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diff --git a/38100-h/38100-h.htm b/38100-h/38100-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5f72208 --- /dev/null +++ b/38100-h/38100-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,16958 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Ancient Faiths and Modern:, by Thomas Inman + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ancient Faiths And Modern, by Thomas Inman + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Ancient Faiths And Modern + A Dissertation upon Worships, Legends and Divinities + +Author: Thomas Inman + +Release Date: November 22, 2011 [EBook #38100] +Last Updated: November 17, 2012 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT FAITHS AND MODERN *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + ANCIENT FAITHS AND MODERN: + </h1> + <h2> + A Dissertation upon Worships, Legends and Divinities + </h2> + <h3> + In Central And Western Asia, Europe, And Elsewhere, Before The Christian + Era. Showing Their Relations To Religious Customs As They Now Exist. + </h3> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Thomas Inman + </h2> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p> + Author Of "Ancient Faiths Embodied In Ancient Names," Etc., Etc. + Consulting Physician To The Royal Infirmary, Liverpool; Lecturer, + Successively, On Botany, Medical Jurisprudence, Therapeutics, Materia + Medica, And The Principles And Practice Ok Medicine, Etc., In The + Liverpool School Ok Medicine. Etc. + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h3> + 1876 + </h3> + <p> + TO THOSE WHO THIRST AFTER KNOWLEDGE, AND ARE NOT DETERRED FROM SEEKING IT + BY THE FEAR OF IMAGINARY DANGERS, THIS VOLUME IS INSCRIBED, WITH GREAT + RESPECT, By THE AUTHOR <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="titlepage (48K)" src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <table summary=""> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> INTRODUCTORY </a> + </p> + <br /> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> + </p> + <br /> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE"> APPENDIX. </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE. + </h2> + <p> + Some thirty years ago, after a period of laborious study, I became the + House Surgeon of a large Infirmary. In that institution I was enabled to + see the practice of seven different doctors, and to compare the results + which followed from their various plans of treatment. I soon found that + the number of cures was nearly equal amongst them all, and became certain + that recovery was little influenced by the medicine given. The conclusion + drawn was that the physician could do harm, but that his power for good + was limited. This induced me to investigate the laws of health and of + disease, with an especial desire to discover some sure ground on which the + healing art might safely stand. The inquiry was a long one, and to myself + satisfactory. The conclusions to which I came were extremely simple—amounting + almost to truisms; and I was surprised that it had required long and + sustained labour to find out such very homely truths as those which I + seemed to have unearthed. + </p> + <p> + Yet, with this discovery came the assurance that, if I could induce my + medical brethren to adopt my views, they would deprive themselves of the + means of living. Men, like horses or tigers, monkeys and codfish, can do + without doctors. Here and there, it is true, that the art and skill of the + physician or surgeon can relieve pain, avert danger from accidents, and + ward off death for a time; but, in the generality of cases, doctors are + powerless. It is the business of such men, however, to magnify their + office to the utmost. They get their money ostensibly by curing the sick; + but it is clear, that the shorter the illness the fewer will be the fees, + and the more protracted the attendance the larger must be the + "honorarium." There is, then, good reason why the medical profession + should discourage too close an investigation into truth. + </p> + <p> + But, outside of this fraternity, there are many men desirous of + understanding the principles of the healing art Many of these have begun + by noticing the style of the doctor's education. They find that he is + taught in "halls," "colleges," and "schools," for a certain period of + time; and then, at about the age of two-and-twenty, he is examined by some + experienced men, and, if considered "competent," he pays certain fees, and + is then licensed to practise as physician. As all regular doctors go + through this course, it is natural that all should think and act in a + common way, and style their doctrines "orthodox." It is equally certain + that to such opinion the majority adhere through life. But it has always + happened, that many men and women have aspired to the position of medical + professors, without going through the usual career; or, having done so, + they have struck out a novel plan of practice, which they designate a new + method of cure. These have always been opposed by the "orthodox," and the + contest is carried on with varying success, until the general public give + their verdict on one side or the other. Into the motives which sway the + respective combatants we will not enter; our chief desire being to show + that each set is upheld by those who are designated "laymen," whose + education has not been medical The most intelligent on the heterodox side + have been clergymen; and many have been the complaints of "orthodox" + doctors, that "the parsons" should patronize, so energetically as they do, + medical "dissenters." + </p> + <p> + As the "clerk" takes pleasure in examining the therapeutical doctrines of + his physician, so the medical professor frequently inquires closely into + his clergyman's theological views and feels himself at liberty to accept + or oppose them, as the "clerk" adopts or attacks him and his theory and + practice. It would, indeed, be disrespectful in the listener not to pay + intelligent heed to the discourses which emanate from the pulpit. I have + myself listened to the preaching of hundreds of university graduates, and + of men who never took a degree, and have noticed that the same diversity + of style exists amongst them, as is to be found in medical men. Some order + a certain plan of treatment for a soul, which they assert to be grievously + affected, and give no reason for what they say or do. Others give their + motives for everything which they affirm, and for the plan which they + prescribe for cure. Under the ministry of one of the last I sat for many + years. Conspicuous for sound judgment, and for a peculiarly clear oratory, + his sermons were to me an intellectual treat. From the exordium, forwards, + I followed his words closely, and lost none of his arguments. But I soon + became conscious that he never once carried his reasoning to its logical + conclusion. Still further, it was manifest that certain things were by him + taken for granted; and it was held to be culpable to inquire into the + reality of those assumptions. In fine, it was evident, that there was a + Bluebeard's closet in the house of God, into which, in the preacher's + opinion, it was death to pry! + </p> + <p> + With the idea which was gradually forced upon my mind, that there was a + systematic suppression of the truth in the pulpit, I very carefully + searched the Bible, with which I have been familiar from infancy, and upon + which, it is asserted, all our faith is founded. At this time, too, a + casual inquiry into some ancient cognomens, which have descended to us + from remote antiquity, induced me to examine into ancient faiths + generally. With this became associated an examination of all religions, + and their influence upon mankind. + </p> + <p> + I found that in every nation there have been, and still are, good men and + bad, gentle and brutal, thoughtful and ignorant. That the best men of + Paganism—Buddha, for example—did not lose, by comparison, with + the brightest light of Christianity; and that such large cities as London + and Paris, have as much vice within them as ancient Rome or modern + Calcutta. I found, moreover, that there is a culpable colouring in the + accounts given by Christian travellers of Pagan countries. The clerical + pen rests invariably and strongly upon the bad points of every heathen + cult, and contrasts them with the best elements of Christianity. I do not + know that it has ever instituted a fair comparison between corresponding + characters in each faith. As an illustration of my meaning, let us regard + the stern virtue of the Roman Lucretia, who committed suicide, her body + having been forcibly defiled by the embraces of another than her husband, + even though the ravisher was a prince. She had heard nothing of the Jewish + law or Christian gospel, nevertheless she was far better than the wives of + the nobles in the courts of Louis the XIV. and XV., who gladly sold + themselves and their daughters to the royal lechers. These, unlike the + Italian woman, were instructed both in the law and the gospel; they + attended one place or another of Christian worship daily or weekly. Nay, + if report be true, "the eldest son of the Church," when he visited the + "parc aux cerfs," made each fresh virgin, victim of his passion, duly say + her prayers before she assisted him to commit adultery, and herself + permitted fornication! We sympathize with Paul and the early Christian + fathers in their denunciations of the Romans and Greeks for obscenities + practised in honour of their gods; but, at the same time, we feel sure + that, had those apostles and teachers lived in the middle ages, they would + have denounced, with greater warmth, the murders which were constantly + being perpetrated in honour of Jesus. + </p> + <p> + In like manner, we may greatly regret, with the writer of Psalm xiv., that + amongst "the children of men, there is none that doeth good; no, not one;" + but we must equally bow before the statement of Ezekiel (ch. xxii. 30), + that there was no more propriety amongst the so-called "chosen people of + God," than amongst the Gentile Canaanites and Babylonians. + </p> + <p> + Again, we feel pain when we find the great ones of the earth—aye, + and many small ones too—seeking out for villains, "willing to commit + murder for a mede," and lament that lawgivers should secretly encourage + lawlessness; but we cannot forget that Jesus of Nazareth is represented, + in John vi. 70, to have selected a devil to bring about certain ends—see + also John xiii. 26, 27, in which the agency is well marked. + </p> + <p> + Modern divines tell us that war, tumult, hatred, malice, quarrels of all + kinds, and murder come from the devil, and are the direct result of our + fallen nature; nevertheless, we remember that Jesus is reported to have + said—"I came not to send peace, but a sword; I am come to set a man + at variance against his father, and the daughter against the mother," + &c. (Matt. x. 34, 35). When we institute comparisons like these, the + balance is not uneven. I found, moreover, that the sharply defined line, + commonly drawn between Paganism and Christianity, is worthless—the + doctrines of the latter being, in many respects, identical with, or + deduced from, the former. + </p> + <p> + It seemed necessary, therefore, to ascertain whether, in religion, any + other line than the one in vogue in Europe, could be drawn with certainty. + </p> + <p> + The result of my observations showed a wonderful similarity to exist + between the clerical and medical profession; and I feel that, if my views + about the cure of souls and bodies were generally adopted, there would be + no need either for parson or for doctor. Instead of discovering, as I had + hoped to do, which of all the rival sects of Christendom is the best one, + I found that all were unnecessary, that many are degraded in doctrine and + bad in practice; and that, if any must exist, the one which effects the + least mischief should be the one selected for general adoption. It + required much courage to allow myself to believe that doctors have, taking + everything into consideration, done more harm in the world than good, and + still more to announce my conviction that Christianity was even more + culpable than medicine. The physician, when professing to cure, has too + often assisted disease to kill; and he who has had the cure of souls, has + invented plans to make believers in his doctrine miserable. The first + fills his coffers proportionally to the extent to which he can protract + recovery; the second becomes rich in proportion to the success with which + he multiplies mental terrors, and then sells repose. The one enfeebles the + body, the other cripples the intellect, and aggravates envy, hatred, and + malice. Both are equally influential in preventing man from being such as + we believe that the Almighty designed him to be. + </p> + <p> + Though we oppose the old plan of medication of body and mind, we are far + from asserting that there is no value in an honest doctor, either of + divinity or medicine. On the contrary, I have a stronger faith in my own + profession, as it has been reformed, than ever I had ere the light of good + sense had shone upon it; and I have a far more confident trust in the + religion propounded by F. W. Newman, in <i>Theism</i>, than in that + current amongst Christians in general But in such schemes of physic and + faith, very few "ministers" are necessary, shams find no place, and + emoluments are small A man who communes with his God requires no priest, + mediator, middle-man, or saint—whether virgin, martyr, or both—to + intercede for him. + </p> + <p> + Holding such opinions as these, it is not probable that I shall find many + followers. I do not seek them. My aim has been to set good sterling stuff + before the world, so that any one, whose self-reliance is great, may + receive strength. There are many who would rather die with a physician + close beside them when they are ill, than live without a doctor; and there + are few who would not rather enjoy the fear of hell with the orthodox, + than be with heretics free from such terrors—"For sure, the pleasure + is as great in being cheated, as to cheat." To all such our writings are + <i>caviare</i>. Yet, even to them, we would say that we have warrant for + our belief in statements, to which the orthodox cannot reasonably object—viz., + "If thou doest well, shalt thou not be accepted?" (Gen. iv. 7); "In every + nation, he that feareth God, and worketh righteousness, is accepted with + him" (Acts x. 35); "He that doeth righteousness, is righteous" (1 John + iii. 7). + </p> + <p> + Let me contrast my own views with those generally current amongst us. I + believe that God did not make men, any more than the beasts, to damn the + largest number of them throughout eternity. I believe that all who aver + that they have been selected by the Creator from all the world besides as + the only recipients of salvation are wrong, and deceivers of the people. + In fine, I believe that God's "tender mercies are over all his works." The + common opinion that the Almighty so revels in cruelty, that He makes + creatures to torture them, is a horrible one to me—fit only to come + from impotent Pagan priests. That Jehovah selected about one million of + bad men, out of about four hundred other millions equally bad, solely + because their progenitor, Abraham, consented to murder and burn his son, + is to me a frightful blasphemy; and, lastly, that God has no tender + mercies for nine-tenths of the human race, is to convert our conception of + the Author of all good into the conventional "Devil." The comparison may + be summed up thus: I believe in God, the Father of all things; the + so-called orthodox believe in the God Satan. I do not know anything in all + my studies which excited my attention more painfully than the result of + the analysis of Jehovah's character, as given in our Bible. Kind to those + who are said to please Him, He is a fearful demon to all who are said to + oppose Him. + </p> + <p> + How can any reasonable man hold the opinion that the Devil instigated all + atrocities of the Syrians, Chaldees, Assyrians, Romans, Turks, Tartars, + Saracens, Affghans, Mahometans, and Hindoos, and believe that the good God + drowned the whole world, and nearly every single thing that had life; that + He ordered the extermination, not only of Midianites and Amalekites, but + slaughtered, in one way or another, all the people whom he led out of + Egypt—except two—merely because they had a natural fear of + war. What was the massacre at Cawnpore to that in Jericho and other + Canaanite cities? I say it with sober seriousness—in sorrow, not in + anger—as a thinking man, and not as an advocate for, or against, any + religious view, that it is an awful thing for any nation to permit a book + to circulate, as a sacred one, in which God and the Devil are painted in + the same colours. + </p> + <p> + Into this analysis of religion I was led to enter from the observation of + a friend, who challenged me to find, in any non-Hebraic or non-Christian + country, a faith or practice equal to that current amongst the followers + of Moses and Jesus, or to discover any spot in the wide world where there + is, or has been, a civilization equal to that which existed in Judea, and + the parts inhabited by Christians. In consequence of this defiance, it + became more than ever necessary for me to study the nature of the current + faith and practice of Christendom, and to inquire how far the latter was + dependent upon the former—that is to say, whether the practices of + civilization are due to our religion, or have gradually grown up in spite + of it. The next point was to pay similar heed to the doctrines and manner + of life common amongst those to whom our Bible has been wholly unknown. + </p> + <p> + Many of the conclusions to which I came have already appeared in the + second volume of <i>Ancient Faiths</i>, under the heads of "Religion," + "Theology," &c.; but others came upon me when that book had been + completed, and the present supplement is designed with the idea of + expressing, still further, the extent of my views, and the evidence upon + which they are founded—with special reference to the differential + value of Christian and unchristian faith and practice. + </p> + <p> + As was natural, this involved the question constantly before my mind in + the preceding volumes—viz., "Is there in reality anything in the + Hebrew and the Christian theology essentially different from that + promulgated by the leaders of divinity in other countries?" This point has + repeatedly been discussed, and amongst the orthodox there is no difficulty + in allowing the existence of a strong similarity in all systems of + religion; but the value of the fact is supposed to be reduced to ridicule + by the monstrous assertion, that Moses and Jesus taught all the world. + Amongst the books which came under my notice, whilst prosecuting my + search, was a very remarkable one, called <i>The Modern Buddhist</i>, now + <i>The Wheel of the Law</i>, which is an account of the religious thoughts + of a Siamese monarch, with a statement of his conversations with Christian + missionaries. In this the British churchman and non-conformist can see + themselves as others see them; and the Asiatic has quite as great, perhaps + even a superior, right to call the European "poor and benighted," as the + Christian has to call the Buddhist "a miserable Pagan." + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding my endeavours to be perfectly "judicial," and to give what + I believe to be an impartial account of the subjects which I describe, I + have been, by certain critics, accused of special pleading. It is, + perhaps, unnecessary to deny the charge, for each reader must judge of my + fairness, or otherwise, for himself. But, on the other hand, I retort most + strongly, by averring that I have not met, in the whole course of my + reading, a religious work by an orthodox divine, which does not "bear + false witness against its neighbours." + </p> + <p> + There is in all both a <i>suppressio veri</i> and a <i>suggestio falsi</i>, + which makes the honest inquirer almost entirely reject their books. In + addition to this, there is in them a recklessness of statement and + assertion which is unequalled, except in the fierce controversies of + ancient doctors. The perfect contempt which certain puny divines, who have + endeavoured to throw dirt upon the present Bishop of Natal, show for the + laws of evidence, and the systematic way in which they avoid every real + point at issue, are marvellous to those who know that such people have had + an university education, have studied logic, and profess an unlimited + respect for truth. In future years the theological writings, generally, of + our time will be as much objurgated by enlightened, earnest, and + thoughtful readers, as Protestants of to-day abuse the theology and + prurience of Sanchez, Thomas Aquinas, and Peter Dens. + </p> + <p> + In conclusion, I would wish to add, that I am conscious, from the amount + of correspondence which I have had on the subject in hand, that there is + not only a wide, but a constantly extending dissatisfaction with the + current theology taught by the ministers of all denominations—excepting, + as a body, the Unitarians, and such individuals as Bishop Colenso, Bishop + Hinds, Mr Voysey, and others. The laity are awaking to the fact that + priests are strenuously endeavouring to quench the light of reason in the + fogs of faith. Unless the Protestantism, of which Great Britain was once + so proud, decides to drift into Papism—the only legitimate harbour + for those who reject reason for a guide—it must thoroughly reform + itself, and ruthlessly reject, as "necessary to salvation," every article + of belief which is not only nonsensical or absurd, but which has + unquestionably descended from a grovelling Paganism. To this end we hope + that our essays will contribute. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INTRODUCTORY + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + A recapitulation. Destruction of an old edifice precedes the + building of another on the same site. Chichester Cathedral. + Difficulties of reconstruction. Innovators are regarded as + enemies. The Old Testament appraised. The Jews and their + pretensions. Hebraic idea of Jehovah. The sun and moon. God + and goddess. Importance of sexual perfection in a Hebrew + male. Women are prizes given to the faithful Jews. Almost + everything Jewish came from Pagan sources, except the + Sabbath. Inquiry into the New Testament necessarily follows + upon an investigation of the Old. Thoughts upon the history + of Christianity. Malignancy of its professors. Life of + Jesus, by various authors. The ground preoccupied. The + plan proposed. +</pre> + <p> + In commencing another volume of a series, and one to a great extent + independent of the other two, it is advisable to pause and recapitulate + the points advanced, and the positions attained. This is the more + necessary when the present inquiry is a natural result of a preceding one, + and when an attempt is made to collect and arrange the scattered materials + into an harmonious and consistent edifice. Our volumes on the subject of + "Ancient Faiths in Ancient Names" were, to a great extent, destructive. + They struck heavy blows in all directions, wherever a false idol was to be + recognized, and they destroyed many a cherished delusion, which was to + many as dear as the apple of their eye. But, throughout the whole process + of destruction, the idea of the necessity for a reconstruction was present + to the mind of the author. + </p> + <p> + It may, indeed, be propounded as an interesting question, whether any + iconoclast ever destroys the idols which his fellow-beings cherish, + without entertaining the belief that he has something superior to offer in + their place. When the fanatic Spaniards upset, fractured, and ground to + powder the stone monsters venerated by the Mexicans, they offered to the + natives the image of a lovely virgin and her gentle son to replace them; + and when the enthusiastic Scotchmen destroyed the marble saints and gaudy + figures of the Popish churches throughout their own country, they eagerly + set forth the superiority of adoring the invisible creator in spirit and + imagination, which afforded scope for the most entrancing mental + delineations, and was far superior to reverencing an ugly effigy, which no + one with any correct taste could admire. In like manner, when the + Mahometan Caliph destroyed the library of Alexandria, he offered to the + mourners in its place the book of the Prophet Mahomet, which was, in his + eyes, a pearl of so great price as to be equivalent in value to all the + world besides. + </p> + <p> + There can be no doubt, however, that the process of destruction is far + more easy than the task of reconstruction. The engineer who is called upon + to remove a bridge, on account of the badness of its foundation, may + admire the extraordinary firmness with which every stone has been + dovetailed together, and, with the means at his command, may be unable to + construct another having a similar appearance of stability; yet, after + all, an arch which is secure and stable is preferable to one which is good + only in appearance. A very few years have elapsed since it was found that + the tower and spire of the Cathedral at Chichester had been so built that + there was imminent danger of the whole falling down. This part of the + edifice resembled certain faiths which have been raised with great art to + a vast height, with very slender and inadequate material. So long as they + were not assailed by any storm, or tested by the changes which time + produces, they seemed firm and unshakable; but, when they were really + tried, they began to undergo a process similar to that which obtained in + the Cathedral named—the admirers of the edifice attempted to prop up + the failing tower; with iron and timber they shored up its bulging sides; + they erected strong scaffolds to ease the mighty strain upon the crumbling + walls; but all in vain—the lovely spire, built upon a foundation as + rotten as the Mormon faith, came tumbling down, and the tall emblem + pointing to the sky returned once more to earth. Before there could be any + reconstruction attempted, it was necessary to procure all the material + necessary; and when, with great labour, this was accumulated, a fresh + erection was made, which was far stronger than the first, for every stone + was duly examined, and solid masonry replaced the ancient rubble. So it + has been with many a faith. Christianity has replaced the crumbling + Judaism which existed at the beginning of our era, and the Reformed Church + has since then, in many countries, replaced the gigantic sham of Popery. + But the metaphor is one which we cannot wholly adopt, inasmuch as we + believe that no faith of ancient times has ever wholly fallen like the + spire and tower of Chichester, nor has any new system of belief the + solidity of that new edifice which has replaced the old. + </p> + <p> + The difficulties connected with reconstruction are greatly increased by + the propensity which is so common in the human mind to make the best of + that which is in actual existence and familiar to the vulgar, rather than + to adopt something entirely new. The child who dislikes to go to bed at + night equally dislikes to get up in the morning, and we have known elderly + people who have systematically preferred an old lumbering stage-coach to a + first-class compartment in a railway carriage. In every walk of life an + innovator is regarded as an enemy by the majority, and especially by those + whose practice or whose theories his discoveries supersede. + </p> + <p> + Yet, great as is the contest which any new truth has to sustain, there is + no doubt whatever that the first part of the fight—the preliminaries + essential to conquest, are the investigation of the ground to be occupied; + the real value of the defences; the superiority of the armour; and the + temper, strength, and tenacity of the offensive weapons. The engineer to + whom is confided the attack or the defence of a town will abandon or + destroy everything which would harbour an enemy or facilitate his + operations. The fighting commodore, ere he carries his ship into action, + sacrifices readily all the gewgaws of luxury; and in like manner the + ecclesiastic ought never to endanger his position by spending his energies + in the defence of a useless outwork or a tinsel ornament. Entertaining + these views ourselves, our first effort has been to clear the ground, and + to remove every object which we consider to be detrimental to the spread + of truth. + </p> + <p> + We have demonstrated, as far as such a matter is capable of demonstration, + that the Old Testament, which has descended to us from the Jews, is not + the mine of truth which it has been supposed by so many to be: that not + only it is not a revelation given by God to man, but that it is founded + upon ideas of the Almighty which are contradicted by the whole of animate + and inanimate nature. We showed, that its composition was wholly of human + origin, and that its authors had a very mean and degrading notion of the + Lord of Heaven and Earth. We proved, what indeed Colenso and a host of + German critics have demonstrated in another fashion, that its historical + portions are not to be depended upon; that its stories are of no more real + value than so many fairy tales or national legends; that its myths can now + be readily traced to Grecian, Babylonian, and Persian sources; that its + miracles are as apocryphal as those told of Vishnu, Siva, and other + deities; and its prophecies absolutely worthless. We proved, moreover, + that the remote antiquity of its authorship has been greatly exaggerated; + that the stories of the creation, of the flood, of Abraham, of Jacob, of + the descent into, and the exodus from, Egypt, of the career of Moses and + the Jews in the desert, of Joshua and his soldiers, of the judges and + their clients, are all apocryphal, and were fabricated at a late period of + Jewish history, with the design of inspiriting the Hebrews at a period + when their depression of spirit from foreign conquest was extreme; that + the so-called Mosaic laws were not known until long after the time of + David, and that some of the enactments—that about the Jubilee, for + example—were never promulgated at all. We showed that the Jewish + conception of the Almighty, and of His heavenly host, did not materially + differ from the Greek idea of Jupiter and his inferior deities; that the + Hebrews regarded Jehovah as having human passions and very human failings—as + loving, revengeful, stern, merry, and vacillating—as "everything by + turns and nothing long"—as forming a resolution, and then contriving + how He might, as it were, overreach Himself. We pointed out that the Jews + did, in reality, paint God and the Devil or Satan, as the same individual, + being the former to His friends, and the latter to His enemies. Indeed, + anyone who compares 2 Sam. xxiv. 1 with 1 Chron. xxi. 1 will see this most + clearly demonstrated. We called attention to the apparently utter + ignorance of the Jews that certain laws of nature existed, and of their + consequent belief that defeat, disease, famine, slaughter, pestilence, and + the like, were direct punishments of ceremonial or other guilt; while + victory, wealth, virility, and old age were special and decided proofs of + the Divine favour. We showed that the Jews were, in general, an abject but + a very boastful race, and that their spiritual guides—the so-called + prophets—were constantly promising, but always vainly, a striking + manifestation of the Almighty's power in favour of the Hebrews when they + were in the depths of misery, that histories were fabricated to give + colour to these statements, and that these, like modern miracles of + saints, were narrated as occurring a long time ago, and in a locality + which could not be visited, e.g., in Samaria and Egypt; we showed, + moreover, that the race was imitative, and readily adopted the religious + ideas and practices of those who conquered them. Still further, we proved + that the Jews had no idea whatever of a future state, and were in utter + ignorance of heaven or hell; that they regarded the Almighty as punishing + crime or rewarding goodness in this world alone, and, consequently, we + inferred either—(1) that the conversation said to have been held + between Jehovah and certain apocryphal men did not really occur; or (2) + that God did not think the existence of a future world a matter of + sufficient consequence to communicate to His friends; or (3) that Elohim + had not then created either a habitation for the blessed, or a future + prison-house for the damned; and we pointed out that the opinions of the + Pharisees about angels, spirits, and futurity were not based upon the + writings of Moses and the prophets, but upon Persian fantasies. In fine, + we showed, that the Hebrews could not sustain the claim they made to be + the especial people of God, and that their writings are of no more value, + as records of absolute truth, or of Divine revelation, than the books of + the Greeks, Persians, Egyptians, Hindoos, Chinese, or the more modern + Mahometans. + </p> + <p> + With all this we indicated that there was, throughout the nations known as + Shemitic, a general belief in the existence of an Almighty Being, Creator, + Director and Governor of the heaven, the earth, and the sea; that He was + considered to be One, yet that He was, nevertheless, represented by a + multiplicity of names, and as having many and opposite attributes. + </p> + <p> + We also showed, that this sublime conception was very thickly coated with + human ideas, often of a debased and grovelling type, and darkened by + legends, which were invented by priests with the design of clothing + themselves, and those of their order, with a portion of the garments which + they had assigned to the Inscrutable. We showed, how the sun and moon, the + stars and planets, became interwoven with the idea of a Celestial Being, + and how they were described in turn as His ministers, His residence, His + army, and sometimes even as Himself. We showed, moreover, that the + Almighty was depicted by some as a male, having the attributes and + passions of men, by others as a female, or celestial goddess, and by + others as androgyne—not exactly a bifrons, like Janus, but masculine + and feminine, Elohim, Baalim, Ashtaroth; that in the development of this + idea, everything which has reference to the phenomena of mundane creation + was closely studied, and introduced into one religious system or another. + As a result of this, it followed, that there were some sects and temples + consecrated to the adoration of the Creator as masculine, others as + feminine, and others as both combined. We showed still farther, that each + sect adopted certain emblems, which were intended to represent the + distinctive mark of the sex under which it worshipped the Omnipotent, and + that the emblems became multiplied as different nations came into contact + with each other, learned foreign theology, and advanced in their knowledge + of natural history. To such an extent was this symbolism, to which we + refer, carried, that the sexual idea of the Creator at last pervaded, to a + greater or less degree, all forms of worship, and gradually degraded them + deeper and deeper, in consequence of the emblems of the deity being + mistaken for the deity itself, much in the same way as the vulgar, amongst + the Roman Catholics, regard a statuette or picture of the Virgin, or an + Ashantee a particular form of idol fetish. As an example of such + development, we pointed out that the Assyrians represented the Godhead as + four-fold, consisting of the triple male and the single female element in + mundane creation, and that the idea of the trinity in unity, which is a + doctrine recognized as far back amongst all nations as history will carry + us, was originally founded solely upon the well-known fact that the + characteristic of the male is a triad, of which all the parts are really, + and in no mysterious manner, "co-eternal together and co-equal." We also + showed that the feminine idea of the Creator has, from time immemorial, + been associated, in one form or another, with that of a lovely virgin + holding a child in her arms, which is generally very young, and mostly + receiving food from a maternal bosom, the reason of which we hinted at. + </p> + <p> + We showed that the myths of Adam and Eve, Abraham and Sarai, Esau and + Jacob, were incorporations of the idea that the trinity and the unity, or, + to use the very words of the Athanasian creed, "the trinity in unity," + were the founders of the race of living beings, and, as such, worthy of + worship and honour throughout all ages. This union was spoken of as "the + four," and was symbolized as a square or a cross of four points, or a + cross of eight points. We showed, still farther, that the male Creator was + identified with the sun, and the female with the crescent moon, and also + with the earth; and that one of the symbols of this celestial union of the + sexes was the sun lying within the moon's crescent. + </p> + <p> + We also demonstrated, that a very large part of Pagan worship consisted in + the performance of rites and ceremonies, whose end was the glorification + of the deity under one or other of the selected symbols, and that a number + of feasts were appointed to be held at certain astronomical periods, in + which the assistants were encouraged to indulge in every form of + sensuality (Deut. xiv. 26). We pointed out, that the Jewish people were + largely tainted by this vicious form of worship prior to the Babylonian + captivity, and that a very large portion of their nomenclature was based + upon sexual ideas of the Creator. We also showed, that the Jewish writings + encouraged certain forms of sensuality in a conspicuous manner; that the + condition of the male organ was represented as being of such importance as + to be the ground work of the covenant between God and the Hebrews, it + being declared (Gen. xvii. 14), as if by the word of the Lord, that no man + was to be allowed to live whose organ had not been improved in a definite + manner, i.e., by circumcision or excision of the prepuce, and that no man + was to be admitted into the congregation of the faithful whose + characteristic male organs had in any way been injured or removed. + Deuteronomy xxiii. 1 is conclusive upon this point, and there is no + ambiguity in the words of the decree. We pointed out, also, that not only + was abundance of offspring promised to the faithful as a proof of God's + regard to them, but that the laws, said to be delivered by Jehovah to + Moses, positively provided (see Deut. xxi. 10-14) the means by which the + harems of the wealthy could be stocked in times of war, and by which even + the poor might also be indulged, in or about the precincts of the temple, + where slave and foreign women were kept for the purpose (Numb. xxxi. 40). + We pointed out that the natural result of this licensed debauchery was a + great increase in the population, which was so much in excess of the + capacity of the land to sustain them, that it was necessary to check the + number of adult mouths by conniving at infanticide, as was done in + Rajpootana up to a recent period, and is said to be done in China now. It + is clear, from the denunciations by the prophets of the vileness of the + Jews of Jerusalem, and the impotent laws which were introduced into the + so-called Mosaic code, that the Hebrew family was to the full as bad and + vile as were the nations around them. + </p> + <p> + We further showed that there was a marked difference in the thoughts, the + doctrines, the laws, the knowledge, the writings, and the form of worship + amongst the Jews after they had come into contact with the Babylonians, + Persians, and Greeks; and we adverted to the fact that the laws of the + Persians, and those of him, whom we would designate "the fictitious + Moses," were remarkably similar; and we showed that everything in the Old + Testament, which is, by the majority of Christians, deemed to be of Divine + origin, had been derived from or through one or other of the sources which + we have named, and which we call Pagan. From this we deduced the important + corollary, either that the so-called revelation of the Old Testament is a + sham, a priestly fabrication, and what is known as "a pious fraud," or + that it was not made originally to the Hebrews. In neither case can the + Jews establish a title to be the "chosen people of God" in any sense of + the words. If the Bible is true, the Gentiles have spiritual precedence + over the Hebrews, and the Pagans have the <i>pas</i> of the Christians. + </p> + <p> + This deduction enabled us to recognize the importance of an extended + inquiry into the faith, religion, and practice of other nations, before we + assume ourselves to be in a position to appreciate the claims which one + human being, or any body of men, might make to be the representatives of + the Almighty, the sole recipients of His commands, and the only medium by + which prayers can be forwarded to Him. Again, the history of the past, and + a study of the present, enabled us to see that the foundation of a new + religion, or the modification of an old one, did not destroy ancient + practices, though it transferred priestly power to a new set of men, who, + while they introduced new gods and new dogmas, endeavoured to incorporate + the older ideas with new, so as to seduce or cheat the vulgar, whom it was + not judicious to slaughter, into adopting the new faith. Consequently, we + are able to understand how indecent ideas, sexual emblems, and Pagan + festivals, with many of the licentious practices associated therewith, + have been handed down from a remote idolatry to a modern and comparatively + enlightened Christianity. The symbols of the objectionable still remain, + but the things symbolized have been altered, and the original ideas + suppressed. The male triad is a holy trinity; the monad is no longer the + emblem of womankind, but of the so-called Mother of God, or, as the + Romanists say, of the <i>Mater Creatoris</i>. But with this knowledge + comes the very important consideration, how far Christian ideas, which are + founded upon Pagan fancies, can be regarded as Divine. This, again, + involves the question, how far Jesus, who had not penetration enough to + discover the true nature of the writings to which he trusted, can be + considered as an incarnation of Divine knowledge, or of unbounded wisdom. + Still further, it became clear, after our arguments, that if the stories + of the creation of man, the fall of Adam, the life of Noah, of Abraham, of + Moses, the tale of Sinai, and the supremacy of Judah, are mythical—if + the prophetic writings are as worthless as the oracles of Dodona and of + Delphi—then all theories, dogmas, and doctrines founded upon them + must be equally valueless. + </p> + <p> + In pursuance of my subject, I pointed out that there was not a nation + known to history which had not its god or gods, a sacred priesthood, a set + of prophets, either located in one spot, or appearing as independent + vaticinators, a number of holy festivals, of hallowed shrines, of + mysterious temples, and an inner and recondite arcanum into which the + profane were not permitted to enter. I showed that other nations besides + the Jews had a sacred ark which was an emblem of a divinity; that the use + of sacrifices was common to every nation of antiquity; and that such + things had existed in Hindostan from time immemorial. I pointed out, that + there was no single precept or order contained in the Jewish Ritual which + could not be found amongst all other people, with the sole exception of + the Sabbath; and that the respect for this very strange law was due to the + ignorance of the Hebrews, who regarded Saturn as the most high amongst the + gods—information gained from the Babylonians. + </p> + <p> + Thus, an investigation into the nature and importance of Ancient Faiths + becomes a necessary prelude to, or, rather, is unavoidably followed by, an + inquiry into the beliefs, doctrines, and practices current in Christendom + generally, and in Great Britain particularly. Yet, though I was insensibly + driven forwards to complete the task which I began, without having any + definite notion of the amount of labour I should have to undergo, I + passively resisted for a long time the conclusions to which I was drawn, + feeling myself unwilling, almost, indeed, unable, to undertake an + examination which might shake my faith in the New Testament as it had been + shaken in the Old. Like many others of a thoughtful turn of mind, I could + see, without very strong regret, the Jewish writings consigned to their + appropriate niche in the library of the world; but I shunned the effort + required to take down the books of the Gospels and Epistles and weigh them + in the impartial balance of critical truth. Nevertheless, as my work on + Ancient Faiths progressed, I became painfully conscious that I must plead + guilty to the charge of mental cowardice if I shirked the duty of + examining the New, as I had investigated the Old, Testament. But when the + resolution to investigate modern faith was at length formed, the + difficulties surrounding the subject became apparent. The history of + modern faith is, to a great extent, the history of Christianity, and the + history of Christianity must start from a history of Jesus and his + apostles—Paul, Peter, James, John, and Jude, as given in the + Epistles and Gospels included in the canon of the New Testament. To cope + with any one of these histories as they deserve to be handled would + involve the work of a lifetime, and for one man to exhaust the whole + seemed to me an impossibility. There was, in addition to this, another + consideration which complicated my difficulty still farther, viz., the + fact that there were already, written histories of the nature of those + alluded to, and that it would be useless to multiply them. It is a + thankless task to pursue the current of the Christian religion through the + dark scenes which shrouded it, from the time when it was adopted by a few + "unlearned and ignorant men," until it emerged as a power able to shake + empires—from the period wherein its professors were burned and + otherwise tortured to death, to the days when their own Christian + successors racked, roasted, and tormented their opponents, with a + malignancy and cruelty as great as that which they themselves had + execrated when practised upon their predecessors. From the moment that + Christianity became a political power, its history resembled that of any + tyrant or other ruler, and it is filled with misrepresentation, lying, + fraud, the records of fighting and slaughter, of brutal passions, + frightful laws, and horrible punishments; in fact, the record of political + Christianity is that of a Devil in sheep's clothing. Even Calvin, one of + our cherished reformers, burnt another Protestant almost in the same year + as the Papists burnt Ridley and Latimer. The English Episcopalians in + Scotland, and the Cromwellian Puritans in Ireland, showed more of the + ravening wolf in their actions than of the amiable shepherd, who "gently + leads" the weak ones of his flock. In fact, the more loud the proclamation + of a pure Christianity, the more devilish is the practice of its heralds. + </p> + <p> + When I turned to the consideration of the life of Jesus, it was clear that + the ground was already fully occupied. In 1799 a Mr Houston published a + work entitled <i>Ecce Homo; or, a Critical Inquiry into the History of + Jesus Christ: being an Analysis of the Gospels</i>, a second edition of + which was made public fourteen years afterwards, and, as a result, its + publisher (D. J. Eaton) was prosecuted, and such of the impressions as + could be collected were publicly burned in St. George's Fields, London, by + the common hangman, whose business it was to strangle truth as well as + murderers. This book, which is little known to modern readers, is strictly + what it professes to be—a critical inquiry into the history of Jesus + Christ, and it may, to a great extent, be considered as the progenitor of + more modern treatises. It does not materially differ from the <i>Ecce Homo</i> + of to-day, or from the other works which we shall name, except in its + style and composition. Having been written when all were in the habit of + expressing their views in strong language, and when opponents were abused + in terms of coarse invective, the author has expressed himself in a manner + calculated to offend rather than to convince, and to stir up anger rather + than to encourage thought. Yet his arguments are unanswerable, and his + deductions unimpeachable, by those who know the value of evidence and + exercise their power of ratiocination. I have been unable to find that any + work was written in refutation of the author's views, and the only + opposition to it was from the usual agent of the weak-minded, but + strong-bodied—persecution. + </p> + <p> + In more recent times, and within a very short period of each other—so + short, indeed, that we may say that the books were composed simultaneously + in Hindostan, Germany, France, and England—there have appeared <i>A + Voice from the Ganges,</i> Strauss' <i>New Life of Jesus</i>, Kenan's <i>Life + of Jesus</i>, The English <i>Life of Jesus</i>, by Mr Thomas Scott, of + Norwood, a second <i>Ecce Homo</i>, from a modern Professor, and <i>The + Prophet of Nazareth</i>, by Owen Meredith.* In these volumes, the + historical value of the Gospel narratives closely and critically examined, + and a just appreciation of the character, preaching, and practice of the + Prophet of Nazareth are honestly sought after, and, in the opinion of + impartial readers, they must be held to have been attained. Throughout the + series which we have mentioned nothing that is capable of demonstration, + or of approximate proof, is taken for granted. The scholarship of the + critical philosopher everywhere overbears the prejudice of the Christian + bigot. Since the appearance of these another author has treated upon the + same subject, but only cursorily, and as bearing upon other matters, in a + work entitled <i>The Book of God; or, The Apocalypse of Adam Oannes</i>, + which was published anonymously, 1868. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Whilst this sheet was in the printer's hands, a most + remarkable book was published anonymously, entitled, + <i>Supernatural Religion</i>, in two volumes. In it there is a + most scholarly account of the origin of the New Testament + writings, one which every thoughtful person should peruse. +</pre> + <p> + Between the publication of the first <i>Ecce Homo</i> and the second, + viz., in 1836, there was printed, for private circulation, a very + remarkable work, entitled <i>Anacalypsis; or, an Attempt to draw aside the + Veil of the Saitic Isis</i>, by Godfrey Higgins. His two volumes are + replete with learning, and with deductions more startling than any which + had appeared prior to his own time; but the subject matter is so badly + arranged, that it is with very great difficulty that the trains of thought + which occupied the author's mind can be dis-. covered. His main idea is, + that very nearly everything in religion which appears to be mythical or + mysterious enfolds certain astronomical facts—such as the precession + of equinoxes, the duration of cycles of time—such as are necessary + to reproduce exactly a concordance between certain terrestrial and + celestial phenomena. With this theory he interweaves an amazing number of + facts which seem to favour the opinion enunciated in the book of + Ecclesiastes—i.e., that there is nothing new under the sun. He shows + that the idea of "incarnations," the birth of a heavenly child from a pure + virgin, and a variety of so-called Christian dogmas, have existed in every + age of which we have historical accounts. + </p> + <p> + He gives a vivid sketch of the nature of Christianity and its progress + from century to century, and he expresses himself respecting its modern + developments much in the same strain, though in a far more gentlemanlike + style, as did his contemporary, the Rev. R. Taylor, to whom was given, or + who assumed for himself, the title of the Devil's chaplain. + </p> + <p> + In the estimation of some of these writers, Jesus, the son of Mary, is + quite as mythical a being as Hercules, the son of Alcmena. This view has + been more recently adopted by some freethinkers of the present day. The + main support on which such individuals rely is the fact that there is no + mention of Jesus by any contemporary historian; and that, although there + are extant Jewish records of current history, at the time in which Christ + is said to have lived, they make no mention of him who is now called the + Saviour and of his wonderful history. It is pointed out that the histories + of the Gospels came out with marvellous rapidity, from Alexandria, about + the end of the first century, at a time when all contemporaries of Jesus + were dead. + </p> + <p> + To this work of Higgins it is probable that we shall have repeatedly to + refer, for his language is frequently so forcible that it cannot be + improved, and, moreover, he very often quotes from books, copies of which + I have been unable to obtain. + </p> + <p> + When I found that the ground which I intended to occupy had already been + so well and so ably cultivated, it occurred to me that it would be + advisable to take a wider flight than was originally contemplated, and, + instead of examining the Christian faith alone, to associate with it an + account of the faiths of those nations of whom we have some knowledge. By + this means it appeared to me, that we should be enabled to see clearly, + how far the current belief and practice of Christendom differs from the + doctrines and practices of those to whom Christianity could never, by any + possibility, have come, and we can examine, incidentally, into the + teachings of Jesus, and compare them with that of his predecessor, Sakya + Muni, or Buddha. We may also investigate impartially such doctrines as the + immaculate conception, and the existence of angels. + </p> + <p> + When treating, however, a subject like the religions of the ancient and + modern world, it is difficult to frame the history so as to bring out the + salient points, in a manner satisfactory to the reader or to the writer. + The latter is tempted to begin, as he believes, at the beginning, and to + trace the development of religious thought from its simplest expression up + to its highest aspiration. This temptation becomes all the stronger if, in + the course of his study, he has investigated the animal and vegetable + creations. In those vast kingdoms he sees that the philosopher is able to + lead his disciples onwards from the minute monad, or the simplest mass of + matter, to the gigantic mastodon, without any very conspicuous flaw or + break in continuity; but, on closely observing his method of proceeding, + the student finds that links which connect genera or species together are + found in countries so wide apart, that no direct communication can be + supposed between the one type and the other. Thus the gap between mammals + and birds is said to be filled by the "ornithorhynchus paradoxus," an + animal living in a vast island, in which scarcely one quadruped mammalian + is known to have existed, and where the aboriginal birds form a class + peculiar to Australia, and have no resemblance to the creature referred + to. + </p> + <p> + Yet, though the temptation is great, and although we feel justified in + reasoning from the known to the unknown, and in supplying missing links + from analogy, or from our own imagination, still, we consider that it will + be our best plan to confine ourselves, as far as possible, to that which + is written, and to describe first, the religious ideas and practices of + some so-called savages; secondly, the ideas and practices of some ancient + races, whose histories, more or less perfect, have come down to us, with a + view to ascertain whether there is anything essentially good in modern + Christianity, either in faith or practice, which is peculiar to that form + of religion, or whether almost the same style of teaching may not be found + to have been common in the remote East, at a period some centuries prior + to the birth of Jesus. + </p> + <p> + As we have investigated the subjects of Sin, Salvation, Prayer, + Inspiration, &c., it is unnecessary to refer to them again. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Travellers' tales not to be trusted. Prejudice perverts + facts. The Esquimaux. Cause of reverence for parents. The + Red Indian in the presence of immigration is a moral + murderer. Inquiry into Indian religion. O. KEE. PA. Indian + reverence for phenomena of nature. Ruins of a past + civilization in America. Cairns and human sacrifices. + Manufactured goods. Bronze in Yucatan. Resemblance between + the ancient American people and certain Orientals. Abbé + Domenech's travels. Sacrifice at obsequies, idea involved + thereby. Scythian proceedings. Mexico and its theology. Two + different conceptions of deity. The Unity subdivided by + Mexicans, Jews, and Christians. The God of war and the Lord + of Hosts. The God of air a deity in Mexico, a devil in Judea + or Ephesus. Mexican baptismal regeneration. Resemblances + between the Occidental and Oriental people in many curious + doctrines. Particulars. Mexican Heaven, Hell, and Limbo. + Mexican baptism and prayers. Priests and their duties. A + parallel. Romanists and Mexicans. Confession. Expiation. + Human sacrifice to obtain pardon of sin. A comparison + suggested. Mexican education. Purity of life in the Mexican + priestesses. Father Acosta's opinion thereon. Tartary, Rome, + and Mexico have something common in culture. Education of + youth. Policy of the priesthood. Reflections thereupon. + Teocallis or houses of God. Worship. Festivals. Human + sacrifice. No sexual deities or rites. Question of + credibility—God and the Devil act alike! Aztecs and + Europeans compared. Christians have offered human sacrifice + from the time of Peter downwards. Transubstantiation is a + cannibal doctrine. Christian gods in Mexico as bad as the + Aztec deities. History of Peru. The policy of its rulers. + Roads and magazines. Nature of its government Governors were + instructed in their duties. Civil service examination. + Inauguration of youths into honourable manhood. Travelling + compulsory in rulers. Postal system—division of the people + —local magistrates—law speedy. Code of law. Punishment + without torture. Peruvians and inquisitors. Reports required + of lands and families. Register of births, &c. Rapidity of + communication. Plunder not permitted. Peace the motive for + war. The vanquished incorporated with the victors. A + paternal government. Peruvian religion. Difference between + political institutions and priestcraft. Peruvian sun god. An + invisible God recognised. Priests. Eternal life. Heaven + and Hell. Temple of the sun magnificent. Golden + ornaments. Huge urns of silver. Number of priests. + Festivals. Cannibalism not permitted. Fire made from rays of + sun and concave mirror, or by friction. Virgins of the sun. + Concubines of the Inca. Matrimony. Reflexions. +</pre> + <p> + When the philosopher reads over the histories which adventurous + travellers, or Christian missionaries, have given of the religions of the + savage, or uncivilized, people whom they have visited, he feels painfully + conscious that the accounts are not implicitly to be relied upon. In some + he recognizes the fact that communications only take place between the one + party and the other by signs, which not only may be, but very generally + are, misinterpreted on both sides; in others he is able to see, or, at + least, he comes to the conclusion, that the untaught barbarians have not a + single idea which is not connected with eating and drinking, war, revenge, + and love;—that such, indeed, resemble brute beasts, who have no more + conception of hell or heaven, God and the soul, than an elephant has of + aerostation, or a crow of theology. In other narratives the observer + notices, that the individuals who interrogate the savages are themselves + enthusiasts of a high order, who ask leading questions, and are content to + receive, as a satisfactory answer, anything which can be considered as a + reply. By this means very erroneous ideas have crept in amongst ourselves, + and writers have built arguments upon a foundation as flimsy as a shifting + sand. For example, I have repeatedly heard it alleged that every known + tribe, in every part of the world which has yet been visited, has a + tradition respecting an universal deluge, and the salvation of their + progenitors by a floating vessel; and on this has been founded the + hypothesis that all architecture, and even written characters, have an ark + for their type. This development has been very ingeniously supported by J. + P. Lesley, in <i>Man's Origin and Destiny</i> (Trubner, London, 1868), a + work replete with learning, and bold, but somewhat unsound, deductions. + This assumed fact has also been used in support of the Biblical story of + Noah, his ark, and the universal deluge—a myth so palpably + extravagant, that everyone who professes to credit it is compelled to + object to some detail, and to lean upon some frail reed, with the hope + that he may thus be pardoned for his credulity. Since the above was + written, it has been ascertained that the tale of Noah and his deluge is + adapted from an Assyrian or Babylonian legend, written apparently with a + view to make a story fitting to the sign of the Zodiac called Aquarius, + one to the full as fabulous as that of the birth of Bacchus, and the + amours of Zeus. + </p> + <p> + In some instances, moreover, and palpably in those cases where the account + of the religion of barbarous nations is given by fanatics, such as the + Roman Catholic invaders of America, or by such conquerors as Cæsar and + others, who have themselves very hazy notions of their own faith, the + philosopher feels that the savage is intentionally misrepresented; + consequently, in these, as in all other instances, it behoves the + philosopher to examine the evidence at his command with critical acumen, + rather than accept the statements made by more or less careless observers. + Endeavouring, therefore, to avoid these difficulties as far as possible, + let us summarize the result of our reading, and record the impressions + left upon our mind respecting the faith, ritual, and practice of certain + modern and ancient barbarians. + </p> + <p> + Beginning with the vast American continent, we find that the Esquimaux + appear to have no conception whatever of a Creator, of a future state, of + a mundane theocracy, or of any unseen agency but good or bad "luck." But + they, nevertheless, put a certain amount of faith in conjurers—cunning + men or women who profess to be able to insure them a good supply of seals + or walrus, and protection from Arctic dangers. For such a people as this + the wants of the day form the chief, if not the only, object of thought; + and they resemble lions or eagles, who are now all but famished in the + hunt for food, and now gorged to repletion with the result of their quest. + To such a nation, Heaven, as described in the Bible, with its sea of + glass, its harpists and singers, would afford no temptation, and, unless + it was furnished with abundance of oily food, an Esquimaux would not visit + it; nor would the fires and heat of Hell have any terrors for one whose + torments on earth are connected with miserable cold. In practice, the + Esquimaux are very much what they are made by their neighbours and + visitors: they are very decently behaved to those who treat them well, and + cruel, barbarous, and revengeful to strangers after they have themselves + been worried by invaders. Alternately gluttons and starving they obey the + necessities of their existence—they eat to keep themselves warm, and + they must be anchorets as rigid as any Theban hermit whilst they are + seeking their prey. With a temperature below zero, and winter huts + constructed of ice, chastity is almost a necessary virtue, and adultery + cannot possibly be frequent. Where everything of value is rare, + covetousness is not common; but if the holder of the coveted prize be + always alert, it is quite natural that murder shall be attempted, either + by the thief or his victim. The reverence of parents here, as elsewhere, + is a necessary accompaniment of savage life, and is quite independent of + any knowledge of the decalogue. To prevent reiteration of this + observation, let us consider for a moment, the chief if not the main + cause, of the reverence given to the father, and, more rarely, to the + mother in the economy of human life. We see that the Almighty has + implanted an instinct in one or both parents, throughout the larger part + of the animal creation, to nourish, guide, and teach their young. The duck + leads her brood to a pond; the hen keeps her chicks from water, but + teaches them to pick up seeds, grubs, and worms; whilst the cock keeps + order amongst the family, The weasel teaches its offspring how to attack + its prey most advantageously, and the eagle instructs her young ones to + fly. In like manner, man is at the head of his own household; he is the + first power to which the young ones bow; they know the weight of his arm, + and dread his anger, knowing that they will suffer from it when it is + stirred up. We all know, as a rule, that a habit contracted in childhood + adheres to us throughout life, consequently, the dread of the father which + exists in the youth becomes, very generally, filial reverence in the man. + But we also know that almost throughout the animal creation, the young and + sturdy males will, as they grow up to maturity, fight for supremacy, even + with their parents. So long as the latter retain the mastery they are + respected; but as soon as age and its accompanying weakness have made them + succumb, all filial respect vanishes. If, therefore, a parent, when old, + is unable to make himself feared by his prowess, revered for his good + sense or knowledge, or beloved for some faculty which makes him pleasing + to his family or the tribe, he is neglected, and often sacrificed, so that + the young shall have only themselves to provide food for. Even in + Christian England, where filial regard is cultivated as an essential part + of our religion, we too frequently find that parents are wholly neglected + by their adult offspring, as soon as they become, from sickness, age, or + other infirmity, useless members of the family. + </p> + <p> + Without having ever heard of a law, or set of laws, given in a desert from + Mount Sinai, the Esquimaux are as moral as modern Christians, and more so + than the ancient Jews: they certainly have not more gods than one, and do + not worship any graven image. Amongst them blasphemy is unknown. Parents + are honoured; chastity is general; murder is very rare; theft only exists + when strangers come amongst them with valuable matters, such as cutting + weapons. Amongst such a primitive people false witness is unknown, and + covetousness only exists in the presence of travellers who have + well-stocked ships or sledges. But the Esquimaux do not keep a Sabbath of + rest every seventh day; how, indeed, could they, when many of their days + have a duration of six weeks—according to the Hebrew computation, + which measures the day by sunsets. It is clear, then, that what many + persons designate Christian virtues do not necessarily depend upon a + knowledge of Jehovah, of Jesus, or of both. + </p> + <p> + The North American Indian appears to have been, when first discovered, + wholly without any distinct religious faith. It is true that some authors + have described him as reverencing his manitou, or great spirit, and + speaking of some happy hunting ground to which his soul will pass after + death; but I am unable to find any reliable testimony in support of this + poetic notion. To me it seems that the Red Indian is nothing more than one + of a ferocious tribe of men, who, having to subsist by the chase alone, + bestows all his thoughts upon getting meat, and driving off his neighbours + from interfering in his lands. To such an one a teeming population is + equivalent to a diminution in the supply of game, and this, again, + involves starvation. With him, therefore, the murder of his neighbours + becomes a matter of necessity, one which may be regarded by him as an + absolute virtue, a matter of public policy, and essentially a moral duty; + and as he is little superior to a tiger or a cat, he does not scruple to + add cruelty to homicide. He who has seen a carnivorous beast seize its + living prey, disable, without killing it, and then lie by and watch its + victim, rising now and again to give it a shake, or a pat with its claw, + can well understand how a Blackfoot Indian might gloat over a dying + Delaware, or a Mandan torture an Iroquois when he had the chance, each + regarding the other as men consider wasps and hornets. Yet, though without + religion, the Indian is not without fear. He is terrified by strange + noises, and by weird sights; there is a being whom he dreads; and there is + in every tribe a "medicine man," who is supposed to have supernatural + power, and to be able to attract good or to banish evil fortune from the + chief and his people. Practically, the Red Indian is as superstitious + about lucky and unlucky days as was the Hebrew David and the Persian + Haman, and, prior to the starting of an expedition, the diviner is + consulted, who may, possibly, answer in the words of the Lord (?) of + Judah, "let it be when thou hearest the sound of a going in the tops of + the mulberry trees, then thou shalt bestir thyself, for then shall the + Lord go out before thee to smite the host of the Philistines" (2 Sam. v. + 24). + </p> + <p> + But though without religion, in the usual acceptation of the word, the + Indians were not, when first the white man knew them, wholly without + ritual, or what has been designated a sacred ceremony. The celebration to + which we refer occurred every year, was conducted by a definite set of + actors, and was attended to with wonderful reverence. A full account of + such ceremony is given by G. Catlin, in a work entitled, O Kee Pa + (Trübner, London, 1867). In it figures a mystic messenger, who comes to + demand the initiation of the young men of the tribe who have attained a + fighting age; tents are then prepared, and men and women are duly painted + and otherwise disguised to represent buffaloes and bugbears, the bad + spirit, etc.; the main intention of the whole being to test the courage, + strength, and endurance of the young men by frightful tortures, which are + too disgusting for description here. At the end of the trial, however, + each votary sacrifices a joint of the little finger of one hand to the bad + spirit. At this feast-some doll-like effigies are used to mark the + "mystery" tent. + </p> + <p> + Amongst barbarians like these are, it will readily be imagined that such + virtues as chastity and charity have no existence,—that successful + theft ennobles the robber, and that the slaughter of an enemy, either by + treachery or in fair fight, is regarded as a proof of courage, much as it + was amongst the Spartan Greeks. Polygamy is simply a matter of wealth and + arrangement, and women are purchased and treated like slaves. It is the + man's business to hunt and fight, it is the woman's duty to make the best + or the most of the spoils of the chase. + </p> + <p> + Yet, with this general absence of all religion, there appears to be, here + and there, a reverence for certain strange phenomena of nature—such + as hot or bubbling fountains, sulphur springs, steaming geysers, and + curious rocks, like the celebrated pipe-stone rock in the Sioux territory. + From this all pipes ought to be made, there being as much of orthodoxy in + such bowls amongst the Indians as there is in an "Agnus Dei" amongst + Christian papists. There is, too, a reverence for the dead occasionally to + be met with, but it cannot be said to amount to worship. In some + instances, but I do not find that the custom is general, a man is interred + with his horse, weapons, and medicine bag, as if it was expected that he + would live beyond the tomb, and require in his other state of existence + that which he wanted in this. + </p> + <p> + What we have said of the North American aborigines applies with equal, if + not with greater, force to those of the South. + </p> + <p> + From what the savage redskins are, and have been, during the last two or + three centuries, a transition to what they have been in the past is very + natural; and, whilst making the step, the philosopher will be reminded of + the observation made by some profound observer, to the effect—-"go + where you will, no matter how savage the nation, you will be sure to find + the remains of a previous empire, nation, or civilization." Vast forests, + scarcely yet fully explored, cover ancient cities in Ceylon and Central + America alike, and men, who toiled to build vast temples, towers, palaces, + and fortresses, are replaced by wild animals. In the Bashan of Palestine, + primeval houses of stone still stand, where scarcely a resident is to be + found, and the present inhabitants are far inferior to the ancient race + that built these enduring dwellings. Thus the Abbé Domenech writes (<i>Seven + Years Residence in the Great Deserts of North America</i>, London, + Longman, 1860), vol. I., p. 353—"From Florida to Canada, from the + Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, the American soil is strewn with gigantic + ruins of temples, tumuli, entrenched camps, fortifications, towers, + villages, towers of observation, gardens, wells, artificial meadows, and + high roads of the most remote antiquity." + </p> + <p> + Without entering closely into the nature of the antiquities discovered, we + may state that they comprise pyramids, cones, obelisks, hills surrounded + by a deep vallum, like that adjoining Salisbury, and earthen constructions + analogous to that at Avebury. There is evidence that the artificial + erections, which were so built as to be visible from an enormous distance, + were designed, possibly, as cairns, or memorials of the dead, but also as + spots for sacrificial offerings, resembling those called high places in + Ancient Palestine, the tumulus over Patroclus, and the Scythian mounds in + the Crimea. The altars which have been discovered are made of baked clay + or stone, and have the shape of large basins, varying in length from + nineteen inches to seventeen yards, but generally about two yards and + a-half. Under and around the altars calcined human bones were found, and + sometimes a whole skeleton was met with in the tumulus, as if a sacrifice + of men attended the funeral rites, as we learn from Homer that it did, + before Troy, when Achilles directed the obsequies of his friend Patroclus. + Cremation, as well as sepulture, was adopted, and with the dead, + ornaments, arms, and other objects, which belonged in life to the + departed, were buried; amongst these are to be reckoned trinkets of silver + and of brass, as well as of stone and bone. As a proof of the advanced + knowledge of the people referred to, I may here quote, from memory, a note + from Stevens' <i>Central America</i>, to the effect that the bronze tools + found in Yucatan, &c., amongst the quarries whence the stone for the + ancient temples was procured, are nearly as hard as steel, and that a + similar bronze is only known to have existed in some of the ancient tombs + and quarries of Egypt, an observation which receives additional value from + Domenech's remark, vol. I., p. 364—"These works of art (arms, idols, + and medals, found in New Granada tombs) are acknowledged, by the + archaeologists of Panama, to possess the characteristics of both Chinese + and Egyptian art." Here, again, I would call my readers' attention to the + facts, that in very modern times Chinese have migrated to California, + Australia, Singapore, and other distant localities, and that Fortune found + Egyptian curiosities in <i>virtù</i>, shops in China, whilst Egyptologists + have discovered Chinese manufactures in Egyptian tombs. The subject of the + extent of travel in ancient times does not enter into my present plan; but + as I am desirous to make the mind of my readers expansive enough to + receive everything which bears upon the history of man upon the earth, I + may be allowed to sow seed by the way-side, some of which may blossom as + "a garden flower grown wild." Domenech, in p. 408, vol. I., figures a + remarkable stone, by many persons supposed to be a hoax or forgery, which + was found at the base of one of the largest mounds in North America, + situated in Western Virginia. It lay in a sepulchral chamber, thirty-five + feet from the surface, was elliptic in shape, two inches and a-half long, + two wide, and about half an inch thick, and the material was of a dark + colour, and very hard. The following is a copy from Domenech's work, and, + without dwelling upon it, we may call attention to the similarity of some + of the letters with those known to, or used by the Phoenicians, Ancient + Greco-Italians, and Carthaginians. Like the Newton Stone, in Scotland, and + some Gnostic gems, it may be said to be learned "gibberish," which "the + spirits" can read but no one else. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/056a.jpg" alt="056 " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + There is, indeed, much more evidence than is generally supposed to connect + the ancient mound-builders in America with the inhabitants of the Eastern + Hemisphere, particularly in their modes of burial, the nature of their + earthworks, and the style of such ornaments and figures as have been + found. For example, there is one enclosure described, in the centre of + which is erected a mound and pillar, precisely resembling the linga yoni + of the East. In addition to these, carved stones have been found, which + unite together such Oriental emblems as the sun and moon, the Tau, T and + the egg, O which together make the well-known Egyptian symbol A. Again, + Domenech figures some male and female human effigies, of whom American + savans write that they represent idols of sexual design, similar to those + exposed in the <i>Mysteries of Eleusis</i>, one of them being a badly + finished image of Priapus. Domenech still farther states, on the authority + of Cortez, that a form of worship, recalling the Egyptian mysteries of + Isis and Osiris, was established in America. + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img alt="056b (31K)" src="images/056b.jpg" width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p> + Respecting the nature of the religion of the mound builders the Abbé + writes—"The government of these nations appears to have been + theocratic or sacerdotal, like that of the Jews, and the religious + administrative and military power was, probably, vested in one and the + same person. This is clearly evinced by the taboo, or sacred monuments, + being combined with those of a purely military character," p. 366. Without + straining doubtful points too far, we may content ourselves with affirming + that the researches of Davis and Squire, of Stephens, and of Domenech, + show that the mound builders of America raised high places for sacrificial + fires; that they built huge piles of earth over dead warriors; and, that + during the funeral rites which were observed at the obsequies, they + immolated certain human victims. + </p> + <p> + Let us now pause for a moment and consider how much is involved in the + practice of making a sacrifice by fire, or otherwise, at the burial of any + deceased chieftain or honoured man. With what idea could the living wife + join her husband on the funeral pyre in India, or the ancient Tartars have + slain the horse, slaves, wives, and chief officers of a defunct king, + burying them all in a vast grave, unless they entertained the belief that + there was a life beyond the grave? The faith may have been of the crudest + form, yet the practice evidenced the belief that those who died, and were + buried together, would arise and live at the same time and place, and in + the same relative positions which they had during life. If this be + granted, it demonstrates that the early dwellers in America had a higher + conception of immortality than had the ancient Jews, even although the + latter assumed, and pertinaciously persisted in the assertion, that they, + and they only of all the nations of the world, were taught of God—a + boast to which a vast number of thoughtless Christians give a profound + reverence, and most implicit belief. + </p> + <p> + Without speculating upon the probable connexion between the mound-builders + and the inhabitants of ancient Mexico, we will endeavour, with the aid of + Prescott, and other writers, to ascertain something of the faith professed + by Montezuma and his subjects. Derived from two sources, there were two + distinct elements in the Mexican religion; one of these was gentle and + mild as the teaching of Christ, and the other, ferocious and cruel, like + the practice of such of his followers as the sensual Crusaders, the + persecuting Popes of Italy, and the brutal, money-grubbing Spaniards. The + former gradually dried up, like primitive Christianity, and the + harmlessness of the dove was replaced by the ferocity of the wolf. It is + in strict accordance with human nature, that virtues are harder to + maintain than vices, hence malignancy swelled itself up and became + dominant. The priests of the sanguinary class contrived as burdensome a + ceremonial as ever existed in Judea, Greece, Spain, or Modern Rome, and + they surrounded their deities with conceptions as grotesque as those which + are clustered round the Hindoo gods of to-day, the divinities of the + Greeks and Romans, and the innumerable virgins, saints, and martys of + mediaeval and modern papal Christianity. The power and the inclination to + make fetish is certainly not confined to African negroes. The Mexicans + recognized a supreme Creator as the God by whom we live, one who was, for + them, omnipresent and omniscient—the giver of all good things, + "without whom man is as nothing." He was said to be "invisible, + incorporeal, a being of absolute perfection and perfect purity," "under + whose wings men may find repose and a sure defence." But this deity, + though single, was subdivided by the Mexican theologians, much in the same + way as Jehovah became separated into an innumerable host of angels, + archangels, and devils, and as Zeus was split up into an equally numerous + army of gods, goddesses, and demigods. The Mexicans had thirteen major, + and about two hundred minor, divinities, to one or other of whom each day + was devoted, much in the same way as certain modern Christians believe in + one Creator, four persons, three of whom are male and the other female, + seven archangels, and some hundreds of saints, virgins, or martyrs, to + each of whom one day of the year is consecrated. There are more gods and + goddesses in the Papal calendar than in that of Ancient Mexico, Greece, or + even Rome. + </p> + <p> + At the head of the celestial army was "the god of war," "the patron of the + kingdom," whose temples were more noble in their barbaric majesty than any + other, and to whom human beings were sacrificed in abundance. They were + the noblest creatures that could be found, and in truth, there were very + few other animals to offer in their place. + </p> + <p> + This great Mexican divinity was essentially the same as the <i>Jehovah + Tsebaoth</i> of the Hebrew Scriptures; the Lord of Hosts of whom we read + in Exod. xv. 3, "The Lord (Jehovah) is a man of war, the Lord (Jehovah) is + His name;" and in Ps. xxiv. 8, "Who is this King of glory?—the Lord, + strong and mighty; the Lord, mighty in battle;" and again, the same idea + appears in verse 10 of the same Psalm; see also 1 Chron. xvii. 24, "The + Lord of Hosts is the God of Israel." Indeed, we should weary the reader if + we were to quote all the texts to be found in the Old Testament, which + prove that the Hebrew Jehovah was as much a god of war as was the chief + deity of the Mexicans. Modern civilization may frame the belief that God + is not "the author of confusion, but of peace" (1 Cor. xiv. 33); but the + Hebrews in the East, and the Mexicans in the West, held a different + opinion. Besides the god of war there was a god of the air, who once lived + on earth, and taught metallurgy, agriculture, and the art of government. + He was essentially a human benefactor, who caused the earth to teem with + fruit and flowers, without the trouble of laborious cultivation—his + reign was analogous to the golden age of the Greeks and Romans. But he was + not wholly satisfactory, and was banished; yet he is to have a second + coming, like Elias, and a modern deity of the Eastern world. His portrait + is identical, apparently, with the commonly received likeness of Jesus. In + Christian mythology (see Eph. ii. 2), "the prince of the power of the air" + is regarded as "the adversary," or a devil. No other deities are described + in detail by Prescott, but he says that every household had its "penates," + or household gods. On turning to Higgins, who quotes entirely from Lord + Kingsborough's <i>Mexican Antiquities</i>, we find that the Mexicans + baptized their children with what they called "water of regeneration." + Their king also danced before his god, as David did, to his chaste wife's + disgust, and was consecrated and anointed by the high priest with a holy + unction as Saul and the son of Jesse were. On one day of the year all the + fires in the Mexican kingdom were extinguished and lighted again from one + sacred hearth in the temple, which again reminds us of the Vestal Virgins, + whose business was to keep up a holy fire in Rome, and of the lamp which + was to burn perpetually in the Jewish temple (Exod. xxvii. 20). At the end + of October the Mexicans had a feast resembling our "All Souls," or + "Saints," day, which was called "the festival of advocates," because each + human being had an advocate in the heaven above to plead for him, which + again reminds us of Jesus' dictum, that children have guardian angels, who + are always in God's presence (Matt, xviii. 10) + </p> + <p> + The same people had a forty-days' fast, in honour of a god who was tempted + forty days upon a mountain, and thus resembled the Prophet of Nazareth. He + was called the morning star, and thus is to be identified with Lucifer as + well as Jesus (Isa. xiv. 12, Rev. xxii. 16), and carried a reed for an + emblem (see Eev. xxi. 15). The Mexicans honoured a cross, and the god of + air was represented sometimes as nailed to one, and even occasionally + between two other individuals.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * As we cannot imagine that the Mexicans were aware of the + manner in which modern Christians depict Jesus on the cross, + we most, I think, seek for some idea which was common to + both the East and West. In Payne Knight's work, so often + referred to by us, there is a picture which represents a + cock with a lingam instead of a head and beak; on its + pediment there is in Greek the words, soteer kosmou, "the + saviour of the world." This is also an epithet of Siva, and + he is sometimes represented as a phallus. In this he is the + Asher or Bel of the Assyrian triad, erected higher than the + other two. In Christian history the outsiders are said to be + thieves, but it was not so in Mexico. The three crosses + are simply emblems of the "trinity." +</pre> + <p> + A virgin and child were also adored, as they were in Babylonia, Assyria, + Egypt, and Hindostan, and as they are in a great part of Europe at the + present time. The people believed in vast cycles of years, at the end of + each of which there was to be a general destruction of life, and a perfect + regeneration, an idea which Higgins has shown to have existed amongst + Persians, Romans, and Jews alike. The Mexicans still further believed in a + threefold future state—a heaven for the brave, and those who were + sacrificed, there being, so far as I can discover, no abstract idea of + what we call "virtue"; a hell for the wicked; and a sort of quiet limbo + for those who were in no way distinguished. Heaven was located in the sun, + and the blessed were permitted to revel amongst lovely clouds and singing + birds, enjoying, unharmed, all the charms of nature: a conception which is + to the full as poetical, and, probably, quite as near the truth, as that + given in "Revelation." When a man died he was burned, and, if rich, his + slaves were sacrificed with him, the Mexicans, in this respect, resembling + the ancient Scythians, with whom they had much in common. When the + ceremony of giving a name to children was gone through, their lips and + bosom were sprinkled with water, and the Lord was implored to permit the + holy drops to wash away the sin that was given to the child before the + foundation of the world, so that the infant might be born anew, or, in + modern terms, regenerated (Prescott, ch. 3). Amongst their prayers, or + invocations, were the formulas, "Wilt Thou blot us out, O Lord, for ever? + Is this punishment intended, not for our reformation, but for our + destruction?" again, "Impart to us, out of Thy great mercy, Thy gifts + which we are not worthy to receive through our own merits;" "Keep peace + with all;" "Bear injuries with humility, God who sees will avenge you;" + "He who looks too curiously on a woman commits adultery with eyes." These + Mexican maxims so closely resemble those to be found in the Bible, that it + is difficult to believe that the Spaniards really told the truth + respecting them. The sacerdotal order amongst the Mexicans was a numerous + one, well arranged and powerful. The priests used musical choirs in their + worship, arranged the calendar, and appointed the time for festivals. They + superintended the education of youth, and wrote up the traditions, like + the "recorders" of the Jews, Persians, other Orientals, and Christian + monks, and looked to the conservancy of the hieroglyphic paintings. There + were two high priests, who alone had to undertake the duty of offering + human sacrifices, and these were elected by the king and nobles, quite + irrespective of previous rank, and, when elected, they were inferior only + to the sovereign. When reading this, anyone who is familiar with biblical + history will bethink him of Luke iii. 3, "Annas and Caiaphas being the + high priests," the plural, not the singular, number being used, and of the + dictum of Caiaphas, John xi. 50, "It is expedient for us that one man + should die for the people, that the whole nation perish not." We may put + what construction we please upon these facts, but, whatever interpretation + we may adopt, we must acknowledge that the Hebrews, at the time when our + era commences, had two high priests who were concerned in human sacrifice. + </p> + <p> + The priests, in general, were devoted to the service of some particular + deity, and, during the time of their attendance, lived in the temple, + celibate; but, when not on duty, they resided with their wives and + families. Thrice during the day, and once at some period of the night, + they were called to prayer, much like all the varieties of Christian monks + and nuns. They were frequent in their ablutions, in which habit they may + be contrasted with those saintly hermits, who regarded dirt as a divine + ordinance, and never washed; and they mortified the flesh by long vigils, + fasting, and cruel penance, drawing blood from their bodies by + flagellation, or by piercing them with the thorns of the aloe. The + resemblance of the Mexican sacerdotalism with Jewish and Christian customs + is thus shown to be wonderful and striking, so much so, that the Spaniards + started the idea that they had been taught by some stray apostle of Jesus. + The great cities of Mexico were divided into districts, each of which was + placed under the charge of a sort of parochial clergy, who regulated every + act of religion within their precincts, and who administered the rites of + confession and absolution. The secrets of the confessional were held + inviolable, and penances were imposed, of much the same kind as those + enjoined by the Roman Catholic Church upon her votaries. + </p> + <p> + It was a tenet of Mexican faith, that a sin once atoned for, was, if + repeated, inexpiable a second time; consequently, confession was only once + resorted to, and that late in life; a good plan, upon the whole, for it + enabled a man whose days were numbered to get pardon "for good and aye." + It was also held that sacerdotal absolution was equivalent to magisterial + punishment. The formula of absolution contained this, amongst other + things, "O merciful Lord, Thou who knowest the secrets of all hearts, let + Thy forgiveness and favour descend, like the pure waters of heaven, to + wash away the stains from the soul. Thou knowest that this poor man has + sinned, not from his own free will, but from the influence of the sign + under which he was born." This idea may well be compared with the current + doctrine of the phrenologists, many of whom assert that a man acts + according to the configuration of his brain and cranium, and is, + therefore, only partially culpable for the commission of certain crimes. + After a copious exhortation to the penitent, in which he was enjoined to + undergo a variety of mortifications, and to perform minute ceremonies, by + way of penance, he was particularly urged to procure, with the smallest + possible delay, a slave, who was to be utilized in sacrifice to the Deity; + the priest then concluded with inculcating charity to the poor—"Clothe + the naked, and feed the hungry, whatever privations it may cost thee, for + remember their flesh is like thine." + </p> + <p> + The necessity of sacrifice, as an atonement for sin, forms an essential, + though bloody, part of both the Hebrew and the Christian faiths, and + history has long taught us that the slaughter of a man, woman, or child, + formed, in the estimation of the Ancient Greeks, and other nations, one of + the most acceptable of the forms of homage paid by a human being to the + Creator. This idea is at the very basis of the Christian theology. It has + been held, from the time of the apostle Paul to the present day, that + Jehovah would not look favourably upon mankind until He had been + propitiated, not by the sacrifice of an ordinary individual, but by the + murder, in the crudest of modes, of a being whom He personally begat, for + the purpose of killing him when arrived at maturity. In Hebrews x. 12, we + find this doctrine very distinctly enunciated, in the words, "this man, + after he had offered one sacrifice of sins for ever, sat down on the right + hand of God," and subsequently, v. 14, "by one offering he hath perfected + for ever them that are sanctified." Again, in Heb. ix. 26, "once in the + end of the world hath he appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of + himself;" and in Heb. x. 10, "we are sanctified through the offering of + the body of Jesus Christ;" and in ix. 28, "Christ was once offered to bear + the sins of many." The philosopher may doubt whether the God whom the + Christians have made for their own adoration, is in any way different to + that of King Mesha, who offered up his own son in sacrifice, or to the + Mexican one, who was contented with the blood of a slave.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is doubtful whether any Christian has ever paid real + attention to the doctrines which are familiar to his ear, or + to the hymns which an most frequently on his tongue. In the + usual fashion which is prevalent amongst ministers and + hearers, everything which is told by missionaries of heathen + deities is taken as true. Thus it has become the general + belief that the Mexican theology, which required an annual + sacrifice of human beings, whose hearts were cut out, and + offered warm, palpitating and full of blood, to a God who + was supposed to be present in a sacred stone statue, was + beyond measure atrocious. But in what consists the horror, + unless in the fact that the sacrifice was seen by the + worshippers? In Christendom people are never called upon to + see a man killed by nailing him to a cross. If they were + condemned to this penance, very little would any of them + talk of blood. As it is, the minds of the majority are + lulled to sleep by the substitution of words for facts, and + texts of Scripture for ideas; and those who are unable to + look upon a cut finger without fainting, and would not for + worlds go to see a man decapitated, talk in the serenest + manner on most sanguinary topics. A reference to a few hymns + which are general favourites will illustrate what I mean. In + "Rock of Ages," for example, we have the lines— + + "Let the water and the blood + From thy riven side that flowed, + Cleanse from sin and make me pure." + + Another equally popular hymn begins + + "From Calv'ry's cross a fountain flows + Of water and of blood, + More healing than Bethesda's pool, + Redeeming Lord, thy precious blood + Shall never lose its power..." and again— + + "There is a fountain filled with blood, + Drawn from Immanuels veins, + And sinners plunged beneath that flood + Lose all their guilty stains." + + No congregation of Christian, or any other men, would + tolerate for a moment the introduction into divine worship + of a bath of blood, into which all those should plunge who + desired salvation. Not one would endeavour to wash his sins + away in a sanguine stream, drawn from any source whatever. + The horror which would be produced by the doctrine that such + things are necessary to appease our God, would make every + thinking being detest it. Yet, when we only play with the + idea, we can talk of such matters with holy complacency. If + any Christian wants to test his faith, let me advise him to + get a basinful of blood and place it in his bed-room, and + say twice a day, when looking on it, that's the stuff which + propitiates my God! It would not be long ere he saw the + absurdity of his theological tenets, and the coarseness of + the hierarchy which invented so frightful an idea of the + Omnipotent. +</pre> + <p> + For the education of the youth of Mexico a part of the temples was + allotted, where the boys and girls of the middle and higher classes were + placed at an early period—the girls to be taught by the priestesses, + the boys by priests; and from a note in Prescott's corrected edition, + 1866, p. 22, we learn that the former were even more generally pure in + life than, we have reason to believe, the Egyptian priestesses and + Christian nuns proved themselves to be, Father Acosto saying, "In truth, + it is very strange to see that this false opinion of religion hath so + great force amongst these young men and maidens of Mexico, that they will + serve the Devil with so great vigour and austerity, which many of us do + not in the service of the most high God, the which is a great shame and + confusion." It is curious to notice how the Christian priest considers + that chastity may be a snare of the Devil, as well as an ordinance of + Jehovah. The boys, in these scholastic parts of the sacred temples, were + taught the routine of monastic discipline—to decorate the shrines of + the gods with flowers, to feed the sacred fires, and to chant in worship + and at festivals. The Abbé Hue, in an account of his travels in Thibet and + Tartary, has told us repeatedly of the similarity between the rites, + practices, and ceremonies of the Romish Church and those in use amongst + the followers of the Great Lama. It is equally marvellous to discover that + the Mexican ritual resembles both. The Papalist endeavours to explain + this, by the monstrous assumption that both Tartary and Mexico were + evangelized by two different Christian Apostles. But it seems to us more + probable that the Romanists, who are known to have adopted almost every + ancient ceremony, symbol, doctrine, and the like, have unknowingly copied + from travelled Orientals, than that the cult of the people of Thibet has + travelled into America, as well as into Europe. Into the identity of the + Tartars with the Red Indians it is not my intention to enter. The higher + Mexicans were taught traditionary lore, the mysteries of hieroglyphics, + the principles of government, and such astronomical and scientific + knowledge as the priests would, or, probably, could, impart. The girls + learned to weave and embroider coverings for the altars of the gods. Great + attention was paid to morality, and offences were punished with extreme + rigour, even with death itself. Youths were taught to eschew, vice and + cleave to virtue, to abstain from wrath, to offer violence or do wrong to + no man, and to do good where possible. + </p> + <p> + When of an age to marry, the pupils were dismissed from the convent, and + the recommendation of the principal thereof often introduced those whom he + regarded as the most competent of the students, to responsible situations + in public life. Such was the policy of the Mexican priests, who were thus + enabled to mould the mind of the young, and to train it early to the + necessity of giving reverence to religion, and especially to its ministers—a + reverence which maintained its hold on the warrior long after every other + vestige of education had been effaced. In this matter America showed an + astuteness equal to that exhibited by Papal hierarchs in Rome. + </p> + <p> + To each of the principal temples, lands were annexed, for the maintenance + of the priests, and these glebes were augmented by successive princes, + until, under Montezuma, they were of enormous extent, and covered every + district of the* empire. The priests took the management of their property + into their own hands, and treated their tenants with liberality and + indulgence. In addition to this source of income, they had "first fruits," + and other offerings, dictated by piety or superstition. The surplus was + distributed in alms amongst the poor, a duty strenuously prescribed by + their moral code. Thus we find, adds Prescott, whom we are closely, and + almost verbatim, following, the same religion inculcating lessons of pure + philanthropy and of merciless extermination—an inconsistency not + incredible to those familiar with the history of the Roman Catholic Church + in the early ages of the Inquisition. + </p> + <p> + In the course of a not very long life, I have heard, upon many occasions, + the argument that the persistency of the Roman Catholic Church, in spite + of its abominable corruptions, its utter contempt for truth, its + outrageous cruelty, its glaring superstition, its intolerable arrogance, + and its rapacious covetousness, proves that it is, and must ever be + regarded as a divine institution. But this argument loses all its weight + when we find that the religion of the Mexicans, which the Spaniards + declared to have sprung from the Devil, had the virtues, as well as many + vices, of the Roman faith. If one came from Heaven, the other could not + have come from Hell. The simple truth seems to be, that crafty and + designing men are always able to find dupes, and that red men and black, + the haughty Italian and the lively Frenchman, the stolid boor and the + polished orator, may all suffer alike from an education which has taught + them, in youth, to believe in the reality of a revelation given to a class + of human beings who, by its means, assume to be divine. + </p> + <p> + The Mexican temples—<i>teocallis</i>, or "houses of God "—were + very numerous, indeed there were several hundreds in each of the principal + cities of the kingdom; but we need not describe them more minutely than to + say that they were truncated pyramids terminating in a level surface, upon + which blazed the sacred fire. All religious services were public, as in + Roman Catholic countries. There were long processions of priests, and + numerous festivals of unusual sacredness, as well as monthly and daily + appropriate celebrations of worship, so that it is difficult to conceive + how the ordinary business of life was carried on. The sun was an universal + object of reverence. At a period not long prior (about 200 years) to the + Spanish conquest, human sacrifices were adopted for the first time, and + they speedily became common, both as regards repetition and the numbers of + victims slaughtered. In some instances the oblations terminated with + cannibalism. The burnt offering was roasted, not incinerated, and, like + the Paschal lamb, was devoutly devoured. Sexual rites, symbols, or + worship, appear to have been very rare, for I can only find one or two + doubtful references to them. In this matter the Mexicans were far superior + to all the old Shemitic and Egyptian, as well as the Hindoo, races. So far + Prescott. + </p> + <p> + Whilst writing the foregoing, it has required some determination not to + comment very extensively upon the facts recorded, for they do, indeed, set + the thoughtful mind on fire. Amongst the questions which they provoke, the + first is, "how far the accounts given to us are to be depended upon?" In + answering this query, we readily recognize that our authorities can only + have been Spaniards, who were, to a great extent, implacable enemies of + the Mexicans, to a great extent ignorant of their language, and bitterly + hostile to them in matters of religion. But this recognition leads us to + trust the accounts which they give, for, if the invaders had been able to + treat the natives as unmitigated savages, they would have had the more + excuse for pillaging their sacred stores, temples, and palaces, and + exterminating the pagan worshippers. Again, if the picture thus painted + were a fancy one, having no real existence save in the mind of the writer, + we should be able readily to recognize its counterpart in the Spanish + history of the Peruvians, just as we are able to ascertain the identity of + the authorship of certain anonymous works by Lord Lytton, by the existence + therein of his marked peculiarity of style. The best testimony, however, + to the substantial truth of the accounts given of the nature of the + Mexican faith, is to be found in various minute episodes of their general + history, in the behaviour of the Aztecs with each other, and towards their + invaders, and the general customs which are recorded. That the Spanish + writers had a real belief in the account of which Prescott has given us so + admirable a resume, we may feel assured, for one of them introduced the + naïve remark, "that the Devil had positively taught to the Mexicans the + same things which God had taught to Christendom." + </p> + <p> + When once we have satisfied ourselves of the truth of the Spanish accounts + of the ancient Mexican institutions, we find ourselves in the presence of + some very striking religious and political facts. We see before us a + nation who had attained to as distinct a conception of the Almighty as we + have ourselves; who had discovered a heaven, a hell, and an intermediate + place, without the assistance of Jew or Greek, Babylonian or Persian; who + had instituted a sacerdotal class, and made provision for their + subsistence, without any assistance from Melchizedek or Moses; who had + adopted a principle of national education long before such a thing was + thought of in England, or in Europe. In fine, the Aztec faith and policy + were, at least, as praiseworthy, if not far nearer to perfection, than the + faith and policy which obtained in Christian Italy, France, and Spain, + during the dark and the middle ages. There is not, indeed, any one point + in which the contrast is not favourable to the Aztecs, except in the + single point of human sacrifice. Christianity can, apparently, make a + heavy accusation against the Aztec religion on this point, and may fairly + seem to reproach it for that frequency of human sacrifice, and even + cannibalism, which formed, at the time of the Spanish conquest, an + essential part of the Mexican faith. + </p> + <p> + Yet, when we dive below the surface, and examine this matter with + philosophic care, we readily see that the charge is deprived of much of + its weight. Who, for example, can compare the practice of the people of + Montezuma with that of Spaniards under the sway of Ferdinand and Isabella, + without seeing that in Spain there were human sacrifices, which were + conducted with far more cruelty than those in Mexico. We find, in the + first place, that the custom of sacrificing human beings was no more an + essential part of the Aztec, than it was of the Christian, faith; it was + only in existence two hundred years before the Spanish invasion, and many + centuries, bloodless of human offerings, had passed away ere the period of + what we may term brutality arrived. Just so it was with the religion of + Jesus; for centuries it was unstained by blood, and comparatively meek and + humble, yet, when its priesthood rose to power, they indulged in human + holocausts on a most extended scale. The Spaniards give accounts of + thousands of victims offered up at once to the Mexican god of war; but + what are these in comparison to the victims of Paris, sacrificed by + Papists on the eve and day of St. Bartholomew, and those at Beziers. + </p> + <p> + It may be doubted by the philosopher whether the Christian religion was + not, from its very commencement, as intolerant of opposition and as + persecuting as it became hereafter. + </p> + <p> + The story of Jesus cursing a fig tree, which did not bear fruit out of its + season (Mark xi. 13, 14, 21), shows that even he, whom the Christians take + for an example, was quite capable of that pettiness, which visits upon the + innocent the vexation felt by one's self. But when we read the story in + Acts, v., about Ananias and Sapphira, we see, in all its naked horror, a + fearful Christian persecution. The victims were done to death for + deceiving an apostle. But why should we be surprised at the followers of + "the Son" doing that which "the Father" ordained? Is there any human king + who ever promulgated a more bloody order than did Jehovah Sabaoth, the God + which, amongst the Hebrews, corresponded to the Mexican god of war, when + he commissioned Samuel to say to Saul (1 Sam. xv. 3), "Now go and smite + Amalek, and utterly destroy all that they have; slay both man and woman, + infant and suckling, ox and sheep, camel and ass!" After such a + destruction of the Midianites as is narrated in Numb, xxxi., the fearful + slaughter, effected by Crusaders, of Jews, Turks, and heretics is scarcely + worth mentioning. + </p> + <p> + There was a teacher who remarked, "he who is without sin among you, let + him first cast a stone" at the culprit; and surely, when our Bible, which + is treasured by so many as the only rule of faith amongst us, details such + horrible religious slaughters as are to be found in its pages, and abounds + with persecuting precepts, we had better not talk too much about Mexican + sacrifice. Was there any Aztec minister so brutal in his religious fury as + Samuel was (1 Sam. xv. 33), who hewed Agag into pieces? The Mexican was + merciful to his victim; the Hebrew was like a modern Chinese executioner, + who kills the criminal by degrees. His cruelty has been emulated in + Christian France, and under the reign of two of her kings, we have seen a + Ravaillac and Damiens tortured slowly to death, by means too horrible to + dwell upon. + </p> + <p> + The writers upon Mexico tell us of a lovely youth, who was educated for a + whole year to become a victim, and how, at the end of that time, he was + feted, adorned, and even worshipped; how four of the most charming maidens + of Mexico were selected as his wives, and how he remained in the enjoyment + of the highest honour until the time of his sacrifice arrived, and we feel + due horror at the recital. Yet, what is it compared with the accounts we + read of miserable men and women racked, in hideous dungeons, by the most + horrible tortures which an enlightened Christian ingenuity could devise, + and who then, with limbs whose loosened fibres could scarcely sustain + their bruised and mangled bodies, were led, or driven at the sword's + point, to a stake fixed in the ground, there to be tied and burned, whilst + devout Christian multitudes stood around, rejoicing, like demons, over the + hellish scene. + </p> + <p> + No one can gloat over the imaginary torments of Hell without being a + persecuting devil at heart. + </p> + <p> + Surely the Christians have too much sin amongst themselves to cast a stone + at the inhabitants of Mexico. + </p> + <p> + We find a strong offset to the horror of Aztec cruelty in the very Bible, + which we regard as the mainstay of our religious world. What, for example, + is the essential difference between a Mexican monarch sacrificing one or + ten thousand men taken in battle, and Moses commanding the extermination + of the inhabitants of Canaan, and only saving, out of Midian, thirty-two + thousand virgins, that they might minister to the lust of his Hebrew + followers? What, again, are we to say of David's God, who would not turn + away his anger from Judah until seven sons of the preceding king had been + offered up as victims? And lastly—thought still more awful! what + must we say of the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, that Jehovah + Himself sacrificed His own Son by a cruel death; and not only so, but that + He had intercourse with an earthly woman, and had thus a son by her, for + the sole purpose of bringing about his murder? Can we object to religious + cannibalism in the Aztec, when Jesus of Nazareth is said to have urged his + followers to eat his body and to drink his blood; and when hundreds of + priests have shed the blood of millions of men, who, disbelieving the + power of any man to convert bread and wine into flesh and blood, have + refused to profane their lips by a cannibal feast? + </p> + <p> + Having now examined the nature of the Aztec faith, let us, for a while, + linger upon the fruits which it produced. Who can read the mournful story + of the fall of Mexico without contrasting, in his own mind, the respective + characters of the conquerors and the conquered? In every so-called + Christian virtue Montezuma proved himself to be superior to the lying, + unscrupulous, rapacious and covetous Cortez. Even the greatest fire-eater + who ever lived cannot fail to see that the Spaniard would not have been + victorious over the Mexican, if the latter had been equally well equipped + with arms, armour, and horses, as the former was. We can only tell vaguely + what was the condition of Anahuac prior to the invasion of Cortez; but, + from the testimony given by Prescott, we believe that there were annual + wars between adjoining tribes, who met solely to obtain from their enemies + victims for sacrifice, the battles always ending with the day, and never + being resumed for conquest, or for the plunder of maidens to be an + indulgence of a victor's lust. What the condition of the same country + under Christian rule has been, and still is, every reader of modern and + contemporary history knows; and he sees, with regret, that Jehovah + Sabaoth, Jesus of Nazareth, and the Holy Spirit, with an army of saints, + angels, virgins, and martyrs, as well as ancient gods of the Eastern + Hemisphere are, if they are to be judged by the acts of their worshippers, + as cruel, revengeful, and malignant, as were the deities of the Mexican + kingdom. + </p> + <p> + The followers of the cross will appear to be quite as despicable when we + contrast them with the Peruvians, as they were when compared with the + inhabitants of Anahuac. + </p> + <p> + There is something very fascinating in the history of Peru, as recorded by + the Spanish authors, and rendered into the English language by Prescott. + There is no account of ancient or modern people extant which has + interested me so much as those of the realm of Manco Capac. To hear of a + nation, separated by an ocean, we may, indeed, say two, and a vast + continent, from the civilized portions of Asia, Europe, and Africa, + located in a mountainous tract, where soil and water were scanty, and + locomotion was rendered difficult from the configuration of the land; + whose country was surrounded by strong natural enemies of all kinds; whose + people were unable to use such agents as steel and gunpowder, and who were + yet enabled to construct vast cities and temples, to quarry, remove, and + use in buildings, fragments of rock thirty-eight feet long, eighteen feet + broad, and six feet thick, and to transport these to distances varying + from 12 to 45 miles, to form good roads along the mountain tops, for an + extent of nearly two thousand miles, necessitating the filling up chasms + of enormous depth, and the making of suspension bridges over rivers whose + stream was too furious to bridge in the ordinary European fashion, is + perfectly astonishing. + </p> + <p> + The far-sighted Incas, to make these roads still more useful, accompanied + them by the erection of large residences, like modern European bungalows + in India, fit for the reception of a monarch with his army, and by vast + magazines of provisions, sufficient to supply the wants of a warlike + expedition, or of a population starving from an accidental failure of + crops. The Peruvians, moreover, surrounded their chief towns with strong + walls, in comparison with which the Cyclopean constructions of the old + world seem small, stunted, and almost contemptible. It appears, in + addition, that they knew how to form long tunnels, either for the passage + of troops, for the benefit of travellers, or for the conveyance of water. + All these, I say, are enough to fire the imagination of the dullest reader + of history, and to shake the belief that civilization cannot be developed + in the midst of what we have been accustomed to call savage life, and can + only be brought to a moderate perfection by the influence of the Hebrew + and Christian writings. + </p> + <p> + Our wonder is not, however, bounded by the physical results produced by + the industrious population of Peru, it is still farther exercised by the + descriptions which are given of their wonderful domestic and foreign + policy. It would be difficult to conceive, and still more difficult to + carry into execution for many generations, a plan of government so + eminently fitted to give the greatest happiness to the greatest number, as + that which the Incas elaborated. The rulers were specially educated to + fulfil their duties in every respect, and were not permitted, as modern + princes are, to enter into the ranks of chivalry until they had undergone + a public examination, which was conducted by the oldest and the most + illustrious chiefs. The trial included tests of every warlike and manly + quality. It lasted thirty days, during which time every competitor fared + alike, living on the bare ground, and wearing a mean attire. Those who + passed the ordeal honourably were admitted formally into the knightly + order, the ceremony including an investiture of the youth with sandals put + on by the most venerable noble, equivalent to the donning of the <i>toga + virilis</i> in Ancient Rome, and having the ear pierced with a golden + bodkin by the reigning monarch. To take off the shoe was a ceremony + exacted from all those who came into the Inca's presence, to have it put + on by a grandee was great honour. + </p> + <p> + That the rulers might understand the condition of the kingdom, they + systematically travelled, much in the same way as James V. of Scotland, + and the Caliph Haroun Alraschid, are said to have done. The Incas, in + addition to their other plans for good government, inaugurated a postal + system: divided their peoples into tens, fifties, hundreds, five hundreds, + thousands, and ten thousands, much in the same way as the Saxon King + Alfred is said to have done, whose plan is, in many respects, conserved to + the present day; and the head man of each division was in all respects its + ruler, to repress crime, to announce to his superior officer all unusual + occurrences, and to report, generally, the actual state of his division to + the chief above him. All legal trials, or appeals, were decided in less + than five days, and a code was established, which all might readily know, + a thing only attained by the French under the first Napoleon, and long + desired by England, but in vain. Punishments were never attended with + torture, or unnecessary cruelty. In this respect the Peruvians differed + from every other civilized nation of which I have yet read. The Chinaman + methodically inflicts painful punishments which have only been surpassed + by the followers of the "gentle Jesus." The Persians and Turks have, + certainly, shown their capacity for giving pain to those who are brought + before their ministers of justice, and the Red Indians, during their day, + reduced the art of tormenting themselves, but, still more, their + prisoners, almost to perfection. The Babylonians had discovered that a + death of agony could be accomplished by means of myriads of ants. It was + reserved to Christians, eager to uphold the faith promulgated by a God of + mercy, to find out the most exquisite of torments. Even Frenchmen, who + have for centuries assumed the position of leaders of civilization, were, + until the great Revolution beat down their kings and prelates, more + ruthlessly cruel than the most fierce redskin. The Inquisition, which + arrogated to itself the power to keep the Christian religion pure, was + distinguished by the atrocity with which it gave anguish to its victims, + and it held its head high until it was put down, we may hope for ever, by + fiery republican enthusiasts, whom priestly demons, baulked of their prey, + declared to be devils incarnate. More modern hierarchs are obliged to + content themselves with making a hell for their enemies—with + foretelling a variety of punishments to be inflicted hereafter, which + cannot be enforced here. + </p> + <p> + The Incas exacted an annual report of the lands possessed by individuals, + with their condition as regards culture; and also of every family. A + register of births, marriages, and deaths was regularly kept, so that the + government might always know the real condition of the nation, soil, and + people. + </p> + <p> + As far as possible, families remained constant to their business, thus + forming a sort of trade caste, but not a rigid one. The registers were + always submitted to the perusal of the Inca, and, subsequently, kept in + the capital. + </p> + <p> + By the arrangement of "posts," and roads, an insurrection or invasion was + readily discovered, and it was speedily announced at the capital city. The + march of troops to suppress it, under these circumstances, was easy and + immediate, for every requisite for war was always at hand. In all + circumstances, plundering by the soldiery, whether at home or in an + enemy's country, was severely punished, and war was undertaken solely with + a view to peace. If a neighbour was turbulent, he was conquered, and + absorbed into the old state, and if a province was rebellious, its worst + inhabitants were carried away to some other locality, where their power + for mischief would be curtailed; a plan which, we are told, was pursued by + the Assyrian Shalmaneser (2 Kings xvii. 6), indicated by Sennacherib (2 + Kings xviii. 