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diff --git a/38109-h/38109-h.htm b/38109-h/38109-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a89d343 --- /dev/null +++ b/38109-h/38109-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2394 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Lecture On Artificial Flight, by Wm. G. Krueger. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + +h2 { + margin-top: 4%; + text-indent: 0%; + text-align: center; + clear: both; +} + +/* paragraphs */ + +p { + margin-top: 3%; + margin-bottom: 3%; + text-align: justify; +} /* general paragraph */ + +p.h2a { + text-indent: 0%; + text-align: center; + font-size: 150%; + font-weight: bold; +} /* h2 type without top margin */ + +p.h3 { + margin-top: 7%; + text-indent: 0%; + text-align: center; + font-size: 100%; + font-weight: bold; +} + +p.indent { + text-indent: 4%; +} /* indented paragraph */ + +p.margin-left8 +{ + margin-left: 20%; +} /* text unindented with medium indentation of paragraph */ + +/* horizontal rules */ + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 8%; + margin-bottom: 8%; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +.hr2 +{ + width: 90%; + max-width: 90%; + color: #CCCCCC; + background-color: #FFFFFF; + border: none; + border-bottom: 6px double black; + margin: 8% auto; +} /* horizontal rule for chapter divisions */ + +/* tables */ + +.pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +/* block quotes and notes */ +blockquote { + margin-left: 20%; + margin-right: 30%; +} + +.center { + text-indent: 0%; + text-align: center; +} + +.right { + text-indent: 0%; + text-align: right; +} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +/* Links attributes */ + +a:link { color:#000000; text-decoration: none; border-bottom: 1px dashed #808080;} + +a:visited { color:#25383C; text-decoration: none; border-bottom: 1px dashed #808080;} + +a:hover { color:#008000; text-decoration: none; border-bottom: 1px dashed #808080;} + +a:active { color:#000000; text-decoration: none; border-bottom: 1px dashed #808080;} + +ins {text-decoration: none; border-bottom: 1px dashed #dcdcdc;} + +table { + margin-left: 0%; + margin-right: 0%; +} + +.tdr { + text-align: right; + width: 33%; +} /* right align cell */ + +.tdl { + text-align: left; + width: 33%; +} /* left align cell */ + +/* Images */ + +img { + padding: 6px; +} /* without border */ + +img.border{ + border: 1px solid black; + padding: 6px; +} /* with border */ + +.figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; +} + +/* Other */ + +span.ralign { + position: absolute; + right: 10%; + top: auto; +} + +div.tnote { + border-style: dotted; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + padding: 1%; + font-style: normal; + font-size: 90%; + text-align: justify; +} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Lecture on Artificial Flight, by Wm. G. Krueger + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Lecture on Artificial Flight + Given by request at the Academy of Natural Sciences + +Author: Wm. G. Krueger + +Release Date: November 23, 2011 [EBook #38109] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LECTURE ON ARTIFICIAL FLIGHT *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Ernest Schaal, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;"> <img class="border" src="images/i_cover.png" width="414" height="700" alt="LECTURE +ON +ARTIFICIAL FLIGHT + +GIVEN BY REQUEST AT THE +ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES + +AT +San Francisco, California, August 7th, 1876, + +BY +WM. G. KRUEGER +WITH REFERENCE TO A MODEL OF HIS OWN INVENTION." title="LECTURE +ON +ARTIFICIAL FLIGHT + +GIVEN BY REQUEST AT THE +ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES + +AT +San Francisco, California, August 7th, 1876, + +BY +WM. G. KRUEGER +WITH REFERENCE TO A MODEL OF HIS OWN INVENTION." /> +</div> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2>INDEX.</h2> + +<blockquote> +<p>No. <span class="ralign">Page.</span></p> + +<p>1 Introduction <span class="ralign"><a href="#I">1</a></span></p> + +<p>2 History and Fable <span class="ralign"><a href="#II">2</a></span></p> + +<p>3 Discovery of the Balloon <span class="ralign"><a href="#III">7</a></span></p> + +<p>4 Noted Air Voyages <span class="ralign"><a href="#IV">8</a></span></p> + +<p>5 Absence of Danger <span class="ralign"><a href="#V">11</a></span></p> + +<p>6 Charm of Ærial Travel <span class="ralign"><a href="#VI">12</a></span></p> + +<p>7 Ærial Voyages Health Promoting <span class="ralign"><a href="#VII">15</a></span></p> + +<p>8 Parachutes <span class="ralign"><a href="#VIII">16</a></span></p> + +<p>9 The Kite <span class="ralign"><a href="#IX">17</a></span></p> + +<p>10 Balloons Impracticable <span class="ralign"><a href="#X">18</a></span></p> + +<p>11 Reasons why the Problem has remained Unsolved <span class="ralign"><a href="#XI">21</a></span></p> + +<p>12 Fundamental Principles in Flight <span class="ralign"><a href="#XII">23</a></span></p> + +<p>13 Weight <span class="ralign"><a href="#XIII">24</a></span></p> + +<p>14 Surface <span class="ralign"><a href="#XIV">26</a></span></p> + +<p>15 Power <span class="ralign"><a href="#XV">28</a></span></p> + +<p>16 Flying Creatures, their Proportions, Movements <span class="ralign"><a href="#XVI">31</a></span></p> + +<p>17 Mechanical Practicability of Flight <span class="ralign"><a href="#XVII">34</a></span></p> + +<p>18 Flying Machines of the Present, their defects <span class="ralign"><a href="#XVIII">37</a></span></p> + +<p>19 The Practical Air Ship of the near Future <span class="ralign"><a href="#XIX">43</a></span></p> + +<p>20 What Ærostation will Accomplish <span class="ralign"><a href="#XX">48</a></span></p> + +<p>21 Closing Remarks <span class="ralign"><a href="#XXI">50</a></span></p> +</blockquote> + +<hr /> + +<p class="h3">ERRATA.</p> + +<blockquote> +<p>Page 4, line 4, read "one from Kœnigsberg," for "Kœnigsberg."</p> + +<p>Page 4, line 18, read "afterward," for "ago."</p> +</blockquote> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2>SAILING IN THE AIR.</h2> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I.—INTRODUCTION.</h2> + +<p><i>Gentlemen of the Academy</i>:</p> + +<p>The problem of artificial flight is of such great importance +to civilization; so interesting and fascinating, +not only to the student, but to every one; and it allows +us to indulge in such a wide field for speculation +as to the great changes which will be wrought by the +practical solution of it in the social, political and commercial +world, that I must beg of you to consider only +my good intentions in appearing before you, and pardon +my shortcomings as a lecturer. It is my first attempt, +and is simply undertaken to bring the subject +more understandingly before the public, that they may +assist, morally, and pecuniarily, the several inventors +who are wrestling with it more or less successfully—some +rather less. If only one inventor in a +hundred should meet with flattering results, the attention +bestowed upon all will be repaid a thousand fold +by that one's success.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>[pg 2]</span> +The idea of sailing through the air in a flying machine +is not new, nor such an absurd one as is generally +supposed; and it is indeed important to investigate +and lay it before the public more directly than has +been done heretofore through the medium of great, +musty and long-winded volumes. If found to seem +practicable and feasible, it is for you, gentlemen, to see +that the future great State of California shall also be +ahead in this—one of the greatest and most important +inventions of the age—as she is, and has been in many +other things before.</p> + +<p>The subject has really been taken hold of in a thorough +and scientific manner only the last few years; but +with such earnestness and scientific knowledge and intelligence, +not only by the foremost and principal society +for the advancement of the art—the Aeronautic +Society of Great Britain—to whom, really, the most +credit must fall—but in every civilized country; and so +much has been done already to prove, not only the +possibility but the absolute certainty of an early practical +solution of the problem, that soon we will see the +air traversed in all directions, by aspiring man. Many +seeming impossibilities of the present, need only time +and effort to become realities in the near future.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II.—HISTORY AND FABLE.</h2> + +<p>In turning our thoughts to History, reaching back +even into the mazy and wonderful ages of fable, we find +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>[pg 3]</span> +that from time immemorial the great science of ærostation +has occupied the minds of philosophers and inventors. +There can be little doubt that it was known +and made use of in olden times in isolated cases, but +was again lost, like many other important inventions.</p> + +<p>We are furnished with many interesting proofs of +this. Old Chinese, Arabian and Hindu fables give some +beautiful descriptions of ærial chariots, in which wizards, +princes and fairies sped over the fertile and populous +plains of their native country, disbursing good or +evil, according to their disposition, to the poor devils +crawling in the dust beneath them. The Jews had +their cherubim. The Assyrians have left us their +winged bulls; the Greeks, their Sphinxes; while the +Roman writers describe how that mythical personage, +Daedalus, a famous Athenian artificer, and builder of +the Cretan labyrinth, constructed wings with which he +flew across the Ægian Sea, to escape the resentment +of Minos. But his son, Icarus, undoubtedly of his +strength giving out, fell into the water and was drowned. +Their nation has bequeathed to us various bas-reliefs, +illustrative of what appear well-proportioned +wings.</p> + +<p>Archytos, the great geometrician, made a wooden +dove that flew like a natural one, and the famous German +astronomer, John Mueller, who died suddenly in +Rome, at the age of forty, in 1476, and whose memory +was celebrated last month in Germany, constructed +an artificial eagle, which flew out to greet the Emperor, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>[pg 4]</span> +Charles V, when he visited Nuremberg. This +Mueller was more widely known by the assumed name +of "Regiomontanus,"—the "Kingshiller"—that is, +"one from Kœnigsberg," a small village in the heart of Germany; +the custom of the times being for learned men +to adopt the latin name of their birthplace. He invented +the almanac, and prepared the first astronomical +tables, by the aid of which mariners, who, up to +that late day could only make coasting voyages, were +enabled to trust themselves to the open sea, with some +degree of assurance; and Columbus was among the +earliest to use these tables, twenty years afterwards, on +his first discovery voyage to America.