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+Project Gutenberg's Lecture on Artificial Flight, by Wm. G. Krueger
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Lecture on Artificial Flight
+       Given by request at the Academy of Natural Sciences
+
+Author: Wm. G. Krueger
+
+Release Date: November 23, 2011 [EBook #38109]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LECTURE ON ARTIFICIAL FLIGHT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Ernest Schaal, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                                LECTURE
+                                   ON
+                           ARTIFICIAL FLIGHT
+
+                        GIVEN BY REQUEST AT THE
+
+                      ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES
+
+                                   AT
+
+              San Francisco, California, August 7th, 1876,
+
+                                   BY
+
+                             WM. G. KRUEGER
+
+            WITH REFERENCE TO A MODEL OF HIS OWN INVENTION.
+
+
+
+
+                                 INDEX.
+
+
+        No.      Page.
+
+         1 Introduction                                        1
+
+         2 History and Fable                                   2
+
+         3 Discovery of the Balloon                            7
+
+         4 Noted Air Voyages                                   8
+
+         5 Absence of Danger                                  11
+
+         6 Charm of AErial Travel                              12
+
+         7 AErial Voyages Health Promoting                     15
+
+         8 Parachutes                                         16
+
+         9 The Kite                                           17
+
+        10 Balloons Impracticable                             18
+
+        11 Reasons why the Problem has remained Unsolved      21
+
+        12 Fundamental Principles in Flight                   23
+
+        13 Weight                                             24
+
+        14 Surface                                            26
+
+        15 Power                                              28
+
+        16 Flying Creatures, their Proportions, Movements     31
+
+        17 Mechanical Practicability of Flight                34
+
+        18 Flying Machines of the Present, their defects      37
+
+        19 The Practical Air Ship of the near Future          43
+
+        20 What AErostation will Accomplish                    48
+
+        21 Closing Remarks                                    50
+
+                               * * * * *
+
+                                ERRATA.
+
+
+Page 4, line 4, read "one from Koenigsberg," for "Koenigsberg."
+
+Page 4, line 18, read "afterward," for "ago."
+
+
+
+
+                          SAILING IN THE AIR.
+
+                           I.--INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+_Gentlemen of the Academy_:
+
+The problem of artificial flight is of such great importance to
+civilization; so interesting and fascinating, not only to the student,
+but to every one; and it allows us to indulge in such a wide field for
+speculation as to the great changes which will be wrought by the
+practical solution of it in the social, political and commercial world,
+that I must beg of you to consider only my good intentions in appearing
+before you, and pardon my shortcomings as a lecturer. It is my first
+attempt, and is simply undertaken to bring the subject more
+understandingly before the public, that they may assist, morally, and
+pecuniarily, the several inventors who are wrestling with it more or
+less successfully--some rather less. If only one inventor in a hundred
+should meet with flattering results, the attention bestowed upon all
+will be repaid a thousand fold by that one's success.
+
+The idea of sailing through the air in a flying machine is not new, nor
+such an absurd one as is generally supposed; and it is indeed important
+to investigate and lay it before the public more directly than has been
+done heretofore through the medium of great, musty and long-winded
+volumes. If found to seem practicable and feasible, it is for you,
+gentlemen, to see that the future great State of California shall also
+be ahead in this--one of the greatest and most important inventions of
+the age--as she is, and has been in many other things before.
+
+The subject has really been taken hold of in a thorough and scientific
+manner only the last few years; but with such earnestness and scientific
+knowledge and intelligence, not only by the foremost and principal
+society for the advancement of the art--the Aeronautic Society of Great
+Britain--to whom, really, the most credit must fall--but in every
+civilized country; and so much has been done already to prove, not only
+the possibility but the absolute certainty of an early practical
+solution of the problem, that soon we will see the air traversed in all
+directions, by aspiring man. Many seeming impossibilities of the
+present, need only time and effort to become realities in the near
+future.
+
+
+
+
+                        II.--HISTORY AND FABLE.
+
+
+In turning our thoughts to History, reaching back even into the mazy and
+wonderful ages of fable, we find that from time immemorial the great
+science of aerostation has occupied the minds of philosophers and
+inventors. There can be little doubt that it was known and made use of
+in olden times in isolated cases, but was again lost, like many other
+important inventions.
+
+We are furnished with many interesting proofs of this. Old Chinese,
+Arabian and Hindu fables give some beautiful descriptions of aerial
+chariots, in which wizards, princes and fairies sped over the fertile
+and populous plains of their native country, disbursing good or evil,
+according to their disposition, to the poor devils crawling in the dust
+beneath them. The Jews had their cherubim. The Assyrians have left us
+their winged bulls; the Greeks, their Sphinxes; while the Roman writers
+describe how that mythical personage, Daedalus, a famous Athenian
+artificer, and builder of the Cretan labyrinth, constructed wings with
+which he flew across the AEgian Sea, to escape the resentment of Minos.
+But his son, Icarus, undoubtedly of his strength giving out, fell into
+the water and was drowned. Their nation has bequeathed to us various
+bas-reliefs, illustrative of what appear well-proportioned wings.
+
+Archytos, the great geometrician, made a wooden dove that flew like a
+natural one, and the famous German astronomer, John Mueller, who died
+suddenly in Rome, at the age of forty, in 1476, and whose memory was
+celebrated last month in Germany, constructed an artificial eagle,
+which flew out to greet the Emperor, Charles V, when he visited
+Nuremberg. This Mueller was more widely known by the assumed name of
+"Regiomontanus,"--the "Kingshiller"--that is, "one from Koenigsberg," a
+small village in the heart of Germany; the custom of the times being for
+learned men to adopt the latin name of their birthplace. He invented the
+almanac, and prepared the first astronomical tables, by the aid of which
+mariners, who, up to that late day could only make coasting voyages,
+were enabled to trust themselves to the open sea, with some degree of
+assurance; and Columbus was among the earliest to use these tables,
+twenty years afterwards, on his first discovery voyage to America.
+
+                               * * * * *
+
+Another German, a young watchmaker's apprentice, constructed a flying
+machine, with which he, when showing the same to his ignorant
+townspeople, flew away to escape mobbing. His bones and pieces of the
+machine were found some years afterward in a wild and isolated part of
+the Black Forest. Towards the end of the fifteenth century Giovanni
+Battista Dantes, of Perugia, flew several times over the Thrasimenian
+Sea; he certainly must have been at a considerable elevation, for he
+fell on a church steeple and broke a leg. Another account, particularly
+noticed in history, is that of a man who flew high in the air in the
+City of Rome, under the reign of Nero, but lost his life in the descent.
+
+In "Astra Castra," we read that soon after Bacon's time, projects were
+instituted to train up children in the exercise of flying with
+artificial wings, and considerable progress was made; by the combined
+effort of running and flying they were enabled to skim over the surface,
+as it were, with incredible speed. This same Roger Bacon, an eminent
+philosopher of the thirteenth century, and possessed of the very highest
+genius and ability, whose ideas and knowledge, like Franklin's, were
+many hundred years ahead of his age, descants, in one of his works, in
+glowing language, on the practicability of constructing engines that
+could navigate the air. He accomplished wonderful things in his day, and
+was accused of holding communion with the devil, who was quite an
+important personage in those times. His writings were interdicted, and
+himself locked up to prevent closer acquaintanceship of his readers with
+the aforesaid friend.
+
+About the Confessor's time, a monk, Elmirus, in Spain, flew often, by
+means of a pair of wings, many miles from high elevations. Cuperus, in
+his treatise on "The Excellency of Man," contends that it is practicable
+for human beings to attain the faculty of flying. He asserts that
+Leonardo da Vinci, the great painter of the "Lord's Supper," and other
+highly prized works of art, practiced it successfully. The reasoning of
+the great John Wilkins, Lord Bishop of Chester, who died in 1672,
+embodies the sentiments and principles of all these on the subject even
+stronger. In his work on "Mechanical Motion," he treats expressly on
+artificial flight, and conceives, in the sixth chapter, the framing of
+such "volitant automata" very easy; and says that the time will come
+when men will call for their wings when about to make a journey, as they
+do now for their boots and spurs.
