granaries, established courts of justice, a royal guard, and minutely
+regulated court life. What is most interesting is that he appointed two
+reporters, one to remind him in his anger, "le bien a faire," the other
+to remind him of the necessity for doing justice. Ibid. pp. 82-85.
+
+[40] St. Martin 1:300. Moses of Khorene pp. 105-6.
+
+[41] Ibid. p. 106.
+
+[42] Boyadjian p. 49. Moses of Khorene p. 106. Moses as translated by
+Langlois, relates the story as legend, for after telling the tale, and
+quoting the songs he writes, "Voici maintenant le fait dans toute sa
+verite comme le cuir rouge est tres-estime chez les Alains, Artasches
+donne beaucoup de peaux de cette couleur, et beaucoup d'or en dot,
+et il obtient la jeune princesse Satenig. C'est la la laniere de cuir
+rouge garnie d'anneaux d'or. Ainsi dans les noces, ils chantent des
+legendes, en disant,
+
+
+        'Une pluie d'or tombait
+        Au marriage d'Artasches;
+        Les perles pleuvait
+        Aux noces de Satenig.'"
+
+
+Moses likewise relegates the legend and songs of Artavasd to their
+proper places.
+
+[43] Moses of Khorene p. 111.
+
+[44] Translation from Moses by Boyadjian p. 65.
+
+[45] Moses of Khorene p. 111.
+
+[46] Raffi p. 42.
+
+[47] St. Martin 1:appendix.
+
+[48] Ibid.
+
+[49] Clark, New Englander 22:507, 672. Raffi p. 127.
+
+[50] That trees are worshipped even to-day, and that certain
+superstitions are bound up with them is clearly shown by Abeghian. "In
+den Gegenden Armeniens, wo das Land mit Waeldern bedeckt ist, werden
+viele sehr alte und grosse Baeume fuer heilig gehalten und aehnlicher
+Weise wie die Quellen verehrt. Man brennt vor ihnen Lichter. Weihrauch,
+opfert ihnen Haehne und Hammel, kuesst sie, kriecht durch ihren
+gespaltenen Stamm durch, oder laesst magere Kinder durch ihre Loecher
+schluepfen, um die Einwirkung der bosen Geister aufzuheben. Man glaubt
+dass vom Himmel Lichter auf die heiligen Baeume kommen, oder Heilige
+sich auf denselben aufhalten. Auch die Baeume geben Gesundheit, einige
+heilen alle Krankheiten.... Um von Baeumen Heilung zu bekommen soll man
+ein Stueck von seiner Kleidung abreissen und damit den Baum umwickeln
+oder es auf den Baum nageln. Man glaubt dadurch seine Krankheit auf
+den Baum zu uebertragen." Abeghian pp. 58, 59.
+
+[51] Agathangelus p. 127. Emin, Recherches sur le Paganisme Armenien
+p. 9.
+
+[52] Raffi, article in Boyadjian's Armenian Legends and Poetry.
+
+[53] Tir is mentioned only once by Agathangelus (p. 164) and he is not
+mentioned by any other Armenian writers (Langlois 1:164). Emin compares
+him to the Greek Hermes or Mercury, probably because Agathangelus
+speaks of him as the recorder or reporter of Aramazd. (Emin p. 20,
+note 1.)
+
+[54] Abeghian p. 4.
+
+[55] He corresponds to the Persian Mithra and is hence of Persian
+origin and not Greek. The Greek translation of Agathangelus
+regards him as analogous to Vulcan, which Emin considers to be
+incorrect. (Agathangelus p. 168; Emin p. 20.)
+
+[56] Raffi, article in Boyadjian's Armenian Legends and Poetry.
+
+Seklemian's Tales. Preface by Blackwell.
+
+[57] "Und auch heute pflegt man stellenweise niederzuknieen und zu
+beten: 'O du goettliche strahlende Sonne! Dein Fuss ruhe auf meinem
+Antlitz! Bewahre meine Kinder.'" u. s. w. Abeghian p. 43.