</p> + +<p>Another German, a young watchmaker's apprentice, +constructed a flying machine, with which he, when +showing the same to his ignorant townspeople, flew +away to escape mobbing. His bones and pieces of the +machine were found some years afterward in a wild and isolated +part of the Black Forest. Towards the end of +the fifteenth century Giovanni Battista Dantes, of Perugia, +flew several times over the Thrasimenian Sea; +he certainly must have been at a considerable elevation, +for he fell on a church steeple and broke a leg. Another +account, particularly noticed in history, is that of +a man who flew high in the air in the City of Rome, +under the reign of Nero, but lost his life in the descent.</p> + +<p>In "Astra Castra," we read that soon after Bacon's +time, projects were instituted to train up children in the +exercise of flying with artificial wings, and considerable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>[pg 5]</span> +progress was made; by the combined effort of running +and flying they were enabled to skim over the surface, +as it were, with incredible speed. This same Roger Bacon, +an eminent philosopher of the thirteenth century, +and possessed of the very highest genius and ability, +whose ideas and knowledge, like Franklin's, were many +hundred years ahead of his age, descants, in one of his +works, in glowing language, on the practicability of +constructing engines that could navigate the air. He +accomplished wonderful things in his day, and was accused +of holding communion with the devil, who was +quite an important personage in those times. His writings +were interdicted, and himself locked up to prevent +closer acquaintanceship of his readers with the aforesaid +friend.</p> + +<p>About the Confessor's time, a monk, Elmirus, in +Spain, flew often, by means of a pair of wings, many +miles from high elevations. Cuperus, in his treatise +on "The Excellency of Man," contends that it is practicable +for human beings to attain the faculty of flying. +He asserts that Leonardo da Vinci, the great painter of +the "Lord's Supper," and other highly prized works of +art, practiced it successfully. The reasoning of the +great John Wilkins, Lord Bishop of Chester, who +died in 1672, embodies the sentiments and principles +of all these on the subject even stronger. In his work +on "Mechanical Motion," he treats expressly on artificial +flight, and conceives, in the sixth chapter, the framing +of such "volitant automata" very easy; and says +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>[pg 6]</span> +that the time will come when men will call for their +wings when about to make a journey, as they do now +for their boots and spurs.</p> + +<p>Lastly, in the "Journal de Savans," of the 12th of +September, 1678, an account is given of one Besnier, +a locksmith of Sable, France, who succeeded in flying. +But as his machine was extremely primitive—the wings +consisting only of four rectangular surfaces, one at the +end of each of two poles, which passed over the shoulder +of the operator, and were worked alternately up +and down—the inventor could only avail himself of +their aid in progressively raising himself from one +hight to another, until an elevated position was reached, +when he could glide through the air a long distance.</p> + +<p>Many more cases could be cited. Some ended disastrously; +others, because of the apathy, distrust, ignorance, +and superstition of the people, were lost sight +of again; while some, perhaps the most practical ones +and of which we find many indications in old writings, +were never made known for selfish reasons. Such has +been the fate of this—one of the most interesting problems—almost +up to the present time. We were, perhaps, +not prepared sufficiently, to receive the great +boon. We had to have the printing press, steam, and +electricity first, before we could attempt this next +great step towards a higher civilization.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>[pg 7]</span></p> + +<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III.—DISCOVERY OF THE BALLOON.</h2> + +<p>Although it is well understood now by most scientific +men, that the principles upon which ballooning rests, +will scarcely form any part in the solution of the problem +of ærial navigation; yet, when, in 1782, the +brothers, Mongolfier, in France, made the first successful +experiments with small paper balloons, filled with +heated air, it was thought that the key to that wonderful +art had been found; many applied themselves to its +improvement; and the next year already saw gas balloons +on a much larger scale.</p> + +<p>The first passengers, who had the honor of being +sent up into the realms of space, were a sheep, a cock +and a duck; and as their safe descent proved highly +satisfactory, the well-known French savan, Pilatre de +Rozier, tried the same experiment shortly afterwards +with great success, reaching a hight of nearly two +miles. The glowing description of his experience +raised the excitement of all classes to fever heat. Numerous +day and night ascensions were made by diplomats, +distinguished naturalists, professors of note, +scientific women and gymnastic aspirants, and their +journeys soon became more daring and extended to +wider fields.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>[pg 8]</span></p> + +<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV.—NOTED AIR VOYAGES.</h2> + +<p>Blanchard, the supposed inventor of the parachute, +with the American, Dr. Jeffries, were the first to cross +the channel from England to France. M. Charles, the +inventor of the gas balloon, and one of the earliest and +most enthusiastic advocates of ærostation, made extensive +voyages. Madame Thible, of Lyons, was the first +of her sex who trusted herself to the elastic element. +Crosbie, who passed over the sea from Ireland to England, +came near losing his life; for, the balloon, being +struck with great force by an adverse current of air, +and most of the gas escaping, tore over the raging +waters at a fearful speed, until the courageous man was +rescued, near the English coast, by a ship happening in +his way. But the view which he had enjoyed, seeing +both countries at once, was sublime beyond description, +and compensated him for all the danger. He had been +at such a hight that, although the July sun melted +everything below, his ink was a lump of ice, and the +quicksilver in the instruments had sunk almost out of +sight.</p> + +<p>The battle of Fleurus, in 1794, was won by the +French over the Austrians principally through the aid +of balloon reconnoitering; and similar service was occasionally +performed by the balloon in our own war. The +favorably known Italian, Count Zambeccari, who added +many improvements to this art, and created great interest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>[pg 9]</span> +in the principal countries of Europe, made an +ascension, in 1803, with two friends, at Bologna. The +three alighted in the Adriatic sea and were picked up +by fishermen, while the balloon, free from weight, rose +again and was carried by the wind to the Turkish fort +Vihacz, where the commander, believing it a present +"sent from heaven," had it cut up in small pieces and +divided amongst his friends as amulets. But quite a +"reverse opinion" was generally entertained by most +of the ignorant Christian country people, when the +huge monster happened to fall amongst them for the +first time; and their comparison of it to the "evil one" +is excusable when we consider the peculiar smell of +the escaping gas, after their attack upon it with pitchforks +and similar agricultural implements.</p> + +<p>Among other remarkable ascensions is that of Guy +Lussac, who reached the prodigious hight of nearly four +and a half miles. This was exceeded, though, by +another scientific æronaut, James Glaisher, in 1862, +who, with a companion, mounted the great altitude of +seven miles—over 36,000 feet; but as he was insensible +for some minutes after reaching the elevation of 29,000 +feet, the highest ever attained by human beings, their +calculations could only be approximated. The mercury +in the hygrometer—a delicate instrument for measuring +the moisture in the atmosphere—had fallen below the +scale, while they were rising more than 1000 feet per +minute. There are instances of balloons that have +shot upwards at the rate of fifty feet per second, or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>[pg 10]</span> +much over half a mile per minute; but, generally, even +twenty feet per second is a rare occurrence. And here +might be mentioned that, since the late serious loss of +several French scientists by asphyxia, or cold on their +unfortunate ascension, the problem of maintaining life +in the highest regions of the atmosphere has been +solved in France. With a certain apparatus, man +could manage to live comfortably nearly ten miles +above the level of the sea, while, ordinarily, two miles +is the most.</p> + +<p>As to horizontal speed, perhaps the fastest time on +record was made by Garnerin and Snowdon, from London +to Colchester, some eighty miles, in one hour, or +about 110 feet per second, almost swifter than an eagle +flies; and another balloon went from Paris across the +Alps, to the vicinity of Rome, in twenty-two hours, +making over fifty miles per hour, considering its zig-zag +travel. The reason for such great speed is, that the +different air currents travel far faster in the upper regions +than below, where the velocity of the wind is +seldom over twenty miles per hour; and yet, were it +not for the continually changing scenery, the æronaut +would imagine himself stationary.</p> + +<p>The shortest trip, perhaps, in the annals of this art, +both as to hight and distance, was made, a few years +ago, by a gymnast, at Woodward's Gardens, that most +beautiful pleasure resort in this city. The little disobliging +monster went lazily, and with great difficulty, +over the fence and capsized promptly on the other side, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>[pg 11]</span> +leaving the trapeze-man hanging, by the seat of his unmentionables, +on the top of it in an uncomfortable position, +but no bones were broken.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V.—ABSENCE OF DANGER.