+
+Lastly, in the "Journal de Savans," of the 12th of September, 1678, an
+account is given of one Besnier, a locksmith of Sable, France, who
+succeeded in flying. But as his machine was extremely primitive--the
+wings consisting only of four rectangular surfaces, one at the end of
+each of two poles, which passed over the shoulder of the operator, and
+were worked alternately up and down--the inventor could only avail
+himself of their aid in progressively raising himself from one hight to
+another, until an elevated position was reached, when he could glide
+through the air a long distance.
+
+Many more cases could be cited. Some ended disastrously; others, because
+of the apathy, distrust, ignorance, and superstition of the people, were
+lost sight of again; while some, perhaps the most practical ones and of
+which we find many indications in old writings, were never made known
+for selfish reasons. Such has been the fate of this--one of the most
+interesting problems--almost up to the present time. We were, perhaps,
+not prepared sufficiently, to receive the great boon. We had to have the
+printing press, steam, and electricity first, before we could attempt
+this next great step towards a higher civilization.
+
+
+
+
+                     III.--DISCOVERY OF THE BALLOON.
+
+
+Although it is well understood now by most scientific men, that the
+principles upon which ballooning rests, will scarcely form any part in
+the solution of the problem of aerial navigation; yet, when, in 1782, the
+brothers, Mongolfier, in France, made the first successful experiments
+with small paper balloons, filled with heated air, it was thought that
+the key to that wonderful art had been found; many applied themselves to
+its improvement; and the next year already saw gas balloons on a much
+larger scale.
+
+The first passengers, who had the honor of being sent up into the realms
+of space, were a sheep, a cock and a duck; and as their safe descent
+proved highly satisfactory, the well-known French savan, Pilatre de
+Rozier, tried the same experiment shortly afterwards with great success,
+reaching a hight of nearly two miles. The glowing description of his
+experience raised the excitement of all classes to fever heat. Numerous
+day and night ascensions were made by diplomats, distinguished
+naturalists, professors of note, scientific women and gymnastic
+aspirants, and their journeys soon became more daring and extended to
+wider fields.
+
+
+
+
+                        IV.--NOTED AIR VOYAGES.
+
+
+Blanchard, the supposed inventor of the parachute, with the American,
+Dr. Jeffries, were the first to cross the channel from England to
+France. M. Charles, the inventor of the gas balloon, and one of the
+earliest and most enthusiastic advocates of aerostation, made extensive
+voyages. Madame Thible, of Lyons, was the first of her sex who trusted
+herself to the elastic element. Crosbie, who passed over the sea from
+Ireland to England, came near losing his life; for, the balloon, being
+struck with great force by an adverse current of air, and most of the
+gas escaping, tore over the raging waters at a fearful speed, until the
+courageous man was rescued, near the English coast, by a ship happening
+in his way. But the view which he had enjoyed, seeing both countries at
+once, was sublime beyond description, and compensated him for all the
+danger. He had been at such a hight that, although the July sun melted
+everything below, his ink was a lump of ice, and the quicksilver in the
+instruments had sunk almost out of sight.
+
+The battle of Fleurus, in 1794, was won by the French over the Austrians
+principally through the aid of balloon reconnoitering; and similar
+service was occasionally performed by the balloon in our own war. The
+favorably known Italian, Count Zambeccari, who added many improvements
+to this art, and created great interest in the principal countries of
+Europe, made an ascension, in 1803, with two friends, at Bologna. The
+three alighted in the Adriatic sea and were picked up by fishermen,
+while the balloon, free from weight, rose again and was carried by the
+wind to the Turkish fort Vihacz, where the commander, believing it a
+present "sent from heaven," had it cut up in small pieces and divided
+amongst his friends as amulets. But quite a "reverse opinion" was
+generally entertained by most of the ignorant Christian country people,
+when the huge monster happened to fall amongst them for the first time;
+and their comparison of it to the "evil one" is excusable when we
+consider the peculiar smell of the escaping gas, after their attack upon
+it with pitchforks and similar agricultural implements.
+
+Among other remarkable ascensions is that of Guy Lussac, who reached the
+prodigious hight of nearly four and a half miles. This was exceeded,
+though, by another scientific aeronaut, James Glaisher, in 1862, who,
+with a companion, mounted the great altitude of seven miles--over 36,000
+feet; but as he was insensible for some minutes after reaching the
+elevation of 29,000 feet, the highest ever attained by human beings,
+their calculations could only be approximated. The mercury in the
+hygrometer--a delicate instrument for measuring the moisture in the
+atmosphere--had fallen below the scale, while they were rising more than
+1000 feet per minute. There are instances of balloons that have shot
+upwards at the rate of fifty feet per second, or much over half a mile
+per minute; but, generally, even twenty feet per second is a rare
+occurrence. And here might be mentioned that, since the late serious
+loss of several French scientists by asphyxia, or cold on their
+unfortunate ascension, the problem of maintaining life in the highest
+regions of the atmosphere has been solved in France. With a certain
+apparatus, man could manage to live comfortably nearly ten miles above
+the level of the sea, while, ordinarily, two miles is the most.
+
+As to horizontal speed, perhaps the fastest time on record was made by
+Garnerin and Snowdon, from London to Colchester, some eighty miles, in
+one hour, or about 110 feet per second, almost swifter than an eagle
+flies; and another balloon went from Paris across the Alps, to the
+vicinity of Rome, in twenty-two hours, making over fifty miles per hour,
+considering its zig-zag travel. The reason for such great speed is, that
+the different air currents travel far faster in the upper regions than
+below, where the velocity of the wind is seldom over twenty miles per
+hour; and yet, were it not for the continually changing scenery, the
+aeronaut would imagine himself stationary.
+
+The shortest trip, perhaps, in the annals of this art, both as to hight
+and distance, was made, a few years ago, by a gymnast, at Woodward's
+Gardens, that most beautiful pleasure resort in this city. The little
+disobliging monster went lazily, and with great difficulty, over the
+fence and capsized promptly on the other side, leaving the trapeze-man
+hanging, by the seat of his unmentionables, on the top of it in an
+uncomfortable position, but no bones were broken.
+
+
+
+
+                         V.--ABSENCE OF DANGER.
+
+
+It is erroneous to suppose that aerial voyages are fraught with even
+ordinary danger; on the contrary, travel by sea and land is far more so;
+for, although thousands of assensions have been made, but very few
+persons have met with accidents, in fact, a less number by far
+comparatively, than by any other profession or mode of locomotion; and,
+whenever such has happened, gross carelessness or ignorance was often
+the cause.
+
+During the late Franco-German war, over sixty balloons, many but
+indifferently constructed, left Paris, during the siege, with some one
+hundred and eighty persons and nearly three millions of letters. All
+reached a point of safety.
+
+Professor Wise, the most noted American aeronaut, has made, during the
+last forty years, nearly five hundred voyages, and one in particular, in
+1859, of nearly 1200 miles--perhaps the longest on record--with three
+companions, from St. Louis, Mo., to New York State. This trip was made
+partly in the midst of a tornado, while above Lake Erie, during which
+time some twenty sailing crafts succumbed to the effects of the storm,
+yet the intrepid aeronauts alighted in safety. M. Green, who was the
+first to use coal gas, instead of pure hydrogen, and has also made
+hundreds of successful ascensions, was carried from London to Weilburg,
+in the central part of Germany, about seven hundred miles in eight
+hours, without the slightest mishap. Lastly, Arban, crossed the Alps
+from Marseilles to Turin, four hundred miles, in stormy weather during
+the night. Mont Blanc to the left, on a level with the top of which he
+was, resembled an immense block of crystal--sparkling with a thousand
+fires; while the moon occasionally seemed to have borrowed the light of
+the sun.
+
+
+
+
+                      VI.--CHARM OF AERIAL TRAVEL.
+
+
+Nothing can equal the beauty of an aerial voyage, that most wonderful,
+easy and luxurious mode of locomotion, with its entire absence of
+dizziness--this sensation being lost with the separation from earth, as
+soon as the last cord, which unites us with the world below, is cut.
