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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Evolution of the Argentine
+Republic, by Ernesto Quesada
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Social Evolution of the Argentine Republic
+
+Author: Ernesto Quesada
+
+Release Date: November 22, 2011 [EBook #38086]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adrian Mastronardi, Martin Pettit and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
+
+BY
+
+HON. ERNESTO QUESADA
+
+
+Attorney-General of the Argentine Republic; Professor in the
+Universities of Buenos Ayres and La Plata
+
+Publication No. 636
+
+AMERICAN ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
+
+Reprinted from THE ANNALS, May, 1911
+
+Price 25 cents
+
+
+This Reprint is made from the May, 1911, volume of THE ANNALS, the
+complete contents of which are
+
+
+     INDIVIDUAL EFFORT IN TRADE EXPANSION.
+
+     +Hon. Elihu Root+, United States Senator from New York.
+
+     THE FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE AMERICAN STATES.
+
+     +Hon. Henry White+, Chairman of the American Delegation to the
+     Fourth International Conference of the American States.
+
+     THE FOURTH PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCE.
+
+     +Paul S. Reinsch+, Delegate to the Fourth Pan-American Conference;
+     Professor of Political Science, University of Wisconsin.
+
+     THE MONROE DOCTRINE AT THE FOURTH PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCE.
+
+     +Hon. Alejandro Alvarez+, Of the Chilean Ministry of Foreign
+     Affairs, Santiago, Chile.
+
+     BANKING IN MEXICO.
+
+     +Hon. Enrique Martinez-Sobral+, Chief of the Bureau of Credit and
+     Commerce of the Mexican Ministry of Finance.
+
+     THE WAY TO ATTAIN AND MAINTAIN MONETARY REFORM IN LATIN-AMERICA.
+
+     +Charles A. Conant+, Former Commissioner on the Coinage of the
+     Philippine Islands, New York.
+
+     CURRENT MISCONCEPTIONS OF TRADE WITH LATIN-AMERICA.
+
+     +Hugh MacNair Kahler+, Editor of "How to Export"; Vice-President,
+     Latin-American Chamber of Commerce; Publisher of the Spanish
+     periodicals, "America" and "Ingenieria."
+
+     INVESTMENT OF AMERICAN CAPITAL IN LATIN-AMERICAN COUNTRIES.
+
+     +Wilfred H. Schoff+, Secretary, Commercial Museum, Philadelphia.
+
+     COMMERCE WITH SOUTH AMERICA.
+
+     PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PERU.
+
+     +Albert A. Giesecke, Ph.D.+, Rector of the University of Cuzco,
+     Cuzco, Peru.
+
+     THE MONETARY SYSTEM OF CHILE.
+
+     +Dr. Guillermo Subercaseaux+, Professor of Political Economy,
+     University of Chile.
+
+     THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
+
+     +Hon. Ernesto Quesada+, Attorney-General of the Argentine Republic;
+     Professor in the Universities of Buenos Ayres and La Plata.
+
+     COMMERCIAL RELATIONS OF CHILE.
+
+     +Hon. Henry L. Janes+, Division of Latin-American Affairs,
+     Department of State, Washington.
+
+     CLOSER COMMERCIAL RELATIONS WITH LATIN-AMERICA.
+
+     +Bernard N. Baker+, Baltimore, Md.
+
+     IMMIGRATION--A CENTRAL AMERICAN PROBLEM.
+
+     +Ernst B. Filsinger+, Consul of Costa Rica and Ecuador, St. Louis,
+     Mo.
+
+Price $1.50 bound in cloth; $1.00 bound in paper. Postage free.
+
+
+
+
+THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC[1]
+
+BY THE HON. ERNESTO QUESADA,
+
+     Attorney-General of the Argentine Republic; Professor in the
+     Universities of Buenos Ayres and La Plata.
+
+
+To condense into a few pages several centuries of the history of a
+nation like the Argentine Republic, to give some idea of the nature of
+the forces that have determined the development of this country from the
+end of the sixteenth century, the period of its discovery, to this the
+second decade of the twentieth, when it is celebrating the first
+centennial of its independence, is a task at once delicate and arduous.
+For, aside from these natural difficulties, it will be necessary to
+avoid all details, to shun statistics, and even to lay aside historical
+evidence, in order to crystallize into seemingly dogmatic statements,
+the complicated social evolution of a people in process of
+transformation, a people still in a formative period. It is a venture
+bordering upon the impossible.
+
+A century after the commencement of the conquest of the American
+continent and after the scattering over the land of the invading race,
+at once warlike and religious, an expedition which was purely Andalusian
+discovered the River Plate in the southern extremity of the continent.
+Instead of penetrating to the south, the expedition fixed its gaze
+northward, searching for a route by which to renew relations with the
+rich district of the old empire of the Incas. This was in obedience to
+that thirst after wealth which characterized the taking possession of
+America. Two centuries later, these remote provinces had been converted
+into the very important viceroyship of the River Plate. In one direction
+it extended from the tropical viceroyship of Peru and the torrid lands
+of Portuguese Brazil, to Cape Horn, lashed by the raging Antarctic seas,
+and in the other direction it stretched from the chain of the Andes,
+which runs like a solid wall the length of one of its flanks, to the
+Atlantic Ocean, which bathes its extensive coasts. This enormous
+territory thus embraced every sort of climate, and was inhabited by a
+heterogeneous collection of aboriginal races. Its conquest and
+colonization had been effected upon two convergent lines, that by water,
+by the River Plate, that by land, from the north. This impressed upon
+the civilization of these regions different characteristics which must
+be defined since, even after a century of political independence, their
+mark is still stamped upon the ideals, aspirations and conduct of the
+inhabitants.
+
+The "Leyes de Indias,"[2] faithful reflections of the purposes of
+Spanish colonization in America, show how extraordinary was the
+importance of the native races, how relatively few were the Spanish
+conquerors and how closely the two races became mingled, through the
+régime of the _encomiendas_[3] the _mitas_[4] and the _yanaconazgos_.[5]
+The Spanish colonies were founded and developed in the midst of a mass
+of people, who, because of their enormous superiority in point of
+numbers, necessarily reacted in turn upon the small number of the
+invaders, either by interbreeding with the latter, or by the contact of
+daily life, or by their superior adaptability to their natural
+environment. The conquerors themselves presented different traits,
+according to the region of Spain from which they came, and naturally
+they sought to group and to settle themselves in obedience to the ethnic
+affinities of their origin. Biscayans, Basques, Castillians, Aragonese,
+Andalusians, etc., gave typical characteristics to every American region
+where they established themselves. They transplanted their social
+prejudices, their spirit of communal independence, their concentrated
+energy and their buoyant temperament. From this it resulted that in
+whatever corner of America a particular Spanish strain of blood was
+found, there were reflected the traits of the corresponding district of
+Spain.
+
+As the native races varied according to the region, from those of a
+peaceful and civilized character to those of an untamable and warlike
+nature, and even to ferocious savages, the Spanish settlements existed
+without any common plan. They made a republic with the tribes, and they
+were the beginning of a creole type which was quite distinct in each
+locality. In the viceroyship of Buenos Ayres the ethnic geography of the
+aborigines shows a kaleidoscopic variety of races. In the north and in
+the regions which formerly had been subject to the rule of the Incas,
+the population--both servient and dominant classes--was peaceful,
+attached to the soil, resigned and passive.
+
+In those regions lying between the two great rivers the population was
+of a gentle and peace-loving nature and, therefore, was easily molded by
+missionary civilization. Along the slopes of the Andes the people were
+daring, excitable and independent. The south or Patagonian extremity was
+overrun by brave and unconquerable tribes, closely related to that
+Araucanian race which the Spanish conquest never entirely succeeded in
+subduing. The Spanish settlements on the other hand presented different
+characteristics. In the north they came from Lima, and were Biscayan and
+Castillian, aristocratic, very proud of their ancestry, holding aloof,
+enriched by the mines of Potosi and the commerce of the fleet of
+Portobello. Southward were Andalusians and Spanish common folk, little
+given to titles and conventionalities. They were condemned to pursue the
+smuggler's trade, because the mother country, following an economic
+error of the time and perhaps owing to deficient geographic knowledge,
+permitted them only an overland commerce, by mule back, from the Panama
+fleet which unloaded its cargoes in Callao. Hence in the provinces of
+the north, called High Peru, and in the present provinces of Jujuy and
+Tucuman, the Spanish population held up Lima as their ideal, and
+exhibited both its vices and its virtues. Out of it was formed the
+aristocratic, commercial and luxurious city of Salta. On the other hand,
+in the river provinces, the existence of the cities was precarious and
+fraught with the dangers of a smuggling trade carried on with the
+Portuguese neighbors--the source of the centuries-old controversy of
+Sacramento colony. These settlements were not unacquainted with the fear
+of pirates, of daring navigators and of roving slave dealers, who on
+their arrival at the River Plate unloaded the "products of their
+country," with the toleration and secret complicity of the government
+officials and with the connivance of the inhabitants. These inhabitants
+were true outlaws. They scoffed at the administration and fiscal
+measures and trusted more to their fists than they feared being caught
+in the complicated meshes of the uneconomic laws.
+
+The interbreeding of these different classes of population resulted in
+creole types, characteristic of each region. In the central cities of
+the north, they were always aristocratic and devoted to learning, while
+in the vast stretches of country they lived the semi-feudal life of
+_encomenderos_. The interbreeding with the Indians formed an inferior
+class of half breed which approached the type of the mother more than
+that of the father and which was certainly not a robust or handsome
+race. In the river region, the population lived on a democratic plane of
+equality in the cities, while in the rural districts they became that
+creole type known as the _gaucho_.[6] Found amidst a scattered
+population and inheriting the far from sedentary habits of the Spanish
+mother race, the _gaucho_ preferred the free and roving existence of the
+pampas. He lived by the herds of semi-wild animals, which had multiplied
+amazingly since Mendoza's expedition had introduced the very limited
+stock, destined later to be converted into the stupendous riches of this
+country. In the central, more mountainous region also, the interbreeding
+of the races produced very definite results and the creole population of
+the rural districts acquired traits as though living closely associated
+with the _gauchos_ of the pampas. In the south the aboriginal races
+remained pure, except for the insignificant mixing which came from the
+Spanish captive women, victims of the attacks of the Tehuelches
+populations. Wherever the native population was dense and attached to
+the soil the creoles living in the country and about the cities show a
+closer affinity with it, than with the Spanish blood. They adopt native
+habits and conform to native peculiarities, even to the extent of
+adopting the melancholy rhythm of the music and songs, those unique
+_tristes_ which are heard even to-day in the Argentine provinces of the
+north, from Santiago del Estero to the Bolivian frontier. There the
+creole laborers of the land and the half breeds of the districts about
+the cities tenderly preserve the _quichua_, or native language of their
+ancestors, by intermixing it with the Spanish. The same close affinity
+with the native element is found in the river provinces, and especially
+in Corrientes, where in the rural and semi-rural districts the dregs of
+the missionary population have preserved as their most precious
+possession the _guarani_ dialect. But, where the native population was
+more scattered and nomadic, the creole population became transformed and
+converted into the _gaucho_ or cowboy of the pampas, a very handsome
+half breed, full of energy, of noble instincts, accustomed to the freest
+sort of life over boundless plains, where each one depended solely upon
+himself and recognized no superior. Here we have the explanation of the
+great hold which this type (_gaucho_) has upon the imagination.
+
+In spite of these differences, however, the colonial life was stamped
+with a certain uniformity which served as a background for these local
+peculiarities. Spanish-American society was zealously preserved from
+contact with other European nations. Only inhabitants of Spain were free
+to go and come, so that this triple characteristic--that they were
+Spanish, monarchical and orthodox Catholic--was the salient feature
+common to all South America. The person of the monarch and the supreme
+authority of the colonial office were very distant and the tribunals of
+the viceroys and governors holding actual sessions there upon the
+territory, were the real and tangible personifications of the monarchy.
+The Pope himself was also very distant and had given over the
+superintendence of ecclesiastical affairs to the crown, which had in
+turn confided it to the respective viceroys. The bishops and religious
+orders were, strictly speaking, the visible representatives of religion.
+In this way throne and altar came in touch with the colonial
+populations, who took heated sides in the formidable conflicts which
+used to arise between the representatives of each. But they retained
+respect for them; they recognized their high merits and prerogatives and
+obeyed them as representing that which could neither be questioned nor
+altered. Public officials of all grades were drafted from Spain and
+remained for definite periods. The laws forbade them to mix with the
+populations and they kept themselves aloof, with the ostensible purpose
+of assuring their complete impartiality. But the result was that they
+tried to take advantage of their period in office to swell their
+personal fortunes, without allowing themselves to be deterred by any
+scruples or drawing rein to their appetites. The priests even, both
+secular and those regularly ordained, allowed themselves to be carried
+away by that spirit of self-seeking which led them to look upon America
+as a mine to be exploited.
+
+Doubtless there were zealous officials both civil and religious who
+performed the best type of service. The Spaniards were established
+amidst a native population, who devoted themselves to commerce or to
+mining in the north, and to the raising of cattle and lesser trades in
+the river and central districts, and they always looked upon their
+residence in this part of American territory as a temporary sojourn,
+during which to acquire riches. The creoles, of every class, both of the
+city and of the country, perhaps because they seemed to be looked down
+upon by the Spaniards, were unconsciously trying to enlarge their hold
+upon affairs of all kinds. They felt themselves, as it were, rooted to
+the soil, and far from proceeding only from selfish motives of money
+making, they took an interest in local affairs, which, for them, were of
+greater importance than those of a crown, only vaguely known to them by
+report. The city creoles, thanks to an advanced communal spirit, aroused
+by the establishment of the _cabildos_ or Spanish town council, were
+diligently at work on their own municipal problems. They thus became
+accustomed to limit their horizon to the limits of their own city and of
+the immediately surrounding country district, because communication
+between the cities was slow, difficult and dangerous, a condition which
+resulted in their virtual isolation from each other. The city might
+almost be regarded as the center of their universe. From the rest of the
+world news arrived months and years later, tempered or misrepresented.
+It awakened not the faintest echo. It might as well have been the news
+of far away ages and peoples.
+
+The mass of the natives, with whose women the military and civil
+population cohabited, since relatively few Spanish women came to
+America, took no interest whatsoever in the affairs of a monarchy which
+was not that of their ancestors but of a race different from themselves.
+They showed, rather, such a passive indifference that each community
+seemed a world unto itself, occupied and pre-occupied only with its own
+matters. The religious and civil officials, in their turn, were soon
+contaminated by this environment. They gave to local affairs so
+excessive an importance that it also appeared to their eyes as if the
+boundary of the Indian city was the _ultima Thule_ of civilization. In
+the northern provinces, which had reached the final stage of perfection
+under the old Inca conquest, the native population preserved and
+protected its pre-Columbian traditions by the use of their dialect, the
+_quichua_ tongue. The régime of the _encomienda_, the _mitas_ and the
+_yanaconazgo_ had produced only a formal subjection of the natives. In
+the depths of their souls the natives preserved and fostered traditions
+of bygone centuries. In this way the creoles, the product of
+interbreeding, were recast into the dense mass of the Indian population
+and became more conversant with American traditions than Spanish.
+
+Amongst the missionary converts, the Jesuits had erected cities that
+flourished artificially under their care. They were inhabited only by
+Indian races, and the Jesuits zealously guarded them from contact with
+the Spaniards whom they removed far from their admirable theocratic
+empire as though they were the very incarnation of evil. An unreal
+civilization was thus created, governed patriarchially by the priests
+and without any vitality of its own. Hence, the expulsion of the priests
+by the _coup d' état_ of Charles III brought about the destruction of
+these populations, which had realized during the century of their
+existence, the ideal of the most exacting of Utopian civilization. But
+the results were not such as had been desired. These Indians, on being
+distributed over the colonies, did not coalesce with the rest of the
+inhabitants, but returned to the depths of barbarism or, as in the
+present province of Corrientes, constituted the mass of the population,
+an element indifferent to national interests just as the old
+missionaries had been to those of the crown and sensible only to the
+recollection of their ancient and traditional life, that is to say, to
+their own local affairs.
+
+In the central and river provinces, the marvelous increase of animals
+capable of domestication but still in a wild state brought about a
+profound transformation. The native tribes, sparser than in the north,
+without losing any of their savage customs, soon possessed themselves of
+the horse and overran the boundless pampas. The creoles of the country
+districts and the _gauchos_ in their turn vied for the possession of the
+horse. No longer able to remold their life to that of the savage tribes,
+they checked their bold and ferocious habits and became keen and
+cautious, forming a race of special type, midway between the Indian and
+the Spaniard. They were extreme individualists, for in the immense
+pampas, authority, both civil and religious could obtain but a weak
+hold. The _gaucho_ made so complete a face-about from his former self
+as to devote his life solely to cattle raising. He evolved a special
+fitness or adaptability to his new life and created the most curious
+types, from the _sumbon compadrito_ with his peculiar cloak and
+_chiripa_, who flashed his sarcastic jests with such grace and elegance,
+to the poet troubador and famous animal tracker who was but little less
+keen than the hound in scenting and following the trail of man or beast.
+As the _gauchos_ came in contact with not a few of the city population,
+upon whom they were dependent for obtaining the things they needed in
+exchange for pelts and the products of the country, they formed with
+such of the latter as came most closely in touch with them, a community
+of ideas and aims. Thus by busying themselves only with their own
+special lives, they became independent and without attachment for any
+but their respective municipal centers. Each region possessed its local
+feature, each was separated from the rest and all were but nominally
+linked and united with their remote and common monarch.
+
+In the River Plate region, leaving aside the factor of geographic
+interest, to which I have just made allusion, the racial history was
+limited to the Spanish population and its Creole interbreeding with the
+native races, because the negro population had no importance whatsoever,
+in this part of America. The quantity of negro slaves introduced by the
+"dealers" was reduced to a minimum, and even these, upon the breaking
+out of the war of independence, were killed off, for now that their
+masters were freeing them, they formed the great body of the troops. In
+this way they helped the American cause. The mulattoes, consequently,
+were also reduced in number. This process was carried to such a point
+that the singular scarcity of pure negroes or even of mulattoes was a
+real characteristic of this country.
+
+Foreign influence could only penetrate by way of the Atlantic, and even
+then only covertly, unless it were by crossing the rocky barrier of the
+Andes. The Portuguese influence was limited to the profitable commercial
+relations with the smugglers. That of other nations only made itself
+felt through the occasional visits of ships forced to take shelter in
+the La Plata from time to time, or dropping anchor upon various
+pretexts, but always with the intention of smuggling. This was an open
+secret to the then few inhabitants of Buenos Ayres, the possibilities of
+which as a port, although gainsayed by the crown, had been ordained by
+nature. When, during the last days of colonial domination, commerce was
+permitted to the port of Buenos Ayres, there was no longer time for
+foreign influence to penetrate to the heart of the country. The English
+invasions left a greater residue of influence through the distribution
+of the English prisoners, who in great part established homes in the
+midland regions to which they were sent. There, in the midst of the
+Spanish families, with whom they were left, they disseminated ideas of
+liberty and standards of independence, unknown among the rest of the
+population, the best classes of which in those days of unrest, were a
+turbulent and irrepressible element.
