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diff --git a/38081.txt b/38081.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..843010a --- /dev/null +++ b/38081.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19515 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Inhabitants of the Philippines, by Frederic H. Sawyer + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Inhabitants of the Philippines + +Author: Frederic H. Sawyer + +Release Date: November 21, 2011 [EBook #38081] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES *** + + + + +Produced by Tamiko I. Rollings, Jeroen Hellingman and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net +(This file was produced from images generously made +available by Cornell University Digital Collections) + + + + + + + + + + THE INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES + + By + + FREDERIC H. SAWYER + + Memb. Inst. C.E., Memb. Inst. N.A. + + + + London + + Sampson Low, Marston and Company Limited + St. Dunstan's House + Fetter Lane, Fleet Street, E.C. + 1900 + + + + + + + + London: + Printed by William Clowes and Sons, Limited, + Stamford Street and Charing Cross. + + + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The writer feels that no English book does justice to the natives +of the Philippines, and this conviction has impelled him to publish +his own more favourable estimate of them. He arrived in Manila with a +thorough command of the Spanish language, and soon acquired a knowledge +of the Tagal dialect. His avocations brought him into contact with all +classes of the community--officials, priests, land-owners, mechanics, +and peasantry: giving him an unrivalled opportunity to learn their +ideas and observe their manners and customs. He resided in Luzon +for fourteen years, making trips either on business or for sport all +over the Central and Southern Provinces, also visiting Cebu, Iloilo, +and other ports in Visayas, as well as Calamianes, Cuyos, and Palawan. + +Old Spanish chroniclers praise the good breeding of the natives, +and remark the quick intelligence of the young. + +Recent writers are less favourable; Canamaque holds them up to +ridicule, Monteverde denies them the possession of any good quality +either of body or mind. + +Foreman declares that a voluntary concession of justice is regarded by +them as a sign of weakness; other writers judge them from a few days' +experience of some of the cross-bred corrupted denizens of Manila. + +Mr. Whitelaw Reid denounces them as rebels, savages, and treacherous +barbarians. + +Mr. McKinley is struck by their ingratitude for American kindness +and mercy. + +Senator Beveridge declares that the inhabitants of Mindanao are +incapable of civilisation. + +It seems to have been left to French and German contemporary +writers, such as Dr. Montano and Professor Blumentritt to show a more +appreciative, and the author thinks, a fairer spirit, than those who +have requited the hospitality of the Filipinos by painting them in +the darkest colours. It will be only fair to exempt from this censure +two American naval officers, Paymaster Wilcox and Mr. L. S. Sargent, +who travelled in North Luzon and drew up a report of what they saw. + +As regards the accusation of being savages, the Tagals can claim to +have treated their prisoners of war, both Spaniards and Americans +with humanity, and to be fairer fighters than the Boers. + +The writer has endeavoured to describe the people as he found them. If +his estimate of them is more favourable than that of others, it may +be that he exercised more care in declining to do business with, or +to admit to his service natives of doubtful reputation; for he found +his clients punctual in their payments, and his employes, workmen +and servants, skilful, industrious, and grateful for benefits bestowed. + +If the natives fared badly at the hands of recent authors, the Spanish +Administration fared worse, for it has been painted in the darkest +tints, and unsparingly condemned. + +It was indeed corrupt and defective, and what government is not? More +than anything, it was behind the age, yet it was not without its +good points. + +Until an inept bureaucracy was substituted for the old paternal rule, +and the revenue quadrupled by increased taxation, the Filipinos were +as happy a community as could be found in any colony. The population +greatly multiplied; they lived in competence, if not in affluence; +cultivation was extended, and the exports steadily increased. + +The natives were secured the perpetual usufruct of the land they +tilled, they were protected against the usurer, that curse of East +and West. + +In guaranteeing the land to the husbandman, the "Laws of the Indies" +compare favourably with the law of the United States regarding +Indian land tenure. The Supreme Court in 1823 decided that "discovery +gives the dominion of the land discovered to the States of which the +discoverers were the subjects." + +It has been almost an axiom with some writers that no advance was +made or could be made under Spanish rule. + +There were difficulties indeed. The Colonial Minister, importuned on +the one hand by doctrinaire liberals, whose crude schemes of reform +would have set the Archipelago on fire, and confronted on the other +by the serried phalanx of the Friars with their hired literary bravos, +was very much in the position of being between the devil and the deep +sea, or, as the Spaniards phrase it "entre la espada y la pared." + +Even thus the Administration could boast of some reforms and +improvements. + +The hateful slavery of the Cagayanes had been abolished; the forced +cultivation of tobacco was a thing of the past, and in all the +Archipelago the corvee had been reduced. + +A telegraph cable connecting Manila with Hong Kong and the world's +telegraph system had been laid and subsidized. Telegraph wires were +extended to all the principal towns of Luzon; lines of mail steamers +to all the principal ports of the Archipelago were established and +subsidized. A railway 120 miles long had been built from Manila to +Dagupan under guarantee. A steam tramway had been laid to Malabon, +and horse tramways through the suburbs of Manila. The Quay walls of +the Pasig had been improved, and the river illuminated from its mouth +to the bridge by powerful electric arc lights. + +Several lighthouses had been built, others were in progress. A +capacious harbour was in construction, although unfortunately defective +in design and execution. The Manila waterworks had been completed +and greatly reduced the mortality of the city. The schools were well +attended, and a large proportion of the population could read and +write. Technical schools had been established in Manila and Iloilo, and +were eagerly attended. Credit appears to be due to the Administration +for these measures, but it is rare to see any mention of them. + +As regards the Religious Orders that have played so important a part +scarcely a word has been said in their favour. Worcester declares +his conviction that their influence is wholly bad. However they take +a lot of killing and seem to have got round the Peace Commission and +General Otis. + +They are not wholly bad, and they have had a glorious history. They +held the islands from 1570 to 1828, without any permanent garrison +of Spanish regular troops, and from 1828 to 1883 with about 1500 +artillerymen. They did not entirely rely upon brute force. They are +certainly no longer suited to the circumstances of the Philippines +having survived their utility. They are an anachronism. But they have +brought the Philippines a long way on the path of civilisation. Let us +be just; what British, French, or Dutch colony, populated by natives, +can compare with the Philippines as they were till 1895? + +And what about American rule? It has begun unfortunately, and has +raised a feeling of hatred in the natives that will take a generation +to efface. It will not be enough for the United States to beat down +armed resistance. A huge army must be maintained to keep the natives +down. As soon as the Americans are at war with one of the Great Powers, +the natives will rise; whenever a land-tax is imposed there will be +an insurrection. + +The great difference between this war and former insurrections is +that now for the first time the natives have rifles and ammunition, +and have learned to use them. Not all the United States Navy can +stop them from bringing in fresh supplies. Unless some arrangement +is come to with the natives, there can be no lasting peace. Such an +arrangement I believe quite possible, and that it could be brought +about in a manner satisfactory to both parties. + +This would not be, however, on the lines suggested in the National +Review of September under the heading, "Will the United States withdraw +from the Philippines?" + +Three centuries of Spanish rule is not a fit preparation for +undertaking the government of the Archipelago. But Central and Southern +Luzon, with the adjacent islands, might be formed into a State whose +inhabitants would be all Tagals and Vicols, and the northern part into +another State whose most important peoples would be the Pampangos, +the Pangasinanes, the Ilocanos, and the Cagayanes; the Igorrotes and +other heathen having a special Protector to look after their interests. + +Visayas might form a third State, all the inhabitants being of that +race, whilst Mindanao and Southern Palawan should be entirely governed +by Americans like a British Crown Colony. + +The Sulu Sultanate could be a Protectorate similar to North Borneo +or the Malay States. Manila could be a sort of Federal District, and +the Consuls would be accredited to the President's representative, +the foreign relations being solely under his direction. There should +be one tariff for all the islands, for revenue only, treating all +nations alike, the custom houses, telegraphs, post offices, and +lighthouse service being administered by United States officials, +either native or American. With power thus limited, the Tagals, +Pampangos, and Visayas might be entrusted with their own affairs, and +no garrisons need be kept, except in certain selected healthy spots, +always having transports at hand to convey them wherever they were +wanted. If, as seems probable, Mr. McKinley should be re-elected, +I hope he will attempt some such arrangement, and I heartily wish him +success in pacifying this sorely troubled country, the scene of four +years continuous massacre. + +The Archipelago is at present in absolute anarchy, the exports have +diminished by half, and whereas we used to travel and camp out in +absolute security, now no white man dare show his face more than a +mile from a garrison. + +Notwithstanding this, some supporters of the Administration in the +States are advising young men with capital that there is a great +opening for them as planters in the Islands. + +There may be when the Islands are pacified, but not before. + +To all who contemplate proceeding to or doing any business, or taking +stock in any company in the Philippines, I recommend a careful study +of my book. They cannot fail to benefit by it. + + +Red Hill, Oct. 15th, 1900. + + + + + + + +SALAMAT. + + +The author desires to express his hearty thanks to all those who have +assisted him. + +To Father Joaquin Sancho, S.J., Procurator of Colonial Missions, +Madrid, for the books, maps and photographs relating to Mindanao, +with permission to use them. + +To Mr. H. W. B. Harrison of the British Embassy, Madrid, for his +kindness in taking photographs and obtaining books. + +To Don Francisco de P. Vigil, Director of the Colonial Museum, Madrid, +for affording special facilities for photographing the Anitos and +other curiosities of the Igorrotes. + +To Messrs. J. Laurent and Co., Madrid, for permission to reproduce +interesting photographs of savage and civilised natives. + +To Mr. George Gilchrist of Manila, for photographs, and for the use +of his diary with particulars of the Tagal insurrection, and for +descriptions of some incidents of which he was an eye-witness. + +To Mr. C. E. de Bertodano, C.E., of Victoria Street, Westminster, +for the use of books of reference and for information afforded. + +To Mr. William Harrison of Billiter Square, E.C., for the use of +photographs of Vicols cleaning hemp. + +To the late Mr. F. W. Campion of Trumpets Hill, Reigate, for the +photograph of Salacot and Bolo taken from very fine specimens in his +possession, and for the use of other photographs. + +To Messrs. Smith, Bell and Co. of Manila, for the very complete table +of exports which they most kindly supplied. + +To Don Sixto Lopez of Balayan, for the loan of the Congressional +Record, the Blue Book of the 55th Congress, 3rd Session, and other +books. + +To the Superintendent of the Reading Room and his Assistants for +their courtesy and help when consulting the old Spanish histories in +the noble library of the British Museum. + + + + + + +ALPHABETICAL LIST OF WORKS CITED, REFERRED TO, OR STUDIED WHILST +PREPARING THIS WORK. + + +Abella, Enrique--'Informes' (Reports). + +Anonymous--'Catalogo Oficial de la Exposicion de Filipinas'; +'Filipinas: Problema Fundamental,' 1887; 'Relacion de las Yslas +Filipinas,' 1595; 'Las Filipinas se pierden,' a scurrilous Spanish +pamphlet, Manila, 1841; 'Aviso al publico,' account of an attempt +by the French to cause Joseph Bonaparte to be acknowledged King of +the Philippines. + +Barrantes Vicente--'Guerras piraticas de Filipinas contra Mindanaos +y Joloanos,' Madrid, 1878, and other writings. + +Becke, Louis--'Wild Life in Southern Seas.' + +Bent, Mrs. Theodore--'Southern Arabia.' + +Blanco, Padre--'Flora Filipina.' + +Blumentritt, Professor Ferdinand--'Versuch einer Ethnographie der +Philippinen' (Petermann's). + +Brantome, Abbe de--(In Motley's 'Rise of the Dutch Republic.') + +Cavada, Agustin de la--'Historia, Geografica, Geologica, y estadistica +de Filipinas,' Manila, 1876, 1877. + +Centeno, Jose--'Informes' (Reports). + +Clifford, Hugh--'Studies in Brown Humanity,' 'In Court and Kampong.' + +Comyn, Tomas de. + +Crawford, John--'History of the Indian Archipelago,' Edinburgh, 1820; +'Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands,' London, 1856. + +Cuming, E. D.--'With the Jungle Folk.' + +Dampier, William--(from Pinkerton). + +De Guignes--'Voyage to Pekin, Manila, and Isle of France.' + +D'Urville, Dumont. + +Foreman, John--'The Philippine Islands,' first and second editions. + +Garcilasso, Inca de la Vega--'Comentarios Reales.' + +Gironiere, Paul de la--'Vingt ans aux Philippines.' + +Jagor, F.--'Travels in the Philippines.' + +Jesuits, Society of--'Cartas de los P.P. de la Cia de Jesus de la +mision de Filipinas,' Cuads ix y x (1891-95); 'Estados Generales,' +Manila, 1896, 1897; 'Mapa Politica Hidrografica'; 'Plano de los +Distritos 2o y 5o de Mindanao'; 'Mapa de Basilan.' + +Mas, Sinibaldo de--'Informe sobre el estado de las Yslas Filipinas +en 1842.' + +Montano, Dr. J.--'Voyage aux Philippines,' Paris, 1886. + +Monteverde, Colonel Federico de--'La Division Lachambre.' + +Morga, Antonio de--'Sucesos de las Yslas Filipinas,' Mejico, 1609. + +Motley, John Lothrop--'Rise of the Dutch Republic.' + +Navarro, Fr. Eduardo--'Filipinas. Estudio de Asuntos de momento,' 1897. + +Nieto Jose--'Mindanao, su Historia y Geographia,' 1894. + +Palgrave, W. G.--'Ulysses, or Scenes in Many Lands'; 'Malay Life in +the Philippines.' + +Petermann--'Petermanns Mitth.', Ergaenzungsheft Nr 67, Gotha, 1882. + +Pigafetta--'Voyage Round the World,' Pinkerton, vol. ii. + +Prescott--'Conquest of Peru.' + +Posewitz, Dr. Theodor--'Borneo, its Geology and Mineral Resources.' + +Rathbone--'Camping and Tramping in Malaya.' + +Reyes, Ysabelo de los--Pamphlet. + +Rizal--'Noli me Tangere.' + +St. John, Spenser--'Life in the Forests of the Far East.' + +Torquemada, Fray Juan--'Monarquia Indiana.' + +Traill, H. D.--'Lord Cromer.' + +Vila, Francisco--'Filipinas,' 1880. + +Wallace, Alfred R.--'The Malay Archipelago.' + +Wingfield, Hon. Lewis--'Wanderings of a Globe-trotter.' + +Worcester, Dean C.--'The Philippine Islands and their People.' + +Younghusband, Major--'The Philippines and Round About.' + + + +Magazine Articles. + + +Scribner (George F. Becker)--'Are the Philippines Worth Having?' + +Blackwood (Anonymous)--'The Case of the Philippines.' + +Tennie, G. Claflin (Lady Cook)--'Virtue Defined' (New York Herald). + + + + +Speeches. + + +President McKinley: To the 10th Pennsylvania Regiment, Pittsburgh. + +Mr. Whitelaw Reid: To the Miami University, Ohio. + +Senator Hoar, in the Senate. + +Blue Book--55th Congress, 3rd Session, Doc. No. 62, Part I. + + + + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +INTRODUCTORY AND DESCRIPTIVE. + +Chapter I. + +Extent, Beauty and Fertility. + Pages + Extent, beauty and fertility of the Archipelago--Variety of + landscape--Vegetation--Mango trees--Bamboos 1-6 + +Chapter II. + +Spanish Government. + + Slight sketch of organization--Distribution of + population--Collection of taxes--The stick 7-13 + +Chapter III. + +Six Governors-General. + + Moriones--Primo de Rivera--Jovellar--Terreros--Weyler + --Despujols 14-23 + +Chapter IV. + +Courts of Justice. + + Alcaldes--The Audiencia--The Guardia Civil--Do not hesitate + to shoot--Talas 24-30 + +Chapter V. + +Tagal Crime and Spanish Justice. + + The murder of a Spaniard--Promptitude of the Courts--The + case of Juan de la Cruz--Twelve years in prison waiting + trial--Piratical outrage in Luzon--Culprits never tried; + several die in prison 31-47 + + +HISTORICAL. + +Chapter VI. + +Causes of Tagal Revolt. + + Corrupt officials--"Laws of the Indies"--Philippines a + dependency of Mexico, up to 1800--The opening of the Suez + Canal--Hordes of useless officials--The Asimilistas-- + Discontent, but no disturbance--Absence of crime--Natives + petition for the expulsion of the Friars--Many signatories + of the petition punished 48-56 + +Chapter VII. + +The Religious Orders. + + The Augustinians--Their glorious founder--Austin Friars + in England--Scotland--Mexico--They sail with Villalobos + for the Islands of the Setting Sun--Their disastrous voyage + --Fray Andres Urdaneta and his companions--Foundation of + Cebu and Manila with two hundred and forty other towns-- + Missions to Japan and China--The Flora Filipina--The + Franciscans--The Jesuits--The Dominicans--The Recollets-- + Statistics of the religious orders in the islands--Turbulence + of the friars--Always ready to fight for their country-- + Furnish a war ship and command it--Refuse to exhibit the + titles of their estates in 1689--The Augustinians take up + arms against the British--Ten of them fall on the field of + battle--Their rectories sacked and burnt--Bravery of the + archbishop and friars in 1820--Father Ibanez raises a + battalion--Leads it to the assault of a Moro Cotta--Execution + of native priests in 1872--Small garrison in the islands-- + Influence of the friars--Their behaviour--Herr Jagor--Foreman + --Worcester--Younghusband--Opinion of Pope Clement X.--Tennie + C. Claflin--Equality of opportunity--Statesque figures of the + girls--The author's experience of the Friars--The Philippine + clergy--Who shall cast the first stone!--Constitution of the + orders--Life of a friar--May become an Archbishop--The Chapter 57-70 + +Chapter VIII. + +Their Estates. + + Malinta and Piedad--Mandaloyan--San Francisco de + Malabon--Irrigation works--Imus--Calamba--Cabuyao--Santa + Rosa Binan--San Pedro Tunasan--Naic--Santa Cruz--Estates a + bone of contention for centuries--Principal cause of revolt + of Tagals--But the Peace Commission guarantee the Orders in + possession--Pacification retarded--Summary--The Orders must + go!--And be replaced by natives 71-78 + +Chapter IX. + +Secret Societies. + + Masonic Lodges--Execution or exile of Masons in 1872--The + "Asociacion Hispano Filipina"--The "Liga Filipina"--The + Katipunan--Its programme 79-83 + +Chapter X. + +The Insurrection of 1896-97. + + Combat at San Juan del Monte--Insurrection spreading--Arrival + of reinforcements from Spain--Rebel entrenchments--Rebel arms + and artillery--Spaniards repulsed from Binacayan--and from + Noveleta--Mutiny of Carabineros--Prisoners at Cavite attempt + to escape--Iniquities of the Spanish War Office--Lachambre's + division--Rebel organization--Rank and badges--Lachambre + advances--He captures Silang--Perez Dasmarinas--Salitran + --Anabo II. 84-96 + +Chapter XI. + +The Insurrection of 1896-97--continued. + + The Division encamps at San Nicolas--Work of the native + Engineer soldiers--The division marches to Salitran--Second + action at Anabo II.--Crispulo Aguinaldo killed--Storming the + entrenchments of Anabo I.--Burning of Imus by the rebels-- + Proclamation by General Polavieja--Occupation of Bacoor-- + Difficult march of the division--San Antonio taken by assault + --Division in action with all its artillery--Capture of + Noveleta--San Francisco taken by assault--Heavy loss of the + Tagals--Losses of the division--The division broken up-- + Monteverde's book--Polaveija returns to Spain--Primo de Rivera + arrives to take his place--General Monet's butcheries--The pact + of Biak-na-Bato--The 74th Regiment joins the insurgents--The + massacre of the Calle Camba--Amnesty for torturers--Torture + in other countries 97-108 + +Chapter XII. + +The Americans in the Philippines. + + Manila Bay--The naval battle of Cavite--General Aguinaldo-- + Progress of the Tagals--The Tagal Republic--Who were the + aggressors?