+
+In rising from the ground, the feelings are absorbed in the novelty and
+magnificence of the spectacle presented, while the ears are saluted with
+the buzz of distant sound until the clouds are reached, when all is
+still as death. The scene is sublime. Around and beneath, the clouds
+roll in magnificent grandeur. They form pyramids, castles, reefs,
+icebergs, ships and towers, and again dissolve into chaos. The half
+obscured sun shedding his mellow light upon the picture, gives it a rich
+and dazzling lustre. Reverence for the work of nature, the solemn
+stillness, an admiration indescribable, all combined, seem to make a
+sound of praise.
+
+The earth, which is never lost sight of at any hight, except clouds
+interfere or night sets in, seems to be concave, like the inside of a
+flattish hollow globe, instead of the outside, as would naturally be
+supposed. The reason for this optical delusion is, that the horizon
+appears on a level with the aeronaut, while the distance downwards
+remains unaltered, making the surface below appear like a valley. The
+earth presents the panoramic view of an immense map, such as the
+enchanted Alladdin must have enjoyed. The coloring, designating the
+various products of the soil, is lively and exquisite. Variegated
+grass-plats, the golden tinge of waving grain fields, the more sombre
+foliage of the trees, the glossy surface of the water dazzling in the
+sunbeams, with occasional white specks for sailing craft; the
+innumerable villages, with tastefully decorated and tinny, toy-like
+houses, the numerous roads tortuously spreading over the surface and
+looking like chalk lines on a gaudy carpet, fairy-like carriages
+seemingly drawn by mice and guided by liliputian little things. Such is
+the beauty of this glorious earth. Yet, when mountains appear like ant
+hills, and Niagara a neat little cascade in a pleasure garden--instead
+of the raging grandeur, only a frothy bubble--man must be forcibly
+reminded that he is but the minutest animalcule, and not of so much
+importance as he presumes himself to be.
+
+No less impressive is the scene at night. The sublime exhibition in the
+vast solitude and darkness of night creates the most stupendous effect
+upon the lonely aeronaut.
+
+The earth's surface, as far as the eye can reach, absolutely teems with
+the scattered fires of a watchful population, and exhibits a starry
+spectacle below, that rivals in brilliancy the lustre of the firmament
+above. A city looming up in the distant horizon gradually appears to
+blaze like a vast conflagration. On drawing near, every street is marked
+out by its particular line of fires; the forms and positions of the
+theatres, squares and markets are indicated by the presence of larger
+and more irregular accumulations of light, and the faint murmurs of a
+busy population still actively engaged in the pursuits of pleasure or
+the avocation of gain; all together combined form a picture, which, for
+beauty and effect, can not be conceived.
+
+Again, higher up, or when clouds intervene, the sky, at all times darker
+when viewed from an elevation, seems almost black with the intensity of
+night; while, by contrast, the stars redoubled in their lustre, shine
+like sparks of the whitest silver, scattered upon the jetty dome around.
+Nothing can exceed this density of night. Not a single object of
+terrestrial nature can anywhere be distinguished, and an unfathomable
+abyss of "darkness visible" encompasses one on every side. It seems like
+cleaving the way through an interminable mass of black marble, and a
+light lowered from these dizzy hights appears to absolutely melt its way
+down into the frozen bosom of the surrounding inkiness. The cold is here
+intense.
+
+
+
+
+                 VII.--AERIAL VOYAGES HEALTH PROMOTING.
+
+
+But while the charm of floating in the air is so fascinating these
+delightful ascensions will be even more beneficial in sanitary respects.
+
+Atmospheric pressure, exerting nearly 30,000 pounds upon a human being
+of full growth, has much to do with the mechanical functions of life. At
+a moderate elevation, one-tenth of this weight can be relieved, and at
+greater hights, even one-third, as balloon experiments have sufficiently
+proven. This pressure, then, diminishing upon the muscular system,
+allows it to expand. The lungs at once become more voluminous and
+breathing purer air; the freedom with which all the circulating fluids
+of the system are allowed to act in the rare atmosphere, intensely
+quicken the animal and mental faculties; the novelty of the voyage, and
+the most sublime grandeur opening to the eye and mind of the invalid;
+all assist to promote health, impart new life, inspire ideas and
+invigorate soul and body.
+
+
+
+
+                           VIII.--PARACHUTES.
+
+
+This simple contrivance often forms an adjunct to balloons. Its
+appearance is generally that of a huge family umbrella of revolutionary
+times. It is likewise concave underneath, because such form, above all
+others, condenses a column of atmosphere more rapidly and retards its
+velocity in the descent immensely. The ribs are generally of whale-bone
+or bamboo covered with strong domestic muslin, and a light wicker basket
+is fastened some twelve feet underneath for the aeronaut, who may cut
+himself loose from the balloon with perfect safety at any hight, and
+descend slowly to the ground, if the parachute is strongly made and
+perhaps fourteen feet across when open.
+
+By giving it a slight inclination, it can be made to descend,
+sliding-like, a long distance from the vertical point; and some of the
+flying machines we read of have likely been only a modified form of the
+parachute. The nautilus on the ocean moves on the principle of it, the
+pollen of plants is carried from one place to another by this mode; so
+the flying squirrel moves in parabolic curves from tree to tree and even
+crosses rivers when the nut crop fails; as also the flying tree-frog
+slants down long distances from high trees. This animal has a
+considerable expansion of skin, connecting the toes only, and which
+looks as if on its four legs were fastened those short, broad and light
+snow-shoes, known as Webfeet, used in our northern Territories in
+winter. It is, therefore, called a "webfoot" frog, but from which must
+not be inferred that it is "an Oregonian," for it is encountered so far
+only in Borneo.
+
+
+
+
+                             IX.--THE KITE.
+
+
+Every one is undoubtedly acquainted with the exceedingly simple
+mechanism--invented when boys commenced to exist--for the enjoyment of
+one of the most pleasant pastimes--kite flying. It is indulged in mostly
+during the fall, and, perhaps, a trifle more so in the rural districts
+than in the cities, because of the greater freedom of room which stubble
+fields and meadows allow.
+
+But attention has also been given to the employment of this kind of
+aerostation as a means of support and conveyance; and kites have been
+made as much as thirty feet high, looking more like buoyant sails than
+boyish playthings, and exerting an immense power of waftage. Loaded
+wagons have been drawn over turnpikes; persons have frequently been
+carried up in the air by huge kites; and, in some parts of Europe,
+experiments have been made to signal and save shipwrecked people on
+dangerous coasts, proving sufficiently that the kite can be made, even
+in its present primitive state, to be quite useful.
+
+In this connection it may "not be amiss" to state that the first person
+known to have ascended--some eighty years ago, as the "History of Kite
+Carriage" informs us, "was a Miss"--a young lady of some one hundred and
+twenty-six pounds, avoirdupois. She was seated in a chair underneath the
+gigantic structure which weighed nearly thirty pounds, had a surface of
+about sixty square feet, and rose most majestically to a hight of six
+hundred feet--an incontrovertible instance of the superior courage of
+the gentler sex over man.
+
+The kite is maintained in the air by two opposing forces: the impelling
+power of the wind--lifting it by striking against it at an angle, and
+the restraining powers of the string--motive-force and gravitation
+combined; so that in the kite, above all, we possess in a crude form,
+the three principles requisite for artificial flight: the plain, weight
+and propelling force. By improving upon the kite, therefore, we will
+arrive at the practical solution of the problem of artificial flight.
+
+
+
+
+                      X.--BALLOONS IMPRACTICABLE.
+
+
+It is not creditable to the present age that the problem of aerial
+navigation has not been solved. But one of the causes has undoubtedly
+been the discovery of the balloon, which has retarded this science for
+nearly a century by misleading men's minds, and causing them to look for
+a solution of the problem by the aid of a machine lighter than air, and
+which has no analogue in nature.