</h2> + +<p>It is erroneous to suppose that ærial voyages are +fraught with even ordinary danger; on the contrary, +travel by sea and land is far more so; for, although +thousands of assensions have been made, but very few +persons have met with accidents, in fact, a less number +by far comparatively, than by any other profession or +mode of locomotion; and, whenever such has happened, +gross carelessness or ignorance was often the cause.</p> + +<p>During the late Franco-German war, over sixty balloons, +many but indifferently constructed, left Paris, +during the siege, with some one hundred and eighty +persons and nearly three millions of letters. All +reached a point of safety.</p> + +<p>Professor Wise, the most noted American æronaut, +has made, during the last forty years, nearly five hundred +voyages, and one in particular, in 1859, of nearly +1200 miles—perhaps the longest on record—with three +companions, from St. Louis, Mo., to New York State. +This trip was made partly in the midst of a tornado, +while above Lake Erie, during which time some twenty +sailing crafts succumbed to the effects of the storm, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>[pg 12]</span> +yet the intrepid æronauts alighted in safety. M. +Green, who was the first to use coal gas, instead of +pure hydrogen, and has also made hundreds of successful +ascensions, was carried from London to Weilburg, +in the central part of Germany, about seven hundred +miles in eight hours, without the slightest mishap. +Lastly, Arban, crossed the Alps from Marseilles to Turin, +four hundred miles, in stormy weather during the +night. Mont Blanc to the left, on a level with the top of +which he was, resembled an immense block of crystal—sparkling +with a thousand fires; while the moon occasionally +seemed to have borrowed the light of the sun.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI.—CHARM OF ÆRIAL TRAVEL.</h2> + +<p>Nothing can equal the beauty of an ærial voyage, +that most wonderful, easy and luxurious mode of locomotion, +with its entire absence of dizziness—this sensation +being lost with the separation from earth, as +soon as the last cord, which unites us with the world +below, is cut.</p> + +<p>In rising from the ground, the feelings are absorbed +in the novelty and magnificence of the spectacle presented, +while the ears are saluted with the buzz of distant +sound until the clouds are reached, when all is +still as death. The scene is sublime. Around and +beneath, the clouds roll in magnificent grandeur. They +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>[pg 13]</span> +form pyramids, castles, reefs, icebergs, ships and towers, +and again dissolve into chaos. The half obscured sun +shedding his mellow light upon the picture, gives it a +rich and dazzling lustre. Reverence for the work of +nature, the solemn stillness, an admiration indescribable, +all combined, seem to make a sound of praise.</p> + +<p>The earth, which is never lost sight of at any hight, +except clouds interfere or night sets in, seems to be concave, +like the inside of a flattish hollow globe, instead +of the outside, as would naturally be supposed. The +reason for this optical delusion is, that the horizon appears +on a level with the æronaut, while the distance +downwards remains unaltered, making the surface below +appear like a valley. The earth presents the panoramic +view of an immense map, such as the enchanted +Alladdin must have enjoyed. The coloring, designating +the various products of the soil, is lively and +exquisite. Variegated grass-plats, the golden tinge of +waving grain fields, the more sombre foliage of the +trees, the glossy surface of the water dazzling in the +sunbeams, with occasional white specks for sailing craft; +the innumerable villages, with tastefully decorated and +tinny, toy-like houses, the numerous roads tortuously +spreading over the surface and looking like chalk lines +on a gaudy carpet, fairy-like carriages seemingly drawn +by mice and guided by liliputian little things. Such is +the beauty of this glorious earth. Yet, when mountains +appear like ant hills, and Niagara a neat little +cascade in a pleasure garden—instead of the raging +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>[pg 14]</span> +grandeur, only a frothy bubble—man must be forcibly +reminded that he is but the minutest animalcule, and +not of so much importance as he presumes himself to +be.</p> + +<p>No less impressive is the scene at night. The sublime +exhibition in the vast solitude and darkness of +night creates the most stupendous effect upon the lonely +æronaut.</p> + +<p>The earth's surface, as far as the eye can reach, absolutely +teems with the scattered fires of a watchful population, +and exhibits a starry spectacle below, that rivals +in brilliancy the lustre of the firmament above. A city +looming up in the distant horizon gradually appears +to blaze like a vast conflagration. On drawing near, +every street is marked out by its particular line of fires; +the forms and positions of the theatres, squares and +markets are indicated by the presence of larger and +more irregular accumulations of light, and the faint +murmurs of a busy population still actively engaged in +the pursuits of pleasure or the avocation of gain; all +together combined form a picture, which, for beauty +and effect, can not be conceived.</p> + +<p>Again, higher up, or when clouds intervene, the sky, +at all times darker when viewed from an elevation, +seems almost black with the intensity of night; while, +by contrast, the stars redoubled in their lustre, shine +like sparks of the whitest silver, scattered upon the +jetty dome around. Nothing can exceed this density +of night. Not a single object of terrestrial nature can +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>[pg 15]</span> +anywhere be distinguished, and an unfathomable abyss +of "darkness visible" encompasses one on every side. +It seems like cleaving the way through an interminable +mass of black marble, and a light lowered from +these dizzy hights appears to absolutely melt its way +down into the frozen bosom of the surrounding inkiness. +The cold is here intense.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII.—ÆRIAL VOYAGES HEALTH PROMOTING.</h2> + +<p>But while the charm of floating in the air is so fascinating +these delightful ascensions will be even more +beneficial in sanitary respects.</p> + +<p>Atmospheric pressure, exerting nearly 30,000 pounds +upon a human being of full growth, has much to do +with the mechanical functions of life. At a moderate +elevation, one-tenth of this weight can be relieved, and +at greater hights, even one-third, as balloon experiments +have sufficiently proven. This pressure, then, +diminishing upon the muscular system, allows it to expand. +The lungs at once become more voluminous +and breathing purer air; the freedom with which all +the circulating fluids of the system are allowed to act +in the rare atmosphere, intensely quicken the animal +and mental faculties; the novelty of the voyage, and +the most sublime grandeur opening to the eye and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>[pg 16]</span> +mind of the invalid; all assist to promote health, impart +new life, inspire ideas and invigorate soul and +body.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII.—PARACHUTES.</h2> + +<p>This simple contrivance often forms an adjunct to +balloons. Its appearance is generally that of a huge +family umbrella of revolutionary times. It is likewise +concave underneath, because such form, above all +others, condenses a column of atmosphere more rapidly +and retards its velocity in the descent immensely. +The ribs are generally of whale-bone or bamboo covered +with strong domestic muslin, and a light wicker +basket is fastened some twelve feet underneath for the +æronaut, who may cut himself loose from the balloon +with perfect safety at any hight, and descend slowly to +the ground, if the parachute is strongly made and perhaps +fourteen feet across when open.</p> + +<p>By giving it a slight inclination, it can be made to +descend, sliding-like, a long distance from the vertical +point; and some of the flying machines we read of +have likely been only a modified form of the parachute. +The nautilus on the ocean moves on the principle of it, +the pollen of plants is carried from one place to another +by this mode; so the flying squirrel moves in parabolic +curves from tree to tree and even crosses rivers when +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>[pg 17]</span> +the nut crop fails; as also the flying tree-frog slants +down long distances from high trees. This animal has +a considerable expansion of skin, connecting the toes +only, and which looks as if on its four legs were fastened +those short, broad and light snow-shoes, known +as Webfeet, used in our northern Territories in winter. +It is, therefore, called a "webfoot" frog, but from +which must not be inferred that it is "an Oregonian," +for it is encountered so far only in Borneo.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>IX.—THE KITE.</h2> + +<p>Every one is undoubtedly acquainted with the exceedingly +simple mechanism—invented when boys +commenced to exist—for the enjoyment of one of the +most pleasant pastimes—kite flying. It is indulged in +mostly during the fall, and, perhaps, a trifle more so in +the rural districts than in the cities, because of the +greater freedom of room which stubble fields and +meadows allow.</p> + +<p>But attention has also been given to the employment +of this kind of ærostation as a means of support and +conveyance; and kites have been made as much as +thirty feet high, looking more like buoyant sails than +boyish playthings, and exerting an immense power of +waftage. Loaded wagons have been drawn over +turnpikes; persons have frequently been carried up in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>[pg 18]</span> +the air by huge kites; and, in some parts of Europe, +experiments have been made to signal and save shipwrecked +people on dangerous coasts, proving sufficiently +that the kite can be made, even in its present +primitive state, to be quite useful.</p> + +<p>In this connection it may "not be amiss" to state +that the first person known to have ascended—some +eighty years ago, as the "History of Kite Carriage" +informs us, "was a Miss"—a young lady of some one +hundred and twenty-six pounds, avoirdupois. She +was seated in a chair underneath the gigantic structure +which weighed nearly thirty pounds, had a surface of +about sixty square feet, and rose most majestically to +a hight of six hundred feet—an incontrovertible instance +of the superior courage of the gentler sex over +man.