+
+[58] Although the Greeks have identified Anahit with their goddess
+of chastity, Artemid, the Armenian goddess is not of Greek, but of
+Assyro-Babylonian origin according to Emin. Her name "Anahato" in
+ancient Persian means "Spotless." Agathangelus p. 126; Emin p. 10.
+
+[59] Agathangelus. Langlois 1:127.
+
+[60] Raffi p. 129.
+
+Both Nane and Astghik are mentioned by Agathangelus who speaks of the
+latter as the Aphrodite of the Greeks. (Agathangelus p. 173.) Emin
+likens Nane to Venus. The fact is that very little is known of
+either. (Agathangelus p. 168; Emin, p. 16.)
+
+[61] St. Martin 1:305, 306.
+
+[62] In the reigns of Artasches I and Tigranes II, many Greek
+statues were imported from abroad, and the latter king not only
+constructed temples for the worship of Greek divinities, but also
+ordered all to offer sacrifices and to worship newly acquired gods
+and goddesses. (Moses of Khorene pp. 86-88.)
+
+[63] St. Martin 1:295.
+
+[64] Moses of Khorene p. 95.
+
+[65] Moses of Khorene p. 96.
+
+[66] Ibid.
+
+[67] Ormanian p. 3.
+
+[68] There is another legend of St. Thaddeus, according to which
+he converted Abgar and his whole court to Christianity, curing the
+king of his disease at the same time. (Moses p. 97.) Abgar, who died
+shortly afterword, divided his kingdom between his son and nephew. The
+former at once resumed the pagan worship while the latter was forced
+to apostatize. But the preaching and martyrdom of St. Thaddeus at the
+hand of Sanatruk, the nephew, is recorded by Faustus of Byzantium,
+one of the most reliable of early Armenian historians. (Faustus of
+Byzantium. Langlois 1:210. See also Lynch, Armenia 1:278, and Moses
+of Khorene pp. 98-99.)
+
+[69] Lynch 1:286.
+
+[70] St. Martin pp. 302, 303.
+
+[71] Agathangelus. Langlois 1:115.
+
+[72] St. Martin p. 303.
+
+Agathangelus p. 122.
+
+[73] St. Martin p. 304. Agathangelus p. 121.
+
+[74] Agathangelus pp. 126-33.
+
+[75] Ibid. p. 135.
+
+[76] Lynch 1:256. Agathangelus p. 139.
+
+[77] Critics have distinguished Agathangelus, the historian,
+from Pseudo Agathangelus, the meddler, who evidently had religious
+interests at stake. The former lived in the fourth century, and was
+secretary to Tiridates, who unquestionably commissioned him to keep
+the records of the events of his reign. He is spoken of by Moses and
+other ancient historians as sincere and reliable. It is thus assumed
+that the original work has been destroyed or lost, and that the Greek
+and Armenian texts now existing are the work of an interpolater who
+desired to weave the straggling skeins of religious sentiment into
+a single garment by establishing an historic and literary sanction
+to the religious events of the period of the conversion. There are
+many indications of this, chief of which is the highly imaginative
+style of narrative, undoubtedly designed with the particular intent
+of capturing the minds of the people. (Langlois' introduction to
+Agathangelus 1:99-108.)
+
+[78] Langlois in his footnotes states that the chapel consecrated
+to St. Gaiane was constructed by the Katholikos Ezdras in the year
+630. and repaired in 1652. The church of St. Rhipsime was built by the
+Katholikos Gomidas in 618, and repaired in 1653. The main cathedral
+was built by St. Gregory. They are situated in Etchmiadzin. (Dubois
+3:213. Langlois 1:160, 162.)
+
+[79] Lynch 1:291, note.
+
+[80] Dubois 3:276.
+
+[81] Bryce pp. 314, 315.
+
+[82] Ormanian p. 13.
+
+[83] Dubois 3:276.
+
+[84] Ormanian p. 8.
+
+[85] Agathangelus pp. 164-66.
+
+[86] See Conybeare's translation and annotation of the Key of
+Truth, the book of the Paulicians (Adoptionists) of Thonrak. This
+book contains the baptismal and ordinal service of the Adoptionist
+church. (Especially pp. vi-xcxii.)