+
+Weight is one of three essential factors in flight, for a light body
+cannot be propelled through a heavier one. Hence all attempts at driving
+and guiding the balloons have signally failed. This arises from the vast
+extent of surface which it necessarily presents, rendering it a fair
+conquest to every breeze that blows, and because the power which
+animates it is a mere lifting power, which acts in a vertical line. The
+balloon, consequently, rises through the air in opposition to the law of
+gravity, by which all flying creatures are governed, very much as a dead
+bird falls downward in accordance with it. Having no hold upon the air,
+this cannot be employed as a fulcrum for regulating its movements, and
+hence the cardinal difficulty of ballooning as an art of locomotion and
+its uncertainty, because the air-currents cannot be regulated. A balloon
+starting from San Francisco might be intended for New York, but, against
+the desire of the passengers, alight in China or the Canibal Islands,
+which would be rather disagreeable.
+
+It is simply astonishing to hear of people trying, year after year, to
+propel elongated or cigar-shaped balloons with a car underneath, and a
+screw-propeller, of course--an experiment which was tried,
+unsuccessfully, forty years ago. But this is generally the first
+conceived project of an aspirant for fame who commences to think on the
+subject, and soon fancies himself the happy possessor of the secret; yet
+what a very small amount of science is necessary to show its fallacy. In
+fact, all kinds of propositions for the propulsion of balloons have been
+advanced and experimented upon, but scarcely any improvements have been
+made since the first five years after its invention; proving, perhaps,
+more conclusively than anything else, that the practical propulsion of
+balloons is an impossibility.
+
+The most remarkable idea in this respect, was undoubtedly that of
+Teissol. He flattered himself to be able to train geese or other birds
+to pull a balloon by being hitched to it, while the conductor, in a car
+underneath, was to direct their movements by the aid of a long pole.
+Although the training of birds is not so ridiculous as it may seem, yet
+he found that geese, if not too tough, answer the purpose of a good
+roast much better. And another genius, still more unique, long before
+balloons were invented, conceived the idea that air, like water, must
+have a defined limit, and that it was possible to sail on its surface
+like ships on the ocean. He did not state how to get up there, but lost
+no time in inducing the King of Portugal to forbid everyone, under
+penalty of death, to use said invention. So far, no one has come in
+conflict with that law.
+
+Yet, although the balloon is impracticable as a means of transportation,
+it should by no means be discarded, for it can be made very useful for
+scientific and other observations, to give pleasure to thousands of
+people by fanciful ascensions, and not the least, to serve, as stated
+before, sanitary purposes, when captive and well secured. But instead of
+lowering and elevating it continually, as is being done at present, and
+which occasions danger and great loss of time and money, a contrivance
+should be made by which persons could safely, and without interruption,
+be carried up and down underneath parachutes.
+
+
+
+
+          XI.--REASONS WHY THE PROBLEM HAS REMAINED UNSOLVED.
+
+
+The slow progress made, and the unsatisfactory state of the question,
+notwithstanding the large and universal share of attention bestowed upon
+the subject from earliest times, must be attributed to a variety of
+causes, the most prominent of which are--
+
+"The great difficulty of the problem.
+
+"The incapacity on the one hand, or theoretical tendencies on the other,
+of those who have devoted themselves to its elucidation.
+
+"The lack of means of inventors generally, and the difficulty of
+obtaining the same to experiment and carry out their ideas even after
+the completion of their invention. Hence so many failures amongst this
+class, while men of genius in the literary or most other fields require
+but little pecuniary outlay to succeed.
+
+"The stolid indifference of an unthinking community, which so often
+proves the deathblow to the mind of the philosophical inquirer, and
+whose aim is condemned and pronounced as 'visionary,' absurd and
+incapable of realization, instead of receiving that support and
+encouragement which is so necessary to success."
+
+Flight has therefore been unusually unfortunate in its votaries. It has
+been cultivated on the one hand by profound thinkers, especially
+mathematicians, who have worked out innumerable theorems, but have never
+submitted them to test of experiment; and on the other by either
+uneducated charlatans who, despising the abstractions of science
+entirely, have made the most wild and ridiculous attempts at a practical
+solution of the problem; or inventors, who, desirous to triumph over
+some of the acknowledged difficulties of propulsion and navigation, but
+for want of organization or pecuniary support, or being unacquainted
+with preceding failures in the same direction, or ignorant of some one
+condition demanded by the peculiar nature of the experiment, but which
+is absolutely necessary to success, have also failed, thus causing still
+greater doubt in the public mind, and, consequently, less support to
+inventors in the same direction afterwards.
+
+A common error prevails, that models are essential to help the inventor.
+The province of the model is to explain the invention to others after it
+has been made, and not to assist the inventor. Except in very restricted
+limits they have been found to be almost useless, and most of our
+valuable discoveries have been made and carried out without their aid.
+Watt's first condensing engine had a cylinder of eighteen inches
+diameter, or about the average size now in use. It is so with
+agricultural and other practical inventions and applies particularly to
+flying machines. Models often signally prove failures on a small scale,
+yet would be successful on a larger.
+
+The problem is not an unphilosophical phantom, but a mathematically
+demonstrated truth, which needs only actual realization to revolutionize
+the world for the better. That the air is navigable can no longer be
+denied.
+
+
+
+
+                XII.--FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT.
+
+
+In contemplating the boundless atmosphere, we perceive it to be tenanted
+by a multitude of creatures of varied form and size, who move and direct
+themselves with marvellous ease and skill. These beings, so different in
+their nature, form and construction--from the proud eagle to the
+"blood-thirsty" mosquito--resemble one another in the possession of
+three important fundamental principles which constitute the power of
+flight. These are--weight or gravity, surface or resistance of the
+atmosphere against it, and force or power of projection.
+
+The medium in which the phenomenon of flight is produced--the air--is an
+invisible, impalpable, comparatively imponderable fluid, and its density
+is nearly 800 times less than that of water. Hence a movement through it
+can be made far more rapidly than through its sister medium.
+Nevertheless, if agitated, it is capable of exerting great pressure, as
+the tempestuous storms, overturning fences, unroofing houses, uprooting
+trees, and carrying even large animals into the air, teach us. Hereon
+then, that is, the proper manipulation principally in creating
+artificial currents of air, hinges the secret of flight, because this
+phenomenon is reproduced in a manner identical, if a surface is moved
+against it, as we see in the wings of flying creatures.
+
+
+
+
+                             XIII.--WEIGHT.
+
+
+Weight is absolutely indispensible in flight, it adds momentum and
+assists the propelling power--with greater force comparatively in
+heavier bodies. A wooden cannon ball can fly only a fraction of the
+distance of an iron one; and an equal weight of musket balls, propelled
+by the same charge of powder, will not reach near so far as the cannon
+ball, because of its consolidation in one body; and a feather or little
+toy balloon can not only not be propelled, but will actually recoil if
+attempted. Hence, all flying animals are many hundred times heavier than
+air, and the heaviest are generally the best flyers, yet require the
+least amount of surface and force in proportion.
+
+The sympathy existing between weight and power is very great. Weight
+acts in flight upon the oblique surfaces of the wings in conjunction
+with the power expended, and thereby husbanding the latter immensely.
+Thus only are the denizens of the air enabled to perform long journeys,
+while otherwise they could retain their position in the upper region but
+a very brief time, as their strength is no greater than that of other
+animals and would soon give out. Weight acts on flying creatures in a
+similar manner as we see it in the clock, where weight is the moving
+power, and the pendulum merely regulates its movements.
+
+Of course, the belief of many, that birds have large air cells in their
+interior, that those cavities contain heated air, and that this heated
+air in some mysterious manner contributes to, if it does not actually
+produce, flight, falls to the ground upon the least reflection. No
+argument could be more fallacious. The bird is a heavy, compact, by no
+means bulky body, and that trifle of heated air, or gas, if such were
+the case, but is not, which possibly might help elevation, would be but
+dust in the scale. A small balloon of two feet diameter--a larger body
+than any bird--can lift only about a quarter of a pound. But, besides,
+many admirable flyers, such as bats, have no air cells; while many
+animals, never intended to fly, are provided with them. It may,
+therefore, be reasonably concluded that flight is in no way connected
+with air cells, and the best proof that can be adduced is to be found in
+the fact that it can be performed to perfection in their absence.
+
+
+
+
+                             XIV.--SURFACE.