</p> + +<p>The kite is maintained in the air by two opposing +forces: the impelling power of the wind—lifting it by +striking against it at an angle, and the restraining +powers of the string—motive-force and gravitation +combined; so that in the kite, above all, we possess in +a crude form, the three principles requisite for artificial +flight: the plain, weight and propelling force. By +improving upon the kite, therefore, we will arrive at +the practical solution of the problem of artificial flight.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="X" id="X"></a>X.—BALLOONS IMPRACTICABLE.</h2> + +<p>It is not creditable to the present age that the problem +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>[pg 19]</span> +of ærial navigation has not been solved. But +one of the causes has undoubtedly been the discovery +of the balloon, which has retarded this science for +nearly a century by misleading men's minds, and causing +them to look for a solution of the problem by the +aid of a machine lighter than air, and which has no +analogue in nature.</p> + +<p>Weight is one of three essential factors in flight, for +a light body cannot be propelled through a heavier one. +Hence all attempts at driving and guiding the balloons +have signally failed. This arises from the vast extent +of surface which it necessarily presents, rendering it a +fair conquest to every breeze that blows, and because +the power which animates it is a mere lifting power, +which acts in a vertical line. The balloon, consequently, +rises through the air in opposition to the law +of gravity, by which all flying creatures are governed, +very much as a dead bird falls downward in accordance +with it. Having no hold upon the air, this cannot be +employed as a fulcrum for regulating its movements, +and hence the cardinal difficulty of ballooning as an art +of locomotion and its uncertainty, because the air-currents +cannot be regulated. A balloon starting from +San Francisco might be intended for New York, but, +against the desire of the passengers, alight in China or +the Canibal Islands, which would be rather disagreeable.</p> + +<p>It is simply astonishing to hear of people trying, year +after year, to propel elongated or cigar-shaped balloons +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>[pg 20]</span> +with a car underneath, and a screw-propeller, of course—an +experiment which was tried, unsuccessfully, +forty years ago. But this is generally the first conceived +project of an aspirant for fame who commences +to think on the subject, and soon fancies himself the +happy possessor of the secret; yet what a very small +amount of science is necessary to show its fallacy. In +fact, all kinds of propositions for the propulsion of balloons +have been advanced and experimented upon, but +scarcely any improvements have been made since the +first five years after its invention; proving, perhaps, +more conclusively than anything else, that the practical +propulsion of balloons is an impossibility.</p> + +<p>The most remarkable idea in this respect, was undoubtedly +that of Teissol. He flattered himself to be +able to train geese or other birds to pull a balloon by +being hitched to it, while the conductor, in a car underneath, +was to direct their movements by the aid of +a long pole. Although the training of birds is not so +ridiculous as it may seem, yet he found that geese, if +not too tough, answer the purpose of a good roast +much better. And another genius, still more unique, +long before balloons were invented, conceived the idea +that air, like water, must have a defined limit, and that +it was possible to sail on its surface like ships on the +ocean. He did not state how to get up there, but lost +no time in inducing the King of Portugal to forbid +everyone, under penalty of death, to use said invention. +So far, no one has come in conflict with that +law.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>[pg 21]</span> +Yet, although the balloon is impracticable as a +means of transportation, it should by no means be discarded, +for it can be made very useful for scientific and +other observations, to give pleasure to thousands of +people by fanciful ascensions, and not the least, to serve, +as stated before, sanitary purposes, when captive and +well secured. But instead of lowering and elevating +it continually, as is being done at present, and which occasions +danger and great loss of time and money, a contrivance +should be made by which persons could safely, +and without interruption, be carried up and down underneath +parachutes.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a>XI.—REASONS WHY THE PROBLEM +HAS REMAINED UNSOLVED.</h2> + +<p>The slow progress made, and the unsatisfactory state +of the question, notwithstanding the large and universal +share of attention bestowed upon the subject +from earliest times, must be attributed to a variety of +causes, the most prominent of which are—</p> + +<p>"The great difficulty of the problem.</p> + +<p>"The incapacity on the one hand, or theoretical tendencies +on the other, of those who have devoted themselves +to its elucidation.</p> + +<p>"The lack of means of inventors generally, and the +difficulty of obtaining the same to experiment and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>[pg 22]</span> +carry out their ideas even after the completion of their +invention. Hence so many failures amongst this class, +while men of genius in the literary or most other fields +require but little pecuniary outlay to succeed.</p> + +<p>"The stolid indifference of an unthinking community, +which so often proves the deathblow to the mind +of the philosophical inquirer, and whose aim is condemned +and pronounced as 'visionary,' absurd and +incapable of realization, instead of receiving that support +and encouragement which is so necessary to success."</p> + +<p>Flight has therefore been unusually unfortunate in +its votaries. It has been cultivated on the one hand +by profound thinkers, especially mathematicians, who +have worked out innumerable theorems, but have +never submitted them to test of experiment; and on +the other by either uneducated charlatans who, despising +the abstractions of science entirely, have made the +most wild and ridiculous attempts at a practical solution +of the problem; or inventors, who, desirous to +triumph over some of the acknowledged difficulties of +propulsion and navigation, but for want of organization +or pecuniary support, or being unacquainted with +preceding failures in the same direction, or ignorant of +some one condition demanded by the peculiar nature +of the experiment, but which is absolutely necessary to +success, have also failed, thus causing still greater +doubt in the public mind, and, consequently, less support +to inventors in the same direction afterwards.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>[pg 23]</span> +A common error prevails, that models are essential +to help the inventor. The province of the model is to +explain the invention to others after it has been made, +and not to assist the inventor. Except in very restricted +limits they have been found to be almost +useless, and most of our valuable discoveries have been +made and carried out without their aid. Watt's first +condensing engine had a cylinder of eighteen inches +diameter, or about the average size now in use. It is +so with agricultural and other practical inventions and +applies particularly to flying machines. Models often +signally prove failures on a small scale, yet would be +successful on a larger.</p> + +<p>The problem is not an unphilosophical phantom, but +a mathematically demonstrated truth, which needs +only actual realization to revolutionize the world for +the better. That the air is navigable can no longer be +denied.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="XII" id="XII"></a>XII.—FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF +FLIGHT.</h2> + +<p>In contemplating the boundless atmosphere, we perceive +it to be tenanted by a multitude of creatures of +varied form and size, who move and direct themselves +with marvellous ease and skill. These beings, so different +in their nature, form and construction—from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>[pg 24]</span> +the proud eagle to the "blood-thirsty" mosquito—resemble +one another in the possession of three important +fundamental principles which constitute the +power of flight. These are—weight or gravity, surface +or resistance of the atmosphere against it, and +force or power of projection.</p> + +<p>The medium in which the phenomenon of flight is +produced—the air—is an invisible, impalpable, comparatively +imponderable fluid, and its density is nearly +800 times less than that of water. Hence a movement +through it can be made far more rapidly than through +its sister medium. Nevertheless, if agitated, it is capable +of exerting great pressure, as the tempestuous +storms, overturning fences, unroofing houses, uprooting +trees, and carrying even large animals into the air, +teach us. Hereon then, that is, the proper manipulation +principally in creating artificial currents of air, +hinges the secret of flight, because this phenomenon is +reproduced in a manner identical, if a surface is moved +against it, as we see in the wings of flying creatures.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="XIII" id="XIII"></a>XIII.—WEIGHT.</h2> + +<p>Weight is absolutely indispensible in flight, it adds +momentum and assists the propelling power—with +greater force comparatively in heavier bodies. A +wooden cannon ball can fly only a fraction of the distance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>[pg 25]</span> +of an iron one; and an equal weight of musket +balls, propelled by the same charge of powder, will not +reach near so far as the cannon ball, because of its consolidation +in one body; and a feather or little toy balloon +can not only not be propelled, but will actually +recoil if attempted. Hence, all flying animals are +many hundred times heavier than air, and the heaviest +are generally the best flyers, yet require the least +amount of surface and force in proportion.</p> + +<p>The sympathy existing between weight and power is +very great. Weight acts in flight upon the oblique +surfaces of the wings in conjunction with the power +expended, and thereby husbanding the latter immensely. +Thus only are the denizens of the air enabled +to perform long journeys, while otherwise they +could retain their position in the upper region but a +very brief time, as their strength is no greater than +that of other animals and would soon give out. Weight +acts on flying creatures in a similar manner as we see +it in the clock, where weight is the moving power, and +the pendulum merely regulates its movements.