+
+The revolution of May, 1810, wrought a fundamental change in the social
+situation. Distinguished officers of the Napoleonic wars came to the
+country to offer their military services. English merchants, attracted
+by the reports of the English invasions of the Argentine Republic in
+1806 and 1807, hurried over in increasing numbers. Soon they were
+influencing the society of Buenos Ayres which adopted London fashions,
+many of its customs, and became accustomed to the English character.
+Foreign commerce was concentrated in the hands of the English and many
+of these merchants finally married in the country. During the colonial
+epoch only books expurgated by the Inquisition had been admitted, but
+now the revolutionary movement unmuzzled these mysteries and flung wide
+the doors through which penetrated a flood of French and English works.
+The doctrines of the French revolution were at that time the passion of
+the majority of our public men, and its influence, even its Jacobin and
+terrorist phases, is traceable from the first instant. This is revealed
+in the "plan of government" of Moreno. On the other hand, the
+constitutional doctrines of the Anglo-Saxons were embraced only by the
+few. Dorrego went to the United States and there absorbed them. During
+the first decade after the revolution, the educational system scarcely
+advanced at all but followed closely to the traditional path of teaching
+taught by the University of Cordoba. The University of Buenos Ayres was
+founded in the second decade, and made an effort to reform public
+education. But the war of independence was not yet over and the internal
+situation of the country at the end of the anarchical dissolution which
+took place in 1820, was such that a multitude of affairs demanded
+attention, and as yet it was hardly possible, outside of the large
+cities, to turn to such questions of reform.
+
+The winning of independence was the cause of the sad dismemberment of
+the viceroyship of the River Plate and the statesmen of the period could
+not have prevented it. From what was once a single historic province
+there have gradually been detached the province of High Peru, to-day the
+Republic of Bolivia; the province of Paraguay, to-day the Republic of
+the same name; the eastern missions which now constitute the present
+Brazilian provinces of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catalina and Sao Paulo.
+The Banda Oriental has since become the Republic of Uruguay; the
+Falkland Islands were snatched by England; the territory about the
+Straits of Magellan was ceded later to Chile, under color of regulating
+the boundary line. The Argentine Republic, during the first century of
+its existence as an independent nation, far from acquiring a single
+square mile of territory, has continued to lose territory at every point
+of the compass. Her international policy, from that point of view, has
+been lamentable and the memory of it is still a bitter lesson.
+
+Within the enormous territorial expanse which now constitutes the
+Argentine Republic political integration was effected slowly. The
+different populations settled at intervals along the routes which
+connected Buenos Ayres with Lima on the one side, with the Andes on
+another and with Asuncion on still another. Each settlement was an oasis
+of Spanish population set in the midst of a savage country. In order to
+establish something approaching unity within each section, the people
+organized themselves after the pattern of the urban centers of Spain
+with their _Cabildo_ or town council as the communal authority, which
+controlled and regulated the extremes of opinion and conditions and
+brought the whole municipal life to a focus. Each settlement lived a
+life apart, separated from the others. In fact they were cast in the
+mold of the ancient Spanish village society, and the central authority
+only made itself felt at infrequent intervals.
+
+The inhabitants of each village thus developed an aptitude for municipal
+life and for self-government, and a concentration upon local interests
+which became the basis of their political development. They fostered a
+local character which was the very foundation and essence of their later
+federal tendency. To the interests and pretensions of the crown as
+formulated by the "Council of the Indies," they preferred the authority
+of the viceroy and of the intendants, but their main preference was the
+municipality itself, whose frank and loyal mouthpiece was the
+traditional Cabildo. For this reason, when the movement for independence
+commenced, each village and each city was led by its own Cabildo, and it
+was the Cabildo which gave vigor and form to the revolution. Around the
+Cabildo the inhabitants of the vicinity grouped themselves in the
+different organic or anarchic revolts which followed. It was for this
+reason, too, since the present republic possessed no basis of political
+division, that each one of the cities formed a nucleus in its respective
+province of the same name, and that the whole territory was subdivided
+according to the radius of authority exercised by the principal cities
+of colonial times, without any account being taken of economic autonomy
+or of demography.
+
+Federal sentiment made its appearance profoundly rooted in tradition and
+blood, and the tendency towards centralization only emanated from
+certain groups of dreamers at the metropolis who with their eyes closed
+to the past believed along with such deluded men as Rivadavia that, by
+destroying the traditional Cabildo, they would wipe the state clean of
+such precedents, just as the Jacobins of the French Revolution did with
+the institutions of the ancient régime. Argentine society issued from
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries already shaped toward local
+self-government and local loyalty. It already appeared a federation in
+fact which was easily transformed into a federation in law, because the
+federal idea was at bottom the very heart and soul of things.
+
+The development of our colonization also indicated that of our
+civilization. As we approach the north, the brilliant center of
+civilization of Lima society becomes more aristocratic, infatuated with
+its learning, luxurious and fastidious. The youth of the Plate Valley
+were attracted to the University of Chuquisaca, where, amidst its
+cloisters, they acquired a grave and disputacious manner. Later the
+University of Cordoba, like a pale reflection of the former, drew upon a
+part of these youths and, if they left its lecture halls also practiced
+in the art of sophistry, they did not imbibe in return that atmosphere
+of aristocratic aloofness, pomp and presumption. Buenos Ayres and the
+river country were without a university and without an aristocracy. At
+the periodic auctions of titles of nobility, the receipts of which were
+added to the colonial contributions and were intended to meet a certain
+deficit in the Spanish treasury, not a purchaser appeared and there was
+not a single herder of the pampas nor a single rich smuggler who would
+bid. The titles which were thus put up to sale remained unpurchased, for
+the people held them in no esteem.
+
+With no resources other than its commerce and industry which were both
+of a contraband nature, Buenos Ayres developed more rapidly than other
+cities and with a greater freedom from "red tape" and formalism, in
+spite of its being the seat of the general government, with its Spanish
+officials, its civil, military and religious authorities and an
+administrative machinery identical with that of the other capitals of
+the viceroyship. For here there was not the same atmosphere, the life
+was simple and democratic, the officials had no stage from which to
+display their importance, and within the narrow walls of the modest home
+of the government, the few inhabitants of this metropolis used to mingle
+in its marshy, unpaved streets, or in their unpretentious and simple
+adobe houses. They treated each other with a certain equality, which was
+due precisely to those conditions of intense individualism developed of
+necessity in a cattle raising community.
+
+In the northern and central districts society was cast in the Peruvian
+mold, a reproduction of Spanish civilization, aristocrats adopting
+primogeniture and, in modified form, the feudal régime of the
+_encomenderos_. In the river and mountain region, the urban was a
+reflection of the rural population, independent, haughty, brave,
+accustomed to making forays upon horseback over the endless pampas,
+trusting to its own decision and in the end to the knife, which was a
+symbol of the worship of personal courage, inherited from Spanish
+ancestors who had developed it during the centuries of the struggle
+against the Moors. In the river district the commerce, which in the main
+was carried on illegally by doggedly persevering merchants who plied
+their trade fearlessly with pirates and foreign smugglers, caused a
+certain spirit of self-confidence to grow. This spirit made itself felt
+in the popular movement of the reconquest of 1806, and in the impulse of
+the revolution of May, 1810.
+
+From Buenos Ayres started the movement for independence, and the
+Cabildos of the interior cities fell in with the movement with more or
+less alacrity. Hence the further inland these cities were, the less
+enthusiastic. The Paraguayan region isolated itself and followed the
+conservative policy of the Cabildo of Asuncion. The province of High
+Peru, in spite of its efforts, was the last to revolt and never followed
+with any ardor the movement initiated by the metropolis. Indeed, the
+revolution of May, which had spread to the banks of the Paraguay river
+and over the plateau of Bolivia, might not, perhaps, have succeeded in
+so closely cementing, in spite of the righteousness of its cause, the
+independence proclaimed in Tucuman in 1816, had not the inspiration of
+San Martin added that powerful impulse which flung armies across the
+Andes, liberated Chile from Spanish dominion and brought independence to
+Peru. He might have pursued this glorious course toward the independence
+of the whole continent, if the colossal egotism of Bolivar in that
+tragic conference of Guayaquil had not placed our national hero in the
+dilemma of either eliminating himself and leaving his selfish rival to
+wear the laurels planted and nurtured by Argentine blood or of
+sacrificing the fruits of the campaign for independence, by not being
+able to obtain from him the military assistance he was in need of. He
+placed his country before his own glory and yielded the field to one to
+whom personal renown was preferable to all else.
+
+For the social evolution of Argentine the sacrifice of San Martin was of
+incalculable importance. Upon eliminating himself, he left to his rival
+the army which he had himself led until then and this country was
+deprived of its one organizing force. Disintegrating tendencies
+manifested themselves without counter-check. In the second decade of the
+century, various little republics were defiantly established in the
+interior. They were constructed upon the plan of the old settlements
+which had risen to something greater. They were governed by Cabildos,
+and these in turn obeyed the local leader, who was raised to
+dictatorship over the districts. Each province was sufficient unto
+itself. It barely communicated with the others and retrograded towards
+barbarism without regularly organized government or other will than that
+of its respective tyrant and the free-lances who were his immediate
+followers. Schools closed; families took refuge within the walls of
+their dwellings; terror pervaded; life was everywhere insecure; those
+who could, emigrated, leaving behind them on the land the sick, the
+women and the children. Men were bedfellows in misery; there was no
+industry, no commerce; sin flourished and virtue was trampled under
+foot. These thirty years of bloody and merciless civil strife made
+prominent the idea of the rule of force. People were taken from peaceful
+work, efficient teaching languished, every social bond was weakened and
+in the end a society evolved in which not education, ancestry or fortune
+exercised the least influence, but audacity, the impulse of the local
+leader, the mob instincts of the city population and of the rural
+_gaucho_. The local leaders and their followers alone wielded any real
+power. They dominated without possibility of counter-check and an entire
+generation tolerated this condition during that terrible period.
+
+The local leadership, like the legendary tyranny of ancient Rome,
+demolished everything which tried to rise above the obedient, passive,
+resigned and common level. It brutally choked it or forced it to
+emigrate, and Argentine society had to develop in these anaemic
+surroundings. There was no possibility of foreign immigration, or of
+establishing industry and commerce.
+
+The idea of nationality was observed by party passion and the factions
+were ready to launch out upon some fight upon the slightest pretext.
+Social classes were divided into irreconcilable parties, the reds or
+federalists, and the blues or centralists, those who believed in the
+local leader, and those who detested him. The former were called
+federalists, because they believed that each locality ought to adopt the
+kind of government which best suited it; the latter were called the
+centralists, because in their weakness they leaned upon the influence of
+the national government in order to give to the whole country a common
+unified administration of which the local government would be the agent.
+
+Rosas met this situation and put an end to it. After the dismemberment
+of the ephemeral republic of 1825, and the national convention, and
+following upon the Brazilian war, the centralist party, deceived in its
+principles and in its men, closed its doors to counsel and committed the
+error of executing Dorrego at Navarro. The mass of the rural population
+resisted the straight jacket proposed by the doctrinaires of the
+centralist party and in this they showed themselves unrelenting. Then
+Rosas came into power in the government of Buenos Ayres and also secured
+control of the situation in the provinces. He succeeded in bringing
+about the organization of each province with a view to forming the
+Argentine Confederation. He was entrusted by the federation with the
+management of foreign relations. He left the interior provinces to
+organize themselves after the pattern of the government of Buenos Ayres.
+Doubtless, during the long quarter of a century while he was dictator,
+real security and peace were never enjoyed, for the centralist party was
+ambitious, arrogant and factious, plotting within itself, and when it
+was not exciting to rebellion, or leading an invasion it was provoking
+foreign intervention. Finally the terrible and merciless war between the
+centralists and the federalists developed a state of terror which
+culminated in the excesses of the year 1840. The dictator treated his
+adversaries without mercy and they in their turn had none for him. To be
+strictly truthful, neither party can be absolved from wicked and
+culpable action. Nor can I shut my eyes to the fact that the great power
+bred pride, and that pride bred hatred of the subject class. But this
+prolonged dictatorship saved the country from the anarchy of the petty
+republics of 1820, it solidified the country into a sovereign entity and
+it gave to the different parts the cohesion of a nation capable of
+victoriously resisting the French and Anglo-French interventions. This
+much is owed definitely to the centralist party, who in this way solved
+the difficulty traditional to our national organization and so guided
+along the right road the severest crisis of Argentine history, not only
+from a political but also from a sociological point of view. The chasm
+that separated the social classes of the capital city from those of the
+provincial districts was bridged; the prejudices of blood, of caste and
+fortune were destroyed and there was established complete equality,
+where every man was the heir of his own labor and depended only upon his
+own hands.
+
+After the battle of Caseros, in 1852, the government which had so used
+and abused oppression and patronage fell, leaving the country, however,
+in such a condition of stability and internal organization that the
+different provinces grouped themselves logically under the Convention of
+San Nicolas. The Argentine Federation was maintained and Urquiza was
+placed at the head of the government. Despite the local character of the
+revolution of Buenos Ayres, on the eleventh of September the country at
+large adopted the fundamental constitution of 1853, at the Congress of
+Santa Fé. The government of the recalcitrant province of Paraná realized
+but slowly the new organization, with which it finally incorporated
+itself, while the nation continued developing in the path established by
+its constitution. Without losing sight, therefore, of the bitter lessons
+of this phase of our evolution, it is but fair to show an appreciation
+of its benefits.
+
+The characteristic of this intermediate epoch is the very slight
+introduction of the foreign element. To-day this element is scattered
+over the land, but at that time such as were firmly rooted in the
+country, principally in Buenos Ayres, were very few. Of these the
+English formed the greater part, for the infusion of German blood, which
+resulted from the distribution of prisoners taken from the German
+regiments at Ituzaingo, though they included some estimable families
+constituted a very subordinate factor. English commerce was always
+respected and in spite of the bitterness produced by the naval
+interventions, it was left to develop peacefully. But as it did not
+increase in volume and was never reinforced by that of other nations, it
+did not become great. The path of social evolution was in the direction
+of the commingling of the city and rural population, and of the
+participation of the _gauchos_ in public life, either by forming a large
+and worthy element in the army or by becoming the active nucleus of the
+popular civic movements. The democratization of the country was
+complete, for in general, the upper classes of society in the cities
+affiliated themselves with the centralist party, while the populace
+supported the federal party. Hence the bloody triumph of the latter
+brought about its complete predominance and from this period the social
+and political problems remained more enduring in nature, while
+differences of blood and tradition were put aside.
+
+Since the constitution of 1853, the social evolution of Argentine has
+been guided and carried forward by two factors, immigration and foreign
+capital. Under their influence, the characteristics of the prior period
+were gradually modified to a certain extent. The administration of Mitre
+struggled against the difficulties of inadequate means of communication
+between the distant cities and against traditional custom of guerilla
+warfare. Force was employed in order to remain master of the field and
+to break up the resistance which the men of the interior set up against
+the prominence of those of Buenos Ayres, and a cruel war against
+Paraguay was undertaken. The ability and consistency of this Argentine
+statesman was great.
+
+When the passions of his contemporaries had been assuaged, he became the
+"grand old man" of the nation, growing in stature as posterity forms
+its judgment on his policy. That administration, like the following one
+of Sarmiento, had to cope with two factors, the great uninhabited tracts
+of land and the survival of ancient custom. On the one hand the
+different Argentine regions lived in isolation from one another,
+communication between them being difficult; on the other hand there
+still survived the custom of local chieftainship and of the constant and
+armed movements of different political factions, who would set out upon
+guerilla forays on any pretext whatsoever, raising their banners on high
+as though their behavior was patriotic and praiseworthy, whereas it was
+but the vicious habit of a barbaric and backward age.
+
+The administration of Avellaneda continued the task of combating such
+tendencies by the establishment of the telegraph which would unite all
+these centers to each other; by the construction of railroads to
+facilitate communication; and by the encouragement of European
+immigration for purposes of settlement and in order to mix other races
+with that of Argentine and so modify its political idiosyncracies by
+more conservative standards and interests. The conquest of the
+Patagonian wilds, with the final subjugation of the warlike native
+tribes of the south, opened and ushered in an era in the Argentine
+evolution. This occurred contemporaneously with the historic solution of
+the problem of federalism versus centralism, which silenced forever the
+old antagonism between the inhabitants of the metropolis and those of
+the provinces.
+
+From 1880 till the present, the work of multiplying the telegraphs and
+railway routes has gone on, as has also the increase of foreign
+immigration. These have produced the desired effect in the social
+transformation of the country. The telegraph and the railroad have
+definitely killed the seditious germs of guerilla warfare and of local
+chieftainship. Local uprisings are no longer possible. The city and
+rural populations have become convinced of this, and the popular mind is
+at peace since the generation has disappeared which saw the last revolts
+of the _gauchos_, and other forms of popular uprising. Foreign capital
+commenced and encouraged the exploitation of our natural resources. The
+sugar industry of the northern provinces, the wine culture of the Andes
+provinces, even the stock raising and agriculture of the river districts
+have been the combined work of these three progressive elements.
+Immigration has helped immensely toward this same end, but the
+settlement of new lands does not advance by leaps and bounds, but
+spreads gradually.
+
+Starting from the port of arrival, the stream of immigration continues
+to spread clinging closely to the land and little by little it mixes
+with the existing population, inter-breeds with it, fuses with it, and
+gives a great surging impulse to agriculture, industry and commerce. The
+social transformation of the river provinces is due to this junction of
+the two currents as a result of which the _gaucho_ of the metropolis of
+Santa Fé or of Entre Rios, who, formerly famous for his bold and lawless
+tendencies, has to-day been so fused with the different foreign elements
+that all but the memory of this ancient type has disappeared, and the
+country is covered over with populous settlements, laborious, prosperous
+and progressive. The great fertility of the soil has returned with
+interest the foreign capital which first watered it, and has enriched
+marvelously all who have engaged in its cultivation. The development of
+the national resources, in turn, has given birth to such conservative
+interests that it is incomprehensible to the new generation that the
+former generation could, at the signal of a semi-barbarous chief jump on
+their horses and, rushing over the fields, kill, pillage and destroy. It
+is true that the transition has been effected at the cost of producing a
+certain political indifference in the new generations, which no doubt,
+will be overcome in time.
+
+The social evolution of the Argentine Republic has finally found its
+true channel and to-day is in full course of development. In proportion
+as the foreign immigration continues bringing therewith its happy
+complement of foreign capital, the country will continue to develop
+industrially. The astonishing increase in industries, with a total
+production out of all proportion to the growing population, is only
+explained by the use on a large scale of the most advanced machinery.