32), and carried out by Nebuzaradan (2 Kings xxv. 11.). In + fine, we may repeat, that it would be difficult for a modern philosopher + to conceive a better model of a really paternal government than that + which, it is asserted, was found by the Spaniards when they invaded the + kingdom of the Incas. Of the respective value of Christian Spanish + government, and of the so-called Pagan Inca rule, none can doubt, who + reads the present by the light of the past. The Peruvians kept up their + roads, protected their subjects, respected life, and fostered everything + which tended to increase the general happiness and prosperity of the + kingdom—all these objects, have been for a long period neglected, + and Peru, which was under the Spanish rule, one of the blots on the face + of civilization and Christianity, is only just emerging from a long night, + under the influence of Republican institutions. + </p> + <p> + Our next step will be to ascertain the religion of the people whose + political condition contrasts so favourably with that of every other + nation of whom travel and history have informed us. But we may, in the + first place, remark, that there is no absolute or necessary connection + between the happiness, or otherwise, of a nation and its dominant + religion, as Buckle has already shown in his <i>History of Civilization</i>. + The writer of to-day can find abundant evidence in recent history to + illustrate the proposition here advanced. He can point to France, and its + condition under a sacerdotal rule, prior to the time of the Revolution, + and contrast it with its state since its rulers have tried to make the + people prosperous and happy, independently of their religious faith. He + can point to Austria and Spain, when they were laid at the feet of the + Pope of Rome, and everything was made subservient to the demands of a + powerful hierarchy, and to the same states now, when religion is + subordinate to the material welfare of the majority. Who, that has read + the story of modern Italy, or heard of the atrocities committed under the + priest-led Ferdinand of Naples—better known in England by the + sobriquet of Bomba; who, that knew anything of his brigand-rearing towns + and cities, and has visited them since they have been ruled + constitutionally, and with the priestly power curbed by a strong hand, can + doubt which set of directors are the best? Christian Rome was never so + happy under her Popes as she is now, when the so-called head of the church + is subordinate to the chief of the state. But of all priest-ridden + countries, one which would never have borne the popish sway as she has + done, if her chieftains had been sensible and her people thoughtful, + Ireland deserves our commiseration the most. Hibernian hierarchs of the + Roman faith designate their country as a land of saints. So, perhaps, it + is, if by the word is meant admirers of laziness and filth, who consider + that attention to religion justifies murder, and every brutal crime + against purse, person, and property. + </p> + <p> + As a rule, admitting of no exceptions, civil government has preceded + sacerdotal rule, and a nation is generally in a weakly and fallen + condition as soon as its affairs are directed by the priestly class. When + first the Aryans invaded Hindostan, the hierarchy was second to the + warrior caste; but as the first aggrandized their power, the second lost + their supremacy, and under Brahminic rule the foundation was laid for + pusillanimous and indolent luxury in the warrior. The power to plan, and + the nerve to enforce laws, for the benefit of all classes of the + community, is very different to that which is requisite to exalt and + enrich the priestly order; and the well-being of a state depends far more + upon the exercise of the first than of the second. Whenever, therefore, + the executive government is entirely independent of the influence of the + hierarchy, or is itself the head of that caste, it can produce good + results for the nation, no matter what may be the dogmas of the + priesthood, or the nature of the gods which are reverenced. + </p> + <p> + Still following Prescott as our guide, we find that the sun was the great + god of the Peruvians, and that the Incas assumed the title of his true + children. To that luminary a vast temple was built in Cuzco, more radiant + with gold than that of Solomon at Jerusalem. To Cuzco, as to the capital + of Judea, the name of Holy City was given, and to it pilgrims resorted + from every part of the empire. Blasphemy against the sun was considered as + bad as treason against the Inca, and both were punished with death. A + province, or city, rebellious against the sun was laid waste, and its + people exterminated. When conquest over a new tribe subjugated it to Peru, + the people were compelled to worship the sun, temples to whose honour were + erected in their territory. To these was attached a body of priests, to + instruct the people in the proper form of adoration, which consisted in a + rich and stately ceremonial. The divinities of the conquered people were + removed to Cuzco and established in one of the temples, where they took + order amongst the inferior deities of the Peruvians. + </p> + <p> + But, though the sun was unquestionably worshipped, Prescott observes, ch. + iii, "it is a remarkable fact that many, if not most, of the rude tribes + inhabiting the vast American continent had attained to the sublime + conception of one Great Spirit, the Creator of the universe, who, + immaterial in his own nature, ought not to be dishonoured by an attempt at + a visible representation, and who, pervading all space, was not to be + circumscribed within the walls of any building, however grand or rich." + </p> + <p> + As civilization progressed, we are told that a separate order of men, with + a liberal provision for their subsistence, was set apart for religious + service, and a minute and magnificent ceremonial contrived, which + challenged comparison with that of the most polished nations of + Christendom. This was the case with the natives of Quita, Bogota, and + others inhabiting the highlands of South America, but especially with the + Peruvians, who claimed a divine origin for the founders of their empire, + whose laws rested on a divine sanction, and whose domestic institutions + and foreign wars were directed to preserve and to propagate their faiths. + Religion was the basis of their polity, the condition of their social + existence. The government of the Incas was essentially a lay theocracy. + </p> + <p> + The Peruvians believed in the future existence of the soul and the + resurrection of the body. They had faith in a Hell, located in the earth's + centre, and a Heaven, in which the good would revel in a life of luxury, + tranquillity, and ease. The wicked, however, were not to be hopelessly + damned and tormented for everlasting, but were to expiate their crimes by + ages of wearisome labour. They believed, also, in an evil principle or + spirit, called Cupay, to whom, however, they paid no more attention than + an ordinary Christian does to the Devil. + </p> + <p> + The great men were entombed after death, and were commonly buried with the + chief things which they required on earth. Sometimes a chieftain was + buried, not only with his treasures, but with his wives and domestics. + Frequently, over the dead, vast mounds were raised, which were + honeycombed, subsequently, with cells for the burial of others. Cairns + were as common in that part of the New World as they have been in the Old, + and the majority of buildings found at the present day in Peru have been + connected with funereal pomp. + </p> + <p> + The supreme Being in Peru was named Pachacamac, "he who gives life to the + universe," and Viracocha, of which the only translation given is "foam of + the sea." To him one temple only was raised, which is said to have been + built prior to the accession of the Incas, and largely visited by vast + numbers of distant Indians. The sun, as we have noticed, was chiefly + venerated, and to him a temple was erected in every city and large + village, and to him burnt offerings were made in abundance. The moon was + also venerated, being connected with the sun as his wife—and Venus, + called by the name of Chasca, "the youth with the long and curling locks"—was + also regarded reverentially as the page of the sun. Temples were dedicated + to thunder and to lightning as God's ministers, and the rainbow was + regarded as an emanation from the great luminary. In addition to these, + the elements, the winds, the earth, the air, the great mountains and + rivers, were considered as inferior deities, to which were added the gods + of the conquered races. The chief temple of the sun was extraordinarily + gorgeous. It was constructed of stone, and was so finely executed, that a + Spaniard declared that only two edifices in Spain could, in the stone + work, be at all compared with it like Italian and other churches, it + contained many small chapels and subordinate buildings, and the interior + was dazzling with gold. On its western wall the deity was emblazoned as a + human face surrounded with rays of light, just as the sun is personified + amongst ourselves. The figure was engraved on a massy gold plate, thickly + powdered with emeralds and precious stones. This was so situated in front + of the great eastern portal, that the rays of the morning sun, falling + upon it, lighted up the whole temple with a wondrous sheen; but every part + of the inner walls blazed with gold. The roof was, however, "thatch" + alone. Adjoining the temple of the sun were fanes of smaller dimensions, + for the worship of the moon, stars, thunder, lightning, and the rainbow. + </p> + <p> + "All the plate, ornaments, and utensils of every description appropriated + to the uses of religion, were of gold or silver. Twelve immense vases of + silver (said to be as high as a good lance, and so large that two men + could barely encircle them with outstretched arms) stood on the floor of + the great saloon, filled with Indian corn. The censers for the perfumes, + the ewers which held the water for sacrifice, the pipes which conducted it + through subterraneous channels into the buildings, the reservoir that + received it, even the agricultural implements used in the gardens of the + temple, were all of the same rich material. The gardens, like those + belonging to the royal palaces, sparkled with gold and silver, and various + imitations of the vegetable kingdom. Animals, also, were to be found + there, amongst which the llama, with its golden fleece, was most + conspicuous, executed in the same style, and with a degree of skill which, + in this instance, probably did not surpass the excellence of the material" + The reader of Prescott will find that he has not adopted this account + without carefully estimating the value of his authorities, and I believe + that he may be fairly trusted. The various reports, given by Spanish + writers, of priests of the grand temple, seem also to have been carefully + estimated by the historian, and the number which they amounted to is put + down at four thousand at the least. + </p> + <p> + The high priest was second in dignity only to the Inca, and he was + generally closely related to this ruler. The monarch appointed this + Peruvian pope, who held office for life. He had the appointment of + inferior priests, but all must be from the sacred race of Incas. The high + priests of the provinces were always of the blood royal. The hierarchy + wore no peculiar badge or dress, nor was it the sole depositary of + learning, and it had not to superintend education, or to do parochial + work. These duties were performed by others of the Inca class, all of whom + were holy, though not, so to speak, in "holy orders." The priest's + business was to minister in the temple; his science was confined to a + knowledge of the fasts and festivals to be observed in connection with + religion, for these were very numerous, and demanded separate rituals. The + four principal festivals were solar, i.e., at the equinoxes and solstices, + that of Midsummer being the grandest, on which occasion every one who + could find time and money enough to do so visited the capital city. The + feast was preceded by a three days' fast, and no fires were to be lighted + during that period. + </p> + <p> + When the day arrived a vast array of people, dressed in their handsomest + apparel, crowded the streets and squares, waiting for the rising of the + sun. When it appeared shouts of joy, heightened by instrumental music, + were raised in swelling tones, until the whole orb had ascended above the + horizon, after which a libation was poured of fermented liquor, and all + the nobles and the king repaired to the great temple, each individual, + except members of the royal family, removing their sandals as they + entered. After prayer came sacrifice, animals, grain, flowers, and + sweet-scented gums being the prescribed offerings; sometimes a child or + lovely maiden was also immolated, generally to commemorate a coronation, + the birth of a royal heir, or a great victory. Cannibalism never followed + the sacrifice; and it may be added, parenthetically, that when the Incas + conquered and annexed man-sacrificing and man-eating tribes, they always + abrogated the custom, and with far more decision and firmness than Britain + has shown in abolishing self-immolation of Juggernaut pilgrims in her + Indian Empire, and the burning of widows with their dead spouses. Some may + doubt whether a conqueror ought to interfere with the religious customs of + the vanquished, but few would plead for the continuance of such customs as + human sacrifice and cannibalism. + </p> + <p> + The animal usually sacrificed by the Peruvians was the llama, and the + priest who officiated drew auguries from the appearance of the intestines. + To effect the oblation a sacred fire was now kindled by a concave mirror + which acted as "a burning glass," precisely as was done by Numa in the + days of Ancient Rome. If the sky was clouded, and no rays could be + collected, fire was produced by friction. When lighted, the fire was + committed to the care of the virgins of the sun, who were bound to keep it + up for the ensuing year. After the single sacrifice was completed, great + numbers of other animals were slaughtered, and a regular carousal began, + attended with music, dancing, and drinking, that lasted for many days, + during which period all the lower orders kept holiday. In the distribution + of bread and wine at this high festival, the invading Spaniards saw a + striking resemblance to the Christian communion, and they recognised a + similar likeness in the Peruvian practices of confession and penance. The + virgins of the sun were called "the elect," and were young maidens taken + from their homes at an early age, and introduced into convents, where they + were placed under the care of elderly matrons, who taught them their + religious duties, and how to spin and weave, embroider and adorn hangings + for the temples, and to frame garments for the Incas. Their work was such, + that it was found to be superior to any which the Spaniards had ever seen, + or were themselves able to produce. The virgins were separated wholly, not + simply, from the world in general, but also from their own relations and + friends—none but the king and queen could enter into their convent. + The closest attention was paid to the morals of these maidens, and + visitors were sent every year to inspect the institutions, and to report + on the state of their discipline; a plan similar to which has been + repeatedly proposed in Christian England, yet never sanctioned by the + parliament! If a virgin was discovered in an intrigue she was buried + alive, her lover was strangled, and the town or village to which he + belonged was razed to the ground, and sowed with stones, to efface even + the memory of its site. These solar attendants were all of royal blood, + and were estimated to number fifteen hundred; but to provincial convents + the inferior nobility were allowed to send their daughters, and sometimes + a peculiarly lovely peasant girl was admitted. The convents were all + sumptuously furnished. But, though virgins of the sun, they were brides of + the Incas, and we cannot fail, when we read of the vast harem of the + Peruvian monarch, to think of the female establishments of the Jewish + Solomon, of the Persian Ahasuerus, and that of Louis XV. of Christian + France. If at any time the Inca reduced his harem, the superfluous + concubines were restored to their homes, swelling with the importance + which they had gained by their familiarity with the monarch. + </p> + <p> + Polygamy was permitted. Matrimony was effected by the Inca, or other chief + man, joining the hands of the parties. The king usually espoused his own + sister, but no other person was allowed to do so. No marriage was valid + without the consent of parents. As a general rule, all unions were + effected on the same day of the year, and thus the wedding of couples was + followed by general rejoicing. + </p> + <p> + The genius of the Peruvian government penetrated into the most private + recesses of domestic life, allowing no man to act for himself, even in + those personal matters in which none but himself, or his family, could be + interested. No Peruvian was too low for the fostering vigilance of the + government; none was so high that he was not made to feel his dependence + upon it in every act of his life. The government of the Incas was the + mildest, but the most searching and beneficent, of despotisms. + </p> + <p> + We now, but with great reluctance, leave our friendly guide, the + accomplished Prescott, and ask ourselves, once more, the lessons which we + have learned from the departed races of the vast American continent. Can + anyone doubt that one of the most conspicuous results obtained is, that + Christian rule, and the Christian doctrine, have not proved themselves, in + any respect, superior to the Incas' government and their solar religion? + Who can read of the civilization, the theology, and the practice of the + Peruvians, without believing one of two things—the one, that Jewish + ritualism, and the majority of Christian teaching, is of human invention; + the other, that the Almighty has revealed His will in the Western as well + as in the Eastern Hemisphere? Can any thoughtful man believe that the + brutal, covetous, lying Spaniards, who broke, with impunity, every + commandment promulgated in those Gospels, to whose authority they + professed allegiance, and upon which their faith is founded, were better + men, or more favoured by the Lord, "who loveth righteousness and hateth + iniquity," than were the gentle Peruvians, who fell before them as lambs + and sheep before wolves and tigers? Surely the story of the Incas should + make Christians, in all ages, blush for their inferiority to those, + amongst whom neither Moses, Samuel, and other so-called prophets, Jesus, + nor any of his apostles, preached; and more strongly should it convince us + that the wish to do good on a large scale can come otherwise than by the + Gospel. If grace, and peace, and love came by the Nazarene alone, how is + it—and let us ponder over the question deeply—that all + Christian countries have been, and that some are still, conspicuous for + the brutality of their political and priestly governments, for the + frequency with which they make war, for their ferocity in the destruction + of religious enemies, and for the intense hatred evinced against rival + sects, by those who call themselves the representatives of the Prince of + Peace; whilst, on the other hand, a nation who never heard of the son of + Joseph or of Mary, should be conspicuous for the virtues which ought to + adorn the soldiers of the cross, but do not? Surely, if the saying be + true, "by their fruit ye shall know them," the denizens of the old world + must be children of the Devil, who do the work, of their father, whilst + certain of the nations of the new world, as it is called, were really + children of the light, abounding in love, charity, and goodwill towards + all men. + </p> + <p> + To me it is astonishing how thoughtful men, who have read accounts of the + Mexicans and the Peruvians, can continue to believe that the Bible is the + book of God, written by holy men, whose thoughts and diction were + essentially those of the third person in the Trinity. Who can assert that + Abraham and Jacob, Moses and Aaron, were taught of God, and that to the + Hebrews alone has the Creator revealed His will? Who can see, in the + sensual king David, a man after God's heart, and applaud the brutal murder + of Agag, the destruction of the priests of Baal, by the orders of Elijah, + and the extermination of the Baalites in Israel by Jehu? Compared with + such wretches as these the Incas were angels. They had not left to them + the bloody legacy which has come to the Christian world by means of the + Old Testament: they had not been taught to believe that the Almighty + revelled in the blood of human beings: they never had, amongst their + sacred songs, verses like the following—"that thy foot may be dipped + in the blood of enemies, and the tongue of thy dogs in the same" (Ps. + lxviii. 23). + </p> + <p> + Ah, it is time for civilized men to cease their admiration for a book + which has produced such frightful fruits, and which has converted millions + of human beings into incarnate fiends. + </p> + <p> + The Vedas and the Shasters—the writings of the Buddhists, and those + of the Parsees and the Chinese, contain, nowhere, such a justification of + wholesale murder, as do the Scriptures of the Jews and of the Christians.* + From these have been drawn the power to persecute, and, if possible, to + exterminate those who worship God in a different fashion to those in + power. Calvin was as bad as Torquemada; and, even at the present time, it + is only public opinion that prevents fanatics, like the early New + Englanders, from reducing their Christian hate to practical torture. + Everywhere the professed followers of Jesus assume the power to torment + their opponents, whenever they can do so without breaking the civil law, + and there are few pulpits from which the voice of revilement, contumely, + and denunciation is not repeatedly heard. The Romans abuse the Anglicans; + the Establishment sneers at Dissent; Nonconformists censure all churches; + and all libel those whom they call Free Thinkers and Atheists. To find + "toleration" in matters of religion, one must seek amongst the Deists, or + amongst those who refuse to see in the Bible the revealed will of God to + man. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * See Matthew x. 34, 85; Luke xii. 49, 51, 52, 53. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Can civilization grow out of barbarism? Dislike of progress, + especially if mental. Rediscovery of ancient knowledge. + Advance and retrogression. China and Japan—influence of + strangers. Decadence of nations—followed by a rise. The + Shemitic and Negro races. Varied religious ideas. The Negro + Fetish and Obi. Jewish, Arab, and Christian communication + with the dead. Australian idea about white men. Ideas of a + soul and futurity amongst the Aryans and Egyptians. Their + priesthood. The Aryans Monotheiste. An Aryan hymn. Max + Müller and Talboys Wheeler. Aryan conceptions compared with + Psalm civ. 1-4. Monotheism of the Egyptians. Shemitic + religions. +</pre> + <p> + At one period of my life I entertained the idea that civilization never + had grown, nor ever could grow, out of barbarism. Perhaps I have not yet + wholly abandoned it. The considerations which the question involves are + all but infinite. It is doubtful whether we can reduce them into shape + without writing an extensive treatise. We will, however, attempt to do so, + and present the subject to our readers to the best of our ability. + </p> + <p> + As far as our own personal and historic experience goes, we find that man + has no natural propensity to learn beyond that which he has received + simply as an animal. With him school is a hateful place, and education is + a painful process, even in the midst of the highest civilization we see + individuals who cast from them all the luxuries of life, and descend + voluntarily to a level scarcely superior to that of the brute creation. + But those who take kindly to education, and consent to try and learn + everything which the teacher presents to their notice, are bounded by the + amount of knowledge possessed by the instructor, who cannot impart to + others information in matters of which all are ignorant. It is true that I + once read a question propounded by his schoolmaster to one of my sons, + which ran—"Enumerate upon paper all the capes, bays, and rivers of + England that you don't know by name, and describe the seas which you have + never heard of." Without dwelling upon the anecdote farther than to say, + that it points out the absurdity of the idea that education of itself + advances knowledge, we may pass on to remark, that even in nations, whose + intellect is highly cultivated, the propensity to advance in knowledge is + singularly small. Throughout the old world an inventor is usually regarded + as a visionary, or a lunatic, and flouted by all his contemporaries.* From + the time of Aristotle and Hippocrates, scarcely any advance was made in + philosophy, and, throughout Europe, the fourteenth century was as + barbarous, if not indeed more so, than the first of our era; and to such a + dark age there is a strong clerical party in Great Britain which desires + us to return. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A man who had travelled much once said to me,—"I will + tell you the main difference between a Yankee and an + Englishman. If you inform the latter of some new discovery— + or propose the use of some recent invention for his own + benefit—he will tell you either that the thing is old, or + worthless. On the other hand, if you recount to the former + what you have told the latter of, his rejoinder will be, I + can improve upon that." This is true, and we are now + repeatedly adopting from the United States discoveries of + various kinds, which we rejected when offered to us in the + first place. +</pre> + <p> + Yet, notwithstanding the propensity of cultivated nations to remain + quiescent, there do appear, from time to time, individuals who, being + discontented with things as they are, endeavour to bring about + improvements in the arts, the sciences, and the general conditions of + life. The recognition of a want, is an incentive to a thoughtful mind to + supply the exigency. Whenever an individual endeavours to attain a + definite end, he exercises his mind, not only in what he has been already + taught, but what he can observe beyond that; he rakes up, if possible, the + experience of others, studies their proceedings, and experiments with a + definite object, and ponders upon the affinities, nature, and the like, of + every substance which he surmises may be of service to him. When, by these + means, he has obtained his purpose, he will repeatedly find that he has + done no more than rediscover a something which was known thousands of + years before his time. Without a doubt, much of the philosophy, science, + art, religion, &c., of the present day, is due to a close observation + and an attainment to the knowledge possessed by our predecessors. "Is + there any thing whereof it may be said, see this is new?—it hath + been already of old time, which was before us" (Eccles. i. 10). + </p> + <p> + If this be true, even though it may only be so to a partial extent, it is + clearly more philosophical to believe that some primeval men were created + with a considerable amount of knowledge, rather than that all were savage, + barely, if at all, superior to monkeys, and that one or more of these, + gradually elevated their race, by degrees so slow, as to be imperceptible + in less time than many thousand years. + </p> + <p> + This side of the argument receives corroboration when we study the history + of such semi-civilized countries as China, and such barbarous regions as + those of Africa and Australia. In none of these parts do we see any + general propensity to advance. In the first we see a retrogression; there + is now no effort to repair ancient roads which have been worn away by + centuries of traffic, to restore the old temples, towers, and landmarks, + erected when time was younger, or even to keep up the teachings of + Confucius. A similar apathy existed amongst the Japanese—yet no + sooner do the civilized nations of Europe show the rulers of China and + Japan that it is necessary for them to improve, if they desire to retain + their power, than they attempt to learn the arts which have enabled their + rivals to overcome them. In both cases, the progress is recognized as due + to the interference of a nation, superior for the time being, to that + whose education has been faulty. Advance, then, in such countries, is + clearly due to foreign influence, rather than to an innate propensity to + general, mental, scientific, or practical development. + </p> + <p> + But, on the other side, it may be alleged that the African has been in + existence from time immemorial—that he has been in contact with the + civilization of ancient and modern Egypt—with Christianity—with + the ancient Tyrians and Carthaginians—with the Arabs—with the + Spaniards, Portuguese, and British, and yet the African tribes remain + almost as savage now as when they first were known. Similar remarks apply + to the inhabitants of the Andaman Isles, of the vast islands of Borneo, + Celebez, Papua, New Guinea, and others. + </p> + <p> + Yet in many places, now considered barbarous, we see the remains of + previous empires—and when we are able to find some comparatively + authentic history which tells of the overthrow of a powerful kingdom, it + is clear that the civilized people have usually been destroyed by the + barbarian. The wealth of Rome tempted the hordes from the inhospitable + north, just as the gold of Mexico and Peru were the causes of their + decadence under the Spaniards, whose people were in themselves scarcely + superior to the troops led by Alaric, Genseric, and other so called + barbarians. Yet we know, as in the case of Spain herself, that decadence + from civilization to comparative barbarism may be due to causes inherent + in the people and its governors, wholly independent of foreign conquest. + This decadence is due to the bestial propensities of man being allowed to + dominate over the intellectual, and the result is the same, whether the + animal passions be cultivated by a debased and degrading policy of monarch + and priest, or by the indolence of each individual. + </p> + <p> + By developing the train of thought thus indicated, we imagine that the + philosophical reader will conclude that amongst men, some race, family, or + tribe, has been created with intelligence, as much above the rest of their + kind as the elephant is superior to the hippopotamus, and the dog to the + cat, and that others are generically as low as is the Australian "dingo" + in the canine race. Those once perfect may deteriorate, yet carry with + them the power of rising again—whilst those originally low never + rise at all, no matter what example may be set them, unless force is used + to make them learn. To these we must add a third set, specially to include + the American, for we have no evidence whatever that the civilization of + the Aztec and Peruvian was anything more than a restoration of the + scientific knowledge of a more ancient people, possibly of an Aryan stock. + Who that is acquainted with the Shemitic race can fail to see in its + people the type of an ancient condition which has decayed, until, like a + fallen gentleman, it can only show what once it was, by conserving and + exhibiting a few ornaments of no value, save from their age, but whose + sons may yet become princes in their paternal domains? Who that studies + the negro in Africa, America, and St. Domingo, can fail to see that he is, + or, at any rate has hitherto shown himself, almost wholly incapable of + development as a philosophic man? And who can read the pages of Prescott + without recognizing the fact that some of the ancient inhabitants of + America inaugurated—unassisted, as we judge by any example from + others—a style of religion and government of which the world has + hardly, if at all, seen an equal? Yet it is remarkable, that both the + Mexican and Peruvian traced their laws and institutions to strangers who + came amongst them, as Oannes did to the Babylonians, and who taught them + what arts, religion, and science they themselves had. The subject of + centres of human life into which our considerations have drawn us, is by + far too vast for discussion here. It involves the study of geology, of + anthropology, of glossology, of navigation, of physical geography, of + climate, of the laws of reproduction, of the influences of climate over + animals, and of diet upon man. Into all these we dare not enter: we shall + confine ourselves rather to considering the religious ideas of the lowest + of the known races of mankind; and then proceed to those which have been + held by what we may call the oscillating people, i.e., those vibrating + repeatedly between a state of empire and one of slavery, like the people + of Hindostan, Babylon, Judea, Greece, Italy, Spain, and Egypt. + </p> + <p> + When we endeavour to ascertain the religion of the negro, by which term we + include all the black native tribes of Africa, we find ourselves almost in + the position of a modern chemist seeking for the philosopher's stone. In + no single book, and I have read very many, can I find any trustworthy + evidence of the negro having any religion at all. It is true that + travellers in Abyssinia, and those who are now returned from their + successful expedition against Magdala, tell us that in Abyssinia there is + a form of religion which is evidently a corrupt form of Christianity, but + with this exception, the blacks seem to have no idea of that congeries of + fact and fiction, dogma, ritual, and practice, which passes current for + religion in more civilized countries. Yet though they have no definite + idea of a Creator, and the way in which He works throughout the universe, + they have a dread of some unseen power, and, like a number of frightened + children, dread the effects of "fetish," and the power of the Obi or Obeah + man. When the mind is predisposed to fear, and it is so amongst the lower + animals as well as in man, it is astonishing at what contemptible objects + one may stand aghast. I can vividly remember being sent, whilst a very + young child, with a message from an aunt, at whose home I was staying, to + the maid, who was washing in an outhouse, but ere I reached the door of + the latter, I was terrified at a head which seemed to be rising from the + ground, Such was my horror that I ran away, too proud to scream, yet + almost fainting with horror. To me that ancient battered barber's doll was + "fetish," and if my friends had determined to cultivate the timidity which + I then showed, it is quite possible that to this day I might have a dread + not dissimilar to that of the African. As it was, my aunt told me that + what had scared me, was only a piece of carved and painted wood, and so + put me upon my mettle, that I delivered my message and gave the image a + kick in the face; yet my valour was short lived, and during the rest of my + sojourn I dared not venture within sight of the bugbear. To all intents + and purposes that human head was, in my estimation, the guardian of the + garden—its presence made all within its influence under taboo—had + I ventured to tell a lie, or to have been naughty, I cannot conceive that + any punishment would have been greater than being doomed to sit in the + presence of the weird image. Hence I can easily understand the abject + terror of the African at "fetish," and his dread of the Obeah man, who + asserts that he can direct upon whom he will the power of the unknown god. + So great is the fear of this negro magician, and so common is that fear to + man in general, that we sometimes find the white man as full of it as the + black. I have had, for example, under my own care, an Englishman of good + education, who, whilst superintendent of a Jamaica plantation, became so + cowed by "Obi," that he was obliged to give up his position and return to + England, literally insane upon the subject of "fetish" and "Obeah," and + wholly unfitted for any work whatever. + </p> + <p> + The objects to which the name of "fetish" is given are very numerous—a + rock, a stone, a tree, a pool, a dried monkey, an alligator, man, or skull—anything + will suit the purpose. One which is said to be very popular amongst + chieftains is prepared somewhat in the following manner:—The head of + a father is removed after death, and so placed, that as the brain decays + and softens, it may fall into a receptacle already half filled with palm + oil or other grease. The material so formed, consisting to a great extent + of the thoughtful organ of the sire, is then supposed to give his spirit + to the son, whenever the latter smears himself with it, or takes it as a + potent medicinal spell. The head thus placed becomes the royal "fetish," + and the king goes to take counsel from it just as ancient priests + inquired, or pretended to inquire, from the god or lord of some shrine or + oracle. I cannot charge my memory with everything that has been at one + time or another regarded as an object of wonder, worship, or "fetish," but + I have an indistinct recollection that a musical box has been venerated by + Africans, as much as the Ancilia, the Palladium, the Diana which fell down + from Jupiter, the Caaba or black stone of Mecca, the ark of the covenant, + the brazen serpent, the wood of the true cross, the nails which pierced + Jesus, and the handkerchief which was used to wipe the face of the + suffering Nazarite, all of which have been sacred amongst civilized + nations, and are still adored by some. It would be difficult for a + philosopher to draw a distinction between an African "fetish" and a Papal + relic. There is no virtue which the Romanist has attributed to old bones, + old nails, old shoes, old coats, old houses, old staircases, old bits of + wood, old links of chains, old hairs, old statues, &c., that has not + been equally attributed by negroes to some absurd fetish in Ashantee, + Dahomey, or elsewhere. + </p> + <p> + In some parts of the vast African continent, however, there seems to be an + indistinct idea of a life after death, and when a great man dies, or is + killed, his wives, and many of his slaves, are sacrificed for his future + use, and vast human sacrifices are made annually in his honour, that the + departed may hear, from time to time, of the welfare of those whom he has + left behind. Feeling indisposed to regard this practice as the offspring + of religious faith, I would compare it with the crude conceptions of some + of the lowest class in Europe and America, aye, of some cultivated + intellects as well, who profess to be able, by means of <i>media</i>, to + communicate with the dead, or who send messages to their departed + relatives by friends that are dying. The most remarkable development of + this idea which I have yet met with has recently occurred in France, where + a young man attempted to murder a beautiful young woman, to whom he was a + total stranger, the reason he assigned being, that he intended to commit + suicide immediately after the murder, so that he might enter the future + world with a pleasant companion. + </p> + <p> + We can scarcely regard the persons figuring in the following true story as + being very much superior to the King of Dahomey. In a well-cared for + English village a poor woman was about to die in the full odour of + Protestant sanctity. In youth she had lost one leg, and now had disease in + the other. To her came an old woman and said,—"I hear thou's goin' + to dee Betty, and that thou's goin' to heaven—at least parson says + so—when thou's got there, willee tell my owd man that I've just + bought that field as he set his heart on." "Oh dear," said the dying + woman, "how can I go stumping all about heaven with my legs in the state + they're in." "Well, you can tell him at anyrate if you happen to see him + go by!" + </p> + <p> + Passing from the African, let us now say a word or two about the + Australian. It is, I think, Mitchell, who states, in an account of his + travels in that country, that the white men were used in a manner so + considerate, in some instances, indeed, so kindly, that he was induced to + inquire into the cause. He found that these friendly tribes were in the + habit of eating their defunct relatives—being always short of + provisions, they used man meat, as do other starving creatures when they + devour their like—and they cooked the body much in the same way as + we do dead pig. By scalding the carcass, the cuticle and the black layer, + called <i>rete mucosum</i>, was removed, and the corpse became white. This + gave the people the notion that Europeans were their own dead relatives + returned from the spirit world. Sir G. Gray also, in his account of an + expedition to the north-west coasts of the same vast island, describes how + all the people with whom he came into contact believed in the power of + sorcery or witchcraft. Without extending our inquiry into the undeveloped + religious ideas of other barbarians, we may affirm, from the preceding + examples, that there is, even amongst the lowest human beings, some idea + of a future state, and of the existence of some unseen power, which may + work mischief upon themselves or their friends. Beyond these vague notions + the savage who has neither been taught, nor inherited the power or + propensity to learn, rarely, if ever, passes. + </p> + <p> + If, then, the surmise to which we gave utterance awhile ago is founded in + truth, we may fairly endeavour to ascertain what is the race, or the + people, which have been born with a higher religious development, a + greater capacity for learning, and a higher appreciation of the value of + agriculture and civilization than the rest of the world's inhabitants. + </p> + <p> + We now find ourselves on the threshold of a question which has, for many + years past, divided the scientific world, viz., Was there originally one + human couple only, or were there many intellectual centres? Into this + matter it would be unprofitable to enter, for to give an account of the + Chinese, Egyptian, Aryan, American, and Shemitic races, would require many + huge volumes. It will, probably, be permitted to me to omit from the + inquiry all but Aryans and Egyptians. I select these because I have, in + the preceding volumes, descanted largely upon the faith of the + Babylonians, Assyrians, Tyrians, and others, and because I believe that + these ancients have done very much to modify the faith of Europe. If time + and opportunity permitted, I fancy that anyone might make a most + interesting analysis of that which Europe owes to the Shemites, Egyptians, + and Aryans respectively; but it is beyond our powers at present to go into + the whole subject. The volumes which have recently been published about + the Ancient Hindoo religion may be counted by dozens, and the writings of + Egyptologists are almost equally numerous. We must, therefore, content + ourselves with a reference to a few main points. + </p> + <p> + It seems to be an undoubted fact, that both the Egyptians and Aryans + recognized the existence of a soul in human beings, and believed that it + survived the dissolution of the body in some state, whose position and + physical condition were unknown. They held, moreover, that the locality + and condition of the spiritual part of man after death depended upon the + actions of the individual during life. Both people believed in the + influence of prayer, of sacrifices, of a maceration, or torturing of the + fleshy body, and they had, moreover, each of them, a priestly race, who + regulated festivals, ordained ceremonies, and prescribed everything which + those who regarded their spiritual welfare should do. I believe that the + Egyptians were, in reality, monotheistic; but my authority for the idea + has escaped me. It is certain that the ancient Aryans were so, and I + cannot do better than refer my readers to the <i>History of Sanscrit + Literature</i>, by Max Müller, and the first vol. of the <i>History of + India</i>, by Talboys Wheeler. Yet, as the first is out of print, and the + second a volume of considerable size, it will, perhaps, be judicious if I + quote some passages from both. The following hymn, translated by M. M., p. + 559 sq., is, to my own ideas, far more grand in conception than any other + which I have read, and shows a depth or sublimity of thought that could + only be attained by a profoundly intelligent intellect. Moderns might + equal it, none could surpass it. Speaking of the beginning, the words run, + "Nothing that is, was then; even what is not, did not exist then." The + poet then proceeds to deny the existence of the sky, and of the firmament, + and yet, unable to bear the idea of an unlimited nothing, he exclaims, + "What was it that hid or covered the existing? what was the refuge of + what? was water the deep abyss, the chaos which swallowed up everything?" + Then his mind, turning away from nature, dwells upon man, and the problem + of human life. "There was no death, therefore there was nothing immortal + There was no space, no life, and lastly, there was no time—no + difference between day and night—no solar torch by which morning + might have been told from evening. That One breathed breathless by itself, + other than it, nothing since has been. That One breathed and lived; it + enjoyed more than mere existence; yet its life was not dependent upon + anything else, as our life depends upon the air we breathe. It breathed, + breathless. Darkness there was, and all at first was veiled in gloom, + profound as ocean without life." Müller then rather describes what the + poet means than gives his words; I will, therefore, adopt now, for the + rest of the hymn, the metrical version, which he gives at p. 564:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "The germ that still lay covered in the husk + Burst forth, one nature, from the fervent heat. + Then first came Love upon it, the new spring + Of mind; yea, poets in their hearts discerned, + Pondering this bond between created things And uncreated. + Comes this spark from earth, + Piercing and all-pervading, or from heaven? + These seeds were sown, and mighty power arose, + Nature below, and Power and Will above. + Who knows the secret? who proclaimed it here? + Whence, whence this manifold creation sprang? + The gods themselves came later into being. + Who knows from whence this great creation sprang? + He, from whom all this great creation came. + Whether His will created or was mute, + The Most High seer, that is in highest heaven, + He knows it; or, perchance, e'en He knows not" +</pre> + <p> + One more hymn is even more distinct in its monotheism, p. 569. "In the + beginning there arose the source of golden light. He was the only born + Lord of all that is. He established the earth and this sky. Who is the God + to whom we shall offer our sacrifice? He who gives life. He who gives + strength; whose blessing all the bright gods desire; whose shadow is + immortality; whose shadow is death.... He who, through His power, is the + only King of the breathing and the awakening world. He who governs all—man + and beast.... He whose power these snowy mountains, whose power the sea + proclaims, with the distant river. He whose these regions are, as it were, + His two arms.... He through whom the sky is bright, and the earth firm. He + through whom the heaven was 'stablished, nay, the highest heaven. He who + measured out the light in the air.... He to whom heaven and earth, + standing firm by His will, look up, trembling inwardly. He over whom the + rising sun shines forth.... Where-ever the mighty water-clouds went, where + they placed the seed, and lit the fire, thence arose He who is the only + life of the bright gods.... He who, by His might, looked even over the + water-clouds, the clouds which gave strength, and lit the sacrifice. He <i>who + is God above all gods</i>.... May He not destroy us. He, the creator of + the earth; or He, the righteous, who created the heaven. He who also + created the bright and mighty waters." In this hymn I have only omitted + the repeated question—Who is the God to whom we shall offer our + sacrifice? + </p> + <p> + Of the high antiquity of these productions no competent scholar entertains + a doubt. It is not certain how many years before our era it was composed, + but it is considered that it was prior to B. C. 2000, long before the time + when the ideal Moses is said to have written, and <i>à fortiori</i> + anterior, by at least a thousand years, to the authors of the Book of + Psalms. + </p> + <p> + Talboys Wheeler remarks, p. 27—"Having thus sketched generally the + individual character of the leading deities of the Aryans as they appear + in the Rig Veda, it may be advisable to glance at that conception of One + Supreme Being, as in all and above all, which finds full expression in the + Vedic hymns. Upon this point the following passages will be found very + significant:—'Who has seen the primeval being at the time of His + being born? what is that endowed with substance that the unsubstantial + sustains? from earth are the breath and blood, but where is the soul—who + may repair to the sage to ask this? What is that One alone, who has upheld + these six spheres in the form of an unborn?'" Then follows the hymn just + quoted from M. Müller. + </p> + <p> + I may add that the so-called gods Indra, Agni, Surya, the Maruts, &c., + are only personifications of the abstract powers of nature, the sky, fire, + the sun, the winds, &c. These are the same conceptions as are referred + to in Ps. civ. 1-4—they are not deities, but ministers. + </p> + <p> + It will probably be said by the orthodox that these descriptions of the + creation and the Creator are mere efforts of the human mind, and not the + products of "revelation." We grant it at once, and answer, why, then, + should the comparatively miserable conceptions of one or more Hebrews, who + knew nothing of a soul or a future life till they had learned it from the + Chaldeans or the Persians, be regarded differently? Was the Jewish + ignorance the result of Divine "inspiration?" Did the Devil give to the + heathen the knowledge of Satan's origin and power? If so, why did the + Jews, and why do Christians, adopt it? + </p> + <p> + I have already mentioned that the Aryans believed in the efficacy of + prayer to their gods: they offered to them, much as we do now, + supplications for rain, abundant harvests, prolific cattle, bodily vigour, + long life, numerous progeny, &c., just as did, very rarely, the seed + of Abraham. + </p> + <p> + We may now make some quotations from the Egyptian Ritual for the Dead + (Bunsen's <i>Egypt</i>, Vol. V.). "O soul, greatest of things created" (p. + 165); "I am the Great God, creating himself" (p. 172); "Oh Lord of the + great abode, Chief of the gods" (p. 177). Throughout this invocation, + however, the lord of the universe seems to be spoken of as the sun under + various titles. There is frequent reference to the danger of the soul + falling into the power of some malignant deity, and orthodoxy is secured + by addressing every good god by his or her proper title. There is no grand + conception anywhere, and the endless repetitions disgust the ordinary + reader. I must add that the sun, Osiris, and the male organ, are spoken of + as emblematic of each other. + </p> + <p> + If we next turn to the Shemitic religions, we have to contend with the + difficulty produced by the paucity of written records, and the doubts + which exist about certain epithets that relate to the gods. As far as I + can discover, there was an idea of a Supreme Being, whose name was Jeho. + Io. Iou., or the like, and Il or El. His ministers were the sun, moon, + planets, constellations, and stars. His emblems were the sexual organs, + and worship was, to a great degree, licentious. There was no conception of + a spiritual life after death, or of a state of future rewards and + punishments. Sacrifice was thought much of, but I doubt whether there was + anything like what we know as prayer. At any rate, in all those parts of + the Bible which seem to be the oldest, there is a singular absence of any + formula or command for supplication. Solomon's prayer is comparatively of + modern date. Indeed, this vacuity is implied in the expression of one of + Jesus' disciples, "Teach us to pray, as John also taught his disciples" + (Luke xi. 1), thus showing clearly that the practice of prayer was not a + Judaic, i.e., Mosaic one.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * As a friend, who has been kind enough to assist me to + correct these sheets in their passage through the press, + considers that I ought to give some reasons for the + assertion made in the text, the following information is + appended:— + + I. There are, in all, about a score of different words in + Hebrew which have been translated, "prayer," "I pray," + "praying," &c. These are—(1) ahnah or ahna, (2) begah, (3) + ghalah, (4) ghanan, (5) loo, (6) lahgash, (7) na, (8) + gathar, (9) pagag, (10) pahlal, (11) tztlah, (12) seeagh, + (13) shoal, (14) tephilah. The rest are different forms + of the same roots. + + II. These words do not, except in a few instances, really + bear the signification of "prayer" or "intercession," which + is given to them in the Authorised English Version of the + Bible; as any one may convince himself by consulting + Wigram's Hebrew concordance. + + Thus, No. 1, in three instances, is translated in the A. V. + by the interjection "or,(OL)" No. 2, in the A. V. is once + used as "praying," but in other parts as "seeking" for + persons, "desiring" or "requesting," and "making." No. 8 is + translated in various parts of the A. V. "I am weak" "I + fell sick," "was not grieved," "a parturient woman crying," + "to put one's self to pain," "is grievous," "hath laid," "is + my infirmity," and these meanings are far more common than + the signification of "prayer." No. 4 is only used twice, and + is in one place translated "by showing mercy," and in the + other by "making supplication." No. 5 is translated "O + that," "peradventure," "would God that," "if," "if haply," + "though," and only once "I pray thee." No. 6 is translated + "enchantment," "orator," "earrings," "charmed," and once + only "prayer," with the marginal reading "secret speech." + No. 7 is in one place "now," in another "Oh," "go to," as + well as "I pray," and this in the same sense as we should + use the words to a child "I wish you would be quiet" No. 8 + is generally used in the sense of "intreaty" or "prayer," + but it once is found as "earnest," and "multiplying words," + as in a Litany. No. 9 is used to signify "he came," + "reached," "thou shalt meet," "fall upon," or "kill," "he + lighted" on a certain place, "they met together," and in + the 53d chapter of Isaiah the same word is used in verse 6, + "for the Lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all," and + in verse 12, for "and made intercession for the + transgressors!" No. 10 is used almost exclusively for + prayer, but it is only found six times in the whole + Pentateuch, in one of which it is read "I had no thought" + in the A. V. No. 11 is only found twice, once in Ezra and + once in Daniel, and signifies "prayer" in both. No. 12 has + many interpretations in the A. V., viz., "meditation," + "speaking," "talking," "complaining," "declaring," in one + instance only is it translated "pray," and that in the + apparently important text Ps. lv. 17, "Evening and morning + and at noon will I pray." As a substantive the word is + rendered as "complaint," "talking, meditation," + "babbling," and only once "prayer," and that in Ps. lv. 2, + "Hear my voice, O God, in my prayer." No. 13 is generally + translated "ask," as we should remark, "well, if he asks me + what must I say?" "beg," as "he shall beg in harvest;" + "consulted," in the text "he consulted with images," + "salute," "to salute him of peace;" "enquired," "Saul + enquired of the Lord;" "wished," "and wished in himself to + die;" "lent," "I have lent him to the Lord," "so that they + lent unto them." No. 14 is used exclusively for prayer, but + the word is not to be found in the whole of the Pentateuch. + III. There is reason to believe that the most important of + these words have come from the Persian, a language allied to + the Sanscrit; and if so, it is clear that the idea of + prayer was adopted by the Jews after they were patronised by + the conquerors of Babylon. Some of the other words are + Aramaic, and probably even more modern than the rest. For + example, No. 10 is compared by Furst in his Hebrew and + Chaldee Lexicon, to the Sanscrit phal, and No. 8 may also be + derived from the Persian, and a Sanscrit root gad, which + signifies "to speak to," or "call upon," Anahf No. 1, is + Aramaic. +</pre> + <p> + I think that it was Mons. Weill, in his remarkable book called Moise et le + Talmud, who first drew attention to the influence of the Talmudists upon + the Jewish Scriptures. He pointed out that in the Mosaic law there was no + idea of prayer, intercession, or pardon; everything was based upon the + "lex talionis," an eye was to be paid for with an eye, murder was to be + avenged by murder, and ecclesiastical, ceremonial, and other + transgressions were to be atoned, i.e., satisfaction was to be given by + sacrifice and payments to the priest or tabernacle. But when the Jews, + after their contact with the Chaldeans, Medea, Persians, Greeks, and + Romans, began to study theology, two sects arose—the Talmudists, who + explained away the older Scriptures, interpolated narratives, or simply + texts therein, so as to suit their purposes; and the Sadducees, who + refused to adopt as matters of faith anything which was not taught by + Moses. The first was the strongest sect, and composed the majority in the + Sanhedrim. They thus had power over the sacred canon, and could reject + manuscripts or adopt them according as the purposes which were aimed at + were served. The Talmudic interpolations are supposed to b« recognised + chiefly in the more modern parts of the Old Testament, in Ezra, Nehemiah, + the second Isaiah and Jeremiah, in the books of Zechariah and Malachi, in + the Chronicles, Daniel, in many Psalms, more sparsely in the older + histories, but very largely in the Pentateuch. From these considerations, + from the absence of any order in the Mosaic law for the priests to offer + any supplication, and from, the general absence of prayer from the + sacrifices of all nations, we may conclude that "intercession" formed no + part in the Jewish religion in the early days of its existence. + </p> + <p> + When working upon this subject I endeavoured to examine the curious + Iguvian tables, on which Aufrecht, Eircher, and Newman have bestowed such + pains. These are, I believe, the only tables extant which give directions + to the old Umbrian, or any other ancient priests, how to conduct public + sacrifices and the ensuing feasts. In them there are directions for + invocations, but no formula for prayers, unless one can call invocations + by that name. I fancy, that in some parts of the tables there are words + which may be rendered "speak," or "mutter," or "meditate," or "pray + silently." + </p> + <p> + The fact that a Hebrew historian has composed a prayer, and put it into + the mouth of King Solomon, rather than into that of a high priest, shows + that supplication for the people was not a strictly sacerdotal duty. Even + now, with all our liberality of thought, we take our prayers from the + Archbishops, and not from the crown. + </p> + <p> + But what we have said points to another important consideration, viz., how + far our Authorized Version can be trusted as a foundation upon which to + build a theory respecting the use of prayer, when we find that the words + given in English do not correspond with the words in the original Hebrew. + </p> + <p> + We have noticed in the text that both John and Jesus taught their + disciples to pray; we may now call attention to the idea which the latter + had of "prayer." In a parable, which was evidently intended to represent + what was common enough in his day, he says, "Two men went up into the + temple to pray, the one a Pharisee, and the other a publican; the Pharisee + stood and prayed thus with himself—God, I thank Thee that I am not + as other men are," &c (Luke xviii. 10-13). Surely one cannot call a + boastful enumeration of one's virtues either "supplication," "prayer," or + "entreaty;" but we understand readily that what we should call + "meditation" was once included under the name "prayer." This anecdote + unquestionably seems to prove that there was nothing like public prayer in + the temple ritual. The idea of the Ancients was to obtain what they wanted + by costly sacrifice; the idea of the Moderns is to obtain their desires by + the expenditure of words only. We know that Pagans used long litanies, and + that Christians do so too. In Jezebel's time "0 Baal, hear us" resounded + on Mount Carmel in sonorous monotony. We have replaced that heathen chant + by another, and our cathedrals reverberate constantly with the musical + rogation, "We beseech Thee to hear us, good Lord," uttered more than a + score of times. Our orthodoxy consists in our using English instead + Phoenician words, and in calling Baal by a word more familiar to us; and + as the highest commendation which we can give to others is to imitate + them, so we praise the Ancient heathen highly, who thought that they would + be heard from their "much speaking." It is ever easier to change our words + than our practice. Like the Pharisee, Christians boast that they are not + as other men are; but by their proceedings they show that they are like + the Jews, of whose paternity Jesus had not an exalted opinion. (See John + viii. 44). + </p> + <p> + In further illustration of the absence of a set form of prayer in the + temple worship in Jerusalem, and of the independence of all devout + solicitors of priestly aid, I may point to Matthew vi. 5 to 8, wherein we + find that hypocrites offered their supplications, not only in the temple, + but at the corners of the streets. It is just possible that in the former + locality there might have been some public worship going on, in which the + saintly could join, but certainly there was no such ritual at street + corners. But if there had really been divine service in the temple, it + follows that those who joined in it would not have been conspicuous, or + deserving the name of hypocrites. The fault of these which is mentioned by + Jesus is ostentatious public prayer, i.e.9 the doing of that which had not + been prescribed by Moses. + </p> + <p> + As I have, in a preceding volume, spoken at some length concerning the + morals and manners of ancient races, and shown how, as a rule, their + conduct has been the same as that of modern Christians, and as, moreover, + the subject has been treated of in an essay by Lecky (<i>History of + European Morals</i>), I will not pursue this part of my subject further + than to remark, that we have scarcely two articles of faith—if, + indeed we have more than one—i.e., respect for one day in seven—which + we have not received, directly or indirectly, from Pagans. Even our + Christianity is but a modified Buddhism, as I shall endeavour, in my next + chapter, to show. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Christianity and Buddhism. The new and old world. An + impartial judge is said to be a partisan. Works on the + subject. Sakya Muni's birth, B.c. 620 (about), position in + life, original views. Parallels between Brahmin-ism, + Buddhism, Hebraism, and Christianity. History of Sakya Muni + —that of Jesus corresponds with it marvellously. Sakya + receives a commission from an angel—is henceforth a + saviour. History of Jesus follows that of Sakya. Siddartha + neither dictated nor wrote. A favourite garden. Sakya and + the Brahmins. Buddha and Christ equally persecuted. Spread + of Buddhism after Siddartha's death. Asoka a royal convert + Buddhist missionaries, b.c. 307. Their wonderful successes. + Different development of Buddhism and Christianity. + Persecution a Christian practice, Buddha tempted by the + Devil, and by women, like St Anthony. Buddha's life reduced + to writing, at least B.c. 90. Hardy on Buddhist miracles. + His remarks criticised. Necessity for miracles is doubtful. + Sakya and a future life. Resurrection from the dead. Jesus + not the first fruits of them that slept. Paul's argument + worthless. Buddhists in advance of Christians. Priestcraft + at time of Buddha and Jesus. Both did away with ceremonial. + Sakya's doctrine—compared with Christian teaching. Another + parallel between Buddha and Jesus. Commandments of Tathâgata + (Buddha), or the Great Sramana. Rules for his saintly + friends—for outsiders. Definition of terms. The Sra-mana's + opinion of miracles—a comparison. The history of Jesus told + without miracles. Buddhistic confession—remarks on in + modern times. Filial respect. Public confession, murder + absolved thereby. Asoka, about B.c. 263, sent out + missionaries. Objections made against Buddhism. Ideas + respecting God. Salvation. Buddha and Jesus. Nirvana. Heaven + and Hell—Christian ideas. Apocalypse. The heaven of John + and Mahomet compared with that of Buddha. Prayer not a + Buddhist institution—nor originally a Christian one. Nature + of prayer. The developments of Buddhism, particulars— + comparison between the Eastern ancient and Western modern + practice. Abbé Hue. No sexual element in Buddhism and + Christianity at first—it has crept into both in later + times. Inquiry into the probable introduction of Buddhism + into the West. Asceticism peculiar to Buddhism and + Christianity. The Essenes, their faith and practice— + resemblance to Buddhism. John and Jesus probably Essenes. + If Jesus was inspired, so was Siddartha. Differences + between Sakya and Jesus. Jesus 'believed in an immediate + destruction of the world. Idea of préexistence in Jesus and + Sakya adopted by their followers. The basis of the two + faiths is morality—but an unsound one. Nature of the + unsoundness. Morality has a reference to a life on earth + only. The decalogue superfluous. Ideas of future rewards and + punishments. Dives and Lazarus. The world can exist without + a knowledge of a future life. God thought so when He taught + the Jews. Dogma versus morality. See how these Christians + live! There are a few good men amongst Christians. + Supplementary remarks. +</pre> + <p> + From the Peruvian and Aztec religious systems in what we designate the New + World, a phrase which involves the idea that its existence was for ages + wholly unknown to the historians of the Eastern Hemisphere, we turn to + another form of faith, which demands even greater attention. Buddhism has, + probably, done more to influence the minds of men in Asia than any other + religion in any part of the globe, and its history is so remarkable, that + it deserves the attention of every philosophical student of mankind. To + the Christian it ought to be especially interesting, inasmuch as there is + strong reason to believe that the faith current amongst ourselves is to be + traced to the teaching of Sakya Muni, whose original name, we may notice, + in passing, was no more "Buddha" than "Christ" was the cognomen of the son + of Mary. + </p> + <p> + An ingenious author on one occasion wrote a charming essay "upon the art + of putting things," and I cannot read any treatise upon Buddhism, written + by a Christian, without thinking how completely "the advocate" is to be + seen throughout them all Ecclesiastical writers, who are Protestant + preachers, endeavour laboriously to prove that the teaching of Sakya Muni + could not have been inspired, and was certainly false; whilst other + writers, who have no particular leaning towards Jesus, extol the author of + Buddhism beyond that of Christianity. Truly, in such a matter it is + extremely difficult not to appear as a partisan, however carefully the + scales may be held. The very fact of endeavouring "to see ourselves as + others see us" involves the necessity of "putting things" in a different + light to that which is most common or familiar to us. A bumptious Briton + thinks more of his own Islands than a Yankee thinks of them, and one who + endeavours to describe "the wheel of the law" as an astute Buddhist would + do, and who, at the same time, compares it with the teachings of the son + of Mary, must seem to those who, without knowing its nature, despise the + former, and yet implicitly believe in the latter, to be a partisan. Acting + upon this belief, we shall not scruple to appear as an advocate, for we + believe that "an opposition" is as good in religion as in politics, and + that it behoves us all to examine every important question in all its + bearings. + </p> + <p> + In the following essay I shall not attempt to go into every detail about + the life of Sakya Muni, for to do so would weary the reader. Anyone who + wishes for such information may be referred to <i>Le Bouddha et sa + Religion</i>, par J. Barthélemy Saint Hilaire, Paris, 1860, a book which + may be fairly designated as exhaustive. The English reader may also + consult <i>The Legends and Theories of the Buddhists</i>, by Rev. R. + Spence Hardy, London, 1866, which, though very prejudiced, is extremely + suggestive. Hardy's <i>Eastern Monachism</i> and <i>Manual of Buddhists</i> + are about the same. <i>The Mahawanso</i> translated by Tumour, is also a + very valuable work of reference. + </p> + <p> + There appears to be little doubt that Sakya Muni was born about 622 years + before our era, and that he died when about eighty years of age, i.e.f + B.C. 542. He was thus a contemporary of Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and other + Jewish prophets. Though of royal birth, and of the warrior or kingly + caste, he does not appear to have been instructed in general history, if, + indeed, any such was in existence in Hindostan at that or any other + period; and we cannot find a tittle of evidence that he ever heard of any + other religion than Brahminism, the dominant faith, apparently, of the + Aryan invaders of India. In that he was taught assiduously, and some of + its tenets he most firmly believed. Amongst others, he held that men lived + in a future world, in which each one was rewarded or punished according to + his doings when in a human form. His teaching was founded upon the belief + which the Brahmins inculcated, that all men endure misery in this world + for their conduct in a previous state of existence, and that they would + once again suffer after death, unless they conducted themselves, in this + life, in a manner pleasing to the Almighty. In this creed is clearly + involved, if not distinctly enunciated, a full acknowledgment of the + existence and power of God, of the certainty of a future life, and a + desire to escape from penalties to be inflicted therein by a supreme + celestial Judge, for immorality or impropriety committed in the present + state. For these points of doctrine Sakya did not contend, he merely laid + down a different system to the Brahmins as to the method by which + salvation was to be attained, and the penal consequences of a sinful life + were to be avoided. + </p> + <p> + We may now, halting here for a moment, examine these matters for + ourselves, and inquire in what way such faith differs from our own. The + Brahmin taught that man suffers pain, misery, and death for certain crimes + committed in a previous state of existence; the Christian teaches that + each one suffers for a fault committed by ancestors who lived thousands of + years ago. Neither the one nor the other regard pain, sorrow, suffering, + and death as the normal accompaniments of life, but both attribute them to + the wrath of an offended deity, who can be, in some way, cheated, cajoled, + appeased, or propitiated. Both assert that men are debtors to God, and + that miseries are "duns" used to make men pay their obligations to heaven. + The Brahmin taught that this could be effected by prayer, sacrifice, and + sundry ceremonies to be performed by some man who had been specially + appointed for the purpose. A due attention to morality was also + inculcated, but it was apparently considered as of less importance than + ritualistic observances. + </p> + <p> + The Jew, whom so many amongst us believe to have been especially taught by + God, propounded a belief essentially similar to that of the Brahmin, with + the single exception that he had no faith in a future existence, but + thought that sacrifice and offerings, through a priesthood, were necessary + to obtain comfort in this life. + </p> + <p> + The Christian teaches that the horrors of eternity can only be escaped by + believing on the Lord Jesus Christ (Acts xvi. 30, 31), and by being moral + in addition. + </p> + <p> + The "belief" here referred to is somewhat amplified in other parts of the + Bible, and notably in John iii. 15-17, 36; vi. 39, 40; ix. 35; xi. 15; and + Acts viii. 37; from which we learn that an item in the faith was a firm + hold upon the idea that Jesus was the son, the only begotten son, of God. + This dogma is still further extended in the "Apostles' Creed," wherein the + Christians express, as articles of faith, their belief, that Jesus Christ + was the only son of God, conceived by the Holy Ghost, and born of the + Virgin Mary, &c. This tenet is somewhat varied in the Nicene Creed, + which expresses the Christian belief to be, that the Lord Jesus Christ is + the only begotten son of God—begotten of his Father before all + worlds—being of one substance with the Father, by whom all things + were made, &c. + </p> + <p> + The fundamental teaching of Sakya was, that man can only escape the + tortures of the damned, by a strict propriety of conduct in this world, + and a persistent endeavour to renounce and think nothing of the + gratifications which make life pleasant. The modern Buddhist adds to this + a belief in the absolute divinity of the founder of his faith, not simply + that he was a son of God, but a visible embodiment of a portion of the + Creative Unity. Brahmins and Buddhists believe in transmigration of souls: + the Christian does the like, only, instead of being converted into a + beast, he imagines that he will become either an angel or a devil. + </p> + <p> + Within certain limits, we may, therefore, say that the Brahminic, the + Jewish, the Buddhist, and the Christian religions are essentially alike, + differing only upon minor points, such as the absolute value of morality, + of ceremonial, of doctrine, of asceticism, the nature of a hypothetical + antecedent, and an equally uncertain future existence, and the best means + of escaping the penalties attached, in the second state, to impropriety of + conduct in the first. If we deride the Brahmin and the Buddhist for the + faith which they entertain, our laugh must necessarily recoil on + ourselves, for we have no more unequivocal grounds for our belief than + they have for theirs. We point in vain to what we call "Revelation," for + they can do the same, and if priority in such matters is good for + anything, the Brahminic must take precedence of the Jewish, and the + Buddhist of the Christian code. Nor can we call miracles to our exclusive + aid, for the religious books of the Hindoo are as full of them as are + those of the Jew and Christian, and the stories told in the one can be + readily paralleled in impossibility, incapacity, frivolity, and absurdity + by the others. + </p> + <p> + We must remember, then, when speaking of the teaching of Sakya, that it + was constructed upon the supposed fundamental truths of Brahminism, just + as the doctrines of Jesus were built upon those of Judaism. By adopting + these, respectively, the two preachers have demonstrated their belief in + them, but neither the one nor the other have advanced our knowledge as to + the reality of the earliest faith, nor demonstrated the truth of their + subsequent assumptions. + </p> + <p> + If we now endeavour, for the sake of comparison, to place the Eastern and + the Western points of belief in parallel columns, we shall be better able + to see the points of resemblance and of difference than by any other plan. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0003" id="linkimage-0003"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/115.jpg" alt="115 " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + These are only a few of the leading points of resemblance and difference, + and might be almost indefinitely multiplied. + </p> + <p> + After this preface, we may proceed to notice that Siddartha—another + name for Buddha—was of royal birth, and born in wedlock: his mother + was called Maya Devi, and was herself the daughter of a king. His father + was of the warrior caste, and, according to ancient usage, Sakya, like + Jesus some centuries later, was presented in the temple of the God of his + parents, and recognized by a Brahmin, whom we may designate as a + predecessor, by some hundreds of years, of the Jewish Simeon (Luke ii 25, + seq.)f as having the marks of a great man upon him. As Sakya grew up to + man's estate he was found to be peculiarly clever, and soon distanced his + masters, as Jesus was and did, when, at twelve years, he went into the + temple and astonished the doctors. He was always thoughtful, and + frequently remained alone. Once he wandered into a forest, (compare + Matthew iv. 1-11), in which he was found lost in thought. When obliged to + exhibit his talents, Siddartha was found to have every conceivable + excellence, bodily and mental He was, by parental desire, married to a + paragon of a wife, who showed her good sense by rejecting the use of a + veil. In this Sakya differs from Mary's son, who never married, being, + most probably, of the tribe of the Essenes. In later life Siddartha + discouraged wedlock and every form of love. But, during all his outward + happiness; Siddartha's thoughts ran upon the misery which he saw on every + side to be common in the world, and he entertained a hope that he would be + able to show man the road to a happy immortality. In these ideas the + teacher was encouraged by a god, who appeared to him by night, and told + him that the appointed time for the deliverer had come. This comforter + also recommended him to leave his wife, his wealth, his father's house, + and give up all he had, so as to be able to seek, unencumbered, the way of + salvation. Compare here the passage, Mark x. 20-30, wherein Jesus gives + the same kind of advice as the angel gave to Sakya Muni. Having become + satisfied of his mission from God, he resolutely abandoned everything, + and, being really a scion of royalty, he had much to renounce. Siddartha + thus became a mendicant, dependent upon others for food and raiment, and + resembled that son of Mary, of whom we read that he had not a residence + wherein to lay his head (Matt. viii. 20; Luke ix. 58). He was about + twenty-nine years of age when he thus became poor for the sake of mankind. + Compare what is said of Jesus, Luke iii. 23. Though Siddartha was opposed + to the Brahmins, he nevertheless studied their doctrines, as Mary's son + did that of the Hebrew theologians, thoroughly, under one of the wisest of + them, for many years. Then, leaving this teacher, he went about preaching + and doing good. So much were men impressed with his beauty, his piety, and + his doctrines, that they flocked in crowds to see him, and he taught them + whilst sitting on the brow of Mount Pandava—even kings came to hear + him. Compare here what is said of the Nazarene, Matt. iv. 23 to Matt. + viii. 1. Sakya was persecuted for a long time by a relative, who + ultimately became one of his most ardent disciples. Compare Matt. xvi. 22 + and John xxi. 15, et seq. Siddartha's austerities and mortifications of + himself, in every conceivable way, were excessive during the next six + years, and these have been represented as a combat with the Devil, whose + kingdom he destroyed. At the end of this probation, Sakya Muni, finding + fasting and pain not profitable for eternal salvation, resumed the + ordinary human habits of eating, &c. This disgusted many of his + disciples, and "they walked no more with him." He was partly supported by + a slave woman, and was content to clothe himself with vestments taken from + the dead. Finally, this wonderful son of Maya heard within him a voice, + which told him that he was divine, the saviour of the world, and the + incarnation of the wisdom of God—Buddha, "the word" itself. Compare + John i. 1, et seq. This was confirmed by a miracle, and thus, at the age + of thirty-six, and at the foot of a fig tree, Sakya Muni received a divine + commission, "and the word was made flesh." But, though thus divinely + inspired, the saviour doubted his power to convert mankind, and at the + first he only preached his new doctrines to a few. Even in this respect it + is marvellous to see how closely the Christian story of Jesus follows that + of his predecessor Siddartha. Some opposed Sakya, but these were soon + converted by his majesty, and the glory with which he spake the words—"Yes," + he said, "I have come to see clearly both immortality and the way to + attain it; I am Buddha—I know all—I see all—I have + blotted out my faults, and am above all law." Recognizing in Siddartha the + teacher of mankind, the common people heard him gladly, and gave him + homage, and he, in return, taught them his full doctrine. The Indian + saviour then proceeded to the holy city, Benares, and taught there. But + though he spoke much, he neither dictated nor wrote—like Jesus, + subsequently, he made no provision by which his doctrines might be + perpetuated. From Benares he went to other places, some of which were + especially dear to him, and thus became sacred. In like manner Bethany was + sanctified by Jesus. Amongst others was a garden, given to him, with a + mansion, by a wealthy disciple, which a lively fancy might call a Hindoo + Gethsemane. In this garden Buddha made many disciples, and in it the first + council of his followers was held after his death. Another favourite + retreat was a plantation of mango trees, and this, like every other spot + that Siddartha is known to have visited, has been adorned by the faithful + with ornamental architecture in commemoration of him. + </p> + <p> + As may be supposed, Sakya, when he assailed the Brahmins, was in turn + opposed by them with persevering malevolence; the former was outspoken and + said what he thought of the priests—he called them hypocrites, + cheats, impostors, and the like—and they were apparently conscious + that they deserved such titles. + </p> + <p> + Here, again, we notice a singular parallel between the Hindoo saviour and + the Jewish one, who followed him after a long interval. Not that there is + anything wonderful in the founder of a new faith reviling the ministers of + one more ancient—nor in the priests of an established church + endeavouring to suppress, by punishments, the professors who interfere + with their repose. We know how the Christian fathers abused and lampooned + the faith of those whose practices they detested—how Luther and his + followers lashed the vices of the Papists, and how these in their turn + burned the new preachers—when they had a chance; how the + Nonconformists censured the Establishment, and how the Episcopal Church + has harried Independents and Presbyterians. But it is strange to find both + Sakya and Jesus inaugurating a religion of peace by fierce invectives. We + have not particulars respecting the choice of language made use of by the + Indian, but we can scarcely imagine that it could be more to the purpose + than the vituperation employed by the Hebrew. Jesus says,—"Ye + compass sea and land to make one proselyte, and when he is made ye make + him twofold more the child of hell than yourselves,"—"Ye are like + unto whited sepulchres, which indeed appear beautiful outward, but are + within full of dead men's bones and all uncleanness" (Matt, xxiii. 15-27). + One cannot wonder that the Brahmins and the Pharisees, who were objurgated + as hypocrites, should retort upon their accusers, prosecute the one and + crucify the other. + </p> + <p> + As Sakya's influence increased, the power of the old priesthood + diminished, and there are accounts of many contests between the old + dispensers of Brahma's religion and the new saviour, which were held + before kings and people. In consequence of these disputes Buddha's life + was repeatedly in danger. But though often threatened, Siddartha died + peacefully when about eighty years old, beloved by many, respected by + more, worshipped as a divinity by his immediate disciples and intimate + friends, and venerated by all who had listened to his discourses. + </p> + <p> + There are a great many legends existent, and of very respectable antiquity + too, which tell of miracles performed by this very remarkable Indian + teacher; but the judicious historian, upon whose authority I am at present + relying (St. Hilaire), does not intermingle these with the narrative of + Siddartha's life. In this respect he shows greater judgment than the + scribes who first compiled the stories of Buddha and of Jesus, both of + whom conceived that human beings could not be converted to a new style of + belief without thaumaturgy. + </p> + <p> + The account of Sakya Muni and his religion would be incomplete did we not + add that he left behind him enthusiastic disciples who were eager and + successful in spreading his views. But many years, how many we do not know + with absolute certainty, elapsed ere any account was written either of his + life or of his teaching. Nor ought we to wonder at this, for until time + has been given to mankind, it cannot fairly estimate the value of anything + new; and when men do at length form, what they believe to be, a perfect + judgment of the importance of the doctrine which has become deeply rooted, + they are more eager to promulgate it in the world than to record it by + writing in the closet. + </p> + <p> + The new religion certainly spread extensively all over the vast continent + of Hindustan, and in the course of about three hundred years, found an + enthusiastic and powerful convert in the person of a king called Asoka, + who was reigning when the third convocation of Buddhists was called, b.c. + 307. This ruler was imbued with a missionary spirit, and under his + influence, preachers full of energy went not only throughout India, but + into China, Japan, Ceylon, and apparently into every country to which + ships, caravans, and the flow of commerce gave them access, including + Persia, Babylonia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and the very populous and + important emporium Alexandria. We may judge of the fanaticism of these + religious envoys by their success, and we may, as is often done by + Christian missionaries, test the real value of their doctrine by its + endurance, and its adaptability to the religious wants of the human + animal. If missionary success is a test of truth in religion, Buddhism + must be superior to Christianity. Buddah—for his name is spelled + variously—has more followers, according to competent authorities, + than Jesus, and if the depth and earnestness shown by the converts to the + two men could be weighed in impartial scales, we believe that the + preponderance would be in favour of the followers of the Indian saviour. + </p> + <p> + We readily allow that Buddhism has not developed in many matters like + Christianity has done. The Buddhism of to-day does not essentially differ + from that in the early ages of the faith; the followers of Siddartha have + not adopted the doctrines of the nations amongst which they have settled. + The Christianity of to-day, on the other hand, is so widely different from + that current in the first century of our era, that it has been remarked, + with great pungency, that if Jesus revisited us now, he would be denounced + as a heretic, and abused as a nonconformist. His followers soon introduced + politics into religion, and adopted the fables and the doctrines of the + Pagans amongst whom they dwelt, merely changing certain names, and + ascribing virtues and miracles to saints, which the heathen attributed to + Apollo, Mars, or Venus. Jesus, though a Jew, never sacrificed, nor did his + apostles, but his followers thought prudent to filch the practice from the + heathen; and, to smooth their difficulty, they profess to turn bread and + wine into flesh and blood, and offer it up as an oblation upon their + ecclesiastical altar. Jesus knew nothing of purgatory; with him the rich + man went direct to hell, and Lazarus to Abraham's bosom. Modern Christians + are wiser than their teacher; for he disdained the learning of Egypt, his + followers took their purgatory and trinity therefrom. All this shows, that + the faith of Christians in their teacher has not been equal to the + unbounded trust felt by the Buddhist in his master's wisdom. Buddhism, + moreover, has neither taught nor sanctioned any system of persecution. + Sakya, it is true, encouraged men to make themselves miserable upon earth + that they might attain future immunity from woe, but he never ordered them + to use the sword or dragonnades to force other people to do so. The + followers of Jesus, on the other hand, have but too often founded their + claim to a happy immortality on making other men, whom they called + heretics, miserable, as during the period of the crusades against the + Saracens, the Albigenses, the Lollards, and the Waldenses. The Christians + in many ages seemed to argue thus:—As the painful death of Mary's + son saved the world, so I, by torturing a heretic, may save myself. This + is an idea of vicarious atonement which, though prevalent for centuries, + has never been committed to writing by those who hold it. We do not mean + to allege that the opinion referred to cannot be found in history, for it + is from such a source that our assertion comes. A belief, such as we refer + to, was promulgated amongst the Crusaders, and was fostered by the + founders of the Inquisition. Such an idea, too, is embodied in the word—"The + time cometh, that whosoever killeth you will think that he doeth God + service" (John xvi. 2). + </p> + <p> + We may, however, trace the idea of persecution in the early Christian + Scriptures. Paul, for example, when writing to the Corinthians (1 Epistle + v. 3-5) gives such encouragement as he can to those who punish an erring + brother Christian, by delivering him over to Satan for the destruction of + the flesh, that the spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus, and + in (1st Tim. i. 20), the same author declares,—"I have delivered + Hymenseus and Alexander unto Satan that they may learn not to blaspheme." + The idea being, that by thus acting, both the Corinthians and Paul were + improving their own ecclesiastical condition. + </p> + <p> + As I may not have another available opportunity for introducing one or two + striking parallels between Sakya Muni and Jesus, I may mention here that + the former is represented as being tempted by and having conversation with + an evil spirit called Mâra, Evil one, Destroyer, Devil, or Papiyan. In one + of these confabulations Buddah says,—"I will soon triumph over you—'desires' + are your chief soldiers, then come idleness, hunger and thirst, passions, + sleepy indolence, fears, doubts, angers, hypocrisy, ambition, the desire + to be respected, and to have renown, praise of yourself and blame for + others—these are your black allies, the soldiers of the burning + demon. Your soldiers subjugate gods and men, but not me, I shall crush + them by wisdom, then what will you do?" (Hilaire, p. 61). The sage is + then, not unlike the so-called St. Anthony, tempted by lovely woman, + thirty-two lovely demons (Apsaras) deploying all their charms. Then + follows a third trial, and Mâra says to Siddartha,—"I am the lord of + desire, I am the master of the entire world, the gods, the crowd of + Dâvanas (spirits), men and beasts have been subjugated by me and are in my + power. Like them enter my domains, rise up and speak like them." Buddha + replied,—"If you are the lord of desire you are not the lord of + light. Look at me, I am the lord of the law, you are powerless, and in + your very sight I shall obtain supreme intelligence," (p. 64, op. cit.). + The demon makes one more effort, and is again conquered, and then retires, + tracing with an arrow these words upon the ground—"My empire has + passed away." It may be imagined that the French author whom I quote is a + partisan of the Indian sage; far from it, he records such tales with + regret, for he sees how strong an influence they must have upon the + perfect or imperfect authenticity of the New Testament and the story of + Jesus. The similarity of the two histories is heightened by the legend + before noticed, that Buddha went to Heaven to convert his mother, whilst + Jesus is said to have gone down to Hades to preach to the spirits in + prison, with the implied intention of converting them to the faith which + he preached. + </p> + <p> + It will doubtless have occurred to anyone reading the preceding pages, if + he be but familiar with the New Testament, that either the Christian + histories called Gospels have been largely influenced by Buddhist's + legends, or that the story of Siddartha has been moulded upon that of + Jesus. The subject is one which demands and deserves the greatest + attention, for if our religion be traceable to Buddhism, as the later + Jewish faith is to the doctrines of Babylonians, Medes, and Persians, we + must modify materially our notions of "inspiration" and "revelation." Into + this inquiry St. Hilaire goes as far as documentary evidence allows him, + and Hardy in <i>Legends and Theories of the Buddhists</i> also enters upon + it in an almost impartial manner. From their conclusions there can be no + reasonable doubt that the story of the life of Sakya Muni, such as we have + described it, certainly existed in writing ninety years before the birth + of Jesus; consequently, if the one life seems to be a copy of the other, + the gospel writers must be regarded as the plagiarists. + </p> + <p> + In the story of Buddha, we have eliminated the miraculous part, and + exhibited him simply as a remarkable man. Nevertheless, in the writings of + his followers, miracles in abundance are assigned to him. Whether these + existed in the original history Hardy doubts, and his remarks are so + apposite that we reproduce them (op. cit. p. xxviii). "Upon the + circumstances of this first rehearsal (of the life and doctrine of + Siddartha), most important consequences depend. If the miracles ascribed + to Buddha can be proved to have been recorded of him at the time of his + death, this would go far towards proving that the authority to which he + laid claim was his rightful prerogative. They were of too public character + to have been ascribed to him then if they had not taken place; so that if + it was openly declared by his contemporaries, by those who had lived with + him in the same monastery, that he had been repeatedly visited by Sekra + and other Deivas; and that he had walked through the air and visited the + heavenly world in the presence of many thousands, and those the very + persons whom they addressed, we ought to render to him the homage awarded + to him by even his most devoted followers. But the legend of the early + rehearsal has nothing to support it beyond the assertion of authors who + lived at a period long subsequent. The testimony of contemporaneous + history presents no record of any event that quadrates with the wonderful + powers attributed to the 'rahals,' which would undoubtedly not have been + wanting if these events had really taken place." + </p> + <p> + The reader of this extract will now naturally turn his attention to the + Christian gospels, and inquire into the time when they were written, and + whether the arguments used by Hardy, for disbelieving the miracles of + Buddha, do not equally disprove the authenticity of the miracles + attributed to Jesus. We can find nowhere, in contemporary history—and + there is an adequate account thereof, both Jewish and Roman—any + records of the wonders said to have been done in Judea by the son of Mary. + Though he was noticed by a certain writer in the Talmud, under the name of + Ben Panther, that book contains no account of the marvellous works + recorded in the gospels, nor any reference to his miraculous power. The + Romans who dwelt in Jerusalem knew nothing of any real miracle, though + Herod is reported to have noticed some gossiping accounts of John's + successor. We do not find a single reference to any of the wonderful + events told in the gospels in any epistle written by those who "companied + with Jesus"—except the assertion that he had risen from the dead, to + be found in 1 Corinthians xv. and elsewhere—whose value is + problematical Still farther, we have tolerably good evidence to show that + the Gospels were written at a time when they could not be tested by those + people in whose presence the wonders were said to have been wrought. The + narrative of John, for example, is, by scholars, supposed to have been + written more than a century, probably one hundred and fifty years, after + the crucifixion, and the others seem to have been composed for the benefit + of those who did not live in, or know Jerusalem and Judea intimately. They + resemble, in almost every respect, the stories told of such Roman saints + as Francis of Assisi, Bernard, Carlo Borromeo, and Ignatius Loyola, which + were always composed long after the death, and out of the presence of + every one of those who could deny or controvert them. However much, or + little, we may credit the biographies of Buddha and Jesus, we cannot for a + moment doubt, that the two individuals were instrumental in founding forms + of religion, which, by the aid of missionaries, spread over a vast extent + of the habitable globe. Unlike that of Mahomet, the faiths referred to + were promulgated by peaceful persuasion rather than by the sword, and by + the power of eloquence, example, and precept, rather than by the influence + of miracles. If, for the sake of argument, we grant that every specimen of + thaumaturgy which his followers attribute to Jesus is correctly reported, + we must allow also that his power of making converts by teaching, + preaching, and wonder working, was inferior to that of his followers, who + taught, preached, and proselytized without performing many, if any + miracles. If we assert that miraculous powers are necessary for the + establishment and propagation of a new religion, then we must, to be + consistent with ourselves, believe in the thaumaturgy of the Buddhists, + and the divine mission of Sakya Muni. If, on the other hand, we deny that + Siddartha was an incarnate god or saviour, was not divinely inspired, and + performed no real miracle, then it is clear that the miracles, which Jesus + is said to have achieved, were wholly unnecessary, and not required in any + way to upset an old religion, to found a new, or to spread it when + established. + </p> + <p> + The philosopher may pause here, with profit to himself, and inquire + whether there is, or there are, any new form or forms of religion which + has or have sprung up within his own observation, and if so, whether it or + they has or have been based upon thaumaturgy—and, if one or more + have been so founded, whether one shows evidence of stability. + </p> + <p> + Few can deny that Mormonism is a form of belief which has a considerable + number of adherents, a body of earnest missionaries, and a laity whose + faith and practice have been sorely tested by hardship. Yet there has not + been a single miracle performed by its prophets. It is reported that its + founder announced that he would perform one in the sight of all Israel and + of the sun, but when the time came he said, that if the spectators + believed that he could do what was promised, that was quite enough! + </p> + <p> + Spiritualism, on the other hand, is a new sort of theosophy, ostensibly + founded and supported wholly by thaumaturgy; its disciples have induced + themselves to believe, against their original ideas, that we are not only + surrounded by the spirits of the departed, but that these can be brought + into connection with us by means of certain individuals, called mediators + or mediums—that these have such power, over the invisible beings + hovering in the air, that the souls of the dead may be made to shake the + tables of the living, and lift up their sofas to the ceiling. The miracles + are believed in by many, but Spiritualism lags far behind the Mormon + theology, and probably always will do. + </p> + <p> + We may regard this part of our subject in yet another light. Let us, for + example, suppose that the Buddhists and the Christians succeed in + persuading each other of the incorrectness of the miraculous element in + their respective books, does it therefore follow, that any essential part + of the creed of either one or other must be altered? The doctrines of + Siddartha would not be valueless even if his followers disbelieved in his + power to fly as a bird, or cross a river on the surface of the water—nor + would those of Mary's son be proved to be worthless if it were certain + that he never marched over a billowy sea, and that he was not really + killed by crucifixion. The disciples of Sakya Muni believed in a + resurrection of the dead, without having had the advantage of a real or + imaginary reappearance of their master after his supposed decease. The + Etruscans, Greeks, and Romans, had all an Elysium to which the good folk + went. The Red Indian believes in a future life and happy hunting grounds + (so we are told), although he has never heard of Judea. The rude Northmen + and Danes had also their Valhalla to go to after death, long ere they were + Christians. Still farther, it is to be noticed, by the close observer, + that the Jews at the time of Jesus, and some of the Greeks about the same + period, were divided in their opinions respecting the existence of men in + a future state. The Sadducees, holding fast to the books of Moses and the + Prophets, denied the existence of a resurrection, of angels or of spirits. + The Pharisees, on the other hand, influenced apparently by Babylonian and + Persian theology, had faith in all three. That this belief in a future + life was not commonly held by the poor folk in Judea, we infer from Mark + ix. 10, wherein we are told that Peter, James, and John were "questioning + with one another what the rising from the dead should mean." That the + Athenians were equally careless about what is now called "heaven and + hell," we judge from Acts xvii. 18, wherein we are told that Paul's + preaching about "Jesus and the resurrection" was a strange affair, and + from the thirty-second verse of the same chapter, wherein it is said that + the doctrine of the resurrection of Jesus was received with derision. + </p> + <p> + I am quite aware that it may be objected to these remarks that the doubt + about the rising from the dead does not point to a general resurrection, + but simply to the return to life of one particular individual. This, + however, only removes the difficulty to a short distance, for Greek story + tells us of the annual return of Proserpine from the realms of Pluto to + the light of day, and Adonis was yearly resuscitated, in mythical + narrative. For the Hebrew, the rising from the dead ought not to be a + wonderful matter. Was it not told in their Scriptures how, when certain + persons were burying a man, the bearers in a fright threw the corpse into + the sepulchre of Elijah, whose bones had such efficacy that they revived + the dead man, who stood on his feet (2 Kings xiii. 21). We find also, from + Mark vi. 16, Luke ix. 9, that Herod had a full belief in the power of John + to rise again from the death to which that monarch had consigned him. The + sceptic may doubt the ability of the two evangelists to read what was + passing through the royal mind when Jesus and his works were brought + before its notice, but he cannot doubt that the writer was aware that in + Herod's time there was a belief in the resurrection of individuals. + Indeed, we find in the verse following that which tells of the Apostle's + bewilderment, Mark ix. 11, a question, "why say the scribes that Elias + must first come?" To which the reply is that the prophet has come. We are + constrained, therefore, to believe that Jesus was not the first who rose + from the dead; nay, even he himself commissioned his disciples to "cleanse + the lepers, and raise the dead" (Matth. x. 8). What, then, is the value of + the arguments that Paul builds upon the assertion that Christ is "the + first fruits of them that slept." + </p> + <p> + This being so, we may fairly ask, whence did Mary's son derive the ideas + which he promulgated of a resurrection, and of salvation, and why had a + sophistical writer like Paul to adopt the clumsy contrivance of asserting + that Jesus not only had risen, but that he was the first individual who + had done so, to demonstrate that the dead really did return again to life? + Paul's argument, indeed, shows how little he knew or had thought upon the + subject, for he distinctly preaches a resurrection of the body, not of the + soul, a belief adopted into the Apostles' creed. Yet, at the very period + when the minds of Christians were thus unformed, the disciples of Buddha, + to a man, believed in a future "Nirvana," in which "there should be no + more sorrow nor crying, neither should there be any more pain, and where + all earthly things should have passed away" (see Rev. xxi. 4). We are not + yet in the position to prove that Mary's son and certain of his followers + received their inspiration from disciples of Siddartha, but there is + certainly a strong presumption in favour of the possibility, much evidence + of its probability, and nothing whatever to disprove it. To this, however, + we will return by and by. + </p> + <p> + Ere we proceed to examine into the nature of the doctrines of Sakya Muni + and of Jesus, we may cast a glance over the condition of the men whom they + converted. In both instances, it is not too much to say that they all were + "priest-ridden" in the fullest meaning of the term. The residents in + Modern India and Papal Rome, until a short time ago, well understood what + the term signifies; day by day, and almost hour by hour, there is, or was + in these places, some ceremony to be attended, some prayer to be uttered, + some confession to be made, some contribution to be given to monastery, + church, or priest. Penances are, and were inflicted of the most painful, + sometimes of the most disgusting kind. The last I heard of was in Wales, + where a man was ordered to lie down at the church door as a mat, upon + which the faithful were to wipe their feet. Both in India and Italy, men, + women, and children alike are, or were, taught to regard themselves as the + servants, and even slaves of the hierarchy, and their money is, or was, + alienated from wives and children to swell the coffers of spiritual + tyrants. Perpetual terrors of hell are sounded, until those hearers, whose + hearts are impressionable, are habitually haunted by imaginary horrors, + each one of which has to be bought off by a sort of hush-money paid to the + priest, who has invented, adopted, or described them. + </p> + <p> + Such was the condition of England and France prior to the Reformation and + the Revolution. + </p> + <p> + So long as men are debased by their guides, and allow themselves, with the + docility of a well-trained dog, to be ruled, and so long as tyrannical + flamens can wring an ever increasing tax from the people, there is + probably nothing more in the breast of each than a vague feeling of + dislike, or regret, at the existence of such things, which rarely receives + utterance for fear of punishment. But as soon as a man, more bold than his + neighbours, raises a standard of revolt, whose success appears to be + secure, the bulk of the oppressed first sympathize with, yet fear to join + him, then, after watching eagerly the course of events, and admiring the + boldness of men more resolute than themselves, they timidly make common + cause with the reformer, and, if circumstances favour them, they become + enthusiastic. As the news of the mental revolt swells, the people, tired + of oppression, rise in their might and sweep away the hierarchy, or compel + it to abandon its pretensions. Buddha and Christ were such leaders as we + here describe, and such was the course gone through by their followers. + The timid Peter denying Jesus, and yet afterwards boldly preaching him up, + is an example almost too well known to be quoted. + </p> + <p> + We are now in a position to inquire into the nature of Siddartha's + teaching. + </p> + <p> + Premising that his doctrines were collected at least 200 years B. C., the + first which we notice is one that he not only inculcated by language but + enforced by his abiding example. He taught that the comforts and pleasures + of this life act as fetters, to chain man's spirit to earth; that day by + day they necessitate the cultivation of propensities and passions more or + less bestial in their nature; and that as these strengthen, so the + individual who possessed them would be born again, after his death, to + some form of misery and woe in which he would have to atone for the human + infirmities which he had not conquered. To escape from the possibility of + such an event, Sakya counselled his disciples to wean themselves, as far + as possible, from every sensual passion; to mortify the body by fasting, + so as to make it more readily separable from the inner man; to renounce + all comfort except that of doing good; and believing in a state of perfect + future salvation. + </p> + <p> + A man, he taught, must abandon everything as valueless compared with the + attainment of salvation or <i>nirvana</i>; he must be wholly dependent + upon others for food and raiment; he must take no thought for the morrow, + and live like a bird or lily, laying up no store; for certainly a disciple + of Sakya ought not to undertake any trade or other means of gaining a + livelihood, lest it should ensnare his spirit and tie it down to the + grovelling things of earth. + </p> + <p> + This was the rule for the very faithful, the infirm believers had a more + lenient code. + </p> + <p> + If we now turn to the doctrine said to have been taught by Jesus and his + disciples, we shall find a close parallel between it and that of the + Indian teacher. For example, John says (1 Epis. ii. 15,16) "Love not the + world, neither the things that are in the world. If any man love the + world, the love of the Father is not in him. For all that is in the world, + the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eye, and the pride of life, is + not of the Father but is of the world." Paul says (Rom. xii. 2) "Be not + conformed to this world, but be ye transformed by the renewing of your + mind, that ye may prove what is that good and acceptable and perfect will + of God." James also says (ch. iv. 4) "Know ye not that the friendship of + the world is enmity with God; whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of + the world, is the enemy of God." Again, we find in Matthew xix., Mark x., + and Luke xii., the story of a young man who was possessed of wealth, + probably scarcely less than that of Sakya Muni, and whose life had been + conscientiously conducted, according to the commandments which he knew, + and who having heard of Jesus, came to ask him if there were a more + certain way of salvation than the one he was in. To him the reply is,—"If + thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor, + and thou shalt have treasure in heaven, and come and follow me." In the + verses, moreover, which follow, there is a remark from the same teacher to + the effect, that "every one that hath forsaken houses, or brethren, or + sisters, or father, or mother, or wife, or children, or lands, for my + name's sake, shall receive an hundred fold, and shall inherit everlasting + life." + </p> + <p> + Once again, we find an exact counterpart of Buddha's teaching in the + sermon on the Mount, which is recorded in Matth. vi. 25-34—"I say + unto you, take no thought for your life, what ye shall eat or what ye + shall drink, nor yet for your body, what ye shall put on. Is not the life + more than meat, and the body than raiment? Behold the fowls of the air, + for they sow not, neither do they reap, nor gather into barns, yet your + heavenly Father feedeth them. Are ye not much better than they?... Why + take ye thought for raiment, consider the lilies of the field... if God so + clothe the grass... shall he not much more clothe you? Therefore take no + thought, saying, what shall we eat, or what shall we drink, or wherewithal + shall we be clothed?... Take therefore no thought for the morrow... + sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof." Other similar passages might + readily be given, but the above suffice to demonstrate the Buddhistic + teaching of the prophet of Nazareth. + </p> + <p> + Both start from the idea that death, disease, pain, and misery is the + result of sin—and both imagine that sin consists in living and + acting upon the natural wants, necessities, and propensities of human + kind. Both imagine that to be natural is to be vile, and that salvation is + to be attained by resisting every impulse which is common to mankind Man + desires to eat when hungry—this is a weakness to be combated; a + mother loves her babe—this must not be tolerated; a youth covets a + damsel in marriage—this is a snare to draw both down to hell; + celibacy must be enforced. The argument runs thus,—If any one enjoys + life he is sure to fear death, and will certainly pay for his pleasures; + but if any one has the resolution to pass his years on earth in misery + like that of hell, he will be glad to die, and fearless of any place of + torment; use has bred a habit in him and no torture can come amiss. + </p> + <p> + Some Christian author has ventured to assert "religion never was designed + to make our pleasures less," but he was a conspicuous heretic. Buddha's + doctrine was founded upon the assertion that life is always short, and + that it is not worth a man's while to buy a few years of enjoyment with + myriads of years of agony. Jesus preached that the Jews' time was short, + for they, and most probably all the world besides, were to be burned up + any day within the duration of the generation—what then was the use + of laying up stores of grain, of buying fine clothes, and keeping wine to + get mellow? + </p> + <p> + Both preachers were equally short sighted and absurd in their teaching, + for if their disciples were to live upon alms, and all repented and + adopted the doctrine, it is clear that all would starve together, and self + immolation by hunger was repugnant to both prophets. If no one made + clothes all must go naked, and indecency was forbidden. If no one was to + lay up money, there would be no one to pay for work, yet toil was + considered to be a duty. If every one was to live from hand to mouth, who + would keep a calf until it became a heifer, or a lamb to become a sheep? + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to conceive that two individuals could have worked out + such a scheme of salvation independently, and the minuteness of the + resemblances induces me to believe that Jesus, possibly without knowing + it, first adopted and then promulgated in Judea the doctrines of the + Indian sage. + </p> + <p> + Following, again, the lead of St. Hilaire (<i>Le Bouddha, &c</i>, + 1860, pp. 81, et seq.), we find that Siddartha taught 600 years B. C., + that death and all the miseries of mankind were due to the passions, + desires, and sins of man; that all this misery would cease in Nirvana (of + which we shall speak by and by), and that the means to attain to this + salvation is to keep the true faith; to have a correct judgment; to be + truthful in all things, and to hold every false thing in abhorrence; + always to act and to think with a pure and honest mind; to adopt a + religious life, i.e., one that is in no respect worldly, not owing even + subsistence to anything which might be tainted with sin; to practise a + careful and earnest study of the law; to cultivate a good memory, so that + all mistakes in conduct may be remembered if they have occurred, and be + avoided in the future; and frequent meditation, i.e., an abstraction of + the mind from self consciousness, a thinking of nothing, so as to + approximate the soul to Nirvana. These were Buddha's fundamental verities. + It is put more shortly thus,—"Practising no evil, advancing in the + exercise of every virtue, purifying one's self in mind and will, this is + indeed the doctrine of all the Buddhas." <i>Journal of Royal Asiatic + Society</i>, vol. xix. p. 473. + </p> + <p> + We may once more stop to compare the teaching of Siddartha with that + familiar to Christians. Paul says, for example (Rom. v. 12) "As by one man + sin entered into the world, and death by sin; so death passed upon all + men, for that all have sinned;" again, in chap, vi. 23, "the wages of sin + is death;" again, in chap. vii. 5, "when we were in the flesh the motions + of sins... did work in our members to bring forth fruit unto death;" and + again, chap. viii. 6, "to be carnally minded is death; but to be + spiritually minded is life and peace." We may next refer to what some call + the fundamental teaching of Jesus, as enunciated in answer to the question + of the young man "What shall I do that I may inherit eternal life?" + Matthew xix., Mark x., "If thou wilt enter into life, keep the + commandments. Thou shalt do no murder, thou shalt not commit adultery, + thou shalt not steal, thou shalt not bear false witness, honour thy father + and thy mother, and thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." And when + the young man asserted that he had done so, all that he was told to do in + addition, was to sell his property, give the proceeds to the poor, and + become a follower of Jesus, who had not where to lay his head, and to live + upon the charity of other people. I must, however, notice in passing, that + the teaching of Jesus is not by any means so uniform as that of Sakya, for + we find the former here instructing a young man to do no murder, but at a + subsequent period, that of the last supper, Jesus exhorts his disciples, + and through them, possibly, the very man to whom he rehearsed the + commandments, thus "He that hath no sword, let him sell his garment and + buy one," (Luke xxii 36). Certainly a direct encouragement to homicide. + </p> + <p> + For the benefit of the Buddhists a short formula of faith has been framed, + which is to this effect—"Tathâgata (another name of Sakya Muni), in + the proper condition, has explained that our present state is produced by + antecedent causes, and the great Sramana, or Ascetic (another cognomen of + Siddartha), has told us how to avoid the effects of sin. The effects are + pain and actual existence, having for their cause past sins; the cause is + the production of suffering: the cessation of these effects is Nirvana, + the teaching of Tathâgata, or of the great Sramana, is the way which leads + to Nirvana." The Christian formula runs, "As in Adam all die, even so in + Christ shall all be made alive." To this we may compare a Nepaulese + saying, "Arise, leave your possession, take up the law of Buddha, and + break asunder the power of death." + </p> + <p> + In addition to the fundamental maxim given on the preceding page, Sakya + Muni added many others, amongst them, "Thou shalt not kill, thou shalt not + steal, thou shalt not commit adultery, thou shalt not lie, thou shalt not + get drunk;" others are of lighter consequence—"thou shalt not eat + out of due season, thou shalt not watch dances or theatrical + representations, or listen to songs or music, thou shalt abstain from all + ornamentation of dress, &c., and from perfume; thou shalt not have a + large bed, nor ever take gold or silver; thou shalt remain inflexibly + chaste." + </p> + <p> + To those who desired to become disciples and personal friends of Buddha, + it was ordained that (a) They should only be clothed with rags taken from + the cemeteries, or from heaps of refuse, or found on the high road. (b) + That there should only be three of these vestments, and that each should + be stitched by the wearer, and that they should be covered with a cloak of + yellow wool (c) That the food should be as simple as possible—a rule + adopted by Christian saints, but not by Bishops. (d) That all should live + upon alms and offerings, which should be begged for, in perfect silence, + from house to house, and placed in a vessel made of wood—a plan + adopted by certain Christian mendicant friars. (e) That only one meal + should be taken during the day—a rule to be found in some Christian + monasteries. (f) That no aliments, even the most simple, should be taken + after noon, the rest of the day after this period should be devoted to + teaching and meditation. (g) The faithful should live in the wilderness or + forest, and not in towns or villages. Hence Christian hermits lived in the + deserts of the Thebaid. (h) They should only shelter themselves under the + boughs and leaves of trees. (i) They should sit with the back supported + only by the trunk chosen for refuge. (j) They should sleep sitting, and + not lying down. (k) They should never change their sitting mat from the + place where it was put first. (l) The disciples should unite together, at + least upon one night in the month, to meditate amongst the tombs upon the + instability of human things. Mendicity, chastity, and asceticism were + essential parts of Sakya Muni's practice, and St. Hilaire (op. cit., p. + 87) naively remarks that these certainly are not the means for making good + citizens, though they may produce good saints. + </p> + <p> + We may notice, in passing, that the pious followers of Sramana (the one + who mastered his passions) were very much more proper, in our eyes, than + some of the Brahmins, from whom they seceded, inasmuch as the former wore + sufficient garments to cover themselves decently, whilst the latter, whom + the Greeks called "Gymnosophists," went without any more clothing than the + horse or ass. It is also to be noticed that Siddartha provided a sort of + code of laws to be observed by those who wished to adopt his method of + salvation, without becoming altogether "religious." These consisted in the + enforcement of chastity, purity, patience, courage, contemplation, and + knowledge—these were, it was asserted, the transcendent virtues + which would pass man across the river of death. They would not land him + there in life, but whilst these were adopted as the rule of life, the + aspirant was in the right way to attain "Nirvana." + </p> + <p> + The charity which Sakya Muni ordained was universal, extending even to + what we call the lower animals, and one example is given in which a + disciple cast himself into the sea to save a boat's crew in danger of + death from a storm, whilst another tells of Buddha giving himself as food + to a tigress, who had not sufficient milk for her young ones. + </p> + <p> + Again, the precept against "lying" included false witness, and all that we + call "bad language," as well as trifling chat, called "badinage," "wit," + and the like. Persons were not only to avoid wrong, but they were to + cultivate every good habit, or what we designate each "Christian grace." + It was inculcated, that beauty of language, or eloquence, pleasantness of + voice, and a due respect to cadence should be studied, so as to make their + teaching popular, a precept not much regarded amongst ordinary Christian + divines. Beyond other things, humility was inculcated, not that which + exists on the lips only, and is apparently compatible with the determined + endeavour to exercise unlimited power, which has been conspicuous in the + Papacy for a millennium at least, but that which conceals greatness and + demonstrates littleness. Thus there is a legend of Buddha refusing, at the + request of a king, to exhibit any miracle to convince his opponents, his + answer being, "Great king, I do not teach the law to my hearers by saying + to them, 'Go, oh you religious men! and before Brahmins and house-holders + perform, by means of a supernatural power, miraculous things, which no + other men can effect,' but I say to them, in teaching them the law, 'Live, + oh ye pious ones, so as to conceal your good works, and to let your sins + be seen.'" + </p> + <p> + At this point we pause once more to draw a parallel between Siddartha and + Jesus, though, in the delineation of the doctrine of the latter, we shall + see a discrepancy which appears to indicate two distinct authorships in + the recorded story. We refer, in the first place, to Luke vi, wherein we + find, v. 27, et seq., "Love your enemies, do good to them which hate you, + bless them that curse you, and pray for them which despitefully use you, + and to him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other" + (compare Matt. v. 39, 40). Again, Matt. vi. 3, "When thou doest alms, let + not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth," and in v. 6, "When thou + prayest, enter into thy closet," &c.; v. 16, "When ye fast, be not, as + the hypocrites, of a sad countenance." Side by side with this we may place + the directions given in Matt, x., where we find that Jesus called his + disciples unto him, and gave them "power against unclean spirits to cast + them out, and to heal all manner of sickness and all manner of disease "—they + were, moreover, "to cleanse the lepers and raise the dead," i.e.t the + disciples were to perform miracles; but if they, in their wanderings and + teachings, should be rejected, despised, or affronted, the apostles were + to shake off the dust of their feet against the persecutors, being certain + that condign punishment would fall upon the offenders. + </p> + <p> + It is curious that in the histories of the Indian and the Jew, there + should be analogous discrepancies between records of their sayings and + doings. Siddartha and Jesus are represented, each of them, as declining to + perform miracles when asked or expected to do so. Nevertheless, in the + same histories we find marvellous accounts of the wonders which they + performed. We have seen the clashing reports of Buddha, the following + reports of the son of Mary are equally discordant. To make the dissonance + more striking, we place the passages in parallel columns. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/141.jpg" alt="141 " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + At what time after the death of Jesus the miracles recorded of him were + fabricated we can scarcely tell. If, with most critical scholars, we + believe that John's Gospel was written by some Neoplatonic Greek, at least + a century and a-half after the period alluded to, we must also believe, + either that all the legends about the casting out of devils by the son of + Mary were invented after the time when "John" lived, or else, which is + probable, that the last evangelist gave no credit to them, if they did + already exist; and if the good sense and superior knowledge of "John" led + him to discredit the tale about the legion of devils, which left one man* + to enter into about two thousand pigs, I do not see that other Christians + are obliged to believe the legend. From considerations which we advanced + in the articles Prophets, Prophecy, &c., in <i>Ancient Faiths</i> + (Vol. II., p. 515), and especially in the history of Barcochab, who was + supposed to be the Messiah by some Jews in A.D. 131-5, we argued that new + matter was certainly introduced into the story of Jesus told by Matthew, + Mark, and John, as late as the era of that enthusiastic Hebrew leader. We + noticed the doubts that existed in the minds of many early Christians as + to whether this redoubtable warrior was not "the man" of whom the prophets + spake. We may now still further notice that he professed to perform + miracles, which appear to be thoroughly contemptible when weighed against + those of the gospels. To our mind it is inconceivable that the followers + of Mary's son could have been acquainted with the marvellous works + attributed to Jesus in the gospels, and, yet be shaken by such a man as + Barcochab. We notice, also, that not one "Epistle" writer refers to them—consequently, + we believe that all the wondrous tales told of the prophet of Nazareth, + must have been introduced after the time of Hadrian (in whose reign + Barcochab was destroyed), and were fabricated by pious Christians, to + prove that the Messiah, in whom they believed, was infinitely superior to + that warrior whom others had for a time trusted. Both, to be sure, had + been killed by the Romans, and thus both might seem upon a par, but if + history could be cooked—and there is probably no single history + existing which is strictly true—to show that the first performed a + hundred times the wonderful works of the second, he would thus become + greatly exalted. See especially Matt. xxiv. 24, in confirmation of this + view. Be this as it may, there is, I understand, solid foundation for the + assertion that the New Testament, such as we have it now, might have been + composed, altered, curtailed, added to, remodelled, or otherwise + fashioned, at any period between the years a.d. 50 and 300, after which + change was difficult, though we cannot say impossible. A corresponding + statement is true of the books which record the life and doctrines of + Buddha. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In Matthew viii. 30-32, we are told that there were two + men who were possessed with the devils which subsequently + entered the herd of swine;—in Mark v. 11-13, the spirits + are represented as being concentrated in one person, and in + Luke viii. 32-33, the tale appears in the same guise as in + Mark—only the man is made to call himself "Legion," on + account of the multitude of devils living inside him. In + cases of this kind one need not be rigidly particular, for + it signifies little whether the spirits were one thousand in + one man or two thousand in two—the wonder is that spirits + could talk—fly away from man to pig, or commit suicide in + the bodies of the swine when they might have done the same + thing in one or two men. It is clear from the miracle that + certain devils change their habits when they take up their + habitation in porcine instead of human beings. +</pre> + <p> + At this period of our parallel we may profitably examine the New + Testament, and ascertain whether we cannot extract from it a tolerably + fair account of the life and teaching of Jesus, without including therein + a single act of thaumaturgy. We fearlessly assert, not only that we can, + but that the miracles are not an essential part of his doctrine. For + example, we learn that Jesus was the son of a woman betrothed to a + carpenter, who became pregnant ere yet the ceremony of marriage was gone + through. Her affianced husband did not make her frailty an excuse for + annulling the contract, possibly for a good, and to him a sufficient + reason. He married the already fruitful Mary, and her child passed amongst + the neighbours as being the son of Joseph. This we learn from Matt. xiii. + 55, where we find the people saying, "Is not this the carpenter's son? is + not his mother called Mary? and his brethren James, and Joses, and Simon, + and Judas, and his sisters, are they not all with us?" a statement + repeated in similar terms, Mark vi. 3. This short account is important, + since it completely destroys the papal doctrine that Mary was "ever + virgin," for she bore at least four other sons than her first born, and + two daughters. At no period was Jesus regarded either by the family or by + the neighbours as illegitimate, nor is there any reason to believe that + Joseph looked upon him otherwise than as his own son. Indeed, in Luke ii. + 42-48, the carpenter distinctly appears to act as if he recognized Jesus + as his own offspring—in verse 48, Mary says, "Son, why hast thou + thus dealt with us? behold thy father and I have sought thee sorrowing," + asserting as plainly as words could speak, that Joseph had begotten Jesus. + It is true that the youth replied, "Wist ye not that I must be about my + father's business?" but the story adds the important information, that the + couple did not understand the saying. + </p> + <p> + It is clear to us, that if the legend of the impregnation of Mary by the + Holy Ghost, after that event had been previously announced to her, and if, + as we are told in Matt. i. 20, Joseph had been informed by "the angel of + the Lord" that the foetus in Mary's womb was begotten by the Holy Ghost, + it would not have been possible for Joseph and his wife to have + misunderstood the words of Jesus. The very wonder which they expressed + demonstrates the belief of the parents that there was nothing unusual in + the conception. The father Joseph knew that he had borne his share in the + event, and Mary knew that she had not conversed with any other man; + consequently, for her son to indicate another father than Joseph, + naturally mystified her. We therefore cannot allow the assertion to pass, + that the conception and birth of Jesus was in itself a miracle. But as we + shall revert to the subject in a separate chapter, we will say no more + about it here. + </p> + <p> + After living and working with his parents for some years, Jesus was + attracted by the preaching of his cousin John, whose doctrines were + essentially Buddhistic and Essenian. Like the Hindoos, he used water as an + emblem of purification, and urged his hearers to repentance and good + conduct. What motives urged John to become "the voice of one crying in the + wilderness," we have no means of judging, but the gospel narratives tell + us that he, like Jesus, believed in the almost immediate destruction of + the world. His text was, "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." + Jesus adopted the view, and promulgated it more extensively. His text was + the same as that of his cousin, but more expanded. "The kingdom of heaven + means glory to the righteous, and everlasting life; misery and everlasting + destruction to the wicked. The time is near, hasten to escape from the + coming vengeance." The earnestness of Jesus, his acquaintance with the + prophets, his self-denial and his constant kindness, endeared him to the + common people. The same virtues had a like effect in the case of Buddha. + Amongst villagers and poverty-stricken fishermen he soon won his way, and + every one had some story to tell of him, which increased in wonder as it + passed from mouth to ears, and from these to the tongue of the listeners. + Those who know how an ordinary circumstance may gradually become described + as miraculous, even in England, can well imagine how the miracles of Jesus + and Siddartha were produced. + </p> + <p> + In time Jesus endeavoured to induce the magnates of Jerusalem to adopt his + doctrine, and to trust in repentance for salvation rather than in + sacrifice, but the enthusiast could not overcome the ritualists, and they + at once began to weigh their power against the influence of Jesus upon the + multitude. After a time the priests were convinced that supremacy rested + with them, and the man who preached a religion of the heart, was + sacrificed by the adherents of ceremonial. Such a fight is common, as we + see around us. The Evangelicals and the Ritualists of to-day, resemble the + followers of Jesus and of Moses. When the latter appeared in the guise of + powerful Romanist rulers, they put down the former, but now when the + former are the strongest, they endeavour to depress the latter. + </p> + <p> + After the death, or the withdrawal of Jesus from public life—for we + have no belief in the legends of his resurrection—considering that + his apparent decease was a prolonged fainting fit, for had he been dead + blood would not have followed a spear wound as it did—the disciples + of Jesus spread his fame largely. Whilst Jesus was with them they clung to + him; when he was no more, each man became a preacher, and then + Christianity spread until it met with Buddhism in Egypt, and thus became + developed in a peculiar direction. Then came the gospels, which made Jesus + a second Sakya. Although we can readily conceive that Jesus, like his + paltry successor, Joe Smith, the Mormon, captivated the minds of hundreds + without performing any supernatural deed, and that his "elders" vastly + increased the number of those who believed in him, yet it is clear, that + ancient and modern theologians were and are anxious to establish the + reality of the thaumaturgy attributed to Jesus, that they may appeal to it + to demonstrate that he was the son of God, an incarnation of a portion of + the creative mind—"the word," or <i>logos</i>, having the same + relationship to Jehovah, the "I Am," the Self-Existent One, as Buddha, + "the understanding" had to "Brahma," The Supreme One. + </p> + <p> + Accepting this issue for the sake of argument, we affirm once again that, + as the miracles of Sakya and of the son of Mary are equally unreliable, or + equally true, Buddha was as much a true son of God as Christ was, or that + Jesus was no more an incarnation of Jehovah, than Siddartha was of Brahma. + Jehovah and Brahma being merely different names for the same great Being. + That miracles are not necessary to the spread of a new faith, the history + of modern Presbyterianism and Mormonism distinctly proves. For further + remarks, we refer the reader to the article Miracle in the preceding + volume. We will postpone to a subsequent page what we have to say + respecting the asceticism of the Buddhists, and that which was prevalent + in the early Christian church. For the present, we resume our account of + Sakya Muni's teaching as described by St. Hilaire. + </p> + <p> + Founded upon his doctrine of absolute humility, he established the custom + of confession amongst his apostles or disciples, and amongst those who + venerated his teaching, though they did not' become his immediate + followers. This confession was not that simply auricular one enforced by + Ritualists, but it was made twice a month, at the new and the full moon, + before the great Sramana and the congregation, in a clear voice. Powerful + kings are reported to have followed this practice. + </p> + <p> + It will not require more than a minute's reflection to see that the + Buddhistic system of confession was far superior—as regards the end + in view—than that which has been adopted by Romanists and + Ritualists. Sakya and James (ch. v. 16) advised the practice in question, + that the sinner might be humiliated in his own eyes, and deterred from the + necessity of having again to acknowledge a fall from virtue before a + congregation of the faithful. Popes and Protestant Ritualists, on the + contrary, use confession for the purpose of inquiring into the character + of every penitent, and the practice is adopted by the sinner, not with the + view of repentance, but to wipe out periodically a sin which is habitually + renewed. + </p> + <p> + If confessions were made before a congregation, instead of to a priest in + a closet, or some other secret spot, there would not then be current so + many scandalous stories as there are—too true, alas, in many + instances—respecting women who have been debauched under the guise + of religion, and priests who have prostituted the ordinances of their + church, until they have made them pander to vice, and act as seeds to + produce immorality. + </p> + <p> + Though personally Tathâgata preached celibacy, he had not, like some of + the so-called saints of Christianity, any feeling of disrespect towards + family ties. He always spoke affectionately of his mother, though he never + knew her, and the legends say that he endeavoured to convert her in + heaven. His command that all his followers should honour their father and + mother was repeatedly enforced, that being only second to the duty of + learning, venerating, and keeping the law. It even went so high as to + include endeavours to teach the parents if they were ignorant. + </p> + <p> + One of the main duties of every teacher appointed by Siddartha, was to go + about preaching the law, and exhorting his hearers to learn and to obey + it. But no one, on any account, was to introduce the persecuting element. + No respect whatever was to be paid to caste, all being alike human before + God. Buddha himself is described as a very striking preacher, charming his + hearers by his clear and eloquent diction, astonishing them by his + supernatural power, sometimes instructing the common folk with ingenious + parables, and inciting them to emulation by telling what others had done. + He referred to the sins which had been committed in former days by an + ancient people, and how severely punished those who had committed them had + been, or still were, and he even recorded his own faults, that others + might learn to avoid them. He urged all his hearers to cultivate truth and + reason, which is certainly not a Christian practice, and not blindly to + obey their spiritual guides, as the modern faithful are taught to do. By + making the practice of every virtue the sole means for attaining eternal + salvation, he practically discouraged vice, but it does not appear that he + endeavoured actively to denounce immorality, sin, or sinners. He did not, + like many modern persons, "compound for sins they are inclined to, by + damning those they have no mind to." It is distinctly declared that it was + not necessary for ordinary followers of Buddha to become what is called + "religious," or "to enter into religion," as friars, monks, &c. To + those who preferred an ordinary mode of life, instructions were given, + that they should cultivate charity, purity, patience, courage, + contemplation, and knowledge. Indeed, we may assert that the precepts of + Jesus, as recorded in Matthew v., vi, and viii, and in Luke iii. 7 to 14, + are not essentially different from those propounded by Sakya Muni Neither + the one nor the other ordered or even recommended all men to be celibate, + all men to become poor, all soldiers to leave their profession—but + both urged upon every one who wished for salvation, to be kind, pure, + patient, courageous, thoughtful and eager after all knowledge. It would be + well if those calling themselves Christians would endeavour more fully to + understand that cultivating science is the same as advancing in the + knowledge of God. + </p> + <p> + Some of the remarkable parables found in Buddhist books are very probably + the original ones of Sakya; they are certainly ingeniously framed to + illustrate his doctrine. Nor is there wanting, indeed, one in which there + is an episode resembling the story of the thief upon the cross. It is of a + lovely courtesan who falls deeply in love with a jeweller, young, and a + devoted follower of Buddha, and solicits his company. To every message she + sends him, he returns the answer "it is not time for you to see me." At + length she commits a crime, and is sentenced to have ears, nose, hands, + and feet cut off, and to be carried to the graveyard to die, leaving the + cut off members at her ankles. At this period the young man visits her, to + see the true nature of those joys which drown men in perdition; then he + consoles the poor creature by teaching her the law; his discourse brings + calm into her breast, and she dies in professing Buddhism with a certainty + that she will rise again amongst the good. + </p> + <p> + We may mention, in passing, that there were female Buddhists as well as + males, both being on the same footing. The law, as announced by Sakya, + equally concerned and affected the two sexes. + </p> + <p> + Another and very interesting parable tells of a king who came before a + Buddhist priest and his assembled hearers, to the number of 350, to + confess his crimes, amongst others murder, and his resolution to avoid all + faults in future, and Bhagavat (the teacher's name) at once remits, in + conformity with the law, the faults of the king, which have thus been + expiated before a numerous assembly of the faithful, a remarkable instance + of remorse, repentance, confession, and remission of sin—some + centuries before Jesus was born. + </p> + <p> + At length a powerful king, Asoka, was converted to the new faith, or came + to the throne already a Buddhist, in the year b.c. 263, and reigned + thirty-seven years, during which time he devoted himself to spreading the + religion of his choice. He sent out a cloud of earnest missionaries who + spread themselves over Hindostan, Ceylon, China, Japan, and Thibet. + Indeed, they seem to have gone wherever there was means of locomotion, or + a knowledge of the existence of a people. As the Greeks were then + certainly trading with India, both by land and sea, it would be surprising + if the Buddhist missionaries had not accompanied the merchant ships, or + the overland convoys to Alexandria. But this subject, it is convenient for + the present to postpone. + </p> + <p> + There are two points connected with the teaching of Sakya Muni to which + many Christian writers have especially addressed their remarks, apparently + with the view of rendering Buddha more or less contemptible, or at least + of degrading him far below Jesus of Nazareth. It is asserted that + Siddartha did not believe in a god, and that his Nirvana was nothing more + than absolute annihilation. To these I am disposed to add, that the + Buddhists were not taught to pray, nor did their founder practise the + custom. + </p> + <p> + To my own mind, the assertion that Sakya did not believe in God is wholly + unsupported. Nay, his whole scheme is built upon the belief that there are + powers above which are capable of punishing mankind for their sins. It is + true that these "gods" were not called Elohim, nor Jah, nor Jahveh, nor + Jehovah, nor Adonai, nor Eliieh (I am), nor Baalim, nor Ashtoreth—yet, + for "the son of Suddhodana" (another name for Sakya Muni, for he has + almost as many, if not more than the western god), there was a supreme + being called Brahma, or some other name representing the same idea as we + entertain of the Omnipotent. Still further, in the life of Buddha, quoted + by St. Hilaire (p. 9) we find the following as part of the thoughts of the + young Siddartha—"The three worlds, the world of the gods, the world + of the assours (the benighted ones, or, as we should call them, 'the + devils ), and that of men, are all plagued by the occurrence of old age + and disease." We do not, for we dare not assert that this opinion is + identical with ours; but we are equally indisposed to say that the + opinions current amongst ourselves are absolutely true. + </p> + <p> + Men living in future days, and whose minds are educated, will probably + declare, "that the Christians of Europe and elsewhere, for nearly two + thousand years, had no god but the devil They said he was good, but they + painted him as one who rejoiced in pain, lamentation, mourning, and woe." + Buddha preached that man suffered from the effects of his sins, and that + unless he attained salvation, he would be punished everlastingly. The son + of Mary, and all his followers, taught, and Christians still entertain the + belief, that man suffers from the sin of a progenitor (assumed to be the + parent of all mankind), and that each person will be tortured throughout + eternity unless he is able to mollify his maker, who is also his judge. + Both teachers had necessarily an idea of a power able to make laws for the + conduct of human life, to ordain rewards for good behaviour, and to + apportion punishment for offences, and yet who was sufficiently forgiving + to cease from requital, "for a consideration," the bribe being invariably + a bloody one. Jesus called this power "my Father," Siddartha called him + Brahma, the Supreme one. + </p> + <p> + Jesus and his followers have asserted that the power of the son with "the + Father" is so great, that the latter will conform to the former, nay, he + even asserts his identity with the Supreme in the words "I and my father + are one," (John x. 30). See also Acts iv. 12, and 1 Thess. v. 9, in which + it is distinctly affirmed that Jesus is the sole means by which man can + attain salvation, or, in other words, turn away the wrath of God and + change it into love. But Jesus could only rise to the position of equal or + prime favourite by a very sanguinary process, as we find from Heb. ix. 22, + that there could be no remission of sin without shedding of blood. From + the following verses, and from Heb. x. 19, we learn that it is by the + sacrifice of himself that Jesus entered into his heavenly powers. + </p> + <p> + Can any one who depicts the gods of savages, of Grecians and others to + whom human beings were immolated in hundreds, call such deities "devils," + and then assert that the Jehovah, whom he extols as above all gods, is not + painted by men in the same colours. Siddartha's god was not a sanguinary + one, nor did Buddha always talk of shedding blood, or profess to give his + disciples his own flesh to eat, and his blood to them, that they might all + drink of it. + </p> + <p> + The way in which this Supreme One, Brahma, was painted at his time was + accepted by Sakya as he found it. He no more questioned the accepted + truths of Hindooism, than Jesus doubted about the absolute truth of the + Hebrew scriptures. But, in his own mind, after he had contemplated deeply + on the subject, he believed that the discovery which he had made of the + way to Nirvana, universal knowledge, or whatever else Nirvana was, had + raised him above Sakra Brahma, Mahesvara, and all the gods of the + pantheon. + </p> + <p> + Instead of breaking into expressions respecting the insanity or the + blasphemy of such an idea, let us school ourselves into calmness, and turn + to our own New Testament and read over Philippians, chap, ii. vv. 5-11, + "Let this mind be in you which was also in Christ Jesus, who being in the + form of God, thought it not robbery to be equal with God, but made himself + of no reputation, and took upon him the form of a servant, and was made in + the likeness of men, and being found in fashion as a man, he humbled + himself, and became obedient unto death, even the death of the cross: + wherefore God hath highly exalted him, and given him a name which is above + every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in + heaven, and things in earth and things under the earth, and that every + tongue should confess that Jesus Christ is Lord to the glory of God the + Father." + </p> + <p> + Still further, I have repeatedly heard Protestant Christian divines assert + that Jesus was really "Lord of the world above," and I cannot see any + greater insanity or blasphemy in the son of Suddodana believing that he + was at least equal with God, than in the son of Mary asserting "I and my + Father are one" (John x. 30), and when reproached for making himself thus + equal with God, he is reported to have remonstrated with his auditors who + accused him of blasphemy because he asserted himself to be the son of God. + The creeds of the Anglican and Roman churches repeatedly declare the + identity of Jesus with Jehovah, e.g., "equal to the Father as touching his + godhead." + </p> + <p> + The natural rejoinder to this representation is the assertion by the + Christian that he knows that Jesus of Nazareth really was what he + represented himself, and he is sure that Sakya Muni was not; but, on the + other hand, the Buddhist may say just the reverse with equal pertinacity. + This argument, if such a name it really deserves, is so common amongst all + careless religionists, that it deserves a few words in reply. It is based + upon the very natural notion, "what I believe, must be true," and to an + objector, the only answer is the question, "you don't fancy that I can be + wrong, do you?" When two such persons as a Christian and a Mahometan met + in days gone by, these were the only arguments used by each, and they were + first of all enforced by such revilings as come naturally to the faithful—"hound + of a Moslem"—"dog of a Christian," "you are a serpent"—"you + are a viper," and the like; from words they came to blows, and the + strongest arm was supposed to demonstrate the correctness of the victor's + faith. If, instead of taking physical strength as a test of truth, we + assume that a numerical preponderance on one side or another proves the + correctness of the belief held by the greatest number, we come to the + absurd conclusion that what is right to-day may be wrong to-morrow. + Babylonians were once far more numerous than Jews, and Jews than + Christians, to-day the last exceed vastly both the others. Now, there are + more Buddhists in existence than true followers of Jesus, in the next + century the proportion may be reversed. + </p> + <p> + Truth does not so fluctuate, and a philosopher who uses his reason will + take up a different stand entirely, and affirm that a man cannot become + God by meditation, fancy or assertion, nor yet by the consent or vote of + millions of his fellow-men, and that the assumption that any individual + must be, and is the begotten son of God, is on a par with the folly of the + potentates who call themselves brothers of the sun and moon. Such + absurdity and blasphemy are very common, nevertheless, and men believe + that Jesus is God, because they have elected him to that elevated position + by a general vote—or European plebiscite. + </p> + <p> + We now address ourselves to another important statement made by some + writers upon the religion of Sakya Muni, to the effect that he taught + annihilation to be the end most desirable for good men who have learned + and practised the law. This view is held by St. Hilaire, who, in almost + every other respect, has shown himself an historian rather favourable to + Siddartha than otherwise, and who speaks with some regret of the + conclusion which he feels obliged to draw. But he is opposed upon this + point by a very great English or German authority, viz., Max Müller, who, + in a lecture delivered before the general Meeting of the Association of + German Philologists at Kiel, and which is to be found translated in + Trubner's <i>American and Oriental Literary Record</i>, Oct. 16, 1869, + distinctly declares his belief that the nihilism attributed to Buddha's + teaching forms no part of his doctrine, and that it is wholly wrong to + suppose that Nirvana signified annihilation. + </p> + <p> + When two such earnest inquirers differ, it is instructive to notice the + reason why. This is to be found in the fact that the etymological + signification of the word does signify "nothingness," or "extinction," but + not, as Müller contends, annihilation of the individual, but a complete + cessation of all pain and misery. The last quoted author shows that + Siddartha used Nirvana as synonymous with Moksha, Nirvritti, and other + words, all designating the highest state of spiritual liberty and bliss, + but not annihilation. It seems to be perfectly clear that what was meant + by Sakya is, that to the good who have embraced the means of salvation + preached by him, the future world would be a haven of rest, in which all + sorrow, suffering, and sin should be annihilated. But the teacher does not + go beyond this, and descant upon the opposite conditions, and promise joys + ineffable and full of glory. His followers believe that they will attain + to immortality, and that they will be free from all such horrors as life + brings with it. But the pleasures which they expect are negative. + </p> + <p> + Before we either pity or despise Siddartha for not giving his followers + any idea of what we call Heaven, it would be well to endeavour to discover + the true teaching of Jesus of Nazareth upon this point, and the ideas of + his followers. We must also say a few words about his ideas of Hell. He + clearly believed that there was a place in which those whose lives had + been wicked would be punished after death by the devil and his angels—the + place was one of outer darkness, where shall be weeping and wailing, and + gnashing of teeth (Matt. viii. 12). In Matt. xiii. 42 this place of outer + darkness is described as "a furnace of fire," and in Mark ix. 43-44 this + fire is described as one that never shall be quenched, and in which there + lives a worm. In Luke xvi. 23-24 there is an expression of the belief that + the body lives after death in its usual form, and has eyes, a tongue, the + power of speech, &c.; yet in Matt. x. 28 the doctrine is inculcated + that both body and soul are destroyed in Hell. In Jude 7 and 13 Hell is + again described as a place of unquenchable fire, and yet one occupied by + the blackness of darkness; whilst in Revelation xix. 20 and xx. 10 we are + told that the fire is a lake of burning brimstone. Of the absolute + locality of this horrible spot not a word is said. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, Heaven is described (Matt xiii. 43) as a place where + the righteous shall shine forth as the sun in the kingdom of God. In Luke + xvi. 22 the pleasure of Heaven is made to consist of a simple repose in + the bosom of Abraham; but though we are there led to believe that the + blessed can see the torments of the damned, it does not appear that either + "the father of the faithful," or the poor beggar Lazarus, take any + pleasure in contemplating them, as some few divines of the church of + England believe that they will do, when they have arrived at the abode of + bliss, and see their enemies in the burning lake. Paul, when writing to + the Corinthians, (1 Ep. xv.) gives his idea of the resurrection of the + just as one in which each man will be a spiritual edition of his former + terrestrial self, but beyond the statement in 1 Thess. iv. 17, that the + redeemed will, when in heaven, dwell for ever with the Lord, he expresses + no opinion of the occupation of the glorified ones. In John's gospel (xiv. + 2) Jesus is reported as saying,—"In my Father's house are many + mansions or houses—I go to prepare a place for you," but there is + nothing like any account of what is to be done in those abodes. + </p> + <p> + Again, we find, Ps. xvi. 11, in a verse which has been largely adapted to + Christianity, an idea of Heaven given thus—"in thy presence is + fulness of joy, at thy right hand there are pleasures for evermore." What + David's pleasures were we may judge from his life, and we may fairly + imagine that the writer of the passage had an idea something like that of + Mahomet—that there were houris in Heaven for the delectation of the + faithful. But in Isaiah lxiv. 4, and I Cor. ii. 9 everything about Heaven + is declared to be vague—a something which the eye has not seen, the + ear heard, or the heart conceived. + </p> + <p> + In the book called <i>The Revelation of St. John the Divine</i>, we have a + far more detailed account of what was believed by some about heaven, than + in any other, and there is no doubt that to it a large number of + Christians appeal, for it is, indeed, almost the only foundation on which + they can build. Yet the Apocalypse was for a long time an uncanonical + book, and its truth and value were, and still are, doubted by many of the + faithful. In the part referred to, heaven is described as a place + incalculably rich in gold and precious stones, in music and pleasant + odours, and its joys are pour-trayed as consisting in constant contact + with the evidences of wealth, and in eternally singing a certain refrain, + an hour of which would be a great trial to human ears. To this is added + the absence of pain, sorrow, and suffering. The New Jerusalem, described + in chapter xxi. is nothing more than a palace similar to that of Aladdin, + which is described in <i>The Arabian Nights?</i> fabulously adorned with + gems, lighted by other means than a burning sun or a cold moon, cooled or + refreshed with a river of clear water, and furnished with trees bearing + different kinds of fruit, but all delicious—thus involving the + certainty that the singing referred to, must have been suspended whilst + the palate was regaled—and having leaves said to be <i>for the + healing of the nations</i>. The words thus italicised seem to show the + indefiniteness of the <i>idea</i>, we dare not say of the <i>knowledge</i> + of John, for the existence of this new Jerusalem involves the absence of + any disease which required healing; and every person who was not already + assigned to the brimstone lake, was a resident on the margin of the + crystal river. Such discrepancies are common in visionary writings, and + ought to make us distrust them; but instead of that, wild theories are + founded upon these absurdities, and the builders thence attempt to prove + their own superior knowledge. Well, in this new Jerusalem, every man is to + be a ruler, for we are told, that in it the servants of the Lamb (chap. + xxii. 3 sq.) shall serve him, and see his face, that his name shall be + written upon their foreheads, and they shall <i>reign</i> for ever and + ever. The word italicised, very naturally recalls to us an earlier passage + in the same book (chap, i. 6) wherein the writer expresses the belief that + Jesus Christ has made his followers "kings and priests." It is then clear + that John had the notion that in heaven every denizen would be a king. But + king over whom? or over what? if every one in new Jerusalem is a ruler, + what is he a ruler of? It is, to the critic, moderately certain, that all + which the words are intended to convey is, that every inhabitant of the + New Jerusalem or Heaven will be as rich and happy as a mundane sovereign. + This, again, involves the belief that the author of the Apocalypse had an + essentially sensual idea of Heaven, and that he pourtrayed it as a man + would do, who, pining in misery, suffering from disease, pinched with + want, obliged to serve as the slave of wealth, and to contribute much, out + of his little, to the king's taxes, saw daily, and envied deeply, the high + position and great wealth of a tyrant, with whom, his faith induced him to + believe, that he would change places hereafter. + </p> + <p> + That the descriptions of Heaven in Revelation can be considered as + reliable, by any thoughtful Christian, I marvel, for they are bound up + with an assurance which the lapse of time has fully demonstrated to be + false. In chap, xxii., v. 12 and 20, the one who is described as the Lord + of the New Jerusalem, the Christian Heaven, asserts that he is coming + quickly, and that his reward is with him. Yet in no sense of the words is + this true, nor has it ever been so. + </p> + <p> + Tested, then, by every available means, we assert that the Heaven + described by Jesus of Nazareth and his immediate followers is quite as + vague, indistinct, and unreliable as the Buddhist Nirvana; or, if the + affirmative be preferred, we say that the Christian Heaven is quite as + uncertain or indefinite a prize for Jesus' disciples as the Nirvana of + Sakya. Both teachers seem to have been equally confident of the existence + of a Hell, and equally cautious in expressing their ideas about a Heaven. + And we, who have had the advantage of many centuries of civilization and + thought, dare no more frame or promulgate a scheme of Elysium than the + Romans did—we really know nothing whatever about a future state. + </p> + <p> + There is this, however, to be said in favour of Siddartha—he did + not, like Mahomet and John, preach a Paradise, in which all the pleasures + are worldly, sensuous, or sensual—John promising music and fruit, + Mahomet feasting and women. All the Indian's teaching pointed to a future + world, in which human passions, frailties, and propensities would find no + place, for the purified being would cast off, with his earthly body, every + carnal appetite. In fact, there is reason to believe that Buddha's idea + was, that after death each essence would become reincorporated with the + Great Spirit, of whom his soul had originally formed a part. It is + doubtful whether any of us could tell him a more perfect way to the truth + about the matter. + </p> + <p> + Yet, although neither Sakya nor Jesus gave any distinct account of Heaven, + it is certain that some of their followers have done so, and it is + remarkable to see how they have developed their ideas in the same way. + Compare, for example, the account given by John, Apocalypse chaps, xxi., + xxii., with the following account, which I copy from the <i>Kusa Iatakya</i>, + a Buddhistic legend of Ceylon, by T. Steele, p. 195. "<i>Swarga</i>, or + the heaven occupied by Indra, is described as the most splendid the human + mind can conceive (Percival's <i>Land of the Vedas</i>, p. 160). Its + palaces are composed of pure gold, resplendent diamonds, jasper, sapphire, + emerald, and other precious stones, whose brilliance exceeds that of a + thousand suns! Its streets are of crystal, fringed with gold. The most + beautiful and fragrant flowers adorn its forests, whose trees diffuse the + sweetest odours. Refreshing breezes, canopies of fleecy clouds, thrones of + the most dazzling brightness, birds of the sweetest melodies, and songs of + the most delightful harmony, are heard in the enchanting pleasaunces, + which are ever fragrant, ever robed in summer green." The author whom I am + quoting follows these remarks with lines from Bernard de Morley's hymn, <i>Jerusalem + the Golden</i>, clearly showing how greatly he has been struck with the + parallelism between the Buddhist and Christian idea. + </p> + <p> + So far as I can find, there appears to be a certainty that Sakya Muni did + not teach to his followers the necessity for prayer. That Jesus did so + teach his disciples is the common belief of Christians. Yet, in the + parallel which we are thus drawing, we are perfectly justified in the + assertion that the son of Mary did not teach it from his own spontaneous + judgment, as John the Evangelist had done before him. Jesus certainly did + not originate prayer; indeed, it appears that the subject was forced upon + him, and that unless he had been urged to it, he would neither have taught + to others the necessity for prayer, nor have dictated the supplication + which still passes by his name. The following passage in Luke xi. 1 seems + to be decisive upon this point:—"And it came to pass, as he was + praying in a certain place, one of his disciples said unto him, Lord, + teach us to pray, as John also taught his disciples." We see, then, in the + first place, that Jesus did not hold, as a fundamental doctrine, that + prayer was part of the duty of man, but that he took it up as a necessary + part of his Jewish education, and adopted it amongst the subjects of his + discourses, following the example of John. When we try to penetrate into + the mind of Jesus, as shown in "the Lord's Prayer," and ascertain what he + regarded as the fittest objects for orison, we find that they are almost + exclusively worldly. There is, in the first place, an ascription of + praise, or of reverence, then an expression of a desire that the world + should become good; that each man should have a daily meal; that all + offences should be condoned, and none others committed; and that no harm + should happen to any who used the entreaty. Compared with the composition + attributed to Solomon, and said to have been uttered by him at the + dedication of the temple, that which is said to have been given by Jesus + is meagre in the extreme. It does not contain a single supplication for + spiritual blessing, or for salvation. + </p> + <p> + In the mind of a philosopher there is a doubt whether the general heathen + notion about prayer, or the apparent Buddhist prayerlessness, is to be the + most commended. Yet, ere we discuss the point, I must remark that although + Buddha does not appear to have taught the duty of prayer to his disciples, + they practise it nevertheless, and have long litanies, chantings, and + mechanical contrivances quite as efficacious, and not more absurd, than + the senseless repetitions which pass current amongst us for supplications + to the Most High. Now, if we require from ourselves a distinct answer to + the question, what is prayer? we can frame no other than this—"it is + the expression of a desire on our part that the Creator will modify the + laws of nature in our favour, in favour of others, or in His own favour!" + The idea that He will do this is plainly builded upon the supposition that + the Creator is like a man, and can be induced to change His mind—that + a creature thinks He is harsh or wrong, and must be set right. When put + thus clearly, the most obtuse can see that prayer must necessarily be + inefficacious, and must always proceed from a selfishness so intense as to + cloak the blasphemy from view. + </p> + <p> + If, instead of the above definition, we designate prayer as the uttering + of a fervent hope or desire for the benefit of an individual, we can + understand that it is quite as useful as any other ejaculation. Nothing is + more common than for an angry man to curse with all the energy of + exasperation; nothing more common than for a punished hound to yelp, and + for a child, when pained, to cry or roar. Still further I will say, from + personal experience, that the utterance of cries or groans enables an + individual to bear pain with less effect upon his nervous system than + would be felt if they were suppressed. Vociferations are as natural, and, + to some, as necessary as indulging the appetite for hunger. In like + manner, when the mind of man, especially of one only partially educated, + is dominated by intense fear, or by any form of anxiety or present + suffering, there is an instinctive propensity to seek aid from any source, + certain or uncertain, and the enunciation of hopes with an audible voice + is as much necessary to some as roaring is to a lion, or bleating to a + sheep. In this sense prayer is a comfort—it helps to soothe feelings + which, if pent up, would become, probably, too great for endurance; and, + knowing this, I would no more deride prayer than I would laugh at a baby + who cried for his absent mother. + </p> + <p> + I do not doubt, in the smallest possible degree, that prayer is a comfort + under certain circumstances. For example, my child may be seriously ill, + and I may do everything which my medical knowledge enables me to do; but + day by day drags wearily along, the fever seems to intensify, and it is + clear that there is a struggle between the living force, and the agent + which interferes with it. As hour after hour passes, and anxiety deepens + into fear, I am like a hardy fellow under the lash: at first the stripes + are borne with firmness, but as another and another falls, not only + does-the pain seem keener, but the mental power which gives courage to + bear the cutting agony diminishes, and the pent-up feelings are vented in + a roar of anguish, or a groan of despair. Just so in the depth of my + misery I may utter a prayer—a wish that in one way or another my + torn and lacerated feelings as a father might be healed, and I may expect + to receive solace thereby, no matter whether I address Jehovah, Brahma, + Ishtar, or the Virgin Mary. To hear the sound of one's own voice, even the + task of having to compose an intelligible sentence, relieves, for a time, + the poignancy of grief, and thus helps one to bear it more patiently. That + supplication thus brings relief I do not for a moment doubt, but that it + has any influence in the result I deny. + </p> + <p> + Entertaining this view, I cannot regard prayer as a duty. It seems to me + to be a deliberate insult to the Almighty to be constantly urging Him to + alter the course of nature—or as we may otherwise put it "to change + His mind." To trust that prayer will obviate the necessity for action + seems to me the height of folly. If a man uttered the words "Give me this + day my daily bread" a hundred times over, and yet never sought to obtain + it, we should regard him as a lunatic. Equally silly should we be if, when + praying "Defend us in all assaults of our enemies," we did not prepare for + battle—or if, after ejaculating "defend us from all perils and + dangers of this night," we were to go to bed without seeing that our + premises were as secure as forethought could make them. However much the + theologian may believe in prayer, he cannot deny that it is less + efficacious than action. Now Buddha preached action whilst Christ preached + inaction, e.g., "take no thought for the morrow," &c. (Matt. vi. + 25-34), consequently we are more disposed to give the palm for correct + judgment to the Indian than to the Jew. + </p> + <p> + We must, in the next place, notice that many followers of the son of + Suddodana and the son of Mary have both acted, and do still act, upon the + belief, not only that prayer is a duty, but that every supplication has + positive power in the world above—consequently the more extended the + utterances the greater their influence. In point of fact, prayers are + spoken of as if they were equivalent to sacrifice, alms-giving, or any + other supposed virtue. For this there seems to be some foundation in Acts + x. 4, where Cornelius is told that his prayers and his alms have come up + before God; in James v. vv. 15, 16, we are told that "the prayer of faith + shall save the sick;" and that "the effectual, fervent prayer of a + righteous man availeth much." In Revelation v. 8, we are told that the + prayers of the saints are kept in golden vials in heaven, and used as + odours. In chapter viii. 3, we find they are offered with incense upon the + celestial altar, and that the two conjointly come before the presence of + God. This being so, there is a desire to accumulate prayers on the + creditor side of the heavenly books, just as in the days when sacrifices + were trusted in, there was an attempt to increase their influence by + augmenting the number of the creatures slaughtered. This propensity to + multiply orisons was distinctly rebuked by Jesus, who ordered his + followers not to make vain repetitions, for that the custom was heathenish + and to be avoided; a prohibition which had been made by Siddartha to his + followers some centuries before. + </p> + <p> + To me, I confess, that a life of perpetual prayer without action indicates + a belief that God can be "pestered" into doing something that He did not + intend; and that it is infinitely worse than a life of action such as + Sakya Muni inculcated. I can see no sense in praying for something that I + do not want, or that I cannot have without personal exertion. It seems to + me sheer nonsense for anyone to pray that he may not grow older, and + equally foolish to supplicate that he may live to be a king. In like + manner it would be silly in me to petition for power to read Assyrian + writing, and yet never study its characters. If, then, by diligent and + steady plodding a man can attain his desire, it appears wholly useless in + him to pray for it. We may say the same of one who wishes to curb his + passions—he can do so to a great extent by assiduous self-control; + but he cannot do so any more completely by a lifetime passed in prayer. + From this point of view, therefore, we must again side with Siddartha + rather than with Jesus. + </p> + <p> + It now remains to us to make some observations upon the developments of + Buddhism after the death of Sakya Muni, but we need not linger over them + long. His doctrine of self-denial, of patient suffering, of celibacy, of + fasting, of preaching and of meditation, gradually produced a system in + which asceticism, solitude, and penance were the prevalent duties. Men and + women desirous of being saintly and of attaining to eternal happiness, + selected some den, cave, or tree in which they could live a life devoted + to contemplation, or else they banded themselves into companies where they + could practise the Buddhistic virtues in each other's presence, and one + could encourage or correct another. Buddhist monkeries and nunneries are + almost as common, and certainly more ancient than Roman Catholic + monasteries, and they had very nearly the same numerous accessories in + worship, which we are familiar with in papal countries. It is almost + impossible to read the accounts given by the Abbé Hue, and other Eastern + travellers, of Buddhism in China, Thibet, and Japan, without seeing the + close resemblance of the Roman Church to that founded by Siddartha. + Indeed, the Abbé was sorely tried by what he saw; and it is rumoured that + he was punished by some ecclesiastical authority, and his book suppressed. + Pure Buddhism, moreover, was, like pure Christianity, a very painful + religion in practice, consequently both the one and the other have + degenerated, and have gradually become altered much in the same way—both + having amalgamated themselves with other systems, and having gradually + eliminated those proceedings which are most repulsive to human nature. In + both there is now, apparently, the idea that the ascetic life may be + lived, as it were, by deputy. In Buddhism, certain men obtain their living + by fasting, meditating, macerating their flesh, and praying instead of + other people, being, of course, adequately paid for their endurance of + privation. In a branch of the Church founded by Jesus the same notion has + obtained, and men who have wallowed in filth, starved themselves, and + spent their days in a miserable round of penance and prayer, are dignified + by the name of Saints, and are supposed to be able to hand over—for + a consideration in money—the benefit of their sufferings to people + who wish to live comfortably as well as piously. + </p> + <p> + Without burdening this chapter with a dissertation upon the Romish + doctrine of works of supererogation, I will quote a few extracts from the + Roman Missal, in use in England, to show that works done by another can be + made available for the use of any particular individual. On January 16, + the day of Saint Marcellus, the people are told to pray "that we may be + aided by the merits of blessed Marcellus, Thy martyr and bishop, in whose + sufferings we rejoice." On January 29, the day of Saint Francis of Sales, + we find in the prayer to be used by the people, "mercifully grant that we + may by the aid of his merits, attain unto the joys of life everlasting." + Again, on February 8, the day of Saint John of Matha, we find in the + prescribed prayer, "mercifully grant that by his merits pleading for us, + we may be," &c.—and, lastly, we notice on March 19, on Saint + Joseph's day, "vouchsafe, O Lord, that we may be helped by the merits of + Thy most holy mother's spouse," &c. The practice of the Buddhists is + then essentially followed by the Roman Christians. + </p> + <p> + Pure Buddhism was wholly free from the sexual element so common in other + religions of antiquity, and so was the religion of Jesus. Yet in Thibet + the first became intermingled therewith and Vajrasatta or Dorjesempa the + Thibetan "God above all," is represented in <i>Schlayintweit's Atlas of + Plates</i> as a male conjoined with a female; but so ingenious is the + contrivance that the many might see the drawings without noticing anything + particular, for the trinity and the unity are both hidden from view; and + in Europe the latter has introduced St. Foutin and St. Cosmo into her + calendar, and has founded her worship of a trinity and a virgin upon the + pagan reverence given to the creative organs in both sexes. Veneration for + a triune God and his female consort is no more a portion of the teaching + of the son of Mary than it was the doctrine of the child of Maya Devi, + Buddha's mother. + </p> + <p> + It will probably be quite as difficult for the reader of the preceding + pages, as it has been for the writer of them, to avoid putting the + question to himself, "Was Jesus of Nazareth a Buddhist disciple?" In + answer to this question I reply that we have no direct proof either on one + side or the other, but there is much circumstantial evidence to show that + he was. We may marshal it thus:— + </p> + <p> + 1. There is very strong reason for belief that the intercourse between the + inhabitants of India and the successors of Alexander was considerable. For + example, we find before the time of the Maccabees, b.c. 280, or perhaps + somewhat later, that Antiochus, the king of Syria, had 120 elephants—things + which had never before been seen in Syria, Palestine, or Egypt, and which + took their local name from the Phoenician <i>aleph</i>, a bull—the + Jews supposing that they were a new kind of cattle. From the accounts + given us we infer that these were Indian, and were trained either by + Hindoo mahouts or by Greeks taught in Hindustan. Animals of this size may + have come by land or by water. In either case we have evidence of traffic. + We have already seen that the great missionary effort of Buddhism took + place in the time of Asoka about B.C. 307, and it is not likely that the + West would be neglected when the Eastern countries received such attention + as they did. The Greeks had by this time found their way by sea to India, + and thus it is certain that the route was known. There is then presumptive + evidence that Buddhism was taught amongst the people frequenting the + kingdom of Antiochus the Second, B.C. 261. At this period and + subsequently, this king and his subjects came much into contact with the + Jews, so that it is equally easy to believe that the Hebrews were found + out by the Hindoo missionaries as that the Alexandrian Greeks were. + </p> + <p> + 2. I have been unable to find in the Jewish law, in Grecian story, in the + accounts of old Babylonians, Carthaginians, Romans, Egyptians, or in any + other history except that of India, testimony which shows that asceticism + was an essential part of religion. It is true that we do find fasting to + be occasionally mentioned in the Old Testament as a sign of grief or of + abasement,* but never as a means of gaining salvation in a future life—whose + very existence was unknown to Moses and the Jews. The observation of a + period of hunger formed no part of the Mosaic law. On the contrary, + ancient European religions, and those of Egypt and Western Asia were + associated with feasting and jollification (see Deut. xiv. 26.) The Jews + were encouraged to indulge in a plurality of wives; but they were nowhere + directed or recommended to live on alms. Again, we find nowhere any orders + to the priests or Levites to go about the country expounding or teaching + the law. Consequently, when we notice the rise of asceticism, preaching, + and celibacy, between the time of Antiochus and that of Jesus, we are + justified in the belief that they were introduced from without, and by + those of the only religion which inculcated them as articles of faith and + practice. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In Lev. xvi. 30; xxiii. 27, 28; and Numb. xxix. 7, there + are directions given to the Jews, that on a certain day they + are "to afflict their souls," and a threat is added, that + "whatsoever soul it be that shall not be afflicted in that + self same day, he shall be cut off from amongst his people." + There is no specific direction as to the method of + afflicting the soul; but it is to be associated with + absolute laziness, for whatever soul doeth any work on that + day shall be destroyed (Lev. xxiii. 28-31). The law is + evidently a very modern one, as we do not find it referred + to in the Ancient Jewish records, and the idea of atonement + was introduced by the Talmudic Pharisees. +</pre> + <p> + 3. The Hebrews always showed during the Old Testament times a great + aptitude to adopt the faith of outsiders—and as the Jewish people + were in great abasement and misery at the period when it is probable that + the Buddhist missionaries came into Syria, they would be prepared for the + doctrine that they were suffering for bygone sins. The idea that men in + the present were sometimes punished for sins done in the past was a Hebrew + as well as a Hindoo idea, else Saul's sons would not have been hanged for + their father's misdeeds, or the Amalekites have been slaughtered by + Samuel, because their forefathers had some centuries before fought with + Israel and been conquered by Moses and Joshua. + </p> + <p> + 4. That after the Persian reign it is certain, that three Jewish sects + existed,—the Pharisees, the Essenes, and the Sadducees—the + last alone being purely Mosaic, and the two first being very like the + Buddhists. + </p> + <p> + To strengthen the links of evidence, we may now say a few words about the + remarkable sect of the Essenes, premising our belief that it was founded + by missionaries of the faith of Sakya Muni, whose doctrines and practice + became, subsequently, modified by Mosaism, just as Christianity was + considerably remoulded by Talmudism, or, to use an example nearer our own + times, as the Christianity preached by European missionaries to the New + Zealanders has been altered by the natives, in accordance with their + ancient ideas. To them the Old Testament is the Bible, the New Testament + is of no value. + </p> + <p> + The Essenes are described by the Rev. Dr Ginsburg, whose authority I + follow (<i>The Essenes</i>. Longmans, London, 1864), as a Jewish sect of + singular piety. They did not sacrifice animals, but endeavoured to make + their own minds holy—fit for an acceptable offering to Jehovah. They + provided themselves with just enough for the necessities of life, and held + such goods as they possessed, e.g., clothes and cloaks, in common. They + only allowed themselves to converse on such parts of philosophy as concern + God and man. They abhorred slavery, but each served his neighbour. They + respected the Sabbath. Their fundamental laws were, to love God, to love + virtue, and to love mankind. They affected to despise money, fame, + pleasures, professed the most strict chastity, or, rather, continence, and + they practised endurance as a duty. They also cultivated simplicity, + cheerfulness, modesty, and order. They lived together in the same houses + and villages, and sustained the poor, the sick, and the aged. When they + earned wages the money was paid to a common stock. They did not marry, or + have children; but if any of their body chose to wed, there was nothing in + the regulations to prevent their doing so, only they then had to enter + another class of the brotherhood. When possible, they worked all day. They + were highly respected by those who knew them, and were frequently + receiving additions to their number. They seem to have resembled, in their + habits and customs, a fraternity of monks of a working, rather than a + mendicant, order. Pleasure they regarded as an evil, having a tendency to + enchain man to earthly enjoyments, a peculiarly Buddhist tenet. Still + further, they considered the use of ointment as defiling, which was + certainly not a Hebraic doctrine; but they dressed decently. They prayed + devoutly before sunrise; but until the orb had risen they never spoke of + worldly matters. They gave thanks, and prayed before and after eating; and + ere they entered the refectory bathed in pure water. The food provided was + just sufficient to keep them alive. When a person wished to enter the + community, he underwent a period of trial, and, if approved, he proceeded + to take an oath—"to fear God; to be just towards all men; never to + wrong anyone; to detest the wicked, and love the righteous; to keep faith + with all men; not to be proud; not to try and outshine his neighbours in + any matter; to love truth, and to try and reclaim all liars; never to + steal or to cajole; never to conceal anything from the brotherhood, and to + be reticent with outsiders." The Essenes reverenced Moses, and so great + was their respect for the Sabbath, that they would not ease nature on that + day. They bore all tortures with perfect equanimity, and fully believed in + a future state of existence, in which the soul, liberated from the body, + rejoices, and mounts upwards to a paradise, where there are no storms, no + cold, and no intense heat, and where all are constantly refreshed by + gentle ocean breezes. Josephus compares this sect with the Pythagoreans; + and I think this fact is worth noticing, for there was, in old times, a + strong opinion that the founder of that sect brought his peculiar opinions + from Hindostan. Pliny, in writing of the Essenes, remarks that their + usages differ from those of all other nations—which we may take as a + demonstration that they did not copy their constitution from Greeks, + Romans, or Jews. Respecting the origin of this sect nothing certain is + known, beyond that they were in existence at the time of the Maccabees. + Critics decline to see in them any direct relations to the Pythagoreans, + and some imagine that the order sprung naturally out of a spiritual + reading of the Mosaic law, modified, probably, by Persian or Chaldee + notions. + </p> + <p> + It seems to me, however, that the tenets and practice of the Essenes + indicate rather a Buddhist than a Mosaic origin, for celibacy is + everywhere in the Old Testament spoken of as a misfortune, and abundance + of wives as a proof of God's favour; and I imagine that some devout Indian + missionary persuaded many pious Jews to listen to his doctrine, but that + he was unable to convert them sufficiently to induce them to give up the + law of Moses for that of Siddartha. I conceive still further, that John + the Evangelist, and, subsequently, Jesus of Nazareth, were perfectly + cognizant of the doctrines of the Essenes, if they were not members of the + sect, and that there is nothing incredible in the idea that both these + preachers were instructed by some Buddhist missionary, although neither + was ever induced to give up his belief in the absolute truth of those + Jewish writings, which both had been accustomed to regard as absolutely + true and sacred. + </p> + <p> + We readily allow that our theory may be called a wild one, but we assert + that, in reality, it is far otherwise. Of course a critic may say that + John, and his follower, Jesus, were just as likely to have struck out a + new theory of salvation as Sakya Muni was; or, if exceedingly orthodox, he + may assume that the preaching of Jesus was the pure result of inspiration, + not such as was given to the prophets by Jehovah, but emanating from + himself as a source of absolute truth. But we demur to both assertions. + The profound reverence that Mary's son showed, in the early part of his + career, for the law and for the prophets, would have prevented his doing + anything to upset the former in so marked a manner as he did, in respect + to the Sabbath day and other matters (see Matthew v. 31, 32, 33, 34, 38, + 39, 43, 44), unless there had been some strong influence, from without, + brought to bear upon his mind, and to cast it in a different mould to that + of Pharisee or Sadducee. Nor can we believe Jesus to have been inspired, + unless we extend the same belief to Buddha's teaching, and believe that he + also was a fountain of light and righteousness, which we certainly are not + disposed to do. + </p> + <p> + Our hypothesis respecting a connection between the teaching of the Indian + and the Hebrew, appears to be strengthened when we contemplate the + distinction between the doctrines of the Jewish and the Hindoo sage. We + have seen how they agree as regards the morality which they inculcate, the + celibacy and poverty that they enjoin, the firm belief in preexistent, or + original, sin, and in a future state of rewards or punishments. They + differ in the veneration paid to antecedent authority. Sakya Muni believed + in his own inspiration, and rejected the writings which were reverenced by + his parents and Mends. Jesus seems to have believed that he was himself + supplemental to Moses and the prophets. He did not want to destroy or to + supersede them absolutely, as we learn from Matthew v. 17, and xxiii. 23. + He had, apparently, an unbounded confidence in their truth, and, with an + assurance in their sanctity, he spoke of their writings as the very words + of God, and we shall see that the main, if not the only, points in which + Jesus diverges from the Hindoo prophet were the products of the Hebrew's + full belief in the sacred truth of the Jewish Scriptures. + </p> + <p> + The son of Mary taught, as the most important part of his doctrine, that + the world would shortly come to an end, and that he was sent to show + mankind, or, rather, the Jews, how to escape from the terrible + catastrophe. I do not think it possible for anyone to read the words + attributed to Jesus, and not recognize that this was the turning point + upon which everything in his preaching hinged. Sakya Muni spoke of the + future misery of all those who did not adopt his method of salvation; + Jesus treated of the impending destruction of the whole world, of an + immediate judgment of mankind, and of the certain punishment of the + majority. That we are not uttering vague assertions we may show by + reference to Matt. xxiv. 3, wherein we find certain disciples asking, + "What shall be the sign of thy coming, and of the end of the world?" After + a long preamble, telling of troubles and misery, we have the reply of + Jesus in vv. 29 et seq.:—"Immediately after the tribulation of those + days shall the sun be darkened, and the moon shall not give her light, and + the stars shall fall from heaven, and the powers of the heavens shall be + shaken: and then shall appear the sign of the Son of man in heaven: and + then shall all the tribes of the earth mourn, and they shall see the Son + of man coming in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory. And he + shall send his angels with a great sound of a trumpet, and they shall + gather together his elect from the four winds, from one end of heaven to + another.... Verily I say unto you, This generation shall not pass, till + all these things be fulfilled." This is substantially, and almost + literally, repeated in Mark xiii. 26-30, and in Luke xxi. 32.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I have heard the words of this preceding quotation handled + by a great variety of divines, asserting themselves to be + orthodox, and who hold the position of Christian ministers. + All, without exception, profess to regard the expressions + about the sun being darkened and the stars falling, as + figurative or metaphorical, and each, according to his + prevalent ideas, or to the pet theory of the day, explain + the imagery as having a reference to some emperor, king, + queen, general of armies, and I know not what besides. But, + to anyone who examines the phraseology closely, it will be + seen that the words are to be taken in their most literal + sense. Jesus had, as we have shown, a firm belief in the + immediate destruction of the world, and upon that theme he + descants and dilates. Taking the Mosaic account of creation + as strictly true to the letter, Jesus regarded the sun, + moon, and stars as apanages of our earth, and very naturally + drew the inference, that when the world was burned up, there + would be no necessity for the celestial luminaries—the sun + would cease to shine, the moon would be dark, and the stars + fall from the sky under the influence of the same power that + produced the mundane destruction. These defunct bodies would + be replaced by a vast apparition, whose glory would exceed + that of the ancient rulers of the day and night, and he who + now stood on earth as a man of sorrows and acquainted with + grief would be seen and recognized as the arbiter of the + destinies of every man. The passages referred to in the text + bear no other meaning than the one here assigned to them; + nor would anyone, however wild "a divine" he might be, ever + see, or endeavour to discover, in the words referred to, a + hidden meaning, unless the solemn assertion of Jesus of his + immediate advent in the clouds of heaven had been such a + signal failure as time has proved it to be. We have always + protested against those theologians who pronounce passages + in the Bible to be metaphorical or literal as it suits the + event, and we do so now. Why such men should insist upon it + that everything in the Koran and Buddhistic books must be + taken au pied de la lettre and that everything in the Bible + may be allegorised, is a matter beyond my comprehension. + They surely forget the dictum—"with what measure ye mete it + shall be measured to you again" (Matt, vii. 2). +</pre> + <p> + In Matthew x. we find Jesus sending out his disciples as missionaries, + saying to them (v. 7), "as ye go, preach, saying, the kingdom of heaven is + at hand," a doctrine previously proclaimed by John (Matt iii. 2), and + based upon some words of Isaiah and the more precise presages in Daniel + See also Matt iv. 14-17; Luke ix. 2, and x. 9. We find a yet more + important reference in Matt. xi. 14, in which Jesus is reported to have + said, when speaking of John, "If ye will receive it, this is Elias, which + was for to come." The observation here made plainly refers to an utterance + of the Jewish Malachi, who, in his last two chapters, foreshadows the + advent of a messenger, who should immediately precede the coming of the + Lord to judge the world. There is yet another passage, of almost equal + force, in Matt. xvi. 27, 28—"For the Son of man shall come in the + glory of the Father with his angels, and then shall he reward every man + according to his works. Verily I say unto you, there be some standing here + which shall not taste of death till they see the Son of man coming in his + kingdom." In Matt. xix. 28 we read, "Jesus said unto them, Verily I say + unto you, that ye which have followed me, in the regeneration, when the + Son of man shall sit in the throne of his glory, ye also shall sit upon + twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel," &c. Again, we + see in Matt, xxv., after a parable intended to show the possibility of a + sudden occurrence, the words, "Watch, therefore, for ye know neither the + day nor the hour wherein the Son of man cometh." That this belief was due + to the Jewish writings we judge from the frequent references made to them; + and we may especially notice one which is attributed to Jesus after his + resurrection, viz., "all things must be fulfilled which were written in + the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the Psalms, concerning me." + So firmly was the belief of an immediate judgment impressed upon the minds + of Christians, that we find Paul affirming respecting it (1 Cor. xv.), "We + shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed... at the last trump" + (vv. 31, 52). This is more decidedly enunciated in 1 Thess. iv. 15-17—"For + this we say unto you by the word of the Lord, that we which are alive, and + remain unto the coming of the Lord, shall not prevent them that are + asleep. For the Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout, with + the voice of the archangel, and with the trump of God, and the dead in + Christ shall rise first. Then we which are alive and remain shall be + caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air, + and so shall we ever be with the Lord." Compare with this 2 Peter iii. + 1-4, in which there is a repetition of the same leading idea, and with + Acts i. 11, and ii. 16-36. + </p> + <p> + From these passages, it is unquestionable that Jesus preached that a + destruction of the whole creation was imminent, and we, who have the light + of history to guide us, can readily understand the powerful influence of + the doctrine. We have read of panics, even in London, where some + enthusiast has propounded the statement, that the world was to be + destroyed upon a certain day, and can well believe, how a similar + assertion would frighten ignorant, and, probably, learned Hebrew men. But, + as time advanced, and generation after generation passed away, the + original doctrine required to be modified. Yet it has never been quite + given up, and to this day, a part of the system of Christianity is, to put + faith in a second coming of Jesus, to judge the world. The "second coming" + here referred to, frequently passes by the name of the Millennium, and + earnest pietists believe that the son of Mary will come in the clouds of + heaven with power and great glory, to punish all who do not believe in + him; and to elevate the existing, and all other past saints, to be kings + and priests in a new Jerusalem, wherein all will enjoy perfect happiness + for a thousand years. + </p> + <p> + There is another point in connection between Buddha and Jesus, to which + the biblical student should not fail to pay attention. The followers of + the former had a perfect belief that each of them had lived in a previous + state of existence. Upon this point not a doubt disturbed them. The + disciples of the latter, however, had no such ideas, nor when propounded + to them, did they apparently understand it. As far as we can judge from + the first three Gospels, Jesus did not assert that he had ever existed + prior to the time of his birth at Bethlehem. But in the fourth Gospel, + written as almost every scholar believes, about A.D. 150, a claim is + repeatedly made by Jesus, of having lived for an untold period, in the + spirit world in company with the Father. + </p> + <p> + We will not enter here upon the grossness of thought, which is mingled + with the better ideas of the writer of John's Gospel—a notion that + involves the necessity for a celestial spouse of God; for if the son + existed—"begotten by the father before all worlds," it could only be + by some union—for the word "son" implies the necessity of a father + and a mother—more especially when it is declared, that he was + "begotten." Our chief business, however, is not with this point, but with + the preëxistence of Jesus. + </p> + <p> + The assertions by which the claim to a preëxistence is recognized, may be + found in the well known words in the beginning of John, also in the 10th + verse—"The world was made by him." In these parts, the evangelist + declares that Jesus was coeval with his father, which no son can be. In + chap. iii. 13, we find, "no man hath ascended up to heaven, but he that + came down from heaven, even the Son of man which is in heaven,"—a + strange text indeed, which totally ignores the ascension of Enoch and + Elijah—or which demonstrates that they lived in heaven before they + were born on earth, and which still further makes Jesus say, that he was + in heaven at the time when he was talking to Nicodemus! In chap, vi. 62, + there is a similar idea, "and if ye shall see the Son of man ascend up + where he was before." In chap. viii. 14 to 23, 38, and 56, a similar idea + is propounded; and in v. 58, Jesus is made to assert positively, "before + Abraham was, I am." In chap, xvi. 28, again, we read, "I came forth from + the Father," and in chap. xvii. 5, we see, "and now, O Father, glorify + thou me with thine own self with the glory which I had with thee before + the world was." + </p> + <p> + We do not believe that the son of Mary made these assertions himself, nor + did the son of Maya. But Sakya Muni had not long been dead, before his + disciples promulgated the doctrine that he was, in reality, a part of the + Supreme, who had existed for everlasting, and had been manifested in the + flesh to become a teacher; what his followers did for Buddha, it was + natural that others should do for Christ. It may be that the latter were + stimulated to do so by noticing the former, but it is quite as probable + that the idea of glorification came spontaneously to both sets of men. + Whichever view of the case we may take, one thing is certain, viz., that + both Buddhists and Christians, have, from the death of their respective + masters, done everything in their power, century by century, to augment + the claims of each, until indeed, individuals are found, who regard Sakya + Muni as the Supreme, and Jesus the All in All. The learned historian may + trace in the East, the rise of Buddha's influence in some spots, and its + decadence in others; and, when he looks nearer home, he may see the + gradual fall of Jesus, and the rise of Mary amongst the Papists, whilst + amongst the Protestants, the son has been raised even above the Father. + Not many months have passed, since a clever preacher and thoughtful man, + told me that he was determined to see nothing in the world but Christ—for + whatever was done, he felt a certain confidence that it was done by him, + and for his glory. + </p> + <p> + We see then, that both Buddhism and Christianity have been founded on the + assertion that mankind suffers pain, misery, and death, in consequence of + antecedent criminality before "The Great Master"—that men will be + punished after death for certain sins committed in this life; and that + they can attain to salvation by adopting the precepts and practice laid + down by Buddha and by Christ. Those who preach these doctrines are sure of + the facts that misery exists, and that man desires to escape it. + According, then, to the painting of the one, and the earnest promise of + the other, all teachers of the two sects have a strong hold upon the + imagination of their followers. I assert, without fear of contradiction + from any thoughtful man, that the main inducements held out by our divines + to persuade their hearers to embrace Christianity, are an awful painting + of the horrors of hell, and an assurance not only of escaping it, but of + gaining a place quite different to the Devil's kingdom, provided only that + the plan adopted by the theologian is followed to the letter. Neither + Buddhists nor Christians seem ever to have studied the laws of nature, or + the works of the Supreme, with any largeness of mind or understanding. Had + they done so, they would alter their views respecting sin entirely, and + they would attribute the miseries of life to their proper cause. + </p> + <p> + It will be interesting to the reader, if we now endeavour to remove from + the two religious systems, of which we treat, all those parts, which are + to my mind, clearly imaginary; and examine what is left behind. There is + nothing beyond a skeleton of morality, pure and simple. But even the + morality is not based upon common sense. It is tainted by what every + thinker must regard as absurdities. For example, when Siddartha instructed + his disciples to become ascetics, and live upon alms, he did recognize the + fact, that, if all men adopted his law, they must starve; for not one + would have anything to give. In like manner, when Jesus of Nazareth sent + off his disciples without any provision for their subsistence; and when he + preached, "take no thought for the morrow," he did not appear to take in + the idea, that if all the world became converted to his doctrine, all + would suffer, and die of hunger. It is, therefore, quite as necessary for + a modern philosopher, to correct some of the better parts of the doctrines + of the sons of Maya Devi, and Mary, as it is to emendate their worst + features. If such an one were to pretend—or to believe, that he was + "inspired" to rectify the dispensation of Siddartha and Jesus, as the + latter thought himself commissioned to improve upon, or to fulfil the law + of Moses—it is probable that he would be regarded as a prophet; but + if he should only try to coax men to think, rather than drive them to + believe, he would be unheeded by the majority. Nor after all, does it much + signify. Sheep are tolerably comfortable whoever the shepherd may be, and + if there should be a fight between rivals for the ownership of a flock, + the quadrupeds do not care, so long as they are not trained to fight, to + fast, or to live on an animal diet. + </p> + <p> + When any one speaks of the morality, pure and simple, inculcated by Sakya + Muni and Jesus, it is a fair question to ask whether asceticism is + included therein. In other words, is there anything of the nature of + absolute goodness in the attempt to make oneself miserable? Or, to vary + the question still further—granting, for the sake of argument, that + it is intrinsically right in the sight of God to abstain from such of our + propensities as induce us to marry, to eat, drink, and sleep heartily, to + fight a duel with a rival, to steal, to lie, to covet, and the like,—granting, + too, that every such abstinence is entered as "an asset" on the creditor + side of the books of Heaven—is it an equally available item to + abstain from brotherly love and comfort generally? The logician sees + clearly that there is no distinction in kind between controlling one set + of animal passions and another, and is forced to allow that if it be a + commendable thing to avoid indulging in one carnal appetite, it is still + more commendable to endeavour to counteract them all Consequently, by + granting the premisses, we find ourselves landed in a difficulty. If + universal asceticism were to prevail, it is clear that man would be + opposing himself to the manifest designs of the Creator, as shown in the + world at large; and we cannot conceive, that direct disobedience to + instincts, implanted in us by our Maker, can be anything but an item on + the debtor side in the books, which Jewish writers have said that He + keeps. Thus we are driven to investigate the very assertions which in the + commencement of our inquiry we took for granted, and to ask ourselves, is + there really any intrinsic value in morality in the sight of God? Can a + most virtuous life command for the individual who has practised it an + eternity of bliss? Jesus answers this tolerably distinctly in the words + reported in Luke xvii. 10, "When ye shall have done all those things which + are commanded you, say, We are unprofitable servants: we have done that + which it was our duty to do." But we doubt whether this dictum enunciates + sufficiently clearly the abstract value of morality. To ascertain this we + must endeavour to read the book of nature on other pages than those which + treat of man. + </p> + <p> + There can be no doubt in the mind of a thoughtful observer that man and + the lower animals have much in common—that; all have been framed + with a purpose, and are ruled by natural laws. Some creatures excel in + cunning, some in reason, some in activity, some in sloth—all have + certain proclivities. In some, instinct leads them to eat grass, boughs, + leaves, and fruits; in others, it teaches them to seek insects or other + creatures for their food. All have, more or less, periodically a + propensity to propagate;—which is attended in some by a pairing off + of male and female, who consort for the purpose of having offspring and + assisting each other in rearing them. In others, either where there is + naturally an equality of the sexes or a preponderance of males, the latter + instinctively fight with each other for a single mate, or for a number of + females. Again, in the case of animals actuated by hunger, or by other + motives, there are frequent battles, and the conquered is not only killed, + but eaten. Or where two or more sets of animals are living, the one on + land, the other in the air, we may find that one will rob the other. + Nothing, for example, is much more common than for rats and crows to steal + eggs, or for tigers to commit murder. Nature, then, being such as we find + it, we cannot assert—reasonably—that a young stag when he + covets a neighbour's wife and fights her present consort, for property in + her, commits a crime against the Almighty,—nor can we say that a fox + which steals a goose will be sent to hell. On the other hand, we should + never think of commending a hungry lion for abstaining from killing a + harmless lamb, nor of declaring that he has done a good action in the + sight of heaven. In like manner, a writer in proverbs tells us that "men + do not despise a thief if he steal to satisfy his soul when he is hungry,"—and + the general consent of mankind refuses to see the crime of murder in the + slaughter of one, out of a miserable boat's crew, who is killed and eaten + that the survivors may escape death from hunger. Society, too, is somewhat + lenient when two men fight for the love of such a woman as Helen. But we + readily recognise the fact that a community, or even a family, would be + weakened and disorganized if theft was encouraged, and every pretty female + was the cause of close fighting between man and man. Hence we see that, in + reality, that which is called "the moral law," is a code which is intended + to influence social life in this world, and not the position of human + beings in the next. + </p> + <p> + However much we might desire to think the contrary, we are driven to the + belief that the moral precepts inculcated on the Jews, the Buddhists, and + the Christians, had a human, and, we may add, a political origin. Taking + the Bible even as being what many believe it to be—the inspired word + of God—we must nevertheless allow that such a code as that book + contains in Exodus and elsewhere, existed in Egypt long before the + departure of the Jews from that country. Had not murder been prohibited on + the Nile bank, Moses would not have run away to escape the penalty for + homicide. Because the Mizraim punished killing, were they taught of God? + </p> + <p> + The natural answer to this query when it is addressed to a bibliolater is + that the Egyptians were taught by God to punish murder with death through + the intervention of their forefather, Ham, who heard the command given by + God to Noah, "Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed," + Gen. ix. 6. But if the Egyptians thus knew the law, so the descendants of + Shem must have learned it also; and if so, what need was there to repeat + it amongst the thunders of Sinai. It is plain from the romantic legend of + Joseph and Potiphar's wife: first, that the Hebrew slave feared to commit + adultery, as it was a great wickedness and a sin against God, Gen. xxxix. + 9; and, secondly, that the Egyptian considered it a crime in anyone to + violate the wife of another. But neither Joseph nor Potiphar could by any + possibility have heard of the laws enunciated on Sinai. So, if we could + inquire farther, we should most assuredly learn that the Mizraim venerated + their parents, punished theft, and took means to prevent and to punish + perjury. If, then, the Egyptians had, long before they ever heard of a + Jew, the same commandments amongst them which were subsequently enunciated + in the wilderness, we can only come to the conclusion that the Hebrew + writer who told the story of Sinai, gave the god whom he described, a + great deal of unnecessary work. Can we for a moment suppose that the Jews + when in Egypt had their wives in common?—and if each man had his + mate, and each woman her husband, it is almost self-evident that adultery + would not be tolerated amongst them. As there were therefore distinct + moral laws long before the Exodus, the decalogue was entirely superfluous. + </p> + <p> + The morality inculcated by teachers is nothing more than instructions for + mankind how to attain the greatest harmony amongst their fellows. It is + very natural for a thoughtless man to assert that one who wilfully + disturbs the general comfort of the human family during his life-time, + shall be tormented eternally after his death; and, on the other hand, to + proclaim that he who does everything in his power to increase the + happiness of his fellow-men shall be rewarded in a heaven above, with + everlasting music, or other delights; yet we may fairly doubt the + averments, for both are founded entirely upon human ideas of right and + wrong, justice and injustice. The prevalent idea is, that everything which + to some man seems to be wrong on earth, will be righted in another sphere—Even + Jesus appears to have adopted this view, for he talks (Luke xvi) of a + Dives and Lazarus—the one, a rich man who fared sumptuously every + day, and the other a beggar, full of sores, who longed for the crumbs from + wealth's table. After the deaths of these two people, we are told that the + rich man went to Hell, and the poor one to Heaven, not—apparently—because + one was bad and the other good; but simply because misery in the present + is sure to be changed into luxury for the future, and <i>vice versa</i>. + We see this doctrine distinctly enunciated by the imaginary Abraham, in + whose bosom Lazarus lay, for he remarks (Luke xvi. 25), "Son, remember + that thou in thy lifetime receivedst thy good things, and likewise Lazarus + evil things; but now he is comforted and thou art tormented." We nowhere + find that his position was a reward to the beggar for virtue or morality. + There is also a current doctrine that he whom we call a vile man—one + who indulges his brutal desires, shall in another world become more + brutalized—meeting with, and being beaten by, powers whose + mischievous propensities are superior to his own; whilst, on the other + hand, he whom we call a saint, one who endeavours to subdue the affections + of the flesh in this world, shall be able to indulge in any desire that he + may have, in the next, unlimitedly. In short, each individual makes a + Heaven for himself, and a Hell for his neighbours. I have heard, in days + gone by, a Southern States lady say she would not go to heaven, willingly, + if she knew that she should meet negroes there on terms of equality. + </p> + <p> + In rejoinder to these considerations, the question is put, "Could the + world be habitable by men, without the existence amongst them of a belief + in a future state, in which rewards and punishments shall be meted out for + supposed misdeeds committed in the present?" It is well for us to look the + matter in the face boldly, and ask ourselves whether fierce tigers, angry + bulls, combative stags, kindred devouring rats, offspring eating + alligators, infanticidal birds and pigs have succeeded in extirpating + their race? There are herds, without number, of graminivorous animals in + Africa, and thousands of carnivorous creatures who could not exist without + murdering some of the former; yet the slaughter committed by scores of + lions does not annihilate antelopes. In like manner there are many folks + who have lived in sundry islands of the Pacific without an idea, so far as + we can learn, of an eternity, who sometimes spend their leisure time in + fighting with and eating each other, and occasionally unite to kill a + shark: each individual lives and dies like any other animal, but the race + remains. Even the systematic "hellishness" of persecution indulged in by + the followers of Jesus in the middle ages did not extirpate the Jews; and + if organized murders, such as were, in days gone by, sanctioned by + individuals wielding the sceptre of powerful governments, could not cut + off from existence a comparatively feeble race, surely we may conclude + that a nation can continue populous even if any individual, in a fit of + passion, should rise against his fellow and smite him to the dust. But we + need not go to New Zealand, China, and Japan to prove that men can live in + a community without an idea of eternity, for we have only to refer to the + Jews, the so-called people of God. To them no knowledge of eternal life + was given, consequently we infer that Jehovah knew that they would get + along in the world very well without it. What Elohim thought was + unnecessary, it is not for man to propound as important. + </p> + <p> + When the modern Christian philosopher—and there really are a few who + deserve the term—finds that the morality of Jesus did not materially + differ from that of Sakya Muni, he endeavours to show that the doctrine of + "faith in the son of God" is of more value than simple propriety, and that + even the most virtuous life will not enable a man to attain to paradise + unless he holds the Catholic faith. When the "Catholic faith," as it is + termed, is placed in such a position, we are bound to examine its + pretensions, and inquire in what way doctrines or dogmas are better than + morality, and whether they are in any way superior to what the orthodox + call "irreligion." To my mind the best method of solving the question is + an appeal to history. If, as it is contended by the orthodox, the teaching + of Christianity is far above that of any other religion, then it must + follow that all those who believe in it, or even profess it, must be + paragons amongst men as citizens and rulers. To what extent many + theologians believe in this axiom may be judged by the frequency with + which we hear, from the pulpit, an old anecdote to the effect, that the + expression, "see how these Christians love one another," was, in olden + time, nearly equal to the most powerful sermon in favour of the religion + of Jesus. Without pointing a sneer, by requesting my readers to substitute + the word Buddhists for Christians, let me lay the very heavy charge + against the leaders of the faith, that the words in question are the + heaviest condemnation possible against the supposed value of the doctrines + of the son of Mary, as formerly and at present expounded. "See how these + Christians love!" Aye, see how they love—read their own histories of + the past, and their newspapers in the present; attend their meetings; + listen to their speeches; and even follow them into private life. In every + position "see how these Christians love one another" is the damning + sentence which tells of the real value of the doctrine attributed to the + son of Mary. Whilst I write (Jan. 7, 1870), a council, called OEcumenical, + consisting of Roman Catholic Christian bishops, summoned to the capital of + ancient Italy from all parts of the world, is sitting, and one of the + subjects of its deliberation is, whether a certain individual, elected by + men to assume the direction of a community of men holding a particular + faith in common, shall be regarded, by those who join such branch of the + church, as absolutely infallible in every statement of opinion which he + makes as a high priest. Men positively have met to clothe, and now have + invested, a man with an attribute of God, and millions of Christians will, + by those men, be compelled to consider themselves bound by the decision! + "See how these Christians love!" they are persecuted by the world at + first, then they persecute their oppressors, and massacre each other; + educated by Jesus, they gradually encourage ignorance until they reach a + superstition as crass as the darkness of a dense fog in a moonless night. + They oppose the advancement of knowledge and science, then, by degrees, + endeavour to exalt each other, until, by common consent, they deify the + chieftain of the order. There is not a known crime of which the leaders of + the Christian church, as it is called, have not been guilty, both as men + and ecclesiastical rulers. "See how these Christians love!" Yet these very + men endeavour to deride, and affect to despise, those whom they call the + godless. The latter, taking their stand upon morality and common sense, + aver that all affairs between man and his maker ought to be referred to + the arbitrement of Heaven. The Christian hierarchs, on the contrary, + declare that they are the earthly agents of heaven, and that they, and the + secular arm—a very mundane court—can act just as well, perhaps + better, than the Supreme Judge. We will not say whether it was a pleasant + pastime for the Spanish, and other Inquisitors, to torture individuals who + were thought to be inimical to the true faith, inasmuch as we do not know + their inmost mind; but we asseverate that all Europe, except those who had + the power of persecution, and used it, rejoiced greatly when the + enthusiastic armies, of what was designated atheistic France, annihilated + the so-called Holy Inquisition. + </p> + <p> + I speak with sober earnestness when I say, that after forty years' + experience amongst those who profess Christianity, and those who proclaim, + more or less quietly, their disagreement with it, I have noticed more + sterling virtue and morality amongst the last than the first. Though I + thus express myself, I must also acknowledge my belief in the dictum, + "that many men are better than their creeds would make them," and, + consequently, that all men are not to be taken as characteristic of their + system of belief. I know, personally, many pious, sterling, good Christian + people, whom I honour, admire, and, perhaps, would be glad to emulate or + to equal; but they deserve the eulogy thus passed on them in consequence + of their good sense having ignored the doctrine of faith to a great + degree, and having cultivated the practice of good works. They have picked + out the best bits of the Bible, and rejected the worst. In my judgment the + most praiseworthy Christians whom I know are modified Buddhists, though, + probably, not one of them ever heard of Siddartha. I would gladly trace + their character, but I forbear, as I think they would be horrified at the + thought of my comparing them with those whom they have been taught to + regard as followers of a false prophet, or something worse. Let it suffice + to say that I honour consistent reasonable Christians everywhere, and that + whatever remarks I make which seem to be opposed to this, are directed + against those whose doctrines, morality, and conduct, ostensibly built + upon the Bible, are irrational and bad. + </p> + <p> + Since the preceding remarks were written, there have appeared three very + remarkable works upon Buddhism in addition to those which I have already + noticed—and they have the advantage for general readers, of being + clothed in an English dress. The first which I will notice, is <i>Travels + of Fah-Hian and Sung-Yun: Buddhist Pilgrims from China to India</i> (408 + A.D., and 518 a.d.; London, Trübner, 1869, small 8vo. pp. 208.) This work + is remarkable as illustrating the fact, that there has been the idea, even + in China, of sending men, or of devout persons spontaneously going, to + distant places, to endeavour to seek for more perfect religious knowledge, + than they believe themselves and their teachers to possess where they are. + With such an example before us, we can give more easy credence to the + stories told of Pythagoras, of Solon, and Herodotus; how they visited + distant countries to learn the way of God and man more perfectly. Nor must + we pass by the proof, which the journey of the Chinese travellers affords, + that, what may be called missionary zeal is not an apanage of Christianity + alone. An account of their travels will be found in the next chapter. The + second publication to which we refer, is <i>Buddhaghosa's Parables</i>, + translated from the Burmese, by Capt. T. Rogers; with an introduction + containing <i>Buddha's Dhammapada</i>, or <i>Path of Virtue</i>, + translated from the Pâli, by Max Müller; London, Trubner & Co., 1870, + 8vo. pp. 374. This work is of such importance to all students of the + Science of Religion, that we shall notice it in a separate essay. The + third contribution, is <i>The Modern Buddhist</i>, being the views of a + Siamese Minister of State, on his own and other religions, translated, + with remarks, by Henry Alabaster, interpreter of H. B. M., + consulate-general in Siam; London, Triibner & Co., 1870, small 8vo. + pp. 91. This has now arrived at a second edition, and is called <i>The + Wheel of the Law</i>. + </p> + <p> + This last book is, perhaps, the most interesting of the three, inasmuch as + it enables us to compare the modern development of the religion of Buddha, + and that of Christ. It enables us, moreover, to see ourselves and modern + Christian doctrines as others see them, and to discover the essential + points at issue, between the followers of the son of Maya Devi, and of + Mary. + </p> + <p> + The first point to which we would call attention, is the statement that + the Siamese are nowhere excelled in the sincerity of their belief, and the + liberality with which they support their religion. "In Bangkok alone, + there are more than a hundred monasteries, and ten thousand monks and + novices. More than this, every male Siamese, sometime during his life, and + generally in the prime of it, takes orders as a monk, and retires for some + months or years, to practise abstinence and meditation in a monastery." + Against this, or side by side with it, what can Great Britain, or any + other Christian country show? We have, it is true, plenty of monasteries + in Christendom, and in the majority of western kingdoms, there are + colleges and universities for the education of youth, and there is, in + some such institutions, a pretence of meditation and of abstinence. Yet + the finger of scandal points, and has pointed, for many hundred years, to + the disreputable conduct pursued in almost the whole of such Christian + institutions; whereas, not even its enemies can find evidence to convict + Buddhist ascetics of indulging in sensual gratifications of any kind + whatever. + </p> + <p> + We learn, from Mr Alabaster's preface, that the late king of Siam, though + "eminent amongst monks for his knowledge of the Buddhist scriptures, + boldly preached against the canonicity of those of them, whose relations + were opposed to his reason, and his knowledge of modern science." "His + powers as a linguist were considerable, and enabled him to use an English + library with facility." They are his views—which royal etiquette + prevented him from writing, that inspired his prime minister. What have we + here? Surely it is an example that British rulers, and especially divines, + should follow. Yet with all our boasted skill, science, and powers of + thought, our theologians prefer to preach, and to uphold, doctrines which + they know to be repugnant, both to reason and to science, rather than + abandon that which was propounded when reason and knowledge were almost in + their infancy. Certainly, in this respect, the believers in Sakya Muni + show themselves more sensible than those in Jesus. + </p> + <p> + Again, let us quote the following paragraph—pointing out the analogy + we wish to draw, by using a literary contrivance—and calling + attention to the fact, that no Roman Catholic authority in Christian + Europe, has yet dared to say, what a Buddhist ruler does. + </p> + <p> + "Our {Siamese \ Papal} literature is not only scanty, but nonsensical, + full of stories of {genii \ saints} stealing {women \ relics} and {men \ + saints} fighting with {genii \ devils} and {extraordinary persons\ Elijah + and Philip} who could fly through the air, and bring dead people to life. + And, even those works, which profess to teach anything, generally teach it + wrong; so that there is not the least profit, though one studies them from + morning to night" (p. 7). + </p> + <p> + The following observation is equally powerful—Chaya. Phya. Praklang—the + name of the Siamese author, might, "as a Buddhist, believe in the + existence of a God, sublimed above all human qualities and attributes—a + perfect God, above love, and hatred, and jealousy, calmly resting in a + quiet happiness that nothing could disturb; and of such a God he would + speak no disparagement, not from a desire to please Him, or fear to offend + Him, but from natural veneration. But he cannot understand a God with the + attributes and qualities of men, a God who loves and hates, and shows + anger, a Deity, who, whether described to him by Christian Missionaries, + or by Mahometans, Brahmins, or Jews, falls below his standard of even an + ordinary good man" (p. 25). + </p> + <p> + After the passages which we have quoted, the translator gives many pages + of accounts of conversation between missionaries and the Siamese minister, + which well repay a perusal. They are too long for quotation entire, but + there are three paragraphs that deserve commemoration, as they show us the + reasoning powers of the Buddhist in favourable contrast to the bigotry of + his would-be instructor. "I said, 'then you consider that even a stone in + the bladder is created by God?' He replied, 'Yes, everything, God creates + everything.' 'Then,' answered I, if that is so, God creates in man that + which will cause his death, and you medical missionaries remove it, and + restore his health! Are you not opposing God by so doing? Are you not + offending Him in curing those whom He would kill?' When I had said this + the missionary became angry, and saying 'I was hard to teach,' left me" + (p. 29). Again, when he and Dr Gutzlaff were discussing the story of the + creation and "the fall," as taught in the Christian and Jewish Bible, and + the Buddhist has clearly the best of the argument, the missionary told + him, that if any spoke as the minister had been doing in European + countries, he would be put in prison—and Chaya Phya adds, "I invite + particular attention to this statement" (p. 34). Thus, not only in other + parts of his work, but here also, he points out how that which Christian + emissaries say is "a religion of peace on earth and good will to men" is, + in reality, one of intolerance and persecution, even on the showing of its + own ministers. In the third example to which I refer, Gutzlaff is again + talking with Chaya upon the curse of man, and the Siamese speaks thus—"Besides, + the Bible says, by belief in Christ, man shall escape the consequences of + Eve's sin; yet I cannot see that men do so escape in any degree, but + suffer just as others do." The missionary answered, "It is waste of time + to converse with evil men, who will not be taught, and so he left me" (p. + 35). When men like Gutzlaff, who is really eminent in his way, can be so + readily silenced and put to flight by a native of Siam, whose mind is not + familiar with the science and logical training of European thinkers, it is + by no means surprising that cultivated Englishmen should refuse to believe + in the childish stories and foolish doctrines that are promulgated by + Christians at home, as being an inspired and infallible revelation from + the Almighty. Alas, for our country and her people! they have much to + unlearn as well as to learn before they can lay a fair claim to the + position which they assume to hold. + </p> + <p> + We may next quote the following, as being useful to missionary societies + here. After having described the religion of Papists, Protestants, and + Mormons, Chaya says, "All these three sects worship the same God and + Christ, why, then, should they blame each other, and charge each other + with believing wrongfully, and say to each other, 'You are wrong, and will + go to Hell; we are right, and shall go to Heaven?' You make us think that + it is one religion which Christians hold, yet how can we join it when each + party threatens us with Hell if we agree with another sect, and there is + none to decide between them? I beg comparison of this with the teaching of + the Lord Buddha, that whoever endeavours to keep the commandments, and is + charitable, and walks virtuously, must attain to Heaven" (p. 43). The + commandments referred to are— + </p> + <p> + 1st. Thou shalt not destroy nor cause the destruction of any living thing. + </p> + <p> + 2d. Thou shalt not, either by fraud or violence, obtain or keep that which + belongs to another. + </p> + <p> + 3d. Thou shall not lie carnally with any but proper objects for thy lust. + </p> + <p> + 4th. Thou shalt not attempt, either by word or action, to lead others to + believe that which is not true. + </p> + <p> + 5th. Thou shalt not become intoxicated. + </p> + <p> + We much fear, that if the commandments which nominal Christians observe + are contrasted with those kept by the Buddhists, that the former must be + regarded as much lower in the scale of religious civilization than the + latter. + </p> + <p> + The Siamese author next discusses the question, "how shall a man select + that religion which he can trust to for his future happiness?" His answer + is, "He must reflect, and apply his mind to ascertain which comes nearest + to truth." Then follow a few very true remarks about the difficulty of + shaking off any faith once adopted—about the causes which determine + men to change their belief, and, in illustration of the difficulties, the + author quotes a sermon by Buddha to those who were in doubt, and desired + to select a right religion. "And the Lord Buddha answered, You are right + to doubt, for it was a doubtful matter. I say unto all of you, do not + believe in what ye have heard, that is, when you have heard anyone say + this is especially good or extremely bad; do not reason with yourselves, + that if it had not been true it would not have been asserted, and so + believe in its truth. Neither have faith in traditions, because they have + been handed down for many generations, and in many places. + </p> + <p> + "Do not believe in anything because it is rumoured and spoken of by many; + do not think that is a proof of its truth. + </p> + <p> + "Do not believe merely because the written statement of some old sage is + produced; do not be sure that the writing has ever been revised by the + said sage, or can be relied on. Do not believe in what you have fancied, + thinking that, because an idea is extraordinary, it must have been + implanted by a Deva, or some wonderful being. + </p> + <p> + "Do not believe in guesses, that is, assuming something at haphazard, as a + starting point, and then drawing conclusions from it—reckoning your + two and your three and your four before you have fixed your number one. + </p> + <p> + "Do not believe because you think there is an analogy, that is, a + suitability in things and occurrences—such as believing that there + must be walls of the world because you see water in a basin, or that Mount + Meru must exist because you have seen the reflection of trees, or that + there must be a creating god because houses and towers have builders. + </p> + <p> + "Do not believe in the truth of that to which you have become attached by + habit, as every nation believes in the superiority of its own dress, and + ornaments, and language. + </p> + <p> + "Do not believe because your informant appears to be a credible person, + as, for instance, when you see anyone having a very sharp appearance, + conclude that he must be clever and trustworthy: or, when you see anyone + who has powers and abilities beyond what men generally possess, believe in + what he tells; or think that a great nobleman is to be believed, as he + would not be raised by the king to high station unless he were a good man. + </p> + <p> + "Do not believe merely on the authority of your teachers and masters, or + believe and practise merely because they believe and practise. + </p> + <p> + "I tell you all, you must of yourselves know, that 'this is evil, this is + punishable, this is censured by wise men, belief in this will bring no + advantage to anyone, but will cause sorrow;' and when you know this, then + eschew it" (pp. 45-47). Then follows a long account of the examples which + Buddha gave to his disciples, examining them by questions, whose answer is + obvious; but these, though wonderfully to the point, are too long for + quotation, and we must refer our readers to the book itself. Nor do we act + thus, reluctantly, for we believe that every honest inquirer will thank us + for the introduction. We should rejoice if some of our divines became + acquainted with it. They might draw as many valuable texts from the + discourses attributed to Buddha, herein described, as they do now from + Jesus' sermon on the mount. We may add, in passing, that, in the + conversation of Sakya Muni, he says, "it is better to believe in a future + life, in which happiness or misery can be felt, for if the heart believes + therein, it will abandon sin and act virtuously; and even if there is no + resurrection, such a life will bring a good name and the regard of men. + But those who believe in extinction at death, will not fail to commit any + sin that they may choose, because of their disbelief in a future; and if + there should happen to be a future after all, they will be at a + disadvantage—they will be like travellers without provisions" (p. + 54). + </p> + <p> + The following exposition of modern Buddhist belief well deserves + attention. + </p> + <p> + "Buddhists believe that every act, word, or thought, has its consequence, + which will appear sooner or later in the present, or in some future state. + Evil acts will produce evil consequences, i.e., may cause a man misfortune + in this world, or an evil birth in hell, or as an animal in some future + existence. Good acts, etc., will produce good consequences; prosperity in + this world, or birth in heaven, or in a high position in the world in some + future state" (p. 57). + </p> + <p> + We will only add, that if the value of Buddhism, like Christianity, is to + be known by its fruits, it is clear, that the former, as practised + generally in Siam, is decidedly superior to the latter as practised in + Great Britain, America, and Christendom, generally. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Priority of Buddhism to Christianity. Strange assumptions. + When was India first known to Christians? Thomas the + Apostle, When Asceticism was introduced into Christianity. + Results of inquiry into the introduction of Christianity + into India. Tarshish and Ceylon. Peacocks known as the + Persian birds to the Greeks, temp. Aristophanes. Indian + elephants in army of Darius. Roman traffic with India, b.c. + 30. Buddhist missionaries. The gift of tongues. Rise of + Asceticism in Western Asia. Essenes again. Collection of + Buddhist writings, 450 b.c. Degeneracy of original Faith. + Missionaries from China to Hindostan in search of Buddhist + works and knowledge. Travels of Fah Hian, their experience + and remarks. Quotations from their writings. Footprints of + Buddha and Peter. Immaculate conception of Sakya. Old + Simeon—a repetition. Wise men from the East. St. Ursula. + Three Buddhist councils to compile scriptures. Buddhism + lapsed into image-worship and processions. Progress of the + pilgrims. Return by sea. Deductions. Developments of + Christianity and Asceticism. Observations about travelling. + Conclusions. +</pre> + <p> + With the usual pertinacity of Englishmen, there are many devout + individuals who, on finding that Buddhism and Christianity very closely + resemble each other, asseverate, with all the vehemence of an assumed + orthodoxy, that the first has proceeded from the second. Nor can the + absurdity of attempting to prove that the future must precede the past + deter them from declaring that Buddhism was promulgated originally by + Christian missionaries from Judea, and then became deteriorated by + Brahminical and other fancies! It is really difficult, sometimes, to + discover what are the real tenets of the obstinate orthodox to whom we + refer; but, so far as we can learn from the character of their opposition, + it would appear that they do not deny the existence of such a man as Sakya + Muni, to whom his followers gave the name of Buddha. Just in the same way, + we may add, as his followers gave the name of Jesus Christ to Ben Panther. + Whilst allowing that Siddartha founded a new religion, the orthodox assert + that all its bad parts are human, whilst all its good parts consist of + doctrines tacked on to the original, after Christianity had been + introduced into India, by one or more of Jesus' apostles or disciples. + </p> + <p> + If, for the sake of argument, we accord to such cavillers the position of + reasonable beings, and ask them to give us some proof of the assertion, + that early Christian people went to Hindostan and preached the gospel + there; or even to point out, in history, valid proofs that India was known + to a single apostle, we find that they have nothing to say beyond the + vaguest gossip. + </p> + <p> + What the testimony is we may find by turning to the article Thomas, in + Kitto's <i>Cyclopoedia of Biblical Literature</i>, which was written by a + learned professor of Gottingen. Therein we see, and the statement is amply + vouched by quotation from authorities, that the Apostle in question is + said to have preached the gospel in Parthia and in Persia, and to have + been buried in Edessa; and that, according to a later tradition, Thomas + went to India, and suffered martyrdom there. Then follows a statement that + this account has been assailed, &c. Similar traditions are mentioned + by Dean Stanley in Smith's "<i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>" with the + addition that it is now believed that the Thomas of Malabar Christian fame + was a Nestorian missionary. + </p> + <p> + Eusebius writes, book v., ch. 10, speaking of Pantaenus, about a.d. 190—"He + is said to have displayed such ardour... that he was constituted a herald + of the gospel of Christ to the nations of the East, and advanced even as + far as India; and the report is, that he there found his own arrival + anticipated by some who were acquainted with the gospel of Matthew, to + whom Bartholomew, one of the Apostles, had preached, and had left them the + gospel of Matthew in the Hebrew, which was also preserved unto this time. + Pantænus became finally the head of the Alexandrian school." Such a piece + of gossip no historian can trust for a moment. + </p> + <p> + Socrates, in his <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, about a.d. 420, writes, + "We must now mention by what means the profession of Christianity was + extended in Constantine's reign, for it was in his time that the nations, + both of the Indians in the interior, and the Iberians, first embraced the + Christian faith. But it may be needful briefly to explain why the + expression in the interior is appended. When the apostles went forth by + lot amongst the nations, Thomas received the apostleship of the Parthians. + Matthew was allotted Ethiopia, and Bartholomew the part of India + contiguous to that country; but the interior of India, which was inhabited + by many barbarous nations, using different languages, was not enlightened + by Christian doctrine before the time of Constantine," about 320 A.D. Then + follows a story of a Tynan philosopher, who, with two youths, took ship, + and arrived somewhere in India, just after the violation of a treaty + between that country and the Romans. Everyone in the ship was killed but + the two lads, who, being young, were sent as a present to the Indian king. + One became a cupbearer, the other the royal recorder. The king died, + freeing the youths, and the queen, left with a young son, made the + strangers his tutors, or regents. One, who was the highest, then began to + inquire whether, amongst the Roman merchants trafficking with that + country, there were any Christians to be found. Having discovered some, he + induced them to select a place for worship, and he subsequently built a + church, into which he admitted some Indians, after previous instruction. + The other youth comes back to Tyre, and then the regent comes to + Alexandria, talks to Athanasius, and begs him to send a bishop and clergy + to the place he has left, to which no name is given. To the latter youth + Frumentius, ordination is given, and he returns to India to preach, to + perform miracles, and build oratories, [—Greek—]. The + historian, adds Rufinus, assures us that he heard these facts from the + former king's cupbearer, Edesius, who was afterwards inducted into the + sacred office at Tyre. + </p> + <p> + We may next quote the <i>Epitome of the Ecclesiastical History of + Philostorgius</i> (who wrote about A.D. 425), compiled by Photius, + Patriarch of Constantinople. Therein we may observe how completely the + first contradicts Socrates as before quoted, and may also infer the reason + why. In book ii., ch. 6, the words run, "The impious Philostorgius + relates, that the Christians in Central India, who were converted to the + faith of Christ by the preaching of St. Bartholomew, believe that the son + is not of the same substance with the father." He adds that "Theophilus, + the Indian who had embraced this opinion, came to them and delivered it to + them as a doctrine; and also that these Indians are now called Homeritæ, + instead of their old name, Sabæans, which they received from the city of + Saba, the chief city of the whole nation." This leads me to doubt very + strongly whether the ecclesiastical writers in early days did not group, + under the name of India, the southern parts of Arabia, Persia, and + Beloochistan. + </p> + <p> + Sozomen, writing about the period of 325 A.D., says, book ii, ch. 24, "We + have heard that about this period some of the most distant of the nations + that we call Indian, to whom the preaching of Bartholomew was unknown, + were converted to Christianity by Frumentius, a priest." Then follows an + enlarged edition of the legend told by Socrates, and the words, "it is + said that Frumentius discharged his priestly functions so admirably that + he became an object of universal admiration." Theodoret, writing about 420 + A.D., places the conversion of the Indians about 328 A.D., and gives + substantially the same account as the preceding writers whom we have + quoted. + </p> + <p> + We will not, however, content ourselves with this short notice, but will + first inquire whether, if the accounts of the earlier reporters, Eusebius, + Socrates, Clement, and Rufinus, who wrote about a.d. 320, 390, 190, and + 370, are not to be trusted, we can believe the stories of Gregory + Nazianzen, Ambrose, Jerome, Nicephorus, and Abdias, who wrote about a.d. + 380, 380, 400, 815, and 910 respectively. If we believe one set of + Christian "fathers," that Thomas the apostle died in Syria, we cannot + credit a set of Christian "sons," who affirm that he was martyred in + India. But—and the point is an important one—we can see reason + why the children should invent an account of which the parents saw not the + necessity. About the period of Gregory Nazianzen arose that asceticism + which sent Simeon Stylites upon the top of his pillar in a.d. 394, and + kept him there for the rest of his life, and that peopled the Thebaid with + hermits of the most approved Buddhist order—celibates shunning + luxury, and cultivating filthiness of the outer to cleanse the inner man. + The way in which the original faith, preached by Jesus and modified by + Paul, was distorted during the first few centuries in Egypt can only be + rationally accounted for by a spread of Buddhist doctrines by Indian + missionaries, or promulgated by Christian merchants, who had travelled to + the Indies, and modified their original faith by what they saw and heard + from the followers of the great Sramana; and it was natural for the + Alexandrian Christians to adopt the modifications referred to, and to + stamp the innovations with the assertion that they were apostolic + reflections—rays of divine light falling from "the sun of + righteousness" upon the mind of the blessed Saint Somebody, Thomas, for + this purpose, being a name which answered as well as any other. There is + positively no evidence whatever—except some apocryphal Jesuit + stories about certain disciples of Jesus, found by Papal missionaries at + Malabar—that any disciple of Mary's son ever proceeded to Hindostan + to preach the gospel during the first centuries of our era. Those who know + the history of the "Decretals," and of Prester John, can readily estimate + the value of tales told by Jesuits in India, where there was not at the + time anyone to test their veracity. + </p> + <p> + Being myself desirous of ascertaining what evidence really exists—or + existed in the times of ancient authors, whose works have come down to us—of + the knowledge of India by Europeans in days gone by, I instituted an + inquiry, with the determination to be impartial. The results obtained were + the following:— + </p> + <p> + The only reason for believing that Hindostan and Ceylon were known to the + Phoenicians is a short passage in the Biblical History of Solomon, in + which we are told that after a three years' absence, Hiram's Tyrian + sailors returned from Tarshish, bringing what our translators call ivory, + apes, and peacocks. The words in the Hebrew original are said by Tennant + to be all but identical with those in use in Ceylon at the present date. + For a full account of the probable identity of the Tarshish in the passage + alluded to and Galle, see Emerson Tennant's <i>History of Ceylon</i>. + </p> + <p> + Yet, if we grant that the Tyrian shipmen traded to India, we are bound to + confess that the knowledge which they acquired died with them; nor did + their successors, the Greeks, know anything distinctly about Hindostan + prior to the time of Alexander the Great. In the Biblical story of Esther + we are told, i. 1, viii. 9, that a Persian king reigned from India to + Ethiopia, the Hebrew word for the former being <i>Hodoo</i>, supposed to + be a form of <i>handoo</i>, or <i>hindoo</i>; Pehlevi, <i>hendo</i>; Zend, + <i>heando</i>; Sanscrit, <i>Sindhu</i> (Fürst, s.v.), equivalent to the + Greek <i>Indikee</i>, or the country of the Indus. We find reason to + believe that the India of Artaxerxes was a portion of Hindostan—first, + because the Persian monarch had Indian soldiers in his army, and + elephants, when he fought with Alexander; and secondly, because the + peacock, a bird of Ceylon, was known to the Greeks, in the time of + Aristophanes, as "the Persian bird." That the Persians traded with + Northern India we infer, from the account which Appian gives us of the + advance eastward of Alexander, after his victory at Arbela. But the whole + story of the Grecian warrior's advance into the Punjaub and down the + Indus, contains, in itself, tolerably clear proof that Hindostan was very + little known to the Greeks. Of a subsequent invasion of India by + Alexander's successor, Seleucus Nicator; of the mission of Megasthenes to + Sandracottus, the grandfather of Asoka, the Buddhist Constantine; of the + navigation of the Grecian ship down the Indus, and the subsequent traffic + by land and sea between the Greeks and the Hindoos, we need not say more + than that Augustus, b.c. 30, regulated the trade to Hindostan, <i>via</i> + Alexandria, and that, at the time of Pliny the elder, about A.D. <i>60</i>, + voyages were being made to India every year, companies of archers being + carried on board the vessels to protect them from pirates. We learn also + that a twelvemonth did not elapse without a drain upon the Roman Empire of + about one million and a-half sterling for India, in exchange for Hindoo + wares (book vi., ch. 26). + </p> + <p> + At the period Pliny refers to, and for a long time previously, there can + be no pretence that any of Jesus' apostles accompanied traders to + Hindostan, for every one of them were employed nearer home. On the other + hand, we may inquire into the possibility and the reasonableness of + Buddhist missionaries travelling westward in the course of Alexandrian + traffic, or of the caravans which, we have grounds for believing, came + through Persia to the Roman Empire. + </p> + <p> + On turning to Oriental literature, we find that the often-mentioned King + Asokâ adopted Buddhism as the religion of his empire about b.c. 250, and + that, in his time, missionaries carried that faith successfully to the + uttermost parts of Hindostan—to Burmah, to Ceylon, to Japan, to + Thibet, and to China. The envoys carried with them, in some instances, + written books, in others, their guide was oral tradition. Wherever they + went they bore a biography of Sakya—or Buddha—accounts of + miracles that he had performed, and a summary, more or less extended, of + his preaching or doctrines. This dispersion of Hindoo envoys was about + fifty years later than the mission of the Greek Megasthenes to the court + of Asokâ's grandfather, and it is quite as probable that Buddhist + preachers went to enlighten what they imagined to be the benighted, and + what they knew to be the then defeated Grecians, as that they went over + frightful mountains and stormy seas to Thibet, China, and Japan. + </p> + <p> + We may profitably pause for a moment here, to contemplate that which I at + one time believed to be the most wonderful of all the miracles recorded in + the New Testament, viz., "the gift of tongues." The references to this + which we meet with in the epistles of the apostle Paul might lead to the + supposition, that some who had this "gift" spoke mere gibberish—something + which was not, either in intention or in reality, an utterance in a + foreign language; but the story of the original imparting of power to + speak in a previously unknown tongue involves the idea, that the disciples + had, on the occasion referred to, a faculty given to them, by which they + knew the languages used by various nationalities, without the trouble of + learning them. Many divines have held that such ability was absolutely + necessary to those who had to go forth to teach all nations the doctrines + of the gospel I am quite aware that, however earnest I might be to + propagate truth, I could not go, with advantage, to preach in Russia, + because I know nothing of its language. + </p> + <p> + Doubt in the reality of the miracle recorded in Acts ii. was not born + until I found that Buddhist missionaries went out into distant lands, + where their own tongue was unknown, and yet made converts. When once I + felt dubious as regards the veracity of the historian, I began to notice + what the apostles generally did when they went to a new country or town. + Their practice seems to have been to have visited synagogues of the Jews + living on the spot—and able, if they chose, to be interpreters—or, + where there were such establishments, "the schools" were visited, where + the students and the masters understood Greek. In the time of Paul the + language of the Hellenes was spoken by Romans of high position, much as + French was spoken at the court of Frederic the Great of Prussia, and as + German is at St. Petersburg. The Apostle seems to have spoken Greek + readily, and when he could use that tongue or the Hebrew he was fluent. I + have sought in vain for evidence that either Paul or any of the Apostles + ever addressed a foreign mob, whose language was neither Greek nor Hebrew. + A study of the nineteenth chapter of the Acts will show this—especially, + we must notice the end of the tenth verse, where we are told "that all who + dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord, both <i>Jews and Greeks</i>." + When disturbance occurred in the theatre, Paul was not the orator put + forward to appease the people—he probably could not speak their + patois. Yet he tells us, 1 Cor. xiv. 18, that he spoke with tongues more + than his fellows.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * There is much difference amongst ecclesiastical writers + respecting what is called the "gift of tongues." The + difficulty arises mainly from the desire to reconcile "the + true" with "the absurd." Starting from the point that all + "scripture" is written by "inspiration of God," the orthodox + are obliged to receive the account narrated in Acts ii. as + being literally correct. +</pre> + <p> + In plain language, the story runs thus:—The Apostles, twelve in + number, were sitting in a room. Whilst there, a noise was heard, and + something like fiery tongues, more or less split, appeared, and one + settled upon each of the company. These all, at once, began to speak in + languages which were strange to all. + </p> + <p> + From the noise made, neighbours had their attention called, and from one + mouth to another the tidings of the ranting ran, until it reached the ears + of devout men, who, from every nation under heaven, were then assembled in + Jerusalem. Whether these foreigners were Hebrews, or whether they, being + strangers, had the gift of understanding the reports couched in Aramaic, + we do not know. But it is narrated that, in the course of a few minutes—possibly + an hour or two—the devout strangers came to listen to the Apostles, + either speaking singly or at once. + </p> + <p> + As these foreigners noticed what was said, they recognized words in their + own respective dialects, and then the Parthian said to the Mede—the + Elamite to the Mesopotamian—the Phrygian to the Pamphyliaji, &c., + "What does all this mean?" So to interchange a question involves that the + interlocutors, like the Apostles, had suddenly received the gift of + speaking, and understanding, other tongues than their own. When the + listeners had convinced themselves about the marvel, each began to talk in + his own language, and the Jews understood them to say, "What meaneth + this?" the Hebrews, like the rest, having also the gift of knowing what + was said in a strange language. + </p> + <p> + Some, however, had not this power of interpretation, and remarked, "the + fellows are drunk!" For a moment we pause to inquire how many people there + were in one room of one house. The Apostles were twelve; then there were, + at least three, Parthians, Medes, &c., in all about forty-five more, + and in addition, there were "the mockers." To all these Peter preached, + and the wonders of the day were crowned by the conversion of three + thousand people! + </p> + <p> + It seems, therefore, to be clear, from the account of this extraordinary + miracle, that the Apostles then gathered together acquired the power of + expressing their thoughts in languages which they had never learned, the + judges of the feat being those whose dialects were spoken. + </p> + <p> + If we now proceed in biblical order to examine into the ideas connected + with this strange faculty, we find, in Acts x. 44-46, that the circumcised + Jews alone were satisfied, in the plenitude of their own ignorance, that + Cornelius and his company could "speak with tongues." Again, in Acts xix. + 6, we learn that certain Ephesians, after baptism, and imposition of + hands, "spake with tongues "—no judge of the fact being quoted. + </p> + <p> + In 1 Cor. xii. 10, we discover that amongst the gifts of the Holy Spirit + are "kinds of tongues," and the interpretation thereof which will, + probably, remind the lover of Shakespeare of Act iv. Scenes 1 and 3, in + "All's well that ends well," wherein there is a nonsensical jargon spoken + by one person which another interprets to the satisfaction of the silly + Parolles. In vv 28, 30, we see strong indications that the gift of tongues + and interpretation may be compared to some things now heard of in + spiritualistic or other conjuring séances. + </p> + <p> + This notion of "speaking with other tongues" reaches its climax, + apparently, in 1 Cor. xiii. 1, wherein Paul indicates, but does not + positively assert, that he can "speak with the tongues of men and angels," + a boast which 2 Cor. xii. 4 leads us to take literally. But how any one on + earth could test the reality of assertion it is difficult to conceive. + </p> + <p> + In 1 Cor. xiv. we see indications that "speaking with tongues" is little + more or less than a sort of hysterical utterance of gibberish, which we + may compare to the once celebrated chorus of + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Lilli-bullero-lero-lero-Lillibullero bullen a la. +</pre> + <p> + One may now ask, "Why did people think that it was part of the Christian's + privileges or powers to speak with tongues?" The only answer which I can + discover is indicated in Acts ii. 18, wherein we find it given as the + opinion of Peter, that a certain vaticination in Joel applied to the + followers of Jesus. The philosopher may wonder at the ignorance—possibly + at the knowledge—which confounded "prophesying" with the utterance + of unintelligible rubbish; but the philologist should be led to + investigate more strictly the real signification of words, and to inquire + into the theories which are traceable to false interpretations. + </p> + <p> + Considerations such as these, which might be multiplied indefinitely, I + have come to the belief that the Apostles of Jesus were no better, as + regards their knowledge of foreign tongues, than their predecessors, the + missionaries sent by Asokâ, or than the modern envoys sent out by a London + Society. + </p> + <p> + What renders it probable that Buddhist ascetics found their way, probably + amongst the camp followers of Antiochus the Great, and endeavoured to + promulgate their doctrines in western Asia, is the fact that a sect sprang + up amongst the Jews after the Grecian conquest of Palestine—called + "The Essenes," to which we have before referred, amongst whose tenets + Buddhism and Judaism were closely mingled The asceticism practised by this + sect was, so far as we know, different to anything known at that time in + Greece or Western Asia, and as it came into fashion at the same time in + Palestine as Indian elephants and Hindoo Mahouts, there is some reason for + the belief that it was brought by disciples of Siddartha. Without dwelling + upon this again, we return to the well ascertained fact that Buddhism was + promulgated most widely in Eastern and Northern Asia about 250 b.c., that + a collection of religious books was made about two hundred years prior to + that date, and that these were revised again during Asokâ's reign. But, + however earnest were the teachers and the taught, the scriptures which + they respected were so voluminous and the facilities for multiplying them + were so small, that it happened, as it did amongst early Christians, that + many a church had no written book of the law. As a consequence of this, + one part or another of Sakya's doctrines became exalted unduly in one + locality, whilst in another a portion was left out of sight. Stories, + also, of miracles became varied, just as we find that they have been by + the writers in the New Testament, the tendency being, as in the history of + the blind man near Jericho, to exaggerate the wonder—for example, + Mark and Luke, chap. x. and xviii, give an account of one man being cured + of blindness, whilst Matthew, chap, xx., tells us that there were two. The + narrators under such circumstances act as if they thought that it is as + easy for a divinity to heal two or two thousand as to cure one, and we who + tolerate the practice in a Christian evangelist must not ridicule it in + Buddhist disciples. + </p> + <p> + When we contemplate the confusion that existed in the Christian church—the + gradual deterioration of the faith taught by Jesus, and more especially by + Paul, and the steady absorption of Pagan rites into the worship + inaugurated by Peter and the other apostles, we can readily understand + that in the course of six or seven hundred years there would be reason in + countries distant from the home of Siddartha to deplore the gradual + decadence of Buddhism, and a desire amongst the devout for tuition at the + fountain-head. In modern times we have read of hierarchs coming from the + uttermost parts of the earth to consult the Roman Pontiff upon points of + discipline affecting the church, and we therefore see without surprise + that, about A.D. 400, six hundred years after it had been planted, the + congregation of Buddhists in China had within it men who determined to go + to India, and bring back to their fellow-worshippers what they hoped would + be a purer doctrine than that which they were accustomed to, and, if + possible, to secure authentic books. Pilgrimage, with this object, cannot + be regarded as being so absurd as that which has in modern days taken + numbers of Christians to Lourdes, in the Pyrenees, or to St. + Paray-le-Monial. + </p> + <p> + Ere we describe this Chinese search after truth, let us imagine a + Christian from Central Russia determining to seek for enlightenment at + Antioch about a.d. 640, and subsequently at the seven churches named in + the Apocalypse—and afterwards writing his experience. We should be + certain to find him bewailing the fall of Christianity and the rise of + Islam. We may indeed affirm that if such a history was now to be + discovered undated, we should regard it as having been written before or + after the date named, according as "the churches" were described as being + the seat of Mahommedism or of Christianity. Still further, if in every + place which this traveller visited, he found a general belief in the + stories told of Jesus and in the efficacy of his doctrine, we should + consider this as proof that the people remained faithful to their early + teaching. If, on the other hand, the wanderer found himself proscribed in + any locality as a benighted heathen, without knowledge of the way of + salvation—he would naturally think that a teacher had given to its + inhabitants instruction different from that which was familiar to him. I + do not exaggerate when I say that a genuine account of the travels in + search of sound Christian doctrine through every part of Europe in the + fifth century of our era, would be invaluable as an indication of the + tenure of certain doctrines, not only in various localities, but as to the + existence or the reverse of dogmas now regarded as of supreme importance. + </p> + <p> + Such a manuscript, which, however, relates to Buddhism and not to + Christianity, exists in China, and it has lately been translated into + English <i>Travels of Fah-Hian and Sung-Yun, Buddhist Pilgrims from China + to India</i>, 400 a.d. and 518 a.d., translated from the Chinese by Samuel + Bea. (Trübner & Co., London, 1869.) It tells us, in a singularly terse + style, how a large portion of China was traversed by these pilgrims;—of + the terrible journey over the mountains to the north of Hindustan; of a + visit to the birth-place of Siddartha; to Benares, to Calcutta, and to + Ceylon;—with an account of the return voyage in a good-sized ship + back again to China. Everywhere, with one single exception, they find the + law of Buddha prevailing. The place referred to as exceptional is Yopoti, + Java, of which it is said: "In this country, heretics and Brahmins + flourish; but the law of Buddha is not much known" (p. 168). In every + other spot which they visit the Chinese wanderers speak applaudingly of + the hold which the religion of Siddartha has upon the people, and the + exemplary conduct of the faithful. From the beginning of the journey to + the end, the enquirers appear always to have found the same form of faith + which had been preached in their own country six hundred years before. The + most careful investigator fails to find a shadow of those doctrines in + which the teaching of Jesus differs from that of Sakya. There is not any + allusion made to an impending dissolution of the world, to baptism, or to + any sacrament; every remark relates to the essentials of Buddhism as known + in each place where Europeans have been able to peruse the authorized + Buddhist scriptures. + </p> + <p> + We may now quote some passages bearing on important points. About the + sources of the Indus: "All the priests asked Fah-Hian what he knew as to + the time when the law of Buddha began to spread eastward from their + country." Hian replied, "On enquiry, men of those lands agreed in saying + that, according to an ancient tradition, Shamans from India began to carry + the sacred books of Buddha beyond the river, from the time when the image + of Maitreya Bodhisatwa was set up." This image was set up three hundred + years or so after the Nirvana of Buddha (about B.C. 243—or, + according to some estimates, B.C. 177), which corresponds with the time of + Pingwang of the Chan family (b.c. 770—the Chinese date of Buddha's + Nirvana being different from that which is usually received in India.) + Hence it may be said that the diffusion of the great doctrine can be + attributed to the influence of this image. For, apart from the power of + the divine teacher Mait-reya, who followed in the footsteps of Sakya, who + would have been sufficient to cause the knowledge of the three precious + ones to be spread so far, that even men on the outskirts of the world + acquired that knowledge? We may conclude, therefore, with certainty, that + the origin of this diffusion of the law of Buddha was no human work, but + sprung from the same cause as the dream of Ming Ti (pp. 23-25). The three + precious ones above referred to, are the Buddhist trinity, everywhere + acknowledged, Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha—or, as some say, Buddha—the + law and the church. The dream of Ming Ti resembles that which we know as + the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary, and foretells the coming of "the + Saviour," one of the names given to Siddartha. The vision of a divine + being, 70 feet high, with a body like gold, and his head glorious as the + sun—one who is fanciful may here discern a likeness to the + individual described in Rev. i. 13, seq.—induced the king to send to + India to seek after the law of Fo, or Buddha. Some one speaking of two + great towers adorned with all the precious substances, which had been + erected at a certain town—the Taxila of the Greeks—to + commemorate episodes in the life of Buddha, makes the remark "The kings, + ministers, and people of all the surrounding countries vie with each other + in making religious offerings at these places, in scattering flowers and + burning incense continually" (p. 33). + </p> + <p> + "In the city of Hilo is the Vitiara containing the relic of the skull-bone + of Buddha. This Vitiara is entirely covered with plates of gold, and + decorated with the seven precious substances (gold, silver, lapis lazuli, + crystal, cornelian, coral, and ruby.) The king of the country reverences + in a high degree this sacred relic." As this example shows well the + Buddhist veneration for memorials of the dead, I will not quote more. It + is clear that old bones were regarded with religious awe in Hindostan + before they were enshrined in Christendom. In the case above recorded, + "extraordinary pains are taken to preserve the relic from theft or + substitution, and the king offers flowers and incense in front of it + daily, then bends his head to the ground before it in adoration, and + departs." In another place Buddha's robe is kept, although we may fairly + doubt whether he ever possessed one, but doubtless it is quite as + authentic as "the holy coat" of Treves, or the Virgin Mary's milk. There + is another relic of Sakya not yet copied by Christian pagans, viz., the + shadow of the great teacher—which lives in a cave, and can only be + seen by the faithful (p. 45, 46). We commend this to thaumaturgical + Gallican divines, such as those who describe how certain it is that Mary + of Judea came to show herself at Lourdes, and to talk French. + </p> + <p> + On arriving at the Punjaub the record states, "The law of Buddha is + prosperous and flourishing here..." On seeing disciples from China coming + among them they were much affected, and spoke thus: "How wonderful to + think that men from the ends of the earth should know the character of + this religion, and should come thus far to seek the law of Buddha. We + received from them all that we required, and were treated according to the + provisions of the law" (p. 51,52). "All the kingdoms beyond the sandy + deserts are spoken of as belonging to Western India. The kings of all + these countries firmly believe in the law of Buddha" (pp. 53, 54). + </p> + <p> + In the following, we may see the prototype of monasteries, "From the time + of Buddha's Nirvana, the kings and nobles of all these countries began to + erect viharas for the priesthood, and to endow them with lands, gardens, + houses, and also men and oxen to cultivate them. The records of these + endowments being engraved on sheets of copper, have been handed down from + one king to another, so that no one has dared to deprive them of + possession, and they continue to this day to enjoy their proper revenues. + All the resident priests have chambers, beds, coverlets, food, drink, and + clothes provided for them without stint or reserve. Thus it is in all + places. The priests, on the other hand, continually employ themselves in + reciting their scriptures, in works of benevolence, or in profound + meditation" (pp. 55, 56). + </p> + <p> + It is very important that we should notice, although it is unnecessary to + dwell upon the fact, that the pilgrims visited the spot whence Buddha went + up to heaven to preach his law to his mother Maya, who died when her child + was seven days old, and, consequently, long before he became "the + Saviour." The son remained with his parent three months (p. 62.) Jesus, it + will be remembered, only preached to the spirits in prison during a day + and a-half—which, by common consent, passes amongst Christians for + three days. I may also notice that there is mentioned (p. 66), an idea + that three Buddhas existed before the advent of Sakya Muni, and that the + following are their precepts, translated from the Chinese copy of a + Buddhist book:—1. The heart carefully avoiding idle dissipation, + diligently applying itself to religion, forsaking all lust and consequent + disappointment, fixed and immovable, attains Nirvana (rest.) 2. Practising + no vice, advancing in the exercise of virtue, and purifying the mind from + evil; this is the doctrine of all the Buddhas. 3. To keep one's tongue, to + cleanse one's mind, to do no ill—this is the way to purify oneself + throughout, and to attain this state of discipline is the doctrine of all + the great sages (p. 66). + </p> + <p> + The Buddhists also preserve impressions of Siddartha's feet and show them + to pilgrims, just as certain papal priests show the impressions of St. + Peter's feet at a church a little outside Rome, on the Appian way. The + pilgrims "visit Kapilavastu, now a desert, but once the royal residence of + Suddhodana. There are here a congregation of priests and ten families of + lay people. In the ruined palace there is a picture of the Prince Apparent + and his mother (supposed to be) taken at the time of his miraculous + conception. The prince is represented as descending towards his mother + riding on a white elephant." This elephant came from the Tusita heaven + surrounded by light like the sun, and entered the left side of the mother. + As the elephant is the strongest of known terrestrial animals, it + certainly represented "The power of the Highest" (see Luke i. 35), and we + may draw one of two inferences—either that the sons of Maya and Mary + were conceived equally miraculously, or that the story of one is just as + true or as incredible as that of the other. Certainly the doctrine of the + Immaculate Conception was known in India long before it was enunciated by + a Christian Pope in Rome. Perhaps, had Pio Nono known that he was copying + a Buddhistic story, he would have wavered long before he assimilated his + religion to that of Siddartha. At the same locality a tower is raised to + mark the spot where the Rishi (Saint or Prophet) Asita calculated the + horoscope of Sakya, and declared that he would become a supreme Buddha—a + legend which is very similar to that told of old Simeon and the infant + Jesus (Luke ii. 25, seq.). The pilgrims were also shown the garden—not + a stable—in which Maya brought forth her son, and wherein + immediately afterwards the infant walked. Two dragon kings—perhaps + wise men from the East—washed the infant's body, and this spot + afterwards became a sacred well (p. 88). + </p> + <p> + We must pass by an account of a miracle, to the full as wonderful and + quite as incredible as that of Saint Ursula and the eleven thousand + virgins, who left their bones at Cologne because it has no distinct + reference to Buddha. (P. 97)—But I may mention that the Chinese + writer states after the end of the story, that a certain violation of the + law occurred one hundred years after Sakya's death, and upon this record + Mr Beal has the following important note—"This refers to the second + great council of the Buddhist church. According to Singhalese authorities + (Mahawanso) there were three great convocations or councils—1st, + immediately after Buddha's death to compile the authorised scriptures; 2d, + to refute certain errors that had crept into the church; 3d, under the + great Asokâ," (p. 99). We may doubt the value of the Mahawanso, but at the + same time we may express a wish that early Christians had even a tradition + of a council to compile authorised scriptures about the son of Mary ere + time sufficient had elapsed to allow "the marvellous" to develop itself + into "the incredible." + </p> + <p> + In like manner I must omit the description of a procession of images, + amongst which that of Buddha is conspicuous; the fête is held at Patna, + supposed to be the ancient Palimbothra where Asokâ reigned. It resembles + in almost all its details the grand processions of the Papists on certain + occasions,—lamps, lights, games, riot, and religious offerings are + mingled together for the healthy and for the sick, and wonderful cures are + provided as far as possible. To this account is to be appended a very + significant, perhaps I might say satirical, note by the translator of the + pilgrims' manuscript. "From the whole of this account (of the procession + of images), it would seem that the Buddhist worship had already begun to + degenerate from its primitive simplicity and severity. Plays and music and + concerts, are strictly forbidden by the rules of the order; we can begin + to see how Buddhism lapsed into Sivite worship, and sank finally into the + horrors of Jaganath" (p. 107). To the thoughtful reader of our christian + history, this note upon Buddhist processions of images is painfully + pregnant. It reminds us that the followers of Maya's son and Mary's alike + lapsed into paganism, and almost by the same stages. We cannot accuse the + Hindoos of copying the orgies of the Christian saturnalia or carnival, nor + do we think that the Europeans cared to imitate the Hindoos; but what we + do believe is that both parties have fallen lower and lower from their + pristine purity in consequence of the gradually increasing feeling that + the generality of human beings can only be brought under priestly power by + an appeal to their animal propensities. + </p> + <p> + Some affirm, with great show of argumentation, that it is man's bestial + propensities which lead his race to hell. It may be so, but then, on the + other hand, it is certain that ecclesiastics endeavour to chain us to + their chariots by pandering to, managing, exciting, or otherwise playing + upon those propensities, which man has in common with the sheep, the ox, + the tiger, the serpent, and the elephant. Every form of religion, yet + promulgated, that appeals to sound sense, thought, and reason, has failed + from the want of followers capable of dominating their passions. Than a + pure religion based upon thoughts such as Sakya Muni and the son of Mary + gave utterance to, nothing seems grander, but such is its nature that it + can only be fully embraced by a few. If all are poor, none can live upon + alms—if all sell their worldly goods to purchase Heaven, no buyers + will be found in the market. The Buddhist and the Christian anchorite may, + for a time, live on charity, yet each succeeding generation of ascetics + will more and more dislike the plan of winning food by misery. We have + seen how kings made grand provision for the comfort of the priestly + followers of the son of Maya; and in later times, we have seen how the + followers of the son of Mary have, by artfulness, provided many similar + homes for themselves. Yet, with all this, there are both Buddhists and + Christians who have protested, by their actions, against religious luxury + of every kind. Each of my readers may judge of what spirit he is, by + asking himself whether he regards such individuals as wise or foolish. + </p> + <p> + The pilgrims pass on to the place where five hundred saints assembled + after Sakya's death to arrange the collection of sacred books (p. 118)—thence + to the spot where Siddartha bathed, and the Dêva or Angel held out the + branch of a tree to assist him in coming out of the water (p. 121)—thence + to the spot where Buddha was tempted by three daughters of Maka as + courtesans, a more severe temptation than befel the Christian Anthony—and + by Mara himself with a vast army; but all uselessly, for Sakya was as + impregnable as Jesus. And we find that in the same spot he subsequently + underwent mortification, not for forty days only, but for six years. All + of these localities are marked by towers, which must, according to + ecclesiastical reasoning, demonstrate the truth of the legends. + </p> + <p> + After a very long search—for the purpose of Fah Hian was to seek for + copies of the <i>Vinaya Pitaka</i>—he found his exertions to find a + copy of the sacred work were useless, because, throughout the whole of + Northern India, the various masters trusted to tradition only for their + knowledge of the precepts, and had no written codes. The pilgrims, + however, when they arrived in Middle India, found a copy, "which was that + used by the first great assembly of priests convened during Buddha's + lifetime" (p. 142); this appears to have been generally regarded as the + most correct and complete (p. 144). Fah Hian also obtained "one copy of + Precepts, in manuscript, comprising about 7000 gâthas (verses or stanzas). + This was the same as that generally used in China. In this place also an + imperfect copy of the Abhidharma was obtained, containing 6000 gâthas; + also, an abreviated form of Sutras, or Precepts, containing 2500 verses in + an abreviated form; also, another expanded Sutra, with 5000 verses, and a + second copy of the Abhidharma," according to the school of the Mahâ + Sanghihas (the greater vehicle). "On this account Fah Hian abode in the + place (Patma, the ancient Palibothra) for the space of three years, + engaged in learning to read the Sanscrit books, to converse in that + language, and to copy the Precepts. Here his companion, To Ching, + remained; but Fah Hian, desiring with his whole heart to spread the + knowledge of the Precepts throughout China, returned alone" (p. 146). This + pilgrim then goes to the kingdom of Champa, where he stopped two years, to + copy out sacred Sutras, and to take impressions of the figures used in + worship. Here the law of Buddha was generally respected. He then sailed in + a great merchant vessel for Ceylon (p. 148). From this expression we + presume that he entered a seaport, and, as such, one likely to have been + reached by some Christian missionary, if any had ever visited India, as + Paul attained Asia Minor, Italy, &c. All that we learn about it, + however, is in a translator's note, which tells us that the place was + mentioned by another China man, Hiouen Thsang, who spoke of the number of + heretical sects who were mixed together here—Buddhism being here + corrupted at an early period by local superstitions. In Ceylon Fah Hian + remained two years, and, continuing his search for the sacred books, + obtained a copy of the Vinaya Pitaka, of the great Agama, and the + miscellaneous Agama (books of elementary doctrine), also a volume of + miscellaneous collections from the Pitakas, all of which were hitherto + entirely unknown in China. Having obtained these works in the original + language (Pali), he forthwith shipped himself on board a great merchant + vessel, which carried about 200 men, and started for his native land (p. + 166). "After Fah Hian left home, he was five years in arriving at Mid + India. He resided there during six years, and was three more ere he + arrived again in China. He had successively passed through thirty + different countries." In all the countries of India, after passing the + sandy desert (of Gobi), the dignified carriage of the priesthood, and the + surprising influence of religion (amongst the people), cannot be + adequately described... "Having been preserved by Divine power (by the + influences of the Three honourable Ones), and brought through all dangers + safely, he was induced to commit to writing the record of his travels, + desirous that the virtuous of all ages may be informed of them as well as + himself" (p. 173). + </p> + <p> + After reading this account, we think that no thoughtful man can reasonably + assert that Christianity was taught in India at an early period, was + widely adopted, and became the parent of Buddhism. If, in rejoinder, we + are told that no writers have asserted that there were Christians in India + in olden times, except in Malabar, the answer is, that these were + described by those who first met with their successors as totally distinct + from the Hindoos, and, consequently, neither Buddhists nor Brahmins. + Moreover, we are told that they were regarded by the Holy Inquisition of + Europe as heretics, and were, consequently, persecuted by the Christians + (see Gibbon's <i>Roman Empire</i>, vol. viii, 355). + </p> + <p> + Rosse, in his book of dates (London, 1858), speaks of an Indian embassy to + Constantine the Great, a.d. 334, and another sent to Constantius the + Second, but received by Julian, A.D. 362. I cannot, however, as yet, find + his authority. But Socrates, in his <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, book i, + ch. 19, about A.D. 331, speaks of a treaty which had been in existence a + short time before, between the Romans and the Indians, but which had been + recently violated. He also, in the same chapter, states that there were + Christians amongst the Roman merchants in India—no town or locality + being given, however, so that we cannot test his assertion—but that + they did not then unite to worship. We find also, from the same chapter, + that up to that period there were no Christian Indians known. + </p> + <p> + Coupling the foregoing fragments of history together, we may safely assert + that India, generally, was Buddhist in A.D. 400, and that, according to + Pliny, the Romans, or, rather, the Alexandrians, had been in yearly + communication with the country, for at least three centuries, at the time + of Constantine. As it appears that there were Roman merchants in India, so + we presume that there were Hindoo traders resident in Egypt. The + presumption is, that these were Buddhists, and that they were attended, or + followed, by missionary Buddhist priests. Absolute proof of this there is + none. + </p> + <p> + We now turn to Gibbon's history, and inquire into the period when monastic + asceticism first began to prevail in Egypt, the necessary residence of our + presumed Hindoo traffickers. We find (see <i>Decline and Fall</i>, chapter + 37) that Anthony, an Egyptian, and unable to write in Greek, living in the + lower parts of Thebais, distributed his patrimony, deserted his family and + native home, lived amongst tombs, or in a ruined tower, then in the + desert, and then in some lonely spot, near the Red Sea, where he found + shade and water. It certainly seems clear that he took the son of Maya, + rather than the child of Mary, as his exemplar. At and after this time, + the rage for asceticism spread amongst the inhabitants of Eastern Africa + as conspicuously as it had done in Oriental Asia at the time of Asoka. It + is difficult to read the chapter of Gibbon's history to which we refer, + and a history of Buddhism, without regarding Egypt, and her miserable + ascetics, in the same light as we look upon the folks of Hindustan and + Thibet. If Jesus of Nazareth had dictated such a life, surely his early + followers would have been more conspicuous in their habitual + mortifications than their later disciples were. The son of man—the + child of Mary—"came eating and drinking," and was called "a + gluttonous man and a wine bibber, a friend of publicans and sinners" (Luke + vii. 34; Matt, xi. 19). Not so the son of Maya. The Apostles of Jesus had + power to lead about a wife or a sister, and they did so. Neither Paul nor + Peter shunned woman's society, nor did they practise poverty; nay, they + worked with their own hands, lest they should have to live on alms (2 + Thess. iii. 8), and they collected money for poor saints from the + wealthier brethren. There was no asceticism here, nor can we find, in any + part of the New Testament, a text upon which a system of austerity can be + founded. + </p> + <p> + We might, perhaps, think comparatively little of the parallel which we + have drawn between Buddhism, and Christianity, did we not recognize the + fact, that almost everyone of the later developments of the latter had, + for centuries before, found a place in the former, even including, as we + have mentioned, the dogma of the immaculate conception. + </p> + <p> + To the preceding considerations we may add another, which, as Ivanhoe said + of himself, "is of lesser renown and lower rank, and assumed into the + honourable company less to aid their enterprise than to make up their + number." Standing alone it may have small power, but as a link in a chain + it is important. We refer to the abundant testimony which we possess of + the strength of Grecian influence upon the tenets of Christianity. Without + laying any stress upon the fact that the whole of the New Testament extant + is written in Greek, we may advert to the current belief amongst + thoughtful scholars, that the so-called Gospel of St. John was written by + some Alexandrian Greek about 150 A.D., or by one who was imbued with the + philosophy of Plato. Sharpe has distinctly shown that the doctrine of the + trinity was held in Ancient Egypt, and first adopted, then promulgated, by + the Egyptian or Alexandrian divines. The influence of Greek ideas upon + Philo Judæus is very conspicuous. + </p> + <p> + We may now turn our attention to one statement about the Athenians, viz., + "that they and the strangers which were there spent their time in nothing + else than to tell and to hear some new thing," and that they were so + particular—in this respect resembling the Ancient Peruvians—in + adopting foreign gods, that they had an altar to the Unknown Deity (Acts + xvii). To this we must add what Sozomen says of them (<i>Ecclesiastical + History</i>, book ii. chap. 24)—that the most celebrated + philosophers amongst the Greeks took pleasure in exploring unknown cities + and regions. Plato, the friend of Socrates, dwelt for a time amongst the + Egyptians, in order to acquaint himself with their manners and customs. He + likewise sailed to Sicily, to examine its craters.... These craters were + likewise explored by Empedocles. Democritus of Coos relates that he + visited many cities, and countries, and nations, and that eighty years of + his life were spent in travelling in foreign lands. Besides these + philosophers, thousands of wise men amongst the Greeks, ancient and + modern, habituated themselves to travel. Solon, it is well known, + travelled to the court of Croesus, and it is affirmed that Pythagoras + visited India. Sozomen makes the above statement to explain how it was + that Merope of Tyre, with two young relatives, visited India, the two + latter becoming its first two bishops. + </p> + <p> + Nothing is more probable than that Greeks, who had resided for a time in + India, on their return, believing that as they had recognized in Hindostan + an earnest form of Christianity, differing from the Alexandrian standard + only in a few minor points, thought it right to introduce into western + religion Buddhist practices—first into Egypt, <i>via</i> Alexandria, + and thence into Europe. We certainly cannot prove that they did it, but + there is a very good reason for believing so. The doctrines of Jesus + emanated, we believe, from some early Asokâ's missionaries; whilst the + doctrines of the Alexandrians and the Ascetics, came from subsequent + Buddhists, who placed their stamp on Christianity once more. + </p> + <p> + Thus we have been led, by a strict inquiry into every extant testimony + known, to believe that the faith taught by Siddartha, was held for at + least 250—and most probably, 500 years, before our era. Still + further, we have been led to believe, from the extraordinary energy and + success of Buddhist missionaries in the three centuries before Christ—a + success before which all Christian missionary enterprise pales—that + emissaries from Asokâ's colleges of priests, penetrated westward with the + Greeks as far as the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, and forced some + devout Jews to modify their belief. But, though it is probable that the + Hindoo teachers introduced the morality inculcated by Sakya Muni, it seems + certain that they could not induce their Hebrew disciples to abandon their + implicit trust in those writings which they had been induced to think were + absolutely inspired or written by direct command of the Almighty—consequently, + Christianity must be regarded not as pure Buddhism, but a form of it + modified by Jewish traditions. But when those who embraced the religion of + Jesus, had learned to distrust the literal truth of the Old Testament, and + had the certainty that the prophesies about the immediate destruction of + the world were false, they came again into contact with Buddhist teaching, + and were content to forego Judaism. They did not, however, give up Jesus + as the Saviour. Instead of believing with Sakya, that man suffered for his + own sin, they clung to the legend of Adam and Eve, and affirmed that + suffering was introduced into the whole world by this very original + couple. Instead of Nirvana, their heaven was Ouranos—the sky above + them. Instead of an abode where all the senses were at rest, they adopted + the idea of a golden city, with a river of crystal running through it; + brilliant with jewels, and guarded by gates and walls in which all the + good should spend their time in singing and music. The Christians adopted + all the Asceticism, dirt, and love of vermin, that the disciples of Sakya, + and even Siddartha himself, delighted in—but they nevertheless clung + to the idea that the world was sure to be destroyed, and that Jesus would + come again. It is indeed, difficult to reconcile the belief, that he who + washed his disciples' feet, and praised a woman for cleaning and anointing + his own, sanctioned an idea which, throughout centuries, urged + religionists to be filthy; yet we must do so if we are orthodox. We have, + indeed, similar anomalies now. Devout Christians tell us that this world + ought to be made a preparation for another; and that the main joy of + heaven will be an indefinite increase of knowledge. Yet these same people + affirm, sometimes in distinct terms, that an extension of scientific + attainments, and a constant inquiry into the will of God, as expressed in + the works of His hands, are snares of the Devil, and so to be avoided by + all good people. The Orthodox as a rule believe—though few venture + to affirm it, that Jehovah loves the fools the best, and that ignorance is + godliness. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Estimation of the Bible. The Dhammapada and Hebrew (sacred) + books. Certain important dates. Jews were never + missionaries. Precepts of Buddha. Contrasts. How to overcome + undesirable thoughts. Knowledge beats prayer. Sunday + proverbs. New birth. Divines preach brotherly love in the + pulpit, and provoke hate when out of it. Buddhist precept is + "do as I do," not "do as I say." The narrow way of the + Gospel finds an origin in Buddhism. One law broken all law + broken—a Buddhist maxim. Sakya taught about a future world. + Parallel passages. Effect of Buddhist and Christian + teaching. Parallel passages about truth and almsgiving. + Ignorance a Buddhist vice and a Christian virtue. + <i>Suppressio veri, suggestio falsi</i> in the pulpit Classes in + the religious world. Why ignorance is cherished. Ignorance + often more profitable than knowledge. Examples. Charlatans + live by the fools. Honest doctors and parsons must be poor. + Poverty an essential part of Buddhism. Hierarchs are quite + unnecessary to the enlightened man. Parallel passages again. + Unphilosophical dicta in Buddhism and Bible. Prosperity not + a proof of propriety, and misery not always a reward of + badness. Lions and lambs. Design in creation. Right and + wrong—do they exist before the Creator. False analogies. + Persecution a Christian but not a Buddhist practice. Popgun + thunders from the Vatican. Age not equivalent to wisdom. + Siddartha did not prophesy, and so made no mistake about + that which was to follow. More negatives and positives. + Another contrast No obscene stories in Buddhist as in Jewish + scriptures—no legend of Lot and his daughters, David and + Bathsheba, of Onan, Judah and Tamar, Zimri, Cozbi, and + Phinehas, and a host of others. A good deal of nonsense in + all ancient writings. The foolish stories and prophecies of + the Bible—if abstracted, little remains. The little might + be improved by extracts from Plato, Epictetus, and Buddhist + scriptures, and even from those of Confucius. +</pre> + <p> + From the earliest times which I can remember, I have heard the English + Bible spoken of with the utmost reverence, as the undoubted word of God, + as a revelation of the will, ways, and even the thoughts of the Supreme + Being. Everything which it contains has been regarded as infallibly true, + and the wisdom, goodness, mercy, and justice of its doctrines and laws + have been judged to be unimpeachable. From the pulpit of many earnest + divines I have heard innumerable sermons whose burden has been praise of, + and admiration for, the morality of the Old and New Testaments, the + sublimity of the language therein used, and the loftiness of the thoughts + embodied. From those same teachers, and from a still greater number of + laymen, I have heard the assertion repeatedly made that the Bible must be + divinely inspired, because no other set of men, except those who composed + its books, could write so powerfully; and depict so graphically, the + wants, the woes, the pleasures, the passions, the aspirations, and the + doubts of the human mind. By a great majority, if not by the whole of our + imperfectly educated ministers and people, the assertion to which we here + refer is raised to the position of an argument; and any opponent who + ventures to question the truth of the assumption, is challenged to show a + book of divinity equal or superior to the Bible. + </p> + <p> + The worthlessness of the argument might be readily shown to any one + accustomed to use his reason, by pointing out that the religious books of + the Ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Medea, Persians, and + Etruscans, are lost to us. We may compare the assertion with that which + Englishmen might have made, to the effect that the British breed of horses + was superior to any other, for no one could show them a better; yet as + soon as our Crusaders became acquainted with the Arabian steed, the value + of the assumption was destroyed. Yet such a remark would be wholly + inoperative on the mind of every bigot whose judgment of evidence is + always bribed by his prejudice. Consequently, to make any serious + impression upon the mind of the Bibliolater, it is desirable, if possible, + to make copies of the holy images worshipped by other nations, under the + name of sacred books, and to place these side by side with that grotesque + production, which, for our purposes, may be compared to Diana of the + Ephesians—the thing which fell down from Jupiter. + </p> + <p> + Yet even when we do bring from distant countries, to which in our + complacency we give the name of "heathen," copies of their deified books, + and show their equality with, or superiority to that which we are told was + arranged by the disposition of angels (Acts vii. 53)—the scriptures + that Paul (2 Tim. iii. 16) affirms were entirely given by inspiration of + God [—Greek—], see also 1 Pet. i. 11, 12,—we are met by + the assertion, if the equality is allowed, that the Pagan writings have + been copied from, or are traceable to, the writers in the Old or in the + New Testament. + </p> + <p> + Whenever a thoughtless theologian asserts that such a thing <i>must</i> be + so, he is not by any means particular as to the facts upon which he bases + his belief. This weakness of his is so conspicuous to the logical + observer, that he sometimes feels pity at having to wound a mind so + earnest as to be unable to use its reason. He almost regards himself as a + man fighting a child or a weak woman. Yet men will, in their power and + knowledge, deprive a baby of a bon-bon, which it is sucking eagerly, if + they know that it is poisonous, and will lay violent hands upon a tender + girl who, in a whirlwind of passion, is about to throw herself before a + railway train. After the event both the individuals may learn to thank the + roughness which saved them; and I feel sure that many an earnest + religionist, who now thinks that the philosophers are treating him + cruelly, by trying to deprive him of a cherished faith, will ultimately be + grateful for having been induced to cease grovelling in the dust of a + coarse antiquity. + </p> + <p> + If we endeavour to ascertain the basis of the belief that everything which + is good <i>must</i> have come from the Bible, we find that it exists in + the assertion that the Jews were the chosen people of God, selected by Him + to receive a record of His past doings and His future desires. Hence it is + argued, that all who have not been taught by the Jews, or through their + influence, are without God in the world—poor, benighted pagans. To + support assumptions so monstrous as this, there is not a tittle of + evidence beyond the existence of certain stories in some books, said to + contain a truthful record of facts. But although the theologian heaps up + protestation upon asseveration until the mass attains an imposing size, + the whole is not of more substantial value than a huge bubble blown by an + energetic school boy. If millions could be brought to believe that such a + hollow sphere was a solid, painted with the most resplendent colours + obtained from the celestial mansions, it would not make it other than a + film of soap and water filled with air. + </p> + <p> + Yet though the unanimous consent of myriads cannot convert foam into a + solid substance, a mass of froth may be treated as if it were something + better, so long as all agree not to test its qualities; and any book may + in like manner be regarded as of divine origin, so long as everybody + determines not to test the reality of the opinion. We can easily imagine + that those who have been educated to believe in the absolute density of a + bubble, must be greatly distressed when it bursts. Indeed in every + mercantile community we see frequent illustrations of this. Designing men + weave a plausible story, and by inflated words induce a number of + thoughtless people to believe their statements, adopt their promises, and + act upon their recommendation. Whilst all seems to be prosperous, every + dupe repels with indignation the statement that the whole of his + confraternity are deceived. If faith in the stability of a banking house + could have upheld it, Overend & Gurnets would never have broken. If + then faith, the most complete and child-like trust in the truth of + anything,—say particularly in a certain book—will not make it + valuable if it be in reality worthless, then all those who wish to feel + beneath them the everlasting arms of truth, should inquire into current + beliefs rather than take everything for granted. + </p> + <p> + At the time when the wealth, power, and stability of the Bank above + referred to were implicitly believed in by the many, and especially + trusted by its shareholders, there were, outside of its pale, many + individuals who felt sure that the establishment was very shaky, and a few + who were aware that it was toppling to its fall. If then, at that time, + any customer or proprietor, feeling a doubt about its safety, should have + endeavoured to investigate the rumours which were adverse to it; and + should have acted as reason dictated, after he had weighed the alleged + facts on both sides, he might have came to a safe decision and saved his + money. What is true in this case may be applied to the Bible—the + Bank upon which so many draw large drafts, and in whose stability they + have unbounded confidence. The thoughtless may, and doubtless will, + continue to trust it implicitly—the thoughtful will probably + consult, not only the Bibliolaters, but those who put no faith whatever in + the volume, and judge for themselves. + </p> + <p> + The fear which many men have of biblical inquiry, has for a long period + struck me as being inexplicable, inasmuch as it is at variance with the + assertion of these very same people, that an examination of the book must + prove it to be infallibly true. But investigation into a supposed truth + can only end by confirming it fully, and thus making the truth more + useful; or by demonstrating that the belief entertained is untenable. It + has been the dread—nay the certainty, of the latter result, which + has deterred many great minds from investigating the matter. Amongst these + the late Professor Faraday was conspicuous, for we learn from a letter in + the Athenaeum of Jan. 7, 1870, written by one of his own personal friends, + that he—perhaps the most accomplished seeker after physical truth in + his time, declined firmly to search into the value of the commonly + received notions respecting "the scriptures," as he felt sure that his + faith in them would thereby be shaken. Yet he was illogical enough to use + them as a basis for his theological teaching. He preached to others from + texts in which he had no confidence; and supported his doctrines by + quotations from a book which, in his secret heart, he felt was valueless + as an exponent of historical truth, or orthodox teaching. + </p> + <p> + Before we proceed to the comparison between the "Dhammapada" and the + Bible, it will be judicious to place fairly before the reader the points + which we hope to elucidate. We wish to show, by a collation of dates and + doctrines, that the two are wholly independent of each other, and as we + have elsewhere remarked, that if there has been any relationship between + Buddhist and Christian writings, the first have had more than two + centuries' precedence over the last. We wish to compare the morality + taught by Buddha, with that promulgated in the Old and New Testaments. We + desire impartially to examine into the question, whether the claim for + inspiration can be allowed in either one case or the other, or in both + together—whether, indeed, it is possible to believe the Hebrew + scriptures to be dictated by God, without giving a similar confidence to + the teachings of Sakya Muni—or, assuming that there is to be found a + code of pure morality or ethics which we may suppose to be of universal + application, we shall endeavour to ascertain whether the Hebrews and the + followers of Mary, or the disciples of the son of Maya Deva, have made the + nearest approach to its discovery and establishment. Collaterally we shall + examine whether Jesus has a greater claim than Buddha to be the Son of + God. The Dhammapada which has recently (Trübner & Co., London, 1870*) + been translated by Max Mülller from the Pali, is one of the many books + which profess to give, as our Gospels and Epistles do of Christ, the + teachings or precepts of Buddha. These were for some two or three + centuries traditional only; but about the period, B.C. 300, many, if not + most of them, were committed to writing. As far as can be ascertained, the + year b.c. 246 was the period of the first Buddhist council under Asok, and + shortly after this, Mahuida, a priestly son of Asokâ, went as a missionary + to Ceylon; other emissaries went to Burmah, China, Japan, and it is + believed elsewhere. The oral promulgation of the Dhammapada would probably + begin about b.c. 560—twenty years or thereabouts before the death of + Siddartha. If we turn to contemporary history in the west of Asia, we find + that at this period Jerusalem was in ruins, and the Jews were captives in + Babylonia—no copies of any Hebrew sacred book were known to be in + existence (2 Esdras xiv. 21; 2 Maccabees ii. 1-13—see also 1 + Maccabees i. 21-23), and, so far as we could learn, India was a country + wholly unknown to the Shemitic race. The acquaintanceship between + Hindustan and Europe seems to have been made in the time when the Greek + monarch, Alexander, overthrew Darius of Persia. Alexander invaded India + about b.c. 327, consequently we infer that there was no possibility of + Buddha being influenced by western notions in b.c. 560. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * <i>Buddhaghosa's Parables</i>, translated from Burmese, by Capt + T. Rogers; with an introduction, containing Buddha's + Dhammapada, or "Path of Virtue," by Max Müller. Trübner & + Co., London, 1870. +</pre> + <p> + To these considerations we must add the fact that the Jews have never + been, from the earliest to the latest times, a missionary nation,—indeed, + their laws and precepts forced them to be so peculiarly reserved, that + even if they had known about India they would not have sent their + emissaries there, inasmuch as the Mosaic law obliged them to present + themselves at the Temple at Jerusalem thrice a-year, which was wholly + incompatible with distant travel. Moreover, there are many extant + histories to show that intelligent westerns went to India for knowledge + and religion, and never seemed to think of carrying their own faith + thither. The whole course of history points to religion and civilization + coming westerly from India or Central Asia. + </p> + <p> + The dates above given will clearly show that Sakya Muni could not have + derived his ideas from the teaching of Jesus, or of the Talmudists, + neither of whom were in existence when he flourished. Whatever similarity, + therefore, we find in the doctrines, &c., of the two, cannot be + accounted for by supposing that Christian missionaries carried the New + Testament to India. The reverse is far more probable, as we have + demonstrated in a preceding chapter. + </p> + <p> + Some inquirers into the history of the sons of Maya Deva and of Mary are + so convinced of the priority of the first, and of the close resemblance of + the incidents in the lives and in the teaching of the two, that they have + found themselves forced, reluctantly, to consider the question—whether + Christianity is not Buddhism altered in some respects by Judaism. This + point having been elsewhere spoken of, we will not pursue it. But a far + more important, and, for many Christians, a more momentous inquiry, is, + whether we can speak of the Son of Mary as the offspring of Jehovah, and + yet affirm that the child of Maya Deva was nothing but a common man. So + deeply have some been moved by this consideration, that I have positively + heard the opinion broached, that the Indian sage was the very same as he + who subsequently was put to death in Jerusalem. Wild though the allegation + is, there is quite as great an amount of probability in it as in the + assertion that Jesus went and preached unto those spirits which were + sometime disobedient, i.e., in the time of Noah (1 Pet. iii. 19, 20), and + were, consequently, then in prison, or that Buddha went to his dead + mother, and converted her to his own faith. About supernatural births we + shall treat in a succeeding part. + </p> + <p> + Without incumbering our pages with all the precepts of the Dhammapada, we + will copy a few in detail to show the reader their style, and then we will + only quote those which are most appropriate to our subject. The opening + paragraphs singularly resemble those in Bacon's <i>Novum Organon</i>, and + run thus—"All that we are, is the result of what we have thought: it + is founded on our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts with an evil thought, + pain follows him, as the wheel follows the foot of him who draws the + carriage (lv.)." + </p> + <p> + 2. "All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded + on our thoughts, it is made up of our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts + with a pure thought, happiness follows him, like a shadow that never + leaves him" (lvi. et. seq.). + </p> + <p> + 3. "He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me—hatred in + those who harbour such thoughts will never cease."** + </p> + <p> + 4. "He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me—hatred in + those who do not harbour such thoughts will cease." + </p> + <p> + 5. "For hatred does not cease by hatred at any time; hatred ceases by + love"—this is an old rule. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The figures refer to the separate precepts, which are + given in numerical order. + + ** With this and the following saying we may compare the + words of the Psalms—"Do not I hate those, O Lord, that hate + thee? and am I not grieved with those that rise up against + thee? I hate them with a perfect hatred; I count them mine + enemies" (Ps. cxxxix. 21, 22). The words of David, said to + be a man after God's own heart, are equally opposed to the + law of love, viz., "Thou hast given me the necks of my + enemies, that I might destroy them that hate me" (2 Sam. + xxii. 41; Ps. xviii. 40); I shall see my desire on them that + hate me" (Ps. cxviii. 7). In Deuteronomy we find, moreover, + that indulgence in hatred is attributed to the Almighty, + "who repayeth them that hate Him to their face to destroy + them: He (God) will not be slack to him that hateth Him, he + will repay him to his face" (chap. vii. 10). Hatred of their + enemies is, indeed, everywhere encouraged in the Jewish + Scriptures, called sacred, and the Hebrew Jehovah is + described as one with whom the power to hate and revenge + Himself is a favourite luxury. +</pre> + <p> + 6. "And some do not know that we must come to an end here; but others know + it, and hence their quarrels cease." + </p> + <p> + 7. "He who lives looking for pleasures only, his senses uncontrolled, + immoderate in his enjoyments, idle and weak, Mara (the Tempter, the + Adversary, or Satan) will certainly overcome him, as the wind throws down + a weak tree." + </p> + <p> + 8. "He who lives without looking for pleasures, his senses well + controlled, in his enjoyments moderate, faithful and strong, Mara will + certainly not overcome him, any more than the wind throws down a rocky + mountain." + </p> + <p> + 11. "They who imagine truth in untruth, and see untruth in truth, never + arrive at truth, but follow vain desires." + </p> + <p> + 15. "The evildoer mourns in this world, and he mourns in the next, he + mourns in both.".... + </p> + <p> + 16. "The virtuous man delights in this world, and he delights in the next; + he delights in both." + </p> + <p> + We may pause here, and ask ourselves whether, throughout the whole of the + Old Testament, we can find a single passage which so distinctly points to + a future state as does this Buddhistic teaching. Yet bibliolaters assert + that the effusions of Jewish writers were inspired by God! Mortal men + cannot tell what takes place after their bodies have become dissipated + into various chemical compounds; consequently, they cannot decide, with + certainty, which deserves the greater credit for accuracy—the + Dhammapada, or the Hebrew Scriptures; but all those who believe in the + teaching of Jesus are bound to acknowledge that the Indian sage was + inspired by a power superior to that which is said to have dictated to the + Israelite. + </p> + <p> + How profitably, again, might the following observations be enunciated from + our pulpits, instead of the vapid and superficial divinity, which + disgraces both the utterer and the listener:— + </p> + <p> + 21. "Reflection is the path of immortality, thoughtlessness the path of + death. Those who reflect do not die; those who are thoughtless are as if + dead already." + </p> + <p> + 25. "By rousing himself, by reflection, by restraint and control, the wise + man may make for himself an island, which no flood can overwhelm." + </p> + <p> + 27. "Follow not after vanity, nor after the enjoyment of love and lust. He + who reflects and meditates obtains ample joy" + </p> + <p> + We dare not affirm that the writer of the first epistle of John was + familiar with the Dhammapada, but his words (chap. ii, v. 15), "Love not + the world, neither the things that are in the world," &c., are as + purely Buddhistic as if he had known the doctrine of the Indian sage. + </p> + <p> + We doubt whether, in the whole Bible, a parallel passage to the following + can be found:— + </p> + <p> + 36. "Let the wise man guard his thoughts, for they are difficult to + perceive, very artful, and they rush wherever they list: thoughts well + guarded bring happiness." + </p> + <p> + It is true that in the Psalms, and elsewhere, there is a full recognition + of the power of God to know, and even to punish man for, bad thoughts, but + there is no precept recommending man to cultivate his mental powers for + the pleasure which the task will bring. The following observation is + equally to be commended:— + </p> + <p> + 40. "Knowing that this body is (fragile) like a jar, and making this + thought firm like a fortress, one should attack Mâra (the tempter, or + Satan, the adversary) with the weapon of knowledge, one should watch him + when conquered, and never cease from the fight." + </p> + <p> + A few moments' consideration here, will show the reader that there is a + fundamental distinction between the theology of the East and West in + reference to the management of "the thoughts of the heart." Jew and + Christian teachers alike encourage their disciples to combat evil thoughts + by prayer and by fasting, but they never once allude to the value of + "knowledge" as a weapon. Yet, of its power, relatively to supplication, + none can have a doubt. It it probable that no man or woman can attain to + adult age without being aware of the intrusion, into their minds, of + thoughts, whose presence greatly distresses the individual, and the worst + of these is, that they take so complete a possession, as not to be driven + away by any simple wrestling with them. In this emergency the devout + Christian has recourse to prayer, which serves to nail the intruder even + more closely to his seat. The philosopher, on the other hand, turns his + mind to think actively upon some other subject than that which has + intruded upon him, and as soon as he has fixed his attention upon the + second, the first immediately withdraws. Smarting, for example, under a + sense of ridicule from some accident which has happened to himself in a + ball-room, or other assembly, a man may retire to his pillow, yet find + thereupon no rest. He sees, every minute, the merry faces which laughed + when he put the sprig of lavender, that his lovely partner gave him for a + keepsake, behind his ear, as if it were a pen, and grinds his teeth with + rage or shame. Yet, if he now betakes himself to go through the + preparations which ought to be made to enable observers to notice + accurately the transit of Venus, and then the means by which they can + approximately ascertain the mean distance of the sun from the earth, he + will find at once a pleasant refuge from his trouble, and fall asleep + whilst extracting a square root. Those young men, and others, who, like + the old saints are said to have done, often suffer much from what may be + called "presumptuous desires of the flesh," will find the acquisition of + knowledge is a powerful agent in subduing the cravings of lust, and hard + thinking curbs our passions far more effectually than the scourge of the + ascetic, or the prayers of the hermit. Mental activity, although it does + not entirely remove it, does much to repress inordinate desire, and we + consequently prefer the teaching of the son of Maya to that of any son of + Abraham. + </p> + <p> + Of the estimate of a well-regulated mind we have the following:— + </p> + <p> + 42. "Whatever a hater may do to a hater, or an enemy to an enemy, a + wrongly-directed mind will do us greater mischief." + </p> + <p> + 43. "Not a mother, not a father, nor any other relative, will do so much + that a well-directed mind will not do us greater service." To this we can + find no parallel in the Hebrew scriptures. + </p> + <p> + Some of the following are equal to any of those proverbs attributed to + Solomon:— + </p> + <p> + 76. "If you see an intelligent man who tells you where true treasures are + to be found, who shows you what is to be avoided, and who administers + reproofs, follow that wise man: it will be better, not worse, for those + who follow him." + </p> + <p> + 78. "Do not have evildoers for friends, do not have low people; have + virtuous people for friends, have for friends the best of men." + </p> + <p> + 80. "Well-makers lead the water wherever they like, fletchers bend the + arrow, carpenters bend a log of wood, wise people fashion themselves." + </p> + <p> + 81. "As a solid rock is not shaken by the wind, wise people falter not + amidst blame and praise." + </p> + <p> + 94. "The gods even envy him whose senses have been subdued, like horses + well broken in by the driver, who is free from pride and free from + frailty." + </p> + <p> + 97. "The man who is free from credulity, but knows the uncreated, who has + cut all ties, removed all temptations renounced all desires, he is the + greatest of men." A saying which is almost identical with "He that is slow + to anger is better than the mighty, and he that ruleth his spirit better + than he that taketh a city" (Prov. xvi. 32). Those Christians who believe + in works of supererogation, and trust to stores of merit laid up by + certain saints, who have lashed their bodies and otherwise injured + themselves, may read the following opinion with profit:— + </p> + <p> + 108. "Whatever a man sacrifices in this world as an offering or as an + oblation for a whole year in order to gain merit, the whole of it is not + worth a quarter; reverence shown to the righteous is better." + </p> + <p> + Respecting evil, we find the following:— + </p> + <p> + 116. "If a man would hasten towards the good, he should keep his thought + away from evil; if a man does what is good slothfully, his mind delights + in evil." + </p> + <p> + 117. "If a man commits a sin, let him not do it again, let him not delight + in sin; pain is the outcome of evil." + </p> + <p> + 118. "If a man does what is good let him do it again, let him delight in + it; happiness is the outcome of good." + </p> + <p> + 126. "Some people are born again; evil-doers go to Hell, righteous people + go to Heaven; those who are free from all worldly desires enter Nirvana." + </p> + <p> + It is therefore clear that Jesus of Nazareth did not inaugurate the idea + of a new birth. + </p> + <p> + In precept 133 we have another sentiment parallel with a passage in + Proverbs: "Do not speak harshly to anybody; those who are spoken to will + answer thee in the same way. Angry speech is painful blows, for blows will + touch thee;" or, as our Bible has it, "A soft answer turneth away wrath, + but grievous words stir up anger" (Prov. xv. 1). + </p> + <p> + The following is a reproach to a vast number of individuals who are called + Christian preachers, and teach doctrines of brotherly love, but act as if + religious hatred of dissenters of every class were a duty:— + </p> + <p> + 159. "Let each man make himself as he teaches others to be; he who is well + subdued may subdue others; one's own self is difficult to subdue." + </p> + <p> + 166. "Let no one neglect his own duty for the sake of another's, however + great: let a man, after he has discerned his own duty, be always attentive + to his duty." + </p> + <p> + The following might have served as the original of the epistles of John:— + </p> + <p> + 167. "Do not follow the evil law! Do not live on in thoughtlessness! Do + not follow false doctrine! Be not a friend of the world." + </p> + <p> + 168. 9. "Rouse thyself! do not be idle, follow the law of virtue—do + not follow that of sin. The virtuous lives happily in this world and in + the next." + </p> + <p> + 170, 1, 2, 3, & 4. "Look upon the world as a bubble; the foolish are + immersed in it, but the wise do not cling to it. He who formerly was + reckless, and afterwards became sober, and he whose evil deeds are covered + by good deeds, brighten up this world like the moon when freed from + clouds." + </p> + <p> + 174. "This world is dark—few only can be here; a few only go to + heaven like birds escaped from the net." A statement repeated by Jesus in + different words,—"Strait is the gate, and narrow is the way, which + leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it" (Matt. vii. 14). There + may likewise be a comparison instituted between the following:— + </p> + <p> + 176. "If a man has transgressed one law, and speaks lies and scoffs at + another world, there is no evil he will not do." "Whosoever shall keep the + whole law, and yet offend in one point, he is guilty of all" (Jas. ii. + 10). + </p> + <p> + I quote this and the next saying to corroborate the assertion that Buddha + taught the existence of a future world:— + </p> + <p> + 177. "The uncharitable do not go to the world of the gods; fools only do + not praise liberality; a wise man rejoices in liberality, and through it + becomes blessed in the other world." + </p> + <p> + Compare 1 Tim. vi. 17, 18,19, "Charge them that are rich in this world.... + that they be—ready to distribute, willing to communicate, laying up + in store for themselves a good foundation against the time to come, that + they may lay hold on eternal life." + </p> + <p> + See again (306), "He who says what is not, goes to hell; he also who, + having done a thing, says I have not done it. After death both are equal, + they are men with evil deeds in the next world." + </p> + <p> + 309. "Four things does a reckless man gain who covets his neighbour's wife—a + bad reputation, an uncomfortable bed—thirdly, punishment, and, + lastly, hell." + </p> + <p> + 310. "There is bad reputation, and the evil way (to hell)." + </p> + <p> + 311. "As a grass blade if badly grasped cuts the arm, badly practised + asceticism leads to hell." + </p> + <p> + 178. "Better than sovereignty over the earth, better than going to heaven, + better than lordship over all worlds, is the reward of the first step in + holiness." + </p> + <p> + "What is a man profited if he shall gain the whole world and lose his own + soul?" or, "What shall a man give in exchange for his soul?" (Matt, xvi. + 26). + </p> + <p> + It would be difficult to find any doctrine enunciated in the Bible more + simple than the following:— + </p> + <p> + 183. "Not to commit any sin, to do good, and to purify one's mind, that is + the teaching of the Awakened." + </p> + <p> + 184. "The Awakened call patience the highest penance, long-suffering the + highest Nirvana, for he is not an anchorite who strikes others, he is not + an ascetic who insults others." + </p> + <p> + 185. "Not to blame, not to strike, to live restrained under the law, to be + moderate in eating, to sleep and eat alone, and to dwell on the highest + thoughts, this is the teaching of the Awakened." + </p> + <p> + Equally difficult would it be to find in the Old Testament such precepts + as— + </p> + <p> + 197. "Let us live happily, then, not hating those who hate us; let us + dwell free from hatred among men who hate." "Let us live free from greed + among men who are greedy." + </p> + <p> + 200. "Let us live happily though we can call nothing our own." + </p> + <p> + 204. "Health is the greatest of gifts, contentedness the best riches; + trust is the best of relatives, Nirvana the highest happiness." + </p> + <p> + The following quotations deserve the close attention of the Christian + inquirer, for they not only contain sentiments almost identically the same + as those found in the New Testament, but they are couched in the same + language, as closely as the circumstances of the case allow. Both + enunciate the opinion that it is injudicious to cultivate or even to + permit the existence of those affections which we have in common with the + lower animals, and that to attain perfection love and hatred must be + trampled under foot. We give the Buddhist teaching priority, as it was + promulgated first:— + </p> + <p> + 210. "Let no man ever look for what is pleasant or what is unpleasant. Not + to see what is pleasant is pain, and it is pain to see what is + unpleasant." + </p> + <p> + 211. "Let, therefore, no man love anything; loss of the beloved is evil. + Those who love nothing and hate nothing have no fetters." + </p> + <p> + 212. "From pleasure comes grief, from pleasure comes fear, he who is free + from pleasure knows neither grief nor fear." + </p> + <p> + 213-6. "From affection comes grief and fear, from lust comes grief and + fear, from love comes grief and fear, from greed comes grief and fear." + "He who is free from affection, lust, love, and greed, knows neither grief + nor fear." "He that loveth either father or mother more than me is not + worthy of me, and he that loveth son or daughter better than me is not + worthy of me, and he that taketh not his cross and followeth after me is + not worthy of me. He that findeth his life shall lose it, and he that + loseth his life for my sake shall find it" (Matt. x. 37-39). "Love not the + world, neither the things that are in the world. If any man love the + world, the love of the Father is not in him. For all that is in the world, + the lust of the flesh, and the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life, is + not of the Father, but is of the world. And the world passeth away and the + lust thereof, but he that doeth the will of God abideth for ever" (1 John + ii. 15-17). + </p> + <p> + "Then said Jesus unto his disciples, If any man will come after me, let + him deny himself, and take up his cross and follow me. For whosoever will + save his life shall lose it, and whosoever will lose his life for my sake + shall find it; for what is a man profited if he shall gain the whole world + and lose his own soul? or what shall a man give in exchange for his soul?" + (Matt, xvi. 24). See also Mark viii. 34, x. 21, and Luke ix. 23-25, in the + last verse of which the saying is varied by the words being used "what is + a man advantaged if he gain the whole world and lose himself, or be cast + away?" We are by habit more familiar with the style in which the Grecians + wrote, than with that adopted by Sanscrit authors. But in both sets of + writers the main idea is made strikingly apparent—viz., that to love + anybody or anything on earth is prejudicial to our spiritual welfare, and + that to act piously, it is necessary for the saint to free himself wholly + from those instinctive affections which God has implanted in almost every + one of his creatures. It is strange that any two ministers could have + excogitated so monstrous a proposition, and that both should be called + "Divine." + </p> + <p> + The effect of the teaching of Buddha and of Jesus was to draw many from + their hearth whose duty, in our estimation, was clearly to remain at home, + and endeavour to cherish and support their family. I enter my strong + protest as an Englishman, as well as individual Christian, against the + idea that a man who believes himself a disciple of the son of Mary must go + abroad to teach and preach, or become an ascetic, a hermit, or a monk, and + leave his wife and children to be cared for by his friends or the parish. + I believe most strongly that our affections are implanted in us by our + Maker, just as a mother's love exists alike in the tigress and the eagle, + and that any religion which teaches us that we must overcome these + propensities, is a false one. It is strange, to say the least of it, that + both the son of Maya and of Mary should have promulgated such a doctrine—i.e., + that religion is designed to make our pleasures less, and our miseries + greater. It is perhaps too much to assert that no other form of faith, + besides those which have sprung from Buddha and from Jesus, possesses such + a tenet as that to which we refer; but we can safely affirm that we do not + know of any in which the natural affections existing between parents and + children, husband and wife, brothers and sisters, have not been cultivated + as a portion of the duties to be fulfilled by the faithful. + </p> + <p> + It is scarcely necessary to call attention to the resemblance which the + doctrine in question bears to that which was promulgated by the Grecian + "Stoics"; and the similitude is still farther increased by such a sentence + as the following in the Dhammapada:— + </p> + <p> + 221. "Let a man leave anger, let him forsake pride, let him overcome all + bondage! No sufferings befall the man who is not attached to either body + or soul, and who calls nothing his own." + </p> + <p> + Once more we see a close resemblance between Buddhism and the Bible in + </p> + <p> + 223. "Let a man overcome anger by love, let him overcome evil by good, let + him overcome the greedy by liberality, the liar by truth." "If thine enemy + be hungry give him bread to eat, and if he be thirsty give him water to + drink," (Prov. xxv. 21). But the motive for this recommendation to the + Jews is a vindictive one, for he is told that by so doing he will heap + coals of fire upon his enemy's head, whilst the Lord will take care to + reward the deed to the doer. In the epistle to the Romans this saying of + the Proverbs is endorsed, and to it is added "Be not overcome with evil, + but overcome evil with good" (Rom. xii. 20, 21). + </p> + <p> + 224. "Speak the truth, do not yield to anger; give, if thou art asked, + from the little thou hast—by those steps thou wilt go near the + gods." "Let not mercy and truth forsake thee, bind them about thy neck; + write them upon the table of thine heart; so shalt thou find favour and + good understanding in the sight of God and man" (Prov. iii. 3-4); + "Wherefore, putting away lying, let every man speak the truth with his + neighbour" (Eph. iv. 25). We scarcely can find, in the Old Testament, a + strict parallel with the Buddhist precept, "do not yield to anger," for + the Jewish scriptures, without exception, depict their God as giving way + habitually to wrath, anger, and revenge—e.g., in Ps. vii. 11, we + find it stated that Elohim is angry with the wicked every day. Again, in + Isaiah v. 25, we read, "for all this, God's anger is not turned away, but + his hand is stretched out still;" Job iv. 9, By God's anger they are + consumed; "To pour out upon them my fierce anger," (Zeph. iii. 8). There + are, however, a few passages which inculcate upon men the propriety of a + command over their temper. In Ps. xxxvii. 8, for example, we read, "Cease + from anger, and forsake wrath," and in Proverbs xxvii. 4, "Wrath is cruel, + and anger is outrageous," whilst "the Preacher" says, Eccles. vii. 9, + "Anger resteth in the bosom of fools," and in xi. 10, "remove anger or + sorrow from thy heart." In the Gospel we have a somewhat divided teaching. + For example, we find, from Mark iii. 5, that Jesus himself indulged in + anger, when he was vexed at what he thought the hardness of his hearers' + hearts; and from his saying, in Matt. v. 22, "Whosoever is angry with his + brother without a cause, shall be in danger of the judgment," it is clear + that the son of Mary approved of anger which had a cause. Again, we find, + in Eph. iv. 26, "Be ye angry and sin not, let not the sun go down upon + your wrath," as if anger were not a culpable weakness, or passion, if only + indulged in during the daylight. Yet, in the thirty-first verse of the + same chapter we read, "Let all bitterness, and wrath, and anger.... be put + away from you," and in Col. iii. 8, the putting away of anger is spoken of + as an evidence of being regenerated. + </p> + <p> + Of the duty of almsgiving we find much in the Bible, but we will content + ourselves with the following passages:—"Charge them who are rich in + this world that they be ready to give, and glad to distribute, laying up + in store for themselves a good foundation against the time to come, that + they may attain eternal life" (1 Tim. vi. 17-19). Quoted from the + Communion Service in the Prayer-book—"To do good, and to distribute, + forget not; for with such sacrifices God is well pleased." "Be merciful + after thy power. If thou hast much, give plenteously; if thou hast little, + do thy diligence gladly to give of that little, for so gatherest thou + thyself a good reward in the day of necessity" (Prayer-book version of + certain precepts in Tobit, chap. iv. 8, 9). If our readers will take the + trouble to consult the entire chapter in Tobit, they will readily conceive + that it was written by a Buddhist sage, instead of an ordinary Jew. + </p> + <p> + Once more we turn to the Dhammapada, and find— + </p> + <p> + 231, 234. "Beware of bodily anger, and control thy body. Leave the sins of + the body, and with thy body practise virtue; control thy tongue; leave the + sins of the tongue, and practise virtue with thy tongue; leave the sins of + the mind, and practise virtue with thy mind." + </p> + <p> + This reference to the sins of the tongue, and the necessity for its + control, recals to our mind the opinion expressed in the epistle of James, + "If any one bridleth not his tongue, this man's religion is vain" (chap, + i. 26); "The tongue is a fire, a world of iniquity," &c.; "the tongue + can no man tame," &c. (chap. iii. w. 5-10); and the verse, "I said, I + will take heed io my ways, that I sin not with my tongue; I will keep my + mouth with a bridle while the wicked is before me" (Ps. xxxix. 1). + </p> + <p> + The next maxim to which I would direct attention is one which should be + pondered deeply by all those who desire to become thoroughly civilized. So + far as I know, its like cannot be found in any part of the Bible. It runs + thus— + </p> + <p> + 243. "There is a taint worse than all taints, ignorance is the greatest + taint." + </p> + <p> + If we search our own scriptures for a parallel passage, we can only find + that ignorance is inculcated, and with the express intention of preventing + the mind from departing from the old into some new track—see, for + example, Dent. xii. 30, where the Jews are enjoined not to inquire after + the gods of other nations, lest they should adopt them: again, in Deut. + iv. 19, the Hebrews are enjoined not to study or gain any information + respecting the sun, moon, and stars, lest they should worship them. But + Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, is even a more conspicuous advocate of + ignorance, when he asserts that God hath chosen the foolish things [—Greek—] + of the world to confound the wise (1 Cor. i. vv. 19-28). "O Timothy, keep + that which is committed to thy trust, avoiding.... oppositions of science + falsely so called, which some professing have erred concerning the faith" + (1 Tim. vi. 20, 21). Many, indeed, who call themselves civilized + Christians, aver that, where ignorance is bliss 'tis folly to be wise, a + tenet held strongly by Mahometans, Papists, and Ritualists. + </p> + <p> + That the dictum of Paul in the text last quoted has had a a most + disastrous effect upon civilization, no one who is conversant with history + can fairly deny. Neither can it be shown that any known religion, except + Buddhism, has opposed itself to ignorance. In every nation the rulers in + general, and the priesthood in particular, have, on the other hand, + encouraged indolence of mind, lest the people should learn wisdom and + shake off their thraldom. We have seen, in our own times, hierarchs of + every denomination oppose the spread of science, not falsely so called, + with the avowed intention of endeavouring to bolster up doctrines, dogmas, + and assertions, which they feel sure true science will destroy, although + the same people declare their tenets indestructible, and founded on truth. + Nay, we may go still further, and assert that sciolism in religious + matters is fostered by the clergy of all denominations, both by the + suppression of what they believe to be genuine, and by the promulgation of + what they know to be false. In the place of knowledge they inculcate blind + faith. + </p> + <p> + As one not wholly unknown to be an earnest and honest inquirer, I have had + extensive correspondence and personal intercourse with many preachers, and + with others whose opportunities for learning "the clerical mind" are more + extensive than my own, and I may divide the body of religious ministers, + and the laity as well, into the following classes:—1, Those who + refuse to inquire, examine, and think about religious subjects, except in + a certain prescribed way; 2, Those who will investigate into the grounds + of their belief, as they would into any doubtful assertion, or into any + science; 3, Those who individually abandon the old faith and yet continue + to preach it, and profess to adhere to it as strongly as they did at + first; 4, Those who venture timidly to insinuate doubts into the minds of + others, whilst professing to be orthodox themselves; 5, Those who are too + noble to be hypocrites, and boldly affirm that which their advance of + knowledge has induced them to adopt as a belief. Yet these very men, + distinguished above their fellows for earnestness, for science, for + honesty of purpose, a religiously ignorant priesthood persecutes; and + Englishmen, who wish to be regarded as peculiarly "enlightened," stand by + almost unmoved, or, as happens too frequently, applauding. + </p> + <p> + When we endeavour to ascertain the reason why ignorance is so greatly + cherished amongst mankind, we can readily discover it in indolence on the + part of one group of men, and cupidity on the part of others. There are + many positions in life wherein Sciolism seems to be more profitable than + knowledge. We may mention a few. A "solicitor" who has an imperfect + acquaintance with the law, may induce his clients to bring cases before + various legal courts, in which they are certain to lose their cause and + money, but this solicitor gains large fees for his trouble. A physician + who does not know how to cure certain diseases may yet treat them for + months, pass for a devoted doctor and a clever friend, and receive a large + honorarium, which is far beyond his merit, though the patient may think it + far too small. The man, on the other hand, who can cure such complaints + readily, has to be content with a very slender fee, as his attendance is + only required for a few days. The schemers, who live upon the ignorance of + dupes, bear the name of legion. We see one of the body as a promoter of + all sorts of bubble companies, and as secretary to such societies as + banks, trade unions, burial clubs, assurances, &c. Anon he takes the + form of an adulterator of provisions, of various drinkables, of cloth, + silk, linen, &c. If Sciolism were not common, such charlatans as + "spiritualists," "clairvoyants," "mesmerists," and the like, could not + thrive as they do, nor quacks of all kinds flourish famously. One medical + pretender is indeed reported to have said to a "regular" doctor, who lived + in the same street with him, but whose clients were few compared with + those of the charlatan—"the reason why you have so small, and I have + so large, a number of patients is, that the fools come to me, the knowing + ones to you." + </p> + <p> + What is true in the case of other professions is preeminently so in the + clerical In religion, such as it is professed in Christendom, Sciolism, or + imperfect knowledge, alone is lucrative. Real understanding, diffused + amongst the people, would render every hierophant a beggar, and thorough + enlightenment amongst the priesthood would force them to allow that such + should be their normal position. For example, if every layman, in + countries owning the spiritual headship of the Pope of Rome, knew that all + the stories of Heaven, Purgatory, Hell, Angels, Saints, Confessors, + Hermits, and the like, were absolutely baseless—if he knew that man + has no power in the court of the Almighty to influence His will in favour + of a congener, and that nothing whatever is known respecting the world + beyond the grave—he would not order masses, whether high or low, and + a host of other ceremonies, each of which has to be paid for. Or, if each + Protestant knew, that every tenet preached to him from the pulpit is + founded upon absolute ignorance of the Almighty's operations, that every + doctrine, every prayer, and every ritual, is based upon fantastic, half + savage, or semicivilized human ideas, he would recognize at once the total + uselessness of the parson. "They that are whole need not the physician, + but they that are sick." The doctor, knowing this, endeavours, when he has + a chance, to induce a client to believe himself ill, and that he and no + other man can cure him—or, if he should really be disordered, these + ideas will be kept up as long as possible. So it is in "religion," it is + only the culprit that wants the Saviour, but when he has a chance, the <i>soi + disant</i> saviour tries to persuade those who consult him, that they are + sinners, yet that he can make them saints; and having once implanted this + belief, he endeavours to sustain it. To doctors and priests such as we + here describe, the ignorant credulity of their clients is a source of + wealth. So long as there are dupes there will be sharpers, and so long as + men are human, there will be, unconsciously very likely to themselves, + abundance of both fools and knaves. + </p> + <p> + From what has been already said, our readers will have probably drawn the + conclusion that we deny the existence of a thoroughly educated and honest + hierarch, who has become wealthy by the exercise of his profession in a + perfectly conscientious manner. Exceptional circumstances prevent us + saying exactly the same of a doctor, but into these we need not enter, as + they have not their counterparts in divinity. Such being our belief, we + recognize the fact that poverty and knowledge must, in an earnest + priesthood, be ever associated. But the clergy of every denomination are + loath to agree to this, and endeavour, by hook or by crook, to acquire the + means of living well. + </p> + <p> + Hence Buddha, who was thoroughly honest himself, and did not become a + preacher for the sake of emolument or a livelihood, adopted, as part of + his plan, a systematic estrangement from every luxury of whatever sort,—or, + in other words, the adoption of a poverty as great as exists in the lower + animals. He enjoined that the saintly teacher, having food and raiment of + the most homely kind, ought therewith to be content. This was Paul's view + also—see 1 Tim. vi. 8. In this teaching the son of Mary concurred; + like the son of Maya, he "had not where to lay his head," he had not even + such a home as a fox or a bird (Matt, viii. 20), and when he sent out his + disciples to preach, his direction to them was, "Take nothing for your + journey" (Luke ix. 3, see also Matt, vi. 25-28). To sum up our remarks + upon this particular command of Buddha to avoid the taint of ignorance, we + may frame an axiom in political economy, thus—"Ignorance in the many + ensures wealth in a few," or, "A diffusion of sound knowledge amongst the + ruled, reduces the power and the emoluments of the rulers, and compels + them to work hard if they wish to retain their position." To apply this + idea still further, I would add that a thoroughly educated people, each + one of whom feels that he must "work out his own salvation" (Phil ii. 12), + does not require a priesthood. Consequently hierarchs, whose sole business + in this world seems to be to instil terror into young minds, and to make + rules for them to break, that priests may be paid for showing how the + imaginary results may be escaped, would have no place if men were wise and + thoughtful. It is a curious, though a certain fact, that the depth of + savagery and the height of civilization alike ignore the necessity of a + hierarchy. The first does so because it never thinks of God—the + second, because its conceptions of the Almighty are such that it cannot + believe Him to be influenced by individuals who assume to be His earthly + vicegerents, or are elected to that pretentious situation by their + fellow-men. The God of the Bible can only be adored by individuals whose + minds are not emancipated wholly from the thraldom of barbarism, and who + regard Jehovah as a man, and not a good one either, or, as we have before + remarked—a devil. We may once more extract some sentences for + comparison, to show, either that no inspiration was necessary to pen the + Bible, or that the Dhammapada has equal claims with the Old Testament— + </p> + <p> + 244. "Life is easy to live for a man who is without shame, a crow hero, a + mischief maker, an insulting, bold, and wretched fellow. But life is hard + to live for a modest man, who always looks for what is pure, who is + disinterested, quiet, spotless, and intelligent. O man, know this, that + the unrestrained are in a bad state; take care that greediness and vice do + not bring thee to grief for a long time." + </p> + <p> + Compare this with the Psalmist's expression—"I was envious at the + foolish when I saw the prosperity of the wicked, for there are no bands in + their death, but their strength is firm; they are not in trouble as other + men, neither are they plagued like other men; therefore pride compasseth + them about as a chain, violence covereth them as a garment, their eyes + stand out with fatness, they have more than heart could wish.... these are + the ungodly who prosper in the world, they increase in riches.... Surely + thou didst set them in slippery places: thou castedst them down into + destruction. How are they brought into desolation, as in a moment! they + are utterly consumed with terrors" (Ps. lxxiii. 3-19.) "I have seen the + wicked in great power, and spreading himself like a green tree that + groweth in his own soil, yet he passed away, and lo! he was not, yea, I + sought him, but he could not be found. Mark the perfect man, and behold + the upright, for the end of that man is peace. But the transgressors shall + be destroyed together, the end of the wicked shall be cut off." "Fret not + thyself because of evil-doers, neither be thou envious against the workers + of iniquity, for they shall soon be cut down like the grass, and wither as + the green herb. Trust in the Lord and do good, so shalt thou dwell in the + land, and, verily, thou shalt be fed" (Ps. xxxvii. 35-38—1-3). The + class of sentiments is the same in both, only they seem to differ because + we are very familiar with the phraseology of the Bible, and the reverse + with translations from the Sanskrit. + </p> + <p> + At this point the philosopher may judiciously pause to inquire, whether + the sentiments expressed in the preceding biblical quotations are not + incorrect, and consequently whether they can be regarded as inspired; and + whether the Buddhistic solution of the difficulty, which points to a + future state, is not superior to the Jewish one which treats of this world + only. Experience abundantly shows that individuals practising what is + called "goodness" find it no safeguard against misery, starvation, + tortures, and death. Jesus of Nazareth, his disciples, and vast numbers of + his followers, have experienced from the dominant party in those states + wherein they dwelled contumely, reproach, and hours of lingering torment. + Louis the XIV. of France, and the New Englanders of America, alike + persecuted "Protestants" and "Quakers." In Spain "the reformers" were + successfully opposed by fire and sword, and Papal Italy once extirpated + from her midst the disciples of Luther and Calvin. Yet the so-called + wrong-doers flourished, and the unfortunate "good people" were run down or + dragooned with a sudden and swift destruction. If the dictum of the + Psalmist is right, then Admiral Coligny, who was killed in the Bartholomew + massacre, at Paris, must have been a bad man put in a slippery place that + he might fall, for his destruction came suddenly, in an instant. But all + history shows him to have been a worthy fellow, who was punished for his + virtues. The observer of nature is driven to believe that the co-existence + of powerful and bad men, with feeble, yet good men, is a rule in creation + for which no adequate explanation can be found. He sees that in the domain + of the air there are hawks and pigeons, eagles and ostriches, cuckoos and + hedge-sparrows, that on the land there are tigers and sheep, lions and + buffaloes, wolves and deer, that in the water there are perch and minnows, + pike and trout, sharks and whales—in other words, there is + throughout the world a division of living creatures into those who live by + destroying vegetables, and those who subsist by the destruction of + animals. The cow, sheep, and deer are quite as ruthless, in their + noxiousness to the ornaments of the meadow, as are foxes in a hen-roost to + the beauties of the barn-door; both alike mar the graceful features of + creation. Yet it is clear that both the graminivora and the carnivora were + made to effect this apparent wrong. Still further, we see throughout + creation, that in almost every community of animals, the strong ones + dominate over the weak, and endeavour, far too frequently, to deprive them + of such pleasures as they and their females possess. See, for example, a + cock with a bevy of hens: he will allow no other chanticleer to strut + besides him on the dunghill of the yard; he will not permit a rival to + make love to anyone of his harem, nor to feed upon any dainty morsel, + until his wives and himself have had enough. The same may be said of + stags, of bulls, of rams, of horses, and many other creatures whose habits + are known. The leader of a herd is a despot, and when he is at length + conquered by another, those who are ruled have merely changed their + masters. Young and weak cocks will never attain to power, and must ever + submit to be bullied. + </p> + <p> + We notice, at the same time, that each tyrant must in the end succumb; + with age comes infirmity and loss of strength, in the last battle the old + is beaten by the young. Just so it is with mankind; in its comparative + infancy monarchs rule, and are at length deposed by others. The + Babylonians conquered Palestine, the Medes and Persians vanquished the + Babylonians, the Greeks subjugated the Persians, the Romans overcame the + Greeks, and the Goths destroyed the Roman power; yet under every regime + the powerful could torment the weak. The result in every case was brought + about by the conqueror being strong and brutal—not by the immorality + of the victims. + </p> + <p> + When a philosopher sees such things, he very naturally endeavours to + ascertain whether any design can be discovered in the events of the world, + and to this end he may be diligent in collecting facts, or he may at once + frame some theory, and then cease to think about the matter. "Oh," such an + one may say, "all that is wrong here will be righted in another world." + Another, who ponders more deeply, may doubt whether it is proper to divide + the phenomena of nature into "right" and "wrong." "If," he will say, "I + believe with the Jew that God is in the heavens, and does whatsoever He + pleases" (Ps. cxv. 3), or that "the Lord hath made all for Himself; yea, + even the wicked for the day of evil" (Prov. xvi. 4) I must allow that + everything which emanates from the Creator must be right. Speaking + individually, I prefer rather to examine into the ways of Providence—i.e., + of the Almighty, without framing any theory of right and wrong, than to + dogmatize upon what He <i>must</i> intend by this or that. "Who hath + directed the Spirit of the Lord (Jehovah), or being his counsellor hath + taught him?" (Is. xl. 13)—see also the Pauline version of this + sentiment, Rom. xi. 33, 34. + </p> + <p> + It is very questionable whether any human analogy will enable us, even + approximately, to fathom what are designated "the designs of Providence." + Every example that I can at the present remember given by theologians is + bad. Take, for example, the most common one which draws a comparison + between God and a father, Ps. ciii. 13, "like as a father piti-eth his + children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear him;" Prov. iii. 12, "Whom + the Lord loveth he correcteth, even as a father the son in whom he + delighteth;" Heb. xii. 6, 7, "Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth, and + scourgeth every son whom he receiveth." "If ye be without chastisement, + whereof all men (are) partakers, then are ye bastards and not sons." These + enunciate the idea that God, being the universal father, treats mankind as + a judicious parent treats his offspring, and that as a child cannot at all + times know why he is punished until many years have passed over his head, + so human beings cannot tell, until they reach another world, why they were + punished in this. To assist this assertion the text is quoted "What I do + thou knowest not now, but thou shalt know hereafter" (John xiii. 7.) If + there be any truth in the analogy, it must follow that all who in this + world "endure grief, suffering wrongfully" (1 Pet. ii. 19), are children + of God, whom he is educating for a better world. If that, again, be so, + then—when Christians persecuted Mahometans, Romanists burned + Protestants, and Spaniards slaughtered Mexicans and Peruvians—it + follows that the vanquished, and not the conquerors, were the elect of the + Father. But this deduction directly opposes those promises said to be made + to the Jews by Jehovah, viz., that victory should be the reward of their + piety. As it is a poor system which declares that two opposite results + come from the same cause, we must refuse to believe that both victory and + defeat are proofs of a Father's love. I am quite aware that some reader + may retort that a kind parent may punish one child at the same time that + he rewards another. I grant it at once, but that only demonstrates, if it + proves anything, that all creatures must be regarded alike as the + offspring of the Creator, and that none are favoured peculiarly on the one + hand, or are outcasts on the other. + </p> + <p> + As it is undesirable to mix political up with religious events, I refrain + from drawing from history such illustrations as have frequently been + supposed to indicate the will of the Almighty. The fall from power of + Egypt, Tyre, Assyria, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, Carthage, Rome, Spain, + are all supposed to have been caused by some special providential design. + In like manner theologians draw certain deductions from the discovery of + the New World, and the slaughter of the majority of its aboriginal + inhabitants; from the Crusades; from the influx of the Turks into + Christendom; and of the Moors into Spain. Some, whose imaginative powers + overwhelm their reasoning faculties, see in the wars of recent times that + final shaking of the nations, which some <i>soi-disant</i> prophet + declares must precede the millennium, and the battle of Armageddon; + vaccinators, and interpreters are as abundant and irrepressible now as + ever they were. Their fundamental assumption is that God has acted as they + would have done in His place. Now He is a sort of Irish landlord, a + portion of whose property is overrun with pauper farmers, and He clears + them away to make room for more sensible and wealthier tenants, as the + Canaanites were removed to give place to the Hebrews. Now, He is + represented as a parent, who hearing that a son has engaged in fight and + been conquered, merely remarks "serves him right!"—the kind of + comfort given to the Jews after they had been harried by the Edomite + confederacy, and subsequently by the Chaldeans. Again, the same mighty + Jehovah is represented as a Stoic, who remarks, when some mischance + happens to those who are said to be his children, "Never mind, accidents + will happen—through much tribulation you must enter into my rest, or + the kingdom of heaven." + </p> + <p> + I entirely decline to adopt the profession of prophet and interpreter, + contenting myself with increasing what knowledge I may have, rather than + endeavouring to deduce from it theories whose weakness an hour may + demonstrate; nor do I put faith in any one who adopts such a business. + </p> + <p> + For example, let us assume that two savage tribes, having gods of + different names and shapes, go to war on the bidding of their priests—one + is conquered and the other is victorious. The one attributes his reverse + to the anger of his own deity, not to the power of the god of his enemy. + The other imagines that he owes success to the influence of his protector + and his superiority over his foe's fetish. A civilized on-looker, who + believes that all the deities are devils and powerless, attributes victory + and defeat to perfectly natural causes, e.g., superiority in weapons, + tactics, numbers, or strength. It is clear that neither the deductions of + the first nor second men are right; neither has read the mind of his + fetish. So it is with the half educated theologians of our own day, who + think and talk as glibly of God and Satan, as if they were personal + acquaintances, who make no secret either of their deeds or their motives + of action. + </p> + <p> + Once more we return to the Dhammapada and find, + </p> + <p> + 248. "O, man, know this, that the unrestrained are in a bad state; take + care that greediness and vice do not bring thee to grief for a long time." + We do not here seek to find any parallel passage in the bible, but we turn + to history, remote and collateral, and compare the priesthood of Buddha + with that of Jesus. Does travel tell us of any set of teachers more + self-denying than the individuals who devote themselves as religious + Buddhists? Can history, on the other hand, tell us of any hierarchy more + greedy and vicious than the Christian priesthood in the middle ages, and + down to a comparatively recent period? We will not accuse them of vice, + but even now is there in the whole world a more grasping set of men than + those who have received what they term "holy orders" from the descendants + of Jesus or of Peter? I trow not. If, therefore, a doctrine is to be known + by its fruits, in one respect at least Buddhism is superior to that which + we call Christianity, by which term I do not mean the exceptional practice + of a few, but the general habits of the majority of the bishops, priests, + &c., of Christendom. Once more let us contrast the doctrine of Buddha + with the practice of Christians. He says— + </p> + <p> + Da. 256, 7. "A man is not a just judge if he carries a matter by violence; + no, he who distinguishes both right and wrong, who is learned, and leads + others, not by violence, but by law and equity, he who is a guardian of + the law and equity, he who is a guardian of the law, and intelligent, he + is called just." Our histories tell us of Christians persecuting + Christians; Trinitarians endeavouring to extirpate Arians; Franciscans + torturing Dominicans; of Jews slaughtered by those whose master said, + "Father, forgive them;" we see brutal Spaniards exterminating, under the + shadow of the cross, whole nations in the new world who had never harmed + them, and in the old world we find Crusaders, under the guise of piety, + murdering and robbing the dwellers in Palestine. There is scarcely a large + town in Europe which has not witnessed the ferocious violence of Papal, + yea, and Protestant, hierarchs. Even in recent times we have seen bishops + and their congeners, in our so-called civilized nation, oppose violence, + and the popgun thunder of excommunication, to a learned prelate, and to an + humble priest. Judged by the standard of Buddha, our divines are unjust + and unrighteous. I cannot discover any standard by which they can be + regarded as "praiseworthy," except that embodied in the two sayings, "Get + what you can, and what you get hold;" "Where ignorance is bliss, 'tis + folly to be wise." We may say of such persecutors, in the words of the + Dhammapada— + </p> + <p> + 260. "A man is not an elder because his head is grey; his age may be ripe, + but he is called old in vain," and many would at once be able, if they + tried, to remember the names of some who, in a Christian community, have + abandoned their principles, or their learning, as soon as they became + bishops or elders of the church. I have no doubt Popes have done so. There + is a saying, that however clever a man is, you make a fool of him by + placing a mitre upon his head. + </p> + <p> + The following is, perhaps, more curious than our previous quotations, as + it tells of the pre-Christian antiquity of a common Romish custom:— + </p> + <p> + 264. "Not by tonsure does an undisciplined man, who speaks falsehood, + become a Sramana; can a man be a Sra-mana who is still held captive by + desire and greediness?" The Sramana is a word equivalent to our "priest," + literally, "a man who performs hard penances" (see Dhammapada, Note 265, + p. cxxxii.). + </p> + <p> + Without copying any other texts from the Dhammapada, we may next inquire + what there is to be found in the Bible that is not to be found in the + teaching of Buddha. We notice that the element of so-called prophecy is + wholly wanting in the sayings of the Indian sage. I cannot remember that + either Sakya Muni or any of his followers assumed the power to foretell + the future. There is, it is true, a vague threat of future misery to the + wicked, which was founded upon the prevalent idea of metempsychosis; but + there is no endeavour to pourtray the occurrences that are supposed to be + impending over one or more sections of the human race. There is not any + attempt to induce individuals to join themselves to the son of Maya, by + declarations that the world, and all that it contains, is about to be + destroyed, and that all who do not become disciples of the teacher, and + shelter themselves under his mantle, will be miserably punished throughout + eternity. + </p> + <p> + There is not any Buddhist description in detail, either of Hell, or + Heaven, or Nirvana; there is no story of "worms," "fires," "devils," + "death," and the like, in the first. The second is not depicted, by the + preacher himself, as a sort of palace, made gorgeous with gold and + precious stones, resounding in barbaric music, and discordant chants, + where animals dwell, and where horses are kept stabled, to go throughout + the world with messengers upon their backs (see Zechariah i. 8, 10; vi. 2, + 7; Rev. iv. 6, 7; vi. 2, 4, 8). There are no denunciations of vengeance + upon heretics, nor is the god of Buddha like the one described by Hebrew + writers, who "winks" during times of ignorance upon earth (Acts xvii. 30), + who requires to be reminded by prayer of the wants of men (Exod. iii. 7), + and who comes down to earth to inquire if matters are according to the + accounts which have reached his dwelling-place (Gen. xviii. 