+
+
+The next of the three properties necessary for flight, is the extension
+of the locomotive organs in winged beings--the planes. Although the
+wings in the different animals differ much in their form, texture,
+construction, number, and the matter which composes them, yet they
+resemble one another in the expansion and development of their surfaces,
+being stretched on each side of the body, and playing the part of a
+parachute. The animal, therefore, cannot fall like a stone, in obedience
+to the accelerated force of gravity, but it descends with a slow
+velocity; constant regular, and considerably abated.
+
+This influence, then, exercised by the flat surface on the fall of
+masses, is seen in a sheet of paper of the same weight as a grain of
+lead, it will fall much more slowly. But if we make the paper a compact
+ball, and flatten the lead into a broad, thin sheet, the reverse result
+will be produced, and the paper reach the ground before the lead.
+Therefore, bodies in the air are light or heavy in proportion to their
+surfaces, and the heaviest may become light by an alteration of form.
+For successful flight, then, a just proportion of surface and weight is
+necessary; because, as stated, the air being elastic, its resistance is
+much more effectual with light bodies than heavy ones; and this
+proportion is such that the extent of surface is always in an inverse
+ratio to the weight of the winged animal.
+
+The principle in the fall of flat surfaces is strictly applicable to the
+bird. Its weight, tending downwards, and being situated below the plain
+of suspension, keeps it well balanced, so that it cannot fall head over
+heels, nor rapidly. If the wings are inclined at an angle with the
+horizon, the bird will not descend vertically, but glide along an
+inclined plane with much greater swiftness, because the vertical
+distance remains unaltered in the same space of time. Hence their
+immense horizontal velocity, without comparatively any effort. This is
+in obedience to two forces--gravity, or weight, and resistance of
+surface.
+
+
+
+
+                              XV.--POWER.
+
+
+But for actual flight a third force is required--the propelling power,
+the necessary amount of which has greatly been overrated by many
+mathematicians.
+
+Borelli estimated the power of a three pound bird to be over one hundred
+and thirty horses relatively. But, Navier, more reasonably, calculated a
+force of five horses sufficient for the flight of a pigeon. Coulomb,
+again, offset this "great liberality" by demonstrating that the surface
+to support a man must be two miles long and two hundred feet wide, with
+the power of a "Corliss engine" to propel such a "fifty acre ranch."
+
+Now, facts prove that man can, without danger, descend from an high
+elevation under a surface of much less than fifteen feet diameter; and
+the force to lift himself, as will be shown hereafter, is also
+comparatively small. He can walk up stairs, and likewise mount upon air,
+which, properly manipulated, becomes sufficiently solid.
+
+It has been demonstrated beyond a doubt, that the heaviest flying
+animals require the smallest amount of surface and power in proportion.
+The surface is less, because the resistance of the atmosphere is much
+greater toward one unbroken body than all the parts thereof if detached.
+Hence a stork, weighing eight times as much as a pigeon, needs only five
+square feet of surface, while the eight pigeons, with nearly one square
+foot each, possess together over seven square feet; and the common fly,
+if magnified to the size of the crane, would show a surface sixty times
+as large.
+
+The heaviest flyers require the least amount of power, because weight,
+as stated before, itself is power, which increases in a certain ratio.
+Hence we find the muscular force of the smaller beings, who possess
+little weight, to be enormous; this is particularly so with insects, who
+are the strongest in creation. A stag-beetle, of which two hundred weigh
+only one pound, can lift fourteen ounces; crickets leap eighty times
+their own length, and the "lively flea" can jump through space estimated
+at even two hundred times the length of its body--which accounts for the
+difficulty of catching it. If a mouse would simply reproduce the gait of
+a horse, its progress would be about twenty inches per minute only, and
+cats would soon find themselves out of employment.
+
+Nature has wisely established a compensation to make amends for the
+diminutiveness of organs by rapidity of movement, and has, consequently,
+furnished the animal with the necessary power to produce this rapidity.
+
+The force necessary for lifting in all winged beings is not near so
+great as is generally supposed. The fall of a body, continually
+accelerating, is seventeen feet per second, and a very great force would
+be necessary indeed to offset this gravitation, if that second were
+allowed to expire without a counter-movement; but when that body is
+provided with a parachute-like arrangement, there is no such rapid fall
+of seventeen feet per second; and when, besides, the force is applied
+constantly, thereby counteracting even a fraction of the fall, the power
+needed to accomplish this is but a trifle; it is the principle, to use a
+homely phrase, that "a stitch in time saves nine." What extra strength
+the animal possesses has to be used in pursuit or escape, from the
+powerful eagle to the minutest insect; they must be prepared to exert at
+a given moment all the strength that nature has given to them in store.
+
+Their strength is no greater than that of fishes or quadrupeds; all
+possess surplus power greatly above the need of their average use, and
+the strength exhibited therefore by flying creatures shows only that but
+a small portion of it is used for lifting and propelling purposes.
+
+Eagles have been known to carry off small deer, lambs, hares, and even
+young children. Many of the fishing birds, as pelicans and herons, can
+likewise carry considerable loads, while the smaller birds are capable
+of transporting comparatively large twigs for building purposes. A
+swallow can traverse 1000 miles at a single journey, and the swift, the
+fastest of all, is known to have made nearly 180 miles an hour. The
+albatross, despising compass and land-mark, trusts himself boldly for
+weeks together to the mercy or fury of the mighty ocean; and the huge
+condor of the Andes, as Humboldt, Darwin, Orton, and others inform us,
+lifts himself to a hight where no sound is heard, and from an unseen
+point surveys, in solitary grandeur, the wide range of plain and
+mountain below. He has been seen flying over the Chimborazo, and
+attains, on occasions, an altitude of six miles.
+
+
+
+
+         XVI.--FLYING CREATURES, THEIR PROPORTIONS, MOVEMENTS.
+
+
+The great common characteristic of the different winged beings are the
+same throughout all the modifications of detail. These are, as stated,
+weight, extension of surface, and the mechanical application of the
+propelling force; so that the animal is a gliding plane, part of which
+is fixed and the other moveable, and the whole being maintained in
+stable equilibrium by the weight of the body, placed a little below the
+plane of suspension.
+
+By comparing the different species it is found, by M. de Lucy and
+others, that the extent of surface is in inverse ratio to the weight,
+the determination of this ratio being based upon certain considerations.
+The proof of this is overwhelming. Supposing all flying creatures of the
+same weight, say one pound, it is found that the:
+
+    Gnat possesses  50    Common fly      22    Bee                5
+    Beetle           4    Sparrow          3    Pigeon         1-2/3
+    Stork nearly     1    Vulture        3/4    Crane nearly     1/2
+
+                  Square feet of surface per pound.
+
+Thus we find the gnat, of which 160,000 make one pound, and which weighs
+four hundred and sixty times less than the beetle, has thirteen times
+more surface, comparatively. The sparrow weighs about ten times less
+than the pigeon, and has twice as much surface in proportion. The
+Australian crane--one of the heaviest birds, it weighs over twenty
+pounds, or almost three million times as much as the gnat--possesses the
+least surface--not quite ten square feet, or one hundred and twenty
+times less than that insignificant but formidable animal. Yet its flight
+is, gliding softly on the air, without effort or fatigue, with but
+little exertion, the longest maintained, and it can, with few
+exceptions, elevate itself the highest.
+
+In regard to the movements of the wings, there is a similar ratio; for,
+while the mosquito makes over two hundred wing strokes per second, the
+sparrow makes only thirteen, the buzzard three, and so on, continually
+decreasing with heavier bodies.
+
+A word about bats and flying fish. Although bats present no real
+resemblance whatever to birds or insects, but are much more like
+ourselves, they must be classed amongst the creatures of the air,
+because they are constantly moving in it, and governed by the same laws.
+
+Their flight, being somewhat fluttering, but otherwise powerful, true
+and perfect, is undoubtedly caused, particularly in the early part of
+the night, when feeding, by their darting right and left after the
+almost invisible numerous insects, which they devour at once.
+
+The wing of the bat is, like that of the bird, concavo-convex, and also
+more or less twisted upon itself, but it differs in so far that its arm
+is not covered with feathers, but a very delicate membrane, which forms
+the parachute-like wing.