+But such a metamorphosis spreads from the river districts toward the
+interior of the country. It does not jump from one point to another
+without connecting links between them, but always preserves a channel
+through which a relation is maintained between the different zones
+already transformed or in process of transformation. The first effect of
+each infusion of foreign blood into creole veins is to appease the hot
+political passions of other times, abolish the old institution of the
+local chieftainship, even blot him from memory and replace it by an
+absorption in our growing material interests. These material interests
+appear to have conspired to bring about that indifference towards the
+state, as such, which makes men look mistakenly at a political career as
+a profession which thrives off the real working classes. For, our
+government both municipal, provincial and national appears to be the
+heritage of a well-defined minority--the politicians--who devote
+themselves to politics just as other social classes devote themselves to
+agriculture, stock raising, industry, commerce, etc.
+
+Public life with its complex machinery of elections and governing bodies
+has been, so to say, delivered into the hands of a small group of men
+who at present are not productive of anything new in the general social
+situation of former times; that is to say, these men form a definite
+class, moved by the influence of this or that personality. Though it has
+suppressed the bloody characteristics of the previous period it has not
+relapsed into their heresies.
+
+Little by little this shadow of the old system changes into that of the
+"boss" of the settlement and ward. The boss makes his business that of
+the mass of the voters, he stirs them up from their indifference, makes
+them go to the polls, deliberately falsifies public opinion, and so wins
+for himself a political managership, which gives him a marked influence
+in the back offices of officials and in the lobbies of legislatures.
+From such methods there spring no little censurable legislation of
+privilege and a great loss of contentment on the part of the people.
+When public spirit strengthens and shakes from itself the dust of
+inertia, and when the laboring classes have passed beyond that first
+stage of money grabbing, all the inhabitants of the nation will commence
+to busy themselves about the common weal. The thorn of the "boss" will
+prick them and they will then be able to form into political parties
+with unselfish programs and platforms. Every voter will cast his ballot
+to send to the legislature candidates who uphold the principles of his
+particular platform. As yet the people have not even reached the gateway
+to this goal. The past is still seen in full process of evolution and it
+is not easy to foresee the end.
+
+This does not mean that the present moment of transition is valueless.
+On the contrary, it is of very great importance, because the social
+situation in the Argentine Republic is in process of making. The
+politicians, now that they look upon themselves as called to stand forth
+above the heads of the rest of the people, have to be real statesmen. In
+this historic period, such statesmen, have the personality of the
+chauffeur who directs one of those swift engines of our century upon its
+dizzy course, the mechanism of which is so sensitive to the controlling
+pressure of the hand that it can deftly avoid all accident or cause a
+catastrophe of fatal consequences. There is required in such a man
+extraordinary coolness, clearness of vision as to responsibility,
+perfect knowledge of the course to be run, besides ceaseless vigilance,
+iron nerve when the time of trial arrives and a complete concentration
+upon the task. The legitimate tasks of government, in this very grave
+period of Argentine evolution, require a special training on the part of
+public leaders. They must study thoroughly the problems of our social
+evolution, and they must form a clear idea of the necessary solutions.
+Towards this they must steer with undiverted eye. The necessity of
+further exploitation of our national resources, the successive expansion
+of enterprise over zone after zone of our territory, the assimilation of
+the foreign immigrants by the creole population, the slow formation of a
+national spirit in the new generation, all these monopolize for the
+present the national energies and prevent them from turning to other
+problems. The country is converted, as it were, into a giant boa
+constrictor. It is entirely given over to the task of converting its
+food into nourishment, of abstracting the juices from the hard and
+resisting substances, of passing a multitude of different elements
+through its living organs so that they may later form a new tissue,
+adapted to the present and future needs of the country.
+
+From this point of view the present moment in the evolution of Argentine
+is of immense sociological interest. We are permitted to be present at
+the visible transmutation of a society, too weak even to direct itself,
+and absorbed in the fusion of different influences. The direction of
+this process has been handed over without counter-check to public men
+who are obliged to dictate and put into practice legislation and
+administrative rules of every kind, as though they enjoyed absolute
+power. Furthermore, by the very nature of things, the administrative
+functions in such periods have to discount the future and effect in the
+present a series of public works or social regulations which will weigh
+upon future generations not only from the point of view of the general
+finances but even from the point of view of national character. The
+national transformation of the land with ports, canals, railroads,
+telegraphs and every sort of means of communication, indeed, with every
+kind of public work, cannot be accomplished with present resources. A
+call must be made upon those of the future, by means of loans which will
+be a burden upon coming generations. If such a governmental policy is
+not accompanied by a skillful and prudent financial management, the
+burdens of our descendants will be considerably increased. They may even
+be committed to a policy that will cause eventual bankruptcy and an
+inevitable retrogression in the national development. The intellectual
+metamorphosis of the nation by a proper system of primary, secondary and
+higher education and by special schools of technical training, in order
+to form the national spirit of the future type of Argentine citizen, is
+certainly our most difficult governmental problem, because it is a
+question of molding the very soul of the nation. To teach different and
+contradictory systems, to do and then undo, each day changing the
+courses of study to successively adopt antagonistic standards and show a
+real lack of fixity in pedagogic methods, is to commit the greatest of
+all crimes, because it is not a crime against the exchequer of posterity
+but against its very soul. To accomplish a fusion of the currents of
+foreign immigration, to sort out the best from them, and to direct the
+formation of the new type which is being evolved, melting it in the
+crucible of the school, of the army, and of public life, is perhaps,
+to-day our task of transcendent difficulty. Such a problem is greater
+than that of directing the stream of foreign capital which, while
+fructifying the national soil, clings to it like the countless tentacles
+of a gigantic octopus and absorbs a great part--sometimes too great a
+part--of the riches produced only to transmit them through the arteries
+of the Republic, to foreign nations who employ it to their exclusive
+profit.
+
+Perhaps no moment in the history of our nation requires a greater
+combination of qualifications in its public men. The student may
+contemplate this most interesting transformation, displayed before his
+eyes like the moving film of a gigantic cinematograph which permits him
+to grasp at once the different phases of the social problem which it
+presents. Rarely in the history of humanity has it been possible to
+contemplate a like spectacle. The United States presented it a half
+century ago, to the astonished gaze of men of that day who were but
+little familiar with social problems. The Argentine Republic is
+repeating now the same phenomenon, with this difference that it can
+observe itself and be guided by the experience acquired elsewhere. Other
+countries of the world, in the future will, no doubt, in their turn
+repeat a similar evolution, though perhaps in a different environment.
+But the interesting part of the present moment is that the Argentine
+Republic is sailing upon the same course in the twentieth century that
+the United States did in the nineteenth. Our evolution is proceeding
+with greater care because it is being worked out amid better conditions.
+We can now take advantage of the costly experience gained by our
+brothers of the north and so by avoiding many of their errors, seek to
+escape the shoals upon which they stranded and the mistakes which they
+involuntarily committed, even though we have in our turn special
+problems which they did not have. Thus the tremendous politico-social
+crisis of the North American War of Secession will not be repeated in
+the southern hemisphere and the Argentine social evolution will not have
+to solve the profound anthropological problem of the rivalry of races,
+which, in the United States, arises from the white, black and yellow
+races, living together side by side.
+
+In Argentine there are no ethnic problems. The social antagonism raised
+by an arrogant plutocracy on the one hand and poverty stricken
+proletariat on the other, is not presented as an Argentine problem,
+because riches are still in process of formation there, and easily pass
+from one hand to another. A monopoly of riches cannot be prolonged
+beyond a single generation because with the system of compulsory
+division of descendants' estates, it soon returns to the common mass of
+the population. Social conditions in our evolution, present distinct
+problems from those which characterize other nations and demand,
+therefore, a direct study on the ground and must not be viewed through
+the doctrines developed in other nations and amid other conditions. The
+molding of the national spirit by uniform and compulsory schools and the
+slow adaptation of the mass of the immigrants to historical traditions
+and to future national aims, demand much time and they are now in the
+full process of being worked out. The celebration of the Centenary of
+our independence has made prominent the fact that such an evolution is
+much more advanced than one would think. There still remains,
+nevertheless, not a little to be done in this direction, though the
+national compulsory school system and the army conscription are factors
+of great importance which are working for fusion. But, in the country
+districts and in those places where the error has been committed of
+permitting the formation of settlements, homogeneous in race and
+religion, which regard themselves as autonomous offshoots of their
+mother country, resisting the Argentine school or any intermingling with
+the mass of neighboring population--in such districts, the fusion,
+though inevitable, will be necessarily slower.
+
+All these sociological problems might and should have been exhaustively
+studied in the history of the United States during the nineteenth
+century, a history which, as I have said, the Argentine Republic is
+repeating in the twentieth. Foreign immigration at this time has no
+outlet more profitable than the River Plate. The doors of North America
+are gradually being closed, and the other regions do not yet present the
+same advantages as those offered by our country. The same thing that
+happens with the excess of population of other nations also occurs with
+its surplus capital; no other quarter of the globe offers better
+prospects for the investment of capital and for a greater rate of
+return. The "manifest destiny" of Argentine depends for the present
+entirely upon the development of its commercial relations with the rest
+of the world. It must convert itself into the granary and the meat
+market of Europe.
+
+The closest bonds of mutual interest unite Argentina with Europe,
+because being producers of unlike commodities, the European markets
+consume our exportation and our markets consume theirs. With the rest of
+America our interchange of trade must be upon a smaller scale, because
+for more than a century to come we shall be countries producing similar
+commodities. Therefore, our respective markets will not reciprocally
+serve to buy the excess of production, but only that which by reason of
+climate or industrial development is to be found or manufactured in any
+other country than our own. This has happened to us notably in the case
+of the United States with its tremendous industrial expansion. In order
+to fulfill this "manifest destiny," we need _pax multa_ with the whole
+world. We need to give attention exclusively to our development without
+intermeddling in that of others. In this is summed up everything. Hence
+our international policy has to be pacific and neutral; we must be
+every man's friend, and shun imperialistic fancies. The "splendid
+isolation" of England fits her condition and her inclination. We must
+work and we must be allowed to work. Our social evolution still requires
+a century to acquire a definite contour. Though results may be foreseen
+from their beginnings, it is not possible to foretell what will be the
+future Argentine type, physically, mentally or materially.
+
+For the present, the only proper thing for us to do is to devote
+ourselves exclusively to the exploitation of our resources for we have
+seen how much effort will be required to assimulate our population, to
+form a national spirit, to build up a great future nation, to develop an
+administration which shall be a model of honesty and scientific
+preparation, and to adapt the republic to its future needs by public
+works and institutions, and by showing ourselves firm in faith and
+effective in works.
+
+The present social tendencies in Argentine evolution give promise of a
+great future for the country. The nation is not hesitating or
+vacillating before the realization of its manifest destiny. It follows
+with profound interest the new and colossal social experiment, which is
+unfolding to the view of the world the different phases of the formation
+of a nation in whose development the shoals are being avoided where
+others were wrecked, and which is putting into practice the improvements
+suggested by the experience of the other nations in order to realize the
+new evolution easily, prudently, and successfully.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The Academy wishes to express its appreciation to Layton D.
+Register, Esq., of the Law Department of the University of Pennsylvania,
+and to Mr. Enrique Gil, of the National University of La Plata, of the
+Argentine Republic, for the translation of this article.
+
+[2] Old Spanish legislation for the Spanish-American colonies.
+
+[3] _Encomienda_ is the Spanish name for the concession, granted by the
+crown during the Spanish Colonial period, of a certain number of native
+Indians, to a Spanish conqueror for purposes of service. The
+_Encomendero_ was the recipient of such a concession from the crown.
+
+[4] _Mita._ Spanish term for the distribution by lot of the native
+Indians for purposes of public work.
+
+[5] _Yanaconazgo._ Spanish term for that peculiar kind of land
+tenantship by which the tenant has no title to the land, but receives a
+proportion of the product of his labors upon the land.
+
+[6] The cowboy of the Argentine Pampas.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Evolution of the Argentine
+Republic, by Ernesto Quesada
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38086-8.txt or 38086-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
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+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Social Evolution Of The Argentine Republic, by Hon. Ernesto Quesada.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
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+
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+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Evolution of the Argentine
+Republic, by Ernesto Quesada
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Social Evolution of the Argentine Republic
+
+Author: Ernesto Quesada
+
+Release Date: November 22, 2011 [EBook #38086]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adrian Mastronardi, Martin Pettit and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1><span>THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ARGENTINE<br />REPUBLIC</span><br /><span id="id1">BY</span><br /><span>HON. ERNESTO QUESADA</span></h1>
+
+<p class="center">Attorney-General of the Argentine Republic; Professor in the Universities of
+<br />Buenos Ayres and La Plata</p>
+
+<p class="tbrk">&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center">Publication No. 636<br /><span class="smcap">American Academy of Political and Social Science</span><br />
+Reprinted from <span class="smcap">The Annals</span>, May, 1911</p>
+
+<div class="block"><p>Price 25 cents</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p><p>This Reprint is made from the May, 1911, volume of THE ANNALS, the
+complete contents of which are</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>INDIVIDUAL EFFORT IN TRADE EXPANSION.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hon. Elihu Root</b>, United States Senator from New York.</p>
+
+<p>THE FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE AMERICAN STATES.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hon. Henry White</b>, Chairman of the American Delegation to the Fourth
+International Conference of the American States.</p>
+
+<p>THE FOURTH PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCE.</p>
+
+<p><b>Paul S. Reinsch</b>, Delegate to the Fourth Pan-American Conference;
+Professor of Political Science, University of Wisconsin.</p>
+
+<p>THE MONROE DOCTRINE AT THE FOURTH PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCE.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hon. Alejandro Alvarez</b>, Of the Chilean Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
+Santiago, Chile.</p>
+
+<p>BANKING IN MEXICO.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hon. Enrique Martinez-Sobral</b>, Chief of the Bureau of Credit and
+Commerce of the Mexican Ministry of Finance.</p>
+
+<p>THE WAY TO ATTAIN AND MAINTAIN MONETARY REFORM IN LATIN-AMERICA.</p>
+
+<p><b>Charles A. Conant</b>, Former Commissioner on the Coinage of the
+Philippine Islands, New York.</p>
+
+<p>CURRENT MISCONCEPTIONS OF TRADE WITH LATIN-AMERICA.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hugh MacNair Kahler</b>, Editor of "How to Export"; Vice-President,
+Latin-American Chamber of Commerce; Publisher of the Spanish
+periodicals, "America" and "Ingenieria."</p>
+
+<p>INVESTMENT OF AMERICAN CAPITAL IN LATIN-AMERICAN COUNTRIES.</p>
+
+<p><b>Wilfred H. Schoff</b>, Secretary, Commercial Museum, Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p>COMMERCE WITH SOUTH AMERICA.</p>
+
+<p>PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PERU.</p>
+
+<p><b>Albert A. Giesecke, Ph.D.</b>, Rector of the University of Cuzco,
+Cuzco, Peru.</p>
+
+<p>THE MONETARY SYSTEM OF CHILE.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dr. Guillermo Subercaseaux</b>, Professor of Political Economy,
+University of Chile.</p>
+
+<p>THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hon. Ernesto Quesada</b>, Attorney-General of the Argentine Republic;
+Professor in the Universities of Buenos Ayres and La Plata.</p>
+
+<p>COMMERCIAL RELATIONS OF CHILE.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hon. Henry L. Janes</b>, Division of Latin-American Affairs, Department
+of State, Washington.</p>
+
+<p>CLOSER COMMERCIAL RELATIONS WITH LATIN-AMERICA.</p>
+
+<p><b>Bernard N. Baker</b>, Baltimore, Md.</p>
+
+<p>IMMIGRATION&mdash;A CENTRAL AMERICAN PROBLEM.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ernst B. Filsinger</b>, Consul of Costa Rica and Ecuador, St. Louis,
+Mo.</p>
+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<p>Price $1.50 bound in cloth; $1.00 bound in paper. Postage free.</p></blockquote>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span>THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></span></h2>
+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">By The Hon. Ernesto Quesada</span>,</p>
+
+<p class="center">Attorney-General of the Argentine Republic; Professor in the
+Universities<br />of Buenos Ayres and La Plata.</p>
+
+<hr class="smler" />
+
+<p>To condense into a few pages several centuries of the history of a
+nation like the Argentine Republic, to give some idea of the nature of
+the forces that have determined the development of this country from the
+end of the sixteenth century, the period of its discovery, to this the
+second decade of the twentieth, when it is celebrating the first
+centennial of its independence, is a task at once delicate and arduous.
+For, aside from these natural difficulties, it will be necessary to
+avoid all details, to shun statistics, and even to lay aside historical
+evidence, in order to crystallize into seemingly dogmatic statements,
+the complicated social evolution of a people in process of
+transformation, a people still in a formative period. It is a venture
+bordering upon the impossible.</p>
+
+<p>A century after the commencement of the conquest of the American
+continent and after the scattering over the land of the invading race,
+at once warlike and religious, an expedition which was purely Andalusian
+discovered the River Plate in the southern extremity of the continent.