--Requisites for a settlement--Scenes of + drunkenness--The estates of the religious orders to be + restored--Slow progress of the campaign--Colonel Funston's + gallant exploits--Colonel Stotsenburg's heroic death-- + General Antonio Luna's gallant rally of his troops at + Macabebe--Reports manipulated--Imaginary hills and jungles + --Want of co-operation between Army and Navy--Advice of Sir + Andrew Clarke--Naval officers as administrators--Mr. + Whitelaw Reid's denunciations--Senator Hoar's opinion--Mr. + McKinley's speech at Pittsburgh--The false prophets of the + Philippines--Tagal opinion of American Rule--Senor Mabini's + manifesto--Don Macario Adriatico's letter--Foreman's + prophecy--The administration misled--Racial antipathy--The + curse of the Redskins--The recall of General Otis--McArthur + calls for reinforcements--Sixty-five thousand men and forty + ships of war--State of the islands--Aguinaldo on the Taft + Commission 109-123 + +Chapter XIII. + +Native Admiration for America. + + Their fears of a corrupt government--The islands might be + an earthly paradise--Wanted, the man--Rajah Brooke--Sir + Andrew Clarke--Hugh Clifford--John Nicholson--Charles + Gordon--Evelyn Baring--Mistakes of the Peace Commission-- + Government should be a Protectorate--Fighting men should + be made governors--What might have been--The Malay race-- + Senator Hoar's speech--Four years' slaughter of the Tagals 124-128 + + +RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. + +Chapter XIV. + +Resources of the Philippines. + + At the Spanish conquest--Rice--the lowest use the land + can be put to--How the Americans are misled--Substitutes + for rice--Wheat formerly grown--Tobacco--Compania General + de Tabacos--Abaca--Practically a monopoly of the + Philippines--Sugar--Coffee--Cacao--Indigo--Cocoa-nut oil + --Rafts of nuts--Copra--True localities for cocoa palm + groves Summary--More sanguine forecasts--Common-sense view 129-138 + +Chapter XV. + +Forestal. + + Value exaggerated--Difficulties of labour and transport-- + Special sawing machinery required--Market for timber in the + islands--Teak not found--Jungle produce--Warning to investors + in companies--Gutta percha 139-142 + +Chapter XVI. + +The Minerals. + + Gold: Dampier--Pigafetta--De Comyn--Placers in Luzon-- + Gapan--River Agno--The Igorrotes--Auriferous quartz from + Antaniac--Capunga--Pangutantan--Goldpits at Suyuc--Atimonan + --Paracale--Mambulao--Mount Labo--Surigao River Siga-- + Gigaquil, Caninon-Binutong, and Cansostral Mountains-- + Misamis--Pighoulugan--Iponan--Pigtao--Dendritic gold from + Misamis--Placer gold traded away surreptitiously--Cannot + be taxed--Spanish mining laws--Pettifogging lawyers-- + Prospects for gold seekers. Copper: Native copper at Surigao + and Torrijos (Mindoro)--Copper deposits at Mancayan worked + by the Igorrotes--Spanish company--Insufficient data-- + Caution required. Iron: Rich ores found in the Cordillera of + Luzon--Worked by natives--Some Europeans have attempted but + failed--Red hematite in Cebu--Brown hematite in Paracale-- + Both red and brown in Capiz--Oxydised iron in Misamis-- + Magnetic iron in San Miguel de Mayumo--Possibilities. Coal + (so called): Beds of lignite upheaved--Vertical seams at + Sugud--Reason of failure--Analysis of Masbate lignite. + Various minerals: Galena--Red lead--Graphite--Quicksilver-- + Sulphur Asbestos--Yellow ochre--Kaolin, Marble--Plastic + clays--Mineral waters 143-157 + +Chapter XVII. + +Manufactures and Industries. + + Cigars and cigarettes--Textiles--Cotton--Abaca--Jusi--Rengue + --Nipis--Saguran--Sinamay--Guingon--Silk handkerchiefs--Pina + --Cordage--Bayones--Esteras--Baskets--Lager beer--Alcohol-- + Wood oils and resins--Essence of Ylang-ilang--Salt--Bricks-- + Tiles--Cooking-pots--Pilones--Ollas--Embroidery--Goldsmiths' + and silversmiths' work--Salacots--Cocoa-nut oil--Saddles and + harness--Carromatas--Carriages--Schooners--Launches--Lorchas + --Cascos--Pontines--Bangcas--Engines and boilers--Furniture + --Fireworks--Lanterns--Brass Castings--Fish breeding--Drying + sugar--Baling hemp--Repacking wet sugar--Oppressive tax on + industries--Great future for manufactures--Abundant labour-- + Exceptional intelligence 158-163 + + +Chapter XVIII. + +Commercial and Industrial Prospects. + + Philippines not a poor man's country--Oscar F. Williams' + letter--No occupation for white mechanics--American + merchants unsuccessful in the East--Difficulties of living + amongst Malays--Inevitable quarrels--Unsuitable climate--The + Mali-mali or Sakit-latah--The Traspaso de hambre--Chiflados + --Wreck of the nervous system--Effects of abuse of alcohol-- + Capital the necessity--Banks--Advances to cultivators--To + timber cutters--To gold miners--Central sugar factories-- + Paper-mills--Rice-mills--Cotton-mills--Saw-mills--Coasting + steamers--Railway from Manila to Batangas--From Siniloan to + the Pacific--Survey for ship canal--Bishop Gainzas' project + --Tramways for Luzon and Panay--Small steamers for Mindanao + --Chief prospect is agriculture 164-172 + + +SOCIAL. + +Chapter XIX. + +Life in Manila. (A Chapter for the Ladies.) + + Climate--Seasons--Terrible Month of May--Hot winds--Longing + for rain--Burst of the monsoon--The Alimoom--Never sleep on + the ground floor--Dress--Manila houses--Furniture-- + Mosquitoes--Baths--Gogo--Servants--Wages in 1892--The + Maestro cook--The guild of cooks--The Mayordomo--Household + budget, 1892--Diet--Drinks--Ponies--Carriage a necessity for + a lady--The garden--Flowers--Shops--Pedlars--Amusements-- + Necessity of access to the hills--Good Friday in Manila 173-187 + +Chapter XX. + +Sport. (A Chapter for Men.) + + The Jockey Club--Training--The races--An Archbishop + presiding--The Totalisator or Pari Mutuel--The Manila + Club--Boating club--Rifle clubs--Shooting--Snipe--Wild + duck--Plover--Quail--Pigeons--Tabon--Labuyao, or jungle + cock--Pheasants--Deer--Wild pig--No sport in fishing 188-191 + + +GEOGRAPHICAL. + +Chapter XXI. + +Brief Geographical Description of Luzon. + + Irregular shape--Harbours--Bays--Mountain ranges--Blank + spaces on maps--North-east coast unexplored--River and + valley of Cagayan--Central valley from Bay of Lingayen + to Bay of Manila--Rivers Agno, Chico, Grande--The Pinag of + Candaba--Project for draining--River Pasig--Laguna de Bay--Lake + of Taal--Scene of a cataclysm--Collapse of a volcanic cone 8000 + feet high--Black and frowning island of Mindoro--Worcester's + pluck and endurance--Placers of Camarines--River Vicol--The + wondrous purple cone of Mayon--Luxuriant vegetation + 192-200 + + + +THE INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES. + + Description of their appearance, dress, arms, religion, manners + and customs, and the localities they inhabit, their agriculture, + industries and pursuits, with suggestions as to how they can be + utilised, commercially and politically. With many unpublished + photographs of natives, their arms, ornaments, sepulchres and + idols. + + +Aboriginal Inhabitants. + + Scattered over the Islands. + +Chapter XXII. + +Aetas or Negritos. + + Including Balugas, Dumagas, Mamanuas, and Manguianes 201-207 + + +PART I. + +Inhabitants of Luzon and Adjacent Islands. + +Chapter XXIII. + + Tagals (1) 208-221 + +Chapter XXIV. + + Tagals as Soldiers and Sailors 222-237 + +Chapter XXV. + + Pampangos (2) 238-245 + +Chapter XXVI. + + Zambales (3)--Pangasinanes (4)--Ilocanos (5)--Ibanags or + Cagayanes (6) 246-253 + +Chapter XXVII. + + Igorrotes (7) 254-267 + +Chapter XXVIII. + + Isinays (11)--Abacas (12)--Italones (13)--Ibilaos + (14)--Ilongotes (15)--Mayoyaos and Silipanes (16) + --Ifugaos (17)--Gaddanes (18)--Itetapanes (19) + --Guinanes (20) 268-273 + +Chapter XXIX. + + Calauas or Itaves (21)--Camuangas and Bayabonanes (22) + --Dadayags (23)--Nabayuganes (24)--Aripas (25)--Calingas + (26)--Tinguianes (27)--Adangs (28)--Apayaos (29)-- + Catalanganes and Irayas (30-31) 274-282 + +Chapter XXX. + + Catubanganes (32)--Vicols (33) 283-287 + +Chapter XXXI. + +The Chinese in Luzon. + + Mestizos or half-breeds 288-294 + + +PART II. + +The Visayas and Palawan. + +Chapter XXXII. + +The Visayas Islands. + + Area and population--Panay--Negros--Cebu--Bohol--Leyte + --Samar 295-299 + +Chapter XXXIII. + +The Visayas Race. + + Appearance--Dress--Look upon Tagals as foreigners-- + Favourable opinion of Tomas de Comyn--Old Christians-- + Constant wars with the Moro pirates and Sea Dayaks--Secret + heathen rites--Accusation of indolence unfounded--Exports + of hemp and sugar--Ilo-ilo sugar--Cebu sugar--Textiles--A + promising race 300-306 + + +Chapter XXXIV. + +The Island of Palawan, or Paragua. + + The Tagbanuas--Tandulanos--Manguianes--Negritos--Moros of + southern Palawan--Tagbanua alphabet 307-320 + + +PART III. + +Mindanao, Including Basilan. + +Chapter XXXV. + +Brief Geographical Description. + + Configuration--Mountains--Rivers--Lakes--Division + into districts--Administration--Productions--Basilan 321-330 + +Chapter XXXVI. + +The Tribes of Mindanao. + + Visayas (1) [Old Christians]--Mamanuas (2)--Manobos (3) + --Mandayas (4)--Manguangas (5)--Monteses or Buquidnones(6) + --Atas or Ata-as (7)--Guiangas (8)--Bagobos (9) 331-351 + +Chapter XXXVII. + +The Tribes of Mindanao--continued. + + Calaganes (10)--Tagacaolos (11)--Dulanganes (12)--Tirurayes + (13)--Tagabelies (14)--Samales (15)--Vilanes (16)-- + Subanos (17) 352-360 + +Chapter XXXVIII. + +The Moros, or Mahometan Malays (18 to 23). + + Illanos (18)--Sanguiles (19)--Lutangas (20)--Calibuganes + (21) Yacanes (22)--Samales (23) 361-373 + +Chapter XXXIX. + + Tagabauas (24) 374-375 + +The Chinese in Mindanao. + + N.B.--The territory occupied by each tribe is shown on the general + map of Mindanao by the number on this list. + +Chapter XL. + +The Political Condition of Mindanao, 1899. + + Relapse into savagery--Moros the great danger--Visayas + the mainstay--Confederation of Lake Lanao--Recall of + the Missionaries--Murder and pillage in Davao--Eastern + Mindanao--Western Mindanao--The three courses--Orphanage + of Tamontaca--Fugitive slaves--Polygamy an impediment to + conversion--Labours of the Jesuits--American Roman Catholics + should send them help 376-388 + + +APPENDIX. + + Chronological Table 389 + Table of Exports for twelve Years 411 + Estimate of Population 415 + Philippine Budget of 1897 compared with Revenue of 1887 416, 417 + Value of Land in several Provinces of Luzon 418 + List of Spanish and Filipino Words used in the Work 419 + Cardinal Numbers in Seven Malay Dialects 422 + + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +Portrait of the Author Frontispiece +View on the Pasig with Bamboos and Canoe To face p. 6 +Facsimile of Cedula Personal 53 +Some of the rising generation in the Philippines 75 +Map of the Philippine Islands 150 +Group of women making Cigars 158 +Salacots and Women's Hats 160 +Author's office, Muelle Del Rey, ss. Salvadora, and Lighters +called "Cascos" 161 +River Pasio showing Russell and Sturgis's former office 166 +Tower of Manila Cathedral after the Earthquakes, 1880 168-9 +Suburb of Malate after a typhoon, October 1882, when thirteen +ships were driven ashore +Author's house at Ermita 177 +Fernery at Ermita 185 +A Negrito from Negros Island 207 +A Manila Man 208-9 +A Manila Girl +Tagal Girl wearing Scapulary 216 +Carabao harnessed to native Plough; Ploughman, Village, and +Church Between 226-7 +Paddy Field recently planted +Paulino Marillo, a Tagal of Laguna, Butler to the author 229 +A Farderia, or Sugar Drying and Packing Place 240 +Igorrote Spearmen and Negriot Archer 254 +Anitos of Northern Tribes 258 +Aitos of the Igorrotes 258 +Coffin of an Igorrote Noble, with his Coronets and other Ornaments 259 +Weapons of the Highlands of Luzon 261 +Igorrote Dresses and Ornaments, Water-Jar, Dripstones, Pipes, +and Baskets 264 +Anitos, Highlands 266 +Anito of the Igorrotes 266 +Igorrote Drums 266 +Tinguianes, Aeta, and Igorrotes 276 +Vicols Preparing Hemp:-- 287 + Cutting the Plant + Separating the Petioles + Adjusting under the Knife + Drawing out the Fibre +Visayas Women at a Loom 305 +Lieut. P. Garcia and Local Militia of Baganga, Caraga (East Coast) 333 +Atas from the Back Slopes of the Apo 347 +Heathen Guiangas, from the Slopes of the Apo 349 +Father Gisbert, S.J. exhorting a Bagobo Datto and his Followers +to Abandon their custom of making Human Sacrifices 350-1 +The Datto Manib, Principal Bagani of the Bagabos, with some Wives +and Followers and Two Missionaries 350-1 +The Moro Sword and Spear 363 +Moros of the Bay of Mayo 367 +Moro Lantacas and Coat of Mail 373 +Seat of the Moro Power, Lake Lanao 377 +Double-barrelled Lantaca of Artistic Design and Moro Arms 387 + + + + + + + + + + + +THE INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES. + +CHAPTER I. + +EXTENT, BEAUTY AND FERTILITY. + + Extent, beauty, and fertility of the Archipelago--Variety of + landscape--Vegetation--Mango trees--Bamboos. + + +Extent. + +The Philippine Archipelago, in which I include the Sulu group, lies +entirely within the northern tropic; the southernmost island of the +Tawi-tawi group called Sibutu reaches down to 4 deg. 38' N., whilst Yami, +the northernmost islet of the Batanes group, lies in 21 deg. 7' N. This +gives an extreme length of 1100 miles, whilst the extreme breadth is +about 680 miles, measured a little below the 8th parallel from the +Island of Balabac to the east coast of Mindanao. + +Various authorities give the number of islands and islets at 1200 and +upwards; many have probably never been visited by a white man. We need +only concern ourselves with the principal islands and those adjacent +to them. + +From the hydrographic survey carried out by officers of the Spanish +Navy, the following areas have been calculated and are considered +official, except those marked with an asterisk, which are only +estimated. + + + Sq. Miles. Sq. Miles. + + Luzon 42,458 + + Babuyanes Islands 272 + Batanes Islands 104 + Mindoro 4,153 + Catanduanes 721 + Marinduque 332 + Polillo 300 + Burias 116 + Ticao. 144 + Masbate 1,642 + ----- 7,784 + ------ + Total Luzon and adjacent islands 50,242 + + Visayas, etc. + Panay 4,898 + Negros 3,592 + Cebu 2,285 + Bohol 1,226 + Leyte 3,706 + Samar 5,182 + ----- 20,889 + + Mindanao 34,456 + Palawan and Balabac 5,963 + Calamianes Islands 640 + ------- + Area of principal islands 112,190 + + +The Spanish official estimate of the area of the whole Archipelago +is 114,214 square miles [1] equivalent to 73,000,000 acres, so that +the remaining islands ought to measure between them something over +2000 square miles. + + + +Beauty and Fertility. + +Lest I should be taxed with exaggeration when I record my impressions +of the beauty and potential wealth of the Archipelago, so far as I +have seen it; I shall commence by citing the opinions of some who, +at different times, have visited the islands. + +I think I cannot do better than give precedence to the impressions +of two French gentlemen who seem to me to have done justice to the +subject, then cite the calm judgment of a learned and sagacious Teuton, +and lastly quote from the laboured paragraphs of a much-travelled +cosmopolite, at one time Her Britannic Majesty's Consul at Manila. + +Monsieur Dumont D'Urville says: "The Philippines, and above all +Luzon, have nothing in this world to equal them in climate, beauty +of landscape, and fertility of soil. Luzon is the finest diamond that +the Spanish adventurers have ever found. + +"It has remained uncut in their hands; but deliver over Luzon to +British activity and tolerance, or else to the laborious tenacity +of the Dutch Creoles, and you will see what will come out of this +marvellous gem." + +Monsieur de Guignes says: "Of the numerous colonies belonging to +the Spaniards, as one of the most important must indisputably be +reckoned the Philippines. Their position, their great fertility, and +the nature of their productions, render them admirably adapted for +active commerce, and if the Spaniards have not derived much benefit +from them, to themselves and to their manner of training is the fault +to be ascribed." + +Herr Jagor, speaking of the Province of Bulacan, says the roads were +good and were continuously shaded by fruit trees, cocoa and areca +palms, and the aspect of this fruitful province reminded him of the +richest districts in Java, but he found the pueblos here exhibited +more comfort than the desas there. + +Mr. Gifford Palgrave says: "Not the AEgean, not the West Indian, +not the Samoan, not any other of the fair island clusters by which +our terraqueous planet half atones for her dreary expanses of +grey ocean and monotonous desert elsewhere, can rival in manifold +beauties of earth, sea, sky, the Philippine Archipelago; nor in all +that Archipelago, lovely as it is through its entire extent, can any +island vie with the glories of Luzon." + + + +Variety of Landscape. + +If I may without presumption add my testimony to that of these +illustrious travellers, I would say that, having been over a great +part of South America, from Olinda Point to the Straits of Magellan, +from Tierra del Fuego to Panama, not only on the coasts but in the +interior, from the Pampas of the Argentine and the swamps of the Gran +Chaco to where + + + "The roots of the Andes strike deep in the earth + As their summits to heaven shoot soaringly forth;" + + +having traversed the fairest gems of the Antilles and seen some of the +loveliest landscapes in Japan, I know of no land more beautiful than +Luzon, certainly of none possessing more varied features or offering +more striking contrasts. + +Limestone cliffs and pinnacles, cracked and hollowed into labyrinthine +caves, sharp basalt peaks, great ranges of mountains, isolated +volcanic cones, cool crystalline springs, jets of boiling water, +cascades, rivers, lakes, swamps, narrow valleys and broad plains, +rocky promontories and coral reefs, every feature is present, except +the snow-clad peak and the glacier. + + + +Vegetation. + +Vegetation here runs riot, hardly checked by the devastating typhoon, +or the fall of volcanic ashes. From the cocoa-nut palm growing on +the coral strand, from the mangrove, building its pyramid of roots +upon the ooze, to the giant bamboo on the banks of the streams, and +the noble mango tree adorning the plains, every tropical species +flourishes in endless variety, and forests of conifers [2] clothe +the summits of the Zambales and Ilocan mountains. + +As for the forest wealth, the trees yielding indestructible timber +for ships, houses or furniture, those giving valuable drugs and +healing oils, gums and pigments, varnishes, pitch and resin, dyes, +sap for fermenting or distilling, oil for burning, water, vinegar, +milk, fibre, charcoal, pitch, fecula, edible fungi, tubers, bark and +fruits, it would take a larger book than this to enumerate them in +their incredible variety. + + + +Mango Trees. + +A notable feature of the Philippine landscape is the mango tree. This +truly magnificent tree is often of perfect symmetry, and rears aloft on +its massive trunk and wide-spreading branches a perfect dome of green +and glistening leaves, adorned in season with countless strings of +sweet-scented blossom and pendent clusters of green and golden fruit, +incomparably luscious, unsurpassed, unequalled. + +Beneath that shapely vault of verdure the feathered tribes find +shelter. The restless mango bird [3] displays his contrasted plumage of +black and yellow as he flits from bough to bough, the crimson-breasted +pigeon and the ring-dove rest secure. + +These glorious trees are pleasing objects for the eye to rest on. All +through the fertile valleys of Luzon they stand singly or in groups, +and give a character to the landscape which would otherwise be +lacking. Only the largest and finest English oaks can compare with +the mango trees in appearance; but whilst the former yield nothing +of value, one or two mango trees will keep a native family in comfort +and even affluence with their generous crop. + + + +Bamboos. + + +On the banks of the Philippine streams and rivers that giant grass, +the thorny bamboo, grows and thrives. It grows in clumps of twenty, +forty, fifty stems. Starting from the ground, some four to six inches +in diameter, it shoots aloft for perhaps seventy feet, tapering to +the thickness of a match at its extremity, putting forth from each +joint slender and thorny branches, carrying small, thin, and pointed +leaves, so delicately poised as to rustle with the least breath of air. + +The canes naturally take a gradual curve which becomes more and more +accentuated as their diameter diminishes, until they bend over at +their tops and sway freely in the breeze. + +I can only compare a fine clump of bamboos to a giant plume of green +ostrich feathers. Nothing in the vegetable kingdom is more graceful, +nothing can be more useful. Under the blast of a typhoon the bamboo +bends so low that it defies all but the most sudden and violent +gusts. If, however, it succumbs, it is generally the earth under it +that gives way, and the whole clump falls, raising its interlaced +roots and a thick wall of earth adhering to and embraced by them. + +Piercing the hard earth, shoving aside the stones with irresistible +force, comes the new bamboo, its head emerging like a giant artichoke. + +Each flinty-headed shoot soars aloft with a rapidity astonishing to +those who have only witnessed the tardy growth of vegetation in the +temperate zone. I carefully measured a shoot of bamboo in my garden +in Santa Ana and found that it grew two feet in three days, that is, +eight inches a day, 1/3 inch per hour. I could see it grow. When +I commenced to measure the shoot it was eighteen inches high and +was four inches in diameter. This rapid growth, which, considering +the extraordinary usefulness of the bamboo ought to excite man's +gratitude to Almighty Providence, has, to the shame of human nature, +led the Malay and the Chinaman to utilise the bamboo to inflict death +by hideous torture on his fellow men. (See Tukang Burok's story in +Hugh Clifford's 'Studies of Brown Humanity.') + +Each joint is carefully enveloped by nature in a wrapper as tough as +parchment, covered, especially round the edges, with millions of small +spines. The wrapper, when dry, is brown, edged with black, but when +fresh the colours are remarkable, pale yellow, dark yellow, orange, +brown, black, pale green, dark green, black; all shaded or contrasted +in a way to make a Parisian dress designer feel sick with envy. + +This wrapper does not fall off till the joint has hardened and acquired +its flinty armour so as to be safe from damage by any animal. + +It would take a whole chapter to enumerate the many and varied uses +of the bamboo. + +Suffice it to say that I cannot conceive how the Philippine native +could do without it. + +Everlastingly renewing its youth, perpetually soaring to the sky, +proudly overtopping all that grows, splendidly flourishing when meaner +plants must fade from drought, this giant grass, which delights the +eyes, takes rank as one of God's noblest gifts to tropical man. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +SPANISH GOVERNMENT. + + Slight sketch of organization--Distribution of + population--Collection of taxes--The stick. + + +The supreme head of the administration was a Governor-General or +Captain-General of the Philippines. The British Colonial Office has +preserved this Spanish title in Jamaica where the supreme authority +is still styled Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief. + +In recent years no civilian has been Governor-General of +the Philippines, the appointment being given or sold to a +Lieutenant-General, though in 1883 a Field-Marshal was sent out. But +in 1874 Rear-Admiral Malcampo obtained the post, and a very weak and +foolish Governor-General he turned out to be. + +In former times military men did not have a monopoly of such posts, +and civilians, judges, priests, and bishops have held this appointment. + +The Governor-General had great powers. Practically, if not legally, +he had the power of life and death, for he could proclaim martial +law and try offenders by court-martial. He was ex officio president +of every corporation or commission, and he could expel from the +Islands any person, whether Spaniard, native, or foreigner, by a +decree declaring that his presence was inconvenient. + + + +Slight Sketch of Organization. + +He could suspend or remove any official, and in fact was almost +despotic. On the other hand he had to remember two important +limitations. Unless he supported the religious orders against all +comers he would have the Procurators of these wealthy corporations, who +reside in Madrid, denouncing him to the Ministry as an anti-clerical, +and a freemason, and perhaps offering a heavy bribe for his removal. If +he made an attempt to put down corruption and embezzlement in the +Administration, his endeavours would be thwarted in every possible way +by the officials, and a formidable campaign of calumny and detraction +would be inaugurated against him. The appointment was for a term +of three years at a salary of $40,000 per annum, and certain very +liberal travelling allowances. + +Since the earthquake of 1863 the official residence of the +Governors-General was at Malacanan, on the River Pasig in the ward of +San Miguel. This is now the residence of the American Governor. He had +a troop of native Lancers to escort him when he drove out, and a small +corps of Halberdiers for duty within the palace and grounds. These +latter wore a white uniform with red facings, and were armed with a +long rapier and a halberd. They were also furnished with rifles and +bayonets for use in case of an emergency. + +When the Governor-General drove out, every man saluted him by raising +his hat--and when he went to the Cathedral he was received by the +clergy at the door, and, on account of being the Vice-Regal Patron, +was conducted under a canopy along the nave to a seat of honour. + +His position was in fact one of great power and dignity, and it was +felt necessary to surround the representative of the king with much +pomp and state in order to impress the natives with his importance +and authority. + +There was a Governor-General of Visayas who resided at Cebu, and was +naturally subordinate to the Governor-General of the Philippines. He +was usually a Brigadier-General. + +In case of the death or absence of the Governor-General, the +temporary command devolved upon the Segundo Cabo, a general officer +in immediate command of the military forces. Failing him, the Acting +Governor-Generalship passed to the Admiral commanding the station. + +The two principal departments of the administration were the +Intendencia or Treasury, and the Direction of Civil Administration. + +The Archipelago is divided into fifty-one provinces or districts, +according to the accompanying table and map. + + + Distribution of Population. + + Provinces. Males. Females. Total. + + Abra 21,631 21,016 42,647 + Albay 127,413 130,120 257,533 + Antique 60,193 63,910 124,103 + Balabac 1,912 27 1,939 + Bataan 25,603 24,396 49,999 + Batangas 137,143 137,932 275,075 + Benguet (district) 8,206 12,104 20,310 + Bohol 109,472 117,074 226,546 + Bontoc 40,515 41,914 82,429 + Bulacan 127,455 124,694 252,149 + Burias 84 44 128 + Cagayan 37,157 35,540 72,697 + Calamianes 8,227 8,814 17,041 + Camarines Norte 15,931 14,730 30,661 + Camarines Sur 78,545 77,852 156,400 + Capiz 114,827 128,417 243,244 + Cavite 66,523 65,541 132,064 + Cebu 201,066 202,230 403,296 + Corregidor (island of) 216 203 419 + Cottabato 788 494 1,282 + Davao 983 712 1,695 + Ilocos Norte 76,913 79,802 156,715 + Ilocos Sur 97,916 103,133 201,049 + Ilo-Ilo 203,879 206,551 410,430 + Infanta (district) 4,947 4,947 9,894 + Isabela de Basilan 454 338 792 + Isabela de Luzon 20,251 18,365 38,616 + Islas Batanes 4,004 4,741 8,745 + Isla de Negros 106,851 97,818 204,669 + Laguna 66,332 66,172 132,504 + Lepanto 8,255 16,219 24,474 + Leyte 113,275 107,240 220,515 + Manila 137,280 120,994 258,274 + Masbate and Ticao 8,835 8,336 17,171 + Mindoro 29,220 28,908 58,128 + Misamis 46,020 42,356 88,376 + Morong 21,506 21,556 43,062 + Nueva Ecija 63,456 60,315 123,771 + Nueva Vizcaya 8,495 7,612 16,107 + Pampanga 114,425 111,884 226,309 + Pangasinan 149,141 144,150 293,291 + Principe (district) 2,085 2,073 4,158 + Puerto Princesa 350 228 578 + Romblon 14,528 13,626 28,154 + Samar 92,330 86,560 178,890 + Surigao 28,371 27,875 56,246 + Tarlac 42,432 40,325 82,757 + Tayabas 27,886 25,782 53,668 + Union 55,802 57,568 113,370 + Zambales 49,617 44,934 94,551 + Zamboanga 7,683 6,461 14,144 + --------- --------- --------- + 2,794,876 2,762,743 5,557,619 + + +The above figures are taken from the official census of 1877. + +This is the latest I have been able to find. + +In the Appendix is given an estimate of the population in 1890, the +author puts the number at 8,000,000, and at this date there may well +be 9,000,000 inhabitants in the Philippines and Sulus. + +It will be seen that these provinces are of very different extent, +and vary still more in population, for some have only a few hundred +inhabitants, whilst others, for instance, Cebu and Ilo-Ilo have +half-a-million. + +Each province was under a Governor, either civil or military. Those +provinces which were entirely pacified had Civil Governors, whilst +those more liable to disturbance or attack from independent tribes +or from the Moors had Military Governors. Up to 1886 the pacified +provinces were governed by Alcaldes-Mayores, who were both governors +and judges. An appeal from their decisions could be made to the +Audiencia or High Court at Manila. + +From the earliest times of their appointment, the Alcaldes were allowed +to trade. Some appointments carried the right to trade, but most of +the Alcaldes had to covenant to forego a large proportion of their very +modest stipends in order to obtain this privilege. By trade and by the +fees and squeezes of their law courts they usually managed to amass +fortunes. In 1844 the Alcaldes were finally prohibited from trading. + +This was a rude system of government, but it was cheap, and a populous +province might only have to maintain half-a-dozen Spaniards. + +Each town has its municipality consisting of twelve principales, +all natives, six are chosen from those who have already been +Gobernadorcillos. They are called past-captains, and correspond to +aldermen who have passed the chair. The other six are chosen from +amongst the Barangay headmen. From these twelve are elected all +the officials, the Gobernadorcillo or Capitan, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd +lieutenants, the alguaciles (constables), the judges of the fields, of +cattle, and of police. The Capitan appoints and pays the directorcillo +or town clerk, who attends to the routine business. + +For the maintenance of order, and for protecting the town against +attack, there is a body of local police called Cuadrilleros. These +are armed with bolos and lances in the smaller and poorer towns, +but in more important places they have fire-arms usually of obsolete +pattern. But in towns exposed to Moro attack the cuadrilleros are +more numerous, and carry Remington rifles. + +The Gobernadorcillos of towns were directly responsible to the +governor of the province, the governor in case of emergency reported +direct to the Governor-General, but for routine business through +the Director-General of Civil Administration, which embraced the +departments of Public Works, Inspection of Mines and Forests, Public +Instruction, Model Farms, etc. + +The collection of taxes was under the governors of provinces assisted +by delegates of the Intendant-General. It was directly effected by +the Barangay headman each of whom was supposed to answer for fifty +families, the individuals of which were spoken of as his sacopes. His +eldest son was recognised as his chief assistant, and he, like his +father, was exempt from the tribute or capitation tax. + +The office was hereditary, and was not usually desired, but like the +post of sheriff in an English county it had to be accepted nolens +volens. + +No doubt a great deal of latitude was allowed to the Barangay Chiefs +in order that they might collect the tax, and the stick was often in +requisition. In fact the chiefs had to pay the tax somehow, and it +is not surprising that they took steps to oblige their sacopes to pay. + +I, however, in my fourteen years' experience, never came across such a +case as that mentioned by Worcester, p. 295, where he states that in +consequence of a deficiency of $7000, forty-four headmen of Siquijor +were seized and exiled, their lands, houses and cattle confiscated, +and those dependent on them left to shift for themselves. The amount +owing by each headman was under $160 Mexican, equal to $80 gold, and +it would not take much in the way of lands, houses, and cattle to pay +off this sum. However, it is true that Siquijor is a poor island. But +on page 284 he maintains that the inhabitants of Siquijor had plenty +of money to back their fighting-cocks, and paid but little attention +to the rule limiting each man's bet on one fight to $50. From this +we may infer that they could find money to bet with, but not to pay +their taxes. + + + + +Collection of Taxes. + +Natives of the gorgeous East very commonly require a little persuasion +to make them pay their taxes, and I have read of American millionaires +who, in the absence of this system, could not be got to pay at all. Not +many years ago, there was an enquiry as to certain practices resorted +to by native tax-collectors in British India to induce the poor Indian +to pay up; anybody who is curious to know the particulars can hunt +them up in the Blue Books--they are unsuitable for publication. + +In Egypt, up to 1887, or thereabouts, the "courbash" [4] was in use +for this purpose. I quote from a speech by Lord Cromer delivered about +that time ('Lord Cromer,' by H. D. Traill): "The courbash used to be +very frequently employed for two main objects, viz.: the collection of +taxes, and the extortion of evidence. I think I may say with confidence +that the use of the courbash as a general practice in connection either +with collection of taxes or the extortion of evidence has ceased." + +But we need not go so far East for examples of collecting taxes by +means of the stick. The headmen of the village communities in Russia +freely apply the lash to recalcitrant defaulters. + +It would seem, therefore, that the Spaniards erred in company with +many other nations. It was by no means an invention of theirs, and +it will be remembered that some of our early kings used to persuade +the Jews to pay up by drawing their teeth. + + + +Its Good Points. + +The Government and the laws partook of a patriarchal character, +and notwithstanding certain exactions, the Spanish officials and +the natives got on very well together. The Alcaldes remained for +many years in one province, and knew all the principal people +intimately. I doubt if there was any colony in the world where as +much intercourse took place between the governors and the natives, +certainly not in any British colony, nor in British India, where the +gulf ever widens. In this case, governors and governed professed +the same religion, and no caste distinctions prevailed to raise a +barrier between them. They could worship together, they could eat +together, and marriages between Spaniards and the daughters of the +native landowners were not unfrequent. These must be considered +good points, and although the general corruption and ineptitude of +the administration was undeniable, yet, bad as it was, it must be +admitted that it was immeasurably superior to any government that +any Malay community had ever established. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +SIX GOVERNORS-GENERAL. + + Moriones--Primo de Rivera--Jovellar--Terreros--Weyler--Despujols. + + +Moriones. + +During my residence in the Islands--from 1877 to 1892--there were +six Governors-General, and they differed very widely in character +and ideas. + +The first was Don Domingo Moriones y Murillo, Marquis of Oroquieto, +an austere soldier, and a stern disciplinarian. He showed himself to +be a man of undaunted courage, and of absolutely incorruptible honesty. + +When he landed in Manila he found that, owing to the weakness of +Admiral Malcampo, his predecessor, the Peninsular Regiment of Artillery +had been in open mutiny, and that the matter had been hushed up. After +taking the oath of office, and attending a Te Deum at the Cathedral, +he mounted his horse, and, attended by his aides-de-camp, rode to the +barracks, and ordered the regiment to parade under arms. He rode down +the ranks, and recognised many soldiers who had served under him in +the Carlist wars. + +He then stationed himself in front of the regiment, and delivered a +remarkable and most stirring oration. He said that it grieved him to +the heart to think that Spanish soldiers, sent to the Philippines to +maintain the authority of their king and country, many of whom had +with him faced the awful fusillade of Somorrostro, and had bravely +done their duty, could fall so low as to become callous mutineers, +deaf to the calls of duty, and by their bad conduct tarnish the +glory of the Spanish Army in the eyes of all the world. Such as +they deserved no mercy; their lives were all forfeited. Still he +was willing to believe that they were not entirely vicious, that +repentance and reform were still possible to the great majority. He +would, therefore, spare the lives of most of them in the hope that +they might once more become worthy soldiers of Spain. But he would +decimate them; every tenth man must die. + +He then directed the lieutenant-colonel in command to number off the +regiment by tens from the right. + +Let the reader ponder upon the situation. Here was a mutinous +veteran regiment that for months had been the terror of the city, +and had frightened the Governor-General and all the authorities into +condoning its crimes. + +In front of it sat upon his horse one withered old man. But that +man's record was such that he seemed to those reckless mutineers to +be transfigured into some awful avenging angel. His modest stature +grew to a gigantic size in their eyes; the whole regiment seemed +hypnotized. They commenced numbering. It was an impressive scene--the +word ten meant death. The men on the extreme right felt happy; they +were sure to escape. Confidently rang out their voices: one, two, +three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine--then a stop. The doomed +wretch standing next would not say the fatal word. Moriones turned +his glance upon the captain of the right company, and that officer +perceived that the crisis of his life had arrived, and that the next +few seconds would make or mar him; one instant's hesitation would cost +him his commission. Drawing and cocking his revolver, he held it in +front of the forehead of the tenth man, and ordered him to call out +ten. Placed thus between the alternative of instant death or obedience, +the unhappy gunner complied, and the numbering of the whole line was +accomplished. The number tens were ordered to step out of the ranks, +were disarmed, placed under arrest, and notified that they would +be shot next morning. As regards the others, all leave was stopped, +and extra drills ordered. Great interest was exerted with Moriones to +pardon the condemned men, and he did commute the death sentence on +most of them, but the ring-leaders were shot the following morning, +others imprisoned, and fifty were sent back to Spain in the same +vessel as Admiral Malcampo, whose pampering of them had ruined their +discipline. So much for the courage of Moriones. It was a wonderful +example of the prestige of lawful authority, but of course the risk +was great. + +To him was due the construction of the Manila Waterworks. A sum of +money had been left a century before by Don Francisco Carriedo, who +had been general of a galleon, to accumulate until it was sufficient +to pay for the waterworks, which ought to have been begun years +before. However, the parties who held these funds, like certain +Commissioners we know of at home, had little desire to part with the +capital, and it was only the determination of General Moriones that +triumphed over their reluctance. + +Manila ought to be ever grateful to Moriones for this. He also +tried to get some work out of the Obras Publicas Department, and, +in fact, he did frighten them into exerting themselves for a time, +by threatening to ship the Inspector-General of Public Works back to +Spain, unless the Ayala bridges were completed on a certain day. + +But the greatest thing that Moriones did for the Philippines was when +he prevented the sale of the Government tobacco-culture monopoly to +some Paris Jews. Whilst he was staying at the Convent of Guadalupe +he received a letter from Canovas, at the time Prime Minister of +Spain. It informed him that a project was entertained of selling the +Crown monopoly of the cultivation and manufacture of tobacco in the +Philippines to a Franco-Spanish syndicate, and added, "The palace is +very interested," meaning that the King and the Infantas were in the +affair. It announced that a Commission was about to be sent by the +capitalists to enquire into the business, and wound up by requesting +Moriones to report favourably on the affair, for which service he +might ask any reward he liked. The carrying out of this project meant +selling the inhabitants of Cagayan into slavery. + +I had this information from a gentleman of unblemished truth and +honour, who was present at the receipt of the letter, and it was +confirmed by two friars of the Augustinian Order under circumstances +that left no doubt upon my mind as to their accuracy. + +Although Canovas was at the time in the height of his power, and +although the King was interested in the matter going through, Moriones +indignantly refused to back up the proposal. He wrote or cabled to +Canovas not to send out the Commission, for if it came he would send +it back by the same vessel. He reported dead against the concession, +and told the Prime Minister that he was quite prepared to resign, +and return to Spain, to explain his reasons from his seat in the +Senate. What a contrast this brave soldier made to the general run +of men; how few in any country would have behaved as he did! + +This was not the only benefit Moriones conferred upon the tobacco +cultivators of Cagayan, for he did what he could to pay off the debt +owing to them by the Treasury. + + + +Primo de Rivera. + +The next Governor-General was Don Fernando Primo de Rivera, Marquis +of Estella, and he was the only one with whom I was not personally +acquainted. During the cholera epidemic of 1882, when 30,000 persons +died in the city and province of Manila, he showed ability and firmness +in the arrangements he made, and he deserves great credit for this. But +corruption and embezzlement was rampant during his time. Gambling was +tolerated in Manila and it was currently reported that twenty-five +gambling houses were licensed and that each paid $50 per day, which +was supposed to go to the Governor-General. Emissaries from these +houses were stationed near the banks and mercantile offices, and +whenever a collector was seen entering or leaving carrying a bag of +dollars, an endeavour was made to entice him to the gambling table, +and owing to the curious inability of the native to resist temptation, +these overtures were too frequently successful. + +The whole city became demoralised, servants and dependants stole from +their employers and sold the articles to receivers for a tenth of +their value in order to try their luck at the gaming table. A sum of +$1250 per day was derived from the gambling-houses and was collected +every evening. + +Notwithstanding all these abuses, Primo de Rivera maintained good +relations with the natives; he was not unpopular, and no disturbances +occurred during his first government. He owed his appointment to King +Alfonso XII., being granted three years' pillage of the Philippine +Islands as a reward for having made the pronunciamento in favour +of that monarch, which greatly contributed to putting him upon the +throne. He and his friends must have amassed an enormous sum of +money, for scarcely a cent was expended on roads or bridges during +his government, the provincial governors simply pocketed every dollar. + + + + +Jovellar. + +He was succeeded by Field-Marshal Don Joaquim Jovellar, during +whose time the tribute was abolished and the Cedulas Personales tax +instituted. Jovellar appeared to me to be a strictly honourable man, +he refused the customary presents from the Chinese, and bore himself +with much dignity. His entourage was, however, deplorable, and he +placed too much confidence in Ruiz Martinez, the Director of Civil +Administration. The result was that things soon became as bad as in +the previous governor's time. Jovellar was well advanced in years, +being nearly seventy. He had many family troubles, and the climate +did not agree with him. + +I remember one stifling night, when I was present at Malacanan at +a ball and water fete, given to Prince Oscar, a son of the King of +Sweden. The Governor-General had hardly recovered from an illness, +and had that day received most distressing news about two of his sons, +and his daughter Dona Rosita, who was married to Colonel Arsenio +Linares, was laid up and in danger of losing her sight. + +Yet in that oppressive heat, and buttoned up in the full dress uniform +of a field-marshal, Jovellar went round the rooms and found a kind +word or compliment for every lady present. I ventured to remark how +fatigued he must be, to which he replied, "Yes, but make no mistake, +a public man is like a public woman, and must smile on everybody." + +During his time, owing to symptoms of unrest amongst the natives, +the garrison of Manila and Cavite was reinforced by two battalions +of marines. + + + +Terrero. + +He was succeeded by Don Emilio Terrero y Perinat, a thorough soldier +and a great martinet. I found him a kind and courteous gentleman, +and deeply regretted the unfortunate and tragic end that befell him +after his return to Spain. I saw a good deal of Field-Marshal Jovellar +and of General Terrero, having been Acting British Consul at the end +of Jovellar's and the beginning of Terrero's Government. I kept up my +acquaintance with General Terrero all the time he was in the islands, +and was favoured with frequent invitations to his table, where I met +all the principal officials. + +Things went on quietly in his time and there was little to record +except successful expeditions to Jolo and Mindanao, causing an +extension of Spanish influence in both places. + + + +Weyler. + +Terrero was succeeded by Don Valeriano Weyler, Marquis of Tenerife, +the son of a German doctor, born in Majorca, who brought with him +a reputation for cruelties practised on the Cuban insurgents during +the first war. + +Weyler was said to have purchased the appointment from the wife of a +great minister too honest to accept bribes himself, and the price was +commonly reported to have been $30,000 paid down and an undertaking +to pay the lady an equal sum every year of his term of office. + +Weyler is a small man who does not look like a soldier. He is clever, +but it is more the cleverness of a sharp attorney than of a general +or statesman. + +Curiously enough the Segundo Cabo at this time was an absolute +contrast. Don Manuel Giron y Aragon, Marquis of Ahumada, is descended +from the Kings of Aragon, and to that illustrious lineage he unites +a noble presence and a charm of manner that render him instantly +popular with all who have the good fortune to meet him. No more +dignified representative of his country could be found, and I send +him my cordial salutation wherever he is serving. + +During Weyler's term another expedition to Mindanao was made and +some advantages secured. Some disturbances occurred which will be +mentioned in another chapter, and secret societies were instituted +amongst the natives. Otherwise the usual bribery and corruption +continued unchecked. + +There was a great increase in the smuggling of Mexican dollars from +Hong Kong into Manila, where they were worth 10 per cent. more. The +freight and charges amounted to 2 per cent., leaving 8 per +cent. profit, and according to rumour 4 per cent. was paid to +the authorities to insure against seizure, as the importation was +prohibited under heavy penalties. + +At this time I was Government Surveyor of Shipping, and one day +received an order from the captain of the port to proceed on board +the steamer Espana with the colonel of carbineers and point out to him +all hollow places in the ship's construction where anything could be +concealed. This I did, but remembering Talleyrand's injunction, and +not liking the duty, showed no zeal, but contented myself with obeying +orders. The carbineers having searched every part of the ship below, +we came on deck where the captain's cabin was. A corporal entered +the cabin and pulled open one of the large drawers. I only took one +glimpse at it and looked away. It was chock full of small canvas bags, +and no doubt the other drawers and lockers were also full. Yet it did +not seem to occur to any of the searchers that there might be dollars +in the bags, and it was no business of mine. Nothing contraband had +been found in the ship, and a report to that effect was sent in. I +sent the colonel an account for my fee, which was duly paid from the +funds of the corps. + +Weyler returned to Spain with a large sum of money, a far larger sum +than the whole of his emoluments. He had remitted large sums in bills, +and having fallen out with one of his confederates who had handled some +of the money, this man exhibited the seconds of exchange to certain +parties inimical to Weyler, with the result that the latter was openly +denounced as a thief in capital letters in a leading article of the +Correspondencia Militar of Madrid. Weyler's attorneys threatened to +prosecute for libel, but the editor defied them and declared that he +held the documents and was prepared to prove his statement. The matter +was allowed to drop. Weyler was thought to have received large sums +of money from the Augustinians and Dominicans for his armed support +against their tenants. It was said that the Chinese furnished him with +a first-rate cook, and provided food for his whole household gratis, +besides making presents of diamonds to his wife. And for holding back +certain laws which would have pressed very hardly upon them, it was +asserted that the Celestials paid him no less than $80,000. This is +the man who afterwards carried out the reconcentrado policy in Cuba +at the cost of thousands of lives, and subsequently returning with +a colossal fortune to Spain, posed as a patriot and as chief of the +military party. + + + + +Despujols. + +To Weyler succeeded a man very different in appearance and character, +Don Emilio Despujols, Conde de Caspe. + +Belonging to an ancient and noble family of Catalonia, holding his +honour dear, endowed with a noble presence and possessed of an ample +fortune, he came out to uplift and uphold the great charge committed +to him, and rather to give lustre to his office by expending his own +means than to economise from his pay, as so many colonial governors +are accustomed to do. He established his household upon a splendid +scale, and seconded by his distinguished countess, whose goodness +and munificent charities will ever be remembered, he entertained on a +scale worthy of a viceroy and in a manner never before seen in Manila. + +Despujols rendered justice to all. Several Spaniards whose lives +were an open scandal, were by his order put on board ship and sent +back to Spain. Amongst these was one who bore the title of count, +but who lived by gambling. + +Another was a doctor who openly plundered the natives. Like a Mahometan +Sultan of the old times, Despujols was accessible to the poorest who +had a tale of injustice and oppression to relate. + +The news that a native could obtain justice from a governor-general +flew with incredible rapidity. At last a new era seemed to +be opening. A trifling event aroused the enthusiasm of the +people. Despujols and his countess drove to the Manila races with +their postillions dressed in shirts of Jusi and wearing silver-mounted +salacots instead of their usual livery. I was present on this occasion +and was struck with the unwonted warmth of the governor-general's +reception from the usually phlegmatic natives. Despujols became +popular to an extent never before reached. He could do anything with +the natives. Whenever his splendid equipages appeared in public he +received an ovation. Quite a different spirit now seemed to possess +the natives. But not all the Spaniards viewed this with satisfaction; +many whose career of corruption had been checked, who found their +illicit gains decreased, and the victims of their extortion beginning +to resist them, bitterly criticised the new governor-general. + +The religious orders finding Despujols incorruptible and indisposed +to place military forces at the disposal of the Augustinians +and Dominicans to coerce or evict refractory tenants, then took +action. Their procurators in Madrid made a combined attack on +Despujols, both in the reptile press and by representations to the +ministry. They succeeded, and Despujols was dismissed from office by +cable. Rumour has it that the Orders paid $100,000 for Despujols's +recall. For my own part I think this very likely, and few who know +Madrid will suppose that