+
+Their nocturnal, and therefore disreputable habits, with our dislike for
+the blood-sucking propensity of a large specie, the vampire, has kept
+our interest in these otherwise harmless and clean creatures at rather
+freezing point. But they can be tamed easily, and are capable of giving
+considerable pleasure.
+
+The flight of a shoal of flying-fish as they shoot forth from the dark
+green wave in a glittering throng, gleaming brightly in the sunshine, is
+a charming sight. But these fish can scarcely be classed with the
+creatures of the air, because true flight, that is the manipulation of
+the wings, is lacking. They are mentioned because they represent, like
+the kite, the first step toward that true flight which all other
+creatures in the air possess.
+
+They are capable of moving through the air from 500 to 600 feet, and as
+much as 20 feet above the water. The fish first acquires initial
+velocity by a preliminary rush through the water, when it throws itself
+suddenly into the air, and, at the same moment, spreads out, kite-like,
+at a slight inclination upwards, its extraordinarily large pectoral
+fins. It keeps up the great speed until its momentum is exhausted, when
+the same performance is repeated.
+
+The fact in favor of mechanical flight is certainly incontrovertible
+that less surface and less power is required and flight maintained the
+longest, in proportion to heavier bodies.
+
+It must be convincing, therefore, that it is possible for man to apply
+the laws of flight to industrial purposes in the same manner as he has
+been able, in these days, to apply all the other grand physical laws
+that he has taken the trouble to study and fathom. The law of surface
+and force reigns in the most absolute and exact manner over all flying
+animals. It does not stop here. Nature, whose laws are general and
+universal, has not created this one only for the restricted compass of
+the winged animate beings. The law which sustains on the water the leaf
+and the straw is the same for the gigantic Great Eastern; and the
+mechanical law of the forces which drives the wheelbarrow also conducts
+on its iron line the locomotive and its endless train.
+
+
+
+
+         XVII.--MECHANICAL PRACTICABILITY OF ARTIFICIAL FLIGHT.
+
+
+Living beings have been, in every age, compared to machines, but it is
+only in the present day that the bearing and justice of this comparison
+are fully comprehensible. Modern engineers have created machines which
+execute more difficult and various operations than animate beings are
+capable of; yet it is always from nature first that man has to draw his
+inspirations.
+
+Of the different functions of animal mechanism, that of locomotion is
+certainly one of the most important and interesting; and as we have
+brought this art on land and water, by successfully imitating the
+natural movements of walking and swimming, to quite a high state of
+perfection, the next great problem, equally possible, because flight is
+a natural movement, remains to be solved.
+
+Of course, as different as the wheel of the locomotive is from the limb
+of the quadruped, and the screw of a steamship from the fin of a fish,
+so will the coming flying machine differ from the construction of bird,
+bat or insect.
+
+Walking, swimming and flying are modifications of, and merging into,
+each other by insensible gradations; and the modifications, resulting
+therefrom, are necessitated by the amount of support afforded on, and in
+the different mediums--earth, water, air. Although flight is,
+indisputably, the finest of the different animal movements, yet it does
+not essentially differ from the other two, as the material and forces
+employed are literally the same as those in walking and swimming.
+
+Flight is, therefore, a purely mechanical problem, and in compliance
+with the law of decrease, as stated before, the surface requisite to
+transport bodies in the air, is found to be about one-half,
+proportionately, to twelve times the weight.
+
+Applying this observation to an apparatus of, say 200 [lb]s., we find
+that the surface of a bird of 18 [lb]s.--about one-twelfth of said 200
+[lb]s.--to be 10 square feet; multiplying this by twelve, its weight, we
+have 120 square feet of surface, and of which one-half accordingly, 60
+square feet, is enough for the support of 200 pounds. Such a machine,
+although possessing much less surface than parachutes generally do, is
+in the form of inclined planes of proper construction, fully sufficient
+for man to slide down safely through the air, without exertion, from an
+elevation at least ten times the vertical distance, that is, from the
+top of the Palace Hotel to the foot of Baldwin's.
+
+As to the force required, although impossible to give datas, the law of
+decrease with greater weight reigns absolute here also. Man's muscular
+power for tolerably swift horizontal flight is far greater than
+necessary; and, with properly constructed contrivances, he will be able
+to travel, at an incline upwards of one in thirty, at least twenty miles
+an hour, by manual power alone. A carrier pigeon flies, for a short
+time, at the rate of one hundred miles an hour, and some birds much
+faster. But in employing any of the many excellent motive powers at
+command now, and with larger machines, we will be able to surpass the
+swiftest birds.
+
+As for the objection, that the fury of the wind will hinder artificial
+flight, it is refuted by observing that even a hurricane, which,
+traveling over eighty miles an hour, occurs but rarely, does hardly
+prevent the flight of fast birds, and still less would that of a compact
+and solid flying machine, because of its greater weight and momentum.
+And even if an occasional storm should be dangerous, the machine, by its
+greater swiftness, could be turned above, below or sideways, out of the
+path of destruction, or it need not travel at such rare times. Besides,
+the effect of the storm upon a body within its own medium is
+insignificant to what it is when that body offers resistance by being
+attached to another medium, as ships on the water, or houses and fences
+on land.
+
+
+
+
+         XVIII.--FLYING MACHINES OF THE PRESENT, THEIR DEFECTS.
+
+
+When it was found that no marked improvements could be made in balloons,
+the more advanced thinkers, turning their attention in an opposite
+direction, commenced to justly regard the winged being as the true model
+for flying machines; and experiments are now being made, in different
+parts of the world, of which all go to prove that "_flight is far more a
+question of mechanical adaptation, construction and manipulation, than
+of enormous power_," which, of course, in any experiment, must prove
+unavailable, if improperly applied. Some of the motive engines, lately
+exhibited in England, produced such remarkable power as certainly no
+bird possesses. One of four-horse power weighed 40 pounds, and occupied
+but a few cubic feet; another of 13 pounds exerted over one-horse power;
+and, at some experiments in France last year, a steam engine of two and
+a half horse power weighed 80 [lb]s.; and, being applied to a machine
+with two vertical screw propellers of 12 ft. diameter each, it raised
+120 [lb]s. of the whole weight of 160 [lb]s.
+
+But, as far as known, these different motive powers have been employed
+so far only to elevate and propel machines by vertical fan-like
+contrivances--helicopterics or by aeroplanes, pushed forward and upward
+by screw propellers; either quite as irrational as ballooning, because
+the rigid plane, wedged forward and upward at a given angle, in a
+straight line, or in a circle, does not embody the principles carried
+out in nature. Hence, the several advocates of the aeroplane and
+helicopteric have met with but indifferent success.
+
+Perhaps the best representative model of a flying machine on the
+principles of inclined planes, was that of Mr. Stringfellow, exhibited
+in London, in 1868, and which occasionally could rise. It had three
+aeroplanes, superimposed as advocated by Wenham, the frames of which were
+made of light wood, with cloth drawn over it tightly, like rigid kites,
+fixed parallel one above the other, with a tail attached to the middle
+one. It had a small box underneath for the motive power, and a light
+screw propeller behind for pushing it forward. By giving the machine an
+upward angle, the planes strike continually upon new layers of air, and
+so cause a rise, like a kite pushed from behind. The whole structure had
+about thirty-six square feet of surface, and weighed, including the
+steam engine, which exerted nearly one-half horse power, under 12
+pounds. It proved conclusively that, while the inclined plane, in a
+practical and different form, is necessary for aerostation, the secret of
+solving the problem lays far more in the mechanical application of
+certain laws governing the art of flight, than in enormous power.
+
+These kite-form machines did not succeed, in spite of their great motive
+power and lightness, because the supporting planes were not active and
+flexible, but presented passive or dead surfaces, without power to
+accommodate themselves to altered circumstances. These planes were made
+to strike the air at a given angle, instead of continually changing to
+suit the elastic medium, and in which respect the ordinary kite is a
+better flying machine. If not driven with great velocity, such a machine
+can not support itself in the atmosphere; besides, on account of its
+great surface exposed, a strong wind can easily capsize it; while
+natural wings, on the contrary, present small flying surfaces, and their
+great speed converts the space through which they are driven, into a
+solid basis for support. This arrangement enables wings to seize and
+utilize the air, and renders them superior to the adverse currents, not
+of their forming. In this respect they entirely differ from balloons,
+and all forms of fixed aeroplanes.