+
+[87] Conybeare p. xcvii. The original is given by Conybeare as follows:
+"Dic mihi," says Archelaus, "super quem Spiritus Sanctus sicut columba
+descendit. Quis est etiam qui baptizatur a Ioanne si perfectus erat,
+si Filius erat, si vertus erat, non poterat Spiritus ingredi; sicut
+nee regnum potest ingredi intra regnum."
+
+Lynch 1:279.
+
+[88] Ibid. 1:282.
+
+[89] Lynch 1:294.
+
+Agathangelus pp. 164-66.
+
+[90] St. Martin 1: appendix.
+
+Elisee Vartabed, Histoire de Vartan. Langlois 2:190-91.
+
+[91] Ibid. p. 195.
+
+[92] Lidgett, An Ancient People.
+
+The detailed events of this struggle against the Persians are
+told in the Histoire de Vartan et de la Guerre des Armeniens, by
+Elisee Vartabed who belonged to the second order of translators and
+served under General Vartan during the war, the history of which he
+narrates. After the sad ending of the series of dramatic incidents that
+made up this struggle for religious freedom, Elisee sought solitude
+and lived on herbs and roots in a mountainside cave which came to be
+known as the "cave of Elisee." Because of a growing social intimacy
+he was obliged to find a second cave in a more remote section of the
+country, where he completed his work and died. His history is written
+in the style of a religious mystic, is full of dramatic imagery,
+and has come down as an Armenian classic. (Langlois 2:179-82.)
+
+[93] Lynch 1:313.
+
+Ormanian p. 35.
+
+[94] Ibid. p. 36.
+
+[95] Genesis 8:4.
+
+[96] James Bryce, Transcaucasia and Ararat p. 210.
+
+St. Martin 1:264.
+
+[97] St. Martin 1:267-68.
+
+[98] Tavernier, Voyages 1:43.
+
+[99] Bryce, Transcaucasia and Ararat, chapter on Ararat.
+
+[100] Dubois 3:465.
+
+[101] Arghuri means "Il sema la vigne." St. Martin pp. 266, 267.
+
+[102] Dubois 3:465-68.
+
+[103] Bryce, chapter on Ararat.
+
+[104] Dubois 3:468.
+
+[105] Countess Evelyn Martinengo Cesaresco, chapter on Armenian
+folk-songs. Fraser's Magazine (n.s.) 13:283-97.
+
+[106] Fraser's Magazine (n.s.) 13:283-97.
+
+[107] Ormanian p. 224.
+
+Bertrand Bareilles, preface to the French edition of Ormanian p. xviii.
+
+[108] Ormanian p. 243.
+
+[109] Ibid. p. 177.
+
+[110] Ubicini, Letters on Turkey.
+
+Ormanian pp. 151, 152.
+
+[111] Ibid. p. 173.
+
+[112] Ibid. p. 141.
+
+[113] Ubicini, Letters on Turkey.
+
+[114] Ormanian p. 170.
+
+[115] Ibid.
+
+Ubicini, Letters on Turkey.
+
+Tavernier 1:498, 499.
+
+[116] Ormanian p. 152.
+
+[117] Ibid.
+
+[118] Lynch, chapter on Etchmiadzin.
+
+Dubois 3:362, 363.
+
+[119] See p. 30 of this thesis, note 32.
+
+[120] Ormanian p. 74.
+
+[121] Ibid.
+
+For the relation of the church to the Turkish and Russian Governments
+see Lynch 1:269, also Ubicini, Letters on Turkey.
+
+[122] That is, Pseudo Agathangelus.
+
+[123] Raffi p. 128.
+
+[124] Ibid.
+
+[125] Seklemian's Tales. Preface by Blackwell.
+
+[126] Abeghian pp. 72-74.
+
+[127] The 13th of February according to the old style calendar
+corresponds to the 26th of February of the Latin calender.
+
+[128] Abeghian p. 72.
+
+[129] Ibid. p 20.