this decree could be obtained by any other +means. + +He laboured under a disadvantage, for he did not pay for his +appointment as some others did. If he had been paying $30,000 a year +to the wife of a powerful minister, he would not have been easily +recalled. Or if, like another governor-general, he had been in debt +up to the eyes to influential creditors, these would have kept him +in power till he had amassed enough to pay them off. + +I am of opinion that had Despujols been retained in Manila, and had +he been given time to reform and purify the administration, the chain +of events which has now torn the Philippines for ever from the grasp +of Spain would never have been welded. Whoever received the priests' +money, whoever they were who divided that Judas-bribe, they deserve +to be held in perpetual execration by their fellow-countrymen, and +to have their names handed down to everlasting infamy. + +Despujols left Manila under a manifestation of respect and devotion +from the foreign residents, from the best Spaniards and from every +class of the natives of the Philippines, that might well go far to +console him for his unmerited dismissal. He must have bitterly felt +the injustice with which he was treated, but still he left carrying +with him a clear conscience and a harvest of love and admiration that +no previous governor-general had ever inspired. + +For if Moriones manifested courage, energy and incorruptible honesty +under what would have been an irresistible temptation to many another +man, that rude soldier was far from possessing those personal gifts, +the fine presence and the sympathetic address of Despujols, and +inspired fear rather than affection. + +Yet both were worthy representatives of their country; both were +men any land might be proud to send forth. Those two noble names are +sufficient to redeem the Spanish Government of the Philippines from +the accusation of being entirely corrupt, too frequently made against +it. They deserve an abler pen than mine to extol their merits and +to exalt them as they deserve above the swarm of pilferers, and sham +patriots, who preceded and succeeded them. To use an Eastern image, +they may be compared to two noble trees towering above the rank +vegetation of some poisonous swamp. For the honour of Spain and of +human nature in general, I have always felt grateful that I could say +that amongst the governors-general of the Philippines whom I had known +there were at least two entitled to the respect of every honest man. + + + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +COURTS OF JUSTICE. + + Alcaldes--The Audiencia--The Guardia Civil--Do not hesitate + to shoot--Talas. + + +The foulest blot upon the Spanish Administration in all her former +colonies was undoubtedly the thorough venality of her infamous Courts +of Justice. Unfortunately, amongst the heterogeneous population of +the Philippines, a low standard of morality prevails and has prevailed +from the earliest times. The natives at the time of the conquest were +partly civilised, so far as building houses and cultivating their lands +by slave labour is concerned. But notwithstanding the assertions of +the Filipinos, the late Dr. Rizal and others, a study of the ancient +authors demonstrates that they were sunk in ignorance and superstition, +and that their customs were those of semi-savages. When they came under +the rule of the Spaniards, they might have made great advances if the +administration of the laws had been confided to persons of honour +capable of interpreting that wise code, the "Laws of the Indies," +in the noble and Christian spirit which had inspired their makers. + +But what class of man was it that the Spaniards appointed to this +office? + +Thomas de Comyn, p. 134, says: "It is quite common to see a barber +or footman of a governor, a sailor or a deserter, transformed into an +Alcalde-Mayor, Sub-delegate, and War Captain of a populous province, +without other counsel than his own rude intelligence (understanding) +nor other guide than his passions." + +What could be expected from such men as these, living in such an +atmosphere? And if some solitary alcalde might cherish in his heart +some spark of honour, some lingering love of justice, there were +two elements in the country to extinguish that spark, to smother +that feeling. + +Woe betide the alcalde who would decide a case, whatever its merits, +adversely to any one of the religious orders. I personally knew +an alcalde who (at a great price) had obtained the government of +the province of Batangas, from whence his immediate predecessor, +also well-known to me, had retired with a large fortune, but leaving +everybody contented so far as could be seen. He had kept on good terms +with the priests. His successor unfortunately forgot this cardinal rule +and allowed himself to be identified with some anti-clerical Spaniards. + +Every kind of trouble fell upon that man, and finally he was recalled +to Manila and received a severe reprimand from General Primo de Rivera, +who was said to have received $12,000 for turning him out. + +He was removed from wealthy Batangas and sent to the fever-stricken +capital of Tayabas, a wretchedly poor Government, affording few +opportunities for peculation. He escaped with his life, but his wife, a +very charming Spanish lady, succumbed to the malaria. Similar instances +of the results of being, or being thought to be, an anti-clerical, +will occur to old residents in the Philippines. The arm of the Church +was long and its hand was a heavy one. + +The second influence I referred to is the presence of the heathen +Chinee in the islands. To a Chinaman the idea that a judge should +take bribes seems as natural a thing as that a duck should take to +the water. And yet the Chinaman will not, unless he knows he is on the +right track, brutally push his bribe under the judge's nose. Either he +or one of his countrymen will from the judge's arrival have rendered +him good service. Does the judge want a gardener or cook? Ah-sin soon +provides an excellent one who never asks for his wages. Have some +visitors arrived at the Alcaldia Ah-sin sends in a dozen chickens, +a turkey, and the best fruits. Is it the judge's name-day? The wily +Celestial presents a few cases of wine and boxes of fine cigars. Is +the roof of the Alcaldia leaking--a couple of Chinese carpenters will +set it right without sending a bill for it. Then, having prepared the +way, should Ah-sin be summoned before the alcalde, he may confidently +hope that his patron will not hurriedly give judgment against him, and +that he will probably get a full opportunity to present substantial +reasons why the suit should be decided in his favour. In fact, the +practice of the alcalde's courts was only a shade better than that of +the Chinese Yamens, where the different cases are put up to auction +amongst the magistrates and knocked down to the highest bidders, who +then proceed on a course of extortion, by arrest and by the torture +of witnesses, to make all they can out of them. + +In an alcalde's court, there would be several mestizo or native writers +or auxiliaries. Some of them were what is called meritorios, that is, +unpaid volunteers. Of course, they expect to receive gratuities from +the suitors and would take care to mislay their documents if they were +neglected. Sometimes the alcalde was so lazy that he left the whole +matter in the hands of his subordinates and signed whatever they laid +before him. I have been a witness of this, and have even remonstrated +with a judge for so doing. He, however, said he had the greatest +confidence in his subordinates and that they dare not deceive him. + +Bad as the alcalde's courts were, I think that the culminating point +of corruption was the Audiencia of Manila. Escribano, abogado, juez, +auditor, fiscal, vied with each other in showing that to them, honour +and dignity were mere empty words. They set the vilest examples to +the mestizos and natives, and, unfortunately, these have been only +too apt pupils, and having little to lose, were often ready to go one +better than the Spaniards, who after all had to keep up appearances. I +cannot adequately express the loathing I feel for all this tribe. I +look upon a highwayman as a gentleman compared to them, for he does +risk his life, and you may get a shot at him, but these wretches ruin +you in perfect safety. + +They dress their wives, they nourish their children, upon the reward +of roguery, the price of perjury, the fruits of forgery, the wages +of some wicked judgment. + +What can be expected of the spawn of these reptiles, what but by the +process of evolution to be more envenomed than their progenitors? Is +there not amongst all the multitudinous Philippines some desert +island where the people trained in the Spanish courts and all their +breed could be deported, where they might set up a court, and bring +actions against each other and cheat and lie and forge till they die? + +What a Godsend for the Philippines were this possible, if besides +getting rid of the Spanish judges, they could now get rid of their +aiders and abettors, their apt pupils and would-be successors. + +Bribery is a fine art, and there were those in Manila who were well +versed in its intricacies. We heard one day of a decree by a judge +against the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. Club gossip +asserted that the judge who issued the decree had lost some hundreds of +dollars at the gambling table of the Casino the night before, and that +the artistic corrupter had called on him in the morning with the means +to pay the debt of honour and to try his luck again. The judge was +known not to have the means of paying, yet he paid and simultaneously +issued his decree. Old Manila hands drew their inference. + +The record of these courts from the earliest times is one +long-continued infamy. Thank God that is over and a new chapter has +begun. I rejoice exceedingly that their sins have at last overtaken +them, and I recognise that, though + + + "The mills of God grind slowly, + Yet they grind exceeding small." + + +Owing to the demoralisation of the mestizo and native lawyers by these +vile examples, it will be very difficult to break the traditions of +venality and to find men worthy to occupy the bench. + +These courts were not only corrupt, but they were inept. At a time +when brigandage prevailed and many notorious criminals were apprehended +almost red-handed, convictions could not be got, and the bandits were +liberated on various pretexts. + +So great was the scandal that Moriones issued a decree that all persons +accused of gang-robbery should be tried by a military tribunal. And +he appointed a permanent court-martial for this purpose, to the +great disgust of all the lawyer element. These courts were abolished +some years later after his return to Spain; then the Guardia Civil +made their own arrangements, and the mortality amongst bandits was +excessive. When some well-known robber was by any chance taken alive, +he always, so they said, tried to escape by running away from his +captors, and this obliged them to fire upon him. They never missed +on these occasions, and it was thought that the range never exceeded +ten paces and was often less. + +However necessary this military action may be, it is, undoubtedly +liable to abuse, and the power of life and death is a great one to +put in the hands of a junior officer or non-commissioned officer of +police. The Guardia Civil, an armed force with Spanish officers and +native soldiers, was organised in 1867, and I must say that I looked +upon it as an excellent institution, the terror of evil-doers and a +protection to all law-abiding people. My native friends, however, are +of a different opinion. They accuse the Guardia Civil, both Spaniards +and natives, of behaving in an arbitrary and cruel manner, and with +practising extortion upon defenceless natives. They are accused of +torturing witnesses to extort evidence, and this charge was no doubt +true in many cases. + +On the other hand, the bandits or tulisanes were exterminated by this +corps of picked men, and security to life and property was assured. At +the formation of this corps the officers and men were very carefully +selected. The Governor-General himself examined the records of every +officer, and only Spanish gentlemen of the highest character were +appointed. Similarly the soldiers were natives who had served their +time in the army without having a crime noted against them. But in +later years this precaution was relaxed, and colonels of regiments +were allowed to dump their rubbish into this corps. + +I knew of a case where a Filipino with Irish blood in him was posted +as a lieutenant to this corps and behaved most abominably. I am +glad to say, however, that he was sent out of the islands. This was +only another instance of the fact that whatever the natives have to +complain of the Spaniards, the mestizos, and their own rich people, +treat them and have always treated them far worse. + +Both officers and men were well paid and were dressed in a very +smart and neat uniform, well suited to the climate, which they kept +spick and span whatever service they were on. They were armed with +Remington rifles and bayonets, and in addition carried a heavy chopping +knife. They were posted at all the chief towns of Luzon and in some +of the Visayas Islands. The greatest crime a native could commit +was to kill a Guardia Civil, and such a matter never came before a +Civil Court. If the slayer by any chance was not killed on the spot, +he would probably be shot at sight. If apprehended, he would be tried +by a court-martial composed of officers of the Guardia Civil, and, +needless to say, there would be no monkeying with the verdict nor +with the sentence, which would be promptly carried out. + +Even to resist the Guardia Civil was so great a crime that the +sentence of a court-martial in such a case was penal servitude for life +(Cadena Perpetua). + +How surprised a London rough would be at this severity after being +accustomed to expiate the most brutal assaults upon the police by a +fine of a few shillings. + +To sum up the Guardia Civil, I may say that their practice was +comprised in five memorable words, addressed to a similar corps +by Mr. A. J. Balfour in his energetic days, a most sensible order, +that he may well be proud of: "Do not hesitate to shoot." + +Amongst other duties of the Guardia Civil in bygone years was the +making of periodical expeditions against the remontados and the hill +tribes, officially designated Talas, or cuttings down. + +At certain favourable seasons of the year, especially before harvest +time, the Guardias, accompanied by some Cuadrilleros, and on important +occasions by a company of native infantry, marched up into the more +accessible hills. + +The hill-men obstructed the tracks in the most difficult places by +cutting down trees and making abattis. + +They also placed sharp bamboo spikes carefully concealed in the earth +or mud of the footpaths, and these, if trodden on, inflicted most +dangerous wounds that were apt to gangrene. Sometimes if they had +much at stake, the hill-men or outlaws would venture an ambuscade, and +hurl their javelins or send a flight of arrows amongst their enemies. + +But even the boldest races rarely came to close quarters, for their +weapons were no match against rifles and bayonets. So, led by their +spies, the Spanish forces laboured upwards, and on arriving at the +hamlets of the mountaineers or outlaws they burnt down the rude +huts, reaped the crops, taking away what they could and burning +the remainder. + +They cut down every fruit tree and took special care to destroy every +tobacco plant. They then retired, leaving a scene of devastation +behind them. + +If any of the hill-men fell into their hands their fate depended upon +whether there were any murders to avenge or upon the humanity of the +officer in command. This wanton destruction was committed chiefly in +the interests of the tobacco monopoly, but also in order to force +the hillmen to come down and reside in the towns. It had, however, +an entirely contrary effect, for the savages either retired into more +inaccessible regions, or perhaps abandoned cultivation and lived a +roving, marauding life like the Itetapanes and Catubanganes. + +Since the abolition of the tobacco monopoly the Talas have been less +frequent, and there was a feeling amongst the authorities that these +cruel and demoralising expeditions should be discontinued, unless in +cases where the hill-men had given great provocation. + +The Spaniards are, of course, not the only nation to make these +forays. In the last campaign against the Afridis the British +troops were employed, under orders, to blow up the houses, break the +mill-stones, and cut down the trees of the enemy, not even sparing the +shade trees round a mosque. It was probably the only way to inflict +punishment on the Afridis. + +The worst feature is that in all such cases a crop of bitter hatred +is sown in the hearts of the sufferers, which matures later on, +and which is handed down from one generation to another. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +TAGAL CRIME AND SPANISH JUSTICE. + + The murder of a Spaniard--Promptitude of the Courts--The case of + Juan de la Cruz--Twelve years in prison waiting trial--Piratical + outrage in Luzon--Culprits never tried; several die in prison. + + +The penal code of the Philippines, which came into force in 1884, +declares it impossible to consider as an aggravation of an offence the +circumstance of colour or race in the offender, for the criminal is +to be punished for his crime and not for the condition of inferiority +to which nature has condemned him. + +It goes on to say that on the other hand his condition should not +be allowed to attenuate the sentence, for that would constitute an +odious privilege, an unbearable inequality. + +It therefore proudly proclaims the equality of all races before the +law. These are noble words; we shall see how they work out in practice. + +The case of Juan de la Cruz shows us that a criminal investigation +can drag on for twelve years without coming on for trial when the +victims are natives and of lowly station. I could cite cases where the +victims were British subjects, and the murderers were never punished, +and another case where a Frenchman was the victim. The murderer +in this case was to have been pardoned by the Governor-General, +but the French consul threatened to haul down his flag and leave +the islands unless the assassin was executed; and he was executed, +the consul attending to see the sentence carried out + +The British Foreign Office does not encourage its agents to such +energetic acts. To obtain the good graces of the Foreign Office a +consul should be devoid of talent or originality. Mediocrity is the +condition sought for. It is never advisable for one of Her Britannic +Majesty's consuls to be active in protecting Her Britannic Majesty's +subjects. What he must aim at if he wishes for consideration and +promotion is to give the Foreign Office no trouble. The ideal consul +would be he who is only heard of once a quarter, when he certifies +that he is alive, and asks that his salary may be paid. + +I will relate a murder that made an impression on me at the time, +where the victim was a Spaniard. In June of 1881, I was at Santa +Cruz in the Laguna Province for several days, making experiments +with some patent centrifugals, steaming and drying the fine Laguna +sugar. Quite close to the camarin, where the machines were at work, +lived an elderly Spaniard who was a government employe in some +subordinate position. I think he was the Subdelegado de Hacienda, +or sub-provincial treasurer. I had once or twice called upon the old +gentleman, whose appearance and manners were above his official rank, +and had been politely received by him. On completing my experiments, +I called to take leave of him, and was sorry to find him suffering +from fever, and very weak. + +I returned to Manila, and next day was horrified to read in a newspaper +that he had been murdered in the night by his two servants. This +atrocious crime, committed on a helpless and infirm old man, with every +circumstance of premeditation and barbarity, and with the object of +robbery, roused the indignation of every European. The culprits were +soon apprehended, and such expedition was used by the Promotor Fiscal +and the court, that within a week from the perpetration of the murder +the two servants were garrotted on a scaffold erected near the scene +of their barbarous crime. + +Such is the rapidity with which the Philippine courts could act when +a Spaniard was the victim and when public opinion was deeply stirred +by some shocking tragedy. + + + +The case of Juan de la Cruz. + +The following narrative of events, which occurred in 1886, will give +the reader a good idea of the furious passions that may lurk under +the inscrutable features of the Philippine Malay, and will also serve +to illustrate the procedure of the Spanish criminal courts when the +victims are natives and when nothing can be made out of the case. Four +of the five actors or victims in the tragedy were well known to me, +and I learned all the particulars at first hand and at the time, +from those who took steps to deliver over the culprit to justice. + +The decked steam launch Laguimanoc belonged to Gustav Brown, a ship +carpenter, and was hired by the Varadero, or Slipway Company of +Canacao, near Cavite, to keep up communication with Manila, whilst +the slip was being constructed. + +I was consulting engineer to the company, and Mr. J. L. Houston was +the resident engineer in charge of the work. Both of us made frequent +voyages in this launch between Canacao and Manila. The crew consisted +of a patron (coxswain) named Juan de la Cruz, an engine-driver, +a stoker, and a boy, all Tagals. + +Juan de la Cruz was an elderly man with grey hair, and in figure thin +and wiry. He was a good man at his duty, one of the silent Indians +whom I have always found to be the best. A thorough sailor, he had +served under many a flag, and sailed o'er many a sea, both in tropic +and in northern climes. + +The engine-driver and the stoker were brothers, strong and well-built +young fellows, and smart at their work. The boy was an active lad, +quite pleased to be employed on a steam-boat. + +One day, the stoker, going through the blacksmith's shop, saw a piece +of square steel, which had been cut off a long bar, lying on the +floor, and it struck him that it would be better than a hammer for +breaking coal. So he annexed it without leave, and got one end drawn +out and rounded so that he could easily hold it. This made a very +efficient coal-breaker, the sharp edges divided the lumps with great +ease. It was about eighteen inches long, and one and three-quarter +inches square. The patron was married, and his wife lived in Manila, +but, sailor-like, he had provided himself with a sweetheart, at the +other end of his run, where he spent more time than in the Pasig, +and had become intimate with a damsel of San Roque, a village between +the Varadero and Cavite. Things went on apparently all right for some +time; the launch making almost daily trips between Canacao and Manila, +and the elderly patron alternating between the conjugal domicile and +the dwelling of his mistress. She was young, and, as native girls go, +a pretty woman. Come of a strange and unknown mixture of races, and +bred up amongst a community noted for its profligacy, she knew how +to make the best use of her charms and was well fitted to captivate +the weather-beaten seaman. + +He, if not desirable in himself, held a well paid post, and was able +to place her above want. + +Already fifty years old, he was as susceptible as a youth and far more +in earnest. Day by day, as he basked in her smiles, his infatuation +increased till he became violently enamoured of his charmer. + +What could be more natural than that the crew of the launch should +become acquainted with the patron's mistress? Soon the engine-driver +and the stoker were her constant visitors. The damsel had a kind word +and a smile for both, and doubtless contrasted their vigorous youth +and shapely forms with the shrunken figure of her elderly protector, +and their lively conversation with his glum silence. + +In the end, no doubt, the damsel refused them nothing. + +Trouble was now brewing. The grim sailor was not the man to let +himself be wronged with impunity. All the elements of a tragedy were +present. Things no longer went smoothly on board the Laguimanoc, and +her voyages lost their regularity. Something was perpetually going +wrong with the engines, pieces or fittings disappeared unaccountably, +usually pieces of copper or brass. The engine-driver was blamed, +but he succeeded in averting his impending discharge. Could he +have foreseen the consequences of remaining, he would have promptly +discharged himself. + +On board the launch