+Instead of penetrating to the south, the expedition fixed its gaze
+northward, searching for a route by which to renew relations with the
+rich district of the old empire of the Incas. This was in obedience to
+that thirst after wealth which characterized the taking possession of
+America. Two centuries later, these remote provinces had been converted
+into the very important viceroyship of the River Plate. In one direction
+it extended from the tropical viceroyship of Peru and the torrid lands
+of Portuguese Brazil, to Cape Horn, lashed by the raging Antarctic seas,
+and in the other direction it stretched from the chain of the Andes,
+which runs like a solid wall the length of one of its flanks, to the
+Atlantic Ocean,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> which bathes its extensive coasts. This enormous
+territory thus embraced every sort of climate, and was inhabited by a
+heterogeneous collection of aboriginal races. Its conquest and
+colonization had been effected upon two convergent lines, that by water,
+by the River Plate, that by land, from the north. This impressed upon
+the civilization of these regions different characteristics which must
+be defined since, even after a century of political independence, their
+mark is still stamped upon the ideals, aspirations and conduct of the
+inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The "Leyes de Indias,"<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> faithful reflections of the purposes of
+Spanish colonization in America, show how extraordinary was the
+importance of the native races, how relatively few were the Spanish
+conquerors and how closely the two races became mingled, through the
+r&eacute;gime of the <i>encomiendas</i><a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> the <i>mitas</i><a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> and the <i>yanaconazgos</i>.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>
+The Spanish colonies were founded and developed in the midst of a mass
+of people, who, because of their enormous superiority in point of
+numbers, necessarily reacted in turn upon the small number of the
+invaders, either by interbreeding with the latter, or by the contact of
+daily life, or by their superior adaptability to their natural
+environment. The conquerors themselves presented different traits,
+according to the region of Spain from which they came, and naturally
+they sought to group and to settle themselves in obedience to the ethnic
+affinities of their origin. Biscayans, Basques, Castillians, Aragonese,
+Andalusians, etc., gave typical characteristics to every American region
+where they established themselves. They transplanted their social
+prejudices, their spirit of communal independence, their concentrated
+energy and their buoyant temperament. From this it resulted that in
+whatever corner of America a particular Spanish strain of blood was
+found, there were reflected the traits of the corresponding district of
+Spain.</p>
+
+<p>As the native races varied according to the region, from those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> of a
+peaceful and civilized character to those of an untamable and warlike
+nature, and even to ferocious savages, the Spanish settlements existed
+without any common plan. They made a republic with the tribes, and they
+were the beginning of a creole type which was quite distinct in each
+locality. In the viceroyship of Buenos Ayres the ethnic geography of the
+aborigines shows a kaleidoscopic variety of races. In the north and in
+the regions which formerly had been subject to the rule of the Incas,
+the population&mdash;both servient and dominant classes&mdash;was peaceful,
+attached to the soil, resigned and passive.</p>
+
+<p>In those regions lying between the two great rivers the population was
+of a gentle and peace-loving nature and, therefore, was easily molded by
+missionary civilization. Along the slopes of the Andes the people were
+daring, excitable and independent. The south or Patagonian extremity was
+overrun by brave and unconquerable tribes, closely related to that
+Araucanian race which the Spanish conquest never entirely succeeded in
+subduing. The Spanish settlements on the other hand presented different
+characteristics. In the north they came from Lima, and were Biscayan and
+Castillian, aristocratic, very proud of their ancestry, holding aloof,
+enriched by the mines of Potosi and the commerce of the fleet of
+Portobello. Southward were Andalusians and Spanish common folk, little
+given to titles and conventionalities. They were condemned to pursue the
+smuggler's trade, because the mother country, following an economic
+error of the time and perhaps owing to deficient geographic knowledge,
+permitted them only an overland commerce, by mule back, from the Panama
+fleet which unloaded its cargoes in Callao. Hence in the provinces of
+the north, called High Peru, and in the present provinces of Jujuy and
+Tucuman, the Spanish population held up Lima as their ideal, and
+exhibited both its vices and its virtues. Out of it was formed the
+aristocratic, commercial and luxurious city of Salta. On the other hand,
+in the river provinces, the existence of the cities was precarious and
+fraught with the dangers of a smuggling trade carried on with the
+Portuguese neighbors&mdash;the source of the centuries-old controversy of
+Sacramento colony. These settlements were not unacquainted with the fear
+of pirates, of daring navigators and of roving slave dealers, who on
+their arrival at the River Plate unloaded the "products of their
+country," with the toleration and secret complicity of the government
+officials and with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> the connivance of the inhabitants. These inhabitants
+were true outlaws. They scoffed at the administration and fiscal
+measures and trusted more to their fists than they feared being caught
+in the complicated meshes of the uneconomic laws.</p>
+
+<p>The interbreeding of these different classes of population resulted in
+creole types, characteristic of each region. In the central cities of
+the north, they were always aristocratic and devoted to learning, while
+in the vast stretches of country they lived the semi-feudal life of
+<i>encomenderos</i>. The interbreeding with the Indians formed an inferior
+class of half breed which approached the type of the mother more than
+that of the father and which was certainly not a robust or handsome
+race. In the river region, the population lived on a democratic plane of
+equality in the cities, while in the rural districts they became that
+creole type known as the <i>gaucho</i>.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Found amidst a scattered
+population and inheriting the far from sedentary habits of the Spanish
+mother race, the <i>gaucho</i> preferred the free and roving existence of the
+pampas. He lived by the herds of semi-wild animals, which had multiplied
+amazingly since Mendoza's expedition had introduced the very limited
+stock, destined later to be converted into the stupendous riches of this
+country. In the central, more mountainous region also, the interbreeding
+of the races produced very definite results and the creole population of
+the rural districts acquired traits as though living closely associated
+with the <i>gauchos</i> of the pampas. In the south the aboriginal races
+remained pure, except for the insignificant mixing which came from the
+Spanish captive women, victims of the attacks of the Tehuelches
+populations. Wherever the native population was dense and attached to
+the soil the creoles living in the country and about the cities show a
+closer affinity with it, than with the Spanish blood. They adopt native
+habits and conform to native peculiarities, even to the extent of
+adopting the melancholy rhythm of the music and songs, those unique
+<i>tristes</i> which are heard even to-day in the Argentine provinces of the
+north, from Santiago del Estero to the Bolivian frontier. There the
+creole laborers of the land and the half breeds of the districts about
+the cities tenderly preserve the <i>quichua</i>, or native language of their
+ancestors, by intermixing it with the Spanish. The same close affinity
+with the native element is found in the river<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> provinces, and especially
+in Corrientes, where in the rural and semi-rural districts the dregs of
+the missionary population have preserved as their most precious
+possession the <i>guarani</i> dialect. But, where the native population was
+more scattered and nomadic, the creole population became transformed and
+converted into the <i>gaucho</i> or cowboy of the pampas, a very handsome
+half breed, full of energy, of noble instincts, accustomed to the freest
+sort of life over boundless plains, where each one depended solely upon
+himself and recognized no superior. Here we have the explanation of the
+great hold which this type (<i>gaucho</i>) has upon the imagination.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of these differences, however, the colonial life was stamped
+with a certain uniformity which served as a background for these local
+peculiarities. Spanish-American society was zealously preserved from
+contact with other European nations. Only inhabitants of Spain were free
+to go and come, so that this triple characteristic&mdash;that they were
+Spanish, monarchical and orthodox Catholic&mdash;was the salient feature
+common to all South America. The person of the monarch and the supreme
+authority of the colonial office were very distant and the tribunals of
+the viceroys and governors holding actual sessions there upon the
+territory, were the real and tangible personifications of the monarchy.
+The Pope himself was also very distant and had given over the
+superintendence of ecclesiastical affairs to the crown, which had in
+turn confided it to the respective viceroys. The bishops and religious
+orders were, strictly speaking, the visible representatives of religion.
+In this way throne and altar came in touch with the colonial
+populations, who took heated sides in the formidable conflicts which
+used to arise between the representatives of each. But they retained
+respect for them; they recognized their high merits and prerogatives and
+obeyed them as representing that which could neither be questioned nor
+altered. Public officials of all grades were drafted from Spain and
+remained for definite periods. The laws forbade them to mix with the
+populations and they kept themselves aloof, with the ostensible purpose
+of assuring their complete impartiality. But the result was that they
+tried to take advantage of their period in office to swell their
+personal fortunes, without allowing themselves to be deterred by any
+scruples or drawing rein to their appetites. The priests even, both
+secular and those regularly ordained, allowed themselves to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> be carried
+away by that spirit of self-seeking which led them to look upon America
+as a mine to be exploited.</p>
+
+<p>Doubtless there were zealous officials both civil and religious who
+performed the best type of service. The Spaniards were established
+amidst a native population, who devoted themselves to commerce or to
+mining in the north, and to the raising of cattle and lesser trades in
+the river and central districts, and they always looked upon their
+residence in this part of American territory as a temporary sojourn,
+during which to acquire riches. The creoles, of every class, both of the
+city and of the country, perhaps because they seemed to be looked down
+upon by the Spaniards, were unconsciously trying to enlarge their hold
+upon affairs of all kinds. They felt themselves, as it were, rooted to
+the soil, and far from proceeding only from selfish motives of money
+making, they took an interest in local affairs, which, for them, were of
+greater importance than those of a crown, only vaguely known to them by
+report. The city creoles, thanks to an advanced communal spirit, aroused
+by the establishment of the <i>cabildos</i> or Spanish town council, were
+diligently at work on their own municipal problems. They thus became
+accustomed to limit their horizon to the limits of their own city and of
+the immediately surrounding country district, because communication
+between the cities was slow, difficult and dangerous, a condition which
+resulted in their virtual isolation from each other. The city might
+almost be regarded as the center of their universe. From the rest of the
+world news arrived months and years later, tempered or misrepresented.
+It awakened not the faintest echo. It might as well have been the news
+of far away ages and peoples.</p>
+
+<p>The mass of the natives, with whose women the military and civil
+population cohabited, since relatively few Spanish women came to
+America, took no interest whatsoever in the affairs of a monarchy which
+was not that of their ancestors but of a race different from themselves.
+They showed, rather, such a passive indifference that each community
+seemed a world unto itself, occupied and pre-occupied only with its own
+matters. The religious and civil officials, in their turn, were soon
+contaminated by this environment. They gave to local affairs so
+excessive an importance that it also appeared to their eyes as if the
+boundary of the Indian city was the <i>ultima Thule</i> of civilization. In
+the northern provinces, which had reached the final stage of perfection
+under the old Inca conquest, the native<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> population preserved and
+protected its pre-Columbian traditions by the use of their dialect, the
+<i>quichua</i> tongue. The r&eacute;gime of the <i>encomienda</i>, the <i>mitas</i> and the
+<i>yanaconazgo</i> had produced only a formal subjection of the natives. In
+the depths of their souls the natives preserved and fostered traditions
+of bygone centuries. In this way the creoles, the product of
+interbreeding, were recast into the dense mass of the Indian population
+and became more conversant with American traditions than Spanish.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the missionary converts, the Jesuits had erected cities that
+flourished artificially under their care. They were inhabited only by
+Indian races, and the Jesuits zealously guarded them from contact with
+the Spaniards whom they removed far from their admirable theocratic
+empire as though they were the very incarnation of evil. An unreal
+civilization was thus created, governed patriarchially by the priests
+and without any vitality of its own. Hence, the expulsion of the priests
+by the <i>coup d' &eacute;tat</i> of Charles III brought about the destruction of
+these populations, which had realized during the century of their
+existence, the ideal of the most exacting of Utopian civilization. But
+the results were not such as had been desired. These Indians, on being
+distributed over the colonies, did not coalesce with the rest of the
+inhabitants, but returned to the depths of barbarism or, as in the
+present province of Corrientes, constituted the mass of the population,
+an element indifferent to national interests just as the old
+missionaries had been to those of the crown and sensible only to the
+recollection of their ancient and traditional life, that is to say, to
+their own local affairs.</p>
+
+<p>In the central and river provinces, the marvelous increase of animals
+capable of domestication but still in a wild state brought about a
+profound transformation. The native tribes, sparser than in the north,
+without losing any of their savage customs, soon possessed themselves of
+the horse and overran the boundless pampas. The creoles of the country
+districts and the <i>gauchos</i> in their turn vied for the possession of the
+horse. No longer able to remold their life to that of the savage tribes,
+they checked their bold and ferocious habits and became keen and
+cautious, forming a race of special type, midway between the Indian and
+the Spaniard. They were extreme individualists, for in the immense
+pampas, authority, both civil and religious could obtain but a weak
+hold. The <i>gaucho</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> made so complete a face-about from his former self
+as to devote his life solely to cattle raising. He evolved a special
+fitness or adaptability to his new life and created the most curious
+types, from the <i>sumbon compadrito</i> with his peculiar cloak and
+<i>chiripa</i>, who flashed his sarcastic jests with such grace and elegance,
+to the poet troubador and famous animal tracker who was but little less
+keen than the hound in scenting and following the trail of man or beast.
+As the <i>gauchos</i> came in contact with not a few of the city population,
+upon whom they were dependent for obtaining the things they needed in
+exchange for pelts and the products of the country, they formed with
+such of the latter as came most closely in touch with them, a community
+of ideas and aims. Thus by busying themselves only with their own
+special lives, they became independent and without attachment for any
+but their respective municipal centers. Each region possessed its local
+feature, each was separated from the rest and all were but nominally
+linked and united with their remote and common monarch.</p>
+
+<p>In the River Plate region, leaving aside the factor of geographic
+interest, to which I have just made allusion, the racial history was
+limited to the Spanish population and its Creole interbreeding with the
+native races, because the negro population had no importance whatsoever,
+in this part of America. The quantity of negro slaves introduced by the
+"dealers" was reduced to a minimum, and even these, upon the breaking
+out of the war of independence, were killed off, for now that their
+masters were freeing them, they formed the great body of the troops. In
+this way they helped the American cause. The mulattoes, consequently,
+were also reduced in number. This process was carried to such a point
+that the singular scarcity of pure negroes or even of mulattoes was a
+real characteristic of this country.</p>
+
+<p>Foreign influence could only penetrate by way of the Atlantic, and even
+then only covertly, unless it were by crossing the rocky barrier of the
+Andes. The Portuguese influence was limited to the profitable commercial
+relations with the smugglers. That of other nations only made itself
+felt through the occasional visits of ships forced to take shelter in
+the La Plata from time to time, or dropping anchor upon various
+pretexts, but always with the intention of smuggling. This was an open
+secret to the then few inhabitants of Buenos Ayres, the possibilities of
+which as a port,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> although gainsayed by the crown, had been ordained by
+nature. When, during the last days of colonial domination, commerce was
+permitted to the port of Buenos Ayres, there was no longer time for
+foreign influence to penetrate to the heart of the country. The English
+invasions left a greater residue of influence through the distribution
+of the English prisoners, who in great part established homes in the
+midland regions to which they were sent. There, in the midst of the
+Spanish families, with whom they were left, they disseminated ideas of
+liberty and standards of independence, unknown among the rest of the
+population, the best classes of which in those days of unrest, were a
+turbulent and irrepressible element.</p>
+
+<p>The revolution of May, 1810, wrought a fundamental change in the social
+situation. Distinguished officers of the Napoleonic wars came to the
+country to offer their military services. English merchants, attracted
+by the reports of the English invasions of the Argentine Republic in
+1806 and 1807, hurried over in increasing numbers. Soon they were
+influencing the society of Buenos Ayres which adopted London fashions,
+many of its customs, and became accustomed to the English character.
+Foreign commerce was concentrated in the hands of the English and many
+of these merchants finally married in the country. During the colonial
+epoch only books expurgated by the Inquisition had been admitted, but
+now the revolutionary movement unmuzzled these mysteries and flung wide
+the doors through which penetrated a flood of French and English works.
+The doctrines of the French revolution were at that time the passion of
+the majority of our public men, and its influence, even its Jacobin and
+terrorist phases, is traceable from the first instant. This is revealed
+in the "plan of government" of Moreno. On the other hand, the
+constitutional doctrines of the Anglo-Saxons were embraced only by the
+few. Dorrego went to the United States and there absorbed them. During
+the first decade after the revolution, the educational system scarcely
+advanced at all but followed closely to the traditional path of teaching
+taught by the University of Cordoba. The University of Buenos Ayres was
+founded in the second decade, and made an effort to reform public
+education. But the war of independence was not yet over and the internal
+situation of the country at the end of the anarchical dissolution which
+took place in 1820, was such that a multitude of affairs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> demanded
+attention, and as yet it was hardly possible, outside of the large
+cities, to turn to such questions of reform.</p>
+
+<p>The winning of independence was the cause of the sad dismemberment of
+the viceroyship of the River Plate and the statesmen of the period could
+not have prevented it. From what was once a single historic province
+there have gradually been detached the province of High Peru, to-day the
+Republic of Bolivia; the province of Paraguay, to-day the Republic of
+the same name; the eastern missions which now constitute the present
+Brazilian provinces of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catalina and Sao Paulo.