+
+The remainder of the paragraph is a free translation of selected
+parts of pp. 20-22.
+
+[130] Abeghian p. 22.
+
+[131] Maschtotz, St. Mesrob. One third of the book is devoted to
+this purpose.
+
+[132] Ormanian p. 189.
+
+[133] Abeghian p. 23.
+
+[134] Ibid. This and preceding paragraph are a free translation from
+selected sentences of pp. 23 and 24.
+
+[135] Tavernier 1:507-9.
+
+[136] Elisee.
+
+[137] Lidgett, Ancient People.
+
+[138] Ibid.
+
+[139] Raffi p. 158.
+
+[140] Translated by Miss Boyadjian, Armenian Legends and Poetry.
+
+After the first and third lines of the charm song, the following line
+is sung, which I give in the German of Abeghian:
+
+
+    "Liebe Rose meine, liebe, liebe."
+
+
+and after the second and fourth lines:
+
+
+    "Liebe Blume meine, liebe, liebe." (Abeghian p. 65.)
+
+
+There are thousands of similarly constructed folk-songs treating
+a variety of subjects current among the people, many of which have
+been collected by an Armenian by the name of Tcheras, whose book,
+unfortunately, I have not been able to obtain. Miss Boyadjian has
+collected a few of them in her Armenian Legends and Poetry. However,
+I shall mention only such as are relevant to the festivals to be
+described.
+
+[141] Abeghian pp. 61-62.
+
+[142] World's Great Classic Series. Section on Armenian literature,
+with introduction by Robert Arnot. See David of Sassun pp. 57-79.
+
+[143] Abeghian p. 51, 52.
+
+Emin, Ancient Armenian Legends.
+
+[144] Abeghian p. 62.
+
+[145] These beliefs are analogous to those in connection with the
+bringing of healing water, or the water of perpetual life, the source
+of which is guarded by monsters, snakes, and scorpions. The hero steals
+cautiously to the source in order not to be observed by the watchmen,
+fills his vessel with water and hurries away, for the mountains and
+trees call out to warn the guardians of the source who awake and
+follow the hero. (Ibid. p. 63.)
+
+[146] This part of the festivities is also accompanied with song. In
+Astapet the following song is sung by way of introduction:
+
+
+    "Holt einen grossen Meister,
+    Lasset ihn den Hochzeitsrock meines geliebten zuschneiden
+    Die Sonne sei der Stoff
+    Der Mond diene als Futter.
+    Stellt aus Wolken die Einfassung her,
+    Wickelt aus dem Meer Seidengarn,
+    Befestigt die Sterne in einer Reihe als Knopfe,
+    Naeht die ganze Liebe hinein." (Abeghian p. 64.)
+
+
+[147] Abeghian pp. 63-66.
+
+[148] Ormanian pp. 189-90.
+
+[149] For the ritual side of this festival, the church ceremony known
+as the Blessing of the Crops, or the Blessing of Harvest, and the
+prayers in connection therewith, F. C. Conybeare's Ritual Armenorum,
+and St. Mesrob's Maschtotz may be consulted. The social side I have
+gotten from my wife who has taken part in the festival several times.
+
+[150] A very common custom, especially in the interior villages of
+Armenia, is to give a lighted candle and an apple or orange in which
+small silver coins have been stuck, as gifts to the children. This
+is done by the eldest member of the family, usually the grandmother,
+at the time the younger ones come up to kiss her hand and receive
+her blessing.
+
+[151] For a description of the Easter and Christmas fasts, see
+Tavernier, Voyages 1:497-98.
+
+[152] The festivals of New Year's Day, Easter, and Christmas, I
+have described as related to me by my wife who has celebrated them
+in company with others in Constantinople. Such variations practiced
+in the interior of Armenia as I am aware of, I have indicated.
+
+[153] F. C. Conybeare, Ritual Armenorum pp. 213, 294.
+
+[154] Survey 36:167. Anonymous.
+
+[155] Tavernier, Voyages 1:496.
+
+[156] Dubois 3:441.
+
+[157] Ormanian p. 177.