mutual distrust prevailed. The engine-driver must +have known that it was the patron who had thrown overboard the fittings +in his absence, hoping to get him discharged, but he held his peace. + +The silent figure at the tiller made no sign; no trace of emotion +could be seen on the Sphinx-like face, no reproaches passed his lips, +not the slightest manifestation of resentment. But underneath that +imperturbable calm there existed the steadfast determination to have +a full and bloody revenge on all who had offended him. The Laguimanoc +made a voyage to Manila one Saturday to take up the resident engineer +who often spent his Sundays there, the launch remaining in the +river. On Monday morning when he came down to the launch he found +that the safety valve was missing from its seat, and was delayed till +another could be procured. + +No explanations of the loss of this piece could be got, and the +Laguimanoc proceeded with the resident engineer to Canacao and made +fast to the jetty. + +A crisis was now reached. The abstraction of the safety-valve could +not be overlooked, and some one would have to go. An inquiry was +to be made, but on Tuesday morning the patron walked up the jetty, +and reported to Mr. Gustav Brown, who was the foreman of the works, +that the engine-driver and stoker were absent. He stated that they +had gone ashore in the night, and had not returned. Nothing could +be learned about them; nobody had seen them; their kits were still +on board. As the day wore on they did not come nor send any message; +so a report of their disappearance was sent to the judge at Cavite. + +An engine-fitter from the works was sent on board to take charge +of the engine, and another stoker was engaged; the launch resuming +her running. The work of the Varadero proceeded as usual; divers +were preparing the foundations to receive the immense gridiron +which was shortly to be launched and sunk in place. It was a busy +scene of organised labour under a skilful resident engineer; every +difficulty foreseen and provided for, materials delivered in good time, +notwithstanding obstructions; not an unnecessary auger-hole bored, +not a stroke of an adze thrown away. + +From the Sleepy Hollow of the naval arsenal opposite jealous eyes +watched the work proceed. Every art of vexation and obstruction that +bitter envy could devise had for years been employed to prevent +the building of this slip, and onerous and unfair conditions had +been inserted in the concession. But Anglo-American persistence and +industry had succeeded so far, and in the hands of Messrs. Peel, +Hubbell & Co. and their advisers, the work was now well advanced. + +The obsolete corvette Dona Maria Molina was moored off the +coaling-wharf adjoining the Varadero, and when one of her boats was +going on shore the sailors noticed two dead bodies floating in the +water, and reported this to the officer of the watch, who ordered +them to tow the bodies to the shore towards Punta Sangley, and drag +them up on the sand above high-water mark. The bodies were lashed +together with a piece of new rope having a blue strand in the centre, +and had a good-sized piece of white granite attached as a sinker. On +looking at the lashings no one could doubt that the work had been +done by an able seaman. The bodies presented ghastly wounds, both had +fractures of the skull, and gaping cuts on the throat and abdomen; +they had also been gnawed by fishes. The swelling of the bodies had +sufficed to bring them to the surface, stone and all. + +The news of the finding of the corpses did not immediately reach +the Varadero, and they were conveyed to Cavite, and buried just as +they were found, tied together with the ropes and stone, without +being identified. It seemed nobody's business to trouble about them, +notwithstanding the evident fact that they had been murdered. The +Manila newspapers did not mention the circumstance. + +But at this time other events happened. The patron of the launch +disappeared without taking his kit with him. Then the boy disappeared, +and I may as well at once say that, from that time to this, that +boy has never been heard of by the Varadero Company, who were his +employers. Next, that gay and lascivious damsel of San Roque, whose +unbridled sensuality had wrought the trouble, also disappeared as +mysteriously as the others. + +Dr. Juan Perez, of Cavite, was the medical attendant to the staff +of the Varadero, and used to call there every afternoon. On hearing +from him about the discovery of the bodies, the resident engineer +at once thought of his missing men, and the flight of the patron +confirmed his suspicions. A minute examination of the launch was +made, and revealed some stains of blood which had not been entirely +removed by the usual washing down. Several small cuts such as might +be made with the point of a bolo were found in the flat skylight +of the cabin, and a deeper cut on the bulwark rail, starboard side +forward, opposite the skylight. A working rope was missing from the +launch. It had only recently been supplied to it, and had been cut +off a whole coil purchased a few weeks before from a sailing-vessel, +for the use of the Varadero. That rope had a blue strand in the +centre. Gustav Brown put on a diving-dress, and went down at the head +of the northern jetty, where the launch used to lie, and carefully +examined the bottom. Presently his eye rested on an object that he +recognised. It was the square steel coal-breaker used by the stoker, +and he brought it up. + +Meanwhile, a new coxswain had been found for the launch, and as the +old patron had left his vessel illegally, there was ground for his +arrest on that score, so orders were given to the new patron and +to the engine-driver to give him into custody if he came to claim +his kit. Next time the launch arrived in Manila, sure enough the +old patron appeared to fetch his belongings, and was taken to the +calaboose of the captain of the port. The resident engineer called on +that official, and, as a result of their conversation, the prisoner +was put on board the launch to be conveyed to Cavite. + +With all the stoicism of the Malay, he sat quite still and silent; +his impassive features betrayed no sign of anxiety or remorse. + +But if the principal actor in this bloody tragedy could thus compose +his mind, it was not so with others who knew more or less what had +happened, but whose dread and hatred of the law and its myrmidons +had kept their tongues quiet. + +When the launch approached the Varadero near enough for the prisoner +to be recognised, an unusual commotion occurred amongst the swarm of +native workmen. A mysterious magnetism, an inexplicable vibration, +pervaded the crowd. Unfelt by the senses, it acted on the mind, and +seemed simultaneously to convey to each individual an identical idea. + +The patron was a prisoner, therefore his crime was known; no good +could be done by keeping silent. Before this nobody knew anything +about the disappearance of the two men. Now it leaked out, but only in +confidence to Gustav Brown, whom they trusted. The native divers had +seen the bodies when at their work on the foundations, and had moved +them farther off out of their way. Men working at the jetties had seen +them when they floated, but had looked in another direction. In fact, +the corpses had been recognised, and the crime was known to scores +of native and Chinese workmen, but no word or hint ever reached the +foreman or the engineer till the culprit was arrested. + +Now there were sufficient details to reconstitute the tragic scene. + +The amour of the brothers with the San Roque girl was known, and also +the well-founded jealousy of the patron, who at first endeavoured +to obtain the engine-driver's discharge by the means already +mentioned. This not succeeding, he determined to kill both of them, +and without showing a sign of the deadly hatred that possessed him, +calmly awaited his opportunity. + +On the Monday night, 7th June, after the incident of the safety-valve, +the launch was moored alongside the Varadero jetty, and the two +brothers lay fast asleep on the flat top of the cabin skylight, +each wrapped in his blanket. + +A native sleeps hard, and is not easily awakened, nor when aroused +does he quickly regain his faculties. It is an important point in +the Malay code of manners never to awaken any person suddenly, for +it is believed that, during sleep, the soul is absent from the body, +wandering around, and must be given time to return, otherwise serious, +even fatal consequences, may ensue. The awakened person may become +an idiot, or some great harm may happen to the unmannerly one who +awakened him. Many natives have as great a fear of the wandering +soul of a sleeping person as of an evil spirit or ghost. The soul +is said to return to the body in the form of a small black ball, +which enters the mouth. + +Moreover, one of the greatest, in fact, the most terrible, curse that +can be uttered by many tribes, is, "May you die sleeping," for it +means death to body and soul. That, however, was the fate reserved for +the brothers. Towards midnight, when the cooking-fires in the coolie +quarters had burnt down, and the chatter of the Chinese had subsided, +when the last lights in the Europeans' houses had been extinguished, +and not a sound broke the stillness of the night, the patron addressed +himself to the performance of his bloody task. Slipping his sharpened +bolo through his belt, he descended into the engine-room, and, seizing +the coal-breaker, crept forward to where the doomed men slumbered, +perhaps dreaming of the charms of that dark damsel, the enjoyment +of whose embraces was to cost them so dear. Meanwhile, their fate +approached; their time was come. + +The patron was past his prime; privations at sea and dissipation on +shore had sapped his strength. But bitter hatred nerving his arm, +with lightning rapidity and terrific force he discharged a blow on +each sleeper's unprotected head. The sharp edge of the steel bar +crashed deep into their skulls, driving in the splintered bone upon +the brain. One agonised shudder from each, then all was still. A +European murderer might have been satisfied with this. Not so a +Tagal. A ceremony still remained to be accomplished. Their blood must +flow; they must suffer mutilation. Seizing his bolo, the assassin now +vented his rage in cutting and thrusting at the bodies. The heavy +and keen-edged blade fell repeatedly, cutting great gashes on the +throats and bellies of the victims, whilst streams of gore ran down +the waterways, and trickled out at the scuppers, staining the white +sides of the launch with crimson streaks. + +His blood-thirst assuaged, his vengeance partly accomplished, and +his spirit comforted by his desperate deed, the murderer probably +paused for a time, and began to consider how he could conceal his +crime. No sign of movement anywhere. Apparently the dull sounds of the +blows had fallen on no mortal ear. Presently, taking up one of his +working ropes, he mounted the jetty, and walked to the shore, where +there lay a pile of stone ballast. It was white granite, discharged +from a sailing-ship that had come from Hong Kong in ballast, and it +had been purchased for the Varadero. Selecting a suitable piece, +he carried it to the end of the jetty, and lowered it by the rope +into the launch. Then, descending, he firmly lashed the two bodies +together, and fastened the stone to them. Then he drew the bodies to +the side, preparatory to launching them overboard. Now an incident +occurred. It is thought that one of the two men was not quite dead, +notwithstanding his dreadful wounds, and that recovering consciousness, +and perceiving what awaited him, seized the rail in his death-grasp, +and resisted the attempt to throw him over. + +The patron must once again have had recourse to his murderous bolo, +bringing it down on the clenched hand, for a deep cut was found on +the rail with blood driven into the pores of the wood by that savage +blow. The tendons severed, the hand unclasped, and next moment the +bodies slid over the rail and down underneath the keel of the launch in +some four fathoms of water. Throwing the steel coal-breaker after them, +the patron's next task was to wash away the traces of his crime, and +this he did fairly well so that nothing was noticed, till, suspicion +being aroused, a careful scrutiny was made, with the result already +mentioned. It is not known whether the boy knew anything of the tragedy +performed so near him, for he was never questioned, having apparently +disappeared off the face of the earth as soon as the bodies were +found. What the patron did afterwards can only be conjectured. Guilty +of two atrocious murders, and of savage mutilation of the slain, +could he have composed himself to a quiet and dreamless slumber? Or +was his imagination fired to further revenge by dream-pictures of his +once-loved mistress in the arms of her youthful lovers? All that is +known is that he presented himself to the foreman early on the Tuesday +morning, and reported the absence of the two men without showing on +his dark visage the slightest sign of trouble or emotion. + +We left the patron a prisoner on the launch. Now it became +necessary to give him in charge to the judicial authorities, for +it was getting late in the afternoon. They did not show any undue +eagerness to receive him. The judge first applied to explained that +he was only acting temporarily, that the judge had departed, having +been transferred to another place, and that the new judge had not +yet arrived, therefore he much regretted he could not take up the +case. An appeal was then made to the Gobernador-Politico-Militar, who +most courteously explained that a civil court was established in the +province with full jurisdiction, both criminal and civil, so that he +could not interfere. It was now nearly sunset, and the prisoner had +been on the launch all day. The resident engineer then called on the +Commandante of Canacao--a naval officer who had a few marines at his +disposal--and obtained as a personal favour that the prisoner should +be temporarily secured in the guard-room. The next day the resident +engineer proceeded to Cavite, and, accompanied by Dr. Juan Perez, +visited the principal authorities, and eventually succeeded in getting +the prisoner lodged in jail, and a charge of murder entered against +him. The bodies of the victims were never exhumed for examination. The +resident engineer made a declaration, which was taken down in writing, +and on one of his busiest days he was peremptorily summoned to appear +before the judge, and solemnly ratify his testimony. + +About three days after Juan de la Cruz was lodged in Cavite jail, +the dead body of the San Roque damsel, gashed by savage blows of the +fatal bolo, was left by the ebb on the sands of Paranaque, a village +just across the little Bay of Bacoor opposite to San Roque. She had +paid with her life for her frailty as many another woman has done in +every clime. From the appearance of the body it was thought it had +been several days in the water. + +No legal evidence was forthcoming to fix the crime on any one, +although few of those who knew the story harboured a doubt that the +assassin of the two brothers was the murderer of the girl also. + +Juan de la Cruz remained in prison, and from time to time, but with +increasing intervals, the resident engineer, the foreman and others +were cited by the judge, interrogated, then cited again to ratify +their declarations. + +The espediente, a pile of stamped paper, grew thicker and thicker, +but the trial seemed no nearer. Month after month rolled on, the +Varadero was finished, ships were drawn up, repaired and launched, +Juan continued in prison. + +The resident engineer departed to other climes, and was soon expending +his energy in building the great harbour at La Guayra. I was the means +of obtaining an order for six gun-boats for the Varadero Company. They +were built, launched, tried and delivered, and steamed away to overawe +the piratical Moros. Still Juan continued in prison. Judges came and +judges went, but the trial came no nearer. Year after year a judge +of the Audiencia came in state to inspect the prisoners, and year +after year Juan was set down as awaiting his trial. + +In December, 1892, I left the Philippines for Cuba and Juan de la +Cruz was still in Cavite jail. + +Dr. Juan Perez, the surgeon who had examined the corpses, died, having +wrongly diagnosed his own case, and Dr. Hugo Perez, a half caste, +was appointed in his stead. Gustav Brown, the foreman, wearied of the +monotony of ship repairing, became possessed by a longing to resume his +nomadic life amongst the palm-clad islands of the Pacific. He purchased +a schooner and embarked with his wife and family. First running down +to Singapore to take in trade-goods for bartering with the natives, +he sailed away for the Carolines where his wife's home lay. He never +reached them; for, soon after leaving Singapore, he came to a bloody +end at the hands of his Chinese crew, who killed and decapitated him. + +The insurrection broke out in Cavite Province, Colonel Mattone's column +was defeated by the insurgents with great slaughter. Dr. Hugo Perez, +the successor of Dr. Juan Perez, was suspected of sympathising with +the rebels, and, needless to say, he soon came to a bloody end. He +did not have to wait long for his trial. + +In 1896, Mr. George Gilchrist, the engineer at the Varadero, who was +not in the Philippines when the murders were committed, was cited by +the judge, and asked if he could identify the prisoner ten years after +his arrest! Two years more passed, and in April, 1898, Mr. Gilchrist +returned to Scotland for a well-earned holiday. When he left Canacao, +Juan de la Cruz was still in prison awaiting his trial. + +He may have escaped when the rebels occupied Cavite after Admiral +Dewey's victory over the Spanish Squadron in the Bay of Bacoor. + +For the murderer no pity need be felt, he certainly had nothing to +gain and all to lose by a trial. A double murder, premeditated, +accompanied by acts of great barbarity, and committed at night, +constitutes by the Penal Code a capital offence with three aggravating +circumstances which would forbid all hope of clemency. + +But what can be thought of courts so remiss in their duty? How many +innocent prisoners have waited years for their trial? How many have +died in prison? + + + +Piratical Outrage in Luzon. + +At Laguimanoc, a port and village in the Province of Tayabas, there +resided an Englishman, Mr. H. G. Brown, who had been many years in +the Philippines. By the exercise of untiring industry, by braving +the malaria of the primeval forests, and by his never-failing tact in +dealing with the officials of the Woods and Forests on the one hand, +and with the semi-barbarous and entirely lawless wood-cutters on +the other, he had built up an extensive business in cutting timber +in the state forests of Southern Luzon and the adjacent islands. He +was owner of several sailing vessels, had a well-appointed saw-mill, +and a comfortable residence at Languimanoc. He employed large numbers +of wood-cutters; all under advances of pay, who were scattered about +the Provinces of Tayabas, and Camarines Norte over a considerable area. + +His business was so considerable that he paid the Government fully +$30,000 per year as royalty on timber which was mostly shipped to +Hong Kong and Shanghai. + +In order to facilitate a business so profitable to them the Government +placed a Custom House official at Atimonan, in the Bay of Lamon on +the Pacific coast, to clear and despatch his timber vessels loaded +at Atimonan, Gumacas, Lopez, Alabat Island, or other places. To show +how little Mr. Brown spared himself, I may mention that not even +the dreaded jungle-fever of Mindoro prevented him from personally +superintending the loading of several vessels at different ports of +that pestilential island. In persistence and pluck he was a worthy +predecessor of Professor D. C. Worcester, who years afterwards showed +his Anglo-Saxon determination in the same fearsome spot. + +One day in December of 1884, Mr. Brown being absent in Hong Kong, +and his manager, Mr. Anderson, busy on the Pacific coast, looking +after the loading of a vessel, the out-door superintendent, a Swede +named Alfred Olsen, was in charge of the house, office, and saw-mill +at Laguimanoc, and was attending to the loading of the Tartar, one +of Mr. Brown's ships which was anchored in the bay taking in timber +for China. She had a native crew who occasionally of an evening, when +ashore to enjoy themselves, got up a disturbance with the villagers. On +board this vessel there were, as is usual, two Carabineros or Custom +House guards to prevent smuggling. + +Although no one in the village suspected it, two large canoes full of +armed men were lying concealed behind a point in Capuluan Cove on the +opposite side of the Bay. At eight o'clock in the evening, it being +quite dark, they came across, and in perfect order, according to a +pre-arranged plan advanced in silence on the village. The assailants +numbered twenty-eight men, and were variously armed with lances, bolos +and daggers. Only the leader bore a revolver. A guard was left on the +canoes, four of the gang were stationed at the door of Mr. Brown's +house, and others at strategic points, whilst the main body attacked +the Tribunal close by which was also the estanco where there was some +Government money, postage stamps and stamped paper. At all Tribunales +there are a couple of cuadrilleros, or village constables on guard, +armed usually with lance and bolo. These men did their duty and +manfully resisted the pirates. In the combat which ensued, the sergeant +of the Cuadrilleros was killed and some on both sides were wounded, +but the pirates got the best of the fight, and plundered the estanco. + +In the meantime, Olsen, having heard the uproar, may have thought that +the crew of the Tartar were again making a disturbance. At all events +he left the house unarmed and unsuspicious, thus walking into the trap +laid for him. The Tagals have a great respect for fire-arms, more +especially for the revolvers and repeating rifles of the foreigner, +thus they did not venture to enter the house, but the moment Olsen +stepped out into the darkness and before he could see round about +him, he was attacked by two men on each side, who plunged their +daggers into his body, piercing his lungs. Bleeding profusely and +vomiting blood he rushed back into the house towards his bedroom to +get his revolver which was under the bed. His assailants, however, +followed him into the room and butchered him before he could grasp +it. At least the revolver was afterwards found in its case with the +perfect impress of his blood-stained hand upon the oaken lid. A native +boy named Pablo, about eight years old, was in the house at the time, +and in his terror squeezed himself into a narrow space behind the door +and escaped discovery, although he was an eye-witness of the crime. + +By this time the alarm had spread all over the little village, and +the noise was heard on board the Tartar. The two Carabineros, taking +their Remingtons and cartridge boxes, had themselves paddled on shore, +and marching up the stairs which led to the rocky eminence on which +the village stands, bravely advanced against the pirates although +out-numbered by more than ten to one. They fired their rifles, +but the gang rushed upon them and in a moment they were cut down, +and according to Tagal custom, their bellies were ripped open. The +pirates having now overcome all opposition and having plundered +the estanco, and the inevitable Chinaman's shop, transferred their +attention to Mr. Brown's house, which they ransacked, taking the +contents of the safe, a collection of gold and silver coins, seven +Martini-Henry rifles with ammunition, and two revolvers, as well as +any other things they deemed of value. They burst open the desks, +drawers, and wardrobes, cutting and hacking the furniture with their +bolos in wanton mischief. Then embarking their spoil, they sailed +away with the land breeze. + +Information had been sent off to the nearest post of the Guardia Civil, +and on its receipt, an officer with a force of that corps instantly +set off and captured one party of the pirates red-handed as they +beached their canoe. Within a week twenty-six had been captured and +one shot dead whilst escaping. There only remained the leader. He, +as it was afterwards discovered, was concealed in a secluded wood a +few miles from Sariaya, and one night he was speared by the Captain +of Cuadrilleros of that town, who is said to have had valid reasons +for getting him out of the way. + +This band of pirates were a mixed lot; some of them were principales or +members of the town council of Sariaya, a picturesque little place on +the southern slope of Mount Banajao, and some from San Juan de Boc-boc; +others were ordinary inhabitants, a