+The Banda Oriental has since become the Republic of Uruguay; the
+Falkland Islands were snatched by England; the territory about the
+Straits of Magellan was ceded later to Chile, under color of regulating
+the boundary line. The Argentine Republic, during the first century of
+its existence as an independent nation, far from acquiring a single
+square mile of territory, has continued to lose territory at every point
+of the compass. Her international policy, from that point of view, has
+been lamentable and the memory of it is still a bitter lesson.</p>
+
+<p>Within the enormous territorial expanse which now constitutes the
+Argentine Republic political integration was effected slowly. The
+different populations settled at intervals along the routes which
+connected Buenos Ayres with Lima on the one side, with the Andes on
+another and with Asuncion on still another. Each settlement was an oasis
+of Spanish population set in the midst of a savage country. In order to
+establish something approaching unity within each section, the people
+organized themselves after the pattern of the urban centers of Spain
+with their <i>Cabildo</i> or town council as the communal authority, which
+controlled and regulated the extremes of opinion and conditions and
+brought the whole municipal life to a focus. Each settlement lived a
+life apart, separated from the others. In fact they were cast in the
+mold of the ancient Spanish village society, and the central authority
+only made itself felt at infrequent intervals.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants of each village thus developed an aptitude for municipal
+life and for self-government, and a concentration upon local interests
+which became the basis of their political development. They fostered a
+local character which was the very foundation and essence of their later
+federal tendency. To<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> the interests and pretensions of the crown as
+formulated by the "Council of the Indies," they preferred the authority
+of the viceroy and of the intendants, but their main preference was the
+municipality itself, whose frank and loyal mouthpiece was the
+traditional Cabildo. For this reason, when the movement for independence
+commenced, each village and each city was led by its own Cabildo, and it
+was the Cabildo which gave vigor and form to the revolution. Around the
+Cabildo the inhabitants of the vicinity grouped themselves in the
+different organic or anarchic revolts which followed. It was for this
+reason, too, since the present republic possessed no basis of political
+division, that each one of the cities formed a nucleus in its respective
+province of the same name, and that the whole territory was subdivided
+according to the radius of authority exercised by the principal cities
+of colonial times, without any account being taken of economic autonomy
+or of demography.</p>
+
+<p>Federal sentiment made its appearance profoundly rooted in tradition and
+blood, and the tendency towards centralization only emanated from
+certain groups of dreamers at the metropolis who with their eyes closed
+to the past believed along with such deluded men as Rivadavia that, by
+destroying the traditional Cabildo, they would wipe the state clean of
+such precedents, just as the Jacobins of the French Revolution did with
+the institutions of the ancient r&eacute;gime. Argentine society issued from
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries already shaped toward local
+self-government and local loyalty. It already appeared a federation in
+fact which was easily transformed into a federation in law, because the
+federal idea was at bottom the very heart and soul of things.</p>
+
+<p>The development of our colonization also indicated that of our
+civilization. As we approach the north, the brilliant center of
+civilization of Lima society becomes more aristocratic, infatuated with
+its learning, luxurious and fastidious. The youth of the Plate Valley
+were attracted to the University of Chuquisaca, where, amidst its
+cloisters, they acquired a grave and disputacious manner. Later the
+University of Cordoba, like a pale reflection of the former, drew upon a
+part of these youths and, if they left its lecture halls also practiced
+in the art of sophistry, they did not imbibe in return that atmosphere
+of aristocratic aloofness, pomp and presumption. Buenos Ayres and the
+river country were without a university and without an aristocracy. At
+the periodic auctions of titles of nobility,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> the receipts of which were
+added to the colonial contributions and were intended to meet a certain
+deficit in the Spanish treasury, not a purchaser appeared and there was
+not a single herder of the pampas nor a single rich smuggler who would
+bid. The titles which were thus put up to sale remained unpurchased, for
+the people held them in no esteem.</p>
+
+<p>With no resources other than its commerce and industry which were both
+of a contraband nature, Buenos Ayres developed more rapidly than other
+cities and with a greater freedom from "red tape" and formalism, in
+spite of its being the seat of the general government, with its Spanish
+officials, its civil, military and religious authorities and an
+administrative machinery identical with that of the other capitals of
+the viceroyship. For here there was not the same atmosphere, the life
+was simple and democratic, the officials had no stage from which to
+display their importance, and within the narrow walls of the modest home
+of the government, the few inhabitants of this metropolis used to mingle
+in its marshy, unpaved streets, or in their unpretentious and simple
+adobe houses. They treated each other with a certain equality, which was
+due precisely to those conditions of intense individualism developed of
+necessity in a cattle raising community.</p>
+
+<p>In the northern and central districts society was cast in the Peruvian
+mold, a reproduction of Spanish civilization, aristocrats adopting
+primogeniture and, in modified form, the feudal r&eacute;gime of the
+<i>encomenderos</i>. In the river and mountain region, the urban was a
+reflection of the rural population, independent, haughty, brave,
+accustomed to making forays upon horseback over the endless pampas,
+trusting to its own decision and in the end to the knife, which was a
+symbol of the worship of personal courage, inherited from Spanish
+ancestors who had developed it during the centuries of the struggle
+against the Moors. In the river district the commerce, which in the main
+was carried on illegally by doggedly persevering merchants who plied
+their trade fearlessly with pirates and foreign smugglers, caused a
+certain spirit of self-confidence to grow. This spirit made itself felt
+in the popular movement of the reconquest of 1806, and in the impulse of
+the revolution of May, 1810.</p>
+
+<p>From Buenos Ayres started the movement for independence, and the
+Cabildos of the interior cities fell in with the movement with more or
+less alacrity. Hence the further inland these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> cities were, the less
+enthusiastic. The Paraguayan region isolated itself and followed the
+conservative policy of the Cabildo of Asuncion. The province of High
+Peru, in spite of its efforts, was the last to revolt and never followed
+with any ardor the movement initiated by the metropolis. Indeed, the
+revolution of May, which had spread to the banks of the Paraguay river
+and over the plateau of Bolivia, might not, perhaps, have succeeded in
+so closely cementing, in spite of the righteousness of its cause, the
+independence proclaimed in Tucuman in 1816, had not the inspiration of
+San Martin added that powerful impulse which flung armies across the
+Andes, liberated Chile from Spanish dominion and brought independence to
+Peru. He might have pursued this glorious course toward the independence
+of the whole continent, if the colossal egotism of Bolivar in that
+tragic conference of Guayaquil had not placed our national hero in the
+dilemma of either eliminating himself and leaving his selfish rival to
+wear the laurels planted and nurtured by Argentine blood or of
+sacrificing the fruits of the campaign for independence, by not being
+able to obtain from him the military assistance he was in need of. He
+placed his country before his own glory and yielded the field to one to
+whom personal renown was preferable to all else.</p>
+
+<p>For the social evolution of Argentine the sacrifice of San Martin was of
+incalculable importance. Upon eliminating himself, he left to his rival
+the army which he had himself led until then and this country was
+deprived of its one organizing force. Disintegrating tendencies
+manifested themselves without counter-check. In the second decade of the
+century, various little republics were defiantly established in the
+interior. They were constructed upon the plan of the old settlements
+which had risen to something greater. They were governed by Cabildos,
+and these in turn obeyed the local leader, who was raised to
+dictatorship over the districts. Each province was sufficient unto
+itself. It barely communicated with the others and retrograded towards
+barbarism without regularly organized government or other will than that
+of its respective tyrant and the free-lances who were his immediate
+followers. Schools closed; families took refuge within the walls of
+their dwellings; terror pervaded; life was everywhere insecure; those
+who could, emigrated, leaving behind them on the land the sick, the
+women and the children. Men were bedfellows in misery; there was no
+industry, no commerce; sin flourished and virtue was trampled under
+foot. These thirty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> years of bloody and merciless civil strife made
+prominent the idea of the rule of force. People were taken from peaceful
+work, efficient teaching languished, every social bond was weakened and
+in the end a society evolved in which not education, ancestry or fortune
+exercised the least influence, but audacity, the impulse of the local
+leader, the mob instincts of the city population and of the rural
+<i>gaucho</i>. The local leaders and their followers alone wielded any real
+power. They dominated without possibility of counter-check and an entire
+generation tolerated this condition during that terrible period.</p>
+
+<p>The local leadership, like the legendary tyranny of ancient Rome,
+demolished everything which tried to rise above the obedient, passive,
+resigned and common level. It brutally choked it or forced it to
+emigrate, and Argentine society had to develop in these anaemic
+surroundings. There was no possibility of foreign immigration, or of
+establishing industry and commerce.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of nationality was observed by party passion and the factions
+were ready to launch out upon some fight upon the slightest pretext.
+Social classes were divided into irreconcilable parties, the reds or
+federalists, and the blues or centralists, those who believed in the
+local leader, and those who detested him. The former were called
+federalists, because they believed that each locality ought to adopt the
+kind of government which best suited it; the latter were called the
+centralists, because in their weakness they leaned upon the influence of
+the national government in order to give to the whole country a common
+unified administration of which the local government would be the agent.</p>
+
+<p>Rosas met this situation and put an end to it. After the dismemberment
+of the ephemeral republic of 1825, and the national convention, and
+following upon the Brazilian war, the centralist party, deceived in its
+principles and in its men, closed its doors to counsel and committed the
+error of executing Dorrego at Navarro. The mass of the rural population
+resisted the straight jacket proposed by the doctrinaires of the
+centralist party and in this they showed themselves unrelenting. Then
+Rosas came into power in the government of Buenos Ayres and also secured
+control of the situation in the provinces. He succeeded in bringing
+about the organization of each province with a view to forming the
+Argentine Confederation. He was entrusted by the federation with the
+management of foreign relations. He left the interior provinces to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+organize themselves after the pattern of the government of Buenos Ayres.
+Doubtless, during the long quarter of a century while he was dictator,
+real security and peace were never enjoyed, for the centralist party was
+ambitious, arrogant and factious, plotting within itself, and when it
+was not exciting to rebellion, or leading an invasion it was provoking
+foreign intervention. Finally the terrible and merciless war between the
+centralists and the federalists developed a state of terror which
+culminated in the excesses of the year 1840. The dictator treated his
+adversaries without mercy and they in their turn had none for him. To be
+strictly truthful, neither party can be absolved from wicked and
+culpable action. Nor can I shut my eyes to the fact that the great power
+bred pride, and that pride bred hatred of the subject class. But this
+prolonged dictatorship saved the country from the anarchy of the petty
+republics of 1820, it solidified the country into a sovereign entity and
+it gave to the different parts the cohesion of a nation capable of
+victoriously resisting the French and Anglo-French interventions. This
+much is owed definitely to the centralist party, who in this way solved
+the difficulty traditional to our national organization and so guided
+along the right road the severest crisis of Argentine history, not only
+from a political but also from a sociological point of view. The chasm
+that separated the social classes of the capital city from those of the
+provincial districts was bridged; the prejudices of blood, of caste and
+fortune were destroyed and there was established complete equality,
+where every man was the heir of his own labor and depended only upon his
+own hands.</p>
+
+<p>After the battle of Caseros, in 1852, the government which had so used
+and abused oppression and patronage fell, leaving the country, however,
+in such a condition of stability and internal organization that the
+different provinces grouped themselves logically under the Convention of
+San Nicolas. The Argentine Federation was maintained and Urquiza was
+placed at the head of the government. Despite the local character of the
+revolution of Buenos Ayres, on the eleventh of September the country at
+large adopted the fundamental constitution of 1853, at the Congress of
+Santa F&eacute;. The government of the recalcitrant province of Paran&aacute; realized
+but slowly the new organization, with which it finally incorporated
+itself, while the nation continued developing in the path established by
+its constitution. Without losing sight, therefore, of the bitter lessons
+of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> phase of our evolution, it is but fair to show an appreciation
+of its benefits.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristic of this intermediate epoch is the very slight
+introduction of the foreign element. To-day this element is scattered
+over the land, but at that time such as were firmly rooted in the
+country, principally in Buenos Ayres, were very few. Of these the
+English formed the greater part, for the infusion of German blood, which
+resulted from the distribution of prisoners taken from the German
+regiments at Ituzaingo, though they included some estimable families
+constituted a very subordinate factor. English commerce was always
+respected and in spite of the bitterness produced by the naval
+interventions, it was left to develop peacefully. But as it did not
+increase in volume and was never reinforced by that of other nations, it
+did not become great. The path of social evolution was in the direction
+of the commingling of the city and rural population, and of the
+participation of the <i>gauchos</i> in public life, either by forming a large
+and worthy element in the army or by becoming the active nucleus of the
+popular civic movements. The democratization of the country was
+complete, for in general, the upper classes of society in the cities
+affiliated themselves with the centralist party, while the populace
+supported the federal party. Hence the bloody triumph of the latter
+brought about its complete predominance and from this period the social
+and political problems remained more enduring in nature, while
+differences of blood and tradition were put aside.</p>
+
+<p>Since the constitution of 1853, the social evolution of Argentine has
+been guided and carried forward by two factors, immigration and foreign
+capital. Under their influence, the characteristics of the prior period
+were gradually modified to a certain extent. The administration of Mitre
+struggled against the difficulties of inadequate means of communication
+between the distant cities and against traditional custom of guerilla
+warfare. Force was employed in order to remain master of the field and
+to break up the resistance which the men of the interior set up against
+the prominence of those of Buenos Ayres, and a cruel war against
+Paraguay was undertaken. The ability and consistency of this Argentine
+statesman was great.</p>
+
+<p>When the passions of his contemporaries had been assuaged, he became the
+"grand old man" of the nation, growing in stature as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> posterity forms
+its judgment on his policy. That administration, like the following one
+of Sarmiento, had to cope with two factors, the great uninhabited tracts
+of land and the survival of ancient custom. On the one hand the
+different Argentine regions lived in isolation from one another,
+communication between them being difficult; on the other hand there
+still survived the custom of local chieftainship and of the constant and
+armed movements of different political factions, who would set out upon
+guerilla forays on any pretext whatsoever, raising their banners on high
+as though their behavior was patriotic and praiseworthy, whereas it was
+but the vicious habit of a barbaric and backward age.</p>
+
+<p>The administration of Avellaneda continued the task of combating such
+tendencies by the establishment of the telegraph which would unite all
+these centers to each other; by the construction of railroads to
+facilitate communication; and by the encouragement of European
+immigration for purposes of settlement and in order to mix other races
+with that of Argentine and so modify its political idiosyncracies by
+more conservative standards and interests. The conquest of the
+Patagonian wilds, with the final subjugation of the warlike native
+tribes of the south, opened and ushered in an era in the Argentine
+evolution. This occurred contemporaneously with the historic solution of
+the problem of federalism versus centralism, which silenced forever the
+old antagonism between the inhabitants of the metropolis and those of
+the provinces.</p>
+
+<p>From 1880 till the present, the work of multiplying the telegraphs and
+railway routes has gone on, as has also the increase of foreign
+immigration. These have produced the desired effect in the social
+transformation of the country. The telegraph and the railroad have
+definitely killed the seditious germs of guerilla warfare and of local
+chieftainship. Local uprisings are no longer possible. The city and
+rural populations have become convinced of this, and the popular mind is
+at peace since the generation has disappeared which saw the last revolts
+of the <i>gauchos</i>, and other forms of popular uprising. Foreign capital
+commenced and encouraged the exploitation of our natural resources. The
+sugar industry of the northern provinces, the wine culture of the Andes
+provinces, even the stock raising and agriculture of the river districts
+have been the combined work of these three progressive elements.
+Immigration has helped immensely toward this same end, but the
+settlement of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> new lands does not advance by leaps and bounds, but
+spreads gradually.</p>
+
+<p>Starting from the port of arrival, the stream of immigration continues
+to spread clinging closely to the land and little by little it mixes
+with the existing population, inter-breeds with it, fuses with it, and
+gives a great surging impulse to agriculture, industry and commerce. The
+social transformation of the river provinces is due to this junction of
+the two currents as a result of which the <i>gaucho</i> of the metropolis of
+Santa F&eacute; or of Entre Rios, who, formerly famous for his bold and lawless
+tendencies, has to-day been so fused with the different foreign elements
+that all but the memory of this ancient type has disappeared, and the
+country is covered over with populous settlements, laborious, prosperous
+and progressive. The great fertility of the soil has returned with
+interest the foreign capital which first watered it, and has enriched
+marvelously all who have engaged in its cultivation. The development of
+the national resources, in turn, has given birth to such conservative
+interests that it is incomprehensible to the new generation that the
+former generation could, at the signal of a semi-barbarous chief jump on
+their horses and, rushing over the fields, kill, pillage and destroy. It
+is true that the transition has been effected at the cost of producing a
+certain political indifference in the new generations, which no doubt,
+will be overcome in time.</p>
+
+<p>The social evolution of the Argentine Republic has finally found its
+true channel and to-day is in full course of development. In proportion
+as the foreign immigration continues bringing therewith its happy
+complement of foreign capital, the country will continue to develop
+industrially. The astonishing increase in industries, with a total
+production out of all proportion to the growing population, is only
+explained by the use on a large scale of the most advanced machinery.
+But such a metamorphosis spreads from the river districts toward the
+interior of the country. It does not jump from one point to another
+without connecting links between them, but always preserves a channel
+through which a relation is maintained between the different zones
+already transformed or in process of transformation. The first effect of
+each infusion of foreign blood into creole veins is to appease the hot
+political passions of other times, abolish the old institution of the
+local chieftainship, even blot him from memory and replace it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> by an
+absorption in our growing material interests. These material interests
+appear to have conspired to bring about that indifference towards the
+state, as such, which makes men look mistakenly at a political career as
+a profession which thrives off the real working classes. For, our
+government both municipal, provincial and national appears to be the
+heritage of a well-defined minority&mdash;the politicians&mdash;who devote
+themselves to politics just as other social classes devote themselves to
+agriculture, stock raising, industry, commerce, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Public life with its complex machinery of elections and governing bodies
+has been, so to say, delivered into the hands of a small group of men
+who at present are not productive of anything new in the general social
+situation of former times; that is to say, these men form a definite
+class, moved by the influence of this or that personality. Though it has
+suppressed the bloody characteristics of the previous period it has not
+relapsed into their heresies.</p>
+
+<p>Little by little this shadow of the old system changes into that of the
+"boss" of the settlement and ward. The boss makes his business that of
+the mass of the voters, he stirs them up from their indifference, makes
+them go to the polls, deliberately falsifies public opinion, and so wins
+for himself a political managership, which gives him a marked influence
+in the back offices of officials and in the lobbies of legislatures.
+From such methods there spring no little censurable legislation of
+privilege and a great loss of contentment on the part of the people.
+When public spirit strengthens and shakes from itself the dust of
+inertia, and when the laboring classes have passed beyond that first
+stage of money grabbing, all the inhabitants of the nation will commence
+to busy themselves about the common weal. The thorn of the "boss" will
+prick them and they will then be able to form into political parties
+with unselfish programs and platforms. Every voter will cast his ballot
+to send to the legislature candidates who uphold the principles of his
+particular platform. As yet the people have not even reached the gateway
+to this goal. The past is still seen in full process of evolution and it
+is not easy to foresee the end.</p>
+
+<p>This does not mean that the present moment of transition is valueless.
+On the contrary, it is of very great importance, because the social
+situation in the Argentine Republic is in process of making.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> The
+politicians, now that they look upon themselves as called to stand forth
+above the heads of the rest of the people, have to be real statesmen. In
+this historic period, such statesmen, have the personality of the
+chauffeur who directs one of those swift engines of our century upon its
+dizzy course, the mechanism of which is so sensitive to the controlling
+pressure of the hand that it can deftly avoid all accident or cause a
+catastrophe of fatal consequences. There is required in such a man
+extraordinary coolness, clearness of vision as to responsibility,
+perfect knowledge of the course to be run, besides ceaseless vigilance,
+iron nerve when the time of trial arrives and a complete concentration
+upon the task. The legitimate tasks of government, in this very grave
+period of Argentine evolution, require a special training on the part of
+public leaders. They must study thoroughly the problems of our social
+evolution, and they must form a clear idea of the necessary solutions.
+Towards this they must steer with undiverted eye. The necessity of
+further exploitation of our national resources, the successive expansion
+of enterprise over zone after zone of our territory, the assimilation of
+the foreign immigrants by the creole population, the slow formation of a
+national spirit in the new generation, all these monopolize for the
+present the national energies and prevent them from turning to other
+problems. The country is converted, as it were, into a giant boa
+constrictor. It is entirely given over to the task of converting its
+food into nourishment, of abstracting the juices from the hard and
+resisting substances, of passing a multitude of different elements
+through its living organs so that they may later form a new tissue,
+adapted to the present and future needs of the country.</p>
+
+<p>From this point of view the present moment in the evolution of Argentine
+is of immense sociological interest. We are permitted to be present at
+the visible transmutation of a society, too weak even to direct itself,
+and absorbed in the fusion of different influences. The direction of
+this process has been handed over without counter-check to public men
+who are obliged to dictate and put into practice legislation and
+administrative rules of every kind, as though they enjoyed absolute
+power. Furthermore, by the very nature of things, the administrative
+functions in such periods have to discount the future and effect in the
+present a series of public works or social regulations which will weigh
+upon future generations not only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> from the point of view of the general
+finances but even from the point of view of national character. The
+national transformation of the land with ports, canals, railroads,
+telegraphs and every sort of means of communication, indeed, with every
+kind of public work, cannot be accomplished with present resources. A
+call must be made upon those of the future, by means of loans which will
+be a burden upon coming generations. If such a governmental policy is
+not accompanied by a skillful and prudent financial management, the
+burdens of our descendants will be considerably increased. They may even
+be committed to a policy that will cause eventual bankruptcy and an
+inevitable retrogression in the national development. The intellectual
+metamorphosis of the nation by a proper system of primary, secondary and
+higher education and by special schools of technical training, in order
+to form the national spirit of the future type of Argentine citizen, is
+certainly our most difficult governmental problem, because it is a
+question of molding the very soul of the nation. To teach different and
+contradictory systems, to do and then undo, each day changing the
+courses of study to successively adopt antagonistic standards and show a
+real lack of fixity in pedagogic methods, is to commit the greatest of
+all crimes, because it is not a crime against the exchequer of posterity
+but against its very soul. To accomplish a fusion of the currents of
+foreign immigration, to sort out the best from them, and to direct the
+formation of the new type which is being evolved, melting it in the
+crucible of the school, of the army, and of public life, is perhaps,
+to-day our task of transcendent difficulty. Such a problem is greater
+than that of directing the stream of foreign capital which, while
+fructifying the national soil, clings to it like the countless tentacles
+of a gigantic octopus and absorbs a great part&mdash;sometimes too great a
+part&mdash;of the riches produced only to transmit them through the arteries
+of the Republic, to foreign nations who employ it to their exclusive
+profit.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps no moment in the history of our nation requires a greater
+combination of qualifications in its public men. The student may
+contemplate this most interesting transformation, displayed before his
+eyes like the moving film of a gigantic cinematograph which permits him
+to grasp at once the different phases of the social problem which it
+presents. Rarely in the history of humanity has it been possible to
+contemplate a like spectacle. The United States<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> presented it a half
+century ago, to the astonished gaze of men of that day who were but
+little familiar with social problems. The Argentine Republic is
+repeating now the same phenomenon, with this difference that it can
+observe itself and be guided by the experience acquired elsewhere. Other
+countries of the world, in the future will, no doubt, in their turn
+repeat a similar evolution, though perhaps in a different environment.