</p> + +<p>Of course, the belief of many, that birds have large +air cells in their interior, that those cavities contain +heated air, and that this heated air in some mysterious +manner contributes to, if it does not actually produce, +flight, falls to the ground upon the least reflection. No +argument could be more fallacious. The bird is a +heavy, compact, by no means bulky body, and that +trifle of heated air, or gas, if such were the case, but is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>[pg 26]</span> +not, which possibly might help elevation, would be +but dust in the scale. A small balloon of two feet diameter—a +larger body than any bird—can lift only +about a quarter of a pound. But, besides, many admirable +flyers, such as bats, have no air cells; while +many animals, never intended to fly, are provided with +them. It may, therefore, be reasonably concluded that +flight is in no way connected with air cells, and the +best proof that can be adduced is to be found in the +fact that it can be performed to perfection in their +absence.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="XIV" id="XIV"></a>XIV.—SURFACE.</h2> + +<p>The next of the three properties necessary for flight, +is the extension of the locomotive organs in winged beings—the +planes. Although the wings in the different +animals differ much in their form, texture, construction, +number, and the matter which composes them, +yet they resemble one another in the expansion and +development of their surfaces, being stretched on each +side of the body, and playing the part of a parachute. +The animal, therefore, cannot fall like a stone, in obedience +to the accelerated force of gravity, but it descends +with a slow velocity; constant regular, and considerably +abated.</p> + +<p>This influence, then, exercised by the flat surface on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>[pg 27]</span> +the fall of masses, is seen in a sheet of paper of the +same weight as a grain of lead, it will fall much more +slowly. But if we make the paper a compact ball, and +flatten the lead into a broad, thin sheet, the reverse +result will be produced, and the paper reach the +ground before the lead. Therefore, bodies in the air +are light or heavy in proportion to their surfaces, and +the heaviest may become light by an alteration of +form. For successful flight, then, a just proportion of +surface and weight is necessary; because, as stated, +the air being elastic, its resistance is much more effectual +with light bodies than heavy ones; and this +proportion is such that the extent of surface is always +in an inverse ratio to the weight of the winged +animal.</p> + +<p>The principle in the fall of flat surfaces is strictly applicable +to the bird. Its weight, tending downwards, +and being situated below the plain of suspension, keeps +it well balanced, so that it cannot fall head over heels, +nor rapidly. If the wings are inclined at an angle with +the horizon, the bird will not descend vertically, but +glide along an inclined plane with much greater swiftness, +because the vertical distance remains unaltered in +the same space of time. Hence their immense horizontal +velocity, without comparatively any effort. +This is in obedience to two forces—gravity, or weight, +and resistance of surface.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>[pg 28]</span></p> + +<h2><a name="XV" id="XV"></a>XV.—POWER.</h2> + +<p>But for actual flight a third force is required—the +propelling power, the necessary amount of which has +greatly been overrated by many mathematicians.</p> + +<p>Borelli estimated the power of a three pound bird +to be over one hundred and thirty horses relatively. +But, Navier, more reasonably, calculated a force of +five horses sufficient for the flight of a pigeon. Coulomb, +again, offset this "great liberality" by demonstrating +that the surface to support a man must be two +miles long and two hundred feet wide, with the power +of a "Corliss engine" to propel such a "fifty acre +ranch."</p> + +<p>Now, facts prove that man can, without danger, +descend from an high elevation under a surface of much +less than fifteen feet diameter; and the force to lift +himself, as will be shown hereafter, is also comparatively +small. He can walk up stairs, and likewise +mount upon air, which, properly manipulated, becomes +sufficiently solid.</p> + +<p>It has been demonstrated beyond a doubt, that the +heaviest flying animals require the smallest amount of +surface and power in proportion. The surface is less, +because the resistance of the atmosphere is much +greater toward one unbroken body than all the parts +thereof if detached. Hence a stork, weighing eight +times as much as a pigeon, needs only five square feet +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>[pg 29]</span> +of surface, while the eight pigeons, with nearly one +square foot each, possess together over seven square +feet; and the common fly, if magnified to the size of +the crane, would show a surface sixty times as large.</p> + +<p>The heaviest flyers require the least amount of +power, because weight, as stated before, itself is power, +which increases in a certain ratio. Hence we find the +muscular force of the smaller beings, who possess little +weight, to be enormous; this is particularly so with +insects, who are the strongest in creation. A stag-beetle, +of which two hundred weigh only one pound, +can lift fourteen ounces; crickets leap eighty times their +own length, and the "lively flea" can jump through +space estimated at even two hundred times the length +of its body—which accounts for the difficulty of catching +it. If a mouse would simply reproduce the gait +of a horse, its progress would be about twenty inches +per minute only, and cats would soon find themselves +out of employment.</p> + +<p>Nature has wisely established a compensation to +make amends for the diminutiveness of organs by +rapidity of movement, and has, consequently, furnished +the animal with the necessary power to produce this +rapidity.</p> + +<p>The force necessary for lifting in all winged beings +is not near so great as is generally supposed. The fall +of a body, continually accelerating, is seventeen feet +per second, and a very great force would be necessary +indeed to offset this gravitation, if that second were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>[pg 30]</span> +allowed to expire without a counter-movement; but +when that body is provided with a parachute-like arrangement, +there is no such rapid fall of seventeen feet +per second; and when, besides, the force is applied +constantly, thereby counteracting even a fraction of the +fall, the power needed to accomplish this is but a trifle; +it is the principle, to use a homely phrase, that "a +stitch in time saves nine." What extra strength the +animal possesses has to be used in pursuit or escape, +from the powerful eagle to the minutest insect; they +must be prepared to exert at a given moment all the +strength that nature has given to them in store.</p> + +<p>Their strength is no greater than that of fishes or +quadrupeds; all possess surplus power greatly above +the need of their average use, and the strength exhibited +therefore by flying creatures shows only that +but a small portion of it is used for lifting and propelling +purposes.</p> + +<p>Eagles have been known to carry off small deer, +lambs, hares, and even young children. Many of the +fishing birds, as pelicans and herons, can likewise carry +considerable loads, while the smaller birds are capable +of transporting comparatively large twigs for building +purposes. A swallow can traverse 1000 miles at a +single journey, and the swift, the fastest of all, is +known to have made nearly 180 miles an hour. The +albatross, despising compass and land-mark, trusts +himself boldly for weeks together to the mercy or fury +of the mighty ocean; and the huge condor of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>[pg 31]</span> +Andes, as Humboldt, Darwin, Orton, and others inform +us, lifts himself to a hight where no sound is +heard, and from an unseen point surveys, in solitary +grandeur, the wide range of plain and mountain below. +He has been seen flying over the Chimborazo, and attains, +on occasions, an altitude of six miles.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="XVI" id="XVI"></a>XVI.—FLYING CREATURES, THEIR PROPORTIONS, +MOVEMENTS.</h2> + +<p>The great common characteristic of the different +winged beings are the same throughout all the modifications +of detail. These are, as stated, weight, extension +of surface, and the mechanical application of the propelling +force; so that the animal is a gliding plane, +part of which is fixed and the other moveable, and the +whole being maintained in stable equilibrium by the +weight of the body, placed a little below the plane of +suspension.</p> + +<p>By comparing the different species it is found, by +M. de Lucy and others, that the extent of surface is in +inverse ratio to the weight, the determination of this +ratio being based upon certain considerations. The +proof of this is overwhelming. Supposing all flying +creatures of the same weight, say one pound, it is +found that the:</p> + +<blockquote> +<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="100%" summary="selected names"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Gnat possesses</td> +<td class="tdr">50</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Common fly</td> +<td class="tdr">22</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Bee</td> +<td class="tdr">5</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Beetle</td> +<td class="tdr">4</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Sparrow</td> +<td class="tdr">3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Pigeon</td> +<td class="tdr">1-2/3</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Stork nearly</td> +<td class="tdr">1</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Vulture</td> +<td class="tdr">3/4</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Crane nearly</td> +<td class="tdr">1/2</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="right">Square feet of surface per pound.