few were outlaws from the San Juan +mountains, and four or five were fishermen whom the gang had met on +their passage by sea and had invited to accompany them. This custom +of Convites is explained in Chapter XXV. Of course the fishermen, +when interrogated, declared they had been pressed into the service, +but in fact very few natives have the moral courage to decline so +pleasing an entertainment, as it appeals to a feeling deeply seated +in their hearts, the love of rapine, only to be restrained by the +heavy hand of a military police "who do not hesitate to shoot." The +provincial doctor arrived next morning with the judge who was to take +the depositions of the villagers and draw up the sumario. Olsen was +dead, the sergeant of Cuadrilleros also and one of the Carabineros, +but strange to say, in spite of a dozen ghastly wounds, the other +one was still alive, though his bowels were protruding, having fallen +out through the gash which it is the Tagal custom to finish off with. + +When the provincial doctor saw him, he said, "Nothing can possibly +be done for him," and departed. So, abandoned to his own resources, +he replaced the bowels himself, and getting one of the villagers to +bind him up, he eventually recovered. He was seen by Mr. Brown a year +or two later, and is probably alive now. This seems extraordinary, but +a similar case occurred to a man who had worked under me. An English +bricklayer named John Heath had been employed building furnaces and +kilns in Manila, and having completed his work, took to farming and +rented some grass meadows (sacate lands) at Mandaloyan. One night he +and another Englishman staying with him were attacked in his house by a +party of Tagals with drawn bolos. The visitor, although wounded, leaped +from the window and escaped, but Heath was cut down, then lifted on to +the window sill, hacked about, and finally, according to Tagal custom, +ripped open and left for dead. Yet this man also entirely recovered, +and after a year seemed as strong as ever, although he was advised +not to exert his strength. This outrage was clearly agrarian, and was, +I feel sure, committed by those who had previously rented these lands +and had been turned out. No one was ever punished for it. + +To return to the gang of pirates; two had been killed, the rest were +in prison. Year after year passed, still they remained in prison; +judges came, stayed their term, were promoted and went, but still +these men were never sentenced. + +In 1889, I visited Laguimanoc to make a plan and valuation of the +property, as the business was about to be taken over by a Limited +Liability Company, established in Hong Kong. This was five years after +the date of the murders, some of the prisoners had died in prison, the +others were awaiting their sentence. But I found that the Government +had established a sergeant's post of the Guardia Civil in the village, +which effectually prevented a repetition of the outrage. + +A year later I again visited Laguimanoc, but the trial of the prisoners +was no further advanced. No less than nine of them died in prison, +still no sentence was pronounced. Even for a Philippine Court this +was extraordinary, for the gang had committed the unpardonable crime +"Resistencia a fuerza armada" (Resistance to an armed force), and could +have been tried by Court-martial and summarily shot. They had also +dared to lay their profane hands on the sacred money-box containing +a portion of the "Real Haber" (Government money), so that it was not +only a question of murder and robbery of private people. But the Civil +Court, negligent, slothful, and corrupt, could not be got to convict, +and a few years ago, Mr. Brown having left the islands, the surviving +prisoners were pardoned by the Queen Regent on the occasion of the +young King's birthday. + +The contrast between the military and civil elements in this case is +very strong. + +The military element performed its duties thoroughly well, under great +difficulties, and promptly arrested the malefactors. In my experience +this has been always the case, and I draw from it the conclusion +that military Government is essential to the pacification of the +Philippines and that authority must be backed up by a native force +of constabulary under American officers who must be young and active. + +Such offences as piracy or gang-robbery should never come before a +Civil Court, but should be promptly settled by court-martial before +which no technicalities or legal subtleties need be taken into account. + +A firm, nay, a heavy hand over the Philippines is the most merciful +in the long run. + +I am sorry to have to relate that the Company which took over +Mr. Brown's business did not long prosper. Whilst he remained at the +head of it, all went well, but as soon as he left to take a much-needed +rest, it began to fail. The personality of the individual is everything +in most Spanish countries and especially in the Philippines. No +manager could be found who could keep on terms with the officials, +control the wild wood-cutters or risk jungle-fever by entering the +forests to personally inspect the work. + +The organization decayed and the business went to pieces. Let intending +investors take note. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +CAUSES OF TAGAL REVOLT. + + Corrupt officials--"Laws of the Indies"--Philippines a dependency + of Mexico up to 1800--The opening of the Suez Canal--Hordes + of useless officials--The Asimilistas--Discontent, but no + disturbance--Absence of crime--Natives petition for the expulsion + of the Friars--Many signatories of the petition punished. + + +The Spanish Colonial system was based upon the simple and +well-recognised principle of rewarding political services to the +Government in power, by the pillage of a colony. + +Sometimes special circumstances rendered it necessary for the +Government to send out the man best fitted to cope with a critical +situation, but in normal times the good old corrupt plan was followed. + +The appointment of a Governor-General would be arranged by the Prime +Minister and submitted for the approval of the monarch. The Colonial +Minister, like the other subordinate ministers, counted for little in +a Cabinet presided over by such commanding personalities as Canovas, +or Sagasta. They were, in fact, mere heads of departments. + +In another chapter I have remarked that it was generally believed +that General Weyler purchased his appointment as Governor-General of +the Philippines, by a cash payment and an annual subsidy. + +There were, however, certain officials whom it would be unjust to +class with those who practically had to rob for their living, because +they were subject to dismissal at any moment. These unfortunates knew +perfectly well that integrity and ability would not ensure them a +single day's grace. Whenever the man in power wanted that place for +his cousin or his uncle, out they would go. Similarly, if they had any +interest, misbehaviour would not lose the appointment. Considering +the system, the wonder was that some of them were honest, not that +most of them were thieves. + +Amongst those who had fixed appointments were the Inspector-General +of Forests and his assistants. Every British and American resident +in, or visitor to Manila, will remember a Catalan gentleman, Don +Sebastian Vidal y Soler and his charming wife Dona Ella Paoli de +Vidal, a lady from Philadelphia. Vidal was a man of great learning +and equal modesty, a man of the strictest honour, kind-hearted and +charitable in the extreme. He was well-known in America, in London, +Paris, and Amsterdam, and wherever botanists congregate. His death +in 1890 was universally regretted. + +In the same branch of the service there was another gentleman whom +I must name. Don Jose Sainz de Baranda, at one time acting Colonial +Secretary, is a most courteous gentleman, whose high character and +marked ability were well worthy of the confidence reposed in him by +General Terrero. Any country might be proud to own Senor Sainz de +Baranda. For my part I preserve the most agreeable remembrances of +these two friends. + +In the Department of Public Works there were men of considerable +attainments as engineers--Don Eduardo Lopez Navarro, author of the +project for the new harbour; Don Genaro Palacios, who designed and +carried out the waterworks and designed the Church of Saint Sebastian, +in both of which works I took part; and Senor Brockman, who constructed +several lighthouses in different parts of the Archipelago. I feel bound +to say that so far as my knowledge went, there was no corruption or +underhand work in either the Inspection of Forests or the Public Works. + +As to the patronage of other civil offices I have had the procedure +explained to me by a Spaniard well up in the subject, and I give an +imaginary instance to illustrate the system. + +When a political party came into power and the question of forming +the Cabinet was being debated, Senor M----, a leader of a group of +deputies, might say, "I renounce the honour of entering the Cabinet, +and instead will take the Presidency of the Chamber and the right to +appoint the Collector of Customs at Havana, the Intendant General of +Hacienda at Manila, and the Governor of Batangas, with a dozen second +and third class governorships or judgeships." + +If this was agreed to, perhaps, after some haggling, Senor M---- +distributed the nominations to the lower appointments amongst his +supporters, who disposed of them for their own advantage. + +The nominations to the higher offices remained the absolute private +property of Senor M----, and he proceeded to pick out men up to the +job, to undertake the appointments. Some of them paid him large sums +in cash, and others entered into contracts binding themselves to remit +him monthly a large proportion of their emoluments and pickings. In +some cases it was stipulated that if a single payment was in default, +the unfortunate employe would be instantly dismissed. I have personally +known of this condition. Those he nominated referred to him as their +padrino or godfather. + +The actual holders of the offices referred to would then be summarily +dismissed, however well they might have behaved whilst serving, and +the new horde would be installed in their places and would use every +means to fill their pockets and to pay their padrino. + +Complaints against them were not likely to lead to their removal, for +they were protected in Madrid by the powerful political interest of +their padrino. If they kept within the criminal law, they had little +to fear, however greedy they might be. + +Some of the governors and other officials had the talent of filling +their pockets without making enemies. I have already referred to +a Governor of Batangas, as eminent in this line. It must not be +supposed that the illicit gains of the officials were extorted from +the individual native. They were principally drawn from the fallos, +or local tax in redemption of polos or personal service. This money +ought to have been employed in repairing roads, bridges, and public +buildings. But as nearly the whole was diverted into the pockets +of the officials and their padrinos, the roads became impassable in +the wet season, the bridges, if of wood, rotted, if of stone, were +thrown down by the earthquakes or carried away by floods, whilst the +tribunales (town halls), fell into decay. I have known cases where +a planter has been unable for months to send his sugar down to the +port for shipment, as it was absolutely impossible for carts to pass +along the road in the wet season. In a wealthy and populous province +like Batangas, the fallos were sufficient to have paved all the main +roads in the province with granite and to have bridged every stream. + +I may mention here a characteristic trait of Spanish +administration. When a river-bridge fell down, they not only did +not repair or renew it, but they put up to auction the monopoly of +ferrying vehicles and passengers across the stream. The purchaser of +the right fastened a rattan across the river and provided a couple +of canoes with a platform of cane laid over them, which served to +ferry vehicles across by means of the rope; one or two at a time at a +rather heavy charge. This truly Spanish method provided a revenue for +the Administration, or pickings for an official, instead of requiring +an outlay for a new bridge. + +Still, the natives, never having known anything better, supported +these drawbacks with remarkable equanimity. They were left very much +to themselves, and were not interfered with nor worried. The army +was small and the conscription did not press heavily upon them. + +They lived under the "Leyes de Indias" (may their makers have found +favour with God), a code of laws deserving of the greatest praise +for wisdom and humanity. They protected the native against extortion, +constituting him a perpetual minor as against the usurer. He could not +be sued for more than five dollars. Compare this wise disposition with +what has been going on in India ever since the British Government has +administered it, where the principal occupation of the lower courts +is to decree the foreclosure of mortgages on the ryot's patches of +land at the suit of the village usurer. The result has been that +in some provinces the small landowner class who furnished fighting +men for the Indian Army has almost disappeared. It is only now in +1900 that something is proposed to be done to remedy this evil, and +knowing my countrymen, I quite expect some weak-kneed compromise will +be arrived at. + +The "Leyes de Indias" conferred upon the native the perpetual usufruct +of any land that he kept under cultivation; and this right descended +from father to son. + +As a result of these laws, most of the arable land in Luzon, Cebu, +and some other islands belongs to the natives to this day, although +many of them have no other title than possession. The natives also had +the privilege of cutting timber in the forests for house-building or +repairing, or for making a canoe free of dues. They could also cut +bamboos for their fences or roofs and collect firewood. + +These privileges were restricted to natives, and were not extended +to Spaniards or Chinese. The taxes paid by the natives were light +and they could live and thrive. + +Had these wise and admirable laws been carried out in the spirit in +which they were made, the Philippines might have been Spanish to this +day and the natives would have had little to complain of. + +The Philippines were for nearly three centuries after their discovery +by the Spaniards a mere dependency of Mexico, communication being kept +up by an annual galleon or sometimes two sailing between Acapulco and +Manila through the Strait of San Bernardino. The long and tedious +voyage deterred all but priests and officials from proceeding to +the Philippines. + +When this route was given up, which happened some ten years before the +Independence of Mexico, which was proclaimed in 1820, communication +with the Peninsula was by sailing vessels via the Cape of Good +Hope. That was a voyage that would not be lightly undertaken either +going or returning. Spaniards who then came to the Archipelago often +stayed there for the rest of their lives. + +The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the establishment of a +line of steamers bringing Manila within thirty days of Barcelona was +the most important event in the history of the Philippines since the +conquest, and it had the gravest consequences. It greatly stimulated +the trade of the Philippines, but it enormously increased the number of +Spaniards in the Islands. Hordes of hungry-looking Iberians arrived +by every steamer with nominations to posts for which most of them +possessed no qualification. It seemed as if all the loafers of the +Puerta del Sol and the Calle de Alcala were to be dumped in the +Philippines and fed by the Treasury. + +Places had to be found for them, and a bureaucratic administration +partly copied from French practice, was rapidly substituted for +the old paternal regime. New departments were organised or the old +ones greatly extended. Far more money was spent on the salaries +of engineers and assistant-engineers than on public works. The +salaries of the officials of the Woods and Forests exceeded the +revenue derived from dues on timber cut in the Crown forests, +and their regulations seriously interfered with the privileges of +the natives previously mentioned, and caused great discontent. The +salaries of the Inspectors of Mines were almost a useless expense, +for there was no revenue derived from mines, in fact there were no +mines, only placers and washings. A medical service was organised at +great cost and to little advantage. Doctors were appointed to reside +at the hot springs, and one could not take a bath there without paying +a fee. Model farms and Schools of Agriculture were started, to find +places for more Spaniards, for the officials received their salaries, +but no funds were forthcoming for material or establishment. + +In 1886 there took place the separation of the executive and the +judicial functions, and eighteen civil governors were appointed to +the principal provinces. Later on, eighteen judges of first instance +were nominated to these same provinces. After centuries of rule, +the Alcaldes Mayores were abolished. + +Then came a period when certain bureaucrats in Madrid conceived what +they thought a vast and patriotic idea. They founded a school of +politicians who called themselves Asimilistas. Their grand idea was +to assimilate the administration of the Philippines to that of the +Mother Country. They thought it wise to assimilate the institutions +of a tropical dependency with eight millions of native inhabitants, +of whom one-sixth part were independent heathen or Mahometans, to +the gradually evolved institutions of Old Spain. + +By way of a commencement they began to speak and write of the +Philippines as "that beautiful province of Spain." The Philippine army +had always been distinct from the Peninsular army, but now by a paper +reform it was embodied in it, and the regiments were re-numbered, +the 1st Visayas Regiment becoming the 74th, etc. This was considered +to be a strong link to bind together the Mother Country and the Colony. + +The extra expense of these crowds of employes and of some expeditions +to Mindanao and Jolo was very heavy, accordingly every year saw +some new and oppressive tax. In 1883 the "Tributo," or tribute that +had been paid by the natives since the conquest, was replaced by a +tax on the Cedula Personal, or document of identity, and this was +paid by all adults of both sexes, whether Spaniards, foreigners, +or half-castes. In the Appendix will be found a facsimile of my cedula. + +The Customs duties were several times raised, sometimes without much +notice. A tax on all trades and professions, on horses and carriages, +a heavy port tax, a vexatious tax on all animals slaughtered, even down +to a sucking pig, taxes on the hand-looms used by the women in their +spare time, taxes on sugar-mills, rice-mills, on boats and lighters, +and on houses; all these and many more were collected. + +There were also serious agrarian disputes between the Dominicans, +the Augustinians, and the tenants on their estates, owing to +excessive rents demanded by the friars. All these circumstances +brought about a great change in the relations between the Spaniards +and the natives. Whereas formerly the wealthy native kept open house +on feast days, and received with pleasure the visits of Spaniards, +generally elderly men used to the country and speaking the language +of the people, he now found his house invaded by a crowd of young +officials new to the country and its ways, who fell on the eatables +like a swarm of famishing locusts, and soon devoured the turkeys +and hams and other good things he had provided to entertain his +friends. Besides, his women-folk would probably not be treated by the +new-comers with the courtesy and consideration they had been used to. + +An estrangement gradually made itself felt, and increased year by +year, in direct proportion to the influx of Spaniards. Not one in a +hundred of these did any useful work or added in any way to the wealth +of the community. They were the drones of the hive, and were in fact +directly harmful, for they had to be supported from the Treasury, and +they irritated the natives by their illegal exactions and overbearing +conduct whenever they came in contact with them. + +Still year after year passed without disturbances. From 1877 to 1892, +whilst I was in the country, I can testify that almost perfect order +reigned. The fighting in Mindanao and Jolo went on as a matter of +course like the Acheen war in Sumatra, and an expedition was sent +against the Igorrotes. But in the civilised districts of Luzon and +Visayas good order was kept. The only outbreak I remember was the +religious excitement in Samar, which closed when the false gods were +shot down. + +Crime was infrequent, and in those fourteen years I do not think +half-a-dozen executions took place. There was less risk of burglary in +Manila than in a London suburb. Whatever their faults I must give the +Spanish Administration credit for the perfect order they kept. Manila, +in this respect, compared favourably with Hong Kong, and still better +with Singapore, where the authorities, perhaps remembering the fate of +Governor Eyre of Jamaica, and in terror of Exeter Hall, tolerated the +incredible insolence of the Chinese secret societies. These villainous +organisations, which in Singapore successfully defied the law, never +raised their heads in Manila, and Rajah Brooke showed how to treat +them in Sarawak. + +In pursuance of the Asimilista policy, in July 1887, the Penal Code +was put in force in the Philippines by peremptory order from the +Government at Madrid, and much against the opinion of experienced +officials. In December of the same year the Civil Code was promulgated. + +It cannot be said that these reforms, however well-intended, +produced any beneficial effect on the natives. Combined with the great +increase in taxation, they intensified the discontent that was always +smouldering, more especially in the hearts of the native priests. Their +grievances against the religious orders, and more particularly against +the Recollets, who had been compensated for the handing over of their +benefices in Mindanao to the Jesuits, at the expense of the secular +clergy, were the cause of their bitter hatred of the Spanish friars. + +In 1883 Field-Marshal Jovellar had thought it necessary to strengthen +the small garrison by bringing out two battalions of Marine +Infantry. However it was not till March 1st, 1888, that some natives +and mestizos, emboldened by the fact that an anti-clerical, D. Jose +Centeno, a mining engineer, was Acting Civil Governor of Manila, +walked in procession to his official residence and presented a petition +addressed to the Governor-General, demanding the immediate expulsion of +the friars of the religious orders, and of the Archbishop, whom they +declared unworthy to occupy the Primacy of the Islands. They further +demanded the secularisation of the benefices and the confiscation of +the estates of the Augustinians and the Dominicans. + +To this petition there were 810 signatures, but when the signatories +were summoned and examined, most of them (as is their custom) declared +they did not know what they had signed, and denied that they wished +the friars to be expelled. + +The petition was said to have been written by Doroteo Cortes, a +mestizo lawyer, but I am told he did not sign it. + +This manifestation, sixteen years after the mutiny at Cavite, seems +to have had some relation to that event, for the petition accused +the friars of compassing the death of Father Burgos, by subornation +of justice. + +The result of this appeal of the natives was that the principal persons +who took part in it were banished, or sent to reside at undesirable +spots within the Archipelago. + +There were some agrarian disturbances at Calamba and Santa Rosa, +one of the estates of the Dominicans, in 1890. + +I may say that only the Augustinians, the Dominicans, and the +Recollets possess landed estates, and that I have had the opportunity +of examining several of them. They are all situated in Tagal territory, +and as they are the pick of the lands, their possession by the friars +has caused great heart-burnings amongst the Tagals--there has been +a smouldering agrarian discontent for years. + + + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE RELIGIOUS ORDERS. + + The Augustinians--Their glorious founder--Austin Friars in + England--Scotland--Mexico--They sail with Villalobos for the + Islands of the Setting Sun--Their disastrous voyage--Fray Andres + Urdaneta and his companions--Foundation of Cebu and Manila + with two hundred and forty other towns--Missions to Japan and + China--The Flora Filipina--The Franciscans--The Jesuits--The + Dominicans--The Recollets--Statistics of the religious orders in + the islands--Turbulence of the friars--Always ready to fight for + their country--Furnish a war ship and command it--Refuse to exhibit + the titles of their estates in 1689--The Augustinians take up arms + against the British--Ten of them fall on the field of battle--Their + rectories sacked and burnt--Bravery of the archbishop and friars in + 1820--Father Ibanez raises a battalion--Leads it to the assault of + a Moro Cotta--Execution of native priests in 1872--Small garrison + in the islands--Influence of the friars--Their behaviour--Herr + Jagor--Foreman--Worcester--Younghusband--Opinion of Pope Clement + X.