21). + </p> + <p> + In Siddartha's teaching there is, as we have seen, an absence of the + element of prayer. According to his view, each man is regarded, to a + certain extent, as the author of his own destiny. Man, in his opinion, + must ever be influenced by the actions of other men—he may, for + example either be caressed or tormented, yet, under both circumstances, he + is instructed to retain equanimity of mind. He is not to pray for + prosperity, nor to supplicate that trials may be removed. He is to face + and overcome every trial by his resolute will, and not to waste time in + praying not to be led into temptation. + </p> + <p> + Again, in Buddha's writings, and in those of his followers, there is an + absence of those obscene tales with which the Old Testament abounds. We + seek in vain for counterparts of the story of Lot and his daughters, of + Onan, of Joseph and the wife of Potiphar, of Judah and Tamar, David and + Bathsheba, Amnon and his sister, Zimri Cozbi and Phinehas, and the like. + It is true, that in some Buddhist writings, there is a cosmogony + introduced more preposterous than that in the Bible; but there are no + parallels to the tales of Noah, of Moses, and of Israel in Egypt, the + desert, and Palestine. Indeed, when we remember that Sakya Muni was an + Oriental, accustomed to inflated language, we are struck by the plainness + of his speech. + </p> + <p> + If we now ask ourselves, as earnest practical Christians—that is, as + men, anxious and eager to attain to religious truth, and desirous of + teaching only those things which would tend towards sound edification and + to a pure morality—what parts of the Bible most offend sense of + propriety, we should answer, that they are its untenable cosmogony; its + preposterous accounts of the longevity of the men reported as being the + earliest formed; the legend of the flood; the origin of the rainbow; the + tales of Moses, Pharaoh, the plagues of Egypt, the sojourn in the desert, + the capture of Canaan, the miraculous battles, in which each man of Israel + put a thousand enemies to flight. We would wholly expunge the fabulous + account of Elijah and Elisha; the ravings after vengeance uttered by the + prophets; the apocryphal episodes described in the books of Jonah and + Daniel, every obscene story, and disgusting speech and writing, whether + uttered as a threat against Israel or his enemies. In like manner we would + wish to expunge, from the teaching of Jesus, everything relating to the + immediate destruction of the world—everything connected with + community of goods, the advantages of beggary, and the potency of faith + and prayer. We would suppress every miracle, and say nothing of a + resurrection of the dead Jesus. We would equally abandon any attempt to + describe Heaven or Hell, or any intermediate state. + </p> + <p> + When all these were removed from the Bible, we positively should have very + little left, except a certain amount of morality which is sound, and a + large portion which is radically bad. To make such an emendated book as + perfect as possible, we might, with great advantage, correct it from the + teaching of Buddha or from the sayings of Socrates, Plato, Epic-tetus, and + even of Confucius; and when all was completed, it would be found that all + men, everywhere, have had instinctive notions, more or less definite, of + morality, but have allowed their animal passions to overcome their better + feelings. Far too many of us know the good, but yet the bad pursue. + </p> + <p> + This investigation would most distinctly disprove the assertion, that God + has selected a very small percentage of His creatures for objects of His + care, and those who have charity towards all men would greatly rejoice + thereat. Individually we cannot bear to eat, however hungry we may be, + whilst we see others near us without food—our pleasure is heightened + when we divide our luxuries with others; just so we believe it should be + in religion—none should rejoice at the idea that he is one of the + few that are to be saved, nor should anyone repine, as Jonah did, when he + finds that the tender mercies of God are over all his works. + </p> + <p> + To simplify the matter as far as possible, I have drawn up the following + parallel between Buddhism and Christianity:— + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/263.jpg" alt="263 " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/264.jpg" alt="264 " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/265.jpg" alt="265 " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/266.jpg" alt="266 " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/267.jpg" alt="267 " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + In the next chapter I propose to examine, as far as authorities will + permit, the religion of the Persians—a nation intervening, to a + great degree, between the old Aryan and the Shemitic races. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. + </h2> + <p> + The Medo-Persians and Parsees. Artfulness of theologians. They + systematically break the ninth commandment. Frauds in orthodoxy. A man may + use false weights innocently, but is punished, nevertheless. In theology + ignorance does not justify deceit. Case in trade. Professional blindness. + A law for punishing adulteration of truth is wanted. Mosaism and + Zoroaster. Parsees and Christians. Moses and Zoroaster. The ancient magi. + The Persians. Conflicting ideas of God in Bible. The source of the + Biblical theology. Cyrus. Inquiry into the authenticity of the Avesta. The + book condemned. Account of the Medo-Persian faith from Herodotus. Period + of introduction of the Devil to the Bible. Summary. Comparison and + contrast. Introduction to next chapter. + </p> + <p> + In every ancient, and, indeed, in every modern, faith which I have yet + examined, I have been shocked with the manner in which it has been + represented by interested opponents. Whether they are Romanists or + Protestants, Evangelicals or Ritualists, Orthodox or Non-conformists, all + our divines endeavour to prove their own tenets to be the best, by + blazoning everything which is good, and veiling from sight everything + which is doubtful. This being so, it is not at all surprising that + Christians generally should try to exalt the religion professed by + themselves over that propounded by others, whom they designate "heathens." + But though it is not strange that very human partisans should act thus, it + is marvellous to find that all the ardent disciples of Jesus, without an + exception, that I know of, should, in their dealings with mankind, + systematically break the ninth of those commandments which they assert + were given by God to man, upon Mount Sinai All of them bear false witness + against their neighbour, and give incorrect accounts of themselves in + addition. They resemble, indeed, those Dutch merchants whom Washington + Irving describes, so pleasantly, in his history of New York, who had two + sets of weights, a heavy lot by which to purchase, and a light set by + which to sell Such traders we call "fraudulent;" and I assert that every + so-called orthodox polemic whose books I have read deserves the same + epithet. Their fraud is shown by the misrepresentations that they make, + both of the creed which they uphold and the one which they oppose. The + heterodox and the so-called atheist may be trusted, at least, to tell the + truth. + </p> + <p> + In saying this, I do not assert that everyone gives false witness + knowingly, any more than I would blame a tradesman for using false scales, + or weights, if he could demonstrate that he had purchased them as true, + and could show that he had never tampered with them. Yet the law would + punish such a man for their use, arguing that he ought to have made + inquiry. In one of the large towns of Great Britain, on one occasion, a + merchant, believed to be both religious and honest, sold to a broker a + cargo of stuff which had no existence, and, when the delivery had to be + made, the first destroyed himself, and the second was adjudged to be a + culpable bankrupt, because he had taken the existence of the oil for + granted, without investigation. Just so it is with ordinary divines; they + assume certain statements in their own religious book to be true—they + are taught to shut their eyes to the absurdities in the same volume, and + to explain away, in one manner or another, everything which militates + against common sense. By this plan they contrive to sell, as sterling + stuff, something which is made of base material, without knowingly being + parties to a fraud. In the same way a shopman may, on the word of the + manufacturer, dispose of a piece of goods as wholly silk, although he has + a shrewd presumption that the fabric contains a large proportion of + cotton. For such individuals we have the proverb, "there are none so blind + as those who will not see." But these very theologians of whom we are + speaking, when they are dealing with the sacred books, ordinary customs, + ritual, and the like, of other people, having a different religion to + their own, are exact, in the extreme—every absurdity is exhibited + ruthlessly; every legend is ridiculed; every discrepancy is magnified; and + everything which betrays ignorance, or want of scientific knowledge, is + paraded with inglorious ceremony. On the other hand, everything good which + is to be found therein is, if possible, suppressed. A book, which was, for + a long time, a standard one amongst our divines, entitled, <i>Christ and + Many Masters</i>, is particularly open to this charge. In it there is + throughout a <i>suppressio veri</i>, a <i>suggestio falsi</i>, and + scarcely a page that does not bear false witness. If there were a law to + punish those who adulterate or falsify "truth," our magistrates would be + kept extremely busy. + </p> + <p> + As an inquiry into the realities of Buddhism has led us to the belief that + the origin of Christianity may be found in the doctrines of the son of + Maya, which were adopted with certain Judaic modifications by the sons of + Elizabeth and Mary—so it is highly probable that what is called + Mosaism has been built upon the teachings of the Persian or Median + theology, said to have been founded by Zoroaster. Perhaps it would be + difficult to find any modern evidence of the likelihood of this hypothesis + more powerful than the fact that at the present day the Jews and the + Parsees fraternize almost like brothers. The latter in England, and, I + understand, elsewhere, select, when they can, the house of a Hebrew + wherein to lodge, rather than that of any man of another nation. To this + testimony, such as it is, we must add another which is very telling, viz., + that almost every modern orthodox writer who has treated of Zoroaster, has + declared that the prophet of Persia drew his inspiration from the lawgiver + of Israel The priority of the latter being asserted, and the second place + having been given to the former, the matter was supposed to be proved, and + the Persian, after having been regarded as a copy of the Hebrew, was + consigned to oblivion. + </p> + <p> + There can be little doubt, however, that the teachings of Zoroaster had + more life in them than those either of the Jew or the Christian, for the + Parsee always and even to the present day, and in every position of life, + may lay claim to the title of nature's gentleman, which very few of the + disciples of Jesus or of Moses could pretend to until very recently. The + morality of these religionists is excellent. In every relation of life + they endeavour to be, to do, and to think that which is right—and + though there may be black sheep amongst them, the proportion of these to + the main body is small In no period of their history, so far as I can + learn it, have the Zoroastrians been as brutal as the Christians were so + long as they had the power—nor have they ever introduced into their + worship figures of men, women, or children with the apparent intention of + honouring or adoring them, or the assertion that such things assisted + their devotions. Being strictly monotheists, they have not split up the + Godhead into three males influenced by a female who is the spouse of one + and mother of a second; nor have asserted that the one great Creator is + compounded of a father, a son, and a pigeon, with a woman for an + intercessor with her celestial consort. Nor do the Parsees build vast + temples for the Almighty to dwell in, neither do they reduce any portion + of the Omnipotent to the necessity of residing in a bit of bread shut up + for many a long day in a box. On the contrary, the modern followers of + Zoroaster worship "the father" in spirit and in truth—not with eye + service as men-pleasers, but with singleness of heart, fearing God (Col. + iii. 22.), thus being, as we are told, the very men whom the Almighty + seeketh (John iv. 23, 24). + </p> + <p> + The first resemblance between the Persian and the Jewish lawgiver to which + we would call attention, is the mythical nature of both. The Hebrew who + believes in Moses can show no other ground for his faith than a number of + books which tell of Moses, his genealogy, his acts, his laws, his + character, and his death. Yet when an independent inquirer subjects these + books, and the accounts which they contain, to a rigid examination, he + finds evidence that the writings are fabrications of a period at least a + full thousand years after the era of their supposed epoch—probably + more; and that all collateral testimony and all internal evidence drawn + from the books themselves disprove the actual existence of Moses. To the + scholar, the Hebrew lawgiver is as apocryphal or fictitious a being as + Hercules, Romulus, and our own king Arthur. Nor is this belief of the + critic shaken when he finds that the history of Moses is interwoven with + miraculous legends—credit them he cannot; but he may pause before he + determines to see in them evidence of fabrication. He cannot fairly deny + the existence of Jesus of Nazareth, because many marvellous stories were + told of him, nor would a similar cause alone lead him to assert that + Francis of Assisi was a mythical individual. But whichever way the careful + philosophical inquirer may decide the questions at issue, he will remember + that many strange stories are told of the conception, birth, and life of + Zoroaster, and that the critic must mete out equal justice, both to the + Jew and to the Persian. Again, impartial inquirers find themselves unable + to determine, with anything approaching to accuracy, either by internal + evidence or contemporary remains—the positive epoch when the tale + about Moses was originated. It is true that the Bible seems to afford + foundation for a chronology in a few parts, as, for example, in the + historical books; but these are so completely contradicted by genealogies + in other parts that we cannot trust them. After stripping away every + doubtful scrap from Jewish history, all we can find is, that Moses was + first talked of, familiarly, after what maybe called the Grecian Captivity + of Jerusalem (see <i>Obadiah, Ancient Faiths, &c.</i>t Vol. ii.), and + that he was said to be the author of the ceremonial, moral, and political + laws which were framed for the Jewish nation, and which were assiduously + taught to the Hebrews after the Babylonish captivity. + </p> + <p> + The followers of Zoroaster are equally ignorant of the real history of + their prophet, and are equally unable to demonstrate the claim of the Zend + Avesta to be a true account of the teaching of the Persian sage, as are + the Jews to prove the antiquity of their laws and nation. Putting on one + side all those which may be regarded as modern fancies, the first mention + made of the Prophet is in the first Alcibiades of Plato, which we may + imagine was written shortly after B.c. 412, in which year that + distinguished Greek citizen negociated a treaty between Athens and Persia. + Plato, when speaking of the education of the sons of the kings of Persia, + says (<i>Bohn's</i> edition, Vol. iv., p. 344), "At fourteen years of age, + they who are called the royal preceptors, take the boy under their care. + Now these are chosen out from those who are deemed most excellent of the + Persians, men in the prime of life, four in number, excelling (severally) + in wisdom, justice, temperance, and fortitude. The first of these + instructs the youth in the learning of the Magi, according to Zoroaster, + the son of Oromazes—now by this learning is meant the worship of the + gods—and likewise in the art of kingly government." But Herodotus, + writing about B.c. 450, when giving, in Book i, c. 131, an account of the + religion of the Persians, makes not only no mention of Zoroaster, but + attributes to that nation a form of worship differing from what is + supposed to be pure Zoroastrianism;* but he mentions—and it seems to + be a significant fact, that it is not lawful for a Persian to sacrifice + unless one of the Magi is present, who sings an ode concerning the + original of the gods which, they say, is an incantation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * There is strong constructive evidence, from the nature of + the Aryan Mythology, from the pages of the Vedas, from the + anthropological resemblances between Persians, Caucasians, + Greeks, Latins, Germans, British, and others; from the + linguistic alliances between what have been called the Indo- + Germanic races; and from a variety of other sources, each + small in itself, but strong in the aggregate, for the belief + that the origin of the Aryan mythology, or the Vedic + religion as it is otherwise called, may be traced to Bactria + or to Ancient Persia. Persia is spoken of by Plato as if her + people carried the dynasties of their kings far back into + eternity. (First Alcibiades, Bohn's edition, vol. iv., p. + 343). Herodotus again (Book i., c. 131) tells us that the + Persians from the earliest times have sacrificed to the sun + and moon, to the earth, fire, water, and the winds, that + they sacrifice on high places, have no divine statues, nor + do they build temples. Now this is almost entirely a + description of the old Aryan religion. The sun, for example, + is Surya, Aryama, Mitra, Vivaswat, Martunda, Savitor, Sura, + Ravi, Varuna, Indra Yama, Vishnu, and Krishna (Moor's Hindoo + Paillhcon, p. 287). The moon is Chandra and Soma, and the + origin of these words is to be found in the Persian as well + as in the Sanscrit writings (Moor's H. P., p. 284-5). The + Earth is Prit'hivi, 11a, Lakshmi, and Vasta. Fire is the + powerful Agni. The water is Nara, or Narayana (Moor's JET. + P., 74), from which all things came (see Water in Ancient + Faiths), and the Winds are Maruts and Vaya. To these + deities, individually or collectively, the modern Hindoo + offers prayer and praise; and the hymns of the Rig Veda, + such as we have them edited by Max Muller and Wilson, are + copies probably of the same chants which accompanied the + sacrifices of the Ancient Persians. +</pre> + <p> + This seems to indicate that the Persian religion was then undergoing some + supervision by rulers who had a different faith to that held at a later + period. When we next turn to Herodotus, Book L, c. 101, we find that the + Magi were one of the six tribes which composed the Medes; and we notice + that Phraortes, the son of Deioces, reduced the Persian kingdom under the + dominion of the Medes about B.c. 650. If, then, we regard Zoroaster as + being the founder of the Magi, we must throw back his epoch considerably + further than this date. But even if we accept this conquest as the era of + the Parsee prophet, we find that Zoroaster preceded the first public + promulgation of the Mosaic law amongst the Jews.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Time of Zoroaster.—Dr. Hang, who is no mean authority in + everything which concerns Zoroastrianism, states in an able + resumê of the evidence, that we cannot assign a later date + to the prophet than 2300 years before Christ. He quotes from + Diogenes Laertius who affirms that Xanthos of Lydia, b.c. + 600-450, states, that Zoroaster lived 6000 years before + Xerxes invaded Greece; from Pliny who, on the authority of + Aristotle, says that the teacher preceded Plato by 6000 + years; from Hermippus of Smyrna, who studied Magism B.c. + 250, and averred that the founder of that sect lived 5000 + years before the Trojan war; and from Pliny, to show the + general belief of ancient Greek authors that Zoroaster lived + many thousand years before Moses. Dr. Haug says (I am + quoting from "A Lecture on an Original Speech of Zoroaster, + with Remarks on his Age, by Dr Haug" London: Triibner & Co., + 1865), that the traditional books of the Parsees say + Zerdosht (another form of the more familiar Greek name) + lived 300 years before Alexander invaded Persia. Our author + adds that Hermippus, in 250 b.c., speaks of two millions of + verses of Zoroastrian origin, and infers that these would + require 1000 years for their growth. He then points out the + relationship between the Iranian and the Yedic religion, and + Zoroaster's antagonism to the latter, and argues that this + must have happened ere the Aryans invaded the Punjaub, 2000 + years B.c. Dr. Haug then inquires into the probable source + whence the Greeks drew their ideas respecting the antiquity + of Zerdosht, and argues, with great show of reason, that + they consulted the chronology of the Babylonian priests. He + shows that a trustworthy record was kept which went back to + 2284 b.c., this he concludes, from data given by Berosus, + was the year when Babylon was conquered by the Medes;—and + from Synkellos he shows that the founder of the dynasty of + the eight Median tyrants over Babylon was called Zoroaster. + But this word, Zarathustra, in the original, signifies a + high priest, and to distinguish him from other hierarchs + the prophet is called Zarathustra Spitama, in the Zend + Avesta—hence this king is supposed not to be the prophet + him» self, but a descendant from him, and a priest in the + order which was founded by the original Zerdosht. This again + points to the fact that the Babylonians could only know + anything about the founder of Magism from the Medes + themselves, and they might, from want of any accurate + chronology, assign to Zoroaster any date they liked—just + as, with many a semi-civilized nation 'a long time may be + converted into ten, a hundred, a thousand, or a million + years.' Haug does not endeavour to assign any particular + date to the era of Zoroaster beyond expressing the opinion + that he might have lived one or two hundred years before the + Median conquest of Babylon, and that this occurrence was + probably one of the results of the ferment which his + doctrines caused. "He preached, like Moses, war and + destruction to all idolaters and wicked men, and said that + he was commissioned by God to spread the religion of Ahura + Mazda. Daring his life-time, and shortly after his death, + his followers seem to have engaged in incessant wars with + their religious antagonists, the Vedic Indians, which + struggle is well known in the Sanscrit writings as that + between the Asuras (Ahura) and Devas (the Hindu gods). But + afterwards they spread westward and invaded the countries of + other idol worshippers in order to uproot idolatry, and + establish everywhere the good Mazdayan religion. They really + appear to have changed the order of things in Babylon when + they conquered it, and spread a new creed, for they are + spoken of by Berosus as tyrants." Zoroaster was the first + prophet of truth who appeared in the world, and kindled a + fire which thousands of years could not entirely + extinguish." +</pre> + <p> + When Moses was first talked about we know not, but at the time of Samuel, + David, and Josiah he was unknown. We have no reason to believe that the + Hebrews ever came into contact with, or ever heard of the Persians, until + after the Babylonish conquest, followed by that of Cyrus; consequently, if + the Jewish law first propounded contained nothing akin to the doctrines + and laws of Zoroaster, and subsequent publications did so, we should + naturally conclude that the last were copied. It is unnecessary to tell + the student of biblical history that the Jews were for many years under + the dominion of the Persians and Medes, and that Nehemiah, one of their + great men, after the Babylonian captivity, was a personal, though humble, + friend, of the king of Persia—i.e., if we take his account of + himself for true. + </p> + <p> + Of the fact of there being two distinct doctrines respecting the Almighty + in the Old Testament no scholar has a doubt. In the one, God is + represented as the sole Being who rules and influences the world: + whatsoever was done He was regarded as the doer of it. He had no powerful + enemy who could thwart His will, no adversary who could withstand Him + successfully. In the other the existence of two rival powers is distinctly + recognised—Jehovah and Satan—the Aryan Mara, the tempter, who + plot and counterplot against each other, and even condescend to personal + wrangling. The most conspicuous example which we can give of these two + doctrines is to be found in 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, in which we are told that + Jehovah moved David to number Israel, whereas in 1 Chron. xxi. 1, + evidently written by a modern scribe, we find that Satan, the adversary, + was he who incited the king to perform this deed. We see the duality of + persons conspicuously put forward in the first and second chapters of Job, + in which Satan is represented as being at large, not being even under the + surveillance of Jehovah. See also 1 Kings xxii. 20-23, wherein we find + Jehovah at a loss how to bring about a certain result, and assisted out of + a dilemma by a lying spirit—who can do what the Lord could not + effect! We may say that the story is a fiction, but no Hebrew dare have + spoken thus of Jehovah had he ever heard of Moses and his laws. + </p> + <p> + As we cannot imagine that a revelation from God to the Hebrews would be + thus changeable, we can come to no other conclusion than that the Jewish + writings were of human origin, and their first doctrines modified by those + of other nations to whom the Hebrews were subjects or enslaved. To this + consideration we may add, that when the Israelites came in contact with + the Medes and Persians, they were merely a 'posse' of slaves, a crowd of + prisoners removed from their own land without a shadow of power, or any + influence, and only anxious to induce those who had conquered their late + masters, the Babylonians, to have pity on their misery, and restore them + to beggared Jerusalem. The idea of the Hebrews gaining friends by + endeavouring to induce the Persian Magi to change their faith and embrace + that of the poor and probably despised Jew is preposterous. On the other + hand, there would be every possible inducement for the Hebrews to study + the faith of that people whose God had given them victory over the + Chaldeans. See in corroboration of this Ps. cxxxvii., especially the two + last verses. + </p> + <p> + We may regard the question before us in yet another light, If we are to + allow that the words of Isaiah are correct, which describe Cyrus as God's + shepherd (ch. xliv. 28), and as anointed by Jehovah Himself, we cannot + conceive that the religion which he professed was opposed to that + entertained by the Hebrew prophet. As it is morally impossible that Cyrus + and his hierarchy were taught their religion by any Jew, it follows that + the Persian faith can lay the same claim to inspiration as the Hebrew, if + the latter were not indeed almost identical with it. If, then, we insist + upon the latter being "a true revelation," we must concede the same to the + former, or if we pronounce the Persian religion to be of human invention, + we must pass a similar verdict upon the Jewish. + </p> + <p> + When we are upon the horns of such a great dilemma we may well pause. It + is indeed almost impossible for orthodox divines to make a selection which + prong of the fork is the worst. If we elect to say our belief is, that the + primitive teaching of the Hebrew was God-given and a true revelation, we + cannot put faith in those scriptures which tell us of a devil who fights + with Jehovah, and is generally victorious. If, on the other hand, we hold + that the Christian notions of the Creator and Satan are true, we must + regard the Zoroastrian teaching as inspired; and the early Jewish writings + as unworthy of credit—of human invention and heterodox. Theologians + will probably elect to remain in a state of uncertainty on this subject. + Philosophers, on the contrary, will escape from it at once by asserting + their conviction that both the Hebrew and the Magian religion are wholly + of human invention.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * When commencing this chapter, it was my intention to + amplify what I have already said in Vol. II. respecting the + Magian religion, by giving an analysis of the celebrated + Zend Avesta, a translation of which into French, by Anquetil + du Perron, I had recently procured for the purpose. + + As I was aware that Dr Haug, a learned scholar, believed the + original to be trust-worthy, I read the translation in good + faith, but I soon began to doubt whether the book was what + it professed to be, for to my mind it bore internal evidence + of having been fabricated at a comparatively recent period + by some one who was familiar both with the Aryan and the + Mosaic, if not the Christian, doctrines and literature. I + felt that I should not be acting honestly unless I took such + steps as lay in my power to satisfy myself upon this point + The essay was therefore laid aside for a considerable time, + until, indeed, every available source of information had + been searched. After my inquiry was over the text was + resumed as above. +</pre> + <p> + But in the middle, or perhaps we might say upon the threshold of our + inquiry, we must pause to examine into the amount of confidence which can + be given to those under whose guidance we are invited to place ourselves. + Such investigations are too frequently omitted. Those who have faith in + the Bible usually decline to search into the grounds of their belief, and, + in like manner, those who have always heard the author of the Zend Avesta + quoted as trustworthy are apt to take everything which it may say as + correct. To avoid this error, I have consulted all the volumes of the + transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of London, and have found + therein sufficient to throw the gravest doubts upon the great antiquity of + the Parsee religion. It will be an useful task if I attempt to classify + the evidence on each side, and to draw an inference therefrom. Our + knowledge respecting the Magian religion which the Bactrian* prophet + founded, is built, with the exception of the notices in Greek and Latin + authors, already quoted, upon the work known as the Avesta. This is + written in a language called Zand,** and there are within it parts, which + are written in another tongue, to which the name of Pahlavi has been + given, and from these the sacred books of the Parsees have been translated + into French by Anquetil du Perron, into German by Spiegel, and into + English by Haug. All these writers assume that the language referred to is + Ancient Persian, and closely allied to the Sanscrit, and Haug especially + endeavours to demonstrate that the Avesta, and the origin of the religion + of the Parsees, must be as old as the time of the Vedas, inasmuch as the + same sort of legends, the same names, and, to a certain extent, the same + genii, are to be found in both. There is not absolute identity, however, + for those which are spoken of as good by the Vedas are treated as bad in + the Avesta. Viewed from this point, Haug assigns to the Zand volumes an + age of about four thousand years, and he supports his belief by a + reference to the length of time which would be required to make up the two + million verses attributed to Zoroaster by some Greek author. In the + conclusion that both the Zand and the Pahlavi are very ancient Persian + tongues, it is stated that the majority of German and French critics + agree. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Zoroaster is said by many early writers to have been a + king in Bactria.—Smith's Dictionary, s.v. + + ** The word "Zend" is more familiar to many than the form + "Zand;" but I have adopted the latter, as also the spelling + of Pahlavi, from an essay by Mr Romer, with an introduction + by Professor Wilson, in Vol. IV., Royal Asiatic Society's + Journal. +</pre> + <p> + But on the other hand, such orientalists as Sir William Jones, Colonel + Vans Kennedy, Mr Thomas, and Mr Romer, and indeed all British oriental + scholars, regard both the Zand and the Pahlavi as bastard languages, never + spoken, and wholly fabricated by a comparatively modern priesthood, for + the express purpose of making the holy books which they wrote + comprehensible only by themselves. Such scholars show that the Zand and + Pahlavi are built upon a Sanscrit, Arabic, and modern Persian model, and + that the Parsee Pahlavi is very different to the Pehlevi of the Sassanian + coins, and, in Vol. IV., Transactions of Royal Asiatic Society, Mr Romer + supports this conclusion by a number of passages in the various languages + referred to. It is also asserted that many words in the Avesta have been + borrowed from the Arabic, and others from the Sanscrit tongues, possibly, + also, from the Greek. Being unable, from my comparative ignorance of + Eastern language, to form a decided opinion on independent grounds, all + that I can say is, that it does really seem to be proved that the + religious books of the Par-sees are not so ancient as they have been by + many supposed to be. + </p> + <p> + The question which next arises for our consideration is, whether such + volumes represent the tenets of an ancient faith, or whether they are the + fabrication of men who have, possibly in the wreck of an old worship, + brought about by war or other calamity, endeavoured to create a new + religion out of the relics of one or more old ones. In favour of the + antiquity of the Avesta are the facts that the great god, Ahura Mazdao, + seems to be almost identical with the Aura Mazda of the Persepolitan + inscription of Darius. But in proof of its untruthfulness as a + representative of pure Persian tradition, we find the book introducing + Devs and Ahuras,—the counterpart of the Devas and Asuras of the + Vedas, only reversing their character—we also see Indra mentioned as + a devil, whilst Siva and Mitra are introduced as Sharva and Miltra. + (Haug's <i>Essays on the Parsee</i>, Bombay, p. 230, 1862). If, therefore, + we allow that there is some of the old Zoroastrian doctrine to be found in + the Avesta, we must equally grant that such teaching has been modified by + hatred of a rival faith. Yet herein is another question, viz., Was the + antagonism between the doctrines of the Avesta and of the Vedas + contemporary with the origin of the two systems, or was the teaching of + the Avesta the result of its author's coming into hostile conflict with + Vedic teachers, as they possibly might have done after Alexander had + opened a highway for intercourse between Persia and Hindostan? + </p> + <p> + On weighing the subject as impartially as I can, it seems to me that the + Avesta contains a great deal of the Ancient Persian faith, but that it + will be the safest plan for us to describe what is known of the Persian + and Median faith from other sources, rather than take our information + mainly from this doubtful source. Herodotus tells us of his own knowledge + (B. i, c. 131, seq.), that the Persians, about b.c. 450, did not erect + statues, temples, or altars—that they sacrificed on lofty hills to + high heaven, the sun, moon, fire, water, and the winds, and that this had + been a custom from time immemorial Sacrifice was attended by a priest or + magus, and prayer and praise were offered, not for themselves alone, but + for all the Persians, and especially for the king. + </p> + <p> + In about the year 521 B.c., Darius, king of the Medes, caused be made, in + three languages, upon a rock at Behistun, an inscription of considerable + length. The one which is in the Persian tongue has been translated by + Rawlinson (<i>Royal Asiatic Society Journal</i>, vol 10). In it, the king + acknowledges Auramazda as his god, and speaks of him as the Jews did of + Jehovah. This epithet is explained by two Sanscrit roots (Op cit., vol. + x., p. 68), and may be paraphrased as "The Lord or giver of life," "The + great Creator," or "The Eternal," and the king in a doubtful passage + refers to "the evil one" (?), who by lies deceived the rulers of certain + states, inducing them to rebel, and then left them to be conquered by the + Ormazd-governed Darius. In the Babylonian copy "lies" are as it were + personified. Whilst in the Scythian version, translated by Mr Norris (Op + cit. vol. xv., p. 144), we find the account run thus: "These are the + provinces which became rebellious, 'the god of lies' made them rebel that + they would subvert the state, afterwards Ormaza delivered them into my + hand." The "lies," or the god of lies, we very naturally associate with + the being whom we call in our time the devil, who is spoken of (John viii. + 44) as a liar, and the father of falsehood, who was so from the beginning + [—Greek—], and consequently regarded as coeval with the + "father of light." + </p> + <p> + We next turn to such evidence as is given us in the book of Job. We select + this ancient writing in consequence of the strong internal evidence there + is, that it was written by some one about the period of the Achaemenian + dynasty living in Persia (see Rawlinson in <i>Journal of B. A. Soc</i>., + vol. 1, new series, p. 230). In Job we find two distinct powers spoken of, + the one being the Good God, and the other Satan the opposer. The last is + regularly described as if he had the power to cause war, devastation, + tempest, disease, and death, for ch. ii., v. 6, lets us infer that he + might have killed Job had he been so minded and God allowed the bargain, + and in verse 19 of the same chapter we find him killing all the sons and + daughters of the patriarch. Job clearly recognised the necessity of + sacrifice for purification, for sanctification, and he seems not to have + offered this upon any altar, in any temple, or with the intervention of + any priest. It is clear that Job had never heard of Moses or the writings + assigned to him. The persecuted patriarch and his friends all believe that + punishment in this life is the result of offences committed against the + Good God, but all seem to be singularly free from the idea that Satan is + the cause of Job's sufferings either directly or indirectly. There is + throughout the book no reference made to a preceding or a succeeding + condition of man, such as obtained amongst the Brahmins, and it is + doubtful whether the Persians believed in heaven or hell. When man died he + was supposed to perish. Hence we conclude that the doctrine of the + resurrection was not prevalent at the time the story was written, and in + the country where the writer of the book of Job resided. Equally unknown + to that author, whoever he was, were the ideas about angels, ministers of + God, or disembodied spirits. These were of Babylonian origin. We must now, + to carry on the thread of the argument, recal to mind the fact that + Babylon was taken by the Medes and Persians, that the rulers of the united + people often made that city their residence, that Herodotus tells us (B. + 1, c. 135) that "the Persians are of all nations most ready to adopt + foreign customs," and I may notice, in passing, that the same authority + states that the two nations were scrupulously truthful, ceremoniously + cleanly, and intolerant to leprosy. It is well known, moreover, that even + after the commencement of our era Babylon was the chief seat of Babbinic + and Talmudic lore. + </p> + <p> + When we examine into the religion of the Babylonians we find that they + believed in the existence of angels—minis-, ters of the Supreme—intelligences,—unseen + by man, yet powerful to act in his favour, or against him. If we rightly + interpret many of the engraved gems which were executed by the Chaldees, + we can only come to the conclusion that they believed in a Devil, a + Typhon, or spirit of destruction. + </p> + <p> + We next must call attention to the fact that the Jews were conquered by + the Babylonians, and enslaved in Mesopotamia for very many years—that + they were subsequently emancipated by the Medo-Persians, and that the + latter, whom from the inscription of Darius we believe to have been + devout, permitted and even encouraged the Israelites to entertain the + faith which they then held, and even assisted them to rebuild their + temple. This permission, and the friendliness of Nehemiah with the Median + monarch, seem to show a great similarity, if not an identity, between the + Persian and the Jewish creeds. + </p> + <p> + If, then, we could frame any definite idea of the tenets held by the Jews + before they came into contact with the Babylonians, and those which they + professed afterwards, we might form a conception of what they got from the + Chaldees, the Medes, and the Persians respectively. Without going very + deeply into the matter, we may say that Hebrew scholars generally allow + that the ideas of Satan—a power opposed to that of God, and of + angels or spirits, were introduced between the captivity and the period + when the scriptures were translated into Greek, and that the notion of a + future life and the resurrection of the dead, was developed after the time + of the Septuagint, about b.c. 277. + </p> + <p> + From the preceding considerations we draw the inference that the idea of + the resurrection of the dead, of a future state of existence, in which + each will be punished or rewarded for what had been done by him in his + mortal condition, was not a portion of the original Median, Persian, + Babylonian, or Jewish religion. A mass of circumstantial evidence has led + me to believe that the idea of a Heaven for the good and a Hell for the + bad, came from those who professed what we will call the Vedic or the + Buddhist faith. If, in reply to this, it is alleged that it may have come + from the Greeks directly, the rejoinder is simply this—that the + Grecians, as Aryan colonists, brought with them only a rude notion of a + futurity, which they were the medium of improving, when, through the + influence of their arts and arms, they opened a highway to India both by + sea and land. Those who could import into their armies such huge beasts as + elephants, could far more readily import a new article of faith, if it + pleased the priests. + </p> + <p> + If our reasoning is sound, we cannot, I think, regard the Avesta as a + trustworthy exposition of the ancient teaching of Zoroaster. On the other + hand, we must, in my opinion, consider it as a book fabricated to serve a + particular purpose. In this respect it resembles our own Bible, which was + composed for the glorification of the Hebrews when smarting under a series + of ignominious defeats and enslavements; and then enlarged, contracted, or + altered, to suit emergencies. + </p> + <p> + The following table will assist the reader to compare or contrast the + religion of the Medo-Persians with that of the Hebrews in some matters:— + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/285.jpg" alt="285 " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%"> + <img src="images/286.jpg" alt="286 " width="100%" /><br /> + </div> + <p> + The Hebrews first worshipped a calf, and then a box; they believed that + their God taught them to build a tabernacle first, then a temple, and to + It is not the practice of the Perform altars for sacrifice. The Hebrews + sians to erect statues, or temples, also believed that Elohim had one or + or altars, and they charge with folly more human forms—see Gen. + xviii. 1, those that do. They do not think 2, and the following chap. xix. + 1—see the gods have human forms, also Gen. xxxii. 1 and 24-80, also + Josh. v. 13, 14, 15, Jud. ii. 1-5. + </p> + <p> + The anthropomorphism of the Jewish Scriptures has already been referred to + in Vol. I. of Ancient Faiths. + </p> + <p> + The Persians are accustomed to ascend the highest parts of the mountains, + and offer sacrifice to Jupiter, calling the whole circle of the heavens by + that name. + </p> + <p> + The Persians sacrificed to the son and moon, to the earth, fire, water, + and the winds. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the Persians, sacrifices were attended by invocations and prayers, + and were always offered up by a priest. + </p> + <p> + The Persians, next to bravery in battle, considered the greatest proof of + manliness was to be able to exhibit many children. + </p> + <p> + Whoever has the leprosy or scrofula is not permitted to stay within a + town, nor have communication with other Persians; and it is supposed that + the infliction is caused by some offence against the deity (sun god). + Herodotus, book I., chaps. 131,138. + </p> + <p> + The eldest son of the Persian king was instructed during youth in the + learning of the Magi according to Zoroaster the son of Oromazes—by + this learning is meant the worship of the gods—and likewise in the + art of kingly government. Plato, in Alcibiades. + </p> + <p> + The Hebrews sacrificed on high places for a long period. Sacrifice in an + enclosed place seems to have been adopted from the Phoenicians by David + and Solomon, but not to have been popular for some centuries. + </p> + <p> + The Jewish people sacrificed to sun, moon, and some planets—had a + sacred fire in the temple, and regarded clouds and wind as the ministers + of God. The God that answered by fire was the one adopted by Elyah. The + so-called orthodox Jews only acknowledged one God, and subsequently one + devil. + </p> + <p> + The Jews neither offered invocation nor prayer at their sacrifices, and + prophets and kings offered victims without priestly assistance. In later + times every sacrifice was offered by a priest. + </p> + <p> + The Hebrews regarded a large family as a gift from Jehovah. + </p> + <p> + The Hebrews had the same practice; and, as we learn in the book of Job, + and Deuter. xxviii, notably in the 27th verse, they deemed that botch, + scab, itch, and emerods were punishments sent by Jehovah. + </p> + <p> + The royal families of Judah received no instruction, either in political + matters or in religion, and were allowed to grow up and do much as they + liked in regard to worship. The only power which influenced them was that + assumed by some man who professed to be divinely inspired. + </p> + <p> + In a chapter of ancient faiths and notice an allegation which has that + Parseeism or Zoroastriamsm has been borrowed from Jews and Christians. To + this we wholly demur. Nowhere in the Avesta do we find a reference to the + imminent destruction of the world, the resurrection of a dead man, his + subjugating all the powers of evil, and reigning for a thousand years with + his followers as kings and saints. Nowhere in the Avesta do we discover + such immoral notions of God as prevailed amongst the ancient Jewish + writers. Take these away from Judaism and Christianity, and then the two + resemble the religions which are held everywhere by the thoughtful and the + good. If there has really been any copying at all, we do not see the + imitators in Central Asia but on the shores of the Mediterranean. The Jews + copied from Tyre, Babylon, and Greece—Christians have taken as + models Egyptians, Grecians, Romans, and even barbarians, and they have + denied a once pure faith by covering it over with the ordures of + heathenism. Yet we talk of others imitating us! + </p> + <p> + I propose now to examine at some length into such of the developments as + have taken place in certain religious systems, for by so doing we shall be + better able to judge what are those doctrines which Christians hold, in + common with what they call Pagan nations, and how far those matters which + are regarded as fundamental points of doctrine are in reality trustworthy. + We must ever bear in mind that if we find the same set of ideas + entertained amongst peoples who by no possibility can have had any + communication with each other, it is only rational to believe that each + race possesses those notions in virtue of their being human. Or, if + desirous of avoiding this admission, the orthodox declares that every + asserted fact is a copy of a precedent one, then we ask them to reconcile + the legend of Hercules being begotten by Jupiter, and Jesus by the Holy + Ghost, for unquestionably the story of Alcmena's son preceded that told of + Mary's. + </p> + <p> + In the following chapter I shall avoid as far as possible any reference to + the tales told of the conception of Jesus, for no man, however subtle he + may be, can prove that the Son of Man had a certain mundane individual + called Joseph for a father; all that I desire to show is, that in every + nation whose history has come down to us there have been persons whose + mothers have declared themselves to have been pure virgins until adopted + by some god as a temporal and temporary spouse, or who, being wives, have + asserted that a son who has distinguished himself in the world has been of + divine procreation—an affirmation, be it observed, that can only be + made in case the spouse has been manifestly unfaithful, or by some fulsome + historian desirous of exalting his hero to celestial rank. There is + scarcely a barbaric dynasty known, indeed, which does not claim an origin + from some heavenly father, mother, or both. + </p> + <p> + There have been many hierarchs who, having felt conscious of the absurdity + of making, by miraculous agency, all wonderful beings come from woman + only, have consequently invented legends in which men have produced + offspring without a consort. Some may be disposed to deride these tales, + who can readily credit the stories of virgin mothers; but in reality there + is no difference between the two sets of legends, in probability, wherever + "miracles" are assumed. It would have been quite as easy for the writer of + Genesis to have made Isaac come from old Abraham's bosom as from the womb + of his hoary-headed wife. But the Jewish writers have never proved + themselves as subtle as the Hindoos and Greeks. Instead of asserting that + a man, without a woman's assistance, has borne a son—a matter + capable of proof—they have declared that a woman has conceived, + without the assistance of a man; an asseveration for which there cannot be + any proof whatever, no not even physical, for accoucheurs know that many a + female conceives by her lover's instrumentality, and bears a child, at + whose birth, or rather when parturition is imminent, that part which is + called "the Hymen," and is the Mosaical test of virginity, is not only + unbroken, but so small in aperture, and strong in flesh, as to require + operative or surgical interference before the child can come into the + world. According to Mosaism these must be regarded as absolutely virgin + mothers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. + </h2> + <p> + Supernatural generation. What is meant by the term. Examples. Children + given by the gods. Anecdote. Frequency of god-begotten children in Ancient + Greece. Their general fate. The stories not credited by the grandfathers + of children, nor apparently by the mothers. The babies, how treated. + Foundlings and Hospitals. Antiope. Leucothöe. Divinely conceived persons + not necessarily great or good. Babylonian idea that a god came down to + enjoy human women. Tale from Herodotus. Jehovah as a man. Grecian idea + attached to the expression Son of God. Homer. Hebrew ideas. Roman notions. + Romulus, son of Mars and a Vestal Augustus, son of Apollo. Modern ideas + respecting Incubi. Prevalence of the belief. Its suppression. Causes of + its origin. Bible made to pander to priestly lust. Dictionnaire Infernal. + History of incubi therefrom. Stories. Strange idea that the Gods who made + men out of nothing cannot as easily make babies. Divine Androgynes. + Strange stories of single gods having offspring. Narayana and the Spirit + of God of Genesis. Chaos. Hindoo mythos of Brahma. Birth from churning a + dead man's left arm, and again his right. Ayonyesvara, his strange + history. Similar ones referred to. History of Carticeya. Christian + parallels. Immaculate conception a Hindoo myth. The dove in India and + Christendom. Agni and cloven fiery tongues. Penance and its powers. + Miraculous conception by means' of a dove. Other myths from various + sources. + </p> + <p> + It is a question which should, in my opinion, be asked by every individual + in a rational community, whether it is advisable to continue, as a matter + of faith, a doctrine which must be repudiated, as a matter of fact. To + this we may join, as a rider, can anyone who puts his credence in a legend + because it is old, claim to be superior to those who originally invented + the tale, in the darkness of antiquity? When moderns smile at the stories + told by the classic Varro, how certain mares in Lusitania were impregnated + by the wind on a certain mountain, without any access to a horse, and at + the credence given to similar accounts by Virgil, Pliny, and even the + Christian bishop Augustine; and by some old Scotch authority how a young + woman became a mother through the intervention of the ashes of the dead: + and when they pity the benighted Greeks who gave to Hercules, Jupiter for + a father; and to Mars, Juno for a mother, without intercourse with her + celestial spouse, it behoves them to inquire whether each may not be + addressed in the sentence, "Mutato nomine, de te fabula narratur"—i.e., + change but the name of the believers from Greeks and Romans to modern + Christians, and it will be found that Popes, priests, and peoples believe + as firmly now in supernatural generation as the most crass pagan of which + history treats. + </p> + <p> + Our classical reading tells us abundance of marvellous stories—how + Jupiter seduced Danae in the form of a golden shower, and yet had a common + son by her, who was not an aureous coin; how Leda received Zeus as a swan, + and bore therefrom a couple of eggs; how Europa was tempted by him as a + bull, and yet did not bear a calf; and how Callisto, a maiden of Diana, + was debauched by the same god under the guise of her mistress, and yet + that from two maidens a boy was formed. + </p> + <p> + Of the amours of Apollo with a dozen and a half damsels, and of the very + numerous disguises which he assumed, we find abundant details in our + classical dictionaries. Mars, though not so frequently adopted by human + females as a lover, had many children of whom he was the putative father. + </p> + <p> + Jupiter had Bacchus and Minerva without Juno's aid, and Juno retaliated by + bearing Ares without conversation with her consort. We deride these tales, + and yet think, that because we laugh at a hundred such we shall be + pardoned for believing one. How little we are justified in acting thus a + few philosophical considerations will demonstrate. + </p> + <p> + There are few things in mythology that are more curious than the subject + of the miraculous formation of certain individuals. Some of these have + been regarded as the offspring of a celestial father and a mother of + earthly mould; others again, as for example Æneas, were said to be the + result of a union between a heavenly mother and a terrestrial father—e.g., + Æneas was the son of Anchises, a handsome man, and Venus, goddess of + beauty and love. Some, though these are few, are said to be children of a + virgin or deserted wife, who has produced them without any extraneous + assistance,* and others are declared to be descended from a father whom no + consort could ever claim. One individual, indeed, called Orion, is + represented as having been wholly independent of both father and mother, + and the result of a strange form of development, the like of which Darwin + never dreamed of as he came from a bladder into which three gods had + micturated. His name, we are gravely assured, came <i>ab urinâ</i>. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The following is a good case in corroboration of what is + said in the text. In the <i>Dictionnaire Infernal</i>, to which + more particular reference will be made shortly, there is, s. + v. Fécondité, a report of a trial before the Parliament of + Grenoble, in which the question was, whether a certain + infant could be declared legitimate which was born after the + husband had been absent from his wife four full years. The + wife asserted that the baby was the offspring of a dream, in + which she had a vivid idea that her wandering spouse had + returned to love and duty. Midwives and physicians were + consulted, and reported on the subject. As a result, the + Parliament ordained that the infant should be adjudged + legitimate, and that its mother should be regarded as a true + and honourable wife. The judgment bears date 13th February + 1537. +</pre> + <p> + The quaint ideas associated in mythology with the supernatural generation + here referred to have been various. In some instances they have been + wholly poetical, as when we are told that "the Supreme" by his union with + law and order (Themis) produced "Justice," "the Hours," "Good Laws," and + "Peace" (Hesiod Theogony, 900), and as when Europa is said to have tempted + Jupiter to leave Phoenicia, and travel westward to Crete as the first step + towards the colonization of an unknown continent. In other instances, the + ideas have been framed upon the very natural belief that anyone—whether + existent in story only, or in reality—who has greatly surpassed his + fellows, must have had a large element of the Deity in his constitution. + In other instances, the notion has been associated with the once prevalent + belief, that the Creator had a sex, to which we shall refer by and by; and + in other cases, the fancy has clearly been mingled with the fact, that + many an unmarried woman has attributed to some god, a pregnancy, or baby, + which has been due, in reality, to a very mortal man. Here we may notice + that the fecundity which damsels of old were wont to refer to a god or + some inferior, but yet beneficent, deity, more modern christian girls have + associated with a demon. Jupiter and Apollo being replaced by a special + class of imps who were named "incubi," and of the particulars of whose + embraces the strangest stories are told. This small truth seems to be + sufficient to demonstrate that the Greeks were not familiar with the being + to whom we give the name of "Satan" and the "Devil," and that their belief + coincided in one respect with that of the older Jews, who considered that + whatever occurrence happened in the world, whether apparently for good or + evil, was done by Jehovah, or as the Hellenic damsels reported by Jupiter, + Apollo, or Mars. + </p> + <p> + Here, too, I may be permitted to introduce a remark suggested by a + narrative, told to me by a lady of high British rank. She had been brought + up in a foreign country under the eye of a sensible and pious, we may add + prudish, mother, who endeavoured to shield her daughter from all contact + with external vicious influences, and to prevent her ears or her mind from + ever coming to the knowledge of those matters which are associated with + love, marriage, and offspring. When the young lady naturally inquired of + mamma where the infants sprang from which came into the world and grew up + around her, she was told, "from God," and she was referred to Psalm + cxxvii. 3, which declares that "children are an heritage of the Lord, and + the fruit of the womb is His reward." After having attained adult age, and + being wholly imbued with this belief, she, on one occasion, expressed her + opinion that Mademoiselle—who had recently been confined—must + have been a peculiarly virtuous maiden, to have received so great a + present as a baby from the beneficent Creator. This speech fell like a + bombshell amongst a mixed company, but she knew not why. It was not until + her marriage some time subsequently, that she learned that infants were + said to come from God or the Devil according to circumstances, but that in + reality they were always due to men and women. + </p> + <p> + The anecdote given above, naturally enables us to call attention to the + remarkable fact that though the Grecian poets repeatedly spoke of maidens + being fertilized by a divinity, yet Greek fathers never paid any heed to + the power of that god, whom their daughters asserted to have operated upon + their femininity; but always treated the earthly love of the alleged + celestial spouse, as if the latter was wholly powerless to punish the + hard-hearted parent, who had no scruples to turn his daughter from his + door, so that she might hide her shame in distant lands. In those classic + times, procreation by a god upon a human being was the attempted cover for + bastardy. Moreover, even the woman herself, to whom Jupiter or Apollo was + alleged to have descended from heaven to honour, felt herself so much + injured by the visit, that she either tried to destroy the resulting + offspring with her own hands, or exposed it upon a mountain to the tender + mercies of dogs and vultures. Much in the same way many a modern maiden + places her shame-covered infant in the turn-table of a foundling + institution. Antiope, for example, the daughter of a king of Thebes, was, + according to her version, beloved by + </p> + <p> + Jupiter, who visited her in the form of a satyr and implanted twins. When + she discovered the coming event, which casts its shadow before, she left + the paternal mansion, to avoid her father's anger, and fled to a mountain, + on which she left her hapless offspring. They were found by shepherds and + brought up. + </p> + <p> + The story of fair Leucothöe is still more to the point. She was + sufficiently beautiful to attract Apollo, who seduced her under the form + of her own mother—not a very likely story it is true, but the two + lived happily together until a rival told the loved one's father of the + amour. The incensed paterfamilias ordered his daughter to be buried alive, + and yet the god who could change her body after death into the + frankincense tree, and himself into a matronly looking woman and yet + retain his sex, could not prevent his earthly spouse from dying a cruel + death. In other words, Orchamus, the parent of the damsel, wholly + disbelieved in the existence of a divine "spark," and felt assured that + his daughter had disgraced herself with a man far below her in earthly + rank. + </p> + <p> + From these, and a number of other Grecian anecdotes, we can draw no other + conclusions than that the sires in those days were as jealous of the + honour of their daughters as we are of our own now; that when that honour + was in danger of being tarnished, a god was alleged by the damsel to be + the offender; that the story was not believed; and that the daughter fled, + was punished, or was pardoned, according to the sternness or credulity of + the parents. The idea that individuals who were the sons or daughters of a + god, must necessarily be great and good, does not appear to have prevailed + amongst the ancient Greeks. Nay, we may even doubt whether any of them + really believed that Jupiter, Apollo, or Neptune, could, or had ever + become incarnate, for the sole purpose of impregnating a human female. + That such an idea, however, prevailed amongst the Babylonians we learn + from Herodotus, who informs us, book i. c. 181, that Belus comes into a + chamber at the summit of a sacred tower to meet therein a native woman, + chosen by the god from the whole nation; and in the succeeding chapter he + indicates that a similar occurrence takes place in Egyptian Thebes, and in + Lycian Patarae. Yet even whilst writing the tales, the historian expresses + his own incredulity of their value, and we may well suppose that the + thoughtful generally, would only give such credence to the statements of + the temple priests, as was given to certain Christian stories by a + philosopher, who said he believed them because they were impossible. Even + if the common people credited the assertion that "The Supreme" did elect a + woman with whom to converse, we must not despise them too lightly, for we + are distinctly told in our own scriptures that Jehovah appeared as a man, + and as such, ate, drank, and talked with Abraham (Gen. ch. xviii.); that + Elohim was in the habit of conversing face to face with Moses (Exod. + xxxiii. 11); and that the same God wrestled with Jacob as a man, and could + not prevail against the patriarch until he had lamed him. We must also + notice that myriads of Christians have believed, and many still do so, + that He in a certain form had commerce with a Hebrew maiden (Luke i. 34, + 35), and had by her a begotten son. + </p> + <p> + When civilization spread over Greece, there seems to have been a change of + expression—which being at the first wholly metaphorical, + subsequently became realistic. Thus, any man peculiarly characteristic + amongst his fellows for strength, knowledge, or power, was designated "a + son of God." Thus, as Grote remarks (12 vol. edition), vol. ii. p. 132, + note 1. "Even Aristotle ascribed to Homer a divine parentage; a damsel of + the isle of Ios, pregnant by some god, was carried off by pirates to + Smyrna at the time of the Ionic emigration, and there gave birth to the + poet" (Aristotle ap. Plutarch Vit. Homer, p. 1059). Plato, also by some, + called "the divine," was said by Seusippus to be a son of Apollo (<i>Smith's + Dictionary</i>, 8. v.) The Hebrews had a similar metaphorical expression, + and gave to everything supereminently good, an epithet which we may + paraphrase as "divine." Some few writers used the title, "sons of God," as + for example, Job i. 6, and xxxviii. 7, and Hosea i. 10; an epithet adopted + by John i. 12, Rom. viii. 14, 19, Phil ii. 15, 1 John iii 1, 2, as if the + same were applicable to all who are virtuous and good to an especial + degree. The Hebrews even seem to have adopted the belief that Elohim, like + the Grecian Zeus, had many children, could, and did really, associate with + human beings, for we can in no other way reasonably interpret the strange + narrative in Genesis vi, wherein we are told that the sons of God came in + unto the daughters of men, who became the sires of mighty men of great + renown. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the Romans, similar ideas to those which we find amongst the + Greeks prevailed. For example, Romulus was said to be the son of Mars and + a Vestal virgin; but so little did her relatives believe in the + possibility of the occurrence, or the divine nature of the maiden's + offspring, that the mother was buried alive, and the twins which she bare + were exposed, much in the same way as modern "foundlings" are. In this + case, as in many others, it is probable that little notice would have been + taken of such supernatural generation had the mother been of low origin—but + when a god inveigles a king's daughter from her duty, both the one and the + other must be punished; the one in her person, the other in his child. Yet + these very writers who told of the punishment of the Vestal Hia for her + intrigue with Mars, took advantage of the story, and spread a report that + Romulus, the offspring of the two, was, after his death, taken up to + heaven to dwell there as a god. At a subsequent period, Augustus Caesar + announced, on his mother's authority, that he was the son of Apollo, and + claimed to be treated as a veritable scion of that venerable deity. + </p> + <p> + The account of the conception and birth of Servius Tullius is curious from + its circumstantiality. Ovid tells us, <i>Fasti</i>, vi., 625-659, Bonn's + translation: "Vulcan was the father of Tullius; Ocrisia was his mother, a + woman of Corniculum, remarkable for her beauty. Her, Tanaquil, having duly + performed the sacred rites, ordered, in company with herself, to pour some + wine on the decorated altar. Here amongst the ashes, either was, or seemed + to be, a form of obscene shape; but such it really was. Being ordered to + do so, the captive (Ocrisia was a slave), submits to its embraces; + conceived by her, Servius had the origin of his birth from heaven. His + father afforded a proof, at the time when he touched his head with the + gleaming fire, and a flame rising to a point, blazed upon his locks." In + some earlier lines, the poet tells us that the goddess, Fortune, was + enamoured of this same Roman king, and visited him nightly—much as + Venus came to converse with Anchises. + </p> + <p> + In this story, we have an unusual ingredient, inasmuch as there is a + witness to that which we may call the immaculate conception, and after + birth, a proof of the child's divine origin! Of course there are many + irreverent people who declare that the story is untrue—that it is + far more likely that the real father was Tarquin, who, finding his + consort's beautiful servant to be with child, contrived a plan by which + she would escape the vindictiveness of the mistress—one which, if + devotionally inclined, she was bound to give credence to. Nor can devout + Christians altogether range themselves amongst the unbelievers in the + miracle, for the founder of their religion was borne by a woman of low + condition, and is said to have been begotten by an overshadowing spirit. + He assumed to be a king; but the son of Ocrisia became one in reality, and + instituted games in honour of his divine progenitor. + </p> + <p> + For some more modern poetical fictions of the same nature, we may refer + our readers to Scott's <i>Lady of the Lake</i>, where, in the account of + the Highland seer, Brian, they will find a parallel to the story + promulgated by Alexander the false prophet, respecting his birth, + described by Lucian. + </p> + <p> + The same ideas, with which we are all of us so familiar in Christendom, + that they form a portion of the creeds which the orthodox weekly rehearse, + have obtained in far Ceylon. Thus, for example, we read in a Buddhistic + legend (<i>Kusa Iatakaya</i>, translated by T. Steele, Trübner, London, + 1871, small 8vo., pp. 260):— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "As Sakra*, with his thousand eyes gazed over every land, + The hapless queen, with heart distraught, he saw dejected stand; + His godlike eye revealed to him that to her blessed womb + Two radiant gods illustrious from Heaven's high town should come. + + Then entering first the Bodisat's blest skyey palace fair, + And next unto another god's, did Sakra straight repair: + Benign he said:—Go to the world of men, that distant scene, + And there be born from out the womb of yon delightful queen. + + The saying of the king of gods unto their hearts they took; + Then bathed they in his feet's bright rays that shone as shines a brook: + 'Let us be so conceived,' they said, when they the order heard, + 'Within the womb of yonder queen, even as the Lord declared.'" + + —Stanzas 129-131. + + * Indra, "The Supreme." +</pre> + <p> + But the two children do not appear as twins, like Romulus and Remus, for + we find in stanza 155— + </p> + <p> + "Now when the darling little child, the wisdom-gifted one, Began to lift + his tiny foot, and learn to walk alone, Another god from Heaven's high + town flashed down the sky serene, And was conceived within the womb of + that delightful queen." + </p> + <p> + I may notice in passing, that the lady was married, but had always been + barren with her husband. + </p> + <p> + In the instances to which we have referred above, there has been no very + marked departure from the ordinary course of nature. In all, an union + between a father and mother has occurred—in all, the relation + between each to the offspring has been maintained, and the ordinary + progress of gestation observed. The main discrepancies which are to be + noticed are, that a divine is substituted for a human father, or, as in + the case of Æneas, the sire has been a man, and the mother a "celestial." + But after birth, instead of the child being cared for by its parents, it + very frequently happens that a goat, wolf, or other animal, performs the + mother's duty as a nurse. The reader whose antiquarian lore is + considerable, will probably remember that Christians in Italy, France, and + I dare not say in how many other Catholic countries, were implicit + believers in the idea that spirits from the invisible world could assume a + human form, and under that, have intercourse with youths of either sex. + The literature upon this subject was at one time very great, but such + pains have been taken to destroy it, in order that so great a blot upon + the infallibility of Papal rulers should no longer be found, that there + are few books to which I can refer inquirers. The first time I met with + the subject was in a Latin treatise by Cardan, a.d. 1444-1524,* being + commentaries upon Hippocrates. In this, many chapters are devoted to the + possibility of intercourse between women and embodied spirits. The + Mediaeval virgins, unlike the Greeks, always attributed their pregnancy to + demons and not to gods, although on some occasions maidens were foolish + enough, like those of ancient Babylon, to believe that they were embraced, + by a divine being or angel. Into this matter the Italian doctor enters + folly, and endeavours to establish some distinction how a woman could + distinguish an "incubus" from a human being, and if she became pregnant + and brought forth, how the devil's offspring could be told from an + ordinary baby. The particulars which are given to the learned in Latin, + will not bear to be reproduced in the vernacular, suffice it to say, that + they are such as would be given by silly women more or less conscious of + having been guilty of impropriety, and who were goaded by sanctimonious + but ribald divines to enter into every detail of the devil's doings and + the females' sensations. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is more than thirty years since I read the book in + question, and I have long ago parted with it. As I am unable + now to lay my hands upon a copy I am not sure whether the + author was Facio Cardan, who flourished at the period given + in the text, or the more celebrated Jerome Cardan who lived + A.D. 1601-1576. +</pre> + <p> + Before saying more of the "incubi," we may bestow a passing glance upon + the foundation of the idea of their existence. In mediaeval times, a large + portion of the New Testament was taken to be literally true, and the + people were instructed to believe that the devil went about like a roaring + lion seeking whom he could devour. The papal priests encouraged the idea, + for by frightening the ignorant, they induced them to purchase sacerdotal + insurance by paying for masses to protect themselves from the snares of + Satan. For hierarchs who were obliged to live without wives, it was easy + in the first place to imbue the mind of a superstitious maiden with a + horror of Apollyon's power, and then to take advantage of her fears by + personifying the fiend. In this manner the bible suggested the sin to the + priest and made the maiden passive. + </p> + <p> + It would not be profitable to write a catalogue in detail of the + authorities upon which I found these statements. I will rather give a + short resume of an article upon "Incubi," which is to be found in a most + curious book entitled <i>Dictionnaire Infernal ou Bibliothèque universelle + sur les êtres, les personnages, les livres, les faits et les choses qui + tiennent aux apparitions, à la magie, au commerce de Venfer, aux + divinations, aux sciences secrètes,... aux erreurs et aux préjugés,... + généralment à toutes les croyances mer-veilleuses, surprenantes + mystérieuses et surnaturelles.—Par M. Colin de Plancy. Deuxième + édition entièrement réfondue </i>; Paris, 1826. The book is rare, but most + interesting to the philosopher who concerns himself about matters of + "faith," for it shows, clearly, that there is no depth of human + degradation into which people who are guided by blind trust in some fellow + mortal, unchecked by the exercise of reason, will not enter, and there + reside permanently, until stirred up by those whom they assert on the + first blush to be "infidels." + </p> + <p> + After a few preliminary remarks, we are told that the French incubi did + not attack virgins, but in the next paragraph is an account of a maiden + who was seduced by a demon in the form of her betrothed. This was in + Sardinia. An English fiend acted in a similar way, and from the congress + followed a frightful disease of which the poor girl died in three days. + This story is told by Thomas Walsingham, b. A.D. 1410. A Scotch lass is + the next victim reported, and to her the unclean spirit came nightly under + the guise of a fine young man. She became pregnant, and avowed all. The + parents then kept watch, and saw the devil near her in a monstrous unhuman + form. He would not go away till a priest came, then the incubus made a + frightful noise, burned the furniture, and went off upwards, carrying the + roof with him. Three days after a queer form was born, more horrible than + had ever been seen, so bad indeed, that the midwives strangled it. For the + credulous, what fact could be more strongly attested than this? The + reporter is Hector Boetius, b. 1470. + </p> + <p> + The next tale, having a locale in Bonn, occurred at a time when priests + married and had a family. The daughter of one who was closely watched and + locked up when left by herself, was found out by a demon, who took upon + him the form of a fine young man. Such an occurrence was thought nothing + uncommon then, inasmuch as Paul had told the Corinthians that Satan + himself is transformed into an angel of light (2 Cor. xi. 14). The poor + victim became enceinte and confessed the whole to her father, who, fearing + the devil, and anxious not to make a scandal, sent the daughter away from + home. The impudent fiend came to remonstrate, and killed the wretched sire + with a blow of his fist.—Quoted from <i>Cæsarii Heistere mirac</i>., + lib. iii., c. 8. The next case occurs at Schinin, wherein we are told + (Hauppius <i>Biblioth portai, pract.</i>, p. 454) that a woman produced a + baby without head or feet, with a mouth in the chest near to the left + shoulder, and an ear near the right one; instead of fingers it had webs + like frog's feet, it was liver coloured, and shaky as jelly, it cried when + the mother wanted to wash it, but somebody stifled and then buried it. The + mother, however, wanted it be exhumed and burned, for it was the offspring + of a fiend who had counterfeited her husband. The thing was taken up and + given to the hangman for cremation, but he could neither burn it nor the + rags which enwrapped it until the day after the feast of Ascension. + </p> + <p> + The following story is laid near Nantes:—Therein a young girl + baulked of her lover, mutters something like a modern order to him to go + to the foul fiend, and remarks to herself that a demon would be a better + friend. She is betrayed in the usual manner, and finds, when too late, + that she is embracing a hairy incubus which has a long tail. She exclaims + fearfully. The "affreet" blows in her face and leaves her. She is found + frightfully disfigured, and is brought to bed seven days after of a black + cat. The remaining histories are of a similar nature, all alike showing + how completely the so-called Christian people of Modern Europe believed + that disembodied spirits could assume human form with such completeness as + to be the father of offspring. We may fairly compare these tales with that + told by heathen Greeks about Jupiter and Alcmena, but when we place them + side by side, the ancients show a far superior fancy in their fables than + do the comparative moderns. I find from <i>Reville's History of the Devil</i>, + p. 54 (London: Williams & Norgate, 1871), that so late as a.d. 1756, + at Landshut, in Bavaria, a young girl of thirteen years of age, was + convicted of impure intercourse with the devil, and put to death. It is a + pity that no account of the trial is appended. + </p> + <p> + Talboys Wheeler, in his <i>History of India</i>, vol. IL, p. 515, + indicates that there is to this day, in India, a belief in <i>incubi</i>. + Speaking of Paisacha marriages, in which a woman is united to a man + without her knowledge or consent, he remarks:—"The origin of the + name is somewhat curious. The Paisachas were evil spirits or ghosts (see "<i>Lilith" + and "Satyr" Ancient Faiths</i>, vol. ii.) who were supposed to haunt the + earth.... If, therefore, a damsel found herself likely to become a mother + without her being able to furnish a satisfactory reason for her maternity, + she would naturally plead that she had been victimized by a Paisach.... In + modern times, however, the belief is still very general throughout the + rural districts of India, that wives, as well as maidens, may be + occasionally victimized by such ghostly admirers." + </p> + <p> + Every mythologist who has invented such stories as that of Jupiter and + Alcmena, and every woman who has ever attributed her pregnancy to a divine + being, call him what she may, seems completely to ignore the idea that a + god who deserves the name, does not require human aid to produce a man or + woman. Surely every profound thinker would say to himself, The Supreme, + who could by a word create full-grown creatures "in the beginning," has + not lost the power now; surely He, who could make Adam out of dust, and + Eve out of a bone of man, can produce in later days similar images of the + godhead, as we are told in Genesis i. 26, without accoupling with a + descendant of the rib. The mythological idea, therefore, of a divine child + coming from a celestial father and a terrestrial mother, has nothing + profound therein, for it is essentially a bungling contrivance of some + stupid man. On the other hand, such a notion could only be entertained + where a grovelling or anthropomorphic idea has prevailed, or is cherished + amongst a credulous people. To put the subject into the fewest words + possible, a god has never—so far as thoughtful men can judge—been + said to be the father in the flesh of a human being, except by frail + women, or vain, foolish, or designing men. + </p> + <p> + We are fortified in this conclusion by the method in which nations or + sects who have each their own favourite "son of God," treat each other. + None endeavour to prove that the mother of their own hero had no commerce + with man, for that is impossible—all, on the other hand, ridicule + the idea of there being a child without a human father, and insist that no + woman's word countervails the laws of nature. But this argument is only + used against opposing religionists—it has no weight against their + own divine leader. The cases which we have described are wholly different + from those mythological stories, in which the union of the sexes is + absolutely or relatively ignored. They differ also from those in which the + Creator is represented as androgynous, or being originally without sex, + becomes, by an effort of will, a bisexual being, so as to bring about the + creation of man and of the world. For example, when we find in the Orphic + Hymns (Cory's <i>Ancient Fragments</i>, pp. 290, seq.), "Zeus is male, + Immortal Zeus is female," it is clear that there was in the writer an idea + of an union of the sexes being necessary to creation. But when we find + Chaos alone being the progenitor of Erebus and Black Night, from which + again were born Ether and Bay, and Earth the parent of Heaven and the Sea + (Hesiod, Theogony, 116-130), there is a total absence of a sexual notion. + This idea, however, appears in the subsequent lines which represent Earth + wedding with Heaven. The same sexual notion, appears in another fragment + from <i>Aristophanes</i>, (Cory, A. R, p. 293), which tells us that "Night + with the black wings first produced an aerial egg, which in its time gave + rise to love, whence sprung all creation." Yet the egg necessarily + presupposes a being which formed it, and another that fructified it, so + that the mythos is not wholly free from the intermixture of the sexual + element. + </p> + <p> + When mythologists have been peculiarly anxious to shake off the somewhat + grotesque doctrine that the celestial Creator must be independent of any + other power, in the genesis of the world and heaven, there has been a + great variety of attempts to show how this has been brought about. In one + curious Hindoo legend, Vishnu is represented sleeping on the bosom of + Devi, at the bottom of the ocean which covered the world. Suddenly a lotus + sprung from his navel, and grew till it reached the surface of the flood. + From this wonderful flower Brahma sprang, and, seeing nothing but water, + imagined himself the first-born of all creatures. But ere he felt sure, he + descended the stalk and found Vishnu at its root; and then the two + contested their respective claims, but Mahadeva interposed, and, by a + curious contrivance, stopped the quarrel, demonstrating that before either + came into existence there reigned an everlasting lingam. + </p> + <p> + Another myth closely resembles one which is indicated in the Hebrew + Scriptures, viz., that Narayana, or the spirit of God, a self-existent + entity, moved over the waters, and made them bring forth all things + living. This Narayana is identical with the <i>yomer elohim</i>—"the + spirit of God" of the Hebrew Genesis i. 2; the [—Greek—]—the + spirit of God, or Holy Ghost of the Greeks. It is the same as the breezes + of thick air which hovered over chaos in the legend assigned to + Sanchoniathon (Cory's Fragments, p. 1), and produced the slimy matter from + which all beings sprung. Narayana is again the same as the Night of the + Orphic fragment which hovered with her black wings over immensity—the + same as the <i>chakemah</i>, or "wisdom" of Proverbs viii.; the Greek <i>sophia</i> + and the <i>logos</i>—"the word" of John i. 1. The Buddha—or + Brahma of the Hindoo. From this mysterious source matter was formed into + shape and all creatures sprang into life. + </p> + <p> + Another Indian mythos (Moor's <i>Hindoo Pantheon</i>, p. 78), attributes + even more than this to Brahma. He is said to have produced four beings who + proved refractory, and grieved their maker. To comfort him, Siva issued + from a fold in his forehead—then strengthened by Siva, he produced + Bhrigu and the seven Rishis, and after that, Narada, from his thigh, + Kardama from his shadow, and Dacsha from the forefinger of his right hand. + He had, apparently, without a consort, sixty daughters, and from these + last proceeded all things divine, human, animal, vegetable, and mineral. + </p> + <p> + This is not altogether dissimilar from the Hebrew idea of Jehovah creating + all things except woman from the dust,* and forming her mysteriously from + a rib of the only existing man. We may also compare it with the birth of + Minerva from Jupiter's brain, and Bacchus from his thigh. But the Greek + myth differs from the Hindoo, inasmuch as the deities referred to were + originally conceived by human women, and did not grow from The Thunderer's + body like branches from a tree. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In Mythology, things ever repeat themselves, with very + little alteration. For example, Mahadeva is represented as + fighting with Dacsha, and producing heroes from the dost by + striking the ground with his hair. (See Moor's H. P., p. + 107). +</pre> + <p> + There is amongst the Hindoos a goddess called Prit'hvi, who is said to + personify the Earth; she had many names which we need not describe, and + she was also furnished with a consort, whose birth is thus described + (Moor, H. P., p. 111.)—"Vena being an impious and tyrannical prince, + was cursed by the Brahmans, and, in consequence, died without issue. To + remedy this, his left arm was opened, and churned with a stick till it + produced a son, who, proving as wicked as his father, was set aside; and + the right arm* was in like manner churned, which also produced a boy, who + proved to be a form of Vishnu, under the name of Prit'hu." We may add that + Prit'hvi treated him badly, and he had to beat and tear her before she + would be comfortable with him. Hence the necessity for ploughing and + digging before crops of cereals, &c., will abound. We can understand + the last part of the legend better than the first. In the Vedic Mythology, + we may say generally, that the means of producing offspring are curiously + numerous; for example, we find in Goldstucker's <i>Sanscrit and English + Dictionary</i>, page 20, under the word <i>angiras</i>—a statement + that an individual bearing this cognomen, is named in the Vaidik legends, + as one of the 'Prajâpatis', or progenitors of mankind, engendered, + according to some, by Manu; according to others, by Brahma himself, either + with the female half of his body, <i>or from his mouth, or from the space + "between his eyebrows.</i>" + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * As these legends generally are based upon something which + Europeans would designate a vile pun, I turned to the + Sanscrit Lexicon (Monier Williams), first to ascertain the + names of "the arm;" and, secondly, if there were any words + allied to it, however remotely, which had a certain meaning. + Amongst others, I find that <i>buja</i> signifies "an arm," and + <i>bhaga</i> is a name of Siva—one of whose epithets, <i>bhagan- + dara</i> = "rending the vulva." <i>Dosha</i> also means "the arm" + and "night." Another word having the same meaning, is + <i>praveshta</i>, and this not only signifies the arm, but one + "who covers over." We can then, I think, see why the device + of the churning, referred to in the text, made a process + available for the production of a child. The legend is a + clumsy one, but not more so than that in Exodus xxxiii. 23, + wherein we are told that Jehovah showed to Moses "His back + parts,"—Vulgate, <i>posteriora mea</i>—inasmuch as no one could + see His face and live! +</pre> + <p> + A still more curious story is related in the same dictionary, p. 451, + under the word <i>ayonijeswara</i>. This appellative is one belonging to a + sacred place of pilgrimage sacred to <i>Ayonija</i>, whose miraculous + birth was thus brought about. A very learned Muni, though making a + commendable use of the proper nasal way of reading sacred scripture in his + own person, yet associated with individuals who did not give the orthodox + twang.* The good man remained, in consequence of this, in a sonless + condition, but the legend does not condescend to explain why toleration of + tones in religious ceremony should make a husband infertile and his wife + barren. At any rate, the Muni, named Vidyananda, feeling the punishment a + great one, travelled, apparently alone, from one holy place to another + without being nearer paternity. At length he met with a <i>yogin</i> or + male anchoret, hermit, devotee, or saint, corresponding to the <i>yoginis</i>, + who are represented by Moor (H. P., p. 235) as being sometimes very lovely + and alluring; and he, taking pity upon the Muni, gave him a wonderful + fruit, which, he informed him, if eaten by his wife, would have the effect + of procuring for Vidyananda the birth of a son. But the Muni, like many + another character in mythological and fairy tales, seems suddenly to have + lost his sense of hope deferred and a certain prospect of relief, for + instead of hurrying home he sought repose under a tree on a river's brink, + and whilst there ate the fruit himself. He at once became pregnant. When + the new state of things was evident, he confessed all that had happened to + the Yogin, and the latter, by means of his supernatural power, introduced + a stick into the body of Yidyânanda, and relieved him of the infant. The + creature was a beautiful boy, radiant like the disc of the sun, and + endowed with divine lustre, and on account of the mode in which he was + born his father called him <i>Ayonija</i>, which signifies, "not born from + the womb." The account then goes on to state that this miraculous infant + became a wonderfully good, learned, pious, religious, and fanatic man; + that the god, delighted with his piety, gave him sons and grandsons, and + after his death received him into his heaven. Any persons coming now to + bake at the spot where these favours from Siva were granted, and duly + performing the various duties of a pious pilgrim, are rewarded, according + to their piety, &c., with progeny, worldly happiness, freedom from + transmigration, and eternal bliss. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This reminds me of an anecdote which I once read of a + devout Scotch mother, who, on hearing her son read the Bible + in an ordinary tone of voice, cuffed him violently because + he presumed to read that Holy Book without the customary + religious drawl. +</pre> + <p> + Under the word <i>Ayonija</i>, Goldstucker gives the following examples of + individuals "not born from the <i>yoni</i>" viz.:—"<i>Drona</i>, the + son of Bharadwâja, who was born in a bucket" "<i>Suyya</i>, whose origin + was unknown." "<i>Draupadi</i>, who at a sacrifice of her father Drupada, + arose out of the sacrificial ground." "<i>Sita</i>, who sprang into + existence in the same manner as Draupadi" The same is also an epithet of + Vishnu or Krishna. + </p> + <p> + These stories pale in interest before that of the origin of Carticeya (see + Moor's H. P., p. 51, 89), and I give an account of this legend, foolish + though many conceive it to be, for everything which is connected with a + Hindoo mythos is remarkable, whenever it is found to be antecedently + parallel with Christian surroundings of a somewhat similar narrative. We + notice, for example, in the following tale, that the Indian idea of the + power of "penance" and "asceticism," is, that these doings or actions are + so great, that by their means alone man may compel the Creator to do + things against His design, whilst in the Papal tales of certain monks and + nuns, we find the doctrine asserted that by preeminent fastings, + scourgings and prayers, people have acquired the power to sell salvation + to their fellow men, in a manner different to that which is appointed. + Again, the god when forced to obey the power of the devotee, is + represented as inventing a method by which he could, as it were, cheat + himself, just as Jehovah or Elohim is said to have contrived a plan by + which He could circumvent Himself for the vow which He had made to destroy + all the men upon the earth by a flood of water. Again, as the arrogance of + the ascetic threatened to destroy the world and the heaven, a deliverer or + a saviour was promised, who should be begotten by an incarnate god upon a + goddess equally incarnate, and save mankind from a terrible devil This is + a counterpart of the Papal theory, which makes it appear that a portion of + the godhead became incorporated with a dove, and had union with a woman, + herself an immaculate manifestation of another portion of "The Supreme." + Yet still more striking than this, is the part which the dove plays in the + Indian mythos of the birth of the Hindoo Saviour. In almost every + mediaeval painting or etching of the miraculous conception of the Virgin + Mary, the dove takes the position of the divine father of Jesus. Nay, so + distinct is the idea intended to be conveyed in one instance, that a dove, + surrounded by a galaxy of angelic heads, darts a ray from his body on + high, into the very part of the virgin, proper to receive it. The design + of the artist is still farther heightened by the <i>vesica piscis</i>, the + emblem of woman being marked upon the appropriate part of the dress, and a + figure of an infant within it, points unmistakeably to the belief that the + Holy Ghost, like a dove, absolutely begot the Jewish saviour as he did the + Hindoo deliverer of gods and men. (<i>See Ancient Faiths</i>, vol IL, p. + 648, fig. 48). + </p> + <p> + But the parallel may even be carried farther, for in the Indian history it + is Agni, the embodiment of fire or the fire or sun god, who becomes the + dove; whilst in the Christian history, fire is one of the manifestations + of the Holy Ghost (Acts ii. 3). We conclude this from the fact, that all + devout churchmen believe that the Holy Ghost descended upon the day of + Pentecost with the sound of a rushing mighty wind, as a multitude of + cloven fiery tongues, which again suggests to the recollection of those + familiar with the Vedic story, that the Maruts—rushing, mighty, + stormy winds—were frequent attendants upon Agni For example, in one + of the Hymns (p. 39) of the Rig Veda Sanhita (translated by Max Müller), + the burden or chorus of every verse is, "with the Maruts come hither, O + Agni." Here, however, the parallel between the two myths ceases, for in + the Indian tale the saviour has no earthly mother. We may really affirm + that he has no mother at all, being the offspring of the father alone, + whilst in the Christian history, the deliverer is represented as having no + human sire. The one story is just as likely to be true as the other, or + just as unlikely. As a reasonable being I cannot believe the one without + crediting the other, or reject only one of the two. + </p> + <p> + With this preface, we may proceed to relate the legend as recorded by + Moor. A certain devil or Daitya—for it must be remarked that the + Hindoos regard the devil as being composed of many individualities, much + in the same way as Christians do—was extremely ambitious and + oppressive, as Satan is said to have been in heaven.* To force Brahma to + promise him any boon he should require, the ascetic went through the + following penances, persisting in each for a hundred years. (1) He stood + on one foot, holding the other, and both hands upwards, and fixed his eyes + on the sun. (2) He stood on one great toe. (3) He lived upon water alone. + (4) He lived on air. (5) He immersed himself in water. (6) He buried + himself in the earth, and yet continued as before in incessant adoration. + (7) He then did the same in fire. (8) Then he stood upon his head with his + feet upwards. (9) He then stood upon one hand. (10) He hung by his hands + from a tree. (11) He hung on a tree with his head downwards. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I call attention to these parallels, for they compel as + either to accept the Hindoo stories as true, because they + coincide with that which Christians regard as "revealed + truth," or they oblige as to distrust our current ideas as + to the inspired verity of some biblical stories, founded as + they are upon the same, or a similar, basis to those of the + Brahmins. The Hindoo tale being founded in the Sinpurana, + there can be no reasonable doubt that its fabrication + preceded that of the Hebrew or Christian mythos. +</pre> + <p> + The effect of these austerities alarmed all the gods, and they went to + Brahma for consolation. He answered that though he was bound to grant the + boon desired by a man who became powerful by his austerities, he would + devise a method of rendering it inoffensive to the heavenly host. Tarika, + the name borne by the Daitya, asked for the gift of unrivalled strength, + and that no hand should slay him except a son of Mahadeva. This being + acquired, he plundered all the minor gods—the sun, dreading him, + gave no heat; and the moon, in terror, remained always at the full—in + short, the devil, Tarika, usurped the entire management of the universe. + Nareda—the personification of Reason—Wisdom, the Logos, or + "word," now prophesied that the destined deliverer, or saviour of the + world, would come from the union of Mahadeva and Parvati. But the first + was indisposed to marry, and only consented to do so after being mollified + by ardent devotions and great austerities enacted by the second. To the + horror, however, of the discomfited world, Parvati was barren; and the + gods deputed Agni to try to produce the son whom all so earnestly desired. + He took the form of "a dove," and arrived in the presence of Mahadeva just + as he had risen from the arms of Parvati, and received from him, in a + manner not easy or necessary to describe minutely, the germ of Carticeya; + but, unable to retain it, the bird let it fall from his bill into the + Ganges. On the banks of this river arose, therefrom, a boy, beautiful as + the moon, and bright as the sun. This was "The Saviour" promised by the + prophet. When he attained to manhood, he fought the devil in a terrific + combat which lasted ten whole days; but Carticeya came off the conqueror, + and delivered the world. I may notice in passing that as Carticeya is + represented to be the son of his father, Mahadeva alone—so Ganesa, + who was born after the marriage above referred to, is said to be solely + the son of his mother, Parvati; Mahadeva not having anything to do with + him. It is still farther stated in the <i>Sin purana</i> that the husband + was jealous, and displeased at this assumption of independent power by his + spouse, punished her in the person of this mysterious son (Moor, H. P., + page 171-2). + </p> + <p> + There is another Hindoo story in which a father alone becomes the + progenitor of twins—and it is remarkable, not only for this, but for + the dread which a deity is said to feel from the austerities of a man. + Wheeler (<i>History of India</i>, vol. i, p. 78; Williams' <i>Sanscrit + Lexicon, s. v. Kripa</i>), regards this tale as Brahmanical, and, + accepting his authority, we can see that the asceticism which is + introduced into the story is intended to exalt the claims of that section + of the priesthood who torture themselves. It runs thus:—Saradvat, by + the magnitude of his penances, frightened Indra, who sent a celestial + nymph to tempt him. He resisted all her wiles, and refused all commerce + with her; but his excited imagination produced one of its common effects, + and from that which was "spilled upon the ground" a boy and girl arose, + Drona and Kripa. In Wheeler's sketch of the story, two such miraculous + events occur, for a precisely similar occurrence took place with a certain + Raja—and the males sprung from this supernatural form of generation, + Drona and Drupada, became cronies, and were educated together. In + Wheeler's account Kripa becomes the wife of Drona, and not his twin + sister. She is represented to have been born from a Brahmin named Gautama, + in the same fashion as Drona was. Certes, the scribes who wrote the + gospels, and doubled wonders to make them more miraculous, are far behind + the Hindoos in the unblushing effrontery of their conceptions. + </p> + <p> + A story somewhat analogous to that of the origin of Carticeya—Drona + and Drupada, is to be found in Grecian mythology. Therein we read (see + Lempriere's <i>Classical Dictionary, 8.V</i>., Minerva), that Jupiter + promised to his daughter, Minerva, that she should never be married—since + that was her especial desire. But, unfortunately, the Thunderer had not a + good memory, and was unable to foresee the future; he therefore promised + to Vulcan that he would—in return for a perfect suit of armour—give + him whatsoever boon he asked. The distorted god, being a great admirer of + the personification of wisdom, demanded Minerva in marriage. Zeus then + granted his petition and gave Minerva to him for a bride, so that "arts + and arms" should thenceforth be wedded together. But the goddess disliked + Vulcan, just as much as science and philosophy shun war and physical + weapons. Jupiter then privately counselled his daughter to submit, + apparently, but to contend, actually, whenever her husband should + endeavour to caress her. This advice the goddess very artfully and + determinately carried out. But Vulcan's impetuosity was extreme, and the + contest between the spouses was prolonged. Though the promised wife was in + the end victorious, and retained her virginity, the scene of the strife, + like many another battle-field, required cleansing. The material employed + by the goddess in the process was thrown down to earth, and from this + stuff sprung Ericthonius, as the son of Vulcan alone, who, on attaining + man's estate, became the fourth king of Athens. + </p> + <p> + A somewhat similar story is told of Jupiter (Arnobius, <i>adv. Gentes</i>, + B. v.), who is represented as enamoured of Themis, who, when lying on the + rock Agdus, in Phrygia, and there surprised by the god, resisted his + desires, as Minerva had done those of Vulcan, and with a somewhat similar + result. But in this instance, that which the author calls in another + passage of his work, the <i>vis Lucilii</i>, fell upon the hard rock. This + conceived, and, after ten months, the stony soil brought forth a son, + called, from his maternal parent, Agdistis. His character, and even his + appearance, were frightful and rugged in the extreme. His strength, + recklessness, and audacity frightened all the gods. In their dilemma, + Bacchus offered to give his aid, and proceeded first to make the man drunk + by substituting wine for the water of the fountain from which he + habitually drank. Then, by a curious contrivance, he made the fierce + hunter emasculate himself. The earth swallows up the sanguinary ruins of + his manhood, and in their place comes up a pomegranate tree in full + bearing. This being seen by Nana, a king's daughter, she plucks some of + the fruit, and lays it in her bosom. By this she becomes pregnant, and, + her story being disbelieved, her father attempts to starve her. But the + mother of the gods sustains her with apples (see Canticles ii. 5), and + berries, or other food. Her baby, when born, is exposed as being + illegitimate, but found by a goatherd and brought up—becoming the + all but deified Atys. + </p> + <p> + In this legend, we see one son born without a human mother, and a second + without any other father than Rimmon, or a pomegranate.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Agdus, Agdistis, &c—I am frequently tempted, after + reading a story like the preceding, to search in the + Sanscrit lexicon to ascertain if there can be any esoteric + signification in the legend that can be explained by that + ancient language. Arnobius opens the story with a statement + of the remote antiquity of the tale, and how it is connected + with the Great Mother. He then tells of a wild district in + Phrygia, called Agdus. Stoaes taken from it, as Themis had + enjoined, were used by Deucalion and Pyrrha to repeople the + world which had been destroyed by a flood. The great mother + was fashioned amongst the rest, and animated by the deity; + then follows the story given in the text. Now, in the + Sanscrit, Agadha signifies a "hole or chasm," and such + things have from the earliest times typified the Celestial + Mother. Agdistis I take to be a Greek form of Agasti—son + both of Mitra and Varuna by Urvasi, said to have been born + in a water-jar, to have swallowed the ocean, and compelled + the Vindhya mountains to prostrate themselves before him, + &c. (Monier Williams' Sanskrit English Lexicon, pp. 4, 6). + Themis may be a corruption of Dhamas—the moon, an epithet + of Vishnu, Yama, and Brahma; also the Supreme Spirit (M. W. + op. cit., p. 448). Deucalion seems readily to be resolved + into the dyu or div—holy, and Kalam, semen virile (M. W., + p. 211). Pyrrha may apparently be derived from bdra—an + opening or aperture (M. W.); also bhdra—bearing, carrying, + cherishing, supporting (M. W., p. 700). Atys, described as + of surpassing beauty, may fairly be associated with atisi + and atisaya—to surpass, excel, exceed; and pre-eminence, + superiority (M. W., op. cit., p. 15). Liber, again, who is + clever enough to outwit and conquer Agdistis, may, without + too strong a stretch of imagination, come from Idbha— + obtaining, gaining, getting; capture, conquest; the rootword + is labh—to seize, to take hold of, gain, recover, regain, + fcc. (M. W., p. 861, 2). Nana, the mother of Atys the + beautiful, has probably come from nanda—happiness, + pleasure, joy, felicity, delight (M. W., op. cit. p. 467). + In the previous volumes I have referred to the pomegranate— + Hebrew, Rimmon—as an emblem. In the legend which makes Nana + conceive by eating this fruit, there are, I fancy, two + ideas—one, that the pomegranate is filled with seeds and + pulp of a red colour; the other, that in the Greek its name + is rota, or roa, which has a close resemblance in sound with + reo—to flow or gush. Of the word Midas—the name of him who + sought to bring about the union of the opposite sexes by + marrying his daughter Nana to Attis or Atys, the most + appropriate etymon which I can find in the Sanscrit is in + the root math, which signifies to strike fire by rubbing + wood together, to churn or produce by churning. +</pre> + <p> + If we allow that there is truth in these derivations, we can then see how + completely Arnobius has been deceived by taking the legend au pied de la + lettre. He sees nothing but the exoteric side of the fable; the more + instructed philosopher sees in it nothing beyond an attempt to weave a + story to account for ordinary men and women existing. The Earth, from her + deep womb produces stones which become male and female (compare Psalm + cxxzix. 15—"When I was made in secret, and curiously wrought in the + lowest parts of the earth." But mycologists were not always content with + giving precedence in creation to the "Great Mother," consequently the + "Father of all" comes upon the scene from no one knows where. Refusing to + share with him her supremacy, he, like the Hindoo Mahadeva, becomes a + father in spite of her. Like his parent, the son becomes raging mad, like + an elephant or a horse in spring. He is tamed by castration, but the parts + he loses still bear a fructifying power, and once more, a maiden—type + of the celestial virgin, has offspring. Without going further into the + tale, the story teller endeavours again to introduce marriage, but on the + threshold arrests himself, apparently under the idea that the wedded state + takes away the pleasure of freedom from fine young men. Beyond this point + it would be unprofitable to go, since few of us can realize Greek ideas on + certain matters. + </p> + <p> + The origin of Venus is told by Hesiod in such a manner as to lead his + readers to believe that, not only was she the daughter of a father alone, + but of that particular part of his body which has been deified as a + Trinity. After speaking (<i>Theogmy</i>, 170-200), of the cruelty of + Ouranos, and how his wife inspirited Cronos to punish his father by means + of a sickle made of white iron extracted from her body (t.&, the + earth), we read—"Then came vast Heaven, Ouranos, bringing Night with + him, and eager for love, brooded around Earth (<i>Ge</i>) and lay + stretched, I wot, on all sides; but his son from out his ambush grasped at + him with his left hand, whilst in his right he took the huge sickle, long + and jagged-toothed, and hastily mowed off the genitals of his sire, and + threw them, to be carried away, behind him. These fell into the sea, and + kept drifting a long time up and down the deep, and all around kept rising + a white foam from the immortal flesh; and in it a maiden was nourished. + First, she drew nigh divine Cythera, and thence came next to wave-washed + Cyprus. Then forth stepped an awful, beauteous goddess; and beneath her + delicate feet the verdure throve around; her, gods and men name Aphrodite + the foam-sprung goddess," &c. (Bonn's Translation, p. 11,12). + </p> + <p> + Still further, we find in the Grecian mythology that Minerva was the + offspring of Jupiter without a mother being in the case—unless we + put faith in the tale, that the god impregnated Metis, or wisdom, and + afterwards ate her up. In this case the goddess ought, however, to have + emerged from the abdomen, and not from the head of her father. Vulcan, + moreover, is said to have been the son of Juno alone, "who in this wished + to imitate Jupiter, who had produced Minerva from his brains"—a + mythos which does not tally with the statement that Zeus ordered Vulcan to + cleave his head open, not the part corresponding to the yoni The tales + certainly lack that evidence which the philosopher is bound to seek for; + but for those orthodox believers who are bound to credit every + extraordinary event which is recorded in the books of the faithful, no + testimony is required. Those who feel assured that a serpent, ox, donkey, + tree, bush, and other things have spoken rationally, can readily extend + their trust and assure themselves that a female has had a child without a + male, and <i>vice versa</i>—especially when the individuals were + divine. + </p> + <p> + As we have before remarked, there is nothing in the mythological stories + which we have just recounted that is either more or less miraculous than + conception, &c., by a virgin without the intervention of a human + spouse. There is, whenever a miraculous agency is presumed, no greater + difficulty in believing that children may be produced without mothers, + than that they should be formed without the intervention of a father. Ere + a tree can rise in the soil of a field, a germ, seed, or cutting is as + necessary as the existence of a moist mould, or other ground. There being + then no greater probability that a crop will spring from a moist plain + without seed, than that an abundant harvest will come from dry seed alone, + we are necessarily thrown back upon testimony, when we are asked to + believe in the paternity of man and the maternity of woman without any + association of the one with the other. + </p> + <p> + The mythologists who conceived, or who recorded the fabulous history of + Orion, evidently had some idea in their minds of the necessity of two + elements in the formation and growth of a child, when they told the tale + of the generation of that giant; and the myth connected with this + individual is so curiously like one recorded in the Hebrew Scriptures, + that it deserves full notice. In Genesis the narrative informs us that + there was an old couple, both beyond the age at which there is any + probability of either party performing the part necessary for the + production of offspring (Gen. xviii. 12), both were desirous of having at + least one son, but though they had been long united in marriage, their + aspirations had been vain. To this couple, or rather to the husband, + Jehovah is said to have appeared with two companions (Gen. xviii. 1, 2), + and as the man was hospitably disposed, he ordered his wife to make some + cakes, whilst he went to fetch and kill a calf for his servant to dress + and cook. The visitors then partook, alone, of the good cheer, and when + they had made the repast they promised the husband that his long cherished + desire should be fulfilled, and that he should have a son. There does not, + however, appear to be anything supernatural in the generation of the + infant, except the mere facts that the father had been effete for some + time, and the mother had always been barren even when young, so that + conception was more surely miraculous by reason of her advanced age. The + probability of pregnancy at Sarah's time of life was certainly small, but + she was reminded that nothing was too hard for Jehovah to effect. Had not + He already made man out of dust and woman out of man? and surely after + that it was easy to cause a man and woman to act their respective parts. + The reader must specially bear in mind this observation of the Lord's when + he reads the Greek story following. (See Ovid's <i>Fasti</i>, book 5). + </p> + <p> + "Jupiter, his brother Neptune, and Mercury, were on their travels; the day + was far spent and evening approached. They were spied by a venerable man, + an humble farmer, who stood in the doorway of his small abode. He accosts + them with the words, 'long is the road and but little of the day remains, + my door too is ever open to the stranger,' and so earnest is his look of + entreaty, that the gods accept his invitation." + </p> + <p> + Jupiter and the others, however, conceal their divine nature, and eat and + drink like common men. But after a draught of wine, Neptune inadvertently + names Jupiter, and the poor man who has thus entertained angels unawares, + is frightened at their presence. After a few moments of natural + embarrassment, he goes to his field and kills his only ox—the drawer + of his plough—then he cuts up the animal, roasts it well, produces + his best wine, and lays the feast, when ready, before his august guests. + Then Jove, delighted with his hospitality and piety, says to the farmer, + 'If thy inclination leads thee to desire anything, wish for it, and thou + shalt receive it.' To which the old man answers, 'I once had a dear wife, + known as the choice of my early youth, yet she is now gone from me and an + urn contains her ashes. + </p> + <p> + To her I vowed, calling upon you my lord gods as witnesses to the oath, + that I would never wed me more. I swore and will keep my word. She and I + longed for a son, yet none came to bless our declining years. I yearn for + one now, but will not endeavour to procure one, I wish to be a father, yet + refuse to be a husband or enact his part.' To deities like Jupiter, such a + request was by no means a difficult one to grant, the gods could as + readily form a boy as they could fabricate Pandora—a lovely woman—and + send her to Prometheus, with all the ills which flesh is heir to, confined + in an ark, chest, or coffer. Yet the process of what may be designated + conception was a strange one. The three simply relieved themselves of the + wine which they had drunk, using the skin of the slaughtered ox instead of + a more commodious vessel. The man was then ordered to bury the whole in + the ground, and wait according to the time of life. The gestation of the + earth was completed in ten months, and at the end of that period the + venerable farmer possessed a fine lad who grew up and became famous. If, + now, we substitute for the Grecian name, Hyrieus, the Hebrew title + Abraham; if for Jupiter, Neptune, and Mercury, we read, Jehovah and two + angels; if for the phrase, "they were on their travels," we read, "they + were going down to Sodom to see if it was as bad a place as it was + reported to be" (see Gen. xviii. 21); if for the ox which was roasted, we + place, "a calf tender and good," we see a wonderful resemblance between + the stories of the conception of Orion and Isaac. But there is this + difference that in the Hebrew tale the divine gift is brought about by a + transient restoration of power to Abraham and Sarah; whilst in the Grecian + mythos, the old man is faithful to the memory of a beloved spouse, and + refuses to renew with another the pleasure which he had in her company. We + conceive that the exigency of the Jewish account, made it necessary that + the son of Abraham should be of his father begotten, as well as a child of + promise; whereas no one can call Orion the son of any one, although he was + as surely a child of promise granted by the gods, as Isaac was, who was + given by Elohim (or the gods) of the Hebrews. + </p> + <p> + We may enter now, for a short time, into a speculation whether the Grecian + story was borrowed from the Hebrew or the contrary. We are disposed to + believe that the tale was adopted by the Jews after they became acquainted + with the Greeks. The following are our reasons:—The conception of a + godhead composed of three persons, is foreign to the Hebrew thoughts of + the Almighty. Still further was it from Jewish belief to think, that + Jehovah would come down upon earth to acquire information, and when there, + eat and drink and talk like any ordinary man. Amongst the Israelites it + was generally held that no one could see the face of God and live, On the + other hand, the Greeks were familiar with tales which told of gods coming + down to earth in the guise of men. As an illustration of this, we may + point to Acts xiv. 11-13, wherein we find that the people of Lycaonia + imagined that the gods Jupiter and Mercurius had come down to them in the + likeness of men, and prepared to sacrifice to them. Yet after all, Paul + had simply cured a single paralytic. On the other hand, the Jews regarded + as rank blasphemy, and a crime worthy of death, that Jesus should assert + himself to be a son of God, even although the miracles alleged in support + of the assertion were as stupendous as they were numerous. + </p> + <p> + Still, further, we cannot imagine that the degrading story of Jehovah's + feasting with Abraham could have been composed, except when the Jews were + no better than an untaught and grossly superstitious race. We have + already, in <i>Ancient Faiths, &c.