+
+The different small helicopteric models, relying entirely on the aid of
+the screw, made from time to time, were also lacking, as stated before,
+in some of the true principles of flight; although some of these models
+could not only rise, but also carry a certain amount of freight, as was
+shown by the delicately constructed clockwork models of M. Nadar, a
+prominent French scientist, and others. One remarkable model, exhibited
+some years ago, was that of M. Phillips. It was made entirely of metal,
+weighed two pounds, had four two-bladed fans inclined to the horizon at
+an angle of twenty degrees, and made to revolve in opposite directions
+with immense energy. The motive power employed was obtained from the
+combustion of charcoal, nitre and gypsum, the products of combustion
+mixing with water in the boiler and forming gas-charged steam, which was
+delivered at a high pressure from the extremities of the arms of the
+fans, on the principle discovered by Hero, of Alexandria.
+
+The production of flight by artificial wings is the most ancient method
+proposed, and will, undoubtedly, in a greatly modified form, and in
+combination with other contrivances, solve the problem; but to exactly
+imitate natural wings will be found as impossible as the production by
+the other different methods proposed so far.
+
+Of the more recent attempts at the solution of the problem by means of
+artificial wings, worked by steam power, the perhaps most determined was
+that of Mr. Kauffman, of Glasgow. The machine had superimposed
+aeroplanes, similar to those used by Stringfellow. The two wings were of
+great length, narrow, pointed towards the end, and were made to flap up
+and down somewhat like the wings of a bird. The model exhibited weighed,
+complete, 42 [lb]s., but the dimensions for a large machine were to be:
+length, about 30 ft.; hight, 5 ft.; width, 6 ft.; length of each wing,
+60 ft.; surface of each, 400 ft.; total weight of machine, 8000 [lb]s.;
+nominal power, 120 horses; intended speed, 60 miles per hour; with water
+supply for five hours and oil as fuel for ten hours. Besides, a pendule,
+weighing 85 [lb]s., and 40 ft. in length, was attached, which could,
+telescope-like, be drawn up when necessary. The model was made exactly,
+to show the inventor's theory, and to ascertain if the connection to the
+wings could be made strong enough to withstand the violent twisting and
+bending strains to which they were exposed. When steam at a pressure of
+over 150 [lb]s. was turned on, the wings made a short series of furious
+flaps and broke. The experiment failed, because, to exactly imitate the
+movements of the long and delicate wings of fast-flying birds on a large
+scale, is impossible; the leverage to flap up and down 60 ft. long wings
+being simply enormous beyond computation, and no material can be found
+strong enough to withstand it.
+
+Another machine, the propulsion of which was also to be effected by
+means of artificial wings, was exhibited some years ago in England. It
+differed entirely from the other in this respect, that it was very
+light, weighing scarcely 30 [lb]s., and was intended for a man to fly by
+his own muscular power. It had about 70 square feet of surface, two
+short wings, and the ribs were made of paragon wire, such as is used in
+umbrellas, and covered with silk. By a preliminary quick run, the
+inventor could take short, jump-like flights of more than 100 feet; but
+this machine was also in a very crude state of perfection.
+
+These different practical experiments, although more or less
+unsuccessful, and others similar, but of which many models were far more
+ingenious than practical, have at least established the certain prospect
+and certainty of an early solution of the problem. And were it not that
+but very few, comparatively, of the great number of theories, which have
+been proposed from time to time for the accomplishment of this great
+object, have been submitted to anything resembling even the remotest
+approach to practical tests, and that the lack of means is generally the
+insurmountable barrier in experimenting, aerial navigation would to-day
+be an established fact.
+
+
+
+
+          XIX.--THE PRACTICAL FLYING SHIP OF THE NEAR FUTURE.
+
+
+Possessing then, all the datas possible on the subject, it is, perhaps,
+not so very difficult as is generally supposed, to arrive at a
+satisfactory result; and, like other great inventions before, the coming
+air ship will also be a rather simple affair. While it will not likely
+possess such prodigious weight as 8000 to 10,000 pounds, with a hundred
+and twenty horse-power steam engine--sufficient almost for a man of war,
+it will neither be as light as a feather, comparatively, but hold the
+golden middle.
+
+The inclined planes, in a greatly modified form, will by no means be
+discarded, as in fact no flying machine could be built otherwise. But,
+as stated before, this is only one principle long recognized, the A B C,
+so to speak, towards the solution of the problem. These planes, in
+wedging forward, for certain reasons, should be _elastic_, in some
+manner, and which has not been attempted by any inventor yet. The frames
+and covering of all models, built so far, have been rigid and
+immoveable, and yet, even with these great defects, partial success has
+been obtained already.
+
+The fan or screw never will be used as the _only_ means in propelling,
+but will be very effective in doing service as a part of the whole, with
+other contrivances in driving and guiding. But their form and style must
+be considerably different from anything known at present.
+
+A modified and peculiar form and style of wings, as mentioned here
+before, must also be employed in combination with the planes and fans,
+to serve the double purpose of driving and lifting. By the manipulation
+of these wings the accumulating and compressed air is thrown underneath
+the machine, thereby urging the same in a forward and upward direction,
+and by which the planes in front are made to continually rise upon new
+layers of the elastic medium, like a kite when the boy runs forward.
+
+The planes must be fixed in such a manner that they can be set at
+different angles with the horizon, in order that the machine may rise
+sooner when the angle is greatest, because of the greater resistance of
+the air against a larger surface exposed; and to glide through the
+atmosphere swifter, after elevation has been attained, when the angle of
+the planes is most acute, thereby offering the least amount of surface
+to the horizontally opposing air. No flying creature rises in the air
+vertically, but ascends at an incline.
+
+A swallow, one of the very best flyers, lifts itself with difficulty
+from the ground. An eagle, particularly after eating, has to run some
+distance flapping its wings vigorously before it can rise. An insect,
+possessing considerable spring-power in its limbs, always takes a good
+jump at the moment its wings are spread out for elevation, at an upward
+angle forward. With similar contrivances for the purpose must a
+practical flying machine be provided. It should, in combination with a
+certain amount of spring power, to enable it to rise with greater ease
+at the final moment, and also to reduce the shock in alighting to a
+minimum, have wheels to run over the ground, until sufficient force and
+momentum has been attained to launch it into the boundless realms of
+space.
+
+To be thoroughly practical, the machine must be under perfect control,
+and be made to descend upon any spot desired with absolute safety and
+ease. This can be accomplished by the combined effort of the propellors
+and wings. By exerting the power of these contrivances in opposite
+directions the disturbed atmosphere is thrown in volumes underneath the
+machine, which, on account of its similarity to a parachute, although of
+a greatly different form, can be made to descend vertically and very
+slow.
+
+The doubt expressed by many, that the guidance of an air ship is
+possible, is easily refuted. All bodies, possessing the propelling force
+within them, can guide themselves in an elastic medium. Of this we have
+millions of examples before us in all flying creatures.
+
+Finally, a practical shape and proper size and weight will form one of
+the most essential elements in a successful flying machine, and which
+has been disregarded more or less so far. Of course, it is impossible to
+calculate already, before an actual machine has been built and datas can
+be fixed, the limits of these factors in the average aerial structure. My
+impressions are, that the weight of a single carriage will be from 400
+to 500 lbs., inclusive; a motive force of 3 to 5 horse power. It will
+have a total length of from forty to fifty feet, by about the same in
+width, from tip to tip; and a surface of from 500 to 600 square feet
+will be more than sufficient to sustain a total weight of 1000 lbs.; for
+such a machine will be capable to carry from three to four persons, or
+its equivalent weight of express matter, letters, newspapers, and other
+light freight. Of course, free mail facilities for our wise solons will,
+perhaps, unfortunately have to be barred out.