--Tennie C. Claflin--Equality of opportunity--Statuesque figures + of the girls--The author's experience of the Friars--The Philippine + clergy--Who shall cast the first stone?--Constitution of the + orders--Life of a friar--May become an archbishop--The chapter--The + estates--The Peace Commission--Pacification retarded--Who will + collect the rents? + + +Before referring further to these estates it may be as well to give a +brief sketch of the religious orders, whose existence is bound up with +the history of the Philippines, to the conversion and civilisation of +which they have so largely contributed. They won the islands for Spain, +they held them for centuries, and now, having served their purpose, +they have lost them, doubtless for ever. + +The Augustinians were the pioneers in converting the inhabitants of the +Philippines, and they have maintained their predominance ever since. + +I therefore begin my description with this venerable order, and it +will be proper to say something about its glorious founder. + +The following data are taken from the 'Encyclopaedia Britannica' +and other sources. + +Augustine (Aurelius Augustinus) one of the four great fathers of +the Latin Church, and admittedly the greatest of the four, was born +at Tagaste (Tajelt), a town of Numidia, North Africa, A.D. 354. His +father, Patricius, was a burgess of this town, and was still a pagan +at the time of his son's birth. + +His mother, Monica, was not only a Christian, but a woman of the most +elevated, tender, and devoted piety, whose affectionate and beautiful +enthusiasm have passed into a touching type of womanly saintliness +for all ages. + +Augustine studied rhetoric at Madaura and Carthage, and visited Rome +and Milan. + +He passed many years in unrest of mind and doubt, but ultimately a +passage from Romans xii. 13, 14 seemed to pour the light of peace into +his heart. He became a Christian and was baptised in his thirty-third +year. Patricius was also converted and baptised, and Monica found the +desire of her life fulfilled and her dear ones united to her in faith. + +After some years of retirement, Augustine made a journey to Hippo +Regius, a Roman colony on the River Rubricatus in North Africa, +and became a presbyter. + +His principal writings are 'The City of God,' 'Confessions,' and +'The Trinity.' + +He died during the siege of Hippo by the Vandals at the age of 75. + +The theological position and influence of Augustine may be said to +be unrivalled. No single name has ever exercised such power over the +Christian Church, and no one mind has ever made such an impression +upon Christian thought. + +The Augustinians look upon this great Christian moralist as their +founder, and reverence his memory and that of his saintly mother. + +Whether he personally drew up the rules they observe or not, they +were his disciples, following in his foot-steps, and finding their +inspiration in his writings and example. + +Great indeed must have been the magnetic force of that vehement nature +that it could give an impetus to his followers that carried them all +over Europe, that made them the companions of the discoverers and +conquerors of the New World, and that filled their hearts with zeal +and courage to face the dangers of the great lone ocean in company +with Villalobos and Legaspi. + +The Order traces its inception to the town of Hippo, and fixes +the date at A.D. 395. Many, doubtless, were its vicissitudes, but +in the year 1061, and again in 1214, we find the Order remodelled +and extended. The Augustinians were very numerous in England and +Scotland. In 1105 they had settled at Colchester and at Nostell, near +Pontefract. Later they had abbeys at Bristol, Llantony, Christchurch, +Twynham, Bolton and London, where part of their church (Austin Friars) +is still standing. Altogether they had 170 houses in England. Their +first house in Scotland was at Scone in 1114, and they soon had 25 +houses, including churches or abbeys at Inchcolm in the Firth of Forth, +St Andrew's, Holyrood, Cambuskenneth and Inchaffray. + +The Austin Friars or Black Canons were then described as an order of +regular clergy holding a middle position between monks and secular +canons, almost resembling a community of parish priests living under +rule, and they have retained these characteristics to the present day. + +They were numerous in Spain, and some of the other Orders, such as the +Dominicans or Preaching Friars, the Franciscans, and the Recollets, +may almost be looked upon as offshoots of this venerable order, for +they conformed to its general rule, with certain additions. Thus the +Dominicans, founded by Saint Dominic de Guzman, were incorporated in +1216 by a Bull of Pope Honorius III. and adopted a rule of absolute +poverty or mendicancy in addition to the usual vows of chastity +and obedience. + +This Order held its first chapter in 1220 at Bologna, under the +presidency of its founder. + +The vows of poverty of this powerful Order have not prevented it +from holding large estates in the Philippines, from owning blocks +of buildings in Manila and Hong Kong, and from having a huge sum +invested in British and American securities. These however belong to +the Corporation and not to the individual members. + +From Spain the Augustinians spread to Mexico and assisted the +Franciscans, who were the pioneers there under Father Bartolome +de Olmedo and Father Martin de Valencia, to gather in the abundant +harvest. Father Toribio de Benavente was one of twelve Franciscans +sent out in 1523, and he has left records of the success of these +missionaries. They opened schools and founded colleges, and in +twenty years nine millions of converts had been admitted into the +Christian fold. + +By this time Magellan had passed the narrow straits, and sailing +across the vast solitudes of the Pacific had reached the Visayas +Islands to meet his fate, and Sebastian de Elcano had completed the +circumnavigation of the globe and had arrived in Spain with accounts +of the new lands which the expedition had discovered. + +When, in 1542, Captain Ruy Lopez de Villalobos sailed from Natividad +(Mexico) for the Islands of the Setting Sun, only to die of grief at +Amboyna, there accompanied him a group of Augustinian Friars. After +the loss of his vessels the survivors took ship for Goa and from +thence returned to Europe, arriving at Lisbon in August 1549, seven +years after leaving the port of Natividad. + +The Order has carefully preserved the names of these early +missionaries; they are, Frs. Jeronimo de San Esteban, Sebastian de +Trasierra, Nicolas de Perea, Alonso Alvarado. + +In the expedition under General Don Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, which +sailed in 1564, Fray Andres Urdaneta, an Augustinian, went as chief +navigator and cartographer, and the following friars accompanied him: +Frs. Andres de Aiguirre, Martin de Rada, Diego Herrero, Pedro Gamboa. + +Since founding the city of Cebu in 1570, and the city of Manila +the following year, the Augustinians have continued to found town +after town, and down to 1892 had founded no less than two hundred +and forty-two, administered by two hundred and forty-seven priests +of the Order as by the following table:-- + + +Year 1892. + + Summary of Towns founded by the Augustinians. + + Handed over to other Orders 28 + Amalgamated with other towns 11 + Administered by Augustinians 203 + --- + Total 242 + + +Population of the above 203 towns, 2,082,181. + +The Augustinians in the Philippine Islands. + + In Parish Ministry. + Parish Priests 188 + Stewards 37 + Coadjutors 7 + Vicars (learning dialects) 3 + Missionaries 12 + --- + 247 + + Residing in the convents of Manila, Cebu, and Guadalupe. + Superiors or Office bearers 19 + Conventual Priests 7 + Students 14 + Invalids 6 + Lay Brethren 17 + -- + 63 + === + Total 310 + + +In former years this Order had established missions in Japan, and they +were very successful in making converts, but during the persecution +many members of the Order lost their lives, or, as they phrase it, +"attained the palm of martyrdom." + +At the present time they maintain seven missionaries in the province +of Hun-nan in China. In Spain they support three colleges, Valladolid, +La Vid, and La Escorial. They are also in charge of the magnificent +church of that extraordinary palace, and of the priceless library of +which they are editing a catalogue. + +The Augustinians have published a great many works, such as grammars +and vocabularies of the native dialects, and many books of devotion. + +One of their leading men, Father Manuel Blanco, was a most learned +and laborious botanist. He collected and classified so many of the +Philippine plants that the Order decided to complete his work and +publish it. Fray Andres Naves and Fray Celestino Fernandez Villar, +both well-known to me, worked for years at this, and were assisted +by my illustrious friend H. E. Don Sebastian Vidal Soler and others. + +The result is a most sumptuous and magnificent work--published in +Manila--there being four folio volumes enriched by many hundreds +of coloured plates of the different trees, shrubs, orchids and +lianas, most beautifully executed from water-colour paintings by +D. Regino Garcia and others. This monumental book is called the +'Flora Filipina.' It received a diploma of honour at the International +Colonial Exhibition of Amsterdam in 1883. The British Museum possesses +a copy, but unfortunately most of the work was destroyed by fire in +the bombardment of the Convent of Guadalupe during the war. + +However, the widow of Senor Vidal, now Mrs. Amilon of Philadelphia, +still has some copies to dispose of. + +I hope that what I have said about the Augustinians will show that +they are not the lazy and unprofitable persons they are sometimes +represented. The same may be said of the Dominicans. + +The Augustinians were followed, after an interval of seven years, +by the Franciscans, four years after that by the Jesuits, six years +after the Jesuits came the Dominicans. + +Last of all came the Recollets, or bare-footed Augustinians. + +The following Table gives the numbers of friars of the five religious +orders in the Philippines, at the dates mentioned, taken from their own +returns. The first column gives the dates of the first foundation of +the Order, the second the date of its arrival in the Archipelago. The +other columns give the statistics of baptisms, marriages and deaths, +taken from the parish registers. + + +Statement of the Population Administered by the Religious Corporations +and Secular Clergy in the Philippines, 1896. + +Year of Foundation or Revival. +| Year of Arrival. +| | Corporation. Towns. +| | | | Provinces. +| | | | | Friars. +| | | | | | Baptisms. Marriages. +| | | | | | | | Burials. +| | | | | | | | | Souls. +395 1570 Augustinians 203 16 310 98,731 20,355 83,051 2,082,131 +1061 +1532 1606 Recollets 194 20 192 56,259 11,439 40,008 1,175,156 +1208 1577 Franciscans 153 15 455 38,858 11,927 35,737 1,010,753 +1216 1587 Dominicans 69 10 206 27,576 7,307 32,336 699,851 +1534 1581 Jesuits [5] 33 6 167 15,302 [6] 2,017 4,937 191,493 + Secular Clergy .. .. .. .. .. .. 967,294 + ----- --------- + Total 1,330 6,126,678 + + +N.B.-- +The population of the Islands according to the census of 1877 5,995,160 +Probable Christian population, 1899 8,000,000 + + +These holy men have, since very early times, shown themselves rather +turbulent, and then and always endeavoured to carry matters with a +high hand. Thus in 1582 we find them refusing to admit the diocesan +visit of the Bishop of Manila, and that old dispute has cropped +up on and off many times since then. At the same time we find them +taking the part of the natives against the Encomenderos. They have +always been ready to fight for their country and to subscribe money +for its defence. When Acting Governor Guido de Lavezares headed the +column which attacked the pirate Li-ma-Hon, he was accompanied by +the Provincial of the Augustinians. In 1603 all the friars in Manila +took up arms against the revolted Chinese, and three years later the +Augustinians not only furnished a war ship to fight the Portuguese, +but provided a captain for it in the person of one of their Order, +Fray Antonio Flores. It appears that the estates of the Augustinians +and the Dominicans were very early a bone of contention, for in 1689 +a judge arrived in Manila, and, in virtue of a special commission he +had brought from Madrid, he required them to present their titles. This +they refused to do, and the judge was sent back to Mexico, and a friend +of the friars was appointed as Commissioner in his place. Then the +friars condescended to unofficially exhibit their titles. Now more +than two centuries after the first abortive attempt, the question of +the ownership of these lands is still under discussion. + +During the British occupation of Manila in 1763 the friars took up +arms in defence of their flag, and gave their church bells to be +cast into cannon. No less than ten Augustinians fell on the field +of battle. The British treated them with great severity, sacking and +destroying their rectories and estate houses, and selling everything +of theirs they could lay hands on. I have visited the ruins of the +old estate house of Malinta which was burnt by the British. + +In 1820, when the massacre of foreigners by the Manila mob took +place, owing the cowardice of General Folgueras, the archbishop and +friars marched out in procession to the scene of the disturbance and +succeeded in saving many lives. In 1851 a Recollet, Father Ibanez, +raised a battalion from his congregation, trained and commanded it. He +took the field at Mindanao and with the most undaunted bravery led his +men to the assault of a Moro Cotta, or fort, dying like our General +Wolfe at the moment of victory. Not one man of this battalion ever +deserted or hung back from the combats, for the worthy priest had +all their wives under a solemn vow never to receive them again unless +they returned victorious from the campaign. + +The religious orders have frequently interfered to protect the +natives against the civil authorities, and were often on very good +terms with the mass of their parishioners. The greatest jealousy of +them was felt by the native clergy. + +The military revolt which broke out in Cavite in 1872, was doubtless +inspired by this class, who saw that a policy had been adopted of +filling vacancies in all benefices except the poorest, with Spanish +friars instead of natives. The condemnation of Burgos, Gomez, +and Zamora, three native priests who were executed at Manila soon +after the suppression of the revolt, is ascribed by the natives and +mestizos to the subornation of justice to the friars, who are said +to have paid a large sum for their condemnation. + +However this may be, there is no doubt that since that date the +feeling against the friars has become intensified. + +The friars were the chief outposts and even bulwarks of the government +against rebellions. Almost every rising has been detected by them, +many plots being revealed by women under the seal of confession. It +was only by the assistance of the friars that the islands were held +by Spain for so many centuries almost without any military force. + +The islands were not conquered by force of arms--the people were +converted almost without firing a shot. + +The greater part of the fighting was to protect the natives against +Chinese pirates, Japanese corsairs, Dutch rovers, or the predatory +heathen. + +The defensive forces consisted of local troops and companies of +Mexican and Peruvian Infantry. It is only since 1828 that Manila has +been garrisoned by regular troops from the Peninsula. + +During my residence in the islands I do not think there were more than +1500 Spanish troops in garrison in the whole islands, except when +some marines were sent out. These troops belonged to the Peninsular +Regiment of Artillery, and were a very fine looking set of men. + +That this small force could be sufficient is evidently due to the +influence of the friars in keeping the people quiet. + +Yet the feeling of a great majority of Spanish civilians was against +the friars, and I think many of those who supported them, only did +so from interested motives. + +The consequence was that as the number of Spaniards increased, the +influence of the friars diminished, for the Spanish anti-clericals +had no scruples in criticising the priests and in speaking plainly +to the natives to their prejudice. + +The friars have fared badly at the hands of several writers on the +Philippines; but it will be noticed that those who know the least +about them speak the worst of them. + +Herr Jagor, who was much amongst them, bears witness to the strict +decorum of their households, whilst he very justly says that the +behaviour of the native clergy leaves something to be desired. + +Foreman hints at horrors, and with questionable taste relates how he +found amongst a priest's baggage some very obscene pictures. + +Worcester thinks the priests' influence wholly bad. From what he +states in his book, he must have come across some very bad specimens +amongst the smaller islands where he wandered. + +Younghusband, who perhaps got his information at the bar of the Manila +Club, describes them as "monsters of lechery." + +There is a tradition that when the conclusions of a tribunal +favourable to the canonisation of Santa Rosa de Lima, Patroness of +the Indies, were laid before Pope Clement X., that Pontiff manifested +his incredulity that a tropical climate could produce a saint. He +is even credited with the saying that bananas and saints are not +grown together. + +The tradition may be erroneous, but there is something in the opinion +that deserves to be remembered. + +Temperature does have something to do with sexual morality, and in +comparing one country with another an allowance must be made for the +height of the thermometer. + +The friars in the Philippines are but men, and men exposed to great +temptations. We should remember the tedium of life in a provincial +town, where, perhaps, the parish priest is the only European, and +is surfeited with the conversation of his native curates, of the +half-caste apothecary and the Chinese store-keeper. He has neither +society nor amusement. + +I have previously remarked upon the position of women in the +Philippines. I may repeat that their position, both by law and custom, +is at least as good as in the most advanced countries. + +I remember reading with great interest, and, perhaps, some sympathy, +a remarkable article in the New York Herald, of January 10th, 1894, +headed "Virtue Defined," signed by Tennie C. Claflin (Lady Cook), +and it seemed to me a plea for "equality of opportunity" between the +sexes, if I may borrow the phrase from diplomacy. Well, that equality +exists in the Philippines. Whilst unmarried, the girls enjoy great +freedom. In that tolerant land a little ante-nuptial incontinence +is not an unpardonable crime in a girl any more than in a youth, +nor does it bar the way to marriage. + +The girls whilst young possess exceedingly statuesque figures, and what +charms they have are nature's own, for they owe nothing to art. Their +dress is modest, yet as they do not wear a superfluity of garments, +at times, as when bathing, their figures are revealed to view. + +Bearing in mind the above condition of things and that the priest +is the principal man in the town and able to do many favours to his +friends, it is not surprising if some of the young women, impelled +by the desire of obtaining his good graces, make a dead set at +him, such as we sometimes see made at a bachelor curate in our own +so-very-much-more frigid and, therefore, moral country. The priest, +should he forget his vows of celibacy, is a sinner, and deserving +of blame for failing to keep the high standard of virtue which his +Church demands. But I do not see in that a justification for calling +him a monster. Have we never heard of a backslider in Brooklyn, or of +a clerical co-respondent at home, that we should expect perfection in +the Philippines? As for the statements that the priests take married +women by force, that is an absurdity. The Tagals are not men to suffer +such an outrage. + +The toleration enjoyed by the girls, above referred to, is a heritage +from heathen times, which three centuries of Christianity have failed +to extirpate. In fact, this is a characteristic of the Malay race. + +During the many years I was in the islands I had frequent occasion to +avail myself of the hospitality of the priests on my journeys. This was +usually amongst the Augustinians, the Dominicans and the Recollets. I +declare that on none of those many occasions did I ever witness +anything scandalous, or indecorous in their convents, and I arrived +at all hours and without notice. + +As to Younghusband's denouncement of them as "monsters of lechery," +I would say that they were notoriously the most healthy and the +longest-lived people in the islands, and if that most unjust accusation +was true, this could hardly be the case. It should be remembered +that the priest of any large town would be a man advanced in years +and therefore less likely to misconduct himself. + +There was also the certainty that any open scandal would be followed +by punishment from the provincial and council of the order. I have +known a priest to be practically banished to a wretched hamlet amongst +savages for two years for causing scandal. + +Some late writers speak of the native clergy as if they were of +superior morality and better behaved than the Spanish priests. That +appreciation does not commend itself to those who have had some +experience of the Philippine clergy. + +Some of those I have known were of very relaxed morals, not to say +scandalous in their behaviour. The Philippine Islands, in short, are +not the chosen abode of chastity: but I do not know why the Spanish +friars should be singled out for special censure in this respect. + +I can truly say that I was not acquainted with any class out there +entitled to cast the first stone. + +Each of the orders (except the Jesuits) is a little republic governed +or administered by officers and functionaries elected by the suffrages +of the members. The head of the order is a Superior or General, +who resides in Rome, but the head in the Philippines is called the +Provincial. + +The brethren render him the greatest respect and obedience, kneeling +down to kiss his hand. + +There is a council to assist the provincial, they are called +definidores or padres graves, the exact nomenclature varies in the +different orders. + +There is a Procurator or Commissary in Madrid, a Procurator-General +in Manila, a Prior or Guardian to each convent not being a rectory, +an Orator or preacher, lay-brethren in charge of estates or of works, +parish priests, missionaries, and coadjutors, learning the native +dialects. + +The members of the order were appointed to benefices according to +their standing and popularity amongst their brethren. The neophytes are +trained in one of the seminaries of the order in Spain; for instance, +the Augustinians have colleges at Valladolid, La Vid, and La Escorial, +with more than 300 students. + +When a young priest first arrived in the Philippines, he was sent as +a coadjutor to some parish priest to learn the dialect of the people +he is to work amongst. Then he would be appointed a missionary to the +heathen, where he lived on scanty pay, amongst savages, either in the +highlands of Luzon or in some remote island, remaining there for two or +three years. His first promotion would be to a parish consisting of a +village of thatched houses (nipa) and, perhaps, the church and convent +would be of the same material. This meant a constant and imminent +dread of the almost instantaneous destruction of his dwelling by +fire. Perhaps there is communication with Manila once a month, when, +by sending to the nearest port, he may get letters and newspapers and +receive some provisions, an occasional cask of Spanish red wine, some +tins of chorizos (Estremeno smoked sausages), a sack of garbanzos, +or frijoles, a box of turron de Alicante, and some cigars from the +procuration of the convent in Manila. These would be charged to his +account, and frugally as he might live, many a year might pass