+But the interesting part of the present moment is that the Argentine
+Republic is sailing upon the same course in the twentieth century that
+the United States did in the nineteenth. Our evolution is proceeding
+with greater care because it is being worked out amid better conditions.
+We can now take advantage of the costly experience gained by our
+brothers of the north and so by avoiding many of their errors, seek to
+escape the shoals upon which they stranded and the mistakes which they
+involuntarily committed, even though we have in our turn special
+problems which they did not have. Thus the tremendous politico-social
+crisis of the North American War of Secession will not be repeated in
+the southern hemisphere and the Argentine social evolution will not have
+to solve the profound anthropological problem of the rivalry of races,
+which, in the United States, arises from the white, black and yellow
+races, living together side by side.</p>
+
+<p>In Argentine there are no ethnic problems. The social antagonism raised
+by an arrogant plutocracy on the one hand and poverty stricken
+proletariat on the other, is not presented as an Argentine problem,
+because riches are still in process of formation there, and easily pass
+from one hand to another. A monopoly of riches cannot be prolonged
+beyond a single generation because with the system of compulsory
+division of descendants' estates, it soon returns to the common mass of
+the population. Social conditions in our evolution, present distinct
+problems from those which characterize other nations and demand,
+therefore, a direct study on the ground and must not be viewed through
+the doctrines developed in other nations and amid other conditions. The
+molding of the national spirit by uniform and compulsory schools and the
+slow adaptation of the mass of the immigrants to historical traditions
+and to future national aims, demand much time and they are now in the
+full process of being worked out. The celebration of the Centenary of
+our independence has made prominent the fact that such an evolution is
+much more advanced than one would think. There still<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> remains,
+nevertheless, not a little to be done in this direction, though the
+national compulsory school system and the army conscription are factors
+of great importance which are working for fusion. But, in the country
+districts and in those places where the error has been committed of
+permitting the formation of settlements, homogeneous in race and
+religion, which regard themselves as autonomous offshoots of their
+mother country, resisting the Argentine school or any intermingling with
+the mass of neighboring population&mdash;in such districts, the fusion,
+though inevitable, will be necessarily slower.</p>
+
+<p>All these sociological problems might and should have been exhaustively
+studied in the history of the United States during the nineteenth
+century, a history which, as I have said, the Argentine Republic is
+repeating in the twentieth. Foreign immigration at this time has no
+outlet more profitable than the River Plate. The doors of North America
+are gradually being closed, and the other regions do not yet present the
+same advantages as those offered by our country. The same thing that
+happens with the excess of population of other nations also occurs with
+its surplus capital; no other quarter of the globe offers better
+prospects for the investment of capital and for a greater rate of
+return. The "manifest destiny" of Argentine depends for the present
+entirely upon the development of its commercial relations with the rest
+of the world. It must convert itself into the granary and the meat
+market of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The closest bonds of mutual interest unite Argentina with Europe,
+because being producers of unlike commodities, the European markets
+consume our exportation and our markets consume theirs. With the rest of
+America our interchange of trade must be upon a smaller scale, because
+for more than a century to come we shall be countries producing similar
+commodities. Therefore, our respective markets will not reciprocally
+serve to buy the excess of production, but only that which by reason of
+climate or industrial development is to be found or manufactured in any
+other country than our own. This has happened to us notably in the case
+of the United States with its tremendous industrial expansion. In order
+to fulfill this "manifest destiny," we need <i>pax multa</i> with the whole
+world. We need to give attention exclusively to our development without
+intermeddling in that of others. In this is summed up everything. Hence
+our <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>international policy has to be pacific and neutral; we must be
+every man's friend, and shun imperialistic fancies. The "splendid
+isolation" of England fits her condition and her inclination. We must
+work and we must be allowed to work. Our social evolution still requires
+a century to acquire a definite contour. Though results may be foreseen
+from their beginnings, it is not possible to foretell what will be the
+future Argentine type, physically, mentally or materially.</p>
+
+<p>For the present, the only proper thing for us to do is to devote
+ourselves exclusively to the exploitation of our resources for we have
+seen how much effort will be required to assimulate our population, to
+form a national spirit, to build up a great future nation, to develop an
+administration which shall be a model of honesty and scientific
+preparation, and to adapt the republic to its future needs by public
+works and institutions, and by showing ourselves firm in faith and
+effective in works.</p>
+
+<p>The present social tendencies in Argentine evolution give promise of a
+great future for the country. The nation is not hesitating or
+vacillating before the realization of its manifest destiny. It follows
+with profound interest the new and colossal social experiment, which is
+unfolding to the view of the world the different phases of the formation
+of a nation in whose development the shoals are being avoided where
+others were wrecked, and which is putting into practice the improvements
+suggested by the experience of the other nations in order to realize the
+new evolution easily, prudently, and successfully.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The Academy wishes to express its appreciation to Layton D.
+Register, Esq., of the Law Department of the University of Pennsylvania,
+and to Mr. Enrique Gil, of the National University of La Plata, of the
+Argentine Republic, for the translation of this article.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Old Spanish legislation for the Spanish-American colonies.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> <i>Encomienda</i> is the Spanish name for the concession,
+granted by the crown during the Spanish Colonial period, of a certain
+number of native Indians, to a Spanish conqueror for purposes of
+service. The <i>Encomendero</i> was the recipient of such a concession from
+the crown.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> <i>Mita.</i> Spanish term for the distribution by lot of the
+native Indians for purposes of public work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> <i>Yanaconazgo.</i> Spanish term for that peculiar kind of land
+tenantship by which the tenant has no title to the land, but receives a
+proportion of the product of his labors upon the land.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> The cowboy of the Argentine Pampas.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Evolution of the Argentine
+Republic, by Ernesto Quesada
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 38086-h.htm or 38086-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/0/8/38086/
+
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+(This file was produced from images generously made
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+
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/38086.txt b/38086.txt
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/38086.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Evolution of the Argentine
+Republic, by Ernesto Quesada
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Social Evolution of the Argentine Republic
+
+Author: Ernesto Quesada
+
+Release Date: November 22, 2011 [EBook #38086]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adrian Mastronardi, Martin Pettit and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This file was produced from images generously made
+available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
+
+BY
+
+HON. ERNESTO QUESADA
+
+
+Attorney-General of the Argentine Republic; Professor in the
+Universities of Buenos Ayres and La Plata
+
+Publication No. 636
+
+AMERICAN ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
+
+Reprinted from THE ANNALS, May, 1911
+
+Price 25 cents
+
+
+This Reprint is made from the May, 1911, volume of THE ANNALS, the
+complete contents of which are
+
+
+     INDIVIDUAL EFFORT IN TRADE EXPANSION.
+
+     +Hon. Elihu Root+, United States Senator from New York.
+
+     THE FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE AMERICAN STATES.
+
+     +Hon. Henry White+, Chairman of the American Delegation to the
+     Fourth International Conference of the American States.
+
+     THE FOURTH PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCE.
+
+     +Paul S. Reinsch+, Delegate to the Fourth Pan-American Conference;
+     Professor of Political Science, University of Wisconsin.
+
+     THE MONROE DOCTRINE AT THE FOURTH PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCE.
+
+     +Hon. Alejandro Alvarez+, Of the Chilean Ministry of Foreign
+     Affairs, Santiago, Chile.
+
+     BANKING IN MEXICO.
+
+     +Hon. Enrique Martinez-Sobral+, Chief of the Bureau of Credit and
+     Commerce of the Mexican Ministry of Finance.
+
+     THE WAY TO ATTAIN AND MAINTAIN MONETARY REFORM IN LATIN-AMERICA.
+
+     +Charles A. Conant+, Former Commissioner on the Coinage of the
+     Philippine Islands, New York.
+
+     CURRENT MISCONCEPTIONS OF TRADE WITH LATIN-AMERICA.
+
+     +Hugh MacNair Kahler+, Editor of "How to Export"; Vice-President,
+     Latin-American Chamber of Commerce; Publisher of the Spanish
+     periodicals, "America" and "Ingenieria."
+
+     INVESTMENT OF AMERICAN CAPITAL IN LATIN-AMERICAN COUNTRIES.
+
+     +Wilfred H. Schoff+, Secretary, Commercial Museum, Philadelphia.
+
+     COMMERCE WITH SOUTH AMERICA.
+
+     PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PERU.
+
+     +Albert A. Giesecke, Ph.D.+, Rector of the University of Cuzco,
+     Cuzco, Peru.
+
+     THE MONETARY SYSTEM OF CHILE.
+
+     +Dr. Guillermo Subercaseaux+, Professor of Political Economy,
+     University of Chile.
+
+     THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
+
+     +Hon. Ernesto Quesada+, Attorney-General of the Argentine Republic;
+     Professor in the Universities of Buenos Ayres and La Plata.
+
+     COMMERCIAL RELATIONS OF CHILE.
+
+     +Hon. Henry L. Janes+, Division of Latin-American Affairs,
+     Department of State, Washington.
+
+     CLOSER COMMERCIAL RELATIONS WITH LATIN-AMERICA.
+
+     +Bernard N. Baker+, Baltimore, Md.
+
+     IMMIGRATION--A CENTRAL AMERICAN PROBLEM.
+
+     +Ernst B. Filsinger+, Consul of Costa Rica and Ecuador, St. Louis,
+     Mo.
+
+Price $1.50 bound in cloth; $1.00 bound in paper. Postage free.
+
+
+
+
+THE SOCIAL EVOLUTION OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC[1]
+
+BY THE HON. ERNESTO QUESADA,
+
+     Attorney-General of the Argentine Republic; Professor in the
+     Universities of Buenos Ayres and La Plata.
+
+
+To condense into a few pages several centuries of the history of a
+nation like the Argentine Republic, to give some idea of the nature of
+the forces that have determined the development of this country from the
+end of the sixteenth century, the period of its discovery, to this the
+second decade of the twentieth, when it is celebrating the first
+centennial of its independence, is a task at once delicate and arduous.
+For, aside from these natural difficulties, it will be necessary to
+avoid all details, to shun statistics, and even to lay aside historical
+evidence, in order to crystallize into seemingly dogmatic statements,
+the complicated social evolution of a people in process of
+transformation, a people still in a formative period. It is a venture
+bordering upon the impossible.
+
+A century after the commencement of the conquest of the American
+continent and after the scattering over the land of the invading race,
+at once warlike and religious, an expedition which was purely Andalusian
+discovered the River Plate in the southern extremity of the continent.
+Instead of penetrating to the south, the expedition fixed its gaze
+northward, searching for a route by which to renew relations with the
+rich district of the old empire of the Incas. This was in obedience to
+that thirst after wealth which characterized the taking possession of
+America. Two centuries later, these remote provinces had been converted
+into the very important viceroyship of the River Plate. In one direction
+it extended from the tropical viceroyship of Peru and the torrid lands
+of Portuguese Brazil, to Cape Horn, lashed by the raging Antarctic seas,
+and in the other direction it stretched from the chain of the Andes,
+which runs like a solid wall the length of one of its flanks, to the
+Atlantic Ocean, which bathes its extensive coasts. This enormous
+territory thus embraced every sort of climate, and was inhabited by a
+heterogeneous collection of aboriginal races. Its conquest and
+colonization had been effected upon two convergent lines, that by water,
+by the River Plate, that by land, from the north. This impressed upon
+the civilization of these regions different characteristics which must
+be defined since, even after a century of political independence, their
+mark is still stamped upon the ideals, aspirations and conduct of the
+inhabitants.
+
+The "Leyes de Indias,"[2] faithful reflections of the purposes of
+Spanish colonization in America, show how extraordinary was the
+importance of the native races, how relatively few were the Spanish
+conquerors and how closely the two races became mingled, through the
+regime of the _encomiendas_[3] the _mitas_[4] and the _yanaconazgos_.[5]
+The Spanish colonies were founded and developed in the midst of a mass
+of people, who, because of their enormous superiority in point of
+numbers, necessarily reacted in turn upon the small number of the
+invaders, either by interbreeding with the latter, or by the contact of
+daily life, or by their superior adaptability to their natural
+environment. The conquerors themselves presented different traits,
+according to the region of Spain from which they came, and naturally
+they sought to group and to settle themselves in obedience to the ethnic
+affinities of their origin. Biscayans, Basques, Castillians, Aragonese,
+Andalusians, etc., gave typical characteristics to every American region
+where they established themselves. They transplanted their social
+prejudices, their spirit of communal independence, their concentrated
+energy and their buoyant temperament. From this it resulted that in
+whatever corner of America a particular Spanish strain of blood was
+found, there were reflected the traits of the corresponding district of
+Spain.
+
+As the native races varied according to the region, from those of a
+peaceful and civilized character to those of an untamable and warlike
+nature, and even to ferocious savages, the Spanish settlements existed
+without any common plan. They made a republic with the tribes, and they
+were the beginning of a creole type which was quite distinct in each
+locality. In the viceroyship of Buenos Ayres the ethnic geography of the
+aborigines shows a kaleidoscopic variety of races. In the north and in
+the regions which formerly had been subject to the rule of the Incas,
+the population--both servient and dominant classes--was peaceful,
+attached to the soil, resigned and passive.
+
+In those regions lying between the two great rivers the population was
+of a gentle and peace-loving nature and, therefore, was easily molded by
+missionary civilization. Along the slopes of the Andes the people were
+daring, excitable and independent. The south or Patagonian extremity was
+overrun by brave and unconquerable tribes, closely related to that
+Araucanian race which the Spanish conquest never entirely succeeded in
+subduing. The Spanish settlements on the other hand presented different
+characteristics. In the north they came from Lima, and were Biscayan and
+Castillian, aristocratic, very proud of their ancestry, holding aloof,
+enriched by the mines of Potosi and the commerce of the fleet of
+Portobello. Southward were Andalusians and Spanish common folk, little
+given to titles and conventionalities. They were condemned to pursue the
+smuggler's trade, because the mother country, following an economic
+error of the time and perhaps owing to deficient geographic knowledge,
+permitted them only an overland commerce, by mule back, from the Panama
+fleet which unloaded its cargoes in Callao. Hence in the provinces of
+the north, called High Peru, and in the present provinces of Jujuy and
+Tucuman, the Spanish population held up Lima as their ideal, and
+exhibited both its vices and its virtues. Out of it was formed the
+aristocratic, commercial and luxurious city of Salta. On the other hand,
+in the river provinces, the existence of the cities was precarious and
+fraught with the dangers of a smuggling trade carried on with the
+Portuguese neighbors--the source of the centuries-old controversy of
+Sacramento colony. These settlements were not unacquainted with the fear
+of pirates, of daring navigators and of roving slave dealers, who on
+their arrival at the River Plate unloaded the "products of their
+country," with the toleration and secret complicity of the government
+officials and with the connivance of the inhabitants. These inhabitants
+were true outlaws. They scoffed at the administration and fiscal
+measures and trusted more to their fists than they feared being caught
+in the complicated meshes of the uneconomic laws.
+
+The interbreeding of these different classes of population resulted in
+creole types, characteristic of each region. In the central cities of
+the north, they were always aristocratic and devoted to learning, while
+in the vast stretches of country they lived the semi-feudal life of
+_encomenderos_. The interbreeding with the Indians formed an inferior
+class of half breed which approached the type of the mother more than
+that of the father and which was certainly not a robust or handsome
+race. In the river region, the population lived on a democratic plane of
+equality in the cities, while in the rural districts they became that
+creole type known as the _gaucho_.[6] Found amidst a scattered
+population and inheriting the far from sedentary habits of the Spanish
+mother race, the _gaucho_ preferred the free and roving existence of the
+pampas. He lived by the herds of semi-wild animals, which had multiplied
+amazingly since Mendoza's expedition had introduced the very limited
+stock, destined later to be converted into the stupendous riches of this
+country. In the central, more mountainous region also, the interbreeding
+of the races produced very definite results and the creole population of
+the rural districts acquired traits as though living closely associated
+with the _gauchos_ of the pampas. In the south the aboriginal races
+remained pure, except for the insignificant mixing which came from the
+Spanish captive women, victims of the attacks of the Tehuelches
+populations. Wherever the native population was dense and attached to
+the soil the creoles living in the country and about the cities show a
+closer affinity with it, than with the Spanish blood. They adopt native
+habits and conform to native peculiarities, even to the extent of
+adopting the melancholy rhythm of the music and songs, those unique
+_tristes_ which are heard even to-day in the Argentine provinces of the
+north, from Santiago del Estero to the Bolivian frontier. There the
+creole laborers of the land and the half breeds of the districts about
+the cities tenderly preserve the _quichua_, or native language of their
+ancestors, by intermixing it with the Spanish. The same close affinity
+with the native element is found in the river provinces, and especially
+in Corrientes, where in the rural and semi-rural districts the dregs of
+the missionary population have preserved as their most precious
+possession the _guarani_ dialect. But, where the native population was
+more scattered and nomadic, the creole population became transformed and
+converted into the _gaucho_ or cowboy of the pampas, a very handsome
+half breed, full of energy, of noble instincts, accustomed to the freest
+sort of life over boundless plains, where each one depended solely upon
+himself and recognized no superior. Here we have the explanation of the
+great hold which this type (_gaucho_) has upon the imagination.
+
+In spite of these differences, however, the colonial life was stamped
+with a certain uniformity which served as a background for these local
+peculiarities. Spanish-American society was zealously preserved from
+contact with other European nations. Only inhabitants of Spain were free
+to go and come, so that this triple characteristic--that they were
+Spanish, monarchical and orthodox Catholic--was the salient feature
+common to all South America. The person of the monarch and the supreme
+authority of the colonial office were very distant and the tribunals of
+the viceroys and governors holding actual sessions there upon the
+territory, were the real and tangible personifications of the monarchy.
+The Pope himself was also very distant and had given over the
+superintendence of ecclesiastical affairs to the crown, which had in
+turn confided it to the respective viceroys. The bishops and religious
+orders were, strictly speaking, the visible representatives of religion.