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>[pg 32]</span> +Thus we find the gnat, of which 160,000 make one +pound, and which weighs four hundred and sixty times +less than the beetle, has thirteen times more surface, +comparatively. The sparrow weighs about ten times +less than the pigeon, and has twice as much surface in +proportion. The Australian crane—one of the heaviest +birds, it weighs over twenty pounds, or almost three +million times as much as the gnat—possesses the least +surface—not quite ten square feet, or one hundred and +twenty times less than that insignificant but formidable +animal. Yet its flight is, gliding softly on the air, +without effort or fatigue, with but little exertion, the +longest maintained, and it can, with few exceptions, +elevate itself the highest.</p> + +<p>In regard to the movements of the wings, there is a +similar ratio; for, while the mosquito makes over two +hundred wing strokes per second, the sparrow makes +only thirteen, the buzzard three, and so on, continually +decreasing with heavier bodies.</p> + +<p>A word about bats and flying fish. Although bats +present no real resemblance whatever to birds or insects, +but are much more like ourselves, they must be +classed amongst the creatures of the air, because they +are constantly moving in it, and governed by the +same laws.</p> + +<p>Their flight, being somewhat fluttering, but otherwise +powerful, true and perfect, is undoubtedly caused, +particularly in the early part of the night, when feeding, +by their darting right and left after the almost +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>[pg 33]</span> +invisible numerous insects, which they devour at once.</p> + +<p>The wing of the bat is, like that of the bird, concavo-convex, +and also more or less twisted upon itself, but +it differs in so far that its arm is not covered with +feathers, but a very delicate membrane, which forms +the parachute-like wing.</p> + +<p>Their nocturnal, and therefore disreputable habits, +with our dislike for the blood-sucking propensity of a +large specie, the vampire, has kept our interest in +these otherwise harmless and clean creatures at rather +freezing point. But they can be tamed easily, and are +capable of giving considerable pleasure.</p> + +<p>The flight of a shoal of flying-fish as they shoot forth +from the dark green wave in a glittering throng, gleaming +brightly in the sunshine, is a charming sight. But +these fish can scarcely be classed with the creatures of +the air, because true flight, that is the manipulation of +the wings, is lacking. They are mentioned because +they represent, like the kite, the first step toward that +true flight which all other creatures in the air possess.</p> + +<p>They are capable of moving through the air from +500 to 600 feet, and as much as 20 feet above the +water. The fish first acquires initial velocity by a preliminary +rush through the water, when it throws itself +suddenly into the air, and, at the same moment, spreads +out, kite-like, at a slight inclination upwards, its extraordinarily +large pectoral fins. It keeps up the great +speed until its momentum is exhausted, when the same +performance is repeated.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>[pg 34]</span> +The fact in favor of mechanical flight is certainly +incontrovertible that less surface and less power is required +and flight maintained the longest, in proportion +to heavier bodies.</p> + +<p>It must be convincing, therefore, that it is possible +for man to apply the laws of flight to industrial purposes +in the same manner as he has been able, in these +days, to apply all the other grand physical laws that +he has taken the trouble to study and fathom. The +law of surface and force reigns in the most absolute +and exact manner over all flying animals. It does not +stop here. Nature, whose laws are general and universal, +has not created this one only for the restricted +compass of the winged animate beings. The law which +sustains on the water the leaf and the straw is the same +for the gigantic Great Eastern; and the mechanical law +of the forces which drives the wheelbarrow also conducts +on its iron line the locomotive and its endless +train.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="XVII" id="XVII"></a>XVII.—MECHANICAL PRACTICABILITY +OF ARTIFICIAL FLIGHT.</h2> + +<p>Living beings have been, in every age, compared to +machines, but it is only in the present day that the +bearing and justice of this comparison are fully comprehensible. +Modern engineers have created machines +which execute more difficult and various operations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>[pg 35]</span> +than animate beings are capable of; yet it is always +from nature first that man has to draw his inspirations.</p> + +<p>Of the different functions of animal mechanism, that +of locomotion is certainly one of the most important +and interesting; and as we have brought this art on +land and water, by successfully imitating the natural +movements of walking and swimming, to quite a high +state of perfection, the next great problem, equally +possible, because flight is a natural movement, remains +to be solved.</p> + +<p>Of course, as different as the wheel of the locomotive +is from the limb of the quadruped, and the screw of +a steamship from the fin of a fish, so will the coming +flying machine differ from the construction of bird, bat +or insect.</p> + +<p>Walking, swimming and flying are modifications of, +and merging into, each other by insensible gradations; +and the modifications, resulting therefrom, are necessitated +by the amount of support afforded on, and in the +different mediums—earth, water, air. Although +flight is, indisputably, the finest of the different +animal movements, yet it does not essentially differ +from the other two, as the material and forces employed +are literally the same as those in walking and +swimming.</p> + +<p>Flight is, therefore, a purely mechanical problem, +and in compliance with the law of decrease, as stated +before, the surface requisite to transport bodies in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>[pg 36]</span> +air, is found to be about one-half, proportionately, to +twelve times the weight.</p> + +<p>Applying this observation to an apparatus of, say +200 ℔s., we find that the surface of a bird of 18 ℔s.—about +one-twelfth of said 200 ℔s.—to be 10 square +feet; multiplying this by twelve, its weight, we have +120 square feet of surface, and of which one-half accordingly, +60 square feet, is enough for the support of +200 pounds. Such a machine, although possessing +much less surface than parachutes generally do, is in +the form of inclined planes of proper construction, fully +sufficient for man to slide down safely through the air, +without exertion, from an elevation at least ten times +the vertical distance, that is, from the top of the Palace +Hotel to the foot of Baldwin's.</p> + +<p>As to the force required, although impossible to +give datas, the law of decrease with greater weight +reigns absolute here also. Man's muscular power for +tolerably swift horizontal flight is far greater than +necessary; and, with properly constructed contrivances, +he will be able to travel, at an incline upwards of one +in thirty, at least twenty miles an hour, by manual +power alone. A carrier pigeon flies, for a short time, +at the rate of one hundred miles an hour, and some +birds much faster. But in employing any of the many +excellent motive powers at command now, and with +larger machines, we will be able to surpass the swiftest +birds.</p> + +<p>As for the objection, that the fury of the wind will +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>[pg 37]</span> +hinder artificial flight, it is refuted by observing that +even a hurricane, which, traveling over eighty +miles an hour, occurs but rarely, does hardly prevent +the flight of fast birds, and still less would +that of a compact and solid flying machine, because of +its greater weight and momentum. And even if an +occasional storm should be dangerous, the machine, +by its greater swiftness, could be turned above, below +or sideways, out of the path of destruction, or it need +not travel at such rare times. Besides, the effect of the +storm upon a body within its own medium is insignificant +to what it is when that body offers resistance by +being attached to another medium, as ships on the +water, or houses and fences on land.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="XVIII" id="XVIII"></a>XVIII.—FLYING MACHINES OF THE +PRESENT, THEIR DEFECTS.</h2> + +<p>When it was found that no marked improvements +could be made in balloons, the more advanced thinkers, +turning their attention in an opposite direction, commenced +to justly regard the winged being as the true +model for flying machines; and experiments are now +being made, in different parts of the world, of which +all go to prove that "<i>flight is far more a question of +mechanical adaptation, construction and manipulation, +than of enormous power</i>," which, of course, in any experiment, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>[pg 38]</span> +must prove unavailable, if improperly applied. +Some of the motive engines, lately exhibited in England, +produced such remarkable power as certainly no bird +possesses. One of four-horse power weighed 40 +pounds, and occupied but a few cubic feet; another of +13 pounds exerted over one-horse power; and, at some +experiments in France last year, a steam engine of +two and a half horse power weighed 80 ℔s.; and, being +applied to a machine with two vertical screw propellers +of 12 ft. diameter each, it raised 120 ℔s. of the whole +weight of 160 ℔s.</p> + +<p>But, as far as known, these different motive powers +have been employed so far only to elevate and propel +machines by vertical fan-like contrivances—helicopterics +or by æroplanes, pushed forward and upward by +screw propellers; either quite as irrational as ballooning, +because the rigid plane, wedged forward and upward +at a given angle, in a straight line, or in a circle, +does not embody the principles carried out in nature. +Hence, the several advocates of the æroplane and +helicopteric have met with but indifferent success.