</i>, expressed our opinion that the + Israelites were at the very lowest period of their history at the time + when Isaiah began his exhortations. There had been a confederacy between + the men of Edom, of Moab, Gebal, Amnion, Amalek, Tyre, Philistia, and + Assyria, the Ismaélites and the Hagarenes, which had attacked Jerusalem + and Judea, and captured all the inhabitants, many of whom they sold to the + Grecians (see Joel iii. 5-7). At, and shortly after this time, the Jews + were in a condition of abject misery (see Isaiah i. 4-9), and capable of + believing any story told to them, and would just as easily credit the + mythology which the Grecian captives told, or their Grecian masters + taught, as their successors do those which at a subsequent period filled + the Hebrew Scriptures. + </p> + <p> + Whilst then, on the one hand, there is a probability of the Hebrews having + borrowed the fable from Hellenistic sources, there is, on the other, the + strongest objection to the supposition that the Greeks should have + borrowed from the Jews. Everything which the latter say of themselves, + indicates that they were exclusive to an inordinate degree, refusing to + have intercourse on equal terms with any of their neighbours, that they + never sought to make their history, laws, and customs, known to Gentiles, + and especially those outside of Judea, and that their writings never + assumed a Grecian dress until the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who + ordered the Septuagint translation to be made about B.c. 285, with the + direct view of making the Hebrew Scriptures known to the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + Moreover, we know from everything which was said of the Jews by the + Gentiles, that the latter treated the former with contempt and contumely, + and would no more dream of imitating any of their writings, &c., than + we should care to adopt the myths of Abyssinian negroes as an integral + part of Christianity. + </p> + <p> + It will now be profitable if we examine the story of Sanchoniathon and the + statements of the Orphic Hymns. + </p> + <p> + We have, in the course of this chapter and elsewhere, so» often referred + to the Grecian story of the Creation as given by Sanchoniathon and in the + Orphic hymns, that I think my readers are entitled to receive some further + account of them; so I reproduce passages which bear upon supernatural + generation, and especially that of the world and its inhabitants—my + main authority being <i>Ancient Fragments, &c.</i>, by J. P. Cory + (London, 1832). + </p> + <p> + Of Sanchoniathon we know little; our information may be summed up by + saying that he is mentioned eulogistically by Eusebius (a.d. 270-338), an + historian whose veracity cannot be entirely depended on. He says that + Sanchoniathon had, ere his time, been translated by a certain writer + called Philon Byblius, and it seems that Porphyry is credited with having + copied a great part of this translation into Greek from the Phoenician. + Nothing, however, is actually known of the historian in question, except + from Eusebius (<i>Smith's Dictionary</i>, p. 308, vol.III., s. v., + Philon.) We may then assume, according to our inclination, either that the + story is really a compendium of Tyrian legendary lore, or simply a + representation of what the Greeks imagined. The way, however, in which the + generation of beings is described, well deserves attention from its + similarity, and its contrasts with the biblical story. First, there was a + breeze of thick air and Chaos. These united and produced Pothos. This + again united with the wind, and Mot was the result, also called Ilus; from + this sprung the seed of Creation. And there were certain animals without + sensation, from which intelligent animals were produced.* After this + follows a quantity of stuff that is traceable to Hesiod, and a part of + which may be considered a paraphrase of Genesis. Then mention is made of + Elioun, called Hypsistus (the most High), and his wife Beruth—as + being the contemporaries of others; but no indication is given from whence + they came. These produced Ouranos (Heaven) and Ge (Earth). Their father + was killed by wild beasts! Then Ouranos married Ge, and had offspring by + her. But he had other women, and Ge was jealous. Ouranos, however, came to + her when he listed and attempted to kill her children. He had a son, + Cronus, who drove him from his kingdom. This son turns out to be the + original being called Ilus, and he contrived to emasculate his father, and + from the blood which flowed sprang rivers and fountains. The remainder of + this story scarcely deserves notice. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The author of the tale evidently had something in common + with our modern Darwin. +</pre> + <p> + Ere we turn our attention to the compositions known as the Orphic Hymns, + it will be interesting to inquire whether the preceding account of + Creation had a Phoenician origin, or may more fairly be traced to an + Indian source flowing through a Greek channel After a diligent search in + the Hebrew Lexicon—and it is to be noticed that the Hebrew is all + but identical with the Tyrian and Carthaginian, I cannot find any words or + roots from which the proper names in the opening paragraph of + Sanchoniathon can by any ingenuity be derived. Nor can I discover in the + Greek anything which explains the esoteric signification of the story. + </p> + <p> + But, on reference to the Sanscrit, there is a curious identity apparent + between the second verse in Genesis and a Hindoo idea. The former runs:—"The + earth was without form and void (<i>tohu ve bohu</i>), and darkness was + upon the face of the deep, and the spirit of God moved on the face of the + waters." The Indian interpretation of the myth is this:—"Air in + motion, <i>vahu</i>, ruffled the inexplicable, or empty space, <i>ka, has</i>, + or <i>Icha, Icham</i>, a word also signifying 'nothing.' Thence proceeded + the earth, <i>Ua, or Mot</i> (Sans); <i>Math</i> (Sans) making fire by + rubbing sticks (coitus?) <i>Mada, mdda, and moda</i>, pleasure, delight, + gladness=love, Eros." This is almost the same idea that Hesiod propounds. + </p> + <p> + In the Orphic Hymns we find much more clearly than in any other writing + amongst the ancient Greeks the early Hellenic notion of the generation of + the worlds and of mankind. Respecting the value of the fragments there may + be some difference of opinion. The curious and doubtful may be referred to + <i>Smith's Dictionary</i> (s.v. Orpheus); for me it will be sufficient to + state that both Aristophanes and Plato refer to the presumed author as a + religious teacher and a preacher against murder, and Euripides frequently + mentions him. This will place Orpheus at least before b.c. 480. If, + however, we consider him as identical with the oft-sung husband of + Eurydice, we must place him B.c. 650 (Smith, s.v.). + </p> + <p> + In quoting from Cory's translation, I shall not scruple to make the sense + of more importance than literality: "Zeus is the first—he, the + thunderer, is the last; he is the head and the middle, he fabricated all + things. Zeus is male; he, the immortal, is also female; he founded the + earth and the starry heaven; he is the breath of all things, the rushing + of indefatigable fire. Zeus is the root of the sea, the sun and moon, the + king, the author of universal life; one power, one demon, the mighty + prince of all things; one kingly frame, in which this universe revolves—fire + and water, earth and ether, night and day, and Metis (counsel); the + primeval father and all delightful Eros (love). All these things are + united in the vast body of Zeus. Would you behold his head and his fair + face? It is the resplendent heaven, round which his golden locks of + glittering stars are beautifully exalted in the air. On each side are the + two golden taurine horns, the risings and settings, the tracks of the + celestial gods: his eyes are the sun and opposing moon; his unfallacious + mind the royal incorruptible Ether." + </p> + <p> + The next fragment has been filched by the author of <i>Sanchoniathon</i>, + and we must not quote it. After a recapitulation about Chaos, Cronos, + Ether, and Eros, he proceeds:—"I have sung the illustrious father of + night existing from eternity, whom men call Phanes, for he first appeared. + I have sung the birth of powerful Brimo (Hecate), and the unhallowed deeds + of the earth-born giants who showered down from heaven their blood—the + lamentable seed of generation, from whence sprung the race of mortals who + inhabit the boundless earth for ever." + </p> + <p> + "Chaos was generated first, and then the wide-bosomed Earth—the ever + stable seat of all the Immortals that inhabit the snowy peaks of Olympus + and the dark dim Tartarus in the depths of the broad-wayed earth, and Eros—the + fairest of the immortal gods, that relaxes the strength of all, both gods + and men, and subjugates the mind and the sage will in their breasts. From + Chaos were generated Erebus and black Night; and from Night again were + generated Ether and day, whom she brought forth, having conceived from the + embrace of Erebus; and Earth first produced the starry heaven, equal to + herself, that it might inclose all things around herself." + </p> + <p> + The preceding is given by Hesiod (900 B.c.). The following is the version + given by Aristophanes:—"First were Chaos and Night, and black Erebus + and vast Tartarus; and there was neither Earth nor Air nor Heaven: but in + the boundless bosoms of Erebus, Night with her black wings first produced + an aerial egg, from which at the completed time sprang forth the lovely + Eros, glittering with golden wings upon his back like the swift + whirlwinds. But embracing the dark-winged Chaos in the vast Tartarus he + begot our race (the birds). The race of the Immortals was not till Eros + mingled all things together; but when the elements were mixed one with + another, Heaven was produced, and Ocean and Earth and the imperishable + race of all the blessed gods." + </p> + <p> + "Maia, supreme of gods, Immortal Night, tell me, &c." The next + invocation is to the double-natured Protogonus—the bull coming from + the egg, the renowned light, the ineffable strength, Priapus the king, + &c.—"Metis (wisdom) bearing the seed of the gods, whom the + blessed inhabitants of Olympus call Phanes Protogonus." "Metis the first + father and all-delightful Eros." Again, in allusion to Phanes,— + </p> + <p> + "Therefore the first god bears with himself the heads of animals—many + and single—of a bull, of a serpent, and of a fierce lion, and they + sprung from the primeval egg in which the animal is seminally contained." + "The theologist places around him the heads of a ram, a bull, a lion, and + a dragon, and assigns him first both the male and female sex." "Female and + Father is the mighty god Ericapeus; to him also the wings are first + given." + </p> + <p> + The Japanese account of the creation is of sufficient interest to be + noticed here. I quote it from a translation of the <i>Annals of the + Emperors of Japan</i>, by Mons. Titsingh, assisted by interpreters of the + Dutch Factory at Nagasaki, and rendered into French, after being duly + compared with the original by M. J. Klapworth—(printed for the + Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland; London, 1834). In + the account of the seven generations of the heavenly bodies, we are told + that "anciently the heaven and the earth were not distinct, nor was the + female principle then separated from the male. The chaos, having the form + of an egg, moved about like the waves of an agitated sea. The germs of + everything were there, and these ultimately divided, the pure and + transparent ones going upward to form heaven, whilst the dull and opaque + ones coagulated and formed the earth. Between the two a divine being + sprang up; he was followed by two others in succession." All these were + pure males, and engendered without consorts. After them came a male and a + female deity, but they had no intercourse with each other. These and three + other divine couples, who followed them, reproduced their like by mutual + contemplation. The last couple directed the "celestial spear made of a red + precious stone"—said by Japanese commentators to be the phallus—into + the world below, and stirred it up to the bottom. On withdrawing the lance + some drops fell from it and produced an island, upon which the celestial + couple descended. Each one then began to walk in opposite directions + around the isle, and when they met the feminine spirit sang joyously—"I + am delighted to find so handsome a young man." But this vexed the male + spirit, who, being a man, asserted that he ought to have been allowed to + speak the first. So they parted once more on their solitary walk; and when + they met the second time, the woman waited to be spoken to. Then followed + a conversation somewhat too coarse for repetition, which was followed by + corporeal union. From the intercourse of these divine beings all creation + sprang. But, after a time, the partners reflected that there was still + wanting a governor for the world which they had engendered. So they again + accoupled, and produced a daughter so lovely, that her parents thought her + too good for earth; gave her the name of "the precious wisdom of the + heavenly sun," and sent her to heaven, there to assume the universal + government of all things. The parents once again united, and produced the + moon, who was sent to heaven to assist her sister. A terrible fellow was + then born from them, who represents the Devil, or those tempests which + seem to oppose the beneficent action of the sun upon the soil. The parents + returned to heaven, and there are constant contentions between the brother + and sister. The former is described as being furious under attempts at + control; generally, he was quiet, and always had tears in his eyes (dew + and rain), but sometimes, when provoked, he broke every thing, uprooted + trees, and set the mountain forests on fire. We need not pursue the story + further than to say that the celestial beings created a terrestrial + couple, whose children bear considerable resemblance to the Greek Jupiter, + Apollo, Neptune, and others, and from them came the first Emperors of + Japan. In the matter of evidence upon such a point as the conception of a + man without a woman, or a woman without a man, it is clear that + unsupported assertion is wholly valueless. + </p> + <p> + For example, I may for a time absent myself from general society, and + return to it again after a certain interval, having with me a child, whom + I assert to be my very own, produced by my own inherent power, just as a + tree produces a leaf which grows, matures, and falls. I may frame a + romantic account of a dream, in which I was told that if I planted myself + in the central bed of a certain garden, and contrived an apparatus for + daily watering my buried legs, that a child would sprout from my right + side, who should be to me as a daughter. Yet, however ingenious my tale, + there is not any one possessing sound sense and knowledge who would + believe me. In like manner, if a woman should tell a story analogous, + though not identical, she is certain to be discredited; even the assertion + of the existence of a divine father would not, if the woman were unmated, + save her character from a stain. + </p> + <p> + We may next refer to the legend of Prometheus, inasmuch as in many points + it resembles the Hebrew mythos so greatly, that we must imagine they both + have a common origin, or that the one is a copy—though an + indifferent one, of the other. Prometheus, or forethought, was represented + to be the first who made an ordinary man—he formed him of clay, and + then animated him with fire from heaven. The Jewish tale asserts that it + was Jehovah who made the first man. That man was first formed like a + statue out of clay or dust, and had no life until breath was infused into + his nostrils. In both stories man alone is formed first. In the Grecian + fable Prometheus does not make a consort for his man; nay, he refuses to + receive one for himself when the gods send to him Pandora—a paragon + of loveliness. Instead of this he gives the damsel to Epimetheus—or + after-thought—who takes her carelessly, and finds that even a + charming woman is not a guarantee against cares and woes. Some accounts, + however, say that Prometheus made both man and woman out of clay. + </p> + <p> + The discrepancy does not signify much, for we see the same in Genesis, + wherein we are told in one place that man and woman were made together, + whilst in another the story runs that Adam preceded Eve, and that, instead + of being formed of dust or clay, the latter was formed of bone. + </p> + <p> + We may now refer to the story of Apollonius Tyaneus, whose history has + interest for us, inasmuch as it illustrates three important points, upon + which much stress has been, and may still be, laid by inquiring minds. The + most conspicuous is the propensity of historians, or, to speak more + correctly, of a biographer, to record wonderful things about an + extraordinary man; next the ridicule cast upon the tale by those who have + circulated stories equally improbable, and the indication that travel to + Hindostan was apparently common, prior to and during his time. In + sketching the life of the philosopher, I quote something from <i>Le + Dictionnaire Infernal</i>, and the rest from Smith's <i>Biographical + Dictionary</i>. The philosopher in question was born about 4 years B.C. + His history was written by Philostratus, about 100 years after the hero's + death, and is ostensibly founded upon memoirs left by his secretary, + Damis, an Assyrian, who accompanied Apollonius during his travels, and + recorded his discourses and prophecies, and acted much as Luke did with + Paul. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the proofs which Damis gives of his veracity, he tells us that + when he and his master traversed the Caucasus, they saw the chains which + bound Prometheus, still fixed to the rocks. This bit of verification is + now derided, but in my school-days I recollect having an account put into + my hands, written by some author, stating that the remains of the ark were + still to be seen upon Mount Ararat.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * On the day before this was written there appeared in <i>The + Telegraph</i> a paragraph, to the effect that an Assyrian slab + had been translated by Mr. Smith of the British Museum. The + record is said to give an account of "the deluge," and it + tallies nearly with that given by Berosus, recorded in my + second volume. It adds, however, that the ark was at that + period in existence, and its wood and bitumen used as + amulets. Singularly enough, the tale is supposed to confirm + the bible legend, the writer of the paragraph never dreaming + that it more certainly confirms the Babylonian or Assyrian + origin of the book of Genesis. The other parts of this slab, + which were wanting, have more recently been found. But there + is no necessity for me to change the wording of the note. +</pre> + <p> + There was also current a "Joe Miller" about some old woman, who would not + believe in flying-fish, which her sailor-boy had seen, but who readily + believed his tale of hooking up a chariot wheel on an anchor fluke from + the bottom of the Red Sea! + </p> + <p> + Dr. Smith, or Mr. Jowett, the author of the article, very judiciously says—"We + have purposely omitted the wonders with which Philostratus has garnished + his narrative.... <i>Many of these are curiously coincident with the + Christian miracles</i>—(the italics are our own). The proclamation + of the birth of Apollonius to his mother by Proteus, and the incarnation + of Proteus himself; the chorus of swans which sung for joy on the + occasion, the casting out of devils, the raising the dead and healing the + sick, the sudden disappearances and reappearances of Apollonius; his + adventures in the cave of Trophonius, and the sacred voice which called + him at his death—to which may be added his claim as a teacher, + having authority to reform the world—cannot fail to suggest the + parallel passages in the Gospel history." We learn, moreover, that the + biographer was high in favour with Alexander Severus, and that Eusebius of + Caesarea naively allows the truth of Philostratus' narrative in the main, + with the exception of what is miraculous. None of the authors quoted seem + to think of the adage—"Change but the names, and the same classes of + wonders are a matter of faith to you." Surely it is as easy to credit the + strange deeds of Proteus as those of Gabriel. + </p> + <p> + Whether we choose to adopt the hypothesis that Apollonius was a rival of + Jesus, that the Nazarene and Tyanean were independent of each other, that + the evangelists took a hint from Damis, or Philostratus imitated Luke in + more ways than one, we have still the fact that two different biographers, + giving a history of the life of two contemporary individuals, assert that + the birth of their respective heroes was announced by a divine being, who + himself brought about the conception of the infant that, on arriving at + maturity, was held to be divine. In writing thus, it will be distinctly + understood that we draw no comparison between Jesus and Apollonius, but + only between the authors who have undertaken their respective biography. + </p> + <p> + Leaving this curious point, the next noteworthy one is that Philostratus + records, that the Tyanean went through Assyria, Babylonia, and Bactria, to + India, "where he met Jarchus, the chief of the Brahmins, and disputed with + Indian gymnosophists <i>already versed in Alexandrian philosophy</i>." I + have placed these last words in italics, to call attention to the apparent + belief of the historian, that prior to his day there had been extensive + religious communication between India and Greece—a point on which I + have much insisted in a previous chapter. The Tyanean is said to have been + five years upon his eastern journey. We have no idea where the Nazarene + was during his youth and before he began his public career, and we cannot + help regarding the omission to notice this part of his life as being + blameworthy in the evangelists. Those who knew so much of Jesus at his + conception, and about his birth and infancy, could surely, if they would, + have informed us of his adult years. + </p> + <p> + Nor, <i>à propos</i> to this short account of the biography of Apollonius, + by Damis and Philostratus, must we omit to notice the conceits of those + who have assumed that the Tyanean was set up as a counterfoil to, or an + imitator of, Jesus of Nazareth; for, just as the Christians may, with some + show of reason, affirm that the miracles recorded in their writings have + been filched by others; so may the Buddhist, with still greater + plausibility, declare that the greatest part of the life of the Nazarene, + as given in the Gospels, has been copied almost verbatim from the + biographers or evangelists of the Indian saga For myself, I consider that + the miraculous parts of the history of all the three conspicuous men which + have been named are equally true or—false. + </p> + <p> + The idea of attributing to the Supreme God the birth, or, rather, the + procreation, of an extraordinary man, seems, so far as we can judge, to + have existed in the Western Hemisphere as well as in the Eastern. For + example, in an interesting book, entitled <i>New Tracks in North America</i>, + by W. A. Bell, M.A., M.B., Cantab; London, 1869, we find the following + legend respecting Montezuma, the most popular ruler of the ancient + Mexicans. The legend is intended to explain the occurrence of vast ruins + amongst the Pima Indians, of which other history is silent, and runs thus: + "Long ago a woman of exquisite beauty ruled over the valleys and the + region south of them. Many suitors came from far to woo her, and brought + presents innumerable of corn, skins, and cattle to lay at her feet. Her + virtue and determination to continue unmarried remained alike unshaken, + and her store of worldly possessions so greatly increased, that, when + drought and desolation came upon her land, she fed her people out of her + great abundance, and did not miss it, there was so much left. One night, + as she lay asleep, her garment was blown from off her breast, and a dew + drop from the Great Spirit fell upon her bosom, entered her blood, and + caused her to conceive. In time she bore a child, who was none other than + Montezuma, who built the large 'Casas,' and all the other ruins which are + scattered through the land" (vol. i. p. 199). + </p> + <p> + It is allowable for the reader to doubt whether there ever was a Mexican + Queen whose renown was spread far and wide, who preferred celibacy to + marriage, and who, being rich, was not plundered by the chiefs whose + alliance was rejected. We may equally doubt the efficacy of a drop of + water, even though it came from the Great Celestial Spirit; but, + notwithstanding every objection which the most sceptical can advance, the + legend is quite as probable as those current amongst the ancient Greeks, + the religious Hindoos, and a large portion of modern Christians. A + miracle, always improbable, is not necessarily true because it is said to + have occurred in the old world, or indubitably false because it is + reported to have happened in the new. Nor can one who regards faith as + superior to reason, refuse to believe or to question the truth of any + supernatural story simply because he was not told it during his childhood + or youth. + </p> + <p> + When the philosophical inquirer finds that in every country, with whose + literature we are familiar, there are, not only abundance of tales about + supernatural generation before the world was formed, but from the earliest + periods of history to our own day, he may well pause and inquire into the + intrinsic value of a religion or a faith that is founded mainly, if not + wholly, upon the assertion that a certain person was the son of the + Supreme Creator, and being so, has the qualities of his sire as well as + those of his human mother. The orthodox in Britain do not believe in + Cristna, Krishna, or Vishnu, because the Hindoo sacred books declare that + he has appeared repeatedly as an incarnation of the Creator—nor do + they credit the tales told of the supernatural generation of Bacchus or + Hercules—yet, when they are asked what stronger evidence they have + for the truth of their own story, they are unable to give more than + affirmations, strong, perhaps, but not more so than those of ancient + Hellenic priests. + </p> + <p> + It is out of my province, now, to enter into every thing connected with + the doctrine held by those who are known as Trinitarians. My main + endeavour in this part of my subject is to clear the way for + "reconstruction." It is my desire to give to those who have not the + leisure, or, perhaps, the inclination, to wade through the dull tomes of + theological, mythological, and similar books, an account of what is and + has been entertained as religious belief by others, with whom, or with + whose opinions, they have not come in contact. I have no special wish to + prove that my opinions are right and the prevailing ones wrong; my chief + aim is to give data by which others may form a judgment for themselves. + With this view I have systematically endeavoured to satisfy myself of the + trustworthiness of the witnesses whom I call upon to testify to facts; to + my knowledge, nothing has been suppressed which seems to me to bear upon + my subject, nor is aught set down in malice. + </p> + <p> + In my next chapter I shall institute an inquiry into another important + doctrine, held by Christians from their first existence until the present + day, namely, the Existence and Ministration of Angels. Since the chapter + was originally written, Dr. Kalisch has published an essay upon the same + subject in the second part of his commentary upon Leviticus. I shall + probably take the liberty of quoting from his pages; but, as we treat the + matter from different points of view, I do not feel called upon to + suppress my own work because he has preceded me. It gives me pleasure to + feel and to know that fellow-workers in the same toilsome task, not only + may help each other, but rejoice in the opportunity of so doing. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Angels. The ideas associated therewith. Why winged. Wishing- + caps. Jehovah and His Angels made to walk by the historian. + The belief in Angels incompatible with that of an + omnipresent and omniscient God. Pictorial representations. + Absurd conceptions of angelic wings. Angela want birds' + tails. Men have tried to fly. Difference between birds and + men. Arms and wings. A writer at fault about this world is + not to be trusted in his accounts of another. Bats and + similar mammals. The Devil better winged than Michael—Yet + Satan, a roaring lion, goes about as a bull with bat's + wings. Angels and beetles. Harmony in creation. Strange idea + of spirits. Spiritualism. Varieties of angelic forms. Not + the products of lunacy. Angels and demigods. Egyptian ideas. + Assyrian notions. Christian fancies. Birds and Men united in + human celestialism. Persian Angels. Mithra winged. Angels in + Persia twelve in number. Job, the work of a Persian Jew. + Angels referred to therein. Darius had a consecrated table. + Babylonian belief. Daniel. Greece and Rome. Gods, Demigods, + Angels, and Saints. Christian demigods. Angels' duties. + Book-keeping, clerks of wind and weather;—police-agents. + The inventor of Heaven admired centralization. Babylonian + tutelary Angels. Christian ones. Christian saintly imagery. + The bleeding heart of Mary. A funny Chaldean goddess to + match. Popish saints have an aureole, but no wings. Francis + of Assisi could make stigmata but could not change his arms + into pinions. Babylonian and Papal emblems identical + Development of Angels amongst the Jews in Babylon. Angelic + mythology founded upon Astronomy and Astrology. Planets are + Archangels. Angels and Devils mentioned on bowls found in + Mesopotamia by Layard. The probable meaning of their names. + Hebrews adopted Chaldee beliefs: evidence. Juvenal. Jews and + Chaldeans. Sadducees and Pharisees. Sadducees and our + Reformers compared. A legal anecdote. Angels in Ancient + Italy. Our angelic forms are of Etruscan origin. Some such + beings had three pairs of wings. Etruscans had guardian + angels for infants and children. Angels carry various + matters. Angels of marriage. Angels for heirs of salvation. + Etruscan angel of marriage. Jewish match-maker. Raphael. + Description of an Etruscan painting in tomb of Tarquin. The + angel of death. The Greek theology. The Greeks taught the + Jews. The Jews never taught other nations. Greeks had a + supreme god and a host of inferior deities. War in heaven. + Titans—giants. Children of the sons of God and daughters of + men. Greek origin of Christian and Miltonian angelic + mythology. The begotten Son of God (Hercules born to Jupiter + by Alcmena). Restores the kingdom to his father. Greek ideas + of demons. Hebrew and Christian ideas of good and bad + spirits. The recording angel. Demigods and archangels. Greek + deities not winged except Mercury. Some minor gods have + pinions.—Pegasus has wings. Hymen, the angel of the + covenant of marriage. Genius loci and cherubim. Alcmena and + Mary. Jupiter and "the power of the Highest" Roman + mythology. Romans adopted the Etruscan form of angels. + Christians adopted it from Romans. The Christian crozier is + the Etruscan and Roman <i>lituus</i>, or "divining staff." Rome + and London both avid of religious novelty. Instability in + religion a proof of infidelity in the old. Hence a desire + for infallibility, to crush doubt. Angelic mythology of the + Bible. Christians use words in parrot fashion. Words ought + not to stand for ideas. Prayer-cylinder in Thibet. + Contradictions. Figures and metaphors are theologian cities + of refuge. Prophet who says that he converses with an angel- + -is he to be credited? A spirit without flesh and bones, + cannot move his tongue to utter words. Drunkards see "blue + devils"—they are unreal If the appearance of a man in a + dream is an illusion, his words are so too. Absurd ideas + about phantoms. Notice of the deeds of a few Hebrew angels. + A resume of their history. Inspiration did not reveal + angels. Human fancy did. Conspiracy in Heaven! The Genesis + of Hell. What sort of a place it is supposed to be. God made + the Devil, so man must multiply his imps! Lucifer taught + Elohim! Old Testament less knowing than the New. The Devil + not a fallen angel. The book of Enoch. Deductions drawn. +</pre> + <p> + There is scarcely a single article in our current belief which does not + prove, on examination, to have descended to us from Pagan sources, or to + be identical with heathen beliefs older than the Hebrew. The idea of a + personal God dwelling in some locality, vaguely described as "Heaven," in + which He reigns, and rules, like a modern emperor, has been found to exist + in almost every nation whose language we know, and whose history has + descended to us. Human weakness makes it so. Such a ruler has been called + Brahma, Siva, Vishnu, Mahadeva, Bel or Baal, Melech or Moloch, Ormazd, + Elohim, Jah, Jehovah, Jupiter, Yahu, God, and a variety of other names; + but He has always been hailed as king, and lord of all creation, having a + throne beside which attend a number of servitors, standing before and + around him, all ready to do his bidding and to go wherever they are sent. + As a potentate rules on earth over provinces far distant from the central + government, so the heavenly monarch was, and is yet, supposed to have + "viceroys," "lieutenants," or "vicars," who have authority delegated to + them, and exercise it under his superintendence. + </p> + <p> + A scheme such as we have described does not seem to have existed from the + first amongst the Jews; for, when men of reasoning powers conceived the + idea of a Creator, He was regarded as omnipotent, omniscient, and + omnipresent. It became gradually interwoven with theology; for when men of + limited capacity thought of such a vast empire as the universe, they, + under the influence of a grovelling anthropomorphism, recognized, as they + imagined, the necessity of furnishing it with a system of acquiring + intelligence, and promulgating decrees which should be far superior to any + postal plan devised by human kings. Amongst the Kaffirs, men with missives + race against time, and by means of relays, messages are sent to vast + distances in a comparatively short period. By means of horses, skilfully + engaged beforehand, an ancient Persian tyrant could make his commands + known all over his vast empire in the course of a few days, and moderns, + by means of railways and the electric wire, can forward information at a + still more rapid rate. + </p> + <p> + Yet, to old theologians, and even to observant men of the present day, all + these means of communication between God and his subjects seemed to be + slow. We may, for example, notice a fly buzzing round the head of the + running Kaffir, or the ears of the fleetest of Persian steeds, and a + swallow on the wing outstrips a railway express. The velocity of the + carrier-pigeon has long been known. All these were, therefore, regarded as + swift-winged creatures, and fit for message bearers. As then, it was + observed, that of all beings who could move, the bird is the swiftest in + its movement from place to place, it was very natural that dogmatists + should represent the messengers of the great king with powerful pinions, + like those of the eagle or the albatross. In this manner the addition of + wings to any mythological character sufficed to show that he who bore them + was a celestial being; one who stood before the supreme ruler, and + received from him delegated power—either as vicar, viceroy, or + messenger. Thus the Greeks depicted Mercury with wings on his legs and + elsewhere, and the Hebrews gave large pinions to their seraphim—sometimes + as many as six being used by each (Isa. vi. 2.) The Etruscans pictured + their angels with two wings only, and we have followed, implicitly, their + lead. But the Hindoos did not in early times adopt ideas such as this. + They noticed the speed of the sunbeam, the velocity of the hurricane, and + the rapidity of thought; and since they saw many birds borne away by the + wind, they imagined that celestial messengers must travel in a + corresponding fashion. For one who rode upon the clouds of the typhoon, + pinions were useless. I have in my possession a plate,* in which the + celestial attendants on the god are all wingless, but have sex. The name + given to the attendants referred to is "Apsaras," who are described as + having been produced in myriads when the ocean was churned. They are said + to reside between the waters above the firmament and those below it, and + are represented as being of consummate beauty and elegance of form, their + business being to attend upon the gods and give them pleasure, by singing, + music, dancing, and in every possible way. They are sometimes represented + as being of both sexes, all having the power to change their gender. + Generally, they are described as females, and take the business of Venus + in the Greek heaven, and of the Houris in that provided by Mahomet and his + followers. The Hindoos have in their theology an abode of bliss, in which + the pleasures are wholly sensual. In this they do not differ from the + Christians, except that the latter only expect to indulge in music and a + sanctified vengeance. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Plate x., vol. 1, "Recherches sur l'origine, &c., des Arts + de la Grèce," D'Harcanville, London, 1785. The author states + that the plate is copied from Le Voyage de Niebuhr, T. 1, + Tab. vi. +</pre> + <p> + With great ingenuity the Hebrews conceived that the will of God must be + equivalent to His wish—that His wish must be the same as a command, + and, consequently, that He could send His messenger from one spot to + another in an instant; or, if He chose, He could go Himself and + communicate personally, as He did with Abraham, Jacob, and Moses, and + Joshua. For such a Being even light would be too slow (see Psalm xviii. + 10; civ. 3, 4). + </p> + <p> + From a similar thought arose the stories which have found their way into + our fairy mythology of "wishing caps" which would enable the bearer to + pass in an instant of time, and wholly invisibly, from one part of the + world to another. In oriental countries, a carpet or a coat was the + carrying agent, whilst amongst the more clumsy story-tellers of Europe, a + pair of boots was furnished, whose wearer could cover twenty miles at a + stride. + </p> + <p> + In the plenitude of our prejudice we may smile at the caprice which + invented the "wishing cap;" but if we reflect calmly upon the matter, we + discover more depth of thought in this than has been shown in the + formation of tales in which winged angels are introduced. The contrast + will readily be recognized if we take a scene from "Fortunatus," and + another from the Old Testament The former, by putting on a cap, could + transport himself in a moment from Formosa to Great Britain. Whereas we + learn, from Genesis xviii, that three angelic men took "a walk" from + somewhere to Sodom, that they might see what sort of a place it really + was. The hero in the fairy tale was not fatigued; the angels of the Hebrew + mythology were glad to wash their feet, and to eat and drink, so as to + recruit their energies (v. 8; Ps. lxxviii. 25.) A mythical tale like this + demonstrates incontestably the mean condition of the story-teller, who + does not furnish Jehovah even with a mule or ass, but makes Him go afoot. + </p> + <p> + We must, therefore, regard the theological contrivance which furnished + angels with wings, as being a clumsy one; indicating superficiality, + rather than profound thought, and emanating from human infirmity rather + than divine inspiration or direct revelation. We shall see this more + distinctly if we inquire into the ideas necessarily associated with wings. + </p> + <p> + The theologians who have furnished their ideal messengers with wings show, + in the first place, that they have the idea of an air upon which the sails + can strike—of muscular structures to move the pinions, and of the + necessity for food to enable the motive power to be kept up. The idea of a + winged angel, therefore, necessarily implies a belief in the presence of a + solid material body moving through an aeriform fluid, resembling the + atmosphere just above the earth's surface. That there really was this + belief associated with celestial messengers we find in the Jewish + scriptures, wherein it is stated, as if it were a common occurrence, that + angels came to talk familiarly with men; as, for example, Gen. xviii, + xix., xxxii.; and Judges i., where we are told that an angel came from + Gilgal to Bochim, to deliver a statement, to the Hebrews, such as a silly + girl at Lourdes asserted the Virgin Mary had come from Heaven to make to + her; see also Judges xiii., and the book of Tobit. + </p> + <p> + That angels were, moreover, supposed to possess thews and sinews, we find + from Gen. xxxii. 24-30, wherein we are told that some celestial being + wrestled with Jacob, but could not prevail against him. In a previous + chapter, although it is only in a dream, Jacob saw them mount and descend + a ladder as if their wings—if they then had them—were useless. + </p> + <p> + We shall not now be far from the truth, if we affirm that winged + messengers, envoys, or angels, can only be supposed to exist by + individuals whose god is nothing more than a man without universal power + and knowledge. To any one who believes God to be omnipresent, the idea of + His having ambassadors, or vicars upon earth, is blasphemous. + </p> + <p> + The comparative coarseness of those minds which fabricated the notion of + winged men, as celestial messengers, will be the more certainly + recognised, if we examine into the pictorial conception which they have + permitted, and still allow, to pass, for the embodiment of their idea. Let + me, for example, invite the reader to cast his mental eye over the winged + men-like bulls, &c., of Assyria and Babylonia; the winged genii of the + ancient Egyptians; the winged soul and angel of Death of the Etruscans; + the angels of ancient and modern Christian painters; and the pinioned + heads which came from the walls to listen to the music of Saint Cecilia—according + to Papal legends—and then to try to discover the locality of the + muscular organs which are necessary to give movement to the wings. + Everybody who has ever carved, at his dinner-table, a grouse, partridge, + pheasant, duck, or other fowl, must be aware of the enormous mass of flesh + which is associated with the wings. If we bare the breast and remove the + pinion bones from any bird which flies—(it is necessary to make this + proviso, for such as the dodo, the aptéryx, the ostrich, emu, and others, + have wings which are only rudimentary, and not used for flight)—we + find but a very meagre body remaining behind. Hence we see the necessity + of furnishing an imaginary angel which has wings with muscles that will + enable the pinions to be used; but in no pictorial representation of an + angelic messenger do we ever find the ordinary figure of a man departed + from, or any provision made for muscles to move the feathered organs. And + we must notice, in passing, that it is monstrous to suppose that a man + must become, in part, a bird ere he can be useful to a god! + </p> + <p> + Again, we recognize in the conventional form of angels a total absence of + knowledge of natural history, of gravity, of force, &c. Let us, for + example, imagine for a moment that the metaphorical wings are real ones + used in flight. We see directly that they will only raise the individual + perpendicularly into the air. The angelic human creature, even if his + wings were—as they ought to do—to replace his arms, would + still lack a tail, to use as a rudder to direct his flight. It is clear, + then, that no one has seen an angel, and that those who have pretended to + have done so, were deeply ignorant men. To make our observations upon this + point somewhat more comprehensible, we may just refer to the fact that + many individuals, misled apparently by the mass of ideal celestial men—or + angels—which are to be seen in almost every cathedral or parish + church in Europe, have conceived the idea that they could fly, if only + they could contrive the necessary apparatus to append to their arms, legs, + or both; in other words, many men have fancied that they could do better + for themselves than nature has done for them. But a few minutes' calm + thought would teach any one familiar with the composition of forces, that + an attempt at the imitation of a bird's flight must be a failure in man. + Let me show this by a simple observation: A bird extends its wings, and by + a strong stroke towards its own body, rises into the air, though neither + solid nor rigid, both wings and air have apparently been so. In imitation + of this bird, we will now suppose that a man places himself, with arms + outspread, like the letter T between two uprights, forming something like + the letter U. + </p> + <p> + The individual would then be represented thus [J]—unlike the bird, + his <i>point d' appui</i> would be solid, and his arms would be far more + unyielding than feathers. Yet not one athlete in a million could spring + upwards, so as to stand upon the summit of the U. Man's "pectoral muscles"—as + physiologists call the mass of flesh below the collar bone and above the + nipple—are intended to move the arm; the bird's pectoral muscles are + intended to move the body. Cut off a man's arms and pectorals—the + counterpart of the bird's wings and fleshy breast—and he has barely + lost a tenth part of his weight; on the other hand, cut off the + corresponding parts of a bird, i.e.t the pinions and the muscles which + move them, and not a tenth part of the original weight is left behind. + Speaking coarsely, we may then affirm that man's body is relatively about + a hundred times heavier—air being the standard—than that of a + bird, and his pectoral muscles, relatively to his body, a hundred times + less in bulk. Consequently, even if a human being could, by muscular + action, develop the bulk of his "pectorals," so that they should be + relatively to the rest of his frame, equal to those of a bird, still his + bulk would be so much more solid than that of the bird's bones, flesh, and + feathers, that his power of flight would be a hundred times less. A man, + with the exception of his lungs, is in health, solid or fluid, in every + part of him; a bird's bones, on the contrary, are everywhere permeated by + air cavities, which make them as light as pith or cotton wool. A pound of + lead and a pound of feathers are certainly equal in weight, yet, if both + are allowed to drop from a balloon, the first will reach the ground a long + time before the second. In like manner, by contrivance, I could with my + breath sustain an ounce of eiderdown in the air, although I am quite + powerless to sustain, by like means, the same quantity of solid meat. I + say nothing of the relative position of the shoulder-joint in man and + birds—although the point is physiologically important. + </p> + <p> + Again, we may assert that the originators of the angelic mythology were + absolutely ignorant of that which is called comparative anatomy. We have + already expressed our belief that no one has a right to expect that people + will believe in the reality of a man's knowledge respecting the unseen + world, so long as he is palpably at fault in his notions respecting the + visible creation. Consequently we assert that one who is careless as + regards actual phenomena and ignorant of common truths, cannot be trusted + in metaphorical, mythological, or divine lore. + </p> + <p> + A comparatively small amount of observation proves to us that amongst the + highest classes of animal life, the wing is the counterpart of the arm or + of the fore-leg. In the creature called the "flying squirrel," there is no + pinion as there is in the "condor,"—there is simply an unusual + development of skin which unites the fore and hind limbs much in the same + way as the web unites together the toes of the goose or duck. In the bat, + which, though a mammal, is allied, as regards its power of flight, to the + birds, we find that the fore-leg is developed so as to make a bony frame + on which a thin skin may be stretched, which is still farther strengthened + by being attached to the hind leg. In the ordinary bird, the skin which we + see in the bat and flying squirrel is replaced by feathers, which are + longer, broader, and lighter than a fold of skin. The ordinary method, + therefore, in which angelic beings are depicted does not associate them + with the highest classes of animal life. Our modern artists are much more + skilful in depicting Satan than in pourtraying Raphael, Gabriel, or + Michael. + </p> + <p> + Our last remarks would be comparatively unimportant, were it not that the + close observation which the moderns have given, to every thing connected + with natural history, has shown us that there is a harmony throughout + creation. No animals have noses on their backs, nor eyes in their hind + legs. No insect—so far as I can remember—has a thick neck; nor + has any mammal or bird a thin one, like the wasp, bee, or fly. As we + imagine that it is proper to extend our knowledge rather by the lights + which we have already attained, than by silly or hap-hazard guessing, so + we think that it is better to investigate the subject of angelic forms by + comparative anatomy, than by the dreams of divines, who probably have + never studied any other subject than the best means of gaining influence + over their fellow-mortals. We assert that there is not in all the + creation, known to man, any creature with arms and legs—or their + equivalents, legs and wings, or fore-legs and hind legs—which has, + in addition, wings upon arms, legs, head, or back. In such a combination + there is something monstrous. I confess that I could, if satisfactory + evidence were given, credit the occurrence of a devil with a tail—of + a centaur with a horse's body and a human head—but I could not + possibly believe that Satan went about as a roaring lion, seeking whom he + could devour in the dress of a bull with bat-like wings, as well as horns + and hoofs; or that an angel of God approaches us in a form nearer to the + scarabseus of Egypt than to the human form divine. Yet when we say that a + pictorial angel approaches nearer to a beetle that revels in filth, than + to an etherial essence which ought to be very close upon perfection, we + are still far from precision. Ladybirds, cockchafers, and others of the + class allied to the scarabseus that was almost deified in Egypt, have six + legs, two wings, and two wing cases—ten means of locomotion in all. + Butterflies, moths, and the like, have six legs and two wings. + Consequently, if there be any design in creation, and angels have been + created, they can only be regarded as the connecting link between the + highest and the lowest classes of animal life. + </p> + <p> + If then, there be such a thing as harmony of design in Creation—if + the Creator be not the author of confusion (1 Cor. xiv. 33)—if + matter be material, and imponderable forces cannot be weighed or made + otherwise recognisable by the senses, except by their effects—if the + Almighty be omnipresent and omniscient, it is absolutely impossible for a + thoughtful mind to believe in the existence of angels in any shape—whether + material, immaterial, or essential. But this consideration forces us still + further, and we feel compelled to ask ourselves, whether, with our minds + constituted as they are, we can believe in, or understand any thing wholly + immaterial? Whether we can imagine the existence, for, example, of "force" + without matter?—a shape which is formless?—a form visible to + the eye, yet wholly immaterial? + </p> + <p> + It seems to me to be desirable, at the present day, to call attention to + this point in a particular manner, inasmuch as there are vast numbers, + both in Europe and America, who believe in what is called Spiritualism, + and are, in reality, as greatly the dupes of charlatans as were the + disciples of Alexander the false prophet, whose history we gave in vol. + II. The jargon of these pretenders is based upon the assertion in the + Bible that there are spirits—the accounts of certain of these + returning to the earth which they have quitted, or conversing with human + beings in dreams, or in reality. But both they and their victims fail to + see that a spirit, being without a material existence, cannot put matter + into motion—it cannot produce the waves in the ether that cause + those impressions on eye and ear which give the idea of sight and sound. + We may best give our reader a glimpse of our meaning, if we compare a + spirit to a picture projected on a sheet by a magic lantern. It is true + that we can see it—yet we know that it is powerless to hear, to + speak, to move; it cannot of itself even vanish. Yet there are many + onlookers who, by a ventriloquist, can be made to believe that the picture + speaks. + </p> + <p> + After prolonged observation, I believe that spirits, angels, demons, &c., + have no reality except in the delusions of individuals whose diseased + brains induce them to believe that they see apparitions and hear them + speak. To this matter we shall probably return by and by. + </p> + <p> + We may now revert to a subject which we mentioned incidentally a few pages + back—viz., the ideas which induced priestly inventors to depict the + angels of their imagination in a particular form. Those who are familiar + with the Bible, and not with any other book, and who decline to examine + into the ways of God in the universe generally, will naturally reply to + our strictures that the angels of the Jews were described in a particular + fashion, because they were seen "in the visions of Elohim" (Ezek. i. 1; + Dan. x. 5, 6; and Rev. i. 10-20). But this observation involves the idea + that the angels which have appeared are so various in shape, that an + individual who had seen and described one, could not enable another man to + recognize a similar messenger when seen under another form. In Genesis + xviii, xix., xxxii., and Judges xiii, angels assume the form of men; in + Isaiah vi. they have six wings—one pair being used to cover the + face, another to cover the feet, and another to fly with. To this it may + be objected that what Isaiah described were seraphim; yet verse 6 shows + that one of these, at least, was a messenger or envoy. In Ezekiel i. we + find an apparent description of angels, or an envoy, which is so involved + that it is most difficult to understand it. In Daniel x. an archangel is + described as a brilliant man whose body was like the beryl—<i>tarshish</i>—a + stone of a sea-green colour probably; or, possibly, a topaz, "whose eyes + were like lightning, and whose arms and feet were like polished brass, and + whose loins were girded with fine gold"—as if to conceal his sex—a + characteristic which we find, from Matt. xxii. 30, angels do not possess. + The writer's description must, therefore, be classed with that of afreets, + genii, and the like, in the <i>Arabian Nights</i> tales. In Zechariah, + again, we find an angel or envoys described (ch. i.)—(a), "as a man + riding upon a red horse," having behind him "red horses, speckled and + white" (v. 8); (6), as "four horns" (vv. 18,19); (c), as "four carpenters" + (w. 20, 21.) Again, in chap, v., we find an angel in "a flying roll;" + another in "an ephah;" another in a big piece of lead, and another in a + woman, and still another in two beings of the same nature. + </p> + <p> + We can readily understand that some who are unacquainted with lunatics, + would describe these portraitures as the result of insanity or + hallucination; but those who are more conversant with persons of unsound + mind will doubt whether any ordinary insane persons ever see or describe + things which they have never met with. One or two, certainly, have + wonderful flights of imagination, but these have been highly educated men + of extensive reading, &c. In mania, when visions are seen, some person + or other whose description has been read by the lunatic, or who has really + been observed, appears—or something which the individual has seen + depicted, or otherwise been told of, presents itself, or there is a + strange jumble of reality and possibility—just as in dreams, + comical, grotesque, or horrible combinations are common, and cause us no + surprise. There is, however, too much consistency in the method in which + angels are depicted, to enable us to believe that their form was decided + by any lunatic or dreamer. + </p> + <p> + We scarcely can form an idea whether the Egyptians had a definite belief + in angels, as the word is understood by moderns. With them, as it was with + the Greeks, it is most probable that all beings which Jews and Christians + alike would call angels, were designated "gods" or "demigods." Be this as + it may, we find that the Mizraim had deities who wore wings. A round disc, + apparently intended to represent the sun, two erected serpents to support + it, and a long broad pinion on each side of the body, was symbolic of "the + Supreme." The same may be said to be true of Assyria and Persia—only + that in the symbolism of the two last, the serpents did not, generally, + appear. In plate 30a, of Wilkinson's <i>Ancient Egyptians, 2d series</i>, + a human figure is represented as winged, and before him is a five-rayed + star. In plate 35 of the same book, Isis is represented as a nude woman, + winged; the position of one pinion being such that it serves to conceal + the body from the waist almost to the knees. In plate 36, "Athor" is + depicted as being attended by a human-headed bird. On the other hand, in + plate 39, where the gods are instructing the king in the use of the bow, + the former are bird-headed men without wings. Whilst in plate 44, the soul + of a dying man is represented as a human-headed bird with wings, arms, and + legs. In plates 52, 53 of the same work, we notice specimens of winged + serpents. In plate 63, Isis again appears as a wing bearer, and in this + figure we find, as we ought to do, that the feathers of the pinions are + attached to the arms of the goddess. + </p> + <p> + In Assyria, we may gather from the sculptures which have been preserved, + that there was not any idea of angels being essentially different to gods. + Indeed, it is very difficult wherever there is a polytheism in any form, + to understand the distinction between a god and an angel Even in the + religion which passes current as "the Christian," which acknowledges three + gods as "coeternal together and coequal," we are distinctly told that one + of the three "proceeds" from the father and the son (<i>Athanasian Creed</i>). + The New Testament, again, repeatedly informs us that the son was "sent" + into this world by his father to effect a special purpose—e.g.t "God + sent his only begotten son into the world, that we might live through him" + (1 John iv. 9; see also John iii. 16, 17; Matt. xxi. 37; Mark xii. 4; John + v. 38; vi. 29; vii. 28, 29; and compare with John i. 33 and Mal.iii. 1-3). + If, therefore, we regard the bearer of a message or an order from the + supreme king as an "angel," Jesus of Nazareth was certainly one, inasmuch + as he said that he was sent hither by the father of all; and the Holy + Ghost was another, for we find John (xv. 26) stating that Jesus would send + him to the earth—an assertion repeated in chap, xvi. 7—whilst + in the fourteenth chapter of the same book we observe that the father was + to send this comforter, who was to abide in this world for ever (v. 16). + Indeed, the presumed identification of Jesus with the promised Messiah, + "the prince" of Dan. ix. 25, shows the belief that he was one who was as + much appointed to do a certain duty as was that "angel of death" which + went out to destroy the Assyrian army (2 Kin. xix. 35). + </p> + <p> + With such indicated reservation, we notice that the angel which the gods + sent to watch over various Assyrian kings is depicted almost invariably + with wings. Now he is an archer, standing in a disc representing the sun, + having wings below him; now he stands in front of the circle, the pinions + and sometimes his body terminating in feathers resembling a bird's + expanded tail. Then, again, the minor divinities bear wings, some of them + no less than four (Bonomi's <i>Nineveh</i>, 2d ed. p. 157). It would be + superfluous to linger over a description of the winged bulls with human + heads, and the winged men with eagle or hawks' faces, which are so + familiar to us in consequence of the researches of Layard and others. All + alike bear testimony to the connection, in human celestialism, between + birds and men. Nor can we reasonably doubt, that the idea intended to be + conveyed by the inventor of the Assyrian composition which we refer to + was, that the being, thus symbolized, was famous for strength like the + bull; for rapidity of movement, like the eagle; and for wisdom, like a + man. + </p> + <p> + There is to be found amongst the relics of the ancient Persians a symbol + of an angel who was supposed specially to guard the king. This somewhat + resembles that used at Nineveh. There are, however, many forms of it. For + example, we find in Hyde's <i>De Religione veterum Persarum</i> (Table 6) + a figure of a Persepolitan king, above whom, in the air, and quite + distinct from the sun, stands a venerable man fully draped, standing upon + what seems to be a large pine cone reversed, which is surrounded by clouds + instead of being furnished with wings. The man thus depicted extends the + forefinger of one hand to the sun, whilst with the other he holds a ring. + In Table 6 Mithra is represented as winged, after the modern fashion of + angels. + </p> + <p> + Hyde assures us, in chapter twelve, that twelve angels were recognized by + the ancient Persians, in addition to those who presided over the months + and days. One of these appears to be the same as the Greek Rhadamanthus, + who sat as supreme judge in the invisible world, and apportioned to the + dead their rewards or punishments. A second was equivalent to Neptune and + ruled the sea, but he had also under his charge everything which related + to generation, or production generally. The third was much the same as the + more modern Lares and Penates, and superintended dwelling-houses and + families. The fourth had a somewhat similar and subordinate office. The + fifth was named after the stars, and had his kingdom in the south heavens. + The sixth the learned author does not describe. The seventh really seems + to be a sort of duplicate angel, called Haruts and Maruts, who were two + naughty ones that rebelled, and are, according to some, imprisoned still + in Babylon, being hung up by the heels. The eighth, Hyde is himself + doubtful about, and does not describe. The ninth is the same as the German + "storm-king." The tenth may fairly be styled the "angel of the victualling + department." The eleventh is the giver of life, the opponent of Azrael, + the minister of death; and the twelfth angel is one which we may call + either by the name of "conscience" or "judgment" for he it is who approves + or reprobates the works of man. + </p> + <p> + Though I quote from Hyde, I am somewhat doubtful of the value of his + authority. He relies to a considerable extent upon the work known as the + "Zend Avesta," and supposed to represent the tenets of Zoroaster and his + followers. This book is, as I have mentioned, generally believed to be a + genuine relic of antiquity by Continental scholars, though it is + mistrusted by British orientalists, who regard it as a modern production + founded upon Aryanism, Christianity, and Maho-metanism. In my judgment, my + compatriots are right; and if it be proper to trust such a man as Sir H. + Rawlinson in the matter of the "Avesta," one may be pardoned for believing + with him that the book of Job was written by a Persian Jew, or translated + by a Hebrew from a work in the time of Darius, or some other of the + Achoemenidæ. + </p> + <p> + In Job angels are only once mentioned—viz., in chap. iv. 18, and + then they are spoken of in such a way, that we are doubtful whether or not + to regard the verse simply as a poetic metaphor. The idea which runs + through the part of the chapter in which the passage occurs is this: "Job, + you are suffering; the innocent do not perish; the righteous are not cut + off; you have been very proper; man has nothing to say against you; but + you are not right in accusing God of injustice; you doubtless have done + some wrong, for even God's servants are not wholly trusted; they sometimes + misbehave unknowingly, and his own angels are called perverse by him (Job + iv. 18); you cannot expect to be better than they, and it is no shame to + you to be in the same category as they are." + </p> + <p> + But it must be allowed that the words of the story—"There was a day + when the sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord, and Satan + came also among them; and the Lord said unto Satan, Whence comest thou? + Then Satan answered the Lord, and said, From going to and fro in the + earth, and from walking up and down in it"—do really intimate a full + belief in good angels and bad, who were not so much angels, messengers, or + envoys, as subordinate powers resembling the barons of ancient England, + the Paladins of Charlemagne, or the kings created by Buonaparte; amongst + whom all were, so to speak, "good angels," except Bernadotte, of Sweden, + who rebelled against the imperial thraldom, and became to his late master + a modern satan. In whichever way we regard the subject of angels, amongst + the Persians there is little doubt that the Iranian conception of God was + wholly anthropomorphic, and that the Medians and their magi, as well as + their Persian neighbours, acknowledged a "father of lies," who was + antagonistic to the deity.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Quintus Curtius informs us (<i>Life of Alexander the Great</i>, + b. v. a ii.) that Darius had in Babylon a consecrated table, + from which he used to eat; that Alexander began to be + ashamed of his sacrilege in treading upon it—(it had been + placed as a footstool for his imperial chair)—the sacrilege + being against the gods presiding over hospitality, carved + upon the table. These may be regarded as angels or + otherwise, according to fancy. +</pre> + <p> + Our knowledge of the angelic mythology of Babylonia is comparatively + slight. The main thing which shrouds the subject in darkness is the + difficulty which exists to distinguish between god, gods, and angels. If + we could put any confidence in the book of Daniel, we should recognize + therefrom that his "Nebuchadnezzar" most distinctly believed in the + existence of angels, for in chap. iii. 25 he believes that he sees the son + of God (<i>bar elohim</i>), and in verse 28 of the same chap. he remarks + that "God hath sent his angel (<i>malachah</i>), and delivered his + servants that trusted in him." Again, in the fourth chapter, in which he + recounts a dream, he declares that he saw "a watcher and a holy one" (<i>geer + and kadesk</i>) come down from heaven with a message to him. But Daniel is + not an adequate authority upon ancient Babylonian beliefs. We are, in the + absence of direct testimony upon this subject» driven to such evidence as + is drawn from sculptured or other remains in ruins and on gems, and to + cuneiform and other writings. George Rawlinson sums up his account thus—(<i>Ancient + Monarchies</i>, vol. I, ch. vii., pp. 138, 9): "Various deities, whom it + was not considered at all necessary to trace to a single stock, divided + the allegiance of the people, and even of the kings, who regarded with + equal respect, and glorified with exalted epithets, some fifteen or + sixteen personages. Next to these principal gods were a far more numerous + assemblage of inferior or secondary divinities, less often mentioned, and + regarded as less worthy of honour, but still recognized generally through + the country. Finally, the Pantheon contained a host of mere local gods or + genii, every town and almost every village in Babylonia being under the + protection of its own particular divinity." + </p> + <p> + The passage above quoted, which represents very fairly our existent + knowledge, suggests to the thoughtful mind a comparison with other + religions. In Greece there were many great gods and goddesses, and other + divinities of less renown. In Rome there were gods for almost everything. + But what these nations called "gods" the Hebrews called "angels," as we + shall see shortly. In Christendom angels and gods have, as a general rule, + been deposed, and "saints" have taken their places. Not only has every + town a cathedral which is dedicated to some particular name—said to + have been borne by a holy man or woman, whose aid in heaven is thus + secured by his votaries upon earth—but every church in every parish, + and every chapel in every church is set apart to a particular "saint." + Still farther, every trade and every position in life has its tutelary + patron in heaven, and secondary gods are as common in Papal districts as + they were in the land of the Chaldeans. The philosopher cannot find a + valid distinction between Ishtar, Venus, and Mary, Dionysus and Denis, and + a host of other gods, saints, or angels. + </p> + <p> + Assuming that the minor gods of Greece and Rome, and those essences + generally called "angels" are substantially the same order of beings, we + find that the Babylonians had a great number of celestial envoys, + viceroys, or messengers who ruled over the land and sea, the sky and + storms, the thunder and the rain, crops, men, war, buildings—everything, + indeed, was superintended by some one on behalf of the Supreme Ruler. + </p> + <p> + We might pause here to speculate upon the question whether there is any + difference in kind between such a kingdom as Babylonia or Russia and the + heaven believed in by the ancient Jews and the modern Christians. In all + there is an autocratic sovereign who has a prime minister and secretaries + of state, who keep his books and perform his will according to his + bidding; under these again there are private clerks, who superintend wind + and weather, rain and hail, snow and frost; governors of provinces, + mayors, or prefects of cities; police, and so large a host of + subordinates, that nothing, great or small, can be done which escapes the + notice of one of the imperial envoys or ministers. The inventor of heaven, + such as we know it, was certainly an admirer of 'centralization'. Those + who desire to see the description of the unseen world modified are those + who are opposed to an absolute monarchy, and who see in everything, + everybody, and in all the world a proof of the presence of a supreme, + omniscient, omnipresent, Creator, Ruler, or Governor. + </p> + <p> + Without going into an account of the Chaldean mythology, we may say that + there is strong reason to believe, both from the nomenclature which has + survived, and from such gems as are preserved from destruction, that every + Babylonian, whether bond or free, was called after some deity, who was + supposed ever afterwards to be his tutelary angel In modern times Roman + Catholics hold a similar belief, and each parent imagines that by making + selection, for his offspring, of the name of a particular saint, the + latter can be induced to take the child under its special care. + </p> + <p> + The learned in papal mythology know that every saint is depicted in such a + manner that none shall be mistaken. To such an extent indeed is pictorial + contrivance carried, that the art of recognising a particular saint + demands a special study. It is all but certain that the same custom + prevailed in Babylon; but, as all the professors which taught the means of + identification have passed away, we can only guess at the name or nature + of the angel. Let us imagine, for example, what an archaeologist could + make of the figure of Mary—of the bleeding or burning heart, two + thousand years after all history of the mother of Jesus has passed away, + like that of Ishtar has done. A curious figure, called heart-shaped, but + really not so, is found placed on the central part of a woman's breast; + from it flames appear to arise and blood to drop, and through it is a + dagger, and this mass of imagery is put outside the body, and the dress is + held open to enable any one to see it. + </p> + <p> + Without a key to the enigma, this is a mystery; but when the key is given, + and the inquirer hears the explanation, he finds it so absurd that it is + difficult to believe it. In like manner, when I see upon a Babylonian gem, + copied as a vignette on the title-page of Landseer's <i>Sabean Researches</i>, + a woman who has a beard, a necklace, two small breasts, from each of which + she squeezes apparently a river of milk; over whose breastbone there is + one large globe and two small ones, placed perpendicularly; who has a + spider waist, and wears a skirt covered with pistol-shaped ornaments, I, + not knowing whether the Chaldeans adored "our lady of the flowing bosom," + cannot frame an idea as to the name of the saint, angel, virgin, or martyr + which is depicted, or what may have been her peculiar duties, who she was, + and what trade she patronised. + </p> + <p> + Whatever idea the Papal Church entertains respecting her canonised saints, + one thing is remarkable, viz., that they are not portrayed as having + wings. Each has an aureole of some sort round his or her head—a + painter's contrivance for saying "This individual, who seems like a man or + woman, is not a common but a divine creature." Francis of Assisi is, in + addition, depicted with stigmata, or marks on his hands, feet, and side, + which, though they resemble those made with nails in the case of Jesus of + Nazareth, were doubtless, in the case of the "saint," made with the strong + caustic called "spirit of salt" or other escharotic. We might speculate + upon the state of mind which sees in the assumption of "stigmata" a + greater evidence of faith than would be offered by the conversion of the + arms into the pinions of Michael the archangel; but, as it is so much + easier for even the most potent saint to make breaches in his skin, than + to persuade feathers to grow on his arms, we do not think the task worthy + of our care. + </p> + <p> + The Babylonians in this respect were predecessors of papal pagans. It is a + rare thing to find on any of their gems a winged angel or genius. One such + is depicted on the frontispiece of Landseer's <i>Sabean Researches</i>, + which is birdlike both as regards the head and pinions; and four other + winged creatures are given in Lajard's <i>Culte de Venus</i>. In two the + figures are human headed, and combined with the body of a quadruped. At a + later period of Babylonian mythology "grotesques" were introduced, + apparently from Egypt. + </p> + <p> + It is not to be lightly passed by, that the symbol which represented the + presence of the deity—which, if we may adopt a phrase, we should + call "the angel of his presence" (see Exod. xxxiii. 14,15; Isa, lxiii. 9), + is almost identical in the Chaldean and the papal religions, viz., a + circle containing a cross, an emblem as common in our churchyards as in + the capital of Nebuchadnezzar. + </p> + <p> + The resemblance between papal and Chaldean emblems and doctrines have + repeatedly attracted the attention of theologians; and I am not far wrong + in asserting that Protestants generally have identified "the woman" of + Revelation xvii., spoken of as "Mystery, Babylon the Great, the mother of + harlots and abominations of the earth," with Rome under the popes. For + myself I do not care to express any opinion on the point, beyond a general + dissent from the popular estimation of the dictum and its interpretation. + At the same time I must declare that every year, over which my inquiries + have extended, has imbued me more and more with wonder at the similarity + between the ancient Babylonian and the modern papal religion. The two + resemble children of the same parents, only that one is older than the + other; and it requires but little penetration in an observer to trace in + both, the lineaments of a grovelling superstition, united with a base + priestly cunning. + </p> + <p> + In our own estimation the strongest evidence in favour of a belief in + angels, of every degree, amongst the Chaldeans and Babylonians is the + enormous development of angelic mythology amongst the Jews, who lived in + the city of Nebuchadnezzar, and in those who migrated thence into + Palestine subsequent to the period of the captivity. From indications, + which are necessarily imperfect, we have formed the opinion that the + Babylonians were astronomical students of great proficiency, from a very + remote antiquity; that many of these professors turned their attention to + what is called judicial astrology—i.e., they attempted to judge of + future events by certain phenomena occurring in the heavens, and + especially in the relationship between different planets and the various + constellations. + </p> + <p> + As the planets wander through the sky, naturally they were regarded as the + messengers of El—"the Supreme," who sent them to investigate the + condition of groups of stars, many of which formed a sort of community + that was unvisited by the Great King, for months together, and, in many + instances, not at all.As the heliacal rising of one star seemed generally + to be followed by good weather, and the corresponding rise of another + intimated the reverse, it was natural that one should be regarded as an + angel of happiness, the other as a harbinger of misery or death. So + strongly rooted is this belief amongst some, that it even "holds its own" + in educated England. The astronomer Royal is often asked to cast a + nativity; and a living merchant of Liverpool does so yet, having + confidence that his deductions suffice to prove their value. + </p> + <p> + The formula is "<i>Astra regunt homines, sed regit astra Deus</i>"—"The + stars rule men, but God rules the stars." A guardian star, then, that is + to say, the particular planet or other conspicuous celestial body which + was "in the ascendant" at the period of the birth of each individual, was + regarded in the same light as Christians esteem protective angels and + Romanists estimate patron saints. There can be, we think, little doubt + that the seven archangels are the seven planets known to the ancients, + each of which had a day dedicated to it, and who thus originated the week + of seven days. These amongst the Phoenicians were called the Cabeiri, or + the powerful ones. In the conclusion at which we have arrived we are + greatly strengthened by the discovery in Babylonian ruins of certain + bowls; facsimiles and descriptions of which are given in Layard's Nineveh + and Babylon, pp. 510-526. The inscriptions which have been translated + appear to be forms of exorcism, or amulets, by which evil spirits are to + be driven away; and reference is made in these writings to the devil, for + example, under the name <i>shida</i>; and to Satan under the cognomen <i>Satanah</i>, + evidently the same as the Satanas habitually used in the New Testament; + also to Nirich, probably from a root like the Hebrew <i>narag</i>, "a + noise maker or screamer." This creature, as I think, is the same as the + "Satyr" of Isaiah xiii. 21, and xxxiv. 14, and represents or personifies + those unseen but howling maniacs who wandered about at night (see <i>Lilith + and Satyr</i> in my second volume). Another demon is called <i>Zachiah</i>, + a cognomen which I cannot satisfactorily explain unless it is allied to <i>Zachar,</i> + and indicates the power which, as the French would say, "can tie a knot in + the needle" (nouer l'aiguilette) or "a levin brand." Another of the devils + is called "Abitur of the Mountain," whose name resembling, as it does, the + Jewish <i>Abiathar</i>, is more likely to belong to the good than the bad + angels. Lilith is another demon still feared by the Jews, who employ + charms against her to this day. She is supposed to be a sort of spiritual + vampyre, and to suck the life out of infants and young people. These names + of angels occur in the first inscription given by Layard; in the second we + find Satan, associated with idolatry, curses, vows, whisperings, + witchcraft, and <i>Zevatta</i>—a concealer, rider, or enchanter from + root like this and answering to the fairy which steals away. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "It was between the night and day + When the fairy king has power, + That I sank down in a sinful fray, + And 'twixt life and death was snatcht away + To the joyless Elfin bower." + + —Lady of the Lake, canto iv., stanza xv. +</pre> + <p> + Another is named <i>Nidra</i>, which I take to signify vows made by + supposed sorcerers. This demon is associated in the same line with <i>Zevatta</i> + above described. <i>Patiki</i> is another bad influence, probably now, "a + sword," for the charm has reference to freedom from captivity. Another + devil is called <i>Isarta</i>, which I take to be a leader of banditti or + marauders, from the Assyrian word (Furst's lexicon s.v. <i>asar</i>), "a + leader, head or commander," and a word from a root like <i>ta</i>, "to + drive," "to push forward," "to sweep away." We should call such an one + "the demon of destruction." + </p> + <p> + In this same inscription two good angels are named, Batiel or Bethiail, + probably a variant of Bethuel, "the residence of El," and Katuel or + Kathuail, the executioner or sword of El, from <i>katal</i>, to kill; + compare this with the expression, "Or if I bring a sword upon that land, + and say, sword, go through that land, so that I put off man and beast from + it" (Ezek. xiv. 17). In addition to these two angels another is mentioned + who has eleven names, not one of which is written in full—e.g. SS. + BB. CCC. + </p> + <p> + In a third inscription a devil is named "Abdi," which may be derived from + the root <i>abad</i>, and be regarded as the same as the New Testament + Abaddon (Rev. ix. 10)—the king of the slaughterers, bucaneers, + rovers, &c. We can fancy that Negroes who are captured and sold in + droves to foreigners, might imagine that Abdi was the devil which ruled + the African slave drivers and Christian purchasers. This demon is + associated with Levatta,—with tribulations, the machinations of the + Assyrians, misery, treachery, rebellion; Nidra, with sorrows generally; + and <i>Shoq</i>, which I take to be from a root like <i>shuq, or shaqaq</i>—i.e., + "enemies thirsting for booty, rangers, bands of robbers." Compare—"And + the spoilers came out of the camp of the Philistines in three companies" + (1 Sam. xiii. 17). See also—He "delivered them into the hand of the + spoilers" (Jud. ii. 14; 2 Kin. xvii. 20). Amongst the devils must, I + think, also be classed <i>Asdarta</i>, which is clearly the same as the + goddess Astarte, and she is closely associated with "the machinations of + the Assyrians." + </p> + <p> + The good angels of this inscription are Barakiel, Ramiel, Raamiel, + Nahabiel, and Sharmiel, over whose names we will not now linger, except to + notice that the devils have names compounded with <i>jah</i>, whilst the + good ones are derived from EL. + </p> + <p> + In the fifth inscription, amongst the bad things are mentioned evil + spirits, both male and female, the evil eye, sorcery, and enchantments + both from men and women, along with Nidra and Levatta. The good angels are + called Babnaa, Ninikia, and Umanel, which I take to be intended for Wu, <i>banahel</i>=El + builds, or "the strong one who establishes us;" <i>nachaghel</i>. El is + powerful, or the Angel of Strength; and amanel, or "the fostering angel." + </p> + <p> + In some fragments the names of good angels found have been Nadkiel, + Ramiel, Damael, Hachael, and Sharmiel, which we shall probably notice + again subsequently. + </p> + <p> + We do not lay any particular stress upon the fact of the bowls, on which + these inscriptions were found, having been dug up amongst Babylonian + ruins; nor do we care to prove either that they were of Jewish or Chaldean + origin. What we here desire to show is, that there existed in Babylon a + full belief in the existence of evil and good influences which were + invisible; that some individuals had, or were thought to possess, + supernatural powers for harm, which could be counteracted by those who + placed themselves under the protection of potencies supposed to be holier, + wiser, or stronger than the evil genii From the method in which everything + connected with witchcraft, magic, astrology, and the like, is spoken of in + the Old Testament, and from the fact that slaves are much more likely to + imitate their masters than conquerors to become pupils of the vanquished, + we conclude that it was not the Hebrews who taught the Chaldees, but that + the contrary was the case. + </p> + <p> + In the view thus enunciated we are confirmed by the manner in which old + Jewish writers spoke of the nation that enslaved them—e.g., + "Babylon, the beauty of the Chaldees' excellency" (Isa. xiii. 19); "All of + them princes to look at after the manner of the Babylonians of + Chaldea."... And "she (Jerusalem) doted upon them, and sent messengers + unto them into Chaldea; and... she was polluted with them, and her mind + was alienated from (or by) them" (Ezek. xxiii. 15-17); "It is a mighty + nation, it is an ancient nation, a nation whose language thou knowest not" + (Jerem. v. 15)—Jeremiah knew more about the people than Isaiah (see + Isa. xxiii. 13). Habakkuk, again, speaking of the same people, says (chap, + i. 6-10)—"The Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation... terrible + and dreadful:... they shall scoff at the kings, and the princes shall be a + scorn unto them." Such being the estimation of the Babylonians by Hebrew + prophets, it is morally certain that the Jews would regard them with + respect, admire, study, and copy them. To what extent the imitation went + it is difficult to say. + </p> + <p> + When, therefore, we find that the descendants of Abraham, a patriarch whom + a veneration for the ancient Babylonians induced the Israelite + mythologists to represent as being a Chaldee; and those who were taught on + the banks of the Euphrates, were spoken of in Rome about the time of our + era, and shortly afterwards, as being almost synonymous epithets for + sorcerers, astrologers, charmers, &c., we must conclude that the + Mesopotamian was the master, the Palestinian the pupil. That the two were + regarded as relatives we infer from Juvenal (sat. vi. 544-552)—"For + a small piece of money the Jews sell whatever dreams you may choose, but + an Armenian or Commagenian soothsayer promises a tender love;... but her + (i.e., the lady who consults such folk) confidence in Chaldeans will be + the greater." + </p> + <p> + But, ere we leave this portion of our Essay, we must notice one other + piece of evidence of considerable value which is drawn from the New + Testament. We find, for example, in Acts xxiii. 8, "The Sadducees say that + there is no resurrection, neither angel nor spirit, but the Pharisees + confess both." If we inquire into the origin of these sects—and we + shall be greatly assisted in doing so by two very elaborate articles by + the erudite Dr. Ginsburg, in Kitto's <i>Cyclopaedia of Biblical Knowledge</i>—we + shall see reason to believe that the Sadducees were a sect who considered + that they were not bound to believe any tenet as necessary unless they + could find it distinctly enunciated in the Pentateuch. They resolutely + declined, therefore, to accept as revelation such stories as had been + adopted by the Hebrews from Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and possibly + from the Romans. + </p> + <p> + We might institute a comparison between the Sadducees and those whom we + know as "reformers." The first acknowledged the authority of Moses alone, + such as they found it in "the five books;" the second acknowledged the + authority of Jesus and his apostles, such as they found it in the New + Testament: the first rejected the commentaries of Rabbis; the second those + of "the fathers." Both appealed to antiquity, and both traced to what we + may designate paganism, heathenism, or foreign sources generally, a large + portion of the current faith which they saw around them. The Sadducees + regarded the doctrine of seraphic interference, and all the angelic + mythology common in their time, as the fond fancy of those who desired to + harmonize Judaism with Gentilism. The Reformers, in their turn, rejected + all the fables of Papal anchorites, &c.; denied the power of any + martyr to influence the condition of the living after their death; and + generally opposed the saintly, as the Sadducees opposed the angelic, + hierarchy. Individuals who sympathize with Luther, Calvin, and those of a + similar way of thinking, may readily understand the Sadducees, whereas, + those of what is called the "High Church," will give their interest to the + Pharisees, who upheld the then mediaeval customs, &c. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that some will say, that Jesus of Nazareth, being the son + of God, a deity incarnate, and consequently familiar with everything which + goes on in the court of heaven; having adopted the angelic mythology; + having conversed familiarly with the devil; having sent, at least, two + thousand devils out of one man into a herd of swine; having gone down to + hell, wherever that may be; and having preached to the spirits imprisoned + there, whoever they may be or have been; having, still further, had an + angel to comfort him; having had a conference with Moses and Elijah on a + certain hill; having asserted that he had only to pray to his father to + obtain the assistance of twelve legions of angels; and having also told us + that every child has an angel who stands before the face of God—seeing + these things, I say, one can imagine persons asseverating that all our + current notions of angels, which are built upon the New Testament, must be + true. + </p> + <p> + To this we rejoin, that these assertions beg the question. The philosopher + affirms that the idea of angels is incompatible with that of an + omnipresent God—that the belief of Jesus in an angelic mythology + proves him to have had an anthropomorphic notion of "the Supreme," and, as + a consequence, it follows that Jesus was nothing more than a Jew, although + very superior to the generality of his countrymen, having possibly been + taught by some Buddhist.* The bigot, on the other hand, can only scream + out the formularies which the so-called orthodox provide for him. Johanna + Southcote once made some folks believe that she was pregnant with a + Messiah, and she had most enthusiastic followers; but neither argument nor + rhetoric sufficed to beget the promised baby and, in like manner, no + amount of declamation can convert an assumption into a fact. But of this + truth most of our theologians appear to be ignorant, and, like the heathen + with their litanies, they think that they will obtain their will by "much + speaking." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It will be noticed by the reader, that the remarks in the + text have reference to the supernatural stories which were + interwoven into the biography of Jesus by those whom we call + Evangelists. The bibliolaters must, however, stand or fall + by the many legendary tales which pass current for truth. If + Jesus, as an ordinary Jew, believed in angels—just as our + king, James I., believed in the existence of modern witches + —we cannot use his evidence to prove the existence of angels + and devils, any more than the Christian laws against + witchcraft demonstrate that old women and men sold their + souls and bodies to Satan. If, on the other hand, we allow + that the spiritual mythology of the New Testament is due to + Pharasaic influence, all the testimony propounded in favour + of the assertion, that Jesus was, in reality, "a son of + Jehovah," crumbles away. +</pre> + <p> + When summoned, a long time ago, to give evidence in a court of justice, + the question was put to me—"Now, doctor, you have heard the symptoms + from which the deceased suffered; do you believe that they were produced + by arsenic?" Being doubtful about the propriety of the query in a court of + law so prudish as ours is, I remained silent, and in an instant the judge, + Baron Alderson, said—"I won't allow that question to be put or + answered; you want the witness to take the place of the jury, and it shall + not be done. You may ask the doctor, if you will, what are the symptoms + produced by arsenic, when taken in a poisonous dose, and then it is the + business of the jury to compare those, with such as have already been + sworn to as occurring in the man before he died." This anecdote is + frequently in my mind when I am composing an essay like the present. If I + wish to convince the jury who reads my papers of the truth of a particular + conclusion to which I have arrived, it is not enough for me to express my + own opinions. I may assert, in the matter in question, that I am a skilled + witness, and have closely investigated the subject, but it is open to any + one to doubt my industry and to distrust my judgment; consequently, it is + necessary for me to adduce evidence, as well as to draw deductions + therefrom. + </p> + <p> + The hypothesis which I have formed, after a pretty extensive reading, is, + that the belief in the mythology of angels which is current amongst + Christians at the present time, and which is based upon a series of + pretended revelations, said to have been made exclusively to Jews of + ancient times, is, in reality, founded upon fancies of pagan priests or + poets; and, as a corollary, I infer, either that our celestial mythology + must be given up to oblivion, as being heathenish, or that we must abandon + those claims to an exclusive inspiration which have been made for, and + accorded by many to, the Bible. I have already described the ideas + associated with angels in some ancient peoples, and I now propose to + examine those of other nations with whom the Jews and Christians, directly + or indirectly, came in contact. + </p> + <p> + The reader of ancient Roman history cannot doubt that the city on the + Tiber was indebted to the Etruscans for all, or nearly all, of its early + knowledge. It is probable that the original gods and goddesses of Rome + were those of their northern neighbours, and everything which the Romans + knew of augury was due to the priests of Etruria; consequently it is not + unprofitable to inquire, as far as we can, whether these had any idea of + beings such as we call angels. As we have not many available written + remains of the remarkable people to whom we refer, we are obliged to be + satisfied with pictorial and other relics which have survived until our + days. Some of the scenes depicted on urns, vases, and walls, in tombs and + elsewhere, are sufficiently explanatory of the subjects which the artist + has desired to pourtray; others, on the contrary, can be interpreted in a + variety of ways. Paying no attention to the latter, we may safely affirm, + that the Etruscans had ideas upon the subject of angels very similar to + our own. The form which their artists gave to them is precisely that which + is current at the present day, except that, unlike the Christian, the + Etruscan angels were of different sexes. Sometimes both males and females + were draped from the neck to the feet, in other drawings they were + partially or wholly nude. In the vast majority of cases each one possessed + two wings that were attached to the back, behind the arms, precisely as + they are in modern pictures; but in one very remarkable instance (plate 7, + <i>Description de quelques Vases Etrusques</i>, par H. D. de Luynes—folio, + Paris, 1840) the beings to whom we refer had each three pairs of pinions, + the one attached to the shoulder blades, a second to the loins, and a + third to the calves of the legs. These creatures correspond to our demons + or imps of Satan, or the devils of the New Testament which were sent into + a herd of swine. + </p> + <p> + Some of the winged Etruscan demons must be regarded as "angels of death," + for they are represented as hovering in the air over individuals, such as + Cassandra and Polynices, who are about to be sacrificed. One angel, who, + as usual, Diaitized bv is spoken of by the Christian describer thereof as + a goddess, is designated "Cunina." Her business was to look after and take + charge of infants in their cradle. A being such as this, by whatever name + we may designate her, cannot fail to remind us of the expression in the + New Testament—"Take heed that ye despise not one of these little + ones; for I say unto you that in heaven their angels do always behold the + face of my father which is in heaven" (Matt, xviii. 10). In another + Etruscan painting we find two angelic beings, fully draped, carrying a + nude corpse apparently to the future or invisible state. These naturally + remind us of the passage in Rev. xx. 1—"I saw an angel come down + from heaven, having the key of the bottomless pit and a great chain in his + hand." In some Etruscan paintings we have scenes which are supposed to + indicate the preparation of a bride for the wedding ceremony. In these + there are diminutive angels introduced, which are sometimes hovering in + the air and sometimes seated on the edge of the bath; these are by the + learned supposed to represent Cupid, Eros, Hymen, or Love, and they + indicate the devout feeling, that an angel watches over those who contract + marriage in an orthodox manner.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Whether the Romans obtained all their inferior deities + from the Etruscans, or whether the priests of the Eternal + City in ancient times improved upon the mythology which came + to them from their predecessors, just as the priests of + modern Rome have expanded, without improving, the + Christianised paganism which came to them, is a matter + difficult to decide. But it is certain that the old Romans + multiplied their "gods," as the modern ones have multiplied + their "saints." Amongst the former were many curious + deities, who presided at the wedding of young people, some at + the public ceremony, and others at the private rites. + "PRema" was the angel of quietness, whose business it was to + see "ne subacta virgo se ultra modum commovens semen a vulva + ejiceret." "Subigus" was another angel or demigod, whose + duty it was to see that the consummation should take place + in an appropriate manner—lovingly, pleasantly, and + peacefully. There was another—Pertunda—of whom Augustine + (Civ. Dei, vol. 9) remarks—"Si adest dea Prema ut subacta se + non commoveat quum prematur, dea Pertunda quid ea facit?" In + modern times the Papal saints, Cosmo, Damian, Foutin, and + sundry others, have had the special duty assigned to them to + make the husband fit for his marital duties. +</pre> + <p> + That the absence of such a spirit was looked upon as unlucky we gather + from an expression in Propertius (b. v. el. 3) in which a wife, whose + husband has been obliged to leave her, and go to a distant war, when + bewailing her destiny, amongst other references says—"I wedded + without a god to accompany me." This calls to memory the statement in + Hebrews i. 14, wherein, after speaking of angels, the writer asks—"Are + they not all ministering spirits, sent forth to minister for them who + shall be heirs of salvation?"—a sentence which implies the idea that + those who are not heirs of salvation have not angels which minister for + them. The doctrine was certainly not exclusively Christian. Of this any + one may assure himself by referring to Eccles. v. 6—"Neither say + thou before the angel that it was an error; wherefore... should God + destroy the works of thine hands?" + </p> + <p> + Again, we find an angel seated between two young folk of opposite sexes, + and archaeologists tell us that the winged creature thus figured is a + nuptial god—one whose business is to induce appropriate couples to + meet, to love, and to marry. Such a celestial match-maker was the Jewish + Raphael, who, though "one of the seven holy angels, which present the + prayers of the saints, and which go in and out before the glory of the + Holy One" (Tobit xii. 15)—yet condescended to conduct Tobias a long + way to meet Sara, and instructed him how he could marry her with safety, + and defeat a devil. + </p> + <p> + Amongst other individuals, in the Etruscan mythological paintings who are + winged, are the following, which are named thus by the authors who + describe the vases, &c., whether rightly or wrongly it is not + necessary for me to prove:—Janus; Furina, the goddess of thieves; + Mercury, the messenger of Jupiter and the patron of robbers; Vacuna, or + Desideria, or Venus, the goddess of indolence, desire, or love; Hymen, the + angel or god of marriage; Cupid, the god of love; Victory, Bacchus, + Silenus, Dryads, Calliope, Tempest, Fame, Proserpine; Iibitina, the + goddess of funerals; Venus, infera, Nemesis, or fate; Death, life, + Charybdis, The Furies, Geryon, Justice, Peace, Iris, and Diana. On such a + subject the reader may consult with advantage Augustine (<i>de Civitate + Dei</i>, b. vl. c. 9); Arnobius (<i>Adversus Gentes</i>, b. iv. c. 7); and + Tertullian (<i>Ad Nationes</i>, b. ii. c. 11). + </p> + <p> + We may now refer to a remarkable series of drawings, representing the + funeral of Patroclus, described by Homer, which were discovered in the + Etruscan sepulchre of the Tarquinii near what once was Vulci and is now + "Ponte della Badia," in the year 1857, and which is described in <i>Noël + des Vergers L'Etrurie et les Etrusques</i>, and in <i>Corpus Inscriptionum + Italicarum</i> (Turin 1867), the latter of which I use as my authority. In + one of the scenes we find depicted the sacrifice of the Trojan youths at + the grave of Patroclus. The artist has not left to the fancy of the + observer the identification of his figures, but has written in Etruscan + letters the modified names of the actors. Beginning from the right hand, + we find Ajax Oileus, and next to him a naked Trojan youth, whose hands are + bound behind his back, and who is guarded by Telamonian Ajax. Behind and + besides him is Charon, and in front of the latter is another Trojan youth, + nude, seated on the ground, and receiving his death-wound from Achilles. + Behind the latter stands a winged, draped, tall female figure, whom at one + time I took to be the glorified soul of Patroclus; but, having seen a + similar figure on other Etruscan designs depicting human sacrifice or + death, and finding over the head of this one the word <i>fanth, vanth, or + fano</i>—according to the value which we assign to the digamma or F + and O—which is, I think, equivalent to the Latin <i>Fatum</i>, fate, + &c., we must regard the figure as resembling Azrael—"the angel + of death." Besides and behind her stands a draped man unarmed, having a + fixed countenance of settled melancholy, and regarding without a shade of + exultation the death of the young Trojan whom Achilles slaughters. Over + his head are the words <i>hinthial patrucles</i>, which is believed to + signify "the shade of Patroclus." The last figure in the group is + Agamemnon. + </p> + <p> + This and the other sculptures in the tomb are extremely interesting to the + archaeologists, firstly, because they bear evidence of a very superior + style of art; secondly, because they testify to the antiquity of Homer's + <i>Iliad</i>, and its popularity in other nations than the Greek. They + show, moreover, that the wealthy men amongst the Etrurians were not + ignorant of the Grecian language, or rather literature, although they had + difficulty in adapting the Hellenic words to their own alphabet; lastly, + they ought to be especially valuable to us inasmuch as they demonstrate + the existence of a belief in ancient Italy of the resurrection of the + body, and of the existence of angels precisely the same in shape as those + which pious Christians delight to see in their churches, and in their + manuals of devotion. It is worthy of notice that upon some Etruscan vases + in the museum at Munich there are angelic warriors covered with armour—a + winged female carrying a caduceus, and winged horses—like Pegasus, + and probably like those seen by Zechariah, the Hebrew vaticinator. + </p> + <p> + We consider it best to omit making any remarks respecting the ideas + entertained about angels by the Phoenicians, for we have scarcely any + information about their mythology beyond the names of certain gods and + goddesses. It will be more profitable to pass on to the Greeks, and + inquire into the general system of their theological belief. This is, we + think, a matter of some importance, for this people, as victors and + masters, came into contact with the Jews in the time of Joel, about b.c. + 800; and if any captive Hebrews came back from Grecia (see Joel iii. 6), + we believe that they would naturally bring back with them much of the + Hellenic lore of their conquerors. The reader must not be carried away + here with the once popular notion that everything which was found in + heathendom, which resembled something biblical or Jewish, came of + necessity from scriptural or Israelitish sources. The reverse is much more + likely, for the Hebrews in old times are described by their historians and + preachers as hankering after novelty—"going whoring after other + gods," as the Bible has it. They, on the other hand, were encouraged to + keep themselves aloof from others, and were never a missionary nation; + nor, had they been so, were they sufficiently honourable or wealthy, as a + race, ever to command respect. They were, indeed, generally despised by + the people round about them, who would no more think of adopting Jewish + fables than we should care to learn theology and cosmogony from African + negroes. + </p> + <p> + If we endeavour to reduce Grecian mythology to its simplest expression, we + find that it consisted of a belief in a creator—grand beyond + conception, and one whom the mind could not conceive, nor pencil nor the + chisel depict. Under him there was thought to be a host of minor deities, + who agreed, more or less, amongst themselves, each having a particular + department of creation to preside over, or a definite function to perform. + Jupiter, for example, had the air and the heavens generally under his + management; Neptune superintended the sea; Rhea, or Gaia, or Gee, was the + goddess of the surface of the earth; and Pluto had the management of the + interior of the globe and of those who were buried therein. If corpses + were unburied, they did not come under his immediate cognizance. Then, as + it was quite possible that one deity might be counteracting another, as, + indeed, they are represented to have done during the Trojan war, another + god was necessary to be a medium of communication between the others, and + Mercury became the messenger, or go-between. + </p> + <p> + Below the major gods was an infinity of smaller ones, who presided over + physical and moral matters. There were, for example, wood and tree nymphs; + Dryads and hamadryads—gods of rivers, such as Simois and Scamander. + Pan presided over husbandmen; Hermes, over thieves, &c. Others, like + Eros, fulfilled the duty of bringing the sexes together. Hymen secured + them in marriage, and Venus had the duty of insuring connubial happiness, + whilst Lucina's business was to bring the offspring of the marriage into + the world—with as little pain or danger as possible. Then, again, + Fortune brought good luck. The "furies" brought evil, and the "fates" + ruled the destiny of mortals. + </p> + <p> + Against some of these gods others rebelled. For example, there were the + Titans, the sons of Heaven and Earth (Cælus et Terra), who were all of + gigantic stature, and may be said to be identical with the giants spoken + of in Gen. vi. 2-4, as being the offspring of the sons of God and the + daughters of men. These Titans were much disliked by their father, and + confined in the bowels of the earth, or, as we should say, in Hell; but + their mother relieved them, and they in turn revenged themselves upon + their progenitor. When Jupiter succeeded to Cronos or Saturn, the giants, + the sons of Tartarus and Terra, or Hell and Earth, united with their + half-brothers, the Titans, and attacked Olympus, and its gods, in dismay, + assumed disguises and fled into Egypt—a rare spot, whence also came + as history tells us, the founder of Christianity and the doctrine of the + Trinity. To regain his position, Jupiter found a man—a son of his + own—whom he had begotten by lying three nights in the heart of the + earth, or, as the fable has it, in the arms of Alcmena—Hercules by + name, to attack the allied monsters, and thus with the aid of a mortal the + gods became victorious. Just as in more modern days the divine mission and + position of Jesus of Nazareth and Mahomet of Mecca, have been determined + by the arms of human warriors. The power of men in heaven is wonderful, + considering how great is their weakness upon earth! It is probable, that + to the Greeks, Milton owed his ideas of <i>Paradise Lost</i>. + </p> + <p> + According to the ordinary ideas of angels, the gods, demigods, goddesses, + genii, and the like, were essentially the same amongst the Hebrews as the + archangels and inferior hierarchy are in modern christian mythology. We + shall the more readily see this if we inquire into the ideas of the Greeks + respecting <i>demons</i>. "The latter were regarded as spirits which + presided over the actions of mankind, and watched over their secret + intentions." Many Greek theologians thought that each man had two, the one + good, the other bad. These sprites could change themselves into any form, + and at death the individual was delivered up to judgment by these + companions, who testified to his actions during life. Socrates often spoke + of his own peculiar "spirit." Not only were these creatures supposed to + influence men, but they were also believed to guard places, and a genius + loci was the same as the God of Ekron, or any other locality. + </p> + <p> + It is almost impossible for a thoughtful man not to compare with the Greek + ideas those held by moderns. We hear in familiar discourse, and read in + popular books, about a good angel and a bad one. God is said to use both + (see Ps. lxxviii. 49, and 1 Kings xxii. 21, 22.) Many, too, of the readers + of Sterne will remember the remarks which he makes about a recording angel + who was obliged to register an oath, but who contrived to blot out the + entry with a tear (com. Mal. iii. 16.) As we have already adverted to the + belief of Jesus that every child had an angel, who is always in the + presence of. God, we need not remark again upon the matter. + </p> + <p> + But though the Grecian gods and demigods were the counterparts of the + archangels and lesser powers of the Jews and Christians, they were not + pictorially depicted, as they were in other places, like winged men or + other creatures. + </p> + <p> + Arnobius, for example, in <i>Advenus génies</i>, when writing about the + divinities of the heathen, remarks, that they are so like ordinary men and + women, that the artist has to resort to some contrivance to show that any + offspring of his brush, or of his chisel, is a god or goddess. A painter, + he observes, will select the finest young women he can discover—or + the handsomest prostitute in his country, and from one maiden, or from the + collective charms of many, will paint a lovely woman and style her Venus; + yet she is only a courtezan after all. His remark is a certainly true one. + Jupiter is never represented otherwise than as a man, nor does Minerva + ever figure except as a woman. None of the greater gods of Hellas are + winged like the tutelar gods of the Assyrians and Persians were. Even + Hermes, though he does bear pinions, does not carry them in the usual + form. Instead of having powerful wings behind his arms, like the Gabriel + or Michael of Christian mythology, he has little nippers attached to each + side of a cap, of a pair of socks, and of a curiously-shaped wand—all + of which he can put off when he pleases, or don when he is sent with a + message. Jupiter's thunders bear similar wings. But such minor deities, or + devils, as Eros or love; Hymen or marriage; Fame, or victory; Aurora, or + day-break; the winds, the Genii, the Gorgons, the Furies, the Harpies, + Iris, Isis, Hebe, Psyche, and even Pegasus—a wondrous horse, are + winged with pinions which resemble those of the eagle. + </p> + <p> + If we now pause for a moment to compare one thing with another, we readily + see that Hymen may fairly be described as the angel of the covenant of + marriage, and that Mercury is identical with Raphael. The "genius loci," + the "dryad" or "hamadryad," is the counterpart of the cherubim guarding + the ark and the mercyseat of the Jewish temple. Apollo is the angel in the + sun (Rev. xix. 17.) Neptune is "the angel of the waters" (Rev. xvi. 5.) + Nay, we may—indeed we must go further, and affirm that either the + angel Gabriel, or "the power of the Highest," which, we are told in Luke + i. 26, 35, overshadowed Mary, the espoused wife of Joseph, is a perfect + counterpart of the Hellenic Jupiter who overshadowed Alcmena. + </p> + <p> + Both produced a being equally celebrated—for we may fairly assert + that Hercules was believed in by as many individuals as have faith in + Jesus. For ourselves, we do not credit the myth of the Hellenists; of the + very existence of a Hercules we are profoundly incredulous. Yet we do not + doubt for a moment that Jesus of Nazareth lived as a man upon this earth, + and founded, with the subsequent assistance of Paul, the religion which is + called Christian. But of the supernatural conception of Mary and of her + impregnation by a deity we are intensely sceptical. + </p> + <p> + Of the theology of the Romans in the times prior to, and somewhat + subsequent to, our era, we need say little. It resembled both the Etruscan + and the Greek at the first, and subsequently it was modified by the + Egyptian and by the Persian. But it was in Rome, whilst pagan, that the + present pictorial type of angels was perfected (see Plates ix. to xiii, + Lajard's <i>Culte de Venus</i>), in which allegorical figures, from old + Roman bas-reliefs, precisely like modern angels, are represented killing + the Mithraic bull. I may also add, in passing, that the crozier borne by + Romanist bishops is a reproduction of the Etruscan <i>lituus</i>, the + augurs' or diviners' staff of office. + </p> + <p> + The Roman nation, like the Papist and Peruvian religions, was omnivorous, + and not only venerated the old gods of the soil, but adopted new + divinities eagerly. Whoever chose to import a new deity, and a novel style + of worship was hailed, patronized and enriched, much in the same way as at + London during recent times, Mesmerists, "spirit rappers," + "cord-conjurors," clairvoyants, male and female, spiritualists like Home, + very High Churchmen, and many other classes of a similar stamp have been + encouraged. As in Athens, we are told that "the Athenians and strangers + which were there spent their time in nothing else but either to tell or to + hear some new thing" (Acts xvii), no matter whether the novelty was + religious or otherwise, so it has been elsewhere. London really, and Rome + metaphorically are constantly adopting new ideas, some highly commendable + and philosophical, others quite the reverse. Amongst the latter, we may + mention that which professes that a certain man can, like Jesus is said to + have done, heal by a touch. This assertion, however, is only sparsely + credited on the Thames. Far more general is the belief which professes, + that an Ecumenical Council can by a vote make one man and his official + successors "infallible." + </p> + <p> + We cannot pass by this subject without remarking that instability in + religion is evidence of infidelity; and the adoption of new tenets is a + proof of the low estimation in which old ones have been held. Even the + new, or Christian dispensation, as it is called, is founded upon the + insufficiency of the old or Jewish covenant, which, by those who adopt the + one, is a confession that they believe the other was imperfect and + therefore not of God. Consequently, when we find a "church," like the + Roman, habitually patching its old clothes, we conclude that its leaders + are dissatisfied with them and desire better. A lover who finds his + mistress perfect neither seeks nor wishes to change her for another; nor + endeavours to induce her to modify her attire until he is dissatisfied + therewith. When he insists upon an alteration it is because his ardent + love has faded. The philosopher may see clearly why certain prelates + desire to have some infallible man to appeal to—for it is easier to + find out the opinion of one individual than to harmonize the contradictory + hypotheses of fifty dogmatical or authoritative writers. Yet the same man + will not fail to see that such a proceeding, whilst it strengthens the + hold of the church upon the weak-minded, cuts it adrift from the strong. + The policy is not altogether bad, for it seeks to bind closer those who, + whilst wearing the chains of captivity, regard them as ornaments. But all + those who adopt such tactics ought, boldly and unequivocally, to withdraw + from the rank of truth-seekers, and of envoys of that God who is not "the + author of confusion but of peace." + </p> + <p> + We may now proceed to the consideration of the angelic mythology of the + Old and New Testaments. In our inquiry we shall endeavour to arrive at the + ideas contained in the words which are used, and not content ourselves + with simple quotation. There is strong reason to believe that Christians + in general rarely examine into the real signification of words which they + are taught to use, or which, from some fancy or other, they commit to + memory. They imagine—if they think on the subject at all—that + to repeat a text or a creed is to perform an act of faith, which, in + itself, is praiseworthy and a good work. Such do not, in any appreciable + degree, differ from the Thibetans, described by the Abbé Hue, who perform + their devotions by turning round upon their axles certain cylinders, upon + which some prayers are engraved. Not only these Asiatics, but Europeans of + large mental calibre are often contented with vague ideas; and when they + are challenged to support "the faith which is in them," show that they + have never yet examined it. If, for example, they are asked how they can + believe in the truth of such passages, "I have seen God (Kohim) face to + face" (Gen. xxxii. 30); "The Lord (Jehovah) spake unto Moses face to face + as a man speaketh unto his friend" (Exod. xxxiii. 11); "Moses whom the + Lord knew face to face" (Deut. xxxiv. 10), and the opposite one, "Thou + canst not see my face, for there shall no man see me and live" (Exod. + xxxiii. 20)—the sole reply rendered is that the first passages are + figurative, passing by entirely the comparison in the second, which + asserts that God talked with Moses as one friend with another. + </p> + <p> + As a farther illustration of my meaning, I may point to the glibness with + which Christians talk, sing, and listen to discourses about blood. If + people really gave heed to what they chant, and to the words of their + ministers, they would really be puzzled to find a distinction between the + god whom they worship and that idol deity of Mexico, which called + constantly for the hearts and the blood of his worshippers. "Without + shedding of blood is no remission" (Heb. ix. 22) is a dogma that puts the + Europeans' God on the same level as the deities worshipped in pagan + Africa, New Zealand, and by the Anthropophagi generally. + </p> + <p> + In like manner, if ordinary people are asked to reconcile such passages as + the following—"Who maketh his angels spirits;" "A spirit hath not + flesh and bones as ye see me have" (Luke xxiv. 39)—with a host of + others, in which angels are said to have appeared, talked, and acted like + men, they allege that "much of the phraseology of the Bible is + metaphorical." But if it be granted that the language is metaphorical, + must we not equally believe that the facts referred to are mythical; and + if so, how much of the so-called inspired book can we trust? If metaphor + and figure-imagery are cities of refuge for theologians, those who fly to + them must remember, that there they must remain and live therein all their + days; they cannot be citizens of the world, and yet never leave their + asylum: if, for them, facts are fictions, by parity of reason fictions are + facts. + </p> + <p> + If, when an individual, said to be a prophet, and, as such, the mouthpiece + of the Holy Ghost or of Jehovah, tells us that he saw and talked with an + angel, who imparted to him such and such information, we are bound either + to believe the whole statement or to reject it as valueless, <i>quoad</i> + revelation. If the man did see an angel, and that angel spoke, it must + have been material; and if material, it could not be a spirit, and if not + a spirit, it was not an angel.* If to this it be answered that individuals + do see what they deem to be spirits—just as many a drunken man avers + that he sees "blue devils," we grant it at once. We go still farther, and + state that we know individuals in full possession, apparently, of all + their senses, who see, occasionally, men, women, horses, dogs, and other + things, which have no more existence than the figures which appear to us + in dreams. Such men not only see imaginary beings, but they hear + conversations or speeches which have no reality in them. But we cannot for + a moment allow that such delusions of the senses are sterling, and such + utterances, messages from the Almighty delivered by angels. To be logical, + therefore, the theologian must either accept the stories told in the Bible + about angelic beings as literally true, to the exclusion of all metaphor, + or believe that every thing tainted by such celestial mythology is + entirely of human invention. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The authority for this is Ps. civ. 4; Heb. L 7, 14,—"Who + maketh his angels spirits;" "Are they not all ministering + spirits?" +</pre> + <p> + As an illustration, let us consider two episodes in the history of Elisha. + We find in 2 Kings ii. 11, that a chariot of fire and horses of fire, + appeared to this prophet, and parted him from Elijah, with whom he was + walking, and carried the latter away into heaven; and we see in 2 Kings + vi. 17, that Elisha's servant could really see a multitude of chariots and + horses of fire round about his master. We must also remember that "the + chariots of the Lord are thousands of angels" (Ps. lxviii. 