+In this way throne and altar came in touch with the colonial
+populations, who took heated sides in the formidable conflicts which
+used to arise between the representatives of each. But they retained
+respect for them; they recognized their high merits and prerogatives and
+obeyed them as representing that which could neither be questioned nor
+altered. Public officials of all grades were drafted from Spain and
+remained for definite periods. The laws forbade them to mix with the
+populations and they kept themselves aloof, with the ostensible purpose
+of assuring their complete impartiality. But the result was that they
+tried to take advantage of their period in office to swell their
+personal fortunes, without allowing themselves to be deterred by any
+scruples or drawing rein to their appetites. The priests even, both
+secular and those regularly ordained, allowed themselves to be carried
+away by that spirit of self-seeking which led them to look upon America
+as a mine to be exploited.
+
+Doubtless there were zealous officials both civil and religious who
+performed the best type of service. The Spaniards were established
+amidst a native population, who devoted themselves to commerce or to
+mining in the north, and to the raising of cattle and lesser trades in
+the river and central districts, and they always looked upon their
+residence in this part of American territory as a temporary sojourn,
+during which to acquire riches. The creoles, of every class, both of the
+city and of the country, perhaps because they seemed to be looked down
+upon by the Spaniards, were unconsciously trying to enlarge their hold
+upon affairs of all kinds. They felt themselves, as it were, rooted to
+the soil, and far from proceeding only from selfish motives of money
+making, they took an interest in local affairs, which, for them, were of
+greater importance than those of a crown, only vaguely known to them by
+report. The city creoles, thanks to an advanced communal spirit, aroused
+by the establishment of the _cabildos_ or Spanish town council, were
+diligently at work on their own municipal problems. They thus became
+accustomed to limit their horizon to the limits of their own city and of
+the immediately surrounding country district, because communication
+between the cities was slow, difficult and dangerous, a condition which
+resulted in their virtual isolation from each other. The city might
+almost be regarded as the center of their universe. From the rest of the
+world news arrived months and years later, tempered or misrepresented.
+It awakened not the faintest echo. It might as well have been the news
+of far away ages and peoples.
+
+The mass of the natives, with whose women the military and civil
+population cohabited, since relatively few Spanish women came to
+America, took no interest whatsoever in the affairs of a monarchy which
+was not that of their ancestors but of a race different from themselves.
+They showed, rather, such a passive indifference that each community
+seemed a world unto itself, occupied and pre-occupied only with its own
+matters. The religious and civil officials, in their turn, were soon
+contaminated by this environment. They gave to local affairs so
+excessive an importance that it also appeared to their eyes as if the
+boundary of the Indian city was the _ultima Thule_ of civilization. In
+the northern provinces, which had reached the final stage of perfection
+under the old Inca conquest, the native population preserved and
+protected its pre-Columbian traditions by the use of their dialect, the
+_quichua_ tongue. The regime of the _encomienda_, the _mitas_ and the
+_yanaconazgo_ had produced only a formal subjection of the natives. In
+the depths of their souls the natives preserved and fostered traditions
+of bygone centuries. In this way the creoles, the product of
+interbreeding, were recast into the dense mass of the Indian population
+and became more conversant with American traditions than Spanish.
+
+Amongst the missionary converts, the Jesuits had erected cities that
+flourished artificially under their care. They were inhabited only by
+Indian races, and the Jesuits zealously guarded them from contact with
+the Spaniards whom they removed far from their admirable theocratic
+empire as though they were the very incarnation of evil. An unreal
+civilization was thus created, governed patriarchially by the priests
+and without any vitality of its own. Hence, the expulsion of the priests
+by the _coup d' etat_ of Charles III brought about the destruction of
+these populations, which had realized during the century of their
+existence, the ideal of the most exacting of Utopian civilization. But
+the results were not such as had been desired. These Indians, on being
+distributed over the colonies, did not coalesce with the rest of the
+inhabitants, but returned to the depths of barbarism or, as in the
+present province of Corrientes, constituted the mass of the population,
+an element indifferent to national interests just as the old
+missionaries had been to those of the crown and sensible only to the
+recollection of their ancient and traditional life, that is to say, to
+their own local affairs.
+
+In the central and river provinces, the marvelous increase of animals
+capable of domestication but still in a wild state brought about a
+profound transformation. The native tribes, sparser than in the north,
+without losing any of their savage customs, soon possessed themselves of
+the horse and overran the boundless pampas. The creoles of the country
+districts and the _gauchos_ in their turn vied for the possession of the
+horse. No longer able to remold their life to that of the savage tribes,
+they checked their bold and ferocious habits and became keen and
+cautious, forming a race of special type, midway between the Indian and
+the Spaniard. They were extreme individualists, for in the immense
+pampas, authority, both civil and religious could obtain but a weak
+hold. The _gaucho_ made so complete a face-about from his former self
+as to devote his life solely to cattle raising. He evolved a special
+fitness or adaptability to his new life and created the most curious
+types, from the _sumbon compadrito_ with his peculiar cloak and
+_chiripa_, who flashed his sarcastic jests with such grace and elegance,
+to the poet troubador and famous animal tracker who was but little less
+keen than the hound in scenting and following the trail of man or beast.
+As the _gauchos_ came in contact with not a few of the city population,
+upon whom they were dependent for obtaining the things they needed in
+exchange for pelts and the products of the country, they formed with
+such of the latter as came most closely in touch with them, a community
+of ideas and aims. Thus by busying themselves only with their own
+special lives, they became independent and without attachment for any
+but their respective municipal centers. Each region possessed its local
+feature, each was separated from the rest and all were but nominally
+linked and united with their remote and common monarch.
+
+In the River Plate region, leaving aside the factor of geographic
+interest, to which I have just made allusion, the racial history was
+limited to the Spanish population and its Creole interbreeding with the
+native races, because the negro population had no importance whatsoever,
+in this part of America. The quantity of negro slaves introduced by the
+"dealers" was reduced to a minimum, and even these, upon the breaking
+out of the war of independence, were killed off, for now that their
+masters were freeing them, they formed the great body of the troops. In
+this way they helped the American cause. The mulattoes, consequently,
+were also reduced in number. This process was carried to such a point
+that the singular scarcity of pure negroes or even of mulattoes was a
+real characteristic of this country.
+
+Foreign influence could only penetrate by way of the Atlantic, and even
+then only covertly, unless it were by crossing the rocky barrier of the
+Andes. The Portuguese influence was limited to the profitable commercial
+relations with the smugglers. That of other nations only made itself
+felt through the occasional visits of ships forced to take shelter in
+the La Plata from time to time, or dropping anchor upon various
+pretexts, but always with the intention of smuggling. This was an open
+secret to the then few inhabitants of Buenos Ayres, the possibilities of
+which as a port, although gainsayed by the crown, had been ordained by
+nature. When, during the last days of colonial domination, commerce was
+permitted to the port of Buenos Ayres, there was no longer time for
+foreign influence to penetrate to the heart of the country. The English
+invasions left a greater residue of influence through the distribution
+of the English prisoners, who in great part established homes in the
+midland regions to which they were sent. There, in the midst of the
+Spanish families, with whom they were left, they disseminated ideas of
+liberty and standards of independence, unknown among the rest of the
+population, the best classes of which in those days of unrest, were a
+turbulent and irrepressible element.
+
+The revolution of May, 1810, wrought a fundamental change in the social
+situation. Distinguished officers of the Napoleonic wars came to the
+country to offer their military services. English merchants, attracted
+by the reports of the English invasions of the Argentine Republic in
+1806 and 1807, hurried over in increasing numbers. Soon they were
+influencing the society of Buenos Ayres which adopted London fashions,
+many of its customs, and became accustomed to the English character.
+Foreign commerce was concentrated in the hands of the English and many
+of these merchants finally married in the country. During the colonial
+epoch only books expurgated by the Inquisition had been admitted, but
+now the revolutionary movement unmuzzled these mysteries and flung wide
+the doors through which penetrated a flood of French and English works.
+The doctrines of the French revolution were at that time the passion of
+the majority of our public men, and its influence, even its Jacobin and
+terrorist phases, is traceable from the first instant. This is revealed
+in the "plan of government" of Moreno. On the other hand, the
+constitutional doctrines of the Anglo-Saxons were embraced only by the
+few. Dorrego went to the United States and there absorbed them. During
+the first decade after the revolution, the educational system scarcely
+advanced at all but followed closely to the traditional path of teaching
+taught by the University of Cordoba. The University of Buenos Ayres was
+founded in the second decade, and made an effort to reform public
+education. But the war of independence was not yet over and the internal
+situation of the country at the end of the anarchical dissolution which
+took place in 1820, was such that a multitude of affairs demanded
+attention, and as yet it was hardly possible, outside of the large
+cities, to turn to such questions of reform.
+
+The winning of independence was the cause of the sad dismemberment of
+the viceroyship of the River Plate and the statesmen of the period could
+not have prevented it. From what was once a single historic province
+there have gradually been detached the province of High Peru, to-day the
+Republic of Bolivia; the province of Paraguay, to-day the Republic of
+the same name; the eastern missions which now constitute the present
+Brazilian provinces of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catalina and Sao Paulo.
+The Banda Oriental has since become the Republic of Uruguay; the
+Falkland Islands were snatched by England; the territory about the
+Straits of Magellan was ceded later to Chile, under color of regulating
+the boundary line. The Argentine Republic, during the first century of
+its existence as an independent nation, far from acquiring a single
+square mile of territory, has continued to lose territory at every point
+of the compass. Her international policy, from that point of view, has
+been lamentable and the memory of it is still a bitter lesson.
+
+Within the enormous territorial expanse which now constitutes the
+Argentine Republic political integration was effected slowly. The
+different populations settled at intervals along the routes which
+connected Buenos Ayres with Lima on the one side, with the Andes on
+another and with Asuncion on still another. Each settlement was an oasis
+of Spanish population set in the midst of a savage country. In order to
+establish something approaching unity within each section, the people
+organized themselves after the pattern of the urban centers of Spain
+with their _Cabildo_ or town council as the communal authority, which
+controlled and regulated the extremes of opinion and conditions and
+brought the whole municipal life to a focus. Each settlement lived a
+life apart, separated from the others. In fact they were cast in the
+mold of the ancient Spanish village society, and the central authority
+only made itself felt at infrequent intervals.
+
+The inhabitants of each village thus developed an aptitude for municipal
+life and for self-government, and a concentration upon local interests
+which became the basis of their political development. They fostered a
+local character which was the very foundation and essence of their later
+federal tendency. To the interests and pretensions of the crown as
+formulated by the "Council of the Indies," they preferred the authority
+of the viceroy and of the intendants, but their main preference was the
+municipality itself, whose frank and loyal mouthpiece was the
+traditional Cabildo. For this reason, when the movement for independence
+commenced, each village and each city was led by its own Cabildo, and it
+was the Cabildo which gave vigor and form to the revolution. Around the
+Cabildo the inhabitants of the vicinity grouped themselves in the
+different organic or anarchic revolts which followed. It was for this
+reason, too, since the present republic possessed no basis of political
+division, that each one of the cities formed a nucleus in its respective
+province of the same name, and that the whole territory was subdivided
+according to the radius of authority exercised by the principal cities
+of colonial times, without any account being taken of economic autonomy
+or of demography.
+
+Federal sentiment made its appearance profoundly rooted in tradition and
+blood, and the tendency towards centralization only emanated from
+certain groups of dreamers at the metropolis who with their eyes closed
+to the past believed along with such deluded men as Rivadavia that, by
+destroying the traditional Cabildo, they would wipe the state clean of
+such precedents, just as the Jacobins of the French Revolution did with
+the institutions of the ancient regime. Argentine society issued from
+the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries already shaped toward local
+self-government and local loyalty. It already appeared a federation in
+fact which was easily transformed into a federation in law, because the
+federal idea was at bottom the very heart and soul of things.
+
+The development of our colonization also indicated that of our
+civilization. As we approach the north, the brilliant center of
+civilization of Lima society becomes more aristocratic, infatuated with
+its learning, luxurious and fastidious. The youth of the Plate Valley
+were attracted to the University of Chuquisaca, where, amidst its
+cloisters, they acquired a grave and disputacious manner. Later the
+University of Cordoba, like a pale reflection of the former, drew upon a
+part of these youths and, if they left its lecture halls also practiced
+in the art of sophistry, they did not imbibe in return that atmosphere
+of aristocratic aloofness, pomp and presumption. Buenos Ayres and the
+river country were without a university and without an aristocracy. At
+the periodic auctions of titles of nobility, the receipts of which were
+added to the colonial contributions and were intended to meet a certain
+deficit in the Spanish treasury, not a purchaser appeared and there was
+not a single herder of the pampas nor a single rich smuggler who would
+bid. The titles which were thus put up to sale remained unpurchased, for
+the people held them in no esteem.
+
+With no resources other than its commerce and industry which were both
+of a contraband nature, Buenos Ayres developed more rapidly than other
+cities and with a greater freedom from "red tape" and formalism, in
+spite of its being the seat of the general government, with its Spanish
+officials, its civil, military and religious authorities and an
+administrative machinery identical with that of the other capitals of
+the viceroyship. For here there was not the same atmosphere, the life
+was simple and democratic, the officials had no stage from which to
+display their importance, and within the narrow walls of the modest home
+of the government, the few inhabitants of this metropolis used to mingle
+in its marshy, unpaved streets, or in their unpretentious and simple
+adobe houses. They treated each other with a certain equality, which was
+due precisely to those conditions of intense individualism developed of
+necessity in a cattle raising community.
+
+In the northern and central districts society was cast in the Peruvian
+mold, a reproduction of Spanish civilization, aristocrats adopting
+primogeniture and, in modified form, the feudal regime of the
+_encomenderos_. In the river and mountain region, the urban was a
+reflection of the rural population, independent, haughty, brave,
+accustomed to making forays upon horseback over the endless pampas,
+trusting to its own decision and in the end to the knife, which was a
+symbol of the worship of personal courage, inherited from Spanish
+ancestors who had developed it during the centuries of the struggle
+against the Moors. In the river district the commerce, which in the main
+was carried on illegally by doggedly persevering merchants who plied
+their trade fearlessly with pirates and foreign smugglers, caused a
+certain spirit of self-confidence to grow. This spirit made itself felt
+in the popular movement of the reconquest of 1806, and in the impulse of
+the revolution of May, 1810.
+
+From Buenos Ayres started the movement for independence, and the
+Cabildos of the interior cities fell in with the movement with more or
+less alacrity. Hence the further inland these cities were, the less
+enthusiastic. The Paraguayan region isolated itself and followed the
+conservative policy of the Cabildo of Asuncion. The province of High
+Peru, in spite of its efforts, was the last to revolt and never followed
+with any ardor the movement initiated by the metropolis. Indeed, the
+revolution of May, which had spread to the banks of the Paraguay river
+and over the plateau of Bolivia, might not, perhaps, have succeeded in
+so closely cementing, in spite of the righteousness of its cause, the
+independence proclaimed in Tucuman in 1816, had not the inspiration of
+San Martin added that powerful impulse which flung armies across the
+Andes, liberated Chile from Spanish dominion and brought independence to
+Peru. He might have pursued this glorious course toward the independence
+of the whole continent, if the colossal egotism of Bolivar in that
+tragic conference of Guayaquil had not placed our national hero in the
+dilemma of either eliminating himself and leaving his selfish rival to
+wear the laurels planted and nurtured by Argentine blood or of
+sacrificing the fruits of the campaign for independence, by not being
+able to obtain from him the military assistance he was in need of. He
+placed his country before his own glory and yielded the field to one to
+whom personal renown was preferable to all else.
+
+For the social evolution of Argentine the sacrifice of San Martin was of
+incalculable importance. Upon eliminating himself, he left to his rival
+the army which he had himself led until then and this country was
+deprived of its one organizing force. Disintegrating tendencies
+manifested themselves without counter-check. In the second decade of the
+century, various little republics were defiantly established in the
+interior. They were constructed upon the plan of the old settlements
+which had risen to something greater. They were governed by Cabildos,
+and these in turn obeyed the local leader, who was raised to
+dictatorship over the districts. Each province was sufficient unto
+itself. It barely communicated with the others and retrograded towards
+barbarism without regularly organized government or other will than that
+of its respective tyrant and the free-lances who were his immediate
+followers. Schools closed; families took refuge within the walls of
+their dwellings; terror pervaded; life was everywhere insecure; those
+who could, emigrated, leaving behind them on the land the sick, the
+women and the children. Men were bedfellows in misery; there was no
+industry, no commerce; sin flourished and virtue was trampled under
+foot. These thirty years of bloody and merciless civil strife made
+prominent the idea of the rule of force. People were taken from peaceful
+work, efficient teaching languished, every social bond was weakened and
+in the end a society evolved in which not education, ancestry or fortune
+exercised the least influence, but audacity, the impulse of the local
+leader, the mob instincts of the city population and of the rural
+_gaucho_. The local leaders and their followers alone wielded any real
+power. They dominated without possibility of counter-check and an entire
+generation tolerated this condition during that terrible period.
+
+The local leadership, like the legendary tyranny of ancient Rome,
+demolished everything which tried to rise above the obedient, passive,
+resigned and common level. It brutally choked it or forced it to
+emigrate, and Argentine society had to develop in these anaemic
+surroundings. There was no possibility of foreign immigration, or of
+establishing industry and commerce.
+
+The idea of nationality was observed by party passion and the factions
+were ready to launch out upon some fight upon the slightest pretext.
+Social classes were divided into irreconcilable parties, the reds or
+federalists, and the blues or centralists, those who believed in the
+local leader, and those who detested him. The former were called
+federalists, because they believed that each locality ought to adopt the
+kind of government which best suited it; the latter were called the
+centralists, because in their weakness they leaned upon the influence of
+the national government in order to give to the whole country a common
+unified administration of which the local government would be the agent.
+
+Rosas met this situation and put an end to it. After the dismemberment
+of the ephemeral republic of 1825, and the national convention, and
+following upon the Brazilian war, the centralist party, deceived in its
+principles and in its men, closed its doors to counsel and committed the
+error of executing Dorrego at Navarro. The mass of the rural population
+resisted the straight jacket proposed by the doctrinaires of the
+centralist party and in this they showed themselves unrelenting. Then
+Rosas came into power in the government of Buenos Ayres and also secured
+control of the situation in the provinces. He succeeded in bringing
+about the organization of each province with a view to forming the
+Argentine Confederation. He was entrusted by the federation with the
+management of foreign relations. He left the interior provinces to
+organize themselves after the pattern of the government of Buenos Ayres.