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the best representative model of a flying +machine on the principles of inclined planes, was that +of Mr. Stringfellow, exhibited in London, in 1868, and +which occasionally could rise. It had three æroplanes, +superimposed as advocated by Wenham, the frames of +which were made of light wood, with cloth drawn +over it tightly, like rigid kites, fixed parallel one above +the other, with a tail attached to the middle one. It +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>[pg 39]</span> +had a small box underneath for the motive power, and +a light screw propeller behind for pushing it forward. +By giving the machine an upward angle, the planes +strike continually upon new layers of air, and so +cause a rise, like a kite pushed from behind. The whole +structure had about thirty-six square feet of surface, +and weighed, including the steam engine, which exerted +nearly one-half horse power, under 12 pounds. It +proved conclusively that, while the inclined plane, in a +practical and different form, is necessary for ærostation, +the secret of solving the problem lays far more +in the mechanical application of certain laws governing +the art of flight, than in enormous power.</p> + +<p>These kite-form machines did not succeed, in spite +of their great motive power and lightness, because the +supporting planes were not active and flexible, but presented +passive or dead surfaces, without power to accommodate +themselves to altered circumstances. These +planes were made to strike the air at a given angle, instead +of continually changing to suit the elastic medium, +and in which respect the ordinary kite is a better +flying machine. If not driven with great velocity, +such a machine can not support itself in the atmosphere; +besides, on account of its great surface exposed, +a strong wind can easily capsize it; while natural +wings, on the contrary, present small flying surfaces, +and their great speed converts the space through which +they are driven, into a solid basis for support. This +arrangement enables wings to seize and utilize the air, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>[pg 40]</span> +and renders them superior to the adverse currents, not +of their forming. In this respect they entirely differ +from balloons, and all forms of fixed æroplanes.</p> + +<p>The different small helicopteric models, relying entirely +on the aid of the screw, made from time to time, +were also lacking, as stated before, in some of the true +principles of flight; although some of these models +could not only rise, but also carry a certain amount of +freight, as was shown by the delicately constructed +clockwork models of M. Nadar, a prominent French +scientist, and others. One remarkable model, exhibited +some years ago, was that of M. Phillips. It was +made entirely of metal, weighed two pounds, had four +two-bladed fans inclined to the horizon at an angle of +twenty degrees, and made to revolve in opposite directions +with immense energy. The motive power employed +was obtained from the combustion of charcoal, +nitre and gypsum, the products of combustion mixing +with water in the boiler and forming gas-charged +steam, which was delivered at a high pressure from the +extremities of the arms of the fans, on the principle +discovered by Hero, of Alexandria.</p> + +<p>The production of flight by artificial wings is the +most ancient method proposed, and will, undoubtedly, +in a greatly modified form, and in combination with +other contrivances, solve the problem; but to exactly +imitate natural wings will be found as impossible as +the production by the other different methods proposed +so far.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>[pg 41]</span> +Of the more recent attempts at the solution of the +problem by means of artificial wings, worked by steam +power, the perhaps most determined was that of Mr. +Kauffman, of Glasgow. The machine had superimposed +æroplanes, similar to those used by Stringfellow. +The two wings were of great length, narrow, pointed +towards the end, and were made to flap up and down +somewhat like the wings of a bird. The model exhibited +weighed, complete, 42 ℔s., but the dimensions +for a large machine were to be: length, about 30 ft.; +hight, 5 ft.; width, 6 ft.; length of each wing, 60 ft.; +surface of each, 400 ft.; total weight of machine, 8000 +℔s.; nominal power, 120 horses; intended speed, 60 +miles per hour; with water supply for five hours and +oil as fuel for ten hours. Besides, a pendule, weighing +85 ℔s., and 40 ft. in length, was attached, which could, +telescope-like, be drawn up when necessary. The +model was made exactly, to show the inventor's +theory, and to ascertain if the connection to the wings +could be made strong enough to withstand the violent +twisting and bending strains to which they were exposed. +When steam at a pressure of over 150 ℔s. was +turned on, the wings made a short series of furious +flaps and broke. The experiment failed, because, to +exactly imitate the movements of the long and delicate +wings of fast-flying birds on a large scale, is impossible; +the leverage to flap up and down 60 ft. long wings being +simply enormous beyond computation, and no +material can be found strong enough to withstand it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>[pg 42]</span> +Another machine, the propulsion of which was also +to be effected by means of artificial wings, was exhibited +some years ago in England. It differed entirely +from the other in this respect, that it was very light, +weighing scarcely 30 ℔s., and was intended for a man +to fly by his own muscular power. It had about 70 +square feet of surface, two short wings, and the ribs +were made of paragon wire, such as is used in umbrellas, +and covered with silk. By a preliminary quick +run, the inventor could take short, jump-like flights of +more than 100 feet; but this machine was also in a +very crude state of perfection.</p> + +<p>These different practical experiments, although more +or less unsuccessful, and others similar, but of which +many models were far more ingenious than practical, +have at least established the certain prospect and certainty +of an early solution of the problem. And were +it not that but very few, comparatively, of the great +number of theories, which have been proposed from +time to time for the accomplishment of this great object, +have been submitted to anything resembling even +the remotest approach to practical tests, and that the +lack of means is generally the insurmountable barrier +in experimenting, ærial navigation would to-day be an +established fact.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>[pg 43]</span></p> + +<h2><a name="XIX" id="XIX"></a>XIX.—THE PRACTICAL FLYING SHIP OF +THE NEAR FUTURE.</h2> + +<p>Possessing then, all the datas possible on the subject, +it is, perhaps, not so very difficult as is generally supposed, +to arrive at a satisfactory result; and, like other +great inventions before, the coming air ship will also +be a rather simple affair. While it will not likely possess +such prodigious weight as 8000 to 10,000 pounds, +with a hundred and twenty horse-power steam engine—sufficient +almost for a man of war, it will neither be +as light as a feather, comparatively, but hold the golden +middle.</p> + +<p>The inclined planes, in a greatly modified form, will +by no means be discarded, as in fact no flying machine +could be built otherwise. But, as stated before, this +is only one principle long recognized, the A B C, so +to speak, towards the solution of the problem. These +planes, in wedging forward, for certain reasons, should +be <i>elastic</i>, in some manner, and which has not been attempted +by any inventor yet. The frames and covering +of all models, built so far, have been rigid and immoveable, +and yet, even with these great defects, partial +success has been obtained already.</p> + +<p>The fan or screw never will be used as the <i>only</i> +means in propelling, but will be very effective in doing +service as a part of the whole, with other contrivances +in driving and guiding. But their form and +style must be considerably different from anything +known at present.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>[pg 44]</span> +A modified and peculiar form and style of wings, as +mentioned here before, must also be employed in combination +with the planes and fans, to serve the double +purpose of driving and lifting. By the manipulation +of these wings the accumulating and compressed air is +thrown underneath the machine, thereby urging the +same in a forward and upward direction, and by which +the planes in front are made to continually rise upon +new layers of the elastic medium, like a kite when the +boy runs forward.</p> + +<p>The planes must be fixed in such a manner that they +can be set at different angles with the horizon, in order +that the machine may rise sooner when the angle is +greatest, because of the greater resistance of the air +against a larger surface exposed; and to glide through +the atmosphere swifter, after elevation has been attained, +when the angle of the planes is most acute, +thereby offering the least amount of surface to the +horizontally opposing air. No flying creature rises in +the air vertically, but ascends at an incline.</p> + +<p>A swallow, one of the very best flyers, lifts itself +with difficulty from the ground. An eagle, particularly +after eating, has to run some distance flapping its +wings vigorously before it can rise. An insect, possessing +considerable spring-power in its limbs, always +takes a good jump at the moment its wings are spread +out for elevation, at an upward angle forward. With +similar contrivances for the purpose must a practical +flying machine be provided. It should, in combination +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>[pg 45]</span> +with a certain amount of spring power, to enable it to +rise with greater ease at the final moment, and also to +reduce the shock in alighting to a minimum, have +wheels to run over the ground, until sufficient force and +momentum has been attained to launch it into the +boundless realms of space.</p> + +<p>To be thoroughly practical, the machine must be under +perfect control, and be made to descend upon any +spot desired with absolute safety and ease. This can +be accomplished by the combined effort of the propellors +and wings. By exerting the power of these contrivances +in opposite directions the disturbed atmosphere +is thrown in volumes underneath the machine, +which, on account of its similarity to a parachute, +although of a greatly different form, can be made to +descend vertically and very slow.</p> + +<p>The doubt expressed by many, that the guidance of +an air ship is possible, is easily refuted. All bodies, +possessing the propelling force within them, can guide +themselves in an elastic medium. Of this we have +millions of examples before us in all flying creatures.