+
+[158] F. C. Conybeare, Ritual Armenorum p. 224.
+
+[159] Brightman, Eastern Liturgies, chapter on Armenian Liturgy. For
+an interesting variation of this ceremony see Tavernier 1:502.
+
+Closely related to this ceremony is that of the blessing or purifying
+of a well. A well is not used until a priest has first blessed it,
+or if the water of a well becomes impure, it is necessary to purify it
+by the blessing of a priest. The latter takes a cross and a Bible and
+having requested the people to draw a pail of water which is thrown
+away, a second pail is drawn, over which the priest reads a psalm. The
+water is then blessed with the cross, incense is burned over the well,
+and the pail of water is emptied back. (Maschtotz.)
+
+[160] Lynch 1:203, 204.
+
+[161] Contemporary Review 70:695. J. T. Bent.
+
+Tavernier, 1:500, 501.
+
+[162] The people believe that the holy relic causes the mixture
+to boil.
+
+[163] Catholic World 11:301. Paul Terzian.
+
+[164] According to Maschtotz the devil is abjured and the Trinity
+invoked at the gate of the church. In the course of the ceremony
+the priest unclothes the babe and asks the godfather, "What seeks
+the child?" The godfather answers, "Faith, Hope, Love, and Baptism,
+to be cleansed from his sins and to be freed from the devils." The
+three immersions are symbolical of the three days of burial of
+Christ. (Maschtotz.)
+
+[165] In the description of baptism as witnessed by Tavernier, red
+and white threads were laid about the neck of the child at this point
+in the ceremony. They represent the blood and body of Christ and are
+probably believed to keep away the evil eye. Beads and various other
+charm tokens are commonly used for this purpose. (Tavernier 1:500.)
+
+[166] This is probably because evil spirits dwell in darkness, while
+the beneficent are light.
+
+[167] The similarity to the old Hebrew custom may be noted.
+
+[168] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:305.
+
+[169] Tavernier says that frequently two pregnant women who are on
+very friendly terms, will engage their future offspring, trusting to
+fortune that one will be a boy and the other a girl. (Tavernier 1:505.)
+
+[170] In fact when there is a variance of choice between parents
+and daughter it is common for the girl to regard the decision of her
+parents as being her fate. "Wenn eine junge Frau mit ihrer Heirat,
+die sie, nach dem Willen der Eltern geschlossen hat, unzufrieden ist,
+so singt sie:
+
+
+    'Was soll ich meinem Vater und meiner Mutter sagen?
+    Das war auf meine Stirn geschrieben.'" (Abeghian p. 54.)
+
+
+[171] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:305.
+
+[172] It is very evident that the expense of these festivities is a
+considerable item in the budget of the bridegroom's father. But it is
+a matter of social pride and respectability to live up to a certain
+standard of established usage. Accordingly many families involve
+themselves in life-long incumbrances, not only in the betrothal and
+marriage festivities but also in the ceremony of baptism, simply to
+come up to a recognized norm of expenditure. (Tavernier 1:504, 505.)
+
+[173] Cesaresco, chapter on Armenian folk-songs.
+
+[174] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:508.
+
+[175] Bent, Contemporary Review 70:701.
+
+[176] Tavernier states that in Persian Armenia a man frequently lives
+with his wife ten years without ever hearing her voice or seeing
+her face. Of course she does not sleep with her veil over her face,
+but she is always careful to blow out the candle before she removes
+the veil, as she is to rise before daybreak in order to put it on
+again. (Tavernier 1:507.)
+
+[177] Trowbridge, New Englander 33:1 ff.
+
+[178] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:509.
+
+[179] This statement is in contradiction to a previous statement that
+the body of the dead is merely wrapped in white cloth after it has
+been washed; (see page 60) the use of the white cloth is common among
+Gregorian Armenians.
+
+[180] Paul Terzian, Catholic World 71:509 ff.
+
+[181] Ormanian p. 36.
+
+[182] Ross, Social Psychology pp. 88-89.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Armenian Legends and Festivals, by
+Louis A. Boettiger
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