+Doubtless, during the long quarter of a century while he was dictator,
+real security and peace were never enjoyed, for the centralist party was
+ambitious, arrogant and factious, plotting within itself, and when it
+was not exciting to rebellion, or leading an invasion it was provoking
+foreign intervention. Finally the terrible and merciless war between the
+centralists and the federalists developed a state of terror which
+culminated in the excesses of the year 1840. The dictator treated his
+adversaries without mercy and they in their turn had none for him. To be
+strictly truthful, neither party can be absolved from wicked and
+culpable action. Nor can I shut my eyes to the fact that the great power
+bred pride, and that pride bred hatred of the subject class. But this
+prolonged dictatorship saved the country from the anarchy of the petty
+republics of 1820, it solidified the country into a sovereign entity and
+it gave to the different parts the cohesion of a nation capable of
+victoriously resisting the French and Anglo-French interventions. This
+much is owed definitely to the centralist party, who in this way solved
+the difficulty traditional to our national organization and so guided
+along the right road the severest crisis of Argentine history, not only
+from a political but also from a sociological point of view. The chasm
+that separated the social classes of the capital city from those of the
+provincial districts was bridged; the prejudices of blood, of caste and
+fortune were destroyed and there was established complete equality,
+where every man was the heir of his own labor and depended only upon his
+own hands.
+
+After the battle of Caseros, in 1852, the government which had so used
+and abused oppression and patronage fell, leaving the country, however,
+in such a condition of stability and internal organization that the
+different provinces grouped themselves logically under the Convention of
+San Nicolas. The Argentine Federation was maintained and Urquiza was
+placed at the head of the government. Despite the local character of the
+revolution of Buenos Ayres, on the eleventh of September the country at
+large adopted the fundamental constitution of 1853, at the Congress of
+Santa Fe. The government of the recalcitrant province of Parana realized
+but slowly the new organization, with which it finally incorporated
+itself, while the nation continued developing in the path established by
+its constitution. Without losing sight, therefore, of the bitter lessons
+of this phase of our evolution, it is but fair to show an appreciation
+of its benefits.
+
+The characteristic of this intermediate epoch is the very slight
+introduction of the foreign element. To-day this element is scattered
+over the land, but at that time such as were firmly rooted in the
+country, principally in Buenos Ayres, were very few. Of these the
+English formed the greater part, for the infusion of German blood, which
+resulted from the distribution of prisoners taken from the German
+regiments at Ituzaingo, though they included some estimable families
+constituted a very subordinate factor. English commerce was always
+respected and in spite of the bitterness produced by the naval
+interventions, it was left to develop peacefully. But as it did not
+increase in volume and was never reinforced by that of other nations, it
+did not become great. The path of social evolution was in the direction
+of the commingling of the city and rural population, and of the
+participation of the _gauchos_ in public life, either by forming a large
+and worthy element in the army or by becoming the active nucleus of the
+popular civic movements. The democratization of the country was
+complete, for in general, the upper classes of society in the cities
+affiliated themselves with the centralist party, while the populace
+supported the federal party. Hence the bloody triumph of the latter
+brought about its complete predominance and from this period the social
+and political problems remained more enduring in nature, while
+differences of blood and tradition were put aside.
+
+Since the constitution of 1853, the social evolution of Argentine has
+been guided and carried forward by two factors, immigration and foreign
+capital. Under their influence, the characteristics of the prior period
+were gradually modified to a certain extent. The administration of Mitre
+struggled against the difficulties of inadequate means of communication
+between the distant cities and against traditional custom of guerilla
+warfare. Force was employed in order to remain master of the field and
+to break up the resistance which the men of the interior set up against
+the prominence of those of Buenos Ayres, and a cruel war against
+Paraguay was undertaken. The ability and consistency of this Argentine
+statesman was great.
+
+When the passions of his contemporaries had been assuaged, he became the
+"grand old man" of the nation, growing in stature as posterity forms
+its judgment on his policy. That administration, like the following one
+of Sarmiento, had to cope with two factors, the great uninhabited tracts
+of land and the survival of ancient custom. On the one hand the
+different Argentine regions lived in isolation from one another,
+communication between them being difficult; on the other hand there
+still survived the custom of local chieftainship and of the constant and
+armed movements of different political factions, who would set out upon
+guerilla forays on any pretext whatsoever, raising their banners on high
+as though their behavior was patriotic and praiseworthy, whereas it was
+but the vicious habit of a barbaric and backward age.
+
+The administration of Avellaneda continued the task of combating such
+tendencies by the establishment of the telegraph which would unite all
+these centers to each other; by the construction of railroads to
+facilitate communication; and by the encouragement of European
+immigration for purposes of settlement and in order to mix other races
+with that of Argentine and so modify its political idiosyncracies by
+more conservative standards and interests. The conquest of the
+Patagonian wilds, with the final subjugation of the warlike native
+tribes of the south, opened and ushered in an era in the Argentine
+evolution. This occurred contemporaneously with the historic solution of
+the problem of federalism versus centralism, which silenced forever the
+old antagonism between the inhabitants of the metropolis and those of
+the provinces.
+
+From 1880 till the present, the work of multiplying the telegraphs and
+railway routes has gone on, as has also the increase of foreign
+immigration. These have produced the desired effect in the social
+transformation of the country. The telegraph and the railroad have
+definitely killed the seditious germs of guerilla warfare and of local
+chieftainship. Local uprisings are no longer possible. The city and
+rural populations have become convinced of this, and the popular mind is
+at peace since the generation has disappeared which saw the last revolts
+of the _gauchos_, and other forms of popular uprising. Foreign capital
+commenced and encouraged the exploitation of our natural resources. The
+sugar industry of the northern provinces, the wine culture of the Andes
+provinces, even the stock raising and agriculture of the river districts
+have been the combined work of these three progressive elements.
+Immigration has helped immensely toward this same end, but the
+settlement of new lands does not advance by leaps and bounds, but
+spreads gradually.
+
+Starting from the port of arrival, the stream of immigration continues
+to spread clinging closely to the land and little by little it mixes
+with the existing population, inter-breeds with it, fuses with it, and
+gives a great surging impulse to agriculture, industry and commerce. The
+social transformation of the river provinces is due to this junction of
+the two currents as a result of which the _gaucho_ of the metropolis of
+Santa Fe or of Entre Rios, who, formerly famous for his bold and lawless
+tendencies, has to-day been so fused with the different foreign elements
+that all but the memory of this ancient type has disappeared, and the
+country is covered over with populous settlements, laborious, prosperous
+and progressive. The great fertility of the soil has returned with
+interest the foreign capital which first watered it, and has enriched
+marvelously all who have engaged in its cultivation. The development of
+the national resources, in turn, has given birth to such conservative
+interests that it is incomprehensible to the new generation that the
+former generation could, at the signal of a semi-barbarous chief jump on
+their horses and, rushing over the fields, kill, pillage and destroy. It
+is true that the transition has been effected at the cost of producing a
+certain political indifference in the new generations, which no doubt,
+will be overcome in time.
+
+The social evolution of the Argentine Republic has finally found its
+true channel and to-day is in full course of development. In proportion
+as the foreign immigration continues bringing therewith its happy
+complement of foreign capital, the country will continue to develop
+industrially. The astonishing increase in industries, with a total
+production out of all proportion to the growing population, is only
+explained by the use on a large scale of the most advanced machinery.
+But such a metamorphosis spreads from the river districts toward the
+interior of the country. It does not jump from one point to another
+without connecting links between them, but always preserves a channel
+through which a relation is maintained between the different zones
+already transformed or in process of transformation. The first effect of
+each infusion of foreign blood into creole veins is to appease the hot
+political passions of other times, abolish the old institution of the
+local chieftainship, even blot him from memory and replace it by an
+absorption in our growing material interests. These material interests
+appear to have conspired to bring about that indifference towards the
+state, as such, which makes men look mistakenly at a political career as
+a profession which thrives off the real working classes. For, our
+government both municipal, provincial and national appears to be the
+heritage of a well-defined minority--the politicians--who devote
+themselves to politics just as other social classes devote themselves to
+agriculture, stock raising, industry, commerce, etc.
+
+Public life with its complex machinery of elections and governing bodies
+has been, so to say, delivered into the hands of a small group of men
+who at present are not productive of anything new in the general social
+situation of former times; that is to say, these men form a definite
+class, moved by the influence of this or that personality. Though it has
+suppressed the bloody characteristics of the previous period it has not
+relapsed into their heresies.
+
+Little by little this shadow of the old system changes into that of the
+"boss" of the settlement and ward. The boss makes his business that of
+the mass of the voters, he stirs them up from their indifference, makes
+them go to the polls, deliberately falsifies public opinion, and so wins
+for himself a political managership, which gives him a marked influence
+in the back offices of officials and in the lobbies of legislatures.
+From such methods there spring no little censurable legislation of
+privilege and a great loss of contentment on the part of the people.
+When public spirit strengthens and shakes from itself the dust of
+inertia, and when the laboring classes have passed beyond that first
+stage of money grabbing, all the inhabitants of the nation will commence
+to busy themselves about the common weal. The thorn of the "boss" will
+prick them and they will then be able to form into political parties
+with unselfish programs and platforms. Every voter will cast his ballot
+to send to the legislature candidates who uphold the principles of his
+particular platform. As yet the people have not even reached the gateway
+to this goal. The past is still seen in full process of evolution and it
+is not easy to foresee the end.
+
+This does not mean that the present moment of transition is valueless.
+On the contrary, it is of very great importance, because the social
+situation in the Argentine Republic is in process of making. The
+politicians, now that they look upon themselves as called to stand forth
+above the heads of the rest of the people, have to be real statesmen. In
+this historic period, such statesmen, have the personality of the
+chauffeur who directs one of those swift engines of our century upon its
+dizzy course, the mechanism of which is so sensitive to the controlling
+pressure of the hand that it can deftly avoid all accident or cause a
+catastrophe of fatal consequences. There is required in such a man
+extraordinary coolness, clearness of vision as to responsibility,
+perfect knowledge of the course to be run, besides ceaseless vigilance,
+iron nerve when the time of trial arrives and a complete concentration
+upon the task. The legitimate tasks of government, in this very grave
+period of Argentine evolution, require a special training on the part of
+public leaders. They must study thoroughly the problems of our social
+evolution, and they must form a clear idea of the necessary solutions.
+Towards this they must steer with undiverted eye. The necessity of
+further exploitation of our national resources, the successive expansion
+of enterprise over zone after zone of our territory, the assimilation of
+the foreign immigrants by the creole population, the slow formation of a
+national spirit in the new generation, all these monopolize for the
+present the national energies and prevent them from turning to other
+problems. The country is converted, as it were, into a giant boa
+constrictor. It is entirely given over to the task of converting its
+food into nourishment, of abstracting the juices from the hard and
+resisting substances, of passing a multitude of different elements
+through its living organs so that they may later form a new tissue,
+adapted to the present and future needs of the country.
+
+From this point of view the present moment in the evolution of Argentine
+is of immense sociological interest. We are permitted to be present at
+the visible transmutation of a society, too weak even to direct itself,
+and absorbed in the fusion of different influences. The direction of
+this process has been handed over without counter-check to public men
+who are obliged to dictate and put into practice legislation and
+administrative rules of every kind, as though they enjoyed absolute
+power. Furthermore, by the very nature of things, the administrative
+functions in such periods have to discount the future and effect in the
+present a series of public works or social regulations which will weigh
+upon future generations not only from the point of view of the general
+finances but even from the point of view of national character. The
+national transformation of the land with ports, canals, railroads,
+telegraphs and every sort of means of communication, indeed, with every
+kind of public work, cannot be accomplished with present resources. A
+call must be made upon those of the future, by means of loans which will
+be a burden upon coming generations. If such a governmental policy is
+not accompanied by a skillful and prudent financial management, the
+burdens of our descendants will be considerably increased. They may even
+be committed to a policy that will cause eventual bankruptcy and an
+inevitable retrogression in the national development. The intellectual
+metamorphosis of the nation by a proper system of primary, secondary and
+higher education and by special schools of technical training, in order
+to form the national spirit of the future type of Argentine citizen, is
+certainly our most difficult governmental problem, because it is a
+question of molding the very soul of the nation. To teach different and
+contradictory systems, to do and then undo, each day changing the
+courses of study to successively adopt antagonistic standards and show a
+real lack of fixity in pedagogic methods, is to commit the greatest of
+all crimes, because it is not a crime against the exchequer of posterity
+but against its very soul. To accomplish a fusion of the currents of
+foreign immigration, to sort out the best from them, and to direct the
+formation of the new type which is being evolved, melting it in the
+crucible of the school, of the army, and of public life, is perhaps,
+to-day our task of transcendent difficulty. Such a problem is greater
+than that of directing the stream of foreign capital which, while
+fructifying the national soil, clings to it like the countless tentacles
+of a gigantic octopus and absorbs a great part--sometimes too great a
+part--of the riches produced only to transmit them through the arteries
+of the Republic, to foreign nations who employ it to their exclusive
+profit.
+
+Perhaps no moment in the history of our nation requires a greater
+combination of qualifications in its public men. The student may
+contemplate this most interesting transformation, displayed before his
+eyes like the moving film of a gigantic cinematograph which permits him
+to grasp at once the different phases of the social problem which it
+presents. Rarely in the history of humanity has it been possible to
+contemplate a like spectacle. The United States presented it a half
+century ago, to the astonished gaze of men of that day who were but
+little familiar with social problems. The Argentine Republic is
+repeating now the same phenomenon, with this difference that it can
+observe itself and be guided by the experience acquired elsewhere. Other
+countries of the world, in the future will, no doubt, in their turn
+repeat a similar evolution, though perhaps in a different environment.
+But the interesting part of the present moment is that the Argentine
+Republic is sailing upon the same course in the twentieth century that
+the United States did in the nineteenth. Our evolution is proceeding
+with greater care because it is being worked out amid better conditions.
+We can now take advantage of the costly experience gained by our
+brothers of the north and so by avoiding many of their errors, seek to
+escape the shoals upon which they stranded and the mistakes which they
+involuntarily committed, even though we have in our turn special
+problems which they did not have. Thus the tremendous politico-social
+crisis of the North American War of Secession will not be repeated in
+the southern hemisphere and the Argentine social evolution will not have
+to solve the profound anthropological problem of the rivalry of races,
+which, in the United States, arises from the white, black and yellow
+races, living together side by side.
+
+In Argentine there are no ethnic problems. The social antagonism raised
+by an arrogant plutocracy on the one hand and poverty stricken
+proletariat on the other, is not presented as an Argentine problem,
+because riches are still in process of formation there, and easily pass
+from one hand to another. A monopoly of riches cannot be prolonged
+beyond a single generation because with the system of compulsory
+division of descendants' estates, it soon returns to the common mass of
+the population. Social conditions in our evolution, present distinct
+problems from those which characterize other nations and demand,
+therefore, a direct study on the ground and must not be viewed through
+the doctrines developed in other nations and amid other conditions. The
+molding of the national spirit by uniform and compulsory schools and the
+slow adaptation of the mass of the immigrants to historical traditions
+and to future national aims, demand much time and they are now in the
+full process of being worked out. The celebration of the Centenary of
+our independence has made prominent the fact that such an evolution is
+much more advanced than one would think. There still remains,
+nevertheless, not a little to be done in this direction, though the
+national compulsory school system and the army conscription are factors
+of great importance which are working for fusion. But, in the country
+districts and in those places where the error has been committed of
+permitting the formation of settlements, homogeneous in race and
+religion, which regard themselves as autonomous offshoots of their
+mother country, resisting the Argentine school or any intermingling with
+the mass of neighboring population--in such districts, the fusion,
+though inevitable, will be necessarily slower.
+
+All these sociological problems might and should have been exhaustively
+studied in the history of the United States during the nineteenth
+century, a history which, as I have said, the Argentine Republic is
+repeating in the twentieth. Foreign immigration at this time has no
+outlet more profitable than the River Plate. The doors of North America
+are gradually being closed, and the other regions do not yet present the
+same advantages as those offered by our country. The same thing that
+happens with the excess of population of other nations also occurs with
+its surplus capital; no other quarter of the globe offers better
+prospects for the investment of capital and for a greater rate of
+return. The "manifest destiny" of Argentine depends for the present
+entirely upon the development of its commercial relations with the rest
+of the world. It must convert itself into the granary and the meat
+market of Europe.
+
+The closest bonds of mutual interest unite Argentina with Europe,
+because being producers of unlike commodities, the European markets
+consume our exportation and our markets consume theirs. With the rest of
+America our interchange of trade must be upon a smaller scale, because
+for more than a century to come we shall be countries producing similar
+commodities. Therefore, our respective markets will not reciprocally
+serve to buy the excess of production, but only that which by reason of
+climate or industrial development is to be found or manufactured in any
+other country than our own. This has happened to us notably in the case
+of the United States with its tremendous industrial expansion. In order
+to fulfill this "manifest destiny," we need _pax multa_ with the whole
+world. We need to give attention exclusively to our development without
+intermeddling in that of others. In this is summed up everything. Hence
+our international policy has to be pacific and neutral; we must be
+every man's friend, and shun imperialistic fancies. The "splendid
+isolation" of England fits her condition and her inclination. We must
+work and we must be allowed to work. Our social evolution still requires
+a century to acquire a definite contour. Though results may be foreseen
+from their beginnings, it is not possible to foretell what will be the
+future Argentine type, physically, mentally or materially.
+
+For the present, the only proper thing for us to do is to devote
+ourselves exclusively to the exploitation of our resources for we have
+seen how much effort will be required to assimulate our population, to
+form a national spirit, to build up a great future nation, to develop an
+administration which shall be a model of honesty and scientific
+preparation, and to adapt the republic to its future needs by public
+works and institutions, and by showing ourselves firm in faith and
+effective in works.
+
+The present social tendencies in Argentine evolution give promise of a
+great future for the country. The nation is not hesitating or
+vacillating before the realization of its manifest destiny. It follows
+with profound interest the new and colossal social experiment, which is
+unfolding to the view of the world the different phases of the formation
+of a nation in whose development the shoals are being avoided where
+others were wrecked, and which is putting into practice the improvements
+suggested by the experience of the other nations in order to realize the
+new evolution easily, prudently, and successfully.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The Academy wishes to express its appreciation to Layton D.
+Register, Esq., of the Law Department of the University of Pennsylvania,
+and to Mr. Enrique Gil, of the National University of La Plata, of the
+Argentine Republic, for the translation of this article.
+
+[2] Old Spanish legislation for the Spanish-American colonies.
+
+[3] _Encomienda_ is the Spanish name for the concession, granted by the
+crown during the Spanish Colonial period, of a certain number of native
+Indians, to a Spanish conqueror for purposes of service. The
+_Encomendero_ was the recipient of such a concession from the crown.
+
+[4] _Mita._ Spanish term for the distribution by lot of the native
+Indians for purposes of public work.
+
+[5] _Yanaconazgo._ Spanish term for that peculiar kind of land
+tenantship by which the tenant has no title to the land, but receives a
+proportion of the product of his labors upon the land.
+
+[6] The cowboy of the Argentine Pampas.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Evolution of the Argentine
+Republic, by Ernesto Quesada
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