+
+When the novelty and excitement of this style of travel will have
+subsided, we may take the next step in aerostation by carrying a much
+greater number of passengers and heavier freight; not in a single
+machine, but by making two or more to support inclined planes of certain
+construction between them. These planes, in swift horizontal flight,
+could be made to carry, in suitable cars underneath, much more than
+their own weight, because the power of support which the air affords to
+inclined planes at a great speed is simply enormous, amounting to 50
+[lb]s. per square ft. in a pressure of 100 miles per hour. For this
+purpose, the manner of placing these aeroplanes one above the other, as
+proposed by Mr. Wenham many years ago, would be practical to some
+extent.
+
+The great swiftness with which these machines are expected to travel,
+seems at first to rouse fear in us to trust our more or less valuable
+lives into such a wonderful structure; and it possibly staggers our
+belief that such great speed can be performed with any degree of safety
+to brittle bone and breathing valve. But all these objections are easily
+refuted. The aerial traveler sits securely inside the strong machine, in
+no danger of catching a cold from the strong air-current rushing by,
+very much like the passenger in a railroad car; and if of an inquisitive
+turn of mind for the beauty of the surrounding panorama, he has suitable
+windows for observation. If the air passenger suffers from gout,
+rheumatism, or is susceptible to sea-sickness, he will experience no
+inconvenience, because there is no jogging, no rumbling over
+cobble-stones or broken rails, or riding on a heavy sea; he will feel no
+motion at whatever hight he may be, but will glide voluptuously--without
+perception almost--like a summer cloud through the vast ocean of the
+aerial fluid.
+
+The machine being under perfect control, can be made to travel very slow
+when towards the point of destination, and may be stopped at any hight
+to remain stationary or leisurely descend. And lastly, speed appears
+greatly diminished when the object is viewed from a distance, as we can
+observe on a railroad train. A telegraph pole standing near the track
+will flit by like a flash of lightning, so to speak; but if any
+considerable distance off, it disappears very slow. But when an object
+is followed by the eye from a considerable elevation, this fact is still
+more striking. The eye can command at a glance almost hundreds of miles
+of country, and a city can be seen at a distance of at least fifty miles
+in advance, giving the aeronaut ample time for preparing a descent, if so
+desired. Of course, he must be well acquainted with landmarks, to know
+what part of country he is in; but this knowledge will be acquired much
+easier than water navigation.
+
+Such about will be the coming flying-machine of the near future. The
+natural elements, so far from presenting barriers and obstacles, as they
+do to a great extent on land and ocean navigation, seem to be peculiarly
+inviting to aerostation.
+
+Previous to nearly every great discovery, difficulties have been thought
+to exist which its completion dissolved. In the days of stage-coaching,
+the expectations held out by those interested in steam transport were
+considered, even by most competent and intelligent men, as wholly
+chimerical; yet the locomotive far surpasses the race-horse in speed and
+endurance. When practice proved and datas could be fixed, that smooth
+tires met all the requirements on railroads--in place of cogwheels to
+gear into racks--how easy all calculations on adhesive force and
+friction then became. So with flight.
+
+
+
+
+             XX.--WHAT THE CHANGES FOR THE BETTER WILL BE.
+
+
+It is impossible to overestimate the benefits which will accrue to
+mankind from such a creation. Flying will become a studied art, an
+amusement, an accomplishment, and inconvenience from sultry heat, or
+freezing cold, or deadly epidemics will no longer be suffered. Flying
+will become a business, a trade, and the advantages derived from it for
+industrial purposes will be wonderfully great. New channels of
+employment will be opened to thousands, yes, millions of starving
+fellow-beings. A new era will be inaugurated in history; and great as
+has been the destiny of our race, it will be quite outlustred by the
+grandeur and magnitude of coming events.
+
+Traveling at a speed of over one hundred miles an hour, distance will
+become comparatively annihilated. Cutting through the air from San
+Francisco to New York, for instance, in twenty-four hours, at one-sixth
+in cost and time; far safer, because of no irregulations nor
+obstructions of road, no snow-blockades or unnecessary delays; far
+cheaper, because of no great expense for outfit or maintenance, the
+aerial carriage will soon become the great means of travel throughout the
+world.
+
+The vast uninhabited but productive regions of this globe will be
+populated from overcrowded and impoverished communities, because of the
+extraordinary cheap, safe, and rapid travel by flying machines. New life
+will again be imparted to enterprise, speculation and labor; and lands
+will be cultivated and great cities be built in regions where the foot
+of human being has not trod for ages.
+
+The Andes and Rocky Mountains will become as familiar to us as the hills
+of our own city; and mining and other discoveries will follow each other
+with wonderful rapidity. The vexing and expensive explorations in the
+interiors of Africa and Australia, and towards the North Pole, will soon
+be brought to a speedy and satisfactory conclusion; and some of the
+wildest dreams of men be realized.
+
+
+
+
+                       XXI.--CONCLUDING REMARKS.
+
+
+The accomplishment of aerial navigation, then, is within reach; its
+practicability can no longer be denied. It will be one of the most
+glorious and fruitful conquests, and of the highest value and importance
+to civilized nations. But all inventions, and particularly an
+undertaking of such gigantic nature, require pecuniary assistance. This
+should not, in our age of progress, be lacking for a single moment;
+because, if for no other reason, the first promoters of it will reap
+such great financial benefits therefrom as must be beyond their
+calculation. Singer, Howe, Colt, McCormick, and hundreds of others, all,
+with thousands of friends so immensely wealthy, bear out this assertion.
+Let not this enlightened age look upon a great invention as was done in
+Robert Fulton's time, when he proposed the steamship to Napoleon in
+1801. The plan was laid before a scientific commission, and these
+learned men reported it as "visionary" and impracticable. Such was the
+reception which steam navigation, that has achieved such immense
+results, first received at the hands of philosophy and capital; but
+France lost thereby, indirectly, the control of Europe, and Napoleon his
+crown; while another nation--America--more wise, ten years later
+commenced to reap the benefits emanating from Fulton's genius.
+
+Means, then, being necessary for the accomplishment of this great
+object, let them be forthcoming at once, that California may enjoy the
+honor and the first fruits of this great invention.
+
+In conclusion, let me thank you for the kind attention you have bestowed
+upon a weak exponent of a great subject.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber Notes
+
+Passages in italics were indicated by _underscores_.
+
+Small caps were replaced with ALL CAPS.
+
+Throughout the document, the oe ligature was replaced with "oe".
+
+Errors in punctuations and inconsistent hyphenation were not corrected
+unless otherwise noted below:
+
+On page 4, Koenigsberg was replaced with "one from Koenigsberg", and
+"some days ago" was replaced with "some days afterward", both per the
+Errata page.
+
+On page 7, "gass" was replaced with "gas".
+
+On page 10, "nade" was replaced with "made".
+
+On page 12, the comma after "M" was replaced with a period.
+
+On page 13, "indiscribable" was replaced with "indescribable".
+
+On page 13 "aeronaut" was replaced with "aeronaut".
+
+On page 14, the semicolon after "eye can reach" was replaced with a
+comma.
+
+On page 14, "posititons" was replaced with "positions"
+
+On page 15, "intensily" was replaced with "intensely".
+
+On page 16 "aeronaut" was replaced with "aeronaut".
+
+On page 22, "charletans" was replaced with "charlatans".
+
+On page 25, "strenght" was replaced with "strength".
+
+On page 28, "XI" in the chapter title was replaced with "XV".
+
+On page 31, "XVI.--" was added in the chapter title.
+
+On page 31, "by" was replaced with "fly".
+
+On page 34, "opperations" was replaced with "operations".
+
+On page 35, "meahanism" was replaced with "mechanism".
+
+On page 36, the "lb bar symbol" (called the "pound sign") was replaced
+with [lb]. Sometimes, through the book, the author used the "lb bar
+symbol" and other times the author used "lbs."
+
+On page 39, "aeorastation" was replaced with "aerostation".
+
+On page 44, "horrizontally" was replaced with "horizontally".
+
+On page 45, "air-ship" was replaced with "air ship".
+
+On page 49, "anihilated" was replaced with "annihilated".
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Lecture on Artificial Flight, by Wm. G. Krueger
+
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