17; see also + Ps. xxxiv. 7.) Now these were, or were not, realities—if the + chariots and horsemen existed, then we infer that some sort of stables and + ostlers exist in heaven; if none such exist, then the chariots and horses + could neither have been seen, nor have separated the two prophets. + </p> + <p> + It may be urged that supernatural beings do exist for those who can see + them, and for no other; just as the angel was seen by Balaam's ass thrice + (see Numbers xxii. 22-33) before he was recognized by her master. But this + observation is worthless, for it amounts to nothing more than this—viz., + that the persons seen in dreams exist for the dreamers and for no one + else; but it in no way proves the reality of the asserted apparition. + </p> + <p> + It would be as useless to discuss, at this point, the actuality of what + are called "spectres," as of other things named fairies, pixies, gnomes, + or sprites. Of the existence of such there is abundance of evidence; and + for hundreds of years there was not a human being who did not believe in + them. But there was even stronger proof that the world stood still, and + the sun went round it, and during untold centuries all who thought on the + matter believed the statement. Yet in these days all the testimony is + regarded as worthless in the presence of the stern facts of science; and + ghosts are only believed in by such as write treatises upon squaring the + circle, perpetual motion, and the plane figure of the earth. We shall take + up the subject at length in our next chapter. + </p> + <p> + If we were to follow the bent of our inclination, we should now endeavour + to prove that the Jews had no idea of an angelic mythology prior to the + Babylonian captivity, and that they had no distinct literature prior to + the Grecian and Edomite captivity referred to in Joel, Amos, Obadiah, and + Micah, except possibly such records and written laws as may be styled + "annals" or "year-books;" and, as a consequence, that all parts of the Old + Testament in which angelic beings figure are comparatively modern, having + been fabricated after the long sojourn of the Jews in Babylon. But to + carry out this intention would require a treatise rather than an essay, + and I must content myself with saying that I believe it to be affirmed by + all Hebrew scholars, that up to the time of Nebuchadnezzar—or + Hezekiah—the sole unseen power recognized by the Jews was Jehovah + alone. They did not believe either in angel or devil What their ideas were + we may shortly describe*:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Long after the remark in the text was written, and long + before it was in type, Dr. Kalisch, in his second part of a + commentary on Leviticus, published his views upon the point + referred to. When I can refer my readers to so masterly a + composition as his essay upon Angels in the Jewish theology, + it is seedless for me to say much on the subject. I may also + refer those who are interested in the matter to a work + entitled <i>The Devil: his Origin, Greatness, and Decadence</i> + (Williams & Norgate, London, 1871—small 8vo., pp. 72). My + essay supplements these, and in no way clash therewith. +</pre> + <p> + 1. Angels were spirits, being also ministers (Heb. L 7.) They were a + flaming fire (Ps. civ. 4); compare Jud. xiii. 20, and Acts vii. 35—that + is, spirits are made of a combustible material which is, however, + incombustible! + </p> + <p> + 2. They could assume the form of men, and were identical with God (see + Gen. xviii. 19; Tobit, and Luke i.): that is to say, they were masters, + yet servants—the sender and the sent at the same time! + </p> + <p> + 3. Their faces were terrible (Jud. xiii. 6); but they also shone (Acts vi. + 15) and yet they were so good-looking and handsome that the Sodomites fell + in love with them as Jupiter did with Ganymede (Gen. xix). + </p> + <p> + 4 One was the superintendent of destruction, and was visible on one + occasion to David (2 Sam. xxiv. 16, 17), to Oman, his sons, and to the + elders of Israel (1 Chron. xxi. 16-20.) His weapon was a sword (<i>ibid.</i>) + He certainly must have had flesh and bones. It would be an interesting + matter to inquire whether the sword was as spiritual as the angel was. + </p> + <p> + 5. One angel was outwitted by a donkey (see Numb. xxii. 22-33.) Yet this + angel was God (comp. Numb. xxii. 35, and xxiv. 4, 15,16). It is marvellous + to me how any one can read this history of Balaam and his ass, and notice + how the animal turned God from His purpose (see chap, xxii. 33), and yet + believe the story to be of <i>divine</i> origin! + </p> + <p> + 6. They are made of light (Luke ii. 9), yet can talk the vernacular, and + can be counterfeited by Satan (2 Cor. xi. 14); but how he manages it, and + whether he then ceases to be a roaring lion or a fallen angel "reserved in + everlasting chains under darkness unto the judgment of the great day" + (Jude 6), is a matter for surmise. + </p> + <p> + 7. One of them fought with the Devil, and kept his temper (Jude 9.) Of the + language used in the disputation we do not know; nor can we tell how the + two recognized each other. + </p> + <p> + 8. Some of them are guilty of folly (Job. iv. 18), and some sinned—how, + one does not know—and were cast down to hell, and delivered into + chains of darkness. It is fitting that beings who have no flesh and bones + should be bound by fetters that have no reality (2 Peter ii. 4). + </p> + <p> + 9. Some were discontented with their home and were punished (Jude 6); but + where their original habitation was, or why it was regarded as so + miserable that another place was desired, is a mystery. + </p> + <p> + 10. They have food provided for them (Ps. lxxviii. 25), and they eat like + men (Gen. xviii. 8; and xix. 3), consequently angels must have flesh, + blood, and a stomach to digest victuals. Sometimes instead of eating food + they order it to be burned, and the smoke from the viands serves as a + vehicle to heaven (Jud. xiii. 19, 20). + </p> + <p> + 11. Their number is twenty thousand (Ps. lxviii. 17). + </p> + <p> + 12. They are chariots (<i>ibid</i>), yet they walk and get their feet + dusty (Gen. xviii. and xix. 2; compare Jud. ii. 1; vi. 12); the chariots + are of fire, and so are the horses (2 Kings vi. 17); but they are also + clouds (Ps. civ. 3). + </p> + <p> + 13. They are taught military discipline and arranged in "legions" (Matt + xxvi. 53). + </p> + <p> + 14. They are sexless (Mark xii. 25), yet were men when they appeared to + Abraham, Sarah, and the Sodomites (Gen. xviii, xix.). + </p> + <p> + 15. They are liable to do wrong, and will be judged by men, some time or + other (1 Oor. vi. 2, 3). As in this passage the angels are put below the + saints, and in Gen. xviii. and xix., it is clear that Elohim and Jehovah + were angels, it follows that holy men, when raised, will be superior to + the power that gave them heaven! + </p> + <p> + 16. Though sexless, the angels, or sons of God, may be captivated by the + beauty of woman, and engender giants with them in a very human fashion + (Gen. vi). + </p> + <p> + 17. They are very sensitive respecting the hair of women, and require it + to be covered in worship—at other times they probably are not so + particular. Although they minister upon those who are heirs of salvation + (Heb. i. 14), they might be tempted from their business, if they were to + see a pretty snood in golden tresses hid (1 Cor. xi. 10). + </p> + <p> + 18. Every child has an angel, or rather angels, to look after it (Matt, + xviii. 10), which leads to the belief that the number of angels has + increased since the sixty-eighth Psalm was written, when there were only + 20,000, and perhaps a few more.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The words of the christian father, Tertullian, upon this + subject are so very apposite to our subject of angels, that + I am tempted to quote them—Clark's edition, vol. i. p. 487- + 8. + + Speaking to the heathens, he says—"And you are not content + to assert the divinity of such as were once known to you, + whom you heard and handled, and whose portraits have been + painted, and actions recounted, and memory retained amongst + you; but men insist upon consecrating with a heavenly life, + i.e.t they insist on deifying, I know not what incorporeal + inanimate shadows and the names of things, dividing man's + entire existence amongst separate powers, even from his + conception in the womb, so that there is a god (read + <i>angel</i>) Consevius, to preside over concubital generation, + and Fluviona to preserve the infant in the womb; after these + come Vitumnus and Sentinus through whom the babe begins to + have life and its earliest sensation; then Diespiter, by + whose office the child accomplishes its birth. But when + women begin their parturition Candelifera also comes in aid, + since child-bearing requires the light of the candle; and + other goddesses there are (such as Lucina, Partula, Nona, + Décima, and Alemona) who get their names from the parts they + bear in the stages of travail There were two Carmentas + likewise, according to the general view. To one of them, + called Postverta, belonged the function of assisting the + birth of the malpresented child; whilst the other, Prosa or + Prorso, executed the like office for the rightly born. The + god Farinus was so called from his inspiring the first + utterance, whilst others believed in Locutius from his gift + of speech. Cunina is present as the protector of the child's + deep slumber, and supplies to it refreshing rest. To lift + them when fallen there is Levana, and along with her Rumina + (from the old word <i>ruma</i>, a teat). It is a wonderful + oversight that no gods were appointed for clearing up the + filth of children. Then to preside over their first pap and + earliest drink you have Potina and Edula; to teach the child + to stand erect is the work of Statina (or Statilinus), + whilst Adeona helps him to come to dear mamma-, and Abeona + to toddle back again. Then there is Domiduca, to bring home + the bride, and the goddess Mens, to influence the mind to + either good or evil. They have likewise Volumnus and Voleta, + to control the will; Paventina, the goddess of fear; + Venilia, of hope; Volnpia, of pleasure; Praastitia, of + beauty. Then, again, they give his name to Peragenor, from + his teaching men to go through their work; to Consus, from + his suggesting to them counsel. Juventa is their guide on + assuming the manly gown, and 'bearded Fortune,' when they + come to full manhood. If I must touch on their nuptial + duties, there is Afferenda, whose appointed function is to + see to the offering of the dower. But fie on you—you have + your Mutunus, and Tutunus, and Pertunda, and Subigus, and + the goddess Prema, and likewise Perfica. O spare yourselves, + ye impudent gods." +</pre> + <p> + 19. Some angels are evil, but are much the same as the good (Ps. lxxviii + 49), in their power of doing mischief. + </p> + <p> + 20. Every heir of salvation has an angel to minister to him in some way or + other (Heb. i. 14); so have Roman babies—see note. + </p> + <p> + 21. The angels are only a trifle superior to men (Ps. viii. 5), and in the + invisible world will be inferior to them if the latter be saints (1 Cor. + vi. 3; Heb. ii. 5). + </p> + <p> + 22. They can speak all sorts of languages (1 Cor. xiii. 1); that which + Michael and the devil used (Jude 9) has not been revealed to us. + </p> + <p> + 23. They use a trumpet, probably as immaterial as themselves, and make a + great noise thereby (Matt xxiv. 31); and horses (Zech. i. and Rev. vi). + </p> + <p> + 24. They have wings and can fly (Rev. viii. 13; xiv. 6), although they are + chariots. + </p> + <p> + 25. When on earth they are clothed with a long white garment, have a face + like lightning, and one can appear to be two, or not appear at all to + some, though very distinctly seen by others (see Matt xxviii. 2, 3; Mark + xvi. 5; Luke xxiv. 4; John xx. 12). + </p> + <p> + Of all the angels mentioned in the Apocalypse we need not write. One of + the best accounts I have met with of the angelic mythology of the Hebrews + is in Coheleth, or The Book of Ecclesiastes, by Rev. Dr. Ginsburg + (Longman, London, 1861). It is written in explanation of Ch. v. 5, wherein + is the expression, "Do not say before the angel that it was error" (page + 340), and the following remarks are condensed therefrom:— "The + angels occupy different rank and offices—seven of them as the + highest functionaries; princes or archangels surround the throne of God + and form the cabinet—(1) Michael, the prime minister, the guardian + of the Jewish nation, the opponent of Satan (Zech. iii. 1, 2), of the + prince of Persia (Dan. x. 13, 20), the conservator of the corpse of Moses + (Jude 9), and the dragon (Rev. xii); (2) Raphael, who presides over the + sanitary affairs (Tobit iii. 17, xii. 15)—'When God would cure any + sick person,' says St. Jerome, 'he sends the archangel Raphael, one of the + seven spirits before his throne, to accomplish the cure.' There can be + little doubt that this was the angel who went down at certain seasons to + move the waters of the pool to cure the impotent people (John v. 4); (3) + Gabriel, the messenger to announce or to effect deliverance, also a + presence angel (Luke i. 11-20, 26-35); (4) Uriel, mentioned in Esdras (2 + b., ch. iv., w. 1 and 20). In Targums these four are represented as + surrounding the throne of the divine majesty, but all do not agree; + Jonathan's arrangement is—Michael at the right, Uriel at the left, + Gabriel before, and Raphael behind.* The fifth, sixth, and seventh + archangels are Phaniel, Raguel, and Sarakiel." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * An observation such as this distinctly shows how + completely the ideas of angels are associated with gross + anthropomorphism. +</pre> + <p> + "Next to the cabinet comes the privy council, composed of four and twenty + crowned elders (1 Kings xxii. 19; Rev. iv. 4; vii. 13; viii. 3), who + surround the throne, before whom Christ will confess those who confessed + him. Then comes the council, consisting of the seventy angel princes—the + provincial governors presiding over the affairs of the seventy nations + into which the human family is divided." Hence the Targumic paraphrase on + Gen. xi. 7, 8—"<i>The Lord said to the seventy presence angels, Come + now and let us go down, and there let us confound their language, so that + one may not understand the language of the other. And the Lord manifested + himself against that city, and with him were the seventy angels according + to the seventy nations</i>." Hence the Septuagint translation of Deut + xxxii. 8—"When the Most High divided the nations... he set the + boundaries... according to the number of the angels." The doctor also + notices the four angels mentioned in Zech. vi, who seem to have the + management of four great monarchies, but he does not advert to the angels + of the seven churches spoken of in the Apocalypse. He then proceeds—"Then + comes the innumerable company of presence angels, since every individual + has a guardian angel as well as every nation"... St Jerome, remarking upon + Matt, xviii. 10, says,—"<i>Great is the dignity of these little + ones, for every one of them has from his very birth an angel dedicated to + guard him</i>."* When St. Peter was chained in his prison, his angel + released him (Acts xiii. 7,11), and the damsel who opened a house door for + him was told that he who was knocking was Peter's angel. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We have never been able to see the force of this remark, + unless the idea of children having guardian angels was + associated with the belief that these beings left them when + they grew up. If the adults standing round Jesus had each an + individual warden, there would be nothing peculiar in the + warning given in the verse referred to. It is, however, just + possible that the notion existed that it was to adults only + that tutelary spirits were assigned, and that the prophet of + Nazareth declared that each infant had a protecting genius + as well as every man. +</pre> + <p> + Then there are angels who preside over all the phenomena of nature. One + presides over the sun (Eev. xix. 17); angels guard the storm and lightning + (Ps. civ. 4); four angels have charge over the four winds (Rev. vii. 1, + 2); an angel presides over the waters (Rev. xvi. 5); and another over the + temple altar (Rev. xiv. 18). + </p> + <p> + We need not pursue this subject further; enough has been said to show that + the Hebrew ideas of angels differ in no essential respect from those of + other nations, who, if not older than the Jews, were certainly never + influenced by the Hebrews. From the evidence before us, we are constrained + to believe that the knowledge which we assume to possess of the celestial + court has descended to us from heathen or pagan sources, and that the + pictorial designs which pass current for likenesses of angels or + archangels have descended from Egyptians, Assyrians, Persians, Grecians, + Etruscans, and Romans, and cannot pretend to anything approaching to a + revelation from God. + </p> + <p> + We have already remarked that the Hebrew notions of the heavenly hierarchy + are evidence of a gross anthropomorphism; they indicate a belief in the + existence of a monarch having a face and back, a right hand and a left, + ears and a mouth, and a wherewithal for sitting upon a throne—the + part which was shown, as we are told, to Moses; they tell of a theology + that recognizes places in the universe where God is not, and of which He + has no cognizance save through messengers. If this be so, what shall we + say of the hagiology which tells us that there was on one occasion a + conspiracy amongst the courtiers of the celestial ruler, a discovery of + treason, and a punishment of the offenders as dire as the most malignant + man could invent? We have often thought that no human being, unless he + were vile, brutal, sensual, clever, disappointed, and revengeful, could + have invented the idea of hell, and that none would ever have believed in + it unless he was both timid, thoughtless, and malignant The dormant hate + of the orthodox against opponents is an awful quantity. The expression of + "fallen angels" is a pregnant text; it recalls to our mind the passage—"Yea, + mine own familiar friend, in whom I trusted, which did eat of my bread, + hath lifted up his heel against me" (Ps. xli. 9). It reminds us of David, + Absalom and Ahitophel, of Solomon and Jeroboam, of Joram and Jehu, + Benhadad and Hazael, Louis XVIII. and Marshal Ney. We feel sure that an + individual who could write the words—"If we sin wilfully after that + we have received the knowledge of the truth, there remaineth no more + sacrifice for sins, but a certain fearful looking for of judgment and + fiery indignation, which shall devour the adversaries" (Heb. x. 26, 27), + could readily have invented a hell, if he had not found one already made + to his hand. The sentence just quoted bears evidence of intense + theological spitefulness, and a petty meanness that neither Sakya nor + Jesus would have shown. Such thoughts are womanish, not manly, although + apostolic. + </p> + <p> + We can fancy it having been penned by James or John, who once asked Jesus + whether they should not call down fire from heaven to consume the + Samaritans, simply because the latter were not polite to the master—"because + he seemed to be going to Jerusalem" (Luke ix. 53, 54). But if so, those + disciples must have forgotten the rebuke of Jesus—"Ye know not what + manner of spirit ye are of." + </p> + <p> + Here we must pause awhile, and consider the idea of various peoples about + Hell. + </p> + <p> + Some, perhaps we ought to say, many, earthly potentates have encouraged + the belief that there is a place in which evildoers, who have escaped + punishment for crime in this world will, after their death here, receive + their deserts. A place of torment which no man has seen, or can see in + life, and which, consequently, anyone can describe, is a wonderful + supplement to imperfect police arrangements, and as such, has been + fabricated or adopted in various nations. But in all the nations of + antiquity, and those which we call pagan, Hell has been assigned to those + who have committed crimes upon earth, such as murder, theft, and the like, + and whose evil deeds have outnumbered their good ones. The idea of a + torture vault for heretics has, so far as I can learn, been reserved for + Christian times, and for nations who punish ecclesiastical offences more + severely than the most atrocious crimes. The papal church, wherever she + has had power, has punished rejection of her communion far more cruelly + than she has dealt with rape, robbery, and murder; and all, who think with + her, draw their arguments for so doing from what is said to be God's + method of dealing with His rebellious angels. Surely, the idea runs, if + the Almighty, who cannot do wrong, has punished with fire and everlasting + torment the ministers who stood in His presence and around His throne, + simply because they kept not their position, or did not watch over their + principality—for both meanings may be assigned to the original words—surely + man must treat his heretic fellow on a similar plan. God, runs the + argument, made the Devil, and man must multiply his imps. It is true, + according to Hebrew and Christian mythology, that the idea of a Devil was + not originally in the mind of Jehovah. But when Satan rebelled he was + immediately invested with power! In other words, Lucifer taught Elohim, + and thoughtful Christians believe this!! + </p> + <p> + If we now attempt to frame a history of the modern Hell, its rulers, its + angels, or its devils, we find, in the first place, that the Old Testament + contains no idea whatever of Satan being an angel originally bright and + fair, but subsequently disobedient, rebellious, conquered, and punished. + Nor is the New Testament much more communicative—we find the + arch-fiend described as a murderer and as a liar; he also is associated + with angels, as in the words, "the Devil and his angels." He is described + as "the Prince of the power of the air,"—as "a roaring lion, seeking + whom he may devour." He is "the spirit which worketh in the children of + disobedience." He is also represented as telling Jesus, that he is able to + dispose of all the kingdoms of the globe, and to give their glory to whom + he will. Yet nowhere is a hint breathed that he was once an angel in + heaven. The only verse in the whole Bible which is supposed to bear upon + this matter, shows that the devil and his imps are not identical with the + fallen angels, for Jude distinctly declares (verse 6) that the latter are + "reserved in everlasting chains, under darkness, unto the judgment of the + great day," a condition quite incompatible with their identity with Satan, + who is represented as telling God that he had been going to and fro + through the earth, and walking up and down in it (Job ch. i., v. 7). A + conversation then follows the question, which must have been quite + impossible had God recognized him as an escaped convict. + </p> + <p> + Again, if we turn to the book of Enoch (an apocryphal production, supposed + for ages to have been lost, but discovered at the close of the last + century in Abyssinia, now first translated from an Ethiopian MS. in the + Bodleian Library, by Richard Laurence, LL.D., Archbishop of Cashel; 3d + edition, 8vo. Oxford, 1838),—which is, and I think justly, believed + to be the authority quoted by Jude, we find a full confirmation of our + view of the independence of the Devil or Satan, and the fallen angels. The + foundation of the work is the story-told in the sixth chapter of Genesis. + In that work, the angels which kept not their first estate are described + as those who preferred intercourse with human females to a celestial + celibacy, for in those days there were sons of God and daughters of men. + Nay, in one verse (chap, liii. 6) it is distinctly declared that one cause + why the wrath of God came upon them was that "they became ministers of + Satan, and seduced those who dwell upon the earth." In many places a + reference is made to the close imprisonment of the angels who had "been + polluted with women;" one such will suffice, (chap, xxi. 6), where, on + seeing a terrific place, Enoch is told by Uriel "this is the prison of the + angels, and here are they kept for ever." It is not even Satan who tempts + the angels, for chapter lxviii. tells us that it was Yekun and Kesabel, + two of themselves, who gave evil counsel, and induced their fellows to + corrupt their bodies by generating mankind. It is clear that such a writer + does not conceive the possible existence of angelic women. + </p> + <p> + The nearest approach to evidence of identification is the statement made + in the same chapter (w. 6, 7), that Gradrel was the name of one of the + leaders of the fallen, and that he seduced Eve. But this testimony is + wholly worthless in the face of the fact that he, like all his company, + are kept chained up, which Satan certainly is not. + </p> + <p> + From the foregoing facts and considerations, we can come to no other + conclusion than that there is no truth in the angelic mythology current + amongst ourselves—for which Milton and his <i>Paradise Lost</i> are + mainly responsible. We may, indeed, affirm that a belief in angelic + mythology is wholly incompatible with an enlightened religion. If we + regard the Almighty as omnipresent and omniscient, we cannot imagine that + He can require messengers, or organize an "intelligence department" in + Heaven. A man who is present with his family requires no servant to tell + him what each is doing, or to deliver his orders to one or other. So, if + God be always with us, it is downright blasphemy to say that He requires a + go-between to let Him know what we are doing, or what He wishes us to do. + </p> + <p> + In our next chapter we shall enter upon the consideration of a subject + closely allied to that of Angels—namely, that of Ghosts, + Apparitions, Disembodied Spirits, or by whatever name they are called. + These mainly differ from the beings of whom we have treated in the fact + that, whereas an angel is a messenger—one sent to do certain duties—a + ghost is a being who comes upon the scene, which he or she has quitted, to + do or to persuade somebody else to perform something that has been omitted + to be done during the life-time of the deceased. In nine-tenths of the + stories which we read of "revenans," the returned one is not sent as a + messenger, nor does he come for any definite purpose. A man or woman + barbarously murdered is painted as haunting the scene where the violence + was committed, as flies flit over a carcase. Misers come to brood over + their hoards, not to use them. In no case which I can remember do the + tales represent the ghosts as being sent from either of the two powers—God + and Satan; and to fancy that a deceased man or woman is a free agent after + death is, to say the least of it, a proof that the believers in the + doctrine do not believe the biblical text—"As the tree falleth so it + must lie." + </p> + <p> + The ideas of Angels and of Ghosts have their origin in what may be called + a superstitious education; and credence in the latter is an almost + necessary pendant to a belief in the former. Indeed, if we put ourselves + into the position of Manoah's wife, Zacharias (Luke i), and Mary, we feel + sure that we should not have known whether the being who appeared was an + angel or a ghost. + </p> + <p> + Note.—The reader interested in the subject of this chapter, will + find additional information thereupon in Records of the Past (Bag-ster, + London, 1873-74; vol. i. 131-135, and vol. iii.139-154). The volumes are + inexpensive, and extremely valuable to the student of Assyrian, + Babylonian, and Egyptian mythology. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The inexorable logic of facts. Saul and the witch of Endor. + Influence of Elisha's bones. The widow's son. Ideas about + ghosts—about their power. Papal belief in ghosts. Ritual + for exorcisms. St. Dunstan and St. Anthony. The Bible and + ghosts. Scriptural ghosts. Ghosts independent of Judaism and + Christianity. Japanese story. Buddhist priests, like + Papalists, exorcise ghosts professionally. Ancient Grecian + ghosts. Stories from Homer, Herodotus, Iamblichus. Modern + French ghosts. Latin ghosts. Ghosts and lunacy. Ghosts and + spiritualism. Mistakes of clairvoyantes. +</pre> + <p> + It is not until we systematically inquire into certain tenets of our own + belief, and compare or contrast them with those of other people far + removed from us, that we are able to form an opinion about how much we owe + to what we call "our peculiar religion," and how much we hold in common + with other distant members of the human family. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that there is scarcely a "Bible Christian" in Great Britain + who is not impressed with the truth of the statement made in 2 Tim. i. 10—<i>viz</i>., + that Christ abolished death, and brought life and immortality to light by + the Gospel. But the inexorable logic of facts proves to us that the idea + of a life after death existed even amongst some ancient Jews—a + people to whom it was certainly not revealed by God—and amongst + nations who have not to this day become acquainted with Jesus, or what we + call the Gospel, and who are mainly influenced by the doctrines of Buddha. + </p> + <p> + To give examples: no one can read the very fabulous story of the Witch of + Endor and Saul without recognizing the fact, that both the one and the + other are represented by the historian to have believed, that, though the + body of the prophet Samuel had been rotting for a long period in its tomb, + the spirit of the man was yet existent. Nor does a Bible Christian see + anything peculiar in the miracle of the restoration of the dead man + mentioned in 2 Kings xiii. 21, who, when he touched the mouldy bones of + Elisha, which represented all that was left, on earth, of that + distinguished wonder-worker, at once revived, and stood upon his feet. But + the story forces us to believe that the Hebrew writer, who had no + revelation from Jehovah about a future life, was, from some cause or + other, obliged to allow that the prophet had some sort of existence after + his decease. A similar remark may be made respecting the story of the + widow's son, given in 1 Kings xvii. 17-23, in which it is clear that both + the mother of the child and the prophet believed it to be dead, although + the latter acted as if there was yet its living spirit existing somewhere, + and capable of being recalled. No simple figure of speech will explain + away the doctrine referred to, for there is reference distinctly made to + the idea of a life independent of that of the body. + </p> + <p> + It may well be supposed, that the very extraordinary tales spoken of were + introduced into the ancient books by modern Pharisees, as proofs of their + faith being superior to that of the Sadducees—it is, indeed, + probable that they were so; but into this point we will not enter. We pass + by, in like manner, the real signification of the English word "ghost," + and make no reference to the idea of there being a Holy, in + contradistinction to a profane, vulgar, and unholy, ghost We may also omit + anything more than a bare allusion to the fact that the third member of + the Trinity, as it is called, appeared in forms recognizable by the eye; + and that when it assumed an overshadowing condition (Luke i. 35), it acted + as a male human body would have done, and impregnated Mary, as Jupiter did + Leda. It is rather my desire to call attention to the ideas actually + existing, probably in all Christendom, and certainly in Great Britain, + respecting "ghosts." They may be thus described. + </p> + <p> + It is believed by many that certain individuals have, during their + lifetime, a power of determining that some immaterial part of their living + body shall, after death, assume the figure and proportions possessed by + the person during life, as well as his clothes, &c., and act as if + this second self had a real existence, recognizable by men, animals, and + even candles,* and a definite worldly purpose. In other cases it is + assumed, that the defunct has not had any particular desire to return to + life until after his death has taken place; but that his spirit, having as + much power to think without its brains as with them, makes itself apparent + with a distinct object, formed, not in the living body, but in the corpse. + The purposes generally attributed to ghosts are, to give information about + murder or money, to compel religious rites over their dead body, or to + punish a relentless oppressor with daily horror. Still further, some + suppose that ghosts are doomed for a certain time to walk the earth, and + suffer during the day in fires perpetual, till, in some unknown way, the + sins of their bodies have been purged away, or until some one, living, has + made an atonement for sins committed and unpardoned during the lifetime of + the "revenant" (Shakespeare in Hamlet). The so-called disembodied spirits + are supposed to be able to operate upon matter, to throw our atmosphere + into waves, producing vision and hearing, and to move from one spot to + another. They have, still farther, the power of making and emitting light, + and are so partial to using the faculty, that they prefer appearing by + night, and in darkness. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * "And the lights in the chamber burnt blue." + + —Alonzo the Brave.—Lewis. +</pre> + <p> + Of the real existence of such ghostly beings no devout Romanist can fail + to convince himself; for his Church, which claims to be infallible, has + provided special services for combating them, and a Papal priest has, many + a time, claimed, and attempted to exercise, the power to drive what the + French call "revenans," from the earth into the Red Sea. The saintly + annals of the Church of Rome are filled with stories of angels, gods, and + devils, who have appeared to holy men of old, either to applaud their + conduct, or to try their faith The legends about Saint Dunstan and Saint + Anthony are too well known to require repetition here, and it would be + idle to refer to some particularly good ghost story, when everybody knows + so many. + </p> + <p> + The general credit obtained by the tales referred to has been attributed + by many to the teaching of the Bible. The apparition of Samuel to Saul; + the intercourse between the angel Raphael and Tobit; the manifestation of + some celestial beings to Zacharias (Luke i. 11); to Mary (v. 28); to + certain shepherds (Luke ii. 9); the statement that some men have + entertained angels unawares (Heb. xiii. 2); the transfiguration scene, + described in Matt, xvii. and Mark ix., in which Moses and Elias are said + to have returned from heaven to earth, with the design of comforting + Jesus; and the story of Peter and the angel, told in Acts xii. 6-15—all + indicate a firm belief in the existence of ghosts, and form the + Christian's warrant for believing in them. + </p> + <p> + But an extended knowledge of the belief entertained by people other than + the followers of Jesus shows that the idea in question is wholly + independent of both Judaism and Christianity. A credence in ghosts is + profound in Japan, and it resembles, in every respect, that which has been + so long current in Europe. If any one, for example, will read a story in A + B. Mitford's <i>Tales of Old Japan</i> (Macmillan; London, 1871), + entitled, "The Ghost of Sakura," a village, he will scarcely be able to + divest himself of the idea that the legend is of British origin. Without + going into the reasons which have convinced me that the writer has fairly + given a purely Japanese tale, and one wholly untainted by Popish legends, + I may shortly indicate the main points in the narrative, which purports to + be a true one. A certain lord behaved very badly to his tenants, + increasing the imposts upon them until life became a burden. By ordinary + petitions he was unmoved, and it was necessary to have recourse to unusual + means. The adoption of a promising plan was, in the mind of its proposer, + a positive passport to a cruel death, by crucifixion. In a touching + leave-taking of his wife, he ends his speech with the words—"I give + my life to allay the misery of the people of this estate" (vol. ii, p. + 12). His proceedings save the poor peasants, for whom he sacrifices + himself, from utter ruin—every grievance which they have is + redressed; but their saviour is condemned to be crucified, in which + punishment his wife is included, and his sons are to be beheaded before + his face. Unable to save the man, his nearest male friends become priests, + and end their days praying and making offerings on behalf of their + friends' souls, and those of the wife and offspring (p. 25), and they + collect money enough to erect six bronze memorial Buddhas. "Thus," the + tale goes on to say, "did these men, for the sake of Sogoro and his + family, give themselves up to works of devotion; and the other villagers + also brought food to soothe the spirits of the dead, and prayed for their + entry into Paradise; and, as litanies were repeated without intermission, + there can be no doubt that Sogoro attained salvation." The next sentence + is a Buddhist text, viz.:— + </p> + <p> + "In Paradise, where the blessings of God are distributed without favour, + the soul learns its faults by the measure of the rewards given. The lusts + of the flesh are abandoned, and the soul, purified, attains to the glory + of Buddha." I scarcely need mention, to those interested in Buddhism, that + this conception of Paradise is very different to that which many persons + uphold to be "nothingness." The Japanese "Nirvana" is evidently not + annihilation. + </p> + <p> + When Sogoro was to die, the friendly priests entreated the authorities + that they might have his body, so as to be able to bury it decently; but + the request was only granted after the corpse had been exposed three days + and three nights. + </p> + <p> + At the time appointed, Sogoro and his wife are tied to two crosses, and + their children brought out for decapitation. The utterance of the eldest + son (æt. 13) is very touching—"Oh my father and mother, I am going + before you to Paradise, that happy country, to wait for you. My little + brothers and I will be on the banks of the river Sandzu,* and stretch out + our hands, and help you across. Farewell, all you who have come to see us + die; and now, please cut off my head at once." With this he stretched out + his neck, murmuring a last prayer (p. 28). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Buddhist Styx, which separates Paradise from Hell, + across which the dead are ferried by an old woman, for whom + a small piece of money is buried with them. I may add that + such a custom obtains amongst the lower orders in Ireland to + this day. +</pre> + <p> + At length it is the parents turn to die, and thus speaks the wife—"Remember, + my husband, that from the first you had made up your mind to this fate. + What though our bodies be disgracefully exposed on these crosses? (compare + Gal. iii. 13). We have the promises of the Gods before us; therefore, + mourn not. Let us fix our minds upon death; we are drawing near to + Paradise, and shall soon be with the saints. Be calm, my husband. Let us + cheerfully lay down our lives for the good of many. Man lives but for one + generation, his name for many. A good name is more to be prized than + life." "Well said wife; what though we are punished for the many? our + petition was successful, and there is nothing left to wish for..... For + myself, I care not; but that my wife and children should be punished also + is too much.... Let my lord fence himself in with iron walls, yet shall my + spirit burst through them, and crush his bones, as a return for this + deed." As he said this, he looked like the demon Razetsu (p. 30). The + execution is completed by thrusting a spear into the side until it comes + out at the opposite shoulder, and as it is withdrawn, the blood streams + out like a fountain. Ere Sogoro dies, he again threatens his lord to + revenge himself upon him in a manner never to be forgotten, and adds—"As + a sign, when I am dead, my head shall turn and face towards the castle. + When you see this, doubt not that my words shall come true" (p. 31). As + Sogoro laid down his life for a noble cause, he was canonized, and became + a tutelar deity of his lord's family. After the execution, those + subordinates of the lord of the land were dismissed from their office, + who, by their culpable and vile conduct, had made such a catastrophe + necessary—a retribution that reminds the reader of that which is + said to have fallen on the Jews, because of a death by crucifixion which + they brought about. The Japanese historian then goes on (p. 34)—"In + the history of the world, from the dark ages down to the present time, + there are few instances of one man laying down his life for the many, as + Sogoro did; noble and peasant praise him alike." + </p> + <p> + Four years after this the ghosts of Sogoro and of his wife and family + begin to torment their late cruel lord. His lady is gradually frightened + to death; the crucified couple appear to her and to her husband in a far + more fearful form than Jesus is said to have appeared to Constantine. They + threaten both with the pains of Hell, and declare that they have come to + take them there; and with them come other ghosts, who hoot, yell, laugh, + and come and go at pleasure. No one, not even priests, could quiet the + frightful sounds, or get rid of the horrible sights. Violence was wholly + unavailing; mystic rites, incantations, and prayers were alike useless. + The visions appeared at first by day, but subsequently by night. They were + visible to everybody. But, after a long consultation, the once brutal, but + now humbled, nobleman agrees to erect a shrine to the crucified man, and + to pay him divine honours. This was done: Sogoro became a saint, under the + name of Sogo Daimiyo, and the ghosts appeared no more. But terrible + misfortunes fall upon the Lord Kotsuke, and he "began to feel that the + death of his wife, and his own present misfortunes, were a just + retribution for the death of Sogoro and his wife and children, and he was + as one awakened from a dream. Then, night and morning, in his repentance, + he offered up prayers to the sainted spirit of the dead farmer, + acknowledged and bewailed his crime, vowing that, if his own family were + spared from ruin, and re-established, intercession should be made at the + court of the Mikado on behalf of the spirit of Sogoro, so that, being + worshipped with even greater honours than before, his name should be + handed down to all generations" (p. 43). In a foot note we learn that the + Mikado of Japan could, like the Pope of Rome, confer posthumous divine + honours upon whom he pleased. The tale tells us that, by the means just + before alluded to, the spirit of Sogoro was appeased, and then positively + became his quondam enemy's patron saint, and was universally respected in + all that part of the country. His shrine was made beautiful as a gem, and + night and day the devout worshipped at it Mitford adds (p. 47)—"The + belief in ghosts appears to be as universal as that of the immortality of + the soul upon which it depends. Both in China and Japan the departed + spirit is invested with the power of revisiting the earth, and, in a + visible form, tormenting its enemies, and haunting those places where the + perishable part of it mourned and suffered. Haunted houses are slow to + find tenants, for ghosts almost always come with revengeful intent; + indeed, the owners of such houses will almost pay men to live in them, + such is the dread which they inspire, and the anxiety to blot out the + stigma." + </p> + <p> + The parallel between an episode in Palestine, and that herein described as + having occurred in Japan, will be completed if the reader remembers the + passage in the Epistle to the Romans, wherein Paul, after speaking of the + fall of the Jews, subsequent to the death of Jesus—who gave his life + for others—remarks, "if the casting away of them be the reconciling + of the world, what shall the receiving of them be but life from the dead" + (Rom. xi. 15). + </p> + <p> + In addition to the ghost story above described, many others are detailed + by Mr Mitford that are exact counterparts of some of those most firmly + believed by orthodox Christians, and most commonly met with in novelettes + and magazines. We give a digest of them— + </p> + <p> + A paterfamilias is thrown into prison for gambling. After being confined + some time, he returns home one night pale and thin, and, after receiving + congratulations, he tells the friends assembled that he is permitted to + leave the prison that evening by the jailers, for that he is to be + returned to them the next day publicly. When the time arrives, they are + summoned to remove his corpse—he had died the night before, and it + was his ghost which had appeared. Compare Acts v. 19, and xii. 7-14. + </p> + <p> + The next runs thus—A cruel policeman had a housemaid, who broke one + of ten plates which he valued—she confessed the accident to the + mistress. When the master came to hear of the loss, he tied the girl to a + cupboard, and cut off one of her fingers daily. She managed to escape, and + drowned herself in the garden well. Every night afterwards there was a + noise from the well, counting up to nine, and then came a burst of grief. + All the retainers left the place; the magistrate could not perform his + duties, and was dismissed. The ghost was ultimately laid by a priest. + </p> + <p> + After recounting this story, Mitford remarks—"The laying of + disturbed spirits appears to form one of the regular functions of the + Buddhist priests; at least, we find them playing a conspicuous part in + every ghost story" (p. 50). + </p> + <p> + The next tale is one of a haunted house. No paying tenant will live there, + but a poor fencing master takes it for nothing. He first hears a terrific + noise in the garden pond, and, on looking, sees a dark cloud enshrining a + bald head. He inquires, and discovers that a former tenant, ten years ago, + murdered a money-lender, and threw his head into the water. The actual + tenant now drains the pond, finds the skull, takes it for burial to a + temple, causing prayers to be offered up for the repose of the murdered + man's soul. Thus the ghost was laid, and appeared no more. This tale + serves as an additional means of recognizing the descent of Papism from + Buddhism. + </p> + <p> + Returning once again to Europe, we find that the ancient Greeks had not + only an idea of the resurrection of the dead, and life after death, but + that departed spirits could be summoned to appear by the living. For + example, at the opening of the eleventh book of the Odyssey, Ulysses + recounts how-he offered a certain sacrifice, and tells us that, after it, + the souls of the perished dead came forth from Erebus—betrothed + girls and youths—much enduring old men, and tender virgins having a + newly grieved mind—and many Mars-renowned men, wounded with + brass-tipped spears, possessing gore-smeared arms, who in great numbers + were wandering about the trench, on different sides, with a divine + clamour, and pale fear seized upon me.... At first the soul of my + companion, Elpenor, came, for he was not yet buried.... The shade + addressed the hero, and, after telling the manner of his own death, + entreats to have his corpse burned, and a tomb to be placed over it After + this shade, appears Ulysses' mother, then Theban Tiresias, having a golden + sceptre (Bohn's translation, pp. 147, 8). The rest of the book is made up + of a number of dialogues between the traveller and the illustrious dead. + </p> + <p> + The following, from Herodotus (vi. 68, 69), might have been introduced + into chapter viii, for it is not only an example of a ghost, but of + supernatural generation—but it is most appropriate here. Demaratus, + having been twitted by certain persons that he was not the son of his + putative father, who was known to be impotent, and that he was begotten by + a mean man—a feeder of asses—adjures his mother, by a most + solemn oath, to tell the truth. She replies—When Ariston had taken + me to his own house, on the third night from the first a spectre, + resembling Ariston, came to me, and having lain with me, put on me a crown + that it had, it departed, and afterwards Ariston came; but when he saw me + with the crown, he asked who it was that gave it me. I said, he did; but + he would not admit it.... Ariston, seeing that I affirmed with an oath, + discovered that the event was superhuman; and, in the first place, the + crown proved to have come from the shrine... situate near the palace + gates, which they call Astrabacus's; and, in the next place, the seers + pronounced that it was the hero himself. We need not dwell upon the + miracle, being only desirous to show that, in the time of Herodotus, ideas + of the return of departed spirits to earth were common—had it not + been so, the story would not have been conceived. See also <i>Herod</i> + iv. 14, 15; <i>Æsch Theb</i>. 710; <i>cf. Porson on Eur</i>. Or. 401; <i>Æsch + Ag</i>. 415. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps the most striking example of a phantom is given in Herodotus viii. + 84, where a spectre, in a woman's form, appeared, and cheered the Greeks + on shipboard to a battle, saying, so that all the warriors heard her—"Dastards, + how long will you back water?" + </p> + <p> + In more recent times, Iamblicus (on the <i>Mysteries</i>, section ii, + chap, iv.), speaking of different celestial and ordinarily invisible + powers, observes—"In the motions of the heroic phasmata (or + apparitions—phantoms or ghosts) a certain magnificence presents + itself to the view." In the phasmata of the Archons the first energies + appear to be most excellent and authoritative, and the phasmata of souls + are seen to be the more moveable, yet are more imbecile, than those of + heroes.... The magnitude of the epiphanies (or manifestations) in the + gods, indeed, is so great, as sometimes to conceal all heaven.1' Then the + author describes how this brilliancy is less in each inferior order of + spirits, and is smallest in those souls below the grade of heroes + (Taylor's translation, pp. 89, 90). In sect iii., chap, iii., the same + writer remarks—"The soul has a twofold life, one being in + conjunction with the body, the other being separated from all body." + Again, in chap. xxxi.—"Still worse is the explanation of sacred + operations, which assigns, as the cause of divination, a certain genus of + daemons, which is naturally fraudulent, omniform, and various, and which + assumes the appearance of gods and daemons, and the souls of the deceased" + (Taylor's ed., p. 199). <i>Le Dictionnaire Infernal</i>, which I have + previously described, gives two very modern-like histories from the + Greeks, under the names Philinnion and Polycritus; but, as I cannot verify + them by reference, I shall say no more of them. + </p> + <p> + When we come to speak about the Romans, the first history which occurs to + my mind is the well-known statement, that the ghost of Cæsar appeared to + Brutus before the battle in which the latter met with his death. The + narrator of the story dwells somewhat upon the coolness with which the + living hero encounters the shade of the dead, as if it were strange for + people, when they saw ghosts, not to be terrified. I think that we may + believe in the Etruscans having an idea of invisible spirits becoming + occasionally apparent, inasmuch as in a sepulchral painting, in the tomb + of the Tarquinii, the shade of Patroclus is represented as standing over + Achilles as he kills the Trojan captives in sacrifice. + </p> + <p> + In later times, Otho declared that Galba's ghost had appeared to him, and + had tumbled him out of bed (Suetonius' <i>Lives of the Caesars</i>, Otho, + vii). + </p> + <p> + We may take our next illustration from Cicero upon the nature of the gods. + In book 2, ch. ii.,—"Who now," he makes Lucilius say, "believes in + Hippocentaurs and Chimeras? or what old woman is now to be found so weak + and ignorant as to stand in fear of those infernal monsters which once so + terrified mankind? For time destroys the fictions of error and opinion, + whilst it confirms the determinations of nature and truth. And therefore + it is that, both amongst us and amongst other nations, sacred institutions + and the divine worship of the gods have been strengthened and improved + from time to time; and this is not to be imputed to chance alone, but to + the frequent appearance of the gods themselves. In the war with the + Latins... Castor and Pollux were seen fighting with our army on + horseback... and as P. Vatienus... was coming in the night to Rome... two + young men on white horses appeared to him, and told him that king Perses + was that day taken prisoner." He told the news and was imprisoned as a + liar; but further information confirmed the ghost's story, and he was + liberated and rewarded."... The voices of the Fauns have been often heard, + and deities have appeared in forms so visible that they have compelled + everyone, who is not senseless or hardened in impiety, to confess the + presence of the gods" (Bohn's translation, p. 46). In page 186 of the same + edition, two remarkable instances are given wherein supernatural voices + told of approaching trouble, and how it was to be avoided. No notice was + taken of the warning, and the misfortunes which had been foretold + occurred. The second miracle very closely resembled the modern voice of + the Virgin at Lourdes. + </p> + <p> + Whilst I was writing the preceding remarks, my attention was called by a + friend to the following remarks in <i>The Examiner</i>, which seem to me + so appropriate to this chapter and the preceding one, that I gladly quote + them:—"If there is anything more striking than the thoughtless + credulity with which men accept statements agreeing with their + preconceptions, it is the stubborn incredulity with which they receive + statements at variance with those preconceptions. The devotees of each + religion, and even of each sect into which a religion is so commonly split + up, accept and even adore the absurdities of their own belief, while they + scan, with a sceptical severity that cannot be surpassed, the not greater + follies of other systems of belief. In no respect is this fact more + glaring than in the case of miracles. Each Church has its own special + miracles, devoutly believed in, but repels with contempt or horror the + alleged miracles of other religions. Happy that it is so. Were + superstition not in its essence and nature a dividing folly, could it but + muster in one herd all its votaries, common sense and truth would have a + hard battle for existence." + </p> + <p> + At this point of my subject, I feel the natural inclination of a physician + to enter upon those changes in the nervous centres which induce + individuals to hear, feel, and see, noises, sensations, and spectra, which + have no real existence. But with the majority of experienced medical men, + the matter is so well known that it would be idle for me to dwell upon it, + further than to say, that it is a matter of fact that many an individual + who hears and sees words and beings which are illusions, acts upon them as + if they were real. Many an assault upon some quiet citizen, many an + instance of wilful mischief, and even of murder, is due to a communication + made, apparently by a supernatural visitor, to a person who has fully + believed it. To a man in his perfect senses the delusive character of a + spectre, or a message given in an audible voice may be readily recognized; + but when an individual has a diseased brain, all delusions seem real, and + it is a part of the affection that they are not only recognized, but acted + on. + </p> + <p> + The question has often suggested itself to my own mind, "How much has + insanity of mind had to do with religion?" In modern times, the + psychologist can readily see how far Swedenborg, Johanna Southcote, and + many others, were influenced by a diseased condition of the brain; he can + also see indications of lunacy in Ezekiel and the author of Daniel. But he + is unable to prosecute the subject far without discovering that mental + weakness is often bolstered up by fraud. Nothing is more easy than for an + intelligent physician to understand the physical causes of such visions as + certain religionists have talked of. But when a spurious miracle, like + that of the apparition of a talking, immaculately-conceived Virgin at + Lourdes, is traded on, the occurrence leaves the region of folly, and + enters that of fraud. Into that it is injudicious to enter here. + </p> + <p> + I may, however, advert to the current belief that certain individuals in + the same family have, for many succeeding generations, their death + foretold by some "wraith" or "phantom" appearing to them. This story is + probably founded upon the fact that hereditary brain disease exists in the + constitution of all such persons, and that its occurrence in each victim + is marked by an ocular, and, perhaps, some aural delusion. The apparition + may seem real to the diseased nervous system, though it has no absolute + existence. + </p> + <p> + We are then constrained to believe that the idea of ghosts has not arisen, + in the first place, from any peculiar form of religious belief, but from + the fact that in all inhabitants of the world there has existed that form + of insanity which consists in the victim believing that he hears and sees + individuals, inaudible and unseen by others. It is not, however, necessary + that there shall be insanity with the hallucinations referred to; for I am + personally acquainted with many individuals who have both seen and heard, + as they imagine, persons and voices, but of whose sanity I have no doubt. + Such delusions often come from overstudy, or too great mental emotion; and + the medical worker in his closet and the Roman general in his tent may + equally see a spirit. + </p> + <p> + But it must be understood that to all classes the hallucination has the + effect of reality, until, by the exercise of an active will, inquiry + proves that both sounds and sights thus noticed are illusions. If, + therefore, persons who have visions, &c., have not intellects which + are cultivated, the spectres will pass for realities, and, as such, will + be described. + </p> + <p> + If we endeavour to apply this observation to certain cases, we shall see + how far the deductions are <i>vraisemblable</i>. Of all the causes which + produce atrocious crimes, insanity of mind is the most common. But this + cause is rarely recognized at the time, even in a country like our own. + Murder, rape, arson, and a host of other atrocities are often the first + evidence of a diseased brain. The doctor is assured of this long before an + ignorant public, and he traces without surprise the course of a malady + which is not seen by the vulgar, until its culmination in some better + known form of lunacy. These mental sufferers are exactly those to whom + visions are most common, and who are most unable to test the reality of + their hallucinations. If, then, they are integers of a people to whom + insanity is unknown, it is natural that their narratives will be listened + to with awe. The Japanese tyrant, whose case we have given, was probably + brutal from impending brain disease, and the visions which appeared to him + were caused by an increase of his malady. + </p> + <p> + Shakespeare has evidently taken this view of the question, for, in <i>Macbeth</i>, + he makes that hero (act ii., scene 1), soliloquise with a dagger which he + sees, but cannot clutch—"Art thou not, fatal vision, sensible to + feeling, as to sight, or art thou but a dagger of the mind; a false + creation, proceeding from the heat-oppressed brain?" Conscious of the + illusion, Macbeth recognizes the probable cause; but, at a later period, + when the diseased brain is worse than it was before, the unfortunate man + is quite unable to reason, and we find him in act iii., scene 4, + affrighted by the ghost of Banquo—whose appearance he believes to be + real, even although his wife recalls to his mind the dagger scene, and + reasons upon his weakness. + </p> + <p> + I do not think that we shall be far wrong if we assume that many nations, + who were not far advanced in mental speculation, obtained their first + ideas of the resurrection of the body from the hallucinations of + approaching or actual insanity. Christian divines unquestionably endeavour + to demonstrate the truth of the dogma referred to, by the frequent + appearance of Jesus to his disciples after his crucifixion. + </p> + <p> + But the manifestation of Jesus differed wholly from that of Moses and + Elias who once came to talk to him. He takes particular pains to + demonstrate to Thomas that he has flesh and blood and a hole in his side, + as well as in his hands and feet. This indicates that Jesus did not die + upon the cross, but that he fainted and came back to life. + </p> + <p> + To insist for a moment upon the lessons taught by the narrative in the + gospels, let us inquire what is the value of the argument which proves the + resurrection of the body, either by the appearance to some one of a + departed friend or enemy, or the visits of Jesus to his disciples. If it + is demonstrated thus that the body is eternal and will rise again, it is + equally certain that its garments, whether cloth, linen, or calico, will + be resuscitated also! + </p> + <p> + The subject, however, is not yet exhausted, for we have now to remark, + that no one has ever been known to see a spectre which does not represent + some one whom he has seen, or whose picture he has noticed; nor does he + ever hear a voice in a tongue unknown to himself. Consequently, when we + find individuals recognizing some one whose portrait they have seen, but + who talks in the mother tongue of the visionary, we are forced to conclude + that the matter is unreal. If a French girl—or several of them, see + the Virgin Mary, and hear her talk French, it is evident to every thinking + mind, either that there is mental disorder or priestly craft. In like + manner, when individuals, calling themselves "mediums," declare their + power to call before them the ghosts of Homer and Hero, Leander and + Alexander, and assert that they can distinguish Plato from Socrates, and + Seneca from Xenophon, and can converse with all in pure English, it is + clear that such people are not insane, and that their pretended skill has + no existence. That which goes by the names of clairvoyance and + spiritualism is based solely upon an unreasoning credulity. + </p> + <p> + In speaking of a belief in "spiritualism" as being analogous to implicit + credence in ghosts—and both as being founded upon imperfection in + judgment, it is right that I should give some reasons for what I say. + </p> + <p> + More than thirty years have elapsed since I attended my first séance with + a clairvoyant. She had then been in Liverpool some time, and not only came + to us from America with a wonderful renown, but soon attached to her + triumphal car some of the most conspicuous of our local savans. Having + read much upon the subject of Mesmerism—the Od or Odyllic force, + animal magnetism, &c., I was desirous of gaining some personal + experience, and gladly accepted an invitation to see the lady referred to, + at the house of a near relative. There were many present, and before the + meeting formally began, I obtained permission to take notes in writing of + what passed. The first undertaking was that we should be told what two of + our number were doing in a dark room below stairs. I was one of the two, + and we stood with one hand upon the other's shoulder, and the loose hands + were held out horizontally. One leg of each was resting on the tabla The + lady reported us as sitting together on a sofa. Her husband explained away + the failure by saying that there was a mirror in the room! As there was a + looking-glass in every apartment in the house, my friend and I took our + position on the stairs; and on this occasion we lay down at full length + heads downwards. The clairvoyant said that we were arm in arm talking. + After this second failure, I was asked to take the lady's hand in mine, + and think deeply of some place which she would then describe to me. + </p> + <p> + I must here pause to notice the condition referred to. My mind was to be + absorbed in what I required to be described—if I allowed my thoughts + to wander, I was told that the woman would be confused, and her + performance a failure. This involved the idea that I was not to criticise, + as the affair proceeded, but to make one thing "square" with another, if I + could. My part was carefully pointed out, but nothing came of it. I then + gave a possible clue, which was followed up, and with some surprise I + found the woman describe what I was really thinking about. But the + repetition of a phrase struck upon my ear—it was this, "I see a lot + of things going back and for'rads," and I found that I had interpreted + this as men, women, schoolboys, horses, palisades, trees, cloisters, + houses, and coaches! + </p> + <p> + After my retirement an elderly man grasped the hand, and I with pencil + took down the words the woman used, with the intention of asking certain + outsiders next day if the terms conveyed to them any distinct idea. I + found the favourite sentence referred to came so often, that I merely left + for the words a space with t. b. f., to show where the phrase occurred. + There were far more spaces in my manuscript than words. But the old + gentleman was satisfied, and so was his son who was present. It had been + agreed between them that the clairvoyant was to describe "their house"—both + were satisfied that she had; but one was thinking of the town and the + other of the country house! + </p> + <p> + During the talk, the woman, every time she uttered a sentence, said, "Am I + right?" and when told that she was wrong, she adroitly changed her + statement. Every experiment that night was a failure, and to some of us + who were sceptics our host remarked—"How is it that when you expect + the most, everything goes wrong?" To this my reply was—"When + doubters are present you scan evidence closer than when you are all + believers together." + </p> + <p> + When once I was known as a pyrrhonist, I was invited to see everybody who + was regarded by others as extraordinarily perfect in clairvoyance; and was + astonished to find out how ignorant the believers were of the laws of + evidence. + </p> + <p> + After a time clairvoyance was replaced by spiritualism, and I was again + challenged to test the virtue of mediums. As my avocations wholly + prevented my personal attendance, I challenged certain of the faithful to + describe my library, saying that I should not be content with being told + that there were windows and a door, a fireplace and a chair, a table and + an inkstand, &c., but that I had something very peculiar in it, the + like of which I had never seen before—if this were described, I + should fancy that the spirits knew something. But I added, so long as + "spirits" only did things which conjurors, prestidigitateurs, "et hoc + genus omne," did, I should decline to believe that spirits were corporeal, + and that Grecian statesmen, Latin orators, and Sanscrit theologians were + familiar with the English language. + </p> + <p> + It must be emphatically stated that a man must not attribute everything, + of which he knows little, to a power of which he knows less. No one can + tell why an ordinary tree grows upwards, whilst a few peculiar ones grow, + after a certain period of their life, downwards; and if any one were to + declare that the first were influenced by the spirit of an unicorn, and + the second by the spirit of a cow's tail, he would be regarded as a fool. + Not much wiser would he be, who, when he heard a knock of some kind or + other, asserted or believed that it came from the angel of night—the + well-known Nox. The untutored savage, when first he sees a watch, cannot + tell how it goes—if he says that he is ignorant, we may respect him; + but if he declares that a spirit moves it, we despise his credulity. The + polite circles of civilized cities who attribute the absurd capers of + tambourines, concertinas, tables, and the like to the vivacity of the + ghosts of defunct philosophers, and who think that it requires the shade + of Venus to tell us, that feminine women are more graceful than masculine + hoydens, are not much superior to the natural savage. + </p> + <p> + These remarks may be supplemented by the experiences imparted to me by + several personal friends; for, as it seems to me, each one has his own way + in looking at things, and has, so to speak, an idiosyncrasy in belief and + scepticism. One man, for example, inquires "How is it that if I propound + to a spiritualist, to an artist with 'planchette,' or any other person who + professes clairvoyance—a question, through a friend who does not + know the answer, I never get a correct reply; but if I propound the same + question the response is always right?" In this case it is clear that the + inquirer answers himself—not wittingly, it is true; but, by means of + a slight hesitation under certain circumstances, he gives to the adroit + professor the needful clue. How far this is true has been repeatedly + proved by those who have made the spirits say anything—"Where is my + sister?" such an one asks, and by the alphabet and raps he hears that she + is in Munich; but as the inquirer never had a sister, the spirits have + clearly been duped. + </p> + <p> + One of my friends, ordinarily a thorough sceptic, was converted to the + belief that one of his hands was positively and the other negatively + magnetic, and he showed me how he turned, by their means, a book suspended + between us upon a door key finely tied within the leaves. But when I + showed him that this was done by a movement of the body, and could not be + done if both hands employed were fixed upon anything—he was + convinced that what seemed due to one thing depended, in reality, upon + another. Yet that man was an acute and able chemical analyst. How the late + Dr Faraday convinced "table turners" that they did, unconsciously, that + which they wished, but determined not to do, will long be remembered as a + marvel of philosophical induction. We all have not the faculty of + analyzing evidence, and it would be well if those who are deficient in + that power would be less bigoted than they are. We can scarcely expect it, + however, for ignorance and arrogance usually walk together; and no man is + more convinced of his knowledge than the one who takes it at second hand, + and believes what he is told. The faithful swallow "squid," and become a + mass of blubber; the sceptics feed on solid flesh, and are thin as tigers. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Reconstructive. Faith and reason. Result of previous + investigations. Value of morality. Morality and Romanism. + Vice encouraged by priests—end in view. Submission to + priests more valuable than virtue. Vice better than + scepticism. Theological false witness. Compulsory faith. + Supply without demand—in theology. Correctness of doctrine + proved by the sword. Church and state in modern times. + "Nerve" required to change a belief. Moral courage. What is + faith? Absurd definition given by Paul. Faith must be + uncompromising. Why faith signifies blind confidence. Faith + and folly go hand in hand. Faith makes fools. Jesuits and + faith. Popery and faith. Faith persecutes reason. All + religious teachers uphold faith—the reason why. Quiet after + activity. The one who partly abjures faith resembles a + mariner at sea. Faith and reason incompatible. The author's + personal belief: Negative—positive. Opinions on various + received dogmas. Laws of Nature. Providence. The Book of God + in the universe. Sin—the ideas connected with children and + whelps. Human and animal instincts. Religious laws against + God's. Pious murder. When crimes are praiseworthy. Human + laws and ecclesiastical. Effect on common law of priestly + legislation. Ecclesiastical laws generally bad ones. The + Church makes sins; so does society. A case supposed. Society + contravenes the laws of Nature. The proper basis of + legislation. Personal impressions. Duty the guide of + conduct. Conclusions. +</pre> + <p> + Importance of them. Reason gives peace of mind. Fears of the orthodox. + Reason may regenerate the world; Faith does not. Another way of treating + the subject Mr Gladstone upon education. Opposes "dread of results" to + "desire of learning." Gladstone and Strauss. Various oracles. Oxford + graduates rarely philosophic. Lord Bacon's aphorisms. Science obstructed + by human weaknesses. Progress of science barred by ecclesiastics. Religion + and despotism. The man who scouts induction is a bigot. Revelation + requires exposition. Three sets of expounders—all differ. Which must + the faithful follow? Popish miracles claim credence from the faithful. He + who argues must be logical. Can a bigot be a liberal? If learning is + valuable, it must have free scope. Choice proposed—faith or reason? + Men of mark who shun religious inquiry. Faraday and Gladstone. Influence + of faith, or reason, on the clergy. Examples. An objection noticed. Reason + useless in matters of faith—its absurdity demonstrated. + </p> + <p> + It is now time to enter upon what has, throughout the composition of the + preceding essays, been constantly present to my mind, viz., + "reconstruction." In the two larger volumes, and in this small one, it has + been my aim to clear away the foul rags which have, for many thousand + years, been heaped upon the lovely figure of truth—to endeavour to + remove the meretricious, or rubbishy, constructions that designing men + have builded round the magnificent structure of God's universe. I have, in + my own opinion, demonstrated that the Jews have no real claim to be + regarded as Jehovah's chosen people, and that their writings present no + marks of having been inspired or revealed—that, on the contrary, + there are proofs to show that a large portion of their Scriptures are + worthless fabrications, contrived by imperfectly educated men, for a + political purpose, or to foster vanity. + </p> + <p> + In our examination into the character of the Hebrew God, and of those + individuals said to be his special friends and messengers, as given in the + Bible, we found evidence to show that the historians were a + semi-civilized, sensual, and malignant race, whose ignorance was only + surpassed by their arrogance. It has been further shown, that every + portion of the Jewish Scriptures which modern Christians have adopted into + their own religion, came to the so-called "chosen people" from those whom + they, and many amongst ourselves, designate "heathen." We have, still + further, shown the almost absolute identity between the current Christian + faith and that originated by Sakya Muni, which still reigns in Thibet, + Tartary, China, Ceylon, Japan, and elsewhere. We have demonstrated that a + high grade of civilization, and a form of government more paternal and + provident than any which the old world knew, existed in Peru, without the + smallest evidence of Christianity or Mosaism having ever existed there. + </p> + <p> + We have, in addition, shown that the miraculous conception of the Virgin + Mary is not, by any means, as great a marvel as it is generally supposed + to be, such an occurrence being as common to-day as it was from the + beginning, and as it probably ever will be. By a similar inquiry we could + readily have proved that the ascension of Jesus was not at all unique, + inasmuch as great men of old were in the habit of rising after their + decease, and making their dwelling in the heaven above—e.g., + Romulus. + </p> + <p> + We have, still further, demonstrated that the modern belief in an angelic + host has nothing in it peculiar to Bible Christians and modern Jews, and + that our notion of a resurrection of the body is not exclusively a portion + of the Christian's creed, but that it was held, in one form or another, + more or less distinct, by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and the distant + Japanese. In fine, we have done much to sweep away the major part of the + religious doctrines and dogmas which are prevalent in the Christian + world.. Our writing hitherto has been essentially iconoclastic. + </p> + <p> + But, amongst all the idols which we have attempted to throw down, we have + not, in any instance, threatened morality. We take no credit for + forbearance, but we point to the fact, inasmuch as whenever opposite + religionists contend about their tenets, they never lay violent hands upon + morality. They may abuse the practice of their opponents, and hold up the + imaginary vices of their enemy to execration, but real goodness in the + work of life is ever respected.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * I am, however, somewhat in doubt whether the Roman Church + deserves the eulogy here given to other bodies. In my + reading of history, especially in what are called the "Dark + Ages" of Christianity, the Papal authorities winked at + crimes against morality, so long as the sinners paid due + deference to ecclesiastical authority, and bled freely, by + pouring lands, treasures, and wealth of all kinds into the + priestly treasury. The history of the Popes is written + almost everywhere in blood. Murder, assassination, and + spoliation were common weapons in their hands, and rape and + robbery were condoned easily to those who were powerful and + active slaves of the Church. +</pre> + <p> + As soon as the Popes of Rome were free from persecution and danger, they, + in their turn, used the arts of the tyrants of old, and sought for + political supremacy by pandering to all the passions of kings and great + men—if, by that means, they could make them friendly. Up to within a + very short period there has not been a Christian despot, or a Pope, who + has not punished political crimes more severely than offences against + morality. + </p> + <p> + Yet, with all the fearful practices adopted by Romanists, they have ever + had in their months exhortations to propriety and personal purity—their + words have been peaceful, whilst war of the most malignant type has been + in their hearts. What they have practised, however, they have accused + their adversaries of having preached. + </p> + <p> + It may also be objected that some small sects in modern days have really + preached the doctrines of "free love," and license in sensuality; but of + these it would be unprofitable to discourse. The people who join in + promulgating such doctrines are below contempt. + </p> + <p> + When controversialists find that they have one subject upon which they can + all of them cordially unite, the philosopher would expect that they would + study to develope it, and, for that purpose, place it in the foreground. + But this is far from their practice. The ministers of every denomination, + on the contrary, place morality far behind doctrine—those of the + Protestant sect, for example, declare "good works" to be essentially + valueless without "faith," and our pulpits teem with discourses which + demonstrate the enormous superiority of a blind belief, in doctrine and + dogma, over an intelligent morality, irrespective of creed. + </p> + <p> + In this propensity our preachers do not stand alone, for, in every + instance where history has led us to inquire into this point, we find that + submission to priestly rule has been regarded as more praiseworthy than + virtue. When Israel slew the Midianites there was no apparent difference + between the morals of the two people. Both were equally bad or good; but + such as they were, their deeds were sanctioned by different gods; and + whilst the Jews were right, their opponents were wrong. When the Crusaders + attacked the Saracens, there can be little, if any, doubt that the worth + of the latter far exceeded that of the former; but as their faith + differed, the practice was of no consequence in the eyes of the invaders, + and he who died in fighting for his country was execrated by the robbers, + who desired to steal it. + </p> + <p> + If, from a comparatively distant past, we approach nearer to our own + times, there is abundance of testimony to prove that the excellence of the + French Protestants was superior to that of the Papal priests and their + followers in the time of Louis XIV.; but this was of no avail—the + good were persecuted by the bad, because they were good only in deeds and + not in doctrine—the last being upheld by the bigots who persecuted + them. + </p> + <p> + We may all see precisely the same phenomenon in our own day. Those who are + called Unitarians, and the vast majority of those who are designated + atheists are, in proportion to their numbers, far more moral than those + who are generically described as "Christians;" but their integrity in + every relation of life does not prevent their being abused and persecuted, + by parsons in "the establishment," by every means available in a free + country, and amongst the weapons used, the most common are slander and + false witness. + </p> + <p> + On inquiry into its origin, we find at the root of this aversion to + recognize probity as the most important item of religion, the undoubted + fact that the upright, thoughtful man requires no other person to help him + as a priest or a mediator between him and the Creator. + </p> + <p> + To possess a doctrine there must be some one to teach it, and the demand + begets a supply. But though the last aphorism is true in commerce, it is + not by any means universally so, for many an inventor of goods has to + force a supply, ere any demand for his article can arise. It is certainly + so in Ethics. The Jews made no request to Moses for a new religion when he + offered to lead them; they soon became weary of him, and wanted to go back + to Egypt. Jesus constrained his first followers to accept a salvation of + which they did not feel the need, and Mahomet compelled, at the sword's + point, his victims to accept that which they detested. In these instances + there was no want to be met, except on the part of individuals who desired + to obtain personal influence. + </p> + <p> + In religion the laws of supply and demand have only exceptional sway, for + each individual priest or minister may, according as he pleases, elect to + provide for known desires, or to inaugurate a new set of requirements. But + whether he does one or the other he is clearly an opponent to, and + frequently disliked by, any one who refuses all manner of traffic in + spiritual affairs. He is then practically in the same condition as the + English government was in when the Chinamen refused to take the opium + which they had been receiving for many years before; and, like it, he must + endeavour to enforce his wishes by war. But the parson does not fight with + cannon and gunpowder, for he assumes the power to wield weapons of far + greater importance—viz., the power to torture after death all his + adversaries. "Believe me," run his words, "and you shall be saved from + hell fire; reject my message, and you shall be burned in everlasting + flames!" + </p> + <p> + When belligerent kings go to battle, they do not go alone and fight + single-handed for their cause; on the contrary, they enlist upon their + side every man whom they can influence or compel; nor do they care, so + long as the troops obey orders, what their private thoughts are; probably + few Chinese who fought the British were not opium consumers, and few + English cared for the drug at all. In like manner, when priests differ + among themselves, they do not meet in wordy tournaments, but they enlist + on their respective sides everybody whom similarity in superstition, + interest, or any other motive induces to join their standard. When an + issue is joined, the result is governed by force of arms, arts, or + numbers, as the case maybe. + </p> + <p> + Thus, in the last resort, the correctness of a doctrine is, as we have + frequently remarked in previous pages, proved by thews and sinews—not + by brains. So long as the Pagans were numerically superior to Christians, + the latter were heretics and victims; but when the disciples of Jesus were + actually the strongest, they became suddenly "the orthodox," and the poor + Pagans "the damned." In later times Protestantism asserted its faith by + the prowess of Cromwell's "ironsides" in England and Ireland; in like + manner the Covenanters of Scotland proved, by the might of their swords, + Presbyterianism to be superior to Episcopal government. By dint of Saxon + might, Ireland was long politically at one with Great Britain; now by her + numbers she is allied to the Vatican. + </p> + <p> + The well-read politician will see that a contest similar to those thus + indicated is going on almost all over Europe. In Great Britain and + Ireland, in France, Prussia, Austria, and Italy—even in the once + bigoted Spain, priestly parties are striving for supremacy over the party + of rational order and philosophical government. The question at issue is + by no means doubtful—it is one which has been agitated for thousands + of years, but that has never assumed large proportions in consequence of + general ignorance and consequent apathy. In England, France, and Germany, + innumerable champions on the one side have risen, fought, and died, + overpowered by the numbers-ranged against them; but, as persecution is + said to be the seed of orthodoxy, so these men and their writings have, by + dissemination through the press, and the effect of increased education in + the languages of Europe, gradually raised so large a party, as to be able + to contend with some chances of success. + </p> + <p> + It will be seen that the question to which I refer is this—"Shall + men and states be governed by faith?" in other words, "by the hierarchy of + the most numerous section of the community—or by reason—i.e., + by the good sense of the majority?" In Austria and in Italy this issue has + clearly been tried, and in both instances the priesthood has been obliged + to accept a secondary position. In Prussia the same momentous point is + being tried with every chance of the sacerdotal party being worsted. In + the British kingdom religion has long been regarded as subordinate to + state policy; nevertheless there is yet a strong party who desires to + reduce her inhabitants to clerical bondage. If all the individuals + composing this section of the community were united, they would prevail by + their numbers; but, as the aggressive army is composed of troops who bear + an almost deadly hate against each other, small danger is to be + anticipated from them. The Ritualist and Roman Catholic might unite + together; but these would not stand shoulder to shoulder with the + Wesleyan, Baptist, and Low Churchman. Although all equally detest those + who say "parsons are not wanted," sects will not ally themselves, lest, if + every one were to be compelled to select a form of faith, the compulsory + decree might augment the numbers following some adversary. + </p> + <p> + We have thus placed before our readers what we believe is the first + article which has to be considered in Reconstruction. We have to ask + ourselves whether we should enlist ourselves under the banner of faith, + and endeavour to add one form of religion to those already existing; or, + whether we should join the banner of reason, and repudiate all doctrines, + dogmas, credences, and the like, which are offensive to common sense. We + may fairly parody the words of the mythical Elisha, and say to ourselves—"Choose + ye this day whom ye will serve; if faith suits your indolence, then hug + your chains; if you prefer reason, gird up the loins of your mind, and + metaphorically kill the priests of Rite." + </p> + <p> + Ere, however, we can reasonably expect those who have hitherto been + inconsiderate to make their selection of standard bearers, it is desirable + to say something of the two. <i>In limine</i> we must observe that we do + not believe that the choice will be determined by the head alone, for + there are many whose arms are, so to speak, paralyzed by a constitutional + peculiarity. A hero in his study has often proved a poltroon in the field + of battle. I may point the moral by quoting from memory a story in + Addison's <i>Spectator</i>—"A B is a hen-pecked husband; he knows + it, and bewails his thraldom; he consults C D, who sympathises with his + case, increases his detestation for the home tyranny, and tells him how to + break the chains. A B, full of resolution, tries the plan recommended, but + breaks down at once." The moral is, that those who are born to serve, or + are too weak-minded to assert their independence, had better submit to be + ruled—even if the tyrant be a woman, than try to gain peace by + conflict. Into this story I fully enter, for I know, from experience, how + much "nerve" is required for any one to change his or her relative + position. The moral courage of which I speak, is one that dominates over + constitutional shyness and fear; it differs from the boldness of a + soldier, and the dash of the beast of prey; it is not a simple mental + assent; but it is a motive which, after being once placed, becomes a + mainspring of life. To adopt Faith as a guide, is to go through life + easily—so long as "thought" can be sent to sleep. To adopt Reason, + is to prevent thought ever slumbering, and to live the happier the more + steadily that the mind is watchful In few words, Faith is "a quack + doctor," Reason "a physician." The first will always have the most + admirers. + </p> + <p> + Without further preface, let us inquire "what Faith really is?" This is a + question with which I have been familiar since my childhood, and the + answer offered to me for adoption was—"It is the substance of things + hoped for, the evidence of things not seen" (Heb. xi. 1). This reply has + never suggested any distinct idea to me, and I am confident that the + author of "Hebrews" had not a definite meaning in his own mind when he + wrote the words. The context shows that the word [—Greek—] is + used to signify distinct states of mind, and one example, which is given + frequently, indicates a different signification from another that precedes + or follows. For example, in v. 5 we are told that Enoch was translated by + "faith;" but the only evidence for this is, that "he pleased God;" + whereas, in verse 11, we are told that Sarah, who laughed at the idea of + having offspring, and disbelieved the promise which said that she should + have a son, conceived "through faith." Still further, the false history of + the chapter disgusted me—e.g., we read in w. 24, 25, 27, that Moses + by faith elected to bear affliction with the people of God, and from the + same cause forsook Egypt, not fearing the wrath of the king, &c.—both + of which statements are untrue, for he ran away both from the afflictions + of the Hebrews and the wrath of the monarch, and required "pressing" + before he would leave his retreat in Midian. I regard the chapter thus + referred to as one of the great stumbling blocks of Christianity. Its + logic is contemptible; yet it must pass for truth, because Paul is thought + to have written it. Being now thrown back upon our own resources for a + definition of "faith," we affirm that it signifies "<i>uncompromising</i> + belief in what one is told." Every religious book which occupies itself + with this subject illustrates the word in question by affirming that it + resembles the motive which actuates a child who, at a father's bidding; + leaps from a height upon the promise that papa will catch him in his arms. + </p> + <p> + Though, as a rule, I am disinclined to use adjectives, I have added the + word in italics, because it is a material part of the definition, and + involves more than at first sight appears. Peter tried to walk upon the + water—he doubted, and began to sink. He has been imitated by others; + they have all failed. "Doctor," a man may say, "can I swallow this without + being choked?" "Yes, if you think you can." He tries to swallow the + morsel, and is choked. The result in every case is attributed to a want of + faith. In other words, hesitation cannot effect what confidence can. + Consequently we are justified in asserting that faith and doubt are + absolutely incompatible. Faith implies an absolute and perfect confidence. + This faith may be compulsory—as when a shipmaster is obliged by + local law to give up the management of his ship to a pilot; or it may be + spontaneous, as when a patient trusts himself to a surgeon. For a man only + to give a half confidence, is to cripple to that extent the capacity of + the one who is responsible. + </p> + <p> + Religious faith, then, involves the necessity of an absolute and blind + confidence in the priestly pilot selected as a conductor through life to + eternity; it precludes inquiry, discourages thought upon the most + important matter which every man has to consider, and makes of a rational + being an intellectual slave. In few words, it reduces its votary to the + position of a tool, and renders him, so far as religion is concerned, + mentally blind. + </p> + <p> + We recognize the accuracy of our deductions when we find that the aim of + the Roman church has been to reduce men to the condition here described, + and then to use them as carpenters do planes, chisels, and axes. It is + probable that there never existed in the world an order of men who have so + completely reduced themselves, and voluntarily too, it must be borne in + mind, to the position of a machine, as the Jesuits have done. They are an + instrument in the hands of their superiors, and they blindly obey. Whether + the order exists for good or harm, it is not my purpose to discuss. + </p> + <p> + Next in order to the society of Jesus comes the gigantic society known as + the Papacy, or Roman Catholicism. I place this as second to Jesuitry, + because, for a long period, there was a certain freedom of opinion allowed + to the superior clergy. But now, when it has become a tenet of the church + of Rome, that its head is absolutely infallible in all matters of dogma + and doctrine, it is probable that the demand of faith from the laity may + equal, if not exceed, that made upon professed Jesuits. + </p> + <p> + In religion, the only place in which uncompromising faith finds its home, + is the Papal. That demands unlimited belief in everything ecclesiastically + promulgated, hatred of everything dogmatically condemned, and acquiescence + in every sacerdotal command. Amongst that sect, doubting is an offence, + and opposition is a crime. + </p> + <p> + We have seen this illustrated in the person of the learned Bishop + Döllinger, who has been excommunicated simply because he refused to accept + the new fangled notions of an almost effete old pope. He cannot see + anything in a modern council to supersede apostolic traditions; he doubts; + therefore the Papalists do everything in their power to damn him. In like + manner, although prior in time to the declaration of the Pope's + infallibility, we have seen the present king of Italy excommunicated; + because he, as the head of his own dominions, ordered a decree to be + carried into effect which, whilst it was good for the people generally, + was regarded as hostile to the church. + </p> + <p> + The observer need not, however, go far from home in search of + illustrations, for every year sees one or another Protestant minister + leaving the Anglican for the Roman communion, on the sole ground that in + the latter there is no room for doctrinal doubts and contests. To the + laity, the very repose of the religious mind is held out as a bait by + Papal missionaries, and it is probably one of the most successful which + "the fishers of men" employ. I once heard a brother physician express his + opinion on this point. Conversation had turned upon a confrère who had + been in religious matters "everything by turns, and nothing long." "Ah," + said the Romanist, "he'll be tired of roaming some day, and find repose at + last in the bosom of the church; his soul will then be at rest, and will + wander no more." + </p> + <p> + The possibility of Protestants entertaining a doubt upon the power of "the + Church" to demand unlimited belief and obedience from the faithful, is a + sore thorn in the side of many dignitaries of the national creed. As this + propensity to inquiry is an essential part of the legacy bequeathed to + Englishmen by the reformation, this last movement has been execrated by + some of our High Churchmen. It is asserted, that, as the taking of the + Bible for the sole rule of faith has been followed by a great splitting up + of the so-called "Church of Christ," so it is advisable to change the + standard, and to adopt that of "Ecclesiastics" personally or collectively. + In any case, such advocates desire to re-establish the reign of faith. + What the Reign of Faith has been in Europe, it would be idle to describe. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the mind of an individual revolts from giving implicit faith to + any creed, doctrine, or dogma, he must be regarded as a mariner who, being + not quite contented with his own country, endeavours to find a better. In + his voyage he first leaves the shore as a fledgling does the nest—he + goes a short excursion, and returns; after a time he becomes more brave, + and puts off more boldly. At first he probably finds a number of other + barques as venturous as his own, and he becomes emboldened; it may be his + arms are strong, his head clear, and his boat good; and he steers into the + offing. No sooner does he leave the herd, however, than he is chased, and + if he refuses to put back, curses follow him; and the friends whom once he + had are condoled with. Such is the position of a Protestant who departs + seriously from the religion of the majority. With or amongst the Romanists + to leave the shore is an act of disbelief which must be atoned for by + penance or punishment. + </p> + <p> + It is clear that every such individual who, like a chick, leaves the + shelter of the maternal wings, must be more or less at sea. He or she may + have no idea of going very far, yet may be compelled to sail on until he + has reached the other side of Doubting Straits, and has landed in the + realm of Reason. We can well conceive the waters to be covered by small + "craft," which keep together for company's sake, or who boldly sail out + and solicit followers—some cluster, it may be, round a stately + galleon, others sail with a dashing cruiser, some come into collision or + hostile contact with their neighbours, and try to damage each others' + barques. But all are at sea—driven hither and thither by breezes + which spring up, no one knows how, and drop down again as swiftly as they + rose. The mariners, however, seem to enjoy the excitement, and refuse to + return to their own land. + </p> + <p> + The individuals whom we here describe are the ordinary Protestant sects + (not including the Unitarians, who have long reached a comparatively + stable ground). These, by whatever name they are called, refuse to give + implicit faith to the Pope; they will, however, accord, in some degree, to + some pet parson, the management of their conscience; they dread what is + called "free-thinking," as a mariner does a lee shore. They put up with + every accident which arises from mingling faith with reason, and are, on + the whole, contented, as long as too much pressure is not put upon them, + to steer in a definite direction. Of these it may be said, "Thou art + neither cold nor hot; I would thou wert cold or hot. So then, because thou + art lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spue thee out. of my mouth" + (Rev. iii. 15,16). The endeavour to make reason subservient to faith, must + ever be a failure as complete as would be the endeavour to weld iron with + water, or to heat an anchor shaft by surrounding it with cold coals and + wood, then blowing a blast of air upon the whole. He who is determined to + use reason, must drop faith; and he who clings to faith, must drop reason. + The conclusions drawn by all who attempt the combination will always be + lame and impotent. + </p> + <p> + If, in the stead of faith, an individual takes reason for his guide + through this world to the next, he incurs the wrath and malignancy of the + many, and the respect of the few. He comes in for far harder names than + Pagans gave to Christians, and Papalists gave to Huguenots. If, + unfortunately, he should live in a country where priests rule, he may be + burned, as Savonarola was at Florence, Latimer and Ridley at Oxford, and + Servetus at Geneva. Luther was said to be a devil—a so-called + Atheist is believed to be something worse. + </p> + <p> + Yet, notwithstanding all the obloquy thrown upon Freethinkers by the + orthodox, they steadily have increased in numbers, ever since the spread + of education and the cheapness of books have enabled men to study in + retirement When there was little instruction and few books, people gained + what knowledge they had from their spiritual guides. This power of the + pulpit enabled the hierarchy to set up and substantiate any claims which + they chose. But, since the power of the printing press has risen, the + influence of the priesthood has diminished. With all this tendency to + so-called Atheism, there has been no loss of propriety; on the contrary, + the probity of the few exceeds that of the many, and in all there is a + great improvement. The present times in Italy are far superior to those + when the Borgias and their religion were supreme. + </p> + <p> + When we inquire what the Freethinkers, or Rationalists, are, it is readily + seen that they have been maligned by "the faithful." There is little + difficulty in summing up their tenets: it is "Reverence, without + servility." They draw their views from the book of creation, and hold it + infamous to fight for supremacy where facts and logic can decide. This, + however, is by far too meagre to satisfy either a friend, an inquirer, or + an opponent; it is, therefore, desirable to go into the matter more fully. + In doing so, I make no pretence to be the mouthpiece of a party, nor even + to give a digested account of what those who have written and published + before me have enunciated; my sole aim is to give, in as plain terms as I + can command, the opinions which inquiry has forced upon my mind. + </p> + <p> + My first confession of faith must be negative, for, until the ground has + been cleared, it is not advisable either to plant or construct: + </p> + <p> + 1. I do not believe in the authority of any written book as being an + inspired production, or as containing a revelation from God to man. In my + estimation, the Bible is not in any way superior to the Koran, to the + Dhammapada, the Puranas, the Main-yo-Khard, the Avesta, or any other + collection of scriptures held sacred. + </p> + <p> + 2. I do not believe the story given in Genesis of the creation, of the + formation of human beings, and what is ordinarily called "the temptation" + and "the fall". + </p> + <p> + 3. I do not believe in the existence of what is technically designated + "original sin," nor that the human race is "a fallen one;" consequently, I + do not believe in the necessity for "salvation." I do not believe that + death came into the world by sin. + </p> + <p> + 4 I do not believe in the existence of "sin," in the ordinary acceptation + of the word; nor do I believe that man requires the intervention of any + fellow mortal, either to reconcile or embroil him with an unseen power. + </p> + <p> + 5. I do not believe in the existence of a Devil, or of any other power in + the whole universe, than that of the Supreme Maker of all. + </p> + <p> + 6. I do not believe in any description which has yet been given of Hell or + Heaven. + </p> + <p> + 7. I do not believe that God has ever directly spoken to man. + </p> + <p> + 8. I do not believe that God has ever become incarnate, or that he has a + celestial spouse, or a son. + </p> + <p> + 9. I do not believe in the existence of truth-speaking prophets, in the + existence of angels, or ghosts, or in the supernatural birth of any one. + </p> + <p> + 10. I do not believe that God has now, or ever has had, a separate and + chosen people, peculiarly "His own," and, consequently, that there are + none to whom the term "the elect" can apply. + </p> + <p> + 11. I do not believe that what is generally designated religion is + necessary to the existence of law and order in a state or in a family. + </p> + <p> + 12. I do not believe that God requires the assistance of man, here or + elsewhere, to enable Him to find, or to keep, or to punish, His subjects. + </p> + <p> + These negatives might be multiplied, but I doubt whether profitably so, + inasmuch as the more we dilute important points, the less readily are they + recognized. We may now proceed to affirmations:— + </p> + <p> + 1. I do believe in the existence of a distinct Power in creation—great + beyond conception, which pervades all space—which is everywhere + present in the earth, the sea, the air, and in every conceivable part of + the Universe—which made all things, and gave to them properties, + powers, and laws. A power to which it were blasphemy to assign ears, eyes, + hands, or human parts, and an evidence of a grovelling mind to suppose it + capable of human passions, such as love, hate, jealousy, and merriment, + and to describe it as ignorant, vacillating, and grieved at its own work. + That Power I cannot conceive as having either an origin or an end. Into + the designs of such a power, man cannot enter, nor can he even seem to + approach them, except by noticing the works of creation, and studying the + laws which apparently govern it By the term, "laws of nature," I + understand "the laws of the power of which I speak." I cannot conceive how + man can form an idea of a state of spiritual existence of which he can + neither see, observe, or notice anything. + </p> + <p> + It is, in my opinion, unnecessary here to enter into the vexed question of + the continued interference of this Power with its works, for where we have + only human analogies to guide us, it is undesirable to argue upon them in + the attempt to discover the superhuman. As we shall have occasion shortly + to indicate our views upon a matter analogous to this, we will postpone + anything which we may have to say. + </p> + <p> + I believe that the Power has never made, nor can ever make, a mistake; + that all its works are perfect, and that where they seem to us to be + otherwise, it is from our ignorance of their design. + </p> + <p> + It seems to me that lions and lambs, sharks and gudgeons, that hawks and + chickens, form a portion of a grand scheme: that the distinct classes of + animals were originally perfect; that they may deteriorate, yet never + advance beyond perfection. I do not believe that a lion could become, + under any circumstances, a bull; a bear a camel, or a pig an elephant. + </p> + <p> + 2. The belief that the Creator made each creature originally perfect, and + with certain well defined propensities, involves the further confidence + that the indulgence in those propensities is a necessary part of the + scheme of creation; consequently, I believe that the tiger eats flesh + because it is a law of his existence, and that in doing so he commits no + sin. I believe, still further, that a close observation of nature gives us + some apparent insight into the plan of creation For example, I think the + existence of gills in a fish leads us fairly to the conclusion that it was + intended to live in the water; that the existence of teeth implies that + they were to be used in eating, wings in flying, legs in walking. Still + further, when we notice that vegetables can assimilate mineral matter, + which animals, as a rule, cannot, I believe that the vegetable kingdom has + its special place in the world; and when, moreover, we find creatures who + can eat and digest vegetables, and have a special apparatus for the + purpose, it is fair to conclude that they too have their station assigned. + A corresponding remark applies to the carnivora. Once again,—when an + extended observation shows us that the beasts and birds of prey select for + their victims the young of animals which their parents are unable to + protect, the aged, who are too infirm to fight for themselves, or the + sickly, which are quite unfit to live: when, moreover, we find these + carnivorous creatures die when age or accident deprives them of the power + of getting food; nay, when we see large numbers of all animals die from + want of food, of air, of warmth, or from accidents—I believe that we + are justified in deducing the idea that it is a design of the Power, that + those which cannot live shall die; I believe that death is as essential a + necessity to every creature as is its birth, and that its many forms have + a definite purpose. + </p> + <p> + Let us now, for a moment, turn our attention to the very commencement of + life. If from any cause the new being is seriously malformed or diseased, + it is a common thing for the dam to miscarry. If a mother, say a pig, rat, + or bird, brings forth a larger brood than she can nourish, she commonly + kills the smallest, and allows only those to survive which she can find + food for—the bird that lays more eggs than her nest will hold, turns + the overplus out; and if, when the fledglings grow up, they are too bulky, + one of them will be discarded. The cuckoo's chick has a special provision + made for helping it to turn out the young of another bird, and its mother + has also a special instinct to lay its eggs in the nest of the + hedge-sparrow. The life of one involves the death of three or more. Again, + in the aquatic world, one fish makes no scruple to feed on its own young + ones or those of its neighbours, and the old crocodile seeks out its + offspring as a favourite luxury. We find, moreover, that where these + creatures abound there may often be found a small animal—the + ichneumon—whose instinct teaches it to seek for and destroy the eggs + of the saurian. In like manner crows, rats, cuckoos, and probably many + other creatures, have a propensity to feed upon the eggs of various birds. + In few words, we recognize throughout creation an apparent design to + prevent a superabundance of life. + </p> + <p> + This remarkable provision, working, as it does, through laws which seem to + be fixed and established, prevents our belief in the interference of the + Creator. When an animal has reached the period of nearly adult age, there + is in many instances a considerable amount of instruction given to it, + sometimes by the sire, but mostly by the dam. When that has been imparted, + parents and offspring seem to be like strangers to each other. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that, if we could observe all animals, we should find some + system of training of the family. As it is, we can only speak of domestic + fowls, and notice the order which the hen keeps up amongst her brood of + chickens; they are taught to live peaceably. Her punishments are never + lenient; they are, indeed, necessarily severe. + </p> + <p> + We may next proceed to inquire into the animal instincts which exist in + adult life, at a period when every creature is supposed to be in its + perfection. At a certain time of the year there is a propensity for the + male and female to unite. There is not anything in creation which affords + a more attractive study than this, for every class of creatures has a + practice peculiar to itself. One might fancy that in an act so necessary + and so simple there would be little cause for interest; yet, in reality, + "the prodigality of design"—a term which we hope to explain fully + hereafter—is more largely shown in this process than in any other. + It is, however, a subject upon which one cannot descant before the general + public. + </p> + <p> + So far as we are able to observe animals, we find that at this period + there is, amongst a great number of classes, a power amongst the males to + discover the most perfect amongst the females, and to fight for them. By + this means the young are certain to be the offspring of perfection of + grace and beauty in the dam, and strength and size in the sire. We can + readily understand that, if the loveliest hind were to pair with the + weakliest stag, the breed would degenerate, and probably die out. But the + conqueror can hold his place only so long as he has vigour; when age has + weakened him, the youthful successor practically prevents the old buck + from being a father. In some exceptional cases (apparently so at least) + the number of males exceeds that of the females, and, as a result of the + instinct before alluded to, the fight ends in the majority of the males + being destroyed. The survivor then has one spouse only, and not a + seraglio. This is said to obtain amongst rats and lions. + </p> + <p> + As yet, there is not a sufficient amount of observation available to + enable us to affirm what is the general cause of exit from life, when no + death by violence occurs. We do not know the end of old buffaloes, + elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, whales, and other monsters. Tales + are told of decrepit lions being occasionally seen tottering to their + fall; and gossip says that ancient cats know when they are about to die, + and retire to some secluded nook, where they give up the ghost quietly. I + cannot charge my memory with a single anecdote in which the youthful + animal endeavours to sustain the old one, by feeding it during its + decrepitude. Throughout creation parental affection signifies solicitude + for offspring. We do not anywhere discover a love towards a parent after + the younger creature has reached adult age. + </p> + <p> + In all the cases to which I have referred, and, were I a naturalist, they + might be greatly multiplied, there is no pretence, even amongst the + orthodox, that any of the creatures have committed "sin" against the + Almighty, or against the community of which they form a part. On the + contrary, what is done, even though it amounts to murder, is regarded as a + necessity; and we admire the laws of nature which bring about such + results. We do not stop to inquire whether any contrivance would prevent + birds from laying too many eggs, and cuckoos from dropping theirs into the + nests of other birds; we content ourselves with saying, "such is the will + of Providence." It is easy to come to such a conclusion as regards what we + are pleased to call "the lower animals," but as soon as we inquire + "whether similar laws or instincts are implanted in us," we are generally + met with a howl of repugnance. + </p> + <p> + But I believe that we shall never understand our true position in life and + in nature until we deliberately investigate that which we have in common + with other animals, and wherein we are different—probably superior. + I use the word <i>probably</i>, because, in the estimation of higher + beings than ourselves—if such there be—the horse and the + elephant may be regarded as being far above us in the scale which those + beings have framed for themselves. + </p> + <p> + I have never yet seen any deliberate attempt to work out the problem + referred to. Every one, or nearly so, who if orthodox, assumes that it is + absolutely wicked to compare the beasts which perish, to man who has a + soul As I have, in a previous volume, shown that the evidence for the + immortality of the horse is equal to that for the human race, I will not + stay to point out the absurdity of building an important argument upon a + baseless assumption, but simply express my belief that man has very much + in common with other mammals; but that he is in possession of something + superadded, which, at first sight—though not in reality—takes + him out of the trammels of the ordinary laws of nature that operate in the + brutes. + </p> + <p> + No one can doubt that man has as strong a propensity to unite with woman, + as bulls and stags have with the females of their kind. He has, even in + civilized societies, a propensity to fight with one or more of his fellows + for a female of surpassing beauty. Men will combat about a disputed field + or country as fiercely as dogs over a bone, or hermit crabs over a shell. + As a rule, man detests to be taught, quite as much as does the whelp; yet, + when he has gained an art, he is as proud of it as a highly trained + spaniel. Men are gregarious as horses in a field, and quite as intolerant + as they, of an interloper. Like the wild wolves, men will unite together + to capture and prey upon creatures of each of whom individually he stands + in fear. Like a set of wild bulls or buffaloes, men will, for a time, + agree to obey a leader, and, when the object is gained, break loose. Like + a cat, man will steal, when he can, his neighbours' goods, like a crow, he + will pay no attention to his parents, nor to a Sunday. + </p> + <p> + Without entering into farther particulars, we may affirm that some highly + trained elephants, dogs, and horses, are superior to many human beings in + every point upon which an impartial judge can determine. + </p> + <p> + It is my belief that, for a man to obey an instinct which is implanted in + his nature, is not "a sin" against God. + </p> + <p> + To see this in a fair light, let us assume, as we have a right to do, that + it is an instinct in the nature of all known creatures, to increase and + multiply their like. To avoid doing so intentionally, is a contravention + of one of the Creator's laws. If this be so, then celibacy is a sin, as + great, indeed, as if one were to refrain from food of all kinds; and no + one can be considered as worthy of the name of good, who remains unpaired + without just cause. In like manner, it is not an offence against the laws + of God for any man and woman to unite, for it is as much a law of nature + that they shall do so, as that they must eat and drink. The plea of + "religion" cannot make that wrong, which is by nature right. + </p> + <p> + In like manner, if in a limited community—say upon an island, the + number of men exceeds that of the women, I believe that a fight amongst + the males for the possession of mates, would not be "sin" against the + Omnipotent even though many combatants died during the contest. + </p> + <p> + Nay, so common upon many points is the agreement; amongst even the most + orthodox, that none would say that a man commits a crime when he steals + the store of honey laid up by bees, kills animals for food or for their + fur, or covets and appropriates the prairies hitherto occupied by herds of + deer and bison. Even the commandments said to be delivered by God Himself + are held not to be literally binding upon man, except in relation to his + friends. He may, for example, by the laws of war, murder his enemies, + fornicate with their wives, steal their property, and deceive them in + every way. Abraham, the so-called friend of God, murdered many Orientals, + and plundered them; not because he had any quarrel with them, but simply + because they had murdered and plundered some of his friends. David again, + a man after God's own heart, with his dying breath, gave his son + instructions to put individuals to death in cold blood, superseding the + law of Sinai, by a heritage of hate. When, therefore, common consent takes + certain actions out of the list of crimes or sins, provided that the deeds + are done against enemies, we have to seek for the origin of those ideas + which make murder, theft, robbery, rape, and false-witness crimes in the + abstract. + </p> + <p> + To understand this point, we have really to start from the bestial basis, + and aver that what is not sin in them, is not sin in savage man. No one of + any intelligence would say that a Briton would be justified in shooting an + Ashantee because the latter had killed and eaten an enemy, or an aged + parent; nor would any one of us sentence a Hindoo to death because he had + killed a dozen Thugs. Even in comparatively civilized American backwoods, + a person who has killed a bully has been thought a public benefactor. + Again, when we cast our eyes upon Australia, and learn the brutal way in + which the black native virgins are violently carried away from their + relatives and married, and how again they are repeatedly carried off as + wives by other men, we feel ourselves justified in leaving the ravishers + without punishment, for there is no violation of law, or, if there be, + Englishmen have no right to interfere. + </p> + <p> + But what we tolerate in uncivilized lands, even where we are ostensibly + rulers, we will not suffer in our own. The reason of this is, that we have + banded ourselves into a society in which "the laws," once settled and + determined by the majority, supersede, in certain cases, individual + action. + </p> + <p> + To make our meaning clear, let us imagine that amongst some nation or + people there is one man more astute and powerful than his fellows; still + further, we assume that he has fought, or is desirous to fight, a + neighbour of nearly equal force. It is clear that if his people murder + each other from any cause he will lose warriors; consequently, he will let + his tribe understand that he will punish homicide, on a plan which he + thinks will be deterrent. Still further, as he requires soldiers of strong + limbs and sturdy constitution, he declares that no woman shall many + without his consent, so that he may prevent any one selling herself, or + being sold, to a weak or old man for mere pelf. As, in a savage state, + most possessions are those which are useful in war, he would prohibit + theft. As a consequence, he, and all who respected his power to punish, + would regard murder, theft, rape, and unauthorized wife-selling as crimes—offences, + that is to say, against the ruler of the state, and not against the + Creator of mankind. + </p> + <p> + It signifies little to my argument, whether society is governed, as the + early Aryans were, by warriors, or, as the later ones were, by Brahmans. + In either case the leaders make laws, and declare a violation of them to + be punishable. + </p> + <p> + When communities are small in size, and extend over a small area, few + rules of life are necessary; but when a nation increases in size, and + especially when it consiste of many tribes or class which have voluntarily + united together, legislation is far more complicated, inasmuch as the + ideas of right and wrong in each section may, from long custom, vary from + each other. For example, in most of the United States of America bigamy, + or the possession of two wives at a time, is a crime; whereas, in Salt + Lake city, its rulers have twenty, and its men a dozen, if they like, and + yet are esteemed saints, and really conduct themselves as if they had a + clear claim to the title. + </p> + <p> + The greatest complication is when the laws of a community have been + framed, partly by soldiers, partly by ecclesiastics, and partly by + mercantile men, for each party has a different creed. The first makes no + scruple to fight at the command of the second, whilst the third endeavours + to prevent all war whatever. The second set intrigue to have the supreme + power; the first and third often endeavour to suppress the second, knowing + its aggressiveness and lust of supremacy. + </p> + <p> + When a nation is under what is grandiloquently called a Theocracy, every + offence against a command given <i>ex cathedra</i> is regarded as a sin; + not simply a disregard of the law, but a defiance of the God who is said + to have ordained it. Thus, according to what is known as the Mosaic law, + it was a crime punishable by a lingering death to gather sticks on a + Sabbath day (Num. xv. 32-36); but it was no crime to kill all the males + and women of a whole nation, and retain the maidens for private + prostitution and for the use of the priest (Num. xxxi. 17, 18, 40, 41). In + such a nation it was no crime to commit forgery—and of all the + bearers of false witness, none exceeded in ancient times the Jewish + writers in the Bible—but in mercantile England, the former has been + at one time punished with death, and the latter by ignominious penalties. + </p> + <p> + In modern Theocracies, such as once existed in Austria, Spain, Italy, + England, and elsewhere, it was considered criminal to think differently, + upon any religious point, from the authorized standard. In those kingdoms + many a person was doomed to die a painful death, and thereafter sent—as + it was supposed, to Hell—whom we now regard as a virtuous, brave, + and noble individual. + </p> + <p> + The common sense of mankind induces all citizens to buy what they have + need of, at the smallest possible price; but a mercantile government says + to its people—"You shall not buy anything from anybody who has not + first paid us for the privilege of trading, and something more for every + ware which he offers for sale, and every one contravening this order shall + be seriously punished." Here, again, an artificial offence is manufactured + that has no origin in nature. + </p> + <p> + When a people has succeeded in throwing off publicly the trammels of + Ecclesiastical legislation, as England, Italy, Spain, France, Austria, + Belgium, and other nations have done, they by no means shake off their + private shackles. The only difference between Spain, Austria, and other + places, now and formerly, is, that the priesthood are seeking to attain by + subtlety what they could previously command by their state power. At one + period in the history of modern Rome, it was a crime not to kneel on the + bare ground when certain priests passed with a bit of wafer surrounded by + gorgeous trappings. This is a crime no longer against the state, but for + all who believe the Papal hierarchy it is yet a sin. + </p> + <p> + At one time in England, it was a crime not to go to church on Sunday; it + was equally punishable to carry on any business. The laws respecting these + matters have not yet been repealed, and they have been put recently into + operation, although the good sense of the majority has made them + practically obsolete. Yet, though this is the case, and the law no longer + punishes Sabbath-breaking, the priestly body continue to launch their + thunders against all who regard every day alike. It is, indeed, doubtful + if, in the eyes of our parsons, there is any sin so great as enjoying + one's self on a Sunday. The law of our country does not make it a crime + for a woman to prostitute her body, or for a man to have a concubine of + greater or less permanency, but the hierarchs denounce the arrangement as + criminal in the sight of God. + </p> + <p> + We need not multiply our illustrations farther. Sufficient has been + advanced to show that there are two distinct classes of sins—one, + those made by Ecclesiastics, or by those legislators passing under the + name "Society;" the other, those which are against the laws of nature—e.g., + an enforced celibacy, such as that to which Romish priests are doomed. In + saying this, we readily allow that what is right, according to the laws of + God, as set forth in the universe, is wrong according to the code made by + the legally constituted authorities of the state in which an individual + lives. We grant, moreover, that, if a government is strong enough, the + laws of man should be enforced by human means. But we do not believe that + mortals should be compelled to carry out that which priests tell them is + the justice of the Immortal, of which they know absolutely nothing. I hold + that no state can fairly claim to take cognizance of, or to punish, + thoughts, or any private indulgence which creates no public scandal. + </p> + <p> + If we endeavour to reduce our views to a still clearer issue, the + difference between divine and human laws will be the more readily + understood. Let us assume that Miss Kallistee is the most perfect woman in + a district. For her contend with their natural weapons Messrs. Dunamis, + Kratos, Kalos, Sophos, and Mathesis; and the conqueror, having killed his + adversaries, takes the lady to wife. The law of man or of society now + steps in and kills off the survivor; or, if it should know beforehand of + the coming contest, will prevent it. As a consequence, the lady must be + contended for peaceably, and may become the bride of impotent old age or + wealthy disease. As a result, the healthy offspring, which nature would + have reared, are either absent, sickly, diseased, or idiotic. Here, then, + I affirm that a law of society is a sin against God. + </p> + <p> + I would wish my readers to ponder over this matter, which gives much food + for thought. I do not think that such contests as I have described can be + tolerated in any society of civilized beings, for, in proportion to our + emergence from barbarism, we do not seek mere strength and beauty of form + in our population. We desire to cultivate the intellectual rather than the + animal in man. But experience has shown that, as a rule, the further man + departs from the latter, and the nearer he approaches to the former, the + more does his progeny deteriorate physically. + </p> + <p> + It is a problem whether, by any available contrivance short of that which + was adopted by the Incas of Peru, man can uniformly develope upwards. The + physiologist can readily see how the matter might be effected, but in + republican or constitutional kingdoms, the means will never be adopted. + </p> + <p> + We have now come to a point when it is necessary for me, as an individual, + to express an opinion as to the selection which a philosopher, living in a + comparatively civilized community, should make between a promulgation of + the so-called laws of God—an instruction respecting the laws of + nature—or an utterance of the laws of society, with the enforcement + of them. Ere forming a decision, let us endeavour to ascertain what each + alternative involves. + </p> + <p> + If a state, acting through its executive government, decides to make what + are called the laws of God the basis of legislation, it must first decide + what those laws are. In the endeavour to do so, every thoughtful man will + recognize the impossibility of verifying a single one. The whole must, + therefore, be promulgated on assumption; and if so, the legislators will + be conscious that they have no valid authority. If, on the other hand, + they assume the laws of nature to be a safe guide, they must allow + proceedings which are opposed to the feelings of the majority of civilized + mortals. Being, then, averse to elect either of these codes as a sole + basis, the statesman will endeavour, as far as in him lies, to make or + adapt laws for the society in which he lives. + </p> + <p> + When the well-being of the community becomes the basis of its legislation, + the idea of sin vanishes from the statute book, and the stern realities of + life have to be envisaged with firmness and decision. So also when + religion has merged into common sense, and facts are appealed to rather + than fancies, policy takes the place of dogma, and the voice of a majority + overcomes that of any priesthood. + </p> + <p> + Into political economy, however, it is not my desire to enter, further + than may be necessary to illustrate my own opinions upon religion. + </p> + <p> + Having emancipated myself from the thraldom of bibliolatry and priestcraft + generally, it is my aim to examine what seems to be my duty as a man and + an integer of society. I conceive that, although I have no certain + knowledge thereof, I am one of the myriads of instruments by which the + Almighty works out His designs. My appreciation may be imperfect, but + still it seems to me a duty, always to be a good husband, father, friend, + and citizen—to act ever towards others as I should desire myself to + be treated under the same circumstances—to improve such talents as I + am conscious of possessing; and, in a general way, to do as much good as I + can during my lifetime—taking care, if possible, to leave after my + death no mischievous agency set on foot by me. In few words, I believe + that the only true religion consists in a constant steady performance of + duty—a duty discovered and determined by the individual, and not one + prescribed by any set of men. + </p> + <p> + The conclusion thus arrived at, appears at first sight, to be meagre in + the extreme, but when it is fully examined, it is found to involve + important consequences. The faithful, for example, or, as they style + themselves, "the orthodox," live, when they pay any attention to such + matters, in a state of perpetual fear of God and eternity; some, indeed we + may say many, go mad from the oppression which they feel from having + committed an unpardonable sin; some pass through life weighted by the + dread of not being finally "saved"; all, with rare exceptions, have a + horror of death and of the results of "the judgment." Feeling assured that + few will be saved, and the many will be damned, they have a dreadful + feeling of certainty that either they or some of their dearest relatives + or friends will be amongst the majority. Some go through life sinning and + repenting—"in dust and ashes," as the technical phrase runs—until + they are ashamed of their own vacillation, or go on sinning, without any + qualms of conscience, until it is too late to mend; and they recognize + before them "a fearful looking for of judgment and fiery indignation." + These fantastic terrors are far more deeply rooted in the Protestants than + in the Papists, who have so completely become imbued with the belief that + their priests have almost unlimited power in the unseen world, that the + dying folk become easy in their minds, by a full assurance of hope that + friends, hierarchs, and "masses" will make purgatory bearable and heaven + certain. Of fear about eternity I know nothing; feeling confident that the + God who made me—directly or indirectly it would be a waste of time + to discuss—had some work for me to do here. I am quite content with + whatever may be assigned to me hereafter by the same Power. Of a future + state I am wholly ignorant. As an integer, I feel a sort of instinct that + death is not absolute annihilation; but beyond that I do not now seek to + know, for every source of intelligence is absent. + </p> + <p> + To some inconsiderate enthusiasts this may seem a cold belief, but in + reality it is anything but that, for my days and nights are freed from + that wet blanket of vague dread which makes so many mentally shiver; and + my time is passed pleasantly in the alternate labour required by duty, and + the repose necessary to recruit one's energies. + </p> + <p> + Let us, for a moment, consider what would be the condition of the world, + if each individual conducted himself according to the dictates of a pure + and enlightened morality, instead of according to the direction of a body + of Ecclesiastics. + </p> + <p> + We may, I think, fearlessly assert that there would be no wars, no + murders, thefts, adulteries, libels, violations of female purity; in + short, every one would do as he wished to be done by. In such a people + persecution would find no place, ignorance would not be permitted, and law + would be unnecessary. Other desirable things would also take place, to + which it is unnecessary to refer at large. + </p> + <p> + When all are strictly proper in every relation of life, I cannot believe + that anything more would be wanting to make the human family as happy as + it can be here. What, let us ask, would the orthodox declare was amissing? + The reply is, to my mind, awful: There would be, first, the want of hatred + and malice; then would be added the want of Hell-to which enemies could be + sent, and of a Heaven, in which the faithful could feed their malignancy + by watching the tortures of those whom they detested on earth. + </p> + <p> + In fine, I beg to express my own deliberate opinion, which has been + growing stronger monthly since I first began to collect materials for this + work, that those who can find nerve to sweep from their minds the trammels + which have been woven around them by hundreds of generations of hierarchs, + and adopt the simple faith which I have above indicated, will be far + happier and better than ever they were before. No man will stand between + them and God, and they will find Him infinitely more good and merciful + than any of those who profess to be His agents. + </p> + <p> + There is yet another way by which the subject of "faith and reason" may be + approached, and their antagonism tested. This is by considering how far + the former is essentially human, and the latter divine—by which we + mean, superior to the propensity which all mankind has in common. We + recognize the importance of the inquiry, when we find Mr Gladstone, a + Prime Minister of England, discouraging the action resulting from + philosophical thought, because a man named Paul, some 1800 years ago, + recommended his friends to hold fast that which he, and they, under his + teaching, believed to be good. The speech of the Premier, which was + delivered at a large Liverpool School, and was written with unusual care, + held up, to a lot of schoolboys, the propositions of Strauss as something + which were so bad, that the enunciation of them carried with it their + refutation. Yet, at the same time, the speaker allowed that the German + thinker was conspicuous for intellectual attainments, powers of thought + beyond the ordinary run of mortals, sobriety in mental culture, and + boldness in the enunciation of the conclusions to which his reason + compelled him. In Mr Gladstone's opinion, such a man's doctrines deserved + to be withered; not because they were opposed to reason, to logic, to the + stern reality of facts, but because they opposed the prejudices of certain + persons educated in a different style of faith. + </p> + <p> + If we inquire in what way the German philosopher and the English bigot + differ, we can come to no other conclusion than that the one has used his + intellect upon the dogmas which have been presented to his mind, from his + infancy upwards, until they have been mistaken for fundamental truths, + whilst the other has exercised his mental powers upon something beyond the + doctrinal grounds on which his early education has been framed. The then + English Premier, who had to direct the state, allowed himself to be guided + by defunct men, precisely in the same way as Pyrrhus, Croesus, and others, + were governed by the pretended oracles at Delphi, Dodona, and elsewhere. + The man, in other words, who once wielded the might of England, and is + conspicuous for his classical acquirements, is as much the slave of + superstition as any ancient Egyptian or Grecian monarch, only his oracles + are not the same as theirs. + </p> + <p> + It is clear, that when the speech, to which reference has been made, was + composed, Mr Gladstone was under the influence of the belief, that what he + had been taught, and had adopted, must necessarily be the only truth which + can be relied on, at least, in its fundamental points. It is this very + presumption, this lazy habit of mind, that was long ago pointed out by + Bacon as being the most fertile cause of the retardation of science, and + it is remarkable that Oxford, as an University, and most of its alumni, + are still victims to the weakness referred to. It naturally follows in the + train of what is called classical learning, when the mind is taught to + remember rather than to think; and one easily believes that he can + recognize in the late Premier the gradual development of thought, and can + tell the epochs when cherished idols have been thrown aside, with the + energy of one who is suddenly roused to exercise a powerful mind in an + independent manner. + </p> + <p> + It would be useless to copy all the aphorisms by which Lord Bacon + attempted to destroy the old philosophy, which, in his time, was most + universally adopted, and to build up a new state of things, in which + science should advance, but a few of them are of such value that they + deserve recording. In <i>Novum Organum</i>, aph. 23 we read—"There + is no small difference between the fancies [—Greek—] of the + human mind and the ideas of the divine mind—that is, between certain + notions that please us, and the real stamp and impression made by created + objects as they are found in nature." That is to say, man commonly + imagines things to be what he fancies they ought to be, and neglects what + they really are. The learned aphorist then points out certain + peculiarities of men, by which they are induced to cleave to the bad, and + neglect the good. + </p> + <p> + Aph. 46—-"The human understanding, when any proposition has once + been laid down (either from general admission and belief, or from the + pleasure which it affords), forces everything to add to it support and + confirmation. But this evil insinuates itself still more craftily in + philosophy and in the sciences, in which a settled maxim vitiates and + governs every other circumstance, although the latter be much more worthy + of confidence." Aph. 47—"The human understanding is most excited by + that which strikes and enters the mind at once and suddenly, and by which + the imagination is immediately filled and inflated. It then begins, almost + imperceptibly, to conceive and suppose that everything is similar to the + few objects which have taken possession of the mind, whilst it is very + slow and unfit for the transition to the remote and heterogeneous + instances by which axioms are tried, as by fire, unless the office be + imposed upon it by severe regulations, and a powerful authority." + </p> + <p> + We may paraphrase the preceding axiom thus:—Those who, from personal + preaching, or by parental influence, have adopted a certain belief in the + truth of that which has been taught to them as a "revelation," no matter + who the individuals are, or may have been, who propound it, are loth, + ever, to inquire into the real nature of the matter. Hence it is that + "clairvoyance" and "spiritualism" have so many staunch adherents. + </p> + <p> + Aph. 56—"Some dispositions evince an unbounded admiration of + antiquity, others eagerly embrace novelty, and but few can preserve the + just medium, so as neither to bear up what the ancients have correctly + laid down, nor to despise the just innovations of the moderns. This is + very prejudicial to the sciences and philosophy, and, instead of a correct + judgment, we have but the factions of the ancients and the moderns." + </p> + <p> + There are other aphorisms following, which point out the mischief of + following certain theories, simply because they have been long accepted, + and are generally supposed to be correct. + </p> + <p> + At the period when Bacon wrote, there was the same conservatism in science + and philosophy as there had been in the Roman Church for ages, and very + few, if any, had ventured to suggest the necessity for a radical change. + In England the reformation of church and state preceded the reformation of + philosophy; yet, there are many amongst us yet who regard all such changes + as a mistake. We constantly find individuals who hanker after a despotic + rule, by king or emperor, who cannot endure a church in which there is no + tyrannical head, nor a science which only professes to advance, and + refuses to be stationary. + </p> + <p> + Yet the thoughtful know how much the world would have lost, had it yet + been prostrate at the feet of Aristotle and of barbaric Popes; and there + is not a Christian who does not rejoice that Jesus prevented mankind from + worshipping Moses, and adhering to Hebraic notions. + </p> + <p> + When, therefore, an individual, professing to be learned, scouts the + propositions of a careful inductive and rigidly reasoning philosopher, + simply because they violate generally believed notions; and when, in + addition, he appeals to the ignorance and impressionability of schoolboys + rather than to the mature judgment of adults, he proclaims himself, in + that respect, at least, a bigot—of a dye as deep as those fanatics + who urged on their fellows to suppress the discoveries of Galileo. But the + matter does not end here. We recognize the necessity for a public man, who + has once proclaimed his adherence to the doctrines of Revelation, and has + preached the necessity for "faith," and its superiority over reason—however + calm and rigid, to go further, and to proclaim that which he regards as + Revelation, and who are the individuals he will receive as the + interpreters of that so-called communication from God to man. + </p> + <p> + It is clear that the words which have been uttered by man require a human + expounder; equally clear is it that, if the original sayings are regarded + as being inspired, but, nevertheless, of doubtful meaning, they can only + be cleared up by other men, who are, like the original oracles—"inspired." + But, as a matter of fact, there are in our own times three distinct sets + of individuals who lay claim to the faculty of interpretation; and these + differ so amongst themselves, that certainly, at least, two, and very + probably all, are wrong. + </p> + <p> + The man, then, who is disposed to make faith his guide must, in so far as + Christianity is concerned, join himself either to the Greek or Roman + Church, whose pretensions to a divine presence in their midst have been of + the longest; or to the Protestant Church, which endeavours to oust the + other two upon the plea that they cannot be under divine teaching, because + they have become corrupt; and then, on the plea of having discovered the + alleged faults, it assumes to have the authority which its predecessors + have forfeited. + </p> + <p> + Thus, as we have frequently remarked before, man sits in judgment upon Him + whom he calls his maker. The Protestant Churches, however, are the only + ones who do not formally lay claim to having the divine presence amongst + them in a conspicuous degree; they do not pretend to the performance of + miracles, and they scout the idea that any modern representative of Jesus + can do any wonders like those that teacher did. The Roman Church proves to + the satisfaction of its votaries that "the Lord" is still with them, + inasmuch as the presence of the Virgin, in a visible form, occurs to cheer + her servants that trust in her intercession, and even pictures of her + become instinct with life. + </p> + <p> + If, then, an individual is resolved to walk by faith alone in matters of + religion, he is bound to join himself to that church wherein the divine + founder is habitually and visibly present; to whose saints the saviour has + appeared, and given stigmata like those which were produced in the + original by the barbarous nails and spear of the Roman soldiers. For the + votaries of faith—pure and unadulterated belief in things divine—the + only legitimate home is the bosom of the Papal Church. Why, then, do not + men, like Mr Gladstone, join it? Simply because their faith is not a pure + and confiding one. It is tainted by the doubt whether the pretensions of + the Roman See are sustainable, or by the certainty that Popish miracles + are contemptible shams. They believe that Francis of Assisi made the + stigmata, which he professed to receive from his "crucified Saviour," by + burning his hands, feet, and side, with some strong caustic, or by a + heated iron. + </p> + <p> + By these doubts, or certainties, individuals demonstrate that they are not + in the list of the faithful; for doubt implies unbelief, and both are + incompatible with faith pure and simple. + </p> + <p> + Whenever, then, a person confesses, by his words or actions, that he does + examine into the grounds of his belief, he is logically bound to continue + those inquiries into everything wherein there is a possibility of human + error creeping. + </p> + <p> + When we pursue our observations further, and inquire into the reasons why + a Papist believes certain things which a Protestant rejects, and vice + versa, we find that, in the first place, each believes what he has been + taught; he—to speak figuratively—imbibes his dogmas and belief + with his mother's milk; and when he advances in age, is taught and + imagines that he has mastered the stock arguments which are relied upon by + the opposite parties. There is, therefore, on first sight, a reasoning + power exercised by each; but it is not so, for the arguments themselves, + and their force, are regarded as matters of faith—as weapons with + which a warfare may be waged, but which, in no sense, are to be tested by + those who use them. + </p> + <p> + As far as the common run of religionists are concerned, they are all in + this "fool's paradise;" they fancy that they are secure, invincible, and + mighty, because they take their own prowess and their opponents weakness + as matters of faith. But when one of these comes into collision with + another whose reason is exercised upon facts and the deductions to be + drawn from them, the questions occur, possibly for the first time, Are the + grounds of my belief tenable? am I justified in using my reason only in + one direction? if I profess to argue, am I not bound to be logical? and if + what has been given to me as sound meat, is rotten in reality, am I bound + to eat it? can it do me good in any way? When a thoughtful man has arrived + at this point, he has to elect between Faith and Reason. Then, if, like Mr + Gladstone, he foresees to what his inquiries will probably lead, and is + disinclined to pull down a cherished edifice, even to erect a better, he + will naturally cling to the old belief, saying—"With all thy faults, + I love thee still." With his eyes wide open he hails the banner of + bigotry, no matter what may be the scutcheon which it bears. + </p> + <p> + Then come the important questions—"What right has any religious + bigot to profess himself a liberal?" and, "With what face can a man, who + refuses to exercise his understanding upon what he calls the most + important part of life, i.e., the preparation for eternity, proclaim + himself a friend of education?" + </p> + <p> + To insist upon the value of "learning" in forming the mind, and then to + set the example of recoiling from the knowledge which intellectual efforts + bring, is, in a statesman, a mean vacillation. Mr Gladstone ought either + to proclaim that his ideas are those of the Jesuits, or to pronounce in + favour of education, to whatever goal it legitimately tends. To say to + boys—or men—you must learn to think; but you must only come to + the same conclusions as myself, would disgrace a statesman of a free + country, though such a proclamation would seem natural to a pope, or any + other tyrant I do not, for a moment, assert that the then Premier of + England did, in a written, and, therefore, a deliberate speech, to a large + and influential school of boys, utter the words which I have used; on the + contrary, he employed his rhetorical powers to express the idea, without + either clearly understanding it himself, or giving the lads a clue to it. + Had the meaning of the discourse been put into a few pregnant sentences, + it may be doubted whether it would ever have been uttered. + </p> + <p> + If Mr Gladstone, like the mythical Elijah, had placed before his auditors, + in naked words, the proposition—"Choose ye this day whom ye will + serve, Faith or Reason," his discourse would have been clear. Even his own + mind could not have painted the two as being the same thing; nor would a + school-boy have failed to see that, in the future, he must elect between + indefinitely expanding his intelligence, and materially contracting his + intellect to the narrow limits prescribed by the faith of his parents. + </p> + <p> + To my mind it is sad to witness men of great general capacity, like the + late Dr Faraday, and the past Prime Minister of Great Britain, shunning, + in every way, an inquiry into the basis of their belief. We cannot regard + this as a result of simple intellectual indolence, or ignorance. The only + cause to which we can attribute it, is that weakness which, by most + people, is called moral cowardice; a fear, not so much of Mrs Grundy—the + world and its dread laugh—but the fear of some unseen, unknown, + incomprehensible danger to themselves—of dangers that have no + reality, except in an imagination which has been moulded long before the + mind was capable of thought, but whose hold upon the individual is such, + that he shrinks from the mental effort necessary to efface its + impressions. + </p> + <p> + There is yet another phase of faith, which deserves a passing mention. It + is that which declines to see or to hear a proof or an argument, lest it + should be convinced against its will. There are many men amongst us who, + in Scripture phrase, refuse to hear the voice of the charmer, charm he + never so wisely. This obstinacy, stupidity, dogged-ness, or firmness, is + quite compatible with a partially cultivated intellect, and is in itself a + measure of intellectual capacity. I have heard, for example, a learned + divine, but one whose writings are often so bemuddled, that the ideas + which they contain are as difficult to discover "as a needle in a bottle + of hay," declare that he would no more listen to an argument against the + existence of "the trinity," than he would open his ears to hear evidence + that his wife or mother was adulterous. + </p> + <p> + Such strong asseverations we may sympathize with, and even admire; but + they prove nothing beyond the impracticability of an individual mind, or + what, in some cases, takes its place—viz., the injudiciousness of + acknowledging a truth, when the enunciation of a belief in it would be + followed by unpleasant consequences. + </p> + <p> + Again, I know of another divine, who has steadily refused to inquire into + the value of what are called "the Christian evidences," his reason being, + that he is conscious that inquiry would shake his confidence in the + doctrines which he teaches. He clings to what he feels to be a sham, lest + others should, by his means, regard it in its proper light. + </p> + <p> + Another divine, who has not feared to be an inquirer, is incessantly + persecuted by his brethren, not because he has asserted his intellectual + freedom, but because, by having done so, he has, by implication, cast a + sort of odium upon those who hug their mental darkness. His argument is—Can + a man who hates the light be worthy to speak of the "Sun of + Righteousness?" Their reasoning is based upon the assertion, that those + who live in darkness, and like it, need not be told about a luminary. If + people chose to believe that the moon is made of green cheese, it is more + profitable to talk to them about its connection with the milky way, than + to say that the notion is absurd. Faith teaches that, where ignorance is + bliss, 'tis folly to be wise; whilst reason only impels one to habitual + thought or mental worry. + </p> + <p> + Other divines of my acquaintance have used their reason in a twofold way: + they have ceased to hold their first faith, yet they hold their "livings," + as they have no other means of subsistence; whilst a few have, with their + advancement in knowledge, paid for their knowledge by embracing poverty. + </p> + <p> + The world treats those who walk upon the ground with a far greater + injustice than it treats those who lie beneath its surface. For a man who + disturbs us in our fool's paradise, more feet than hands are used; but to + him who only disturbed the father's complacency, and taught the son in + youth, we erect memorial statues. Jesus was crucified when he was alive, + and deified when dead. His apostles were persecuted when living; now that + they are deceased, they are called saints. Savonarola was burnt alive at + Florence; now his memory is cherished, and his worth fully known. Luther + was detested when he was able to thunder in men's ears; now he is regarded + as a son of light. The present Pope, Pio Nono, has found an obsequious + council, whose voices have declared him to be infallible—a god upon + earth; the time will come when that Pope, and that council, will be + regarded as the personification of blasphemy and folly. The days of Faith + will be everlasting; but her power to act wickedly will be curtailed more + and more. The reign of Reason advances every year, for it is allied to + thought and knowledge; and we may fairly hope that the old adage will be + true—<i>Magna est Veritas et praevalebit</i>. + </p> + <p> + It may be said that, in the preceding parts of this essay, I have wholly + lost sight of, or, at least, have not referred to the argument—or + the statement, made by the upholders of faith, as a rule of life—that + reason has nothing to do with things divine, and that where God has made a + direct revelation of His will to man, no human being has a right to + criticise or object to it. + </p> + <p> + This kind of remark is in the mouth of every preacher, and each minister + who utters it imagines that he deals a blow so very heavy that nothing can + stand against it. But in reality it is only a big bubble, which collapses + when it is touched. "How," for example, we may ask, "can anything be + recognized as divine, unless human judgment is passed upon it? or, How can + any revelation be accepted, unless the mind has examined the messenger and + the message?" Who would believe the ravings of a lunatic, even though he + told us that God had sent him with a message to man? Why do Christians, as + a body, reject the revelation made to Mahomet, and the frequent + inspirations which give laws to the latter-day saints? To these queries + the reply is—"Because we know that God does not speak to man now, + and that when the bible was closed all revelation ceased." But when we + inquire into the reason for this belief we can find not one. Every + theologian must allow that the God who spoke once to Moses spoke again; + that He supplanted one dispensation by a second, and has promised a third. + </p> + <p> + Thus we see, that by their own books, the orthodox are bound to believe + that supplementary communications must be made to the human race; + consequently, when any one asserts that he is a divine prophet, his + pretensions are examined. The faithful Christian disbelieved in Mahomet; + the trusting Arabs believed in his mission, and fought for their creed. + They, like orthodox divines of to-day, refused to use their reason in + things divine, and to cavil at a revelation, Unable to agree, the + followers of Jesus, and those of Mohammed, fought, the latter almost + annihilating the former for a time, thus proving the value of their faith. + Both parties had a firm belief—the one in the prophet of Nazareth, + the other in the prophet of Arabia; and no reasoning could have convinced + either that his trust was misplaced; nor, to this day, has reason + convinced the Mahometans that Jesus was superior to Mahomet, or the + Christian that the Arab sectarian was a prophet at all; and it is singular + that both parties call in reason in attestation of their respective + creeds. + </p> + <p> + Is, then, the sturdy English theologian to be content to leave the + followers of Islam alone, because they have faith? or, must he still + endeavour to convert them by the use of reason? Can the Christian adopt + the belief that Mahometan and Mormon are both orthodox because they have + faith? and that the Jew must still be dear to Jehovah, inasmuch as he + still clings closely by faith to the revelation given to Moses and the + prophets? If this cannot be done, how can the follower of Jesus hope to + convert others to his belief, unless by the use of reason? If, then, the + theologian uses reason as a weapon against heterodoxy, upon what ground + can he object to its being employed by another? Latter-day saints have + made many proselytes in Christendom, and a Mahometan floored in debate the + late pious Missionary, Henry Martyn, whose propositions were met by + counter ones, and every one of whose arguments was taken up and retorted, + the names only of the persons spoken of being changed. "I know," said the + one, "that God spoke to us by Christ Jesus"—"I know," said the + other, "that Allah spoke to us by Mahomet" "You are wrong, my friend," + said one, "Allah has not spoken to man since the last Apostle died." "You + are wrong," said the other, "God has spoken to us long after that. You may + call Mahomet an apostle, if you like; we call him a prophet of Allah, and + know that he was one." And so controversy goes on now where there is faith + without reason. + </p> + <p> + It is clear, then, that truth cannot be established by any number of + people thundering out "I believe it," and by their victoriously fighting + for it. The argument, therefore, which I may be accused of omitting, is of + no value at all; it is sheer nonsense—a windbag, or, perhaps, it may + best be compared to a boomerang, which, when badly used, recoils upon the + person of him who threw it. Of such arguments theology is builded up. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Honesty. A question propounded. Are "divines" honest? + Meaning of the word. Learners and teachers—their + relations to each other. Honesty expected in a professor. + Teachers of religion are trusted—they are bound to be + faithful. Political rights of men in respect of the clergy + of the Established Church. Right to see that religion is + not adulterated. Man's right to truth. What truth is not. + Assertions required at "ordination." Canonical Scriptures. + Verbal inspiration. Doubts of laity. Two schools—those + who will and those who will not inquire. Rev. Dr + Colenso. Rev. Dr Browne. Precious stones and "paste." + How should a doubt be tackled—by inquiry, or by ignoring + it? An analogy. Compass and bible. If compass wrong, + why steer by it? Passenger and captain—one appeals to + stars, the other to his owners and the seamen under him. + Precision of Colenso—his words falsified so as to be + confuted: this is not honesty. Is Bishop Browne honest in + controversy? Tabernacle, temple, doors, &c. The <i>Speaker's + Commentary</i> not an honest book. Papal falsehoods; false + decretals; false letter from Prester John. Pious frauds. + Influence of dishonest teaching on education. The point + involved in sectarian discussions. Lying miracles—are + they promulgated honestly? Is it honest in religion to + promulgate that which we knew to be wrong, or which we dare + not inquire into for fear of consequences? Do Papal + authorities believe in the annual miracle at Naples? The + Protestant Church judged by a ruler of Siam. Bigotry, by + not inquiring, does not establish truth. Each man who is + deceived has a propensity to deceive others. The masses + agree to be deceived. Mr Gladstone on education. His + proposition that inquiry is bad if it leads to change of + religious opinions. Anecdotes of stupidity. Sailing in + search of truth. Captains who avoid the right course. + The condition of society when the schoolmaster overrides the + ecclesiastic. Reason and education ought to precede + faith. Result of honesty. Divines recoil from the honest + truth. Parsons in their pulpit preach what their week-day + precepts oppose. Honesty in ecclesiastical matters is not + the best policy. Divines and the silversmiths of Ephesus. + Examples. An honest parson is persecuted by his fellows: + this insures mediocrity and bigotry. If an author cannot + be persecuted he is avoided. Ecclesiastics persecute + their colleagues, but do not prove them wrong. + Excommunication easier than refutation. What an honest + merchant and divine should do when they discover a diamond + to be paste. Ought the divine to be less honest than the + merchant? The Author's challenge. Conclusion. +</pre> + <p> + I am now about to propound a question which I have heard mooted in quiet + by many, but for which publicity seems to be dreaded by all—<i>viz</i>., + "Is there honesty amongst Christians, and especially amongst the hierarchy + of the Churches of England and Rome?" + </p> + <p> + No one can doubt the importance of the subject; there is not a thoughtful + person who does not, in words at least, scorn to build up his everlasting + belief upon a fable, and who does not affect to be disgusted with everyone + who is deliberately untruthful I speak not now of those time-servers who + regard every artifice to be fair in love, war, and theology; but only of + those earnest minds who are anxious to seek out and to hold fast that + which is true, and who, under all circumstances, resolve to be honest with + themselves. That there may be no doubt as to the sense in which I use the + word, the following may be regarded as, in my opinion, the synonyms which + are properly given in <i>Webster's Dictionary</i>—"Integrity, + probity, uprightness, trustiness, faithfulness, honour, justice, equity, + fairness, candour, plain dealing, veracity." To this may be added—"not + bearing false witness." + </p> + <p> + Presuming that English scholars agree in this definition, let me now + inquire whether "we"—by which term I mean the non-theological class + by profession—have a right to expect "honesty" amongst our teachers—be + they Roman, Anglican, Hibernian, Scottish, Unitarian, Wesleyan, or of any + other body? and, in the next place, whether we get that to which we are + entitled? Presuming that it is necessary to begin with the foundation, let + us first inquire into "our rights," and whence they are supposed to be + derived. + </p> + <p> + The positions of a learner and a teacher—or a disciple and a master—are, + in some cases, different to what they are in others; for example, I need + not, unless I think it desirable, learn astronomy, chemistry, the art of + telegraphing, or that of ship-building; but if I do elect to learn any of + these matters, and engage a man to instruct me, I have a legal claim upon + him for his services. There is, indeed, a contract between us—he + engaging to teach me, and I agreeing to pay him for his labour. In my + selection of a professor, it is quite possible that I have not chosen the + best; nay, seeing that I require to be taught, it is nearly certain that I + cannot assume the position of a judge as regards the superiority of one + teacher over another. But when the agreement is once entered into, each of + the parties is bound to perform his part of the contract to the best of + his ability. If, for example, I bargain with a master to teach me Spanish, + and I, being wholly ignorant thereof, am instructed in Portuguese, I have + a definite legal claim for redress. + </p> + <p> + If, on the other hand, the law, or the custom of the country, compels me + to take a certain class of teachers, whether they are competent or + worthless, I, as one of the community, am justified in investigating the + intellectual power of the professors, individually and collectively, in + every way in my power. + </p> + <p> + At one period, when autocracy, or tyranny, was supreme, this right was + denied, and the legislators made it a criminal matter for any one to call + in question the nature of the instruction which was given to the people in + matters of politics, religion, and other things, wherein the government + was concerned. At the present time there are few, if any, states whose + ruling powers demand from the people such an abject submission. + </p> + <p> + But, although a republic may allow unlimited latitude of opinion in + matters of political economy, there may be a religious section within it, + which consists of those who consent to be led, in matters of faith, by + certain individuals, who, on their parts, are declared to be, by some + power that the laity are disposed to submit to, the only persons competent + to conduct persons to a happy eternity. + </p> + <p> + Every individual in such a family is associated with the rest by voluntary + ties. He may, if he chooses, inquire into the capacity of his guide; he is + at perfect liberty to analyse his arguments, to inquire into his + allegations, and, speaking generally, to test his truth. If, as a result + of the investigation, any one is satisfied that the teacher is + incompetent, the two are perfectly clear to make new engagements. There + has been no definite contract, nor can there be any legal claim for a + presumed breach thereof. + </p> + <p> + When, on the other hand, there is a State Religion, supported by + Parliamentary authority, and to which, in one way or another, the majority + of the people must subscribe, each man has as perfect a right to see that + he gets what he pays for, as he has to see that the member of parliament + for whom he votes, does not neglect the interests of the town which he + represents. + </p> + <p> + As an Englishman, I have no right to call in question the power of the + Pope of Rome, the Patriarch of the Greek Church, the Elder of the Mormon + Communion, the Arch-Pneuma of the Spiritualists, or any other religious + head, to teach his followers any doctrine that he may please. I may laugh + at the "false decretals" of the papacy, and the charlatanerie of the + clairvoyants; but no political right supports me in my calling them to + account for their stewardship. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, when I know that the bishops of the Church of England + are parties to the formation of our laws, and I find myself called upon to + pay tithes or dues to individuals of the same establishment, I have a + political right to ascertain, that the persons actually do what they + profess to do for their money or position. If, for example, I live in a + sparsely populated district, I and all my family are dependent upon the + parson of the parish for instruction how to get to heaven; or, as an + alternative, if I do not agree with his doctrine, I may abstain from being + instructed at all. If, on the contrary, I inhabit a large town, still I am + dependent for religious teaching upon the state clergyman, unless I elect + to do without him, and any one else of the same persuasion, or select some + non-conformist preacher who is to me no less offensive than the + parliamentary parson. + </p> + <p> + When a confraternity has obtained, no matter how, or by what means, a + definite prescriptive right to sell a certain material to the community at + large, the latter have certainly a legal power to see that the stuff given + is according to contract. If a company of millers engage, for certain + privileges, to sell good wheat flour to all comers, the last can deprive + them of their exclusive right, provided that it can be proved either that + the flour is bad, or that it comes from barley, rye, oats, or potatoes, or + is adulterated with gypsum, &c. + </p> + <p> + Presuming that this argument is tenable, our next inquiry is into that + which our national church professes to sell, or to impart, in return for + its privileges. In the fewest possible words we may say, that its duty is + to impart "truth," or to teach what is, in its learned and educated + opinion, the true religion for life and eternity. + </p> + <p> + The word truth is one which lies at the root of our question respecting + honesty. Pilate is reported to have said—"What is truth?" We may put + the same question now. + </p> + <p> + Without saying what "truth" is, we can readily declare what is "untruth." + It is not truth if we, in argument, misrepresent an adversary; affirm that + he made a certain statement, and then oppose—not the thing said—but + some other matter which was not spoken of at all, and then assert that we + have confuted him. + </p> + <p> + It is not truth to affirm, that observations recently made have been + oftentimes presented before, and always successfully refuted, when the + remarks in question are novel, never have been controverted, and + apparently, are not capable of being disproved. + </p> + <p> + It is not truth to affirm, that human "authority," which, has been long + acknowledged, can falsify "a fact," or make an unfounded assertion equal + to a reality; or to declare, that one religion is good and another bad, + simply because the speaker believes the matter to be so. + </p> + <p> + It is not truth to assert, that a certain book, and every part of it, is + the revealed word of God, when it is known to be contradicted by science—i.e.t + by a knowledge of the laws imposed on creation by its Maker, to be + inconsistent with itself, and to contain internal evidence that it was + composed by men of small knowledge and of grovelling disposition. + </p> + <p> + It is not truth to affirm, that if God's world proves what is called God's + Book to be wrong, science must be neglected and the Bible upheld. + </p> + <p> + It is not truth to affirm that God spoke exclusively to one people, when + it is known that the race in question drew nearly, if not quite, all their + religious beliefs, from the neighbours amongst whom they were thrown. + </p> + <p> + It is not honest to propound in the pulpit the propriety of examining the + Scriptures daily, and yet to persecute any one who by doing so becomes + convinced of their human origin. + </p> + <p> + It would be honest, and prove the existence of a love of truth, if every + preacher of every denomination spent as much time in trying the value of + his text-book, as he does now in expounding it and explaining it away. + </p> + <p> + We should imagine that a minister loved truth, if he were first to ask + himself how he treats the Vedas and Puranas, the Avesta, the Koran, the + Apocryphal Gospels, the Apocrypha, the Book of Mormon, the visions and + prophecies of "Latter-day saints," "Friends," Roman visionaries, and the + oracles delivered at Delphi and elsewhere, and then to treat his own book + with the same measure as he used with the others. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, we should regard him as untruthful and dishonest, if he + weighed the books and belief of others with weights and scales different + to those with which he tried his own. + </p> + <p> + From each minister of religion the people have a right to demand an + impartial inquiry into the absolute value of the doctrines which he + teaches, and an investigation into the foundation, as well as the + superstructure; and they may require, still further, that he, like + Great-heart in Bunyan's story, shall do battle with assailants. When such + a leader professes to fight, but always avoids the shock of battle, he + cannot be regarded either as honest, or as comparable with + Valiant-for-truth in the <i>Pilgrim's Progress</i>. + </p> + <p> + We are then, as laymen, justified in requiring that our spiritual leaders + shall take a conspicuous part in examining the grounds of the faith which + they teach, and that the leaders of the Established Church shall seek to + establish its doctrine upon as firm basis as it is possible to obtain. + </p> + <p> + This certainly involves inquiry and discussion upon those points which + modern criticism has prominently advanced. + </p> + <p> + When we turn to the "Prayer Book," we find that Deacons are required to + say, that they unfeignedly believe all the Canonical Scriptures. Priests + are obliged to affirm that the Holy Scriptures contain sufficiently all + doctrine required of necessity for eternal salvation, through faith in + Jesus Christ, &c. In the consecration of bishops the same, or nearly + the same, formula is gone through. Thus, at the outset of their career, + the ministers of the Church of England commit themselves to, or are + required by law to make, a declaration which will preclude inquiry into + the value of the book on which their teaching is founded; their first step + in the ministry puts it out of their power to be honest, if experience + should teach them more than they knew when young. The bishops and priests, + however, when they subscribe to the opinion that the Bible contains all + things necessary for salvation, do not pledge themselves to the belief + that every sentence, part, division, book, or arrangement of the Canonical + Scriptures is, and must of necessity be, true. Even in the dawn of + ecclesiastical information in England, there was not a belief in the + verbal inspiration of the Bible. + </p> + <p> + Of late years, when habits of thought and the art of printing have + increased, the knowledge, and consequently, the power of the laity + disproportionally to the advance made by clerics—a strong propensity + to accumulate facts, and to argue thereupon has been very generally + developed, and the increased information obtained has induced steadily + increasing numbers to doubt, not only the verbal inspiration, but even the + historical truth of the Scriptures. When this difficulty occurred, or + rather, when it became recognized, scholars, no matter whether they were + professional or amateur ecclesiastics, divided themselves involuntarily + (we may fairly say, unknowingly, inasmuch as each individual worked quite + independently, in the first place, of another) into those who believed + that, if the Holy Spirit dictated the Scriptures, he must have seen that + his amanuensis wrote correctly; those who imagined that the Bible was to + be taken "in the lump;" and those who considered that the Scriptures are + entirely of human origin, and absolutely valueless as a guide of faith. + Consequently, three schools have arisen, two of which are essentially + ecclesiastic. Of these, one regards all inquiry into the accepted text as + improper, the other considers that everything should be done to verify the + value of the so-called original Scripture. + </p> + <p> + Amongst the latter, Dr Colenso, Bishop of Natal, stands out conspicuously. + Of the highest intellectual attainments, trained to close and scientific + inquiry; able, far better than men of meaner capacity, to weigh the value + of "evidence," whether "ancient or modern," he has drawn the conclusion + that the Bible is not what it is generally supposed to be; in other words, + that its historical portions are not trustworthy, and that there is grave + reason to believe its writings to have been produced for a purpose, which + involved dishonesty in the scribe, and in the promulgator of his writings. + The learned doctor was honest in his investigation, and fearless in + announcing his conclusions. + </p> + <p> + As an upright man, the Bishop of Natal is as completely justified in his + inquiry into the validity or importance of an ancient book, alleged to be + a pearl of great price, a gem or diamond of the first water, as the + official curator of a museum would be, in determining whether a certain + ruby, given into his charge, were real or artificial. Of the necessity of + such an inquiry, the following anecdote, which was told me by the + gentleman concerned, will convince the reader:— + </p> + <p> + A wealthy lady, of high position in life, sent to a museum, for + exhibition, a number of "precious stones." If they were really what they + were supposed and stated to be, their value would have been reckoned by + thousands of pounds sterling. If accepted as genuine, and found, upon + their restoration to the depositor, to be imitation jewels, the curator + would be liable, not only for their value, but his character for honesty + would be gone; consequently, ere he gave a receipt for the lot, he tested + each. Not one was real! + </p> + <p> + This man was in the position which Dr Colenso occupies now. The owner of + the jewels was indignant at the idea that the stones were false, and the + apparent insinuation that imitations were being foisted on the public as + realities; but her fury did not alter the fact. If she were artful, her + plan was detected; if she had been deceived, her anger, though useless, + was justified. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, there are many Bishops who uphold the verbal + inspiration of the Bible, and will not inquire if the gem be real, or only + test it by plans known to be valueless for the purpose. Some do not go + altogether so far as this, They consider it obligatory upon them to + examine just a little bit, but not to go too deeply, lest they should be + forced to believe that there never was such a man as Moses—a man who + is commonly reported to have written certain books at a distant period. + Some persons seem to think that their hope of happiness in this, as well + as in another world, and not only their own, but that of everybody who is + under their instruction, depends upon their feeling sure that Israel was + once in Egypt—that Abraham begat Isaac, and became the progenitor of + an innumerable offspring, exceeding in number the Indians of Hindostan, + the Assyrians of Mesopotamia, the Egyptians of the Nile, and the Romans of + Italy. Between these two inquirers, if the latter class can fairly be + called such, the issue is distinct. There can be no difficulty amongst + scholars as to the means by which the question ought to be settled. + </p> + <p> + An appeal to hard and dry facts is the plan adopted by philosophers. For + men, who have a single eye to discover the truth, it matters little in + what direction their inquiries lead them. Metaphorically speaking, they + may begin a series of investigations, expecting that everything will lead + them northwards, and they end by reaching the south; just as many an + enthusiastic, but little instructed, man has accumulated "pyrites," under + the impression that it was an ore of gold, and found, on inquiry, that the + material was a sulphuret of iron, and of small commercial value. + </p> + <p> + But it is this very possibility of research bringing them to an + undesirable goal, which deters so many of our divines from making any + inquiry. Outwardly, they allow that it is their duty, as leaders, to + examine, not only the condition of their own forces, but the position and + power of those who assail the army which they profess to guide. Inwardly + they find reasons for remaining quiet, and excuse themselves to their + followers in some plausible fashion. + </p> + <p> + Why, however, should any goal be undesirable which leads us nearer to + truth? Why should any body of professedly learned-men run the risk of + being considered wanting in honesty, or candour, by avoiding their + opponents, whom they are in honour bound to encounter? + </p> + <p> + The reply to these questions generally runs thus:—"We, as ministers + of the Established Church of England, are bound to be faithful to the + Bible, and to it we must adhere, whatever our own private judgment may be. + We did not make the law; we simply take it as we find it, and, having + sworn to obey it, we do so." This answer would be exhaustive, if it were + the fact that the laity made the law for the theologians. But, as we know, + that the ecclesiastics have, in the last resort always made laws for + themselves, the rejoinder is not conclusive History tells us how ministers + of religion have instructed the people, and how these, again, have + legislated under the tuition of their advisers. When Paganism was + supplanted by Christianity, the change was effected by preachers, who + taught the populace to believe the new doctrine, and who influenced the + minds of the lawmakers. In like manner, when Popery in England was put + down by the Protestants, each party was headed by its priests. Many a + minister, at that period, felt bound to follow what he believed to be + truth, rather than to abide by a vow made in youth; and they who had + upheld the authenticity of Popish miracles, and of Apocryphal Scriptures, + ceased to give credence to them, or to use them as authorities in matters + of religion. These men were honest. + </p> + <p> + That which has been done by men aforetime, may be done or imitated in our + own day; and our divines have as great a power to examine into the value + of the Bible now, as they had at the Reformation. If they refuse to make + the inquest suggested—in what way, may we ask, do they differ from + the Romanists in the time of Luther, who would not inquire into the truth + of his arguments lest they should be convinced? Can any one who professes + to be a Protestant—a child of the Reformation—honestly refuse + to investigate the grounds of the faith which is in him, and shelter + himself, as Bonner and others did, under the pretext of a declaration or + vow made at ordination? + </p> + <p> + If those who make the excuse just referred to, are honest, they are bound + to reject every doctrine which they, or their predecessors, have received + from Romish priests, who propounded in adult life, doctrines different to + those which they professed when yet almost children. + </p> + <p> + To illustrate the tendency of our remarks still further, let us, for a + moment, suppose that the captain of a ship has, from any cause whatever, + adopted a particular "compass" by which he directs his course, and which + perhaps he calls by the name of Faith. All in the vessel are, to a great + extent, dependent upon him for a successful voyage, and a safe arrival at + the desired haven. Seeing how the master-mariner honours the magnetic + needle, every thoughtful passenger will probably consult it in like + manner. One more advanced in knowledge than the rest may desire to test + the instrument by the position of the pole star, and thinking that he + could recognize the latter, might infer that the magnet did not point + truly. This doubt, we will imagine still further, he imparts to the + captain, who, disinclined to distrust his compass, endeavours to + demonstrate that the position of the pole star is doubtful. + </p> + <p> + In the place of the mariners' compass let us read the "Bible," and, + instead of the pole star, let us substitute "science." We shall then + recognize the position of such men as the Bishop of Winchester and Dr + Colenso—the latter endeavours to test the value of the instrument + which is most used by churchmen by certain well-known means; the former, + on the contrary, aims to demonstrate that what he regards as a true + indicator is so in spite of all which the planets prove to the contrary. + </p> + <p> + To carry on our metaphor a point further, let us imagine that the captain + and the doubting passenger appeal to the seamen and the other people on + board the barque—the latter telling in simple terms the grounds of + his belief, whilst the former appeals to the passions of those who have + long trusted him, and only notices the arguments of his opponent to + misrepresent them. This is what was done by the Papists, in every country, + at the time of the Reformation, and which more recently has been done by + the Bishops and Archbishops of the Church of England, when in controversy + with the Bishop of Natal Dr Colenso has in voluminous works, and with a + precision which every scholar must admire, shown that the Old Testament—the + "compass" of churchmen—is not what it is supposed to be. Against his + views a new "Bible commentary" has been issued, with the sanction of the + highest ecclesiastical dignitaries; and in it the authors stoop to + misrepresentation! If there were no pretence of joint authorship, one + might imagine that each writer was responsible only for his own + shortcomings; but when there is a parade of great names, which is intended + to demonstrate the almost infallible truth of everything (except + typographical errors), one is bound to treat the contributors as being on + a level with each other, and all hierarchical coadjutors. How can any one, + with a tendency towards fair dealing, characterize but with the epithet + "contemptible dishonesty," a deliberate quotation from Dr Colenso, which + is falsified, that the fabrication may be refuted? The Bishop of Natal's + argument is a just one, and, although it is only contained in a note and + not in the text itself, is of great weight. It runs thus (Part v., p. 97)—"Of + course the fact that the tabernacle at Shiloh had <i>doors</i> (1 Sam. + iii. 15)— that the lamp was allowed regularly to <i>go out</i> in it + (1 Sam. iii. 3), and that Samuel <i>slept</i> in it, and apparently Eli + also (1 Sam. iii. 2, 3), are sufficient to show that this could not have + been the 'Mosaic Tabernacle.'" This is a fair and scholarly statement; the + layman recognizes it as such, and looks to his ecclesiastical superior for + an honest opinion on its value. What does he find? Simply this—Bishop + Browne answers: "The objection (Colenso, Part v., p. 97) that the + Tabernacle (at Shiloh) could not be the tabernacle, in the wilderness, + because it had a 'door' (1 Sam. ii. 22) is rather singular, if we observe + that the words in Samuel, on which the objection is founded— 'The + women that assembled at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation'—are + literally a quotation from Exod. xxxviii. 8—'The women assembling, + which assembled at the door of the tabernacle of congregation.' Of course + the word door, fine <i>pethah</i>, is as applicable to a tent door as to a + house door, and is constantly used of the door of the Tabernacle in the + Pentateuch." + </p> + <p> + In this observation of the Bishop of Winchester a false issue is + deliberately raised; the quotation given by Colenso is not touched, and + for it another, wide of the mark, is substituted! In the verse referred to + by the Bishop of Natal the words are—"And Samuel lay until the + morning, and opened the doors of the house of the Lord," &c.—"doors" + being in the original, <i>dalethoth</i>—a different word altogether + to <i>pethah</i>, and certainly in the plural number. In other language, + we may say that in the <i>Speaker's Bible</i>, almost every argument and + criticism of Colenso and his German authorities are left unnoticed and + unanswered; and this, almost the only quotation made, is not a true one! + Is this honest? So gross, in my opinion, is the want of candour shown in + this case, that I, for one, cannot trust a single assertion of the Bishop + of Ely, now translated to Winchester, even when he quotes chapter and + verse, until I have verified the extract. + </p> + <p> + But the flagrancy of the proceeding is, if it can be, heightened by a + reference to the subject Dr Colenso was endeavouring to show, by those + undesigned coincidences, that hierarchs profess to love so much, and which + they parade with great earnestness when it suits their purpose, that the + tabernacle at Shiloh was not that described in the Pentateuch. It was + perfectly open to Dr Browne to adduce evidence that it was the same. This + he does not do—the scholar can well understand the reason why, viz., + that a close inquiry supports the Bishop of Natal's view. For example, in + 1 Sam. L 9, we find that Eli is sitting "upon a seat by a post of the + temple of the Lord." This sentence is significant in English, it is much + more so in Hebrew. The words "post" and "temple" certainly are quite + incompatible with a tent or tabernacle. In the Hebrew, the tabernacle is + generally spoken of as <i>ohel</i>, whilst "temple" is <i>heckal</i>. + Still further, the expression, "post of the temple," is peculiar, because + a corresponding one is found only once in the Old Testament—viz., in + Ezek. xli. 21, where the English version has "the posts of the temple," + whilst the marginal reading has "post" The word <i>heckal</i> is in + constant use throughout the later Jewish books, but does not occur once in + the Pentateuch; and it is a significant fact that, in 1 Kings xxi. 1, 2 + Kings xx. 18, Ps. xlv. 8, cxliv. 12, Pro. xxx. 28, Is. xiii. 22, xxxix. 7, + Dan. i. 4, the word in question is translated in our authorized version <i>palace</i>. + </p> + <p> + As the idea of a palace—a royal residence, is totally distinct from + a tent or tabernacle, it is clear that the narrative about Eli, Hannah, + and Samuel, was written by some one to whom the story told in the + Pentateuch was quite unknown. The dishonesty—we speak thus, + controversially—of the bishops concerned in the new commentary is + not only shown in the <i>suggestio falsi</i>, but in the <i>suppressio + veri</i>; and no amount of skill in argument or of book-learning can, + amongst those who are aware of the fraud, get over the effect which is + produced by the cheat. It is evident, that the questions which the Bishops + ask themselves are—"Since there are so many who are wholly ignorant + of this matter, shall we not do more to uphold current ideas by fraud than + by truth?" and, "Is it not right for us to risk our own souls in support + of a faith which we do not, but which the people do, believe?" + </p> + <p> + In a time when all men are ignorant enough not to understand what is + history and what pure fable; when they are so careless as not to examine + quotations, made from "authorities," in confirmation of opinions, or so + credulous as to believe anything which a churchman, and, <i>par-excellence</i>, + a Bishop, may affirm, it may be regarded by ecclesiastical writers as a + pardonable sin, if not, indeed, a tactical master stroke, to misrepresent + an adversary. But in the present day, when all educated Englishmen have + heard of the false decretals on which the Popes have founded their claims + to superiority, and the astute legend of Prester John, it is bad policy + for a Bishop to found an argument upon a wrong quotation, or to imagine + that a glaring untruth can by any possibility support his position. For + myself, I confess that I began to read the <i>Speaker's Commentary</i> + with interest, inasmuch as it purported to be an exposition and refutation + of the arguments against the authenticity of certain Biblical writings; + but when I found an English hierarch could so forget his duty to "the + truth" as to misquote such a man as his episcopal brother, the Bishop of + Natal, I abstained from a farther perusal, for I found the necessity of + verifying quotations involved more time than I could afford. Dr Colenso + has, however, sufficiently shown the viciousness of the new commentary, + and there is no necessity for a second investigator. + </p> + <p> + From what has been said, we have shown that the members of the Church of + England, and all Protestant dissenters, have a right to expect from their + teachers an opinion, founded upon learned inquiry, "whether the objections + made by scholarly critics against the inspiration of the Bible are well + founded," and that ministers of all denominations, as a body, not only + shirk the duty, but persecute such of their fraternity as venture to do + so. + </p> + <p> + When an individual in the community accepts a trust and does not fulfil + it, he is amenable to the law; and if it can be proved that there has been + wilful negligence, the trustee may be punished. This does not, however, + apply directly to the clergy, for the trust which is confided to them is + to preach and teach from the Bible. That, certainly, is what they engage + to do before the law, but the very essence of their existence as ministers + of religion is, that they shall instruct men in the way of salvation. This + trust, which is never put into legal phraseology, is proclaimed to be in + existence by every preacher; and each minister, by implication or + assertion, declares that he is desirous of exercising this trust to the + best of his ability. If, then, the real value of his leadership is + challenged, he ought, as a champion, to defend it. He does so in every + point, except that which is most essential He will discuss circumcision + with a Jew, infant christening with a baptist, purgatory with a popish + priest, bishops with a presbyterian, confession with a ritualist, and the + like. There must, then, be some cause why Revelation should not be treated + of. + </p> + <p> + If we consult human nature, the only causes to which we can assign this + reticence are, conscientious cowardice and dishonesty. The first is, by + many persons, regarded as a duty—they are taught that it is sin to + doubt; the second is not called by its right name. Yet, as we have said + elsewhere, our religious societies are founded upon the principle of + sowing doubt broadcast; and we denounce the pious frauds which invented + winking virgins and bleeding nuns. Surely, if there be any truth in the + line—"An honest man's the noblest work of God," it is most essential + that they, who style themselves His ministers, ought to be conspicuously + honourable, candid, and thoroughly trustworthy in matters of doctrine as + well as of morality. + </p> + <p> + The subject on which we are now treating has ramifications so wide, that + it is difficult to see the end of the branches. Amongst the most obvious + is the influence which it has upon the matter of public education—one + which occupies a large portion of the interest of our nation at the + present time. + </p> + <p> + In our preceding vol. II., p. 113, we have a note to the effect that there + is much doubt upon the subject whether faith ought to be drilled into the + minds of our youth prior to an acquisition of, or the power of using, + their reasoning faculty, and we remarked that the question is far too + extended to be treated in a casual note. + </p> + <p> + The matter was shortly afterwards discussed in parliament, but not one of + the orators ventured to touch upon the point involved. If we ask ourselves + "the reason why," it is probable that the answer would run—because + all the interlocutors did not venture to be honest; by which I mean, did + not wish to utter, in distinct language, the opinions that they held, and + the end which they sought. There are some legislators who regard moral + cowardice as a virtue, and political dishonesty as a desirable kingcraft. + </p> + <p> + If an observer of the parliamentary debates, to which we refer, was also a + diligent and thoughtful reader of orations made in country towns and + metropolitan districts, by preachers and teachers of all our various + religious denominations, he would readily come to the conclusion that + there was something underlying every speech, which was never allowed to + come to the surface—a something which each was perfectly cognizant + of, but which it would be unmannerly to name, or even to hint at strongly. + It is not, in public meetings, or in parliament, permitted to any speaker + to accuse an adversary of falsehood or dishonesty. + </p> + <p> + Yet, what an orator may not judiciously say of particular individuals, a + writer may assert of a class, or of a single person, if he is a + representative of a body. I may, for example, accuse the Pope of + dishonesty in misrepresenting certain well-known facts. I may equally + charge controversial writers with fraud, when they falsify the words or + arguments of an opponent. Whoever frames such an indictment is, however, + bound to take into consideration the possibility of there being an + unintentional error. It may, for example, be true that Popes never see + newspapers which tell the truth, and that divines may quote without ever + reading the book which they profess to criticise. In both cases the critic + acquits them of malice, but only to convict them of culpable ignorance. + </p> + <p> + When we investigate how this bears upon education, we ask ourselves—"Do + we, as historians, or in our capacity of reading men, know that the + pretensions of the Church of Rome are founded upon, or are bolstered up + by, assertions which every learned man knows, or ought to know, are + unworthy of belief?" + </p> + <p> + To be more particular, let us propound the question—Does any Papal + hierarch believe that Francis of Assisi received certain bodily marks on + his hands and feet direct from Jesus? or that any portion of the blood of + a man has been preserved for ages in the Cathedral of Naples, as having + once belonged to a person who is called by the same name as the first + month in our year? We might readily increase our queries by remarking + about St. Dennis, St. George, St Fou-tin, and a variety of others who + appear in the Roman heaven. Our purpose, however, will be answered if we + ask, whether the thoughtful amongst us do not object to the Papal faith, + because those who proclaim it are not to be trusted? + </p> + <p> + If we listen to energetic Protestant divines, we hear much of "lying + wonders," wrought by Antichrist, which are calculated even to deceive the + very elect. These men frequently quote such passages as the following:—"Trust + ye not in lying words, saying, The temple of the Lord, the temple of the + Lord, the temple of the Lord, are these" (Jer. vii. 4); "They have + committed villany in Israel, and have spoken lying words in my name, which + I have not commanded them" (Jer. xxix. 23); "Have ye not spoken a lying + divination," &c. (Ezek. xiii. 7, 8, 9); "Then shall that Wicked be + revealed, whose coming is with lying wonders, and with all deceivableness + of unrighteousness; and for this cause God shall send them strong + delusions, that they should believe a lie," &c. (2 Thess. ii. 8-12). + Indeed, the main objection to the Roman Church, amongst all those who are + acquainted with its secret history, is that it is founded, and still + exists, upon a foundation of fraud. + </p> + <p> + There are many who consider that the Churches of England and of Scotland + have not a better basis; but both have so many friends in Great Britain, + that the sins of neither are closely examined, except by their + adversaries. + </p> + <p> + Each sectarian is fully alive to the want of good faith shown by every + other division of the Church of Christ; and not only so, but we have seen, + in our own times, a ruler in Siam who knows about them too (see <i>Wheel + of the Law</i>, by H. Alabaster; Triibner & Co., London, 1871), and is + perfectly alive to the fact that we deceive ourselves. + </p> + <p> + It is a part of human nature that each individual has a propensity to + deceive himself or herself. A child, who has been told that Old Bogy lives + in a certain cupboard, will not go and look therein; a man who adores a + lovely wife will not believe in her frailty; and a fond woman will not + credit even her father, when he tells her that her admirer is a worthless + scoundrel. + </p> + <p> + We grant this readily, but we add the proviso, that we only allow + ourselves to be deceived by our own friends. It would be, to all of us, a + frightful infliction if our sons or daughters were to tell us that we were + under strong delusions, and believing in lies. Consequently, everyone + desires that his family shall have a similar faith with his own. + </p> + <p> + At the present time, however, more conspicuously than at any other since + printing was invented, there is, in society, a vast number of men who + believe, from their critical inquiries, that all religionists trust in + lying vanities which do not profit. These individuals have become + sceptics, in consequence of education having led them to think for + themselves. Being opposed to all, they are friendly with none; and + although they are not aggressive, as a rule, they are vigorously attacked + by every sect which steadily refuses to come to the light. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances every hierarch argues: "The education which + frees the mind from all the shackles of superstition is prejudicial to us, + who earn our living hy making fetters, fixing them, and relaxing them when + duly paid to do so. A sound teaching—a style of instruction that + will induce the rising generation to examine into our pretensions will cut + the ground from under our feet. We must, therefore, endeavour to limit, in + some considerable degree, our tuition." Like the Jesuits in Austria and of + to-day, they will cram the memory, but not exercise the understanding; + they will crowd the mind with lying statements, and prohibit all inquiry. + Sectarians, therefore, as a rule, object to education, unless it has a + religious element in it. They agree in this point, but differ as to the + style of faith which is to be taught Hence all the difference of opinion, + for as the sectarians cannot decide upon what faith is to be taught, they + object to all instruction whatever. Are they honest? + </p> + <p> + If, instead of nursing a private idea, each legislator were boldly to say + what he desired to obtain and to avoid, there might be some chance of + united action. But when all pretend to work in common, yet not one is + absolutely in earnest, and all, more or less, play at "make believe," no + valuable end will be obtained. + </p> + <p> + One politician, whose memory is tenacious, and his temerity great, cannot + bear the idea that the British mind should approximate to that of the + Germans; and, whilst he eulogizes education, he denounces Strauss. Not + because the latter is not a man of profound learning, but because the + cultivation of his intellect has led him to certain conclusions which are + distasteful to an English politician. This is not honesty. + </p> + <p> + Again, our bishops and the priesthood generally say, "Education is a + desirable thing; it is wrong for man, who has a soul to be saved, not to + seek out the way of salvation." But if, in the course of inquiry, a + scholar imagines that their way is incorrect, he is anathematized, and his + fellows are instructed to believe that no one can find comfort for the + soul except in the way patronized by the Church. This, again, is not + honest. But—and the word is of mighty import—if, instead of + saying this distinctly, a few individuals of high standing in the + Protestant community deliberately, and with the intention to deceive—or + to retain people in the bonds which astute predecessors have thrown around + the laity, state, as their belief, that which their critical knowledge + tells them is untrue, or withhold knowledge of importance, because they + deem its publication detrimental to ecclesiastical institutions, they are + not simply dishonest—they are culpable, and guilty of spiritual + murder. + </p> + <p> + My meaning may be illustrated by one or two pertinent anecdotes: The + captain of a man-of-war was doubtful of the existence of a rock laid down + upon a chart. One day at dinner he announced to his company the disbelief + which he had, adding, that if the spot were truly described, the ship + would strike directly. It did so, and few survivors were left to tell the + tale. The commander judiciously elected to perish with his vessel. Had he + told his officers, and the distinguished passengers whom he was carrying, + what he was doing, it is certain that the danger would have been avoided. + </p> + <p> + Another ship captain was addressed by a civilian who was on board, and + told that a hurricane was approaching, which might be avoided by steering + in a certain direction; but, metaphorically speaking, the bishop would not + listen to the layman. The typhoon came, the vessel was partially + dismasted; then the passenger was consulted, and by his aid the ship got + out of the danger. + </p> + <p> + The civilian was well read, not in ancient books, but in modern science; + the master mariner knew only his log-book, compass, and "the rule of + thumb." + </p> + <p> + A person who loses his ship because he is too stupid to believe a chart, + or the rules of a science, which every scholar may test, deserves the name + of an imbecile, and our Board of Trade would deprive him of the power to + do any more mischief as a captain; but bishops and priests may pilot their + vessel wrongly, for none have any jurisdiction over them, provided always + that they steer in the old channels. It matters not how far the way may be + shifted, all is supposed to be right, if the old landmarks are still used. + </p> + <p> + To make our meaning still more clear, let us imagine ourselves a nation of + mariners, and of ocean-travellers. We go to school, and learn astronomy, + trigonometry, geography, physics, and the like; yet, when we are at sea in + any ship whatever, we must neglect our knowledge, and trust implicitly to + the captain of our ship. We know that we are, in reality, going + southwards, when our proper destination lies to the north: for us it is + easy to read the stars, and thus to test both the chronometer and the + compass; must we, then, be quiet because we have embarked in a vessel + belonging to a certain "line," which is commanded by a master appointed by + the "firm" or "company" to which the barque belongs. What is the value of + education unless it enables us, when necessary, to find whether we are in + the right way or not? + </p> + <p> + Let us, still further, suppose that we remonstrate with the captain, and + that he, in place of arguing the matter fairly, endeavours to override our + objections by quoting from ancient geographers, to demonstrate that what + we believe to be the wrong is, in reality, the only true way to go; we may + be silenced, probably until we accidently discover in the ship's library, + a dissertation proving that the old traveller's charts are worthless. When + we find out that, what will be our opinion of the captain? Can we believe + him to be honest? + </p> + <p> + If we now were to remonstrate with our naval dictator, and he were to + rejoin—"My worthy brothers, I know that you are right, and that I + have been wrong. I have, indeed, known it from the time I began to be + commander, but my living depends upon my belief in old charts and ancient + compasses. I dare not change my plan, for my masters would dismiss me. + They know—at least I feel convinced that they are aware, that the + old sailing directions are wrong; but they have not the courage to say so, + or to alter them—and if I do so, they will cashier me." + </p> + <p> + Is the "firm" or "company" honest? and if we are to mete out degrees of + culpability, to whom must the severest punishment be awarded? Surely, in + the case of the Church of England, to her Bishops, who, knowing, as + scholars, that their compass and charts are incorrect, yet oblige those + under their command to steer by them—thus compelling the men who + ought to be standard-bearers in the forefront of intellectual work, either + to be silent, or to fight at a disadvantage. + </p> + <p> + It is the knowledge of the duplicity of a vast number of intelligent + divines, which has induced laymen to take the business of education out of + the hands of the clergy as a body. The Protestant believes that a Jesuit + will not teach correct history; the Romanist feels certain that, even in + biography, evangelical narratives cannot be trusted; and Nonconformists + generally feel that they cannot rely upon the instruction given by those + of a different sect. + </p> + <p> + It is desirable to sketch, if possible, what would be the condition of + society if, in the place of the clergy, there was a set of men trained to + the office of instructor, and that all individuals in the kingdom were + compelled to attend school for a definite period in their youth. In the + first place, nothing would be taught which is not known to be true. After + having mastered the rudiments of knowledge, the art of reading, writing, + and ciphering, the students would be taught to train their minds in + drawing inferences from facts, and the art of passing from imperfect + knowledge to certainty. They would be schooled into habits of exactness, + and the necessity for careful inquiry before they believed an assertion to + have the same power as a fact Those whose inclination led them to study + one or more of the arts or sciences, drawing, painting, sculpture, + designing, weaving, chemistry, engineering, building, and a host of + others, would learn that in every one of them knowledge and precision are + required to ensure success. + </p> + <p> + When the instructor found that his pupils were sufficiently trained to the + exercise of reasoning, he would then proceed to explain the ideas which + have been entertained by various people about the existence of beings, + other than those which can be recognized by the senses. He would lead his + class through the geological history of our planet, and point out the + sequence of events from the latest formation, to the primary rocks; on his + way he would linger on the nature of ancient plants and animals; from our + earth he would lead them to a study of the stars, and then point out how + very natural is the opinion that all the universe had a designer. + </p> + <p> + Then, after giving a history of the belief in ancient times, he would + gradually descend to our own. He would critically examine the pretensions + of any person who had, in former ages, asserted, or who proclaimed now, + that he or she knew all about this presumed Creator, and was charged to + communicate that knowledge to mankind. After explaining the critical test + by which such an assumed mission might be examined—viz., by accurate + knowledge of the earth and of mankind, he would apply this trial to all + known pretenders to inspiration. + </p> + <p> + As a result, his pupils might prefer one to another, or refuse to believe + in all which have hitherto appeared. In any case, each individual would + enter upon the form of faith which he selected with full knowledge of the + facts in favour of it. He would, therefore, be a disciple worth having. + If, on the other hand, he disbelieved all pretenders to inspiration, his + condition would be the result of deliberate reasoning upon ascertained + facts, and not built, as all religion now is, upon parrot lore, taught in + childhood, ere thoughtfulness has begun to grow. + </p> + <p> + Assuming that men were thus trained by honest and able instructors, all + those people who live upon the weaknesses and the ignorance of the + multitude would cease their endeavours to prey upon mankind, and to get a + living by playing upon the fears which so many persons have of the + unknown. There would then be no religious wars or contests—no popes, + prelates, priests, nor deacons. Quackery of all kinds would cease, and + statesmen would all agree in endeavouring to procure for mankind the + greatest amount of available happiness. This would be the result of + honesty. But from such a picture many men absolutely recoil As the effect + of training has been to make them believe that unsubstantial things are of + sovereign importance, they cannot endure the idea of man being wholly + rational; and they insist, as does the late Premier of England, that, if + scientific schooling of the mind leads men to neglect what some call + Revelation, the plan must be radically bad and worthless. But to eulogise + education and to deprecate its results is dishonest. This political tenet + or practice resembles that of many a parson, who tells his hearers from + the pulpit that they are to "take no thought for the morrow, for the + morrow will take thought for the things of itself;" "they are not to take + thought for life, for food, for raiment; nor to lay up for themselves + treasures upon earth" (Matt vi. 19, 25, 34), and on the week-day urges + them to lay by a store against the time of sickness or old age. Such + double-dealing is dishonest, and is unworthy of a thoughtful man. If Jesus + was right, why not enforce his teaching? if he was wrong, why not say so? + </p> + <p> + Is it possible that any minister in politics, or religion, can believe + that "Honesty is the best policy," and yet act with double-dealing? Can + any person, who has power to think, believe that he will be respected when + he, on a Sunday, preaches improvidence as being taught by the Almighty, + and on a Monday proclaims that men are wicked who do not make a provision + for the future? If such people were honest with themselves, they would + soon discover that the doctrine propounded from the pulpit is a Buddhistic + one, acted upon by all the early disciples of Sakya Muni, and in a + conspicuous manner by himself. Yet, if a parson were to be candid thus far + to himself, he would probably say—"I cannot afford to be honest in + this matter openly, and I must keep this knowledge to myself." Interest, + unfortunately, determines the actions, even of our divines, more than a + rigid uprightness. + </p> + <p> + We are thus at the foundation of those causes which are in operation to + make the thoughtful laity distrustful of the clergy—it is, that the + latter are not honourable or strictly veracious—they preach one + doctrine, and act upon another. Honesty is on their lips, but + self-interest in their hearts. From the Pope to the humblest deacon, there + is a conscious reticence in every mind—an inner belief that their + pretensions are not tenable, yet an outward determination to proclaim them + at all hazards; like the silversmiths of Ephesus, they all unite in the + belief that "their craft is in danger" when the apostles of reason appear. + </p> + <p> + Far be it from me to assert that all the clergy are dishonest in the full + meaning of the word. I believe that many of them have such undeveloped + minds, or such mean intellectual capacities, that they are absolutely + unable to think upon any subject which has not been drilled into them when + their brains were childish and ductile. Others, again, have been schooled + into the belief that "doubt" and "the devil" are identical, and who pray + to be defended from both—with them, "to inquire" is a temptation of + Satan, and so is to be manfully resisted; others, again, say to + themselves, and sometimes even to their friends—"I know what will + follow if I go into 'the evidences'—I dare not do it, and prefer to + remain in my present condition." Others, again, say to their conscience—I + am paid to expound a certain book, in a certain way; I cannot afford to + give up my position; consequently I will neither hear of nor argue upon + either the volume or the doctrine. There are, again, some few religionists + who, by constantly encouraging a blind faith, and repressing all + intellectual doubts, come at length to believe their position impregnable, + and who trust it because it is, as it were, always kept under a + glass-case. Some such I know, or have known, personally; and have heard + from their own lips how their very accurate knowledge of the Bible has + made them doubt its inspiration, and how "they have wrestled with God in + prayer"—to use their own expression—until the temptation to + distrust has been changed into a childlike confidence. Men like these are + not dishonest to the world, they are only so to themselves. + </p> + <p> + The career of one of my acquaintances has been so striking, that it + deserves a record. The man of whom I speak was one of powerful intellect, + and of an inquiring turn of mind; but he was in holy orders, and had + schooled himself never to investigate the Bible's claim to inspiration, or + anything connected with religion. He faithfully did the ordinary duties of + a minister according to his lights; but throughout his ministrations, in + the composition and delivery of every sermon, there was a powerful + undercurrent of the mind which was constantly saying, without using words—"You + know that you are not honest." Prayer did not subdue this mental conflict, + and day by day the undercurrent grew stronger. It was, however, resolutely + opposed, and an outward orthodoxy rigidly kept up. Of the throes of such a + man, when he was quietly alone, few but those who have felt them can have + an idea. Under their influence the brain gave way, and insanity was the + reward of a resolute determination to be orthodox against personal + conviction. Similar cases are not uncommon, when faith opposes reason. + </p> + <p> + It is very doubtful whether ordinary laymen have an adequate idea of the + extent of clerical dishonesty existing amongst us, not only in the seats + of learning, but in our towns, cities, and villages. As I have had much + correspondence and conversation with many ministers of religion, I have + formed the opinion that parsons of all denominations regard themselves + much in the same light as trade unionists and non-union men, the two + parties look upon each other as hostile. The former, who call themselves + the orthodox, keep up a sort of spy system upon those whose opinions they + fear, because they are not in the union. Such men, if they had a chance, + would not scruple to "ratten" an adversary. They judge of a man by the + books which they chance to see in his library, book-cases, or upon his + table; and, without the manliness to confront, they have the weakness to + backbite those whose mind is more robust than their own. + </p> + <p> + As a physician, I have been consulted by a Church of England minister, who + was suspected by the rest of the ministers in his town of being a + non-union man. Of strong mind, he did not preach the usual jargon which + the pulpit delights in. Irons upon <i>Prophecy</i> and Inman's <i>Ancient + Faiths</i> had been seen in his study, and he spoke approvingly of + Colenso. As a consequence, he was watched in the pulpit and in the street. + He was followed to the homes of poverty, and sick folk were visited, that + the nature of his ministrations might be searched out. He was visited by + persons of all classes, who, taking their cue from the New Testament, + strove to entangle him in his talk. Being married, and having a family, + and no means of subsistence, save his church living, this trade union + persecution made him miserable, and seriously injured his health. But he + was resolute not to be dishonest, and held on his way. I was, he assured + me, the only person whom he knew that could appreciate his condition, and + he was most thankful for my sympathy and advice. He left my house already + improved in health; and the feeling that he had a friend to whom he might + always apply, enabled him to bear his persecution manfully. He still + retains his position, notwithstanding all the wiles and "picketings" of + the trade unionists. + </p> + <p> + This spy system, mentioned in the above example, is associated with an + attempt to discover and apply backstairs influence—those who have + the power of making appointments in the church, the chapel, or the + meeting-house, are studied, and their opportunities to remove a + non-unionist taken advantage of by clerical "By-ends," who endeavour to + shape their judgment according to that of their patrons. + </p> + <p> + This dishonesty reacts upon itself. Men who preach habitually one set of + doctrines to a congregation, tie themselves and their understanding down + to the low level of the majority of mediocrities; and as this level has, + under such circumstances, a tendency to lower itself, the clergy have been + compelled to fall, with their patrons, far down in the intellectual scale, + and the intelligence and educational status of ministers of all + denominations sinks annually lower. The proprieties of society prevent me + from repeating what has come to my ears from the lips or pens of + distinguished clerics. It will be enough if I utter my belief that one or + more outspoken laymen will do more good to religion, and advance the + interests of society more, than all ecclesiastical unionists. In this and + the preceding volumes it has been my aim to be thoroughly honest. In some + things of small moment, such as Greek accents, Hebrew points, &c., it + is probable I have been faulty. I will even allow, willingly, that a more + perfect Hebrew scholar than myself may esteem my etymons fanciful and + incorrect. My work having been done in the midst of constant + interruptions, I concede that, to accomplished bookworms, it must appear + disjointed. But, with all its faults, it is honest; and, being so, I claim + the right to challenge any one who chooses to enter the lists, and + encounter me honourably, to a knightly combat. I am sure that my aim has + been, and is yet, to elicit truth. To me vituperation, because I have run + foul of what are called established doctrines, has no more influence than + it had upon the prime movers of any revolution. A foul blow, such as + iniquitous misrepresentation, would probably anger me for a moment, yet it + would nerve me, in the course of a few hours, to make an onslaught more + furious than ever. With a literary rascal one cannot observe the strict + laws of knighthood, except indeed, those which govern the relations of the + noble and the varlet. + </p> + <p> + I make this challenge the more boldly, because the so-called orthodox + cannot persecute me by those meannesses which they employ against each + other. Having no ecclesiastical status, I have no penalty to dread from + frightened bishops or malignant priests. In the face of such a defiance + the clerical party must fight fairly, or slink away as cravens. One + condition, however, I must make with any one who enters the lists—viz., + that any misrepresentation, such as that made about Bishop Colenso by Dr + Browne of the See of Winchester, shall be regarded as <i>ipso facto</i>—a + signal of defeat. + </p> + <p> + To return to the idea which is enunciated at the early part of this essay, + let us contemplate what would be, or rather, what ought to be, the duty of + an honest man, whose aim is to defend the faith which he professes, and to + prove that the book which he reveres is deserving of his confidence. + </p> + <p> + It is probable that, if a merchant had in his possession a bill, or + promissory note, which some person had examined carefully, and pronounced + to be a forgery, he would never think of parading it before his customers + as a valid "asset." Yet, as I write the sentence, memory recalls to my + mind that traders have done this very thing, and have counted what they + ought to have known were bad debts, or fraudulent bills of exchange, + amongst their securities for money; and that, when the parties so acting + have become bankrupt, their proceedings have been severely punished by the + authorities, as being dishonest and fraudulent. + </p> + <p> + The analogy is an useful one, inasmuch as it enables me to ask the + question—"Ought the morality of a 'divine' to be inferior to that + practised by a merchant or banker?" Still further, let us inquire whether + we should have a high opinion of a trader, who endeavoured to palm off + upon us, as a genuine diamond, an article which had been publicly declared + to be a bit of "paste," and whether we should be satisfied with his excuse—"I + believe everything is a gem that goes by the name of a precious stone." + </p> + <p> + In the course of this and our preceding volumes we have, as plainly as + words could express our meaning, enunciated our conclusions upon certain + Biblical difficulties. We have, at least, endeavoured to be honest; we + have not misrepresented those with whose opinions we differ, nor have we + tried to shirk any question, however difficult it may have been. We claim + a corresponding degree of honesty from those who profess to be authorised + guides—and certainly are in the position at present of national + leaders in religion. + </p> + <p> + We are not like an unfortunate clerk in "holy orders," who can be silenced + by law. We are, on the contrary, a stranger knight who comes to a tourney, + and claims the right to combat with the most redoubtable of the champions + of their court and kingdom. Still further, we assume the power to write + those down as cowards who, upon any pretence whatever, decline to compete + in the lists with us. + </p> + <p> + In the days of chivalry there was not a knight who would not have been + regarded as "craven," if he declined a combat because his challenger did + not speak or write French correctly, or had a speck of rust on his armour, + a dint in his shield, or a hole in his breastplate. Yet, in these + degenerate days, we see that poltroons refuse to entertain the arguments + of a writer who, from any cause whatever, appears to be inaccurate in + Hebrew points, or consonants, or Greek accents, or transliteration. For + ourselves, we regard every excuse which is framed to avoid meeting a + fairly stated argument as a proof of weakness, and when it is uttered by a + professional champion, as an act of cowardice. When such champions are + paid by a state to uphold the honour of their country, to avoid a + challenge by evasion is dishonesty. There was, however, in knightly days, + some established law of chivalry that no champion need fight a "squire" or + "varlet;" but, on the other hand, no nobleman could refuse to enter the + lists on the plea that his challenger had a different faith to his own. + Combats between Christians and Paynim were common. Consequently, we cannot + regard a bishop justified in declining a fair challenge, because he is + invited to enter the lists by an "Infidel." + </p> + <p> + Considering myself as an university graduate and an English gentleman, + entitled to give a literary challenge, I make no scruple to enter the + lists, and invite champions to break a lance with me in favour of their + patron saint or lady. + </p> + <p> + I assert that their tutelary saints—Adam, Abraham, David, Moses, + Solomon, and the prophets, are imaginary beings, or, where real, were not + as worthy as they are supposed to have been. I defy scholars to prove that + the Israelites were ever, as a body, in Egypt; that they were delivered + therefrom by Moses; that the people wandered during forty years in "the + desert;" received a code of laws from Jehovah on Sinai; and were, in any + sense whatever of the words, "the chosen people of God." + </p> + <p> + I assert that the whole history of the Old Testament is untrue, with the + exception of a few parts which tell of unimportant events—e.g., it + is probable that the Jews fought with their neighbours, as the Swiss have + done in modern days—but I do not believe the tale about Samson any + more than that of William Tell. + </p> + <p> + I assert that there is not a single true prophecy in the whole Bible, + which can be proved to have been written before the event to which it is + assumed to point, or which is superior, in any way, to the "oracles" + delivered in various ancient lands. + </p> + <p> + I assert that the whole of what, is called the Mosaic law had no existence + in the days of David, Solomon, and the early Hebrew chieftains—or + kings—if they are thought to deserve the title. + </p> + <p> + Here there is no room for evasion—the issue is clear; the cause to + be adjudged by combat is unmistakable. As the weapons on both sides must + necessarily be literary—the pen, and not lance or spear, it is + advisable to say a few words thereupon. In argument I do not recognize + that style of logic which considers that the words "it may be" are equal + to "it is." + </p> + <p> + I am induced to make this remark, because in theological works, the two + forms are constantly used as if they were identical. Many years ago, a + near relative, staying in my house, was preparing for ordination in the + Church of England, and amongst other hooks, had a certain work of the late + Cardinal Wiseman, for perusal—with the intention of collecting + materials for refuting it. He told me that the Papal Archbishop was too + strong for him, and requested my aid. As a result, I became familiar, not + only with many dogmatic writings of the Roman, but also of the Anglican, + Church. All of them had, in my estimation, the same logical fault. Their + authors imagined that any given point is proved when it can be shown that + the occurrence in question <i>may</i> have happened. At a subsequent + period I discovered that this was the prevalent argument amongst writers + in my own profession. It has, indeed, been supposed generally, that + success in proving an opponent to be wrong, is the same as demonstrating + your own propositions to be right. + </p> + <p> + The writers in the <i>Speaker's Commentary</i> upon the Bible have not + advanced beyond this. A thousand such commonplaces as fill its pages, are + worthless to the philosophical inquirer, and I no more regard them, than a + knight would a targe and lance made of barley-sugar. + </p> + <p> + My challenge, however, is not confined to the subject of the Old + Testament; I affirm that the New Testament is equally untrue—although + not to the same degree. Yet, as in the latter, there are not so many + asserted facts, there cannot be so many points for cavil. To be more + specific: I assert that the history of Jesus was framed upon that of Sakya + Muni, and very probably at Alexandria, long after the death of the son of + Mary. I do not deny the existence of Jesus; but I assert that every + miracle which is told respecting him—and the narrative of his + miraculous conception, and of the marvels occurring at his birth, have no + foundation in fact. + </p> + <p> + It is unnecessary to repeat what I have already said upon such points as + "original sin," "the fall of man," and "the need of a Saviour." + </p> + <p> + In what I now say or write, I am perfectly honest. I have not been paid to + preach a certain doctrine, whether my understanding assents to it or not I + affirm, moreover, that the comfort in which I live, is wholly unbroken by + any fears for the future; and that I look back upon the period when my + days and nights were made wretched by superstition, and rejoice that I am + emancipated from the shackles of Ecclesiastics. "The Church," and every + sect of it, which is known in Christendom, is, in my opinion, unfit to be + trusted by thoughtful human beings. Its votaries are only happy in + proportion to their power of forgetting its doctrines, or explaining them + away. Yet all, as I said in the first chapter of my second volume, agree + "to make believe," and by dint of persistently doing so, end in persuading + themselves that they are clothed with lovely garments—which have no + existence, save in the opinion of the wearer. + </p> + <p> + My whole life has been passed amongst religionists of more or less piety. + I have known them in public and in private, in their connection with the + world, and their relations with wife, children, and servants. I am also + familiar with some who are avowed free-thinkers. As an impartial judge, + and certainly having the desire to be an honest one, I declare that the + so-called irreligion or infidelity of the latter makes them better + citizens of the world, better fathers of a family, and better priests to + those who are struggling with misfortune, than the religion—orthodox + or non-conformist—of the former induces them to become. + </p> + <p> + If there were in reality, as there was once in fable, a domain in which + every one was constrained to speak the truth; and if, still farther, one + could carry thereto every religionist, and inquire into his belief, I feel + sure that those whom the professed Christians affect to despise as + infidels, would be the only ones who would be found faithful in private, + to the principles which they profess in public. If, for an example, the + question were put to both "What is honesty?" the answer of the + free-thinkers would be—"Doing to others, in every position of life, + that which you would wish others to do to you;" the reply of the dogmatic + would be the same, with the important addition—"Except in matters of + faith." + </p> + <p> + My readers must not imagine that I am hasty or unscrupulous in what is + passing from my mind to my pen. There never was a time in which I have + felt more deeply that my duty, as an independent man, is to speak plainly. + On the other hand, there is not one single religionist of my acquaintance, + to whom the words—"Ye know not what manner of spirit ye are of" + (Luke ix. 55)—do not apply. + </p> + <p> + On the shelves of my library are books written by almost all classes of + authors, and in many different languages. It has been a self-enforced duty + to compare their contents, and to endeavour, still further, to elicit from + those who are not writers, information which may assist me in forming a + correct idea upon any particular point. Up to the present time I have not + found one single work, which has relation to the religion of opponents, + and is written by a parson, thoroughly trustworthy or honest Everyone is + guilty, either of the <i>suppressio veri</i> or <i>suggestio falsi</i>—generally + of both. A book emanating from a priest is bad, that from a bishop is + worse. Colenso, whom I regard as the only thoroughly truthful member of + the episcopal hierarchy, is the one who is more foully treated by + religionists than any other minister has ever been—"Tis true, 'tis + pity, and pity 'tis, 'tis true." + </p> + <p> + We may be pardoned, if we close this chapter by the expression of our + views as to the religion which will prevail when men have thought as much + upon their future life as upon their present, and are honest with + themselves: + </p> + <p> + 1. They will try to form some distinct idea of what would be to them a + heaven; but, as they will be wholly unsuccessful, they will cease to + speculate upon it. + </p> + <p> + 2. They will cease to fear a hell, knowing that, if there be any immortal + part of man, it must be immaterial; they will not believe that it can be + tormented by material fires, forks, and furies. + </p> + <p> + 3. They will cease to pay any attention to men who call themselves + prophets, divine messengers, or vicars of God on earth, whether they use + lying wonders or not. + </p> + <p> + 4. Instead of constantly cogitating how much they can sin against, and yet + get pardon from, some unknown deity, they will recognize the laws of + nature for their guide, and live in communities as their reason dictates. + The future will be left wholly in the power of the Creator. + </p> + <p> + 5. There will be no belief in a trinity, in a virgin mother of God, in + intercessors of any kind whatever between human beings and the invisible + God; each man and woman will be independent and alone in the presence of + the Supreme. + </p> + <p> + 6. Man will no longer try to usurp the place of God, and persecute his + fellow mortal on religious grounds. + </p> + <p> + 7. There will be no priests or ministers of religion; but there will be + instructors in science, in the laws of life, and moral order; there will + be magistrates to enforce social propriety, and establishments where the + insane and the criminal can be secluded. + </p> + <p> + 8. There will be no strife about religion, for each will attend to his own + personal concerns. + </p> + <p> + 9. The laws of nature will be studied as regards marriage and family; the + infected will not be allowed to perpetuate a feeble race, nor the diseased + infant be pampered, that it may live to a sickly and useless maturity.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * We may add, that there will then be neither silly women + nor crotchety men, who will encourage free trade in + fornication, and the diffusion of loathsome diseases, and + endeavour to promote unnecessary suffering by their + opposition to the methods of avoidance. +</pre> + <p> + 10. No law will be made but that which is drawn from a study of the ways + of the Creator, and the proper requirements of His creatures. + </p> + <p> + 11. Every pretender to revelation, or inspiration, will be incarcerated as + a rogue or a lunatic. + </p> + <p> + 12. The aim of all will be individual and general comfort, and as much + happiness as is compatible with humanity. + </p> + <p> + When each does to others as he would be done by, the millennium, so much + talked of, will have come. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE" id="link2H_APPE"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX. + </h2> + <h3> + 27th March, 1875. + </h3> + <p> + Dear Dr Inman, + </p> + <p> + At pp. 11 and 81 of your new volume, the proof-sheets of which you were + good enough to show me, you intimate that an earlier origin can be found + for all Hebrew feasts and observances excepting the Sabbath. It would + appear, from discoveries made and works published since you began to + write, that you need not make even this exception. There are, I think, + plain indications of a Sabbath among the Egyptians, and proofs of its + observance by the Assyrians. + </p> + <p> + Dr G. G. Zerffi, in a note appended to Mr Tyssen's <i>Origin of the Week</i>* + says—"Judging from the Egyptian mythology, we are justified in + assuming that they had some correct notions of the division of time. Their + eight gods of the first order point to an incarnation of the cosmical + forces, or the planetary system. The twelve gods of the second order + undoubtedly presided over the twelve months of the year; whilst the seven + gods of the third order were to watch over the seven days of the week..... + The Teutons have inherited the division, not only of the week in seven + days, but also the names by which these days are called, from the + Indians....." (Bohlen's <i>Das alte Indien</i>; <i>Toth</i>, by Dr + Uhlemann; and Bunsen's <i>Egypt's Place in History</i>; Tacitus, Suidas, + Pliny, and Amosis). + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Origin of the Week Explained, by A. D. Tyasen, B.C.L., + M.A.; Williams & Noigate, 1875. +</pre> + <p> + These, perhaps, are only what I have called them, indications of a + Sabbath, since it is conceivable that a week of seven days might exist + without one day being more sacred than another. A plainer indication may + be found in the Hymn to Amen-Ka, which exists upon a hieratic papyrus, + judged to be of the fourteenth century, B.C., and purporting to be only a + copy of an earlier writing. I quote four lines, and call attention to the + fourth:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + O! Ra adored in Aptu [Thebes]: + High-crowned in the house of the obelisk [Heliopolis]: + King (Ani) Lord of the New-moon festival: + To whom the sixth and seventh days are sacred.* +</pre> + <p> + When we leave Egypt for Assyria, we pass from indication to proof. At p. + 12 of George Smith's <i>Assyrian Discoveries</i>,** the author says—"In + the year 1869 I discovered, among other things, a curious religious + calendar of the Assyrians, in which every month is divided into four + weeks, and the seventh days, or 'Sabbaths' are marked out as days on which + no work should be undertaken." More precise information as to these + Sabbath-days is given by Rev. A. H Sayce, M.A., in <i>Records of the Past</i>, + vol. I., p. 164, where the following words occur:—"The Babylonian + year was divided into twelve months of thirty days each, with an + intercalary month every six years.... According to the lunar division, the + seventh, fourteenth, nineteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days were + days of 'rest' on which certain works were forbidden." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Translated by C. W. Goodwin, M.A., in Records of the Past, + vol. II Bagster & Sons. + + ** Sampson Low, & Co., 1875. +</pre> + <p> + The Assyrian legends tell of seven evil spirits who rebelled against the + gods; of the goddess Ishtar descending to Hades, and passing through seven + gates; of a deluge, the duration of which was seven days, &c., &c. + Mr H. F. Talbot, F.R.S., speaks of the great degree of holiness which the + Assyrians attributed to the number seven, and where that number was + sacred, the seventh day could scarcely escape special honours. <i>Why</i> + the number seven was sacred, or whether the Babylonian Sabbath was at + first any more than an unlucky day, like the sailor's Friday, when it was + sowing for the whirlwind to begin any enterprise, are other questions. + </p> + <p> + I am, yours faithfully, + </p> + <p> + GEORGE ST. CLAIR. + </p> + <p> + These observations of Mr St Clair deserve attention, for they show that, + from an ancient period, a sixth and seventh day were holy in Egypt, + although we cannot discover from the context whether they were reckoned + after the first day of a year, a month, or a week. But this is of small + importance, as I do not find evidence that the Jews borrowed any Egyptian + ideas, even if they ever knew any. It is far more important to know, that + in the Assyrian calendar the seventh, fourteenth, nineteenth, + twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days of the month were days of "rest," for + all Biblical testimony points to the adoption of the Jewish Sabbath in the + time of the second Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel—i.e., not very long + after the Assyrians made their power felt in Palestine. When we consider + the propensity which the Hebrews had to copy parts of the religion of + those who conquered them, it is highly probable that some astute priest of + the Jews adopted the idea of consecrating a seventh day, as their + Mesopotamian adversaries had done, to the most high god Saturn; and as it + was desirable to have some pretence for the introduction of the Sabbath, + it was natural that it should be put under the same head as the new moon, + and that stories should be invented, and gradually circulated, of the vast + antiquity of the new institution. It is clear, from the Jewish history, + that the Sabbath was not generally known amongst the common people until + long after the return from Babylon. Had it been so, Ezra would not have + thundered so energetically in its favour. The same remark applies to + Nehemiah. I have elsewhere remarked that the Sabbath was unknown to David + and Solomon, and may now add that any one who will read the episode in the + history of Elijah, recorded 1 Kings xix. 7, 8, will see that this prophet + could have known nothing, and the angel who spoke to him could have known + no more, of the Mosaic Sabbath, inasmuch as the latter directs, and the + former obeys, an order which must have involved a breaking of the "rest" + of at least five, and possibly six, Sabbaths. The whole life, indeed, of + Elijah shows a perfect ignorance of this so-called Mosaic institution. + </p> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Ancient Faiths And Modern, by Thomas Inman + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT FAITHS AND MODERN *** + +***** This file should be named 38100-h.htm or 38100-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/1/0/38100/ + +Produced by David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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