</p> + +<p>Finally, a practical shape and proper size and +weight will form one of the most essential elements in +a successful flying machine, and which has been disregarded +more or less so far. Of course, it is impossible +to calculate already, before an actual machine has been +built and datas can be fixed, the limits of these factors +in the average ærial structure. My impressions are, +that the weight of a single carriage will be from 400 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>[pg 46]</span> +to 500 lbs., inclusive; a motive force of 3 to 5 horse +power. It will have a total length of from forty to fifty +feet, by about the same in width, from tip to tip; and +a surface of from 500 to 600 square feet will be more +than sufficient to sustain a total weight of 1000 lbs.; +for such a machine will be capable to carry from +three to four persons, or its equivalent weight of express +matter, letters, newspapers, and other light +freight. Of course, free mail facilities for our wise solons +will, perhaps, unfortunately have to be barred out.</p> + +<p>When the novelty and excitement of this style of +travel will have subsided, we may take the next step +in ærostation by carrying a much greater number of +passengers and heavier freight; not in a single machine, +but by making two or more to support inclined planes +of certain construction between them. These planes, +in swift horizontal flight, could be made to carry, in +suitable cars underneath, much more than their own +weight, because the power of support which the air +affords to inclined planes at a great speed is simply +enormous, amounting to 50 ℔s. per square ft. in a +pressure of 100 miles per hour. For this purpose, the +manner of placing these æroplanes one above the other, +as proposed by Mr. Wenham many years ago, would be +practical to some extent.</p> + +<p>The great swiftness with which these machines are +expected to travel, seems at first to rouse fear in us to +trust our more or less valuable lives into such a wonderful +structure; and it possibly staggers our belief +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>[pg 47]</span> +that such great speed can be performed with any degree +of safety to brittle bone and breathing valve. +But all these objections are easily refuted. The ærial +traveler sits securely inside the strong machine, in no +danger of catching a cold from the strong air-current +rushing by, very much like the passenger in a railroad +car; and if of an inquisitive turn of mind for the +beauty of the surrounding panorama, he has suitable +windows for observation. If the air passenger suffers +from gout, rheumatism, or is susceptible to sea-sickness, +he will experience no inconvenience, because there is +no jogging, no rumbling over cobble-stones or broken +rails, or riding on a heavy sea; he will feel no motion +at whatever hight he may be, but will glide voluptuously—without +perception almost—like a summer +cloud through the vast ocean of the ærial fluid.</p> + +<p>The machine being under perfect control, can be +made to travel very slow when towards the point of +destination, and may be stopped at any hight to remain +stationary or leisurely descend. And lastly, speed appears +greatly diminished when the object is viewed +from a distance, as we can observe on a railroad train. +A telegraph pole standing near the track will flit by +like a flash of lightning, so to speak; but if any considerable +distance off, it disappears very slow. But +when an object is followed by the eye from a considerable +elevation, this fact is still more striking. The eye +can command at a glance almost hundreds of miles of +country, and a city can be seen at a distance of at least +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>[pg 48]</span> +fifty miles in advance, giving the æronaut ample time +for preparing a descent, if so desired. Of course, he +must be well acquainted with landmarks, to know +what part of country he is in; but this knowledge will +be acquired much easier than water navigation.</p> + +<p>Such about will be the coming flying-machine of the +near future. The natural elements, so far from presenting +barriers and obstacles, as they do to a great +extent on land and ocean navigation, seem to be peculiarly +inviting to ærostation.</p> + +<p>Previous to nearly every great discovery, difficulties +have been thought to exist which its completion dissolved. +In the days of stage-coaching, the expectations +held out by those interested in steam transport +were considered, even by most competent and intelligent +men, as wholly chimerical; yet the locomotive far +surpasses the race-horse in speed and endurance. When +practice proved and datas could be fixed, that smooth +tires met all the requirements on railroads—in place +of cogwheels to gear into racks—how easy all calculations +on adhesive force and friction then became. So +with flight.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="XX" id="XX"></a>XX.—WHAT THE CHANGES FOR THE +BETTER WILL BE.</h2> + +<p>It is impossible to overestimate the benefits which +will accrue to mankind from such a creation. Flying +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>[pg 49]</span> +will become a studied art, an amusement, an accomplishment, +and inconvenience from sultry heat, or freezing +cold, or deadly epidemics will no longer be suffered. +Flying will become a business, a trade, and the advantages +derived from it for industrial purposes will be wonderfully +great. New channels of employment will be +opened to thousands, yes, millions of starving fellow-beings. +A new era will be inaugurated in history; +and great as has been the destiny of our race, it will +be quite outlustred by the grandeur and magnitude of +coming events.</p> + +<p>Traveling at a speed of over one hundred miles an +hour, distance will become comparatively annihilated. +Cutting through the air from San Francisco to New +York, for instance, in twenty-four hours, at one-sixth +in cost and time; far safer, because of no irregulations +nor obstructions of road, no snow-blockades or unnecessary +delays; far cheaper, because of no great expense +for outfit or maintenance, the ærial carriage will soon +become the great means of travel throughout the +world.</p> + +<p>The vast uninhabited but productive regions of this +globe will be populated from overcrowded and impoverished +communities, because of the extraordinary +cheap, safe, and rapid travel by flying machines. New +life will again be imparted to enterprise, speculation +and labor; and lands will be cultivated and great cities +be built in regions where the foot of human being has +not trod for ages.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>[pg 50]</span> +The Andes and Rocky Mountains will become as +familiar to us as the hills of our own city; and mining +and other discoveries will follow each other with wonderful +rapidity. The vexing and expensive explorations +in the interiors of Africa and Australia, and towards +the North Pole, will soon be brought to a speedy +and satisfactory conclusion; and some of the wildest +dreams of men be realized.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<h2><a name="XXI" id="XXI"></a>XXI.—CONCLUDING REMARKS.</h2> + +<p>The accomplishment of ærial navigation, then, is +within reach; its practicability can no longer be denied. +It will be one of the most glorious and fruitful conquests, +and of the highest value and importance to +civilized nations. But all inventions, and particularly +an undertaking of such gigantic nature, require pecuniary +assistance. This should not, in our age of progress, +be lacking for a single moment; because, if for no +other reason, the first promoters of it will reap such +great financial benefits therefrom as must be beyond +their calculation. Singer, Howe, Colt, McCormick, +and hundreds of others, all, with thousands of friends +so immensely wealthy, bear out this assertion. Let not +this enlightened age look upon a great invention as was +done in Robert Fulton's time, when he proposed the +steamship to Napoleon in 1801. The plan was laid +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>[pg 51]</span> +before a scientific commission, and these learned men +reported it as "visionary" and impracticable. Such +was the reception which steam navigation, that has +achieved such immense results, first received at the +hands of philosophy and capital; but France lost +thereby, indirectly, the control of Europe, and Napoleon +his crown; while another nation—America—more +wise, ten years later commenced to reap the benefits +emanating from Fulton's genius.</p> + +<p>Means, then, being necessary for the accomplishment +of this great object, let them be forthcoming at once, +that California may enjoy the honor and the first fruits +of this great invention.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, let me thank you for the kind attention +you have bestowed upon a weak exponent of a +great subject.</p> + +<hr class="hr2" /> + +<div class="tnote"> + +<p class="h2a">Transcriber's Notes:</p> + +<p>Errors in punctuations and inconsistent hyphenation were not corrected +unless otherwise noted below:</p> + +<p>On page 4, Koenigsberg was replaced with "one from Kœnigsberg", +and "some days ago" was replaced with "some days afterward", both +per the Errata page.</p> + +<p>On page 7, "gass" was replaced with "gas".</p> + +<p>On page 10, "nade" was replaced with "made".</p> + +<p>On page 12, the comma after "M" was replaced with a period.</p> + +<p>On page 13, "indiscribable" was replaced with "indescribable".</p> + +<p>On page 13 "aeronaut" was replaced with "æronaut".</p> + +<p>On page 14, the semicolon after "eye can reach" was replaced with a comma.</p> + +<p>On page 14, "posititons" was replaced with "positions"</p> + +<p>On page 15, "intensily" was replaced with "intensely".</p> + +<p>On page 16 "aeronaut" was replaced with "æronaut".</p> + +<p>On page 22, "charletans" was replaced with "charlatans".</p> + +<p>On page 25, "strenght" was replaced with "strength".</p> + +<p>On page 28, "XI" in the chapter title was replaced with "XV".</p> + +<p>On page 31, "XVI.—" was added in the chapter title.</p> + +<p>On page 31, "by" was replaced with "fly".</p> + +<p>On page 34, "opperations" was replaced with "operations".</p> + +<p>On page 35, "meahanism" was replaced with "mechanism".</p> + +<p>On page 39, "æorastation" was replaced with "ærostation".</p> + +<p>On page 44, "horrizontally" was replaced with "horizontally".</p> + +<p>On page 45, "air-ship" was replaced with "air ship".</p> + +<p>On page 49, "anihilated" was replaced with "annihilated".</p> + +<p>Sometimes, through the book, the author used the "℔" symbol and other times the author used "lbs."</p> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Lecture on Artificial Flight, by Wm. 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