over +his head before he would be out of debt to his Order. And poor as he +might be, he would never refuse his house or his table to any European +who might call upon him. Later on, if his conduct had satisfied his +superiors, the time would come when he would get nominated to a more +accessible and more profitable parish, that would quickly enable him +to pay off the debt due to the procuration. He would have a church +and convent of stone, keep a carriage and pair of ponies, and begin to +have a surplus, and to contribute a little to the funds of his Order. + +Soon he would become Padre Grave, and begin to have influence with +his colleagues. He would be removed to a richer town and nominated +Vicario Foraneo, equivalent to an archdeacon in England. Later on, +he might be elected a Definidor, or councillor. Then, perhaps, +one of the great prizes of the order fell to his lot. He might be +appointed parish priest of Taal or Binan, worth at least ten thousand +dollars a year, or of rich Lipa, high amongst its coffee groves (now, +alas! withered), which used to be worth twenty thousand dollars in a +good year. He would treat himself well, and liberally entertain all +who visited him, and governors of provinces, judges, officers of the +Guardia Civil, would often be seen at his table. + +He would make large contributions to the funds of the Order, with +the surplus revenue of his parish. + +If, however, the priest whose career we have been following, had +shown sufficient character for a champion, and had become popular +in the Order, he might, perhaps, be elected Provincial, and then, +disposing of the influence of his Order, some day get himself made a +Bishop or even Archbishop of Manila, should a vacancy occur, and so +become a prince of the Church. + +Whatever talents a friar had, a sphere could always be found for +their exercise. If he had a gift for preaching, he could be appointed +Orator of the Order. If he was good at Latin and Greek, he could be +made a professor at the university. If he was a good business man, +he could be chosen procurator. If he had diplomatic talents, he could +be made commissary of the order at Madrid. In any case he was sure +to be taken care of to the end of his days. + +As for the Orders in themselves, I have already said that, +excepting the Society of Jesus, they are little republics, and that +office-holders are elected by the votes of the members. When a general +Chapter of the Order is held for this purpose, the members come from +all parts and assemble in their convent in Manila. + +I am sorry to say that there has sometimes been so much feeling aroused +over the question of the distribution of the loaves and fishes, that +the opposing parties have broken up the chairs and benches to serve +as clubs, and furiously attacked each other in the battle royal, +and with deplorable results. + +In consequence of this, when the chapter or general assembly was to +be held, the governor-general nominated a royal commissary, often +a colonel in the army, to be present at these meetings, but only to +interfere to keep the peace. It was something of an anomaly to see a +son of Mars deputed to keep the peace in an assembly of the clergy. The +meeting commenced with prayer, then one by one all the dignitaries +laid down their offices and became private members of the Order, +so that at the end of this ceremony every one was absolutely equal. + +Then the eldest rose and solemnly adjured any one present who held a +Bull of the Holy Father, to produce it then and there under pain of +major excommunication. Three times was this solemn warning delivered. + +It owes its origin, perhaps, to some surprise sprung on a brotherhood +in former days, yet it is to be noted that one of the privileges of +their Catholic majesties the kings of Spain was, that no Bull should +run in their dominions without their approval. + +Then free from outside interference, and all present being on an +equal footing the election takes place. Amidst great excitement +the Provincial, the Procurator, the Orator, the Definidores, or +Councillors, are chosen according to their popularity, or as they are +deemed best fitted to advance the interests of the voter or the Order. + +The selection of office-holders is a matter of the greatest importance +to the members, as those in power distribute the benefices and are +apt to be more alive to the merits of their supporters, than to the +pretensions of those who have voted for others. + +But, however divided they may be on these occasions, they unite against +any outsider, and unless the question is evidently personal, he who +offends a member finds the Order ranged against him, and, perhaps, +the other Orders also, for in matters affecting their interests +the Orders act in unison, and as has been said, have succeeded in +removing not only governors of provinces, but governors-general also +when these have failed to do their bidding. + + + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THEIR ESTATES. + + Malinta and Piedad--Mandaloyan--San Francisco de + Malabon--Irrigation works--Imus--Calamba--Cabuyao--Santa + Rosa--Binan--San Pedro Tunasan--Naic--Santa Cruz--Estates a + bone of contention for centuries--Principal cause of revolt + of Tagals--But the Peace Commission guarantee the Orders in + possession--Pacification retarded--Summary--The Orders must + go!--And be replaced by natives. + + +The Augustinians own some fine estates near Manila. In 1877 I visited +Malinta and Piedad, which, according to an old plan exhibited to +me, drawn by some ancient navigator, measured over 14,000 acres in +extent, a good part of which was cultivated and under paddy; still a +large expanse was rocky, and grew only cogon (elephant grass). The +lay-brother in charge, Aureliano Garcia, confided to me that he +went about in fear, and expected to end his life under the bolos +of the tenants. I was then new to the country, and saw no signs of +discontent. I afterwards visited Mandaloyan, another estate nearer +Manila. This was nearly all arable land. The house was large and +commodious, and was used as a convalescent home for the friars. I have +not a note of the extent of this estate, but it occupies a great part +of the space between the rivers Maibonga and San Juan, to the north +of the Pasig. The lay-brother in charge, Julian Ibeas, did not seem at +all anxious about his safety. The land here was more fertile than that +of Malinta, and there was water carriage to a market for the crops. + +In view of my report, which was not, however, unduly optimistic, my +clients deputed me to ask the Augustinians for a lease of the above +three estates for twenty-five years, the rent to be $40,000 [7] +per year for three years, and each year after that an addition of +a thousand dollars, so that the ultimate rent would be $62,000 per +annum. However, after taking some time to consider, the procurator +declined the offer. + +On the above estates there was little or nothing done by the owners +to improve the land. They had limited themselves to building large +and convenient houses and granaries for their own accommodation, +and to entertain their friends. + +In 1884 I constructed a pumping station on the River Tuliajan in this +estate, and laid a pipe line right through the property to supply fresh +water to the sugar refinery at Malabon, five miles distant. I had no +difficulty in obtaining permission, indeed, Fray Arsenio Campo (now +Bishop of Nueva Caceres) facilitated the work in every way. The only +protest was by Doroteo Cortes, a half-caste lawyer, who interposed +as the pipe had to pass between two fish-ponds belonging to him, +and he extorted a blackmail $800 to withdraw his opposition. Let the +reader contrast the behaviour of the Spaniard and the half-caste, +now posing as an "Americanista." + +San Francisco de Malabon, another possession of theirs, is a +magnificent property, situated on the fertile, well-watered land +that slopes from the summits of the Tagaytay range, north of the vast +crater-lake of Bombon, to the shores of the ever-famous Bay of Bacoor, +the scene of Spain's naval collapse. + +Through the volcanic soil three rivers, the Ilang-ilang, the +Camanchile, and the Jalan, have cut deep gashes down to the bed-rock, +on the surface of which the rapid waters rush downwards to the sea. + +A nobly-proportioned house of stone, almost a fortress, was planted +where it commanded a grand, a stately view. From its windows the +spectator looked over fields of waving grain, over fruit trees, and +town and hamlets, down to the sea shore, and across the vast expanse +of placid bay to where in the far north solitary Arayat rears his +head. The thick walls and lofty roof excluded the solar heat, and the +green-painted Venetians saved the inmate from the glare. Very welcome +was that hostel, furnished in severe ecclesiastical almost mediaeval +style, to me, after the dusty up-hill drive of eight miles from Cavite. + +I visited this estate in 1879, and found that extensive irrigation +works had been carried out. A new dam on one of the rivers, about +fifty feet high, was approaching completion. Unfortunately, the +work had been executed by a lay-brother, a stone mason, without +professional supervision. He was ignorant of the necessity of taking +special precautions when preparing the seat for the dam. Although +he had a bed of volcanic tuff to build upon he would not go to the +trouble to cut into and stop all faults and crevices in the rock +before laying his first course of masonry, and he hurried on the job +to save expense as he supposed. For the same reason he did not attempt +to follow the correct profile of the dam. When the pressure came on, +the water spouted up in little fountains, and gradually increased as +it cut away the soft stone. I advised them what to do, and after a +good deal of work, Portland cement and puddled clay got them out of +their difficulty. + +About four miles to the eastward of San Francisco de Malabon, and +on the same volcanic soil, is the great estate of Imus belonging to +the Recollets, or unshod Augustinians. It is about five miles from +the landing-place at Bacoor. Here again three rivers run through the +property, and the view from the house is the same. + +The house itself was a grim fortress and served the rebels well in +1896, for they found arms and ammunition in it, and successfully +defended it against General Aiguirre who had to retire, being unable +to take it without artillery. + +In 1897 the army of General Lachambre advanced against Imus, and on +the 24th March took the outer defences of the town, notwithstanding +the determined resistance of the Tagals, of whom three hundred were +killed in a hand-to-hand combat. Next day the estate house, which +adjoins the town and had been for six months the stronghold of the +Katipunan, was bombarded and burnt, only the ruins remain. + +There are extensive works of irrigation at this place also, and +formerly a large sugar works was built here by the owners, but it +failed, as there was no one fit to take charge of it. + +I have not visited this Hacienda, and cannot give its extent or value. + +Of all the Orders the greatest land-owners are the Dominicans. They +have vast estates in Calamba, Cabuyao, Santa Rosa, Binan, and San Pedro +Tunasan, all on the Lake of Bay, also at Naic and Santa Cruz on the +Bay of Manila. I have several times visited their estates at the first +two places, and can affirm that they have expended considerable sums +in building dams for irrigating the lands, and I supplied them with +some very large cast-iron pipes for the purpose of making a syphon +across a ravine or narrow valley to convey water for irrigating the +opposite plain. They have consequently very largely increased the +value of these lands. + +The house at Calamba, solidly built of stone, with a strong and high +encircling wall, served as a fortified camp and headquarters for the +Spanish army in operation against the rebels in 1897. + +This estate of Calamba has earned a sad notoriety in the Philippines, +for the disputes which constantly arose between the administration +and their tenants. + +It is hardly too much to say that the possession of estates has been +fatal to the Orders. They claim to have always been good and indulgent +landlords, but the fact remains that all these estates are in Tagal +territory, that only the Tagals revolted, and that the revolt was +directed against the Orders because of their tyranny and extortions, +and because they were landlords and rack renters. + +It was, is now, and ever will be an Agrarian question that will +continue to give trouble and be the cause of crime and outrage until +settled in a broad-minded and statesman-like manner. + +These estates have been a bone of contention for centuries, and +were a principal cause of the last revolt of the Tagals. Yet the +Peace Commission at Paris appears to have given the three Orders +a new title to their disputed possessions by guaranteeing to the +Church the enjoyment of its property, which, if the Spaniards had +continued to rule the islands, must ultimately have been taken from +it in the natural course of events, as has happened in every other +Catholic country. + +I have no doubt that the pacification of the Philippines by the +American forces has been greatly retarded, and is now rendered +more difficult, by this clause, which must have been accepted by the +American commissioners under a misapprehension of its import, and from +imperfect information as to the status quo. This difficult matter can +still be arranged, but it will require the outlay of a considerable +sum of money, which, however, would eventually be recouped. + +In present circumstances I venture to say that a garrison would be +needed at each estate to protect an administrator or collector, for the +Tagal tenants are as averse to paying rent for land as any bog-trotter +in Tipperary. I do not envy anybody who purchases these estates, nor +would I consider the life of such a one a good risk for an insurance +company, if he intended to press the tenants for rents or arrears. + +To sum up the Religious Orders, they were hardy and adventurous +pioneers of Christianity, and in the evangelisation of the Philippines, +by persuasion and teaching, they did more for Christianity and +civilisation than any other missionaries of modern times. + +Of undaunted courage they have ever been to the front when calamities +threatened their flocks; they have witnessed and recorded some of the +most dreadful convulsions of nature, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, +and destructive typhoons. In epidemics of plague and cholera they +have not been dismayed, nor have they ever in such cases abandoned +their flocks. + +When an enemy has attacked the islands they have been the first to +face the shot. Only fervent faith could enable these men to endure +the hardships, and overcome the dangers that encompassed them. + +They have done much for education, having founded schools for both +sexes, training colleges for teachers, the university of St. Thomas +in Manila, and other institutions. + +Hospitals and asylums attest their charity. They were formerly, +and even lately, the protectors of the poor against the rich, and of +the native against the Spaniard. They have consistently resisted the +enslavement of the natives. + +They restrained the constant inclination of the natives to wander +away into the woods and return to primitive savagery by keeping them +in the towns, or, as they said, "Under the bells." + +On the other hand, peace and plenty (those blessings for which we +pray), have corrupted and demoralised the Orders. No longer liable at +any moment to be called upon to fight for their lives, the sterner +virtues have decayed. Increased production and export enriched the +people, a gold coinage was introduced, and the friars allowed avarice +to possess their souls. + +In those lands of perpetual summer no death duties have to be paid +to a Chancellor of the Exchequer, as in this island of fog and mist. + +But the friars have a system of charges for performing the funeral +ceremonies, which comes to much the same in the end. I call it a +system; it is a very simple system, and consists in extorting as +much as they can get, taking into consideration the wealth of the +family. To give an instance, I have been assured by a son of Capitan +Natalio Lopez, of Balayan, a native gentleman well known to me, +that the parish priest charged the family six hundred dollars for +performing their father's funeral ceremony. The same rule applies to +baptisms and marriages, and this abuse calls for redress, and for the +establishment of fixed fees according to the position of the parties. + +Each friar, as a parish priest, was an outpost of the central +government, watching for symptoms of revolt. Only thus could the +Spaniards hold the archipelago with fifteen hundred Peninsular troops, +and a small squadron of warships. + +The greatest, and the best-founded, complaint of the natives against +the priests, was that whoever displeased them, either in personal +or money matters, was liable to be denounced to the authorities as +a filibuster, and to be torn from home and family and deported to +some distant and probably unhealthy spot, there to reside, at his own +cost, for an indefinite time, by arbitrary authority, without process +of law. Such a punishment, euphoniously termed "forced residence," +sometimes involved the death of the exile, and always caused heavy +expense, as a pardon could not be obtained without bribing some one. + +Ysabelo de los Reyes, and other natives, accuse the friars of extorting +evidence from suspected persons by torture. I fear there can be no +doubt that many victims, including a number of the native clerics, +suffered flagellation and other tortures at the hands of the friars +for the above purpose. The convents of Nueva-Caceres and of Vigan, +amongst other places, were the scenes of these abominable practices, +and Augustinians, Dominicans and Franciscans, have taken part in +them. This is referred to at greater length in another part of this +work under the heading, "The Insurrection of 1896." + +Individual friars were sometimes, nay, often, very worthy parish +priests. I have known many such. But a community is often worse +than the individuals of which it is composed. One might say with +the Italian musician who had served for many years in a cathedral, +and had obtained the promise of every individual canon to support +his application for a pension, when he was told that the chapter had +unanimously refused his request: + +"The canons are good, but the chapter is bad." + +A board will jointly do a meaner action than the shadiest director +amongst them, and should it comprise one or two members of obtrusive +piety, that circumstance enables it to disregard the ordinary standard +of right and wrong with more assurance. + +There is a law in metallurgy which has a curious analogy to this law +of human nature. It is this: An alloy composed of several metals of +different melting-points, will fuse at a lower temperature than that +of its lowest fusing constituent. + +The Orders, then, have been of the greatest service in the past; they +have brought the Philippines and their inhabitants to a certain pitch +of civilisation, and credit is due to them for this much, even if +they could go no farther. For years their influence over the natives +has been decreasing, and year by year the natives have become more +and more antagonistic to priestly rule. + +A considerable intellectual development has taken place of late years +in the Philippines. The natives are no longer content to continue +upon the old lines; they aspire to a freer life. Many even harbour +a sentiment of nationality such as was never thought of before. + +But if the Orders had lost ground with the natives and with many +Spaniards, their influence still preponderated. Owners of vast estates, +possessors of fabulous riches, armed with spiritual authority, knowing +the secrets of every family, holding the venal courts of justice as in +the hollow of their hand, dominating the local government, standing +above the law, and purchasing the downfall of their enemies from the +corrupt ministries in Madrid, these giant trusts, jealous of each +other, yet standing firmly shoulder to shoulder in the common cause, +constitute a barrier to progress that can have no place nor use under +an American Protectorate. They are an anachronism in the twentieth +century, and they must disappear as corporations from the Philippines. + +They should not, however, be buried under an avalanche of contumely +and slander; their long and glorious past should be remembered, and in +winding up their estates due regard should be paid to the interests +of every member. I cannot here intimate how this is to be done, for +it is an intricate subject, rendered more complex by the reluctance +of the American Government to interfere in religious matters, even +though they are so bound up with the politics of the Philippines that +no pacification can be effected without following popular sentiment +upon this point. + +So far as the landed estates are concerned, the settlement could +be arrived at by a commission with ample powers. In the meantime, +no sale of these estates should be recognised. + +The benefices held by the friars should be gradually bestowed upon +the secular clergy, as suitable men can be found. The native clergy +have always been badly used by the friars; they have had to suffer +abuse and ignominious treatment. They have not been in a position to +develop their dignity and self-respect. + +I have spoken of them in general as leaving something to be desired +as to decorous conduct, but they will doubtless improve when placed +in positions of consideration and responsibility. + +Amongst them are men of considerable learning; some have passed +brilliant examinations in theology and canon law. + +As regards piety, Malays, whether heathen, Mahometan or Christian, +take their religion lightly, and we must not expect too much. I +daresay they are pious enough for the country and the climate. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +SECRET SOCIETIES. + + Masonic Lodges--Execution or exile of Masons in 1872--The + "Associacion Hispano Filipina"--The "Liga Filipina"--The + Katipunan--Its programme. + + +Fray Eduardo Navarro, Procurator of the Augustinians, and Ysabelo de +los Reyes, an Ilocano, and author of some notable works, agree that +the first masonic lodge of the Philippines was founded in Cavite +about 1860. The latter states that Malcampo and Mendez-Nunez, +two distinguished naval officers, were the founders. Soon after +this, another lodge was founded in Zamboanga, also under naval +auspices. After 1868, a lodge was founded in Manila by foreigners, +a wealthy Filipino being secretary. Another lodge was founded in +Pandakan, another in Cebu, and still another in Cavite, to which +Crisanto Reyes and Maximo Inocencio belonged. + +These lodges at first had only Peninsular Spaniards or other Europeans +as members, but gradually Creoles, Mestizos, and natives, joined the +brotherhood, and subscribed liberally to its funds. + +The Catholic clergy have always looked upon Masons as most dangerous +enemies, and many pontiffs have launched their anathemas against the +brotherhood. But, so far as one can see, to quote from 'The Jackdaw +of Rheims,' "No one seemed a penny the worse." + +Masonry grows and flourishes in spite of them all. To give an +example. Many years ago, in the very Catholic city of Lima, I attended +the civil funeral of a priest, the learned Doctor Don Francisco de +Paula Gonzales Vigil, who died excommunicate. Twelve thousand men, +including the Masons with their insignia, deputations from the Senate +and Chamber, from the Municipality, Army, Navy, and other bodies, +formed the funeral cortege. The Municipality presented a tomb in the +public cemetery, which is one of the finest in the world, and an orator +pronounced an impassioned eulogy upon the virtues and patriotism of the +deceased. It was a wonderful manifestation, and remains graven upon my +memory. On that day every priest and friar found something to occupy +himself with at home. Whatever may be the case in Great Britain or in +the United States, there can be no doubt that in Catholic countries +the lodges are antagonistic to the clergy and the Church. + +The lodges in the Philippines were founded by anti-clerical Spaniards +of liberal views, and the Creoles, Mestizos and natives who joined +them found brethren disposed to sympathise with them and to work with +them against the friars. There was no idea of revolting against the +mother country, but rather to introduce a more liberal government, +with representation for the civilised provinces in the Spanish +Cortes. It must be remembered that this representation had already +existed, and only required to be revived. There had been deputies +to the Cortes-Generales from 1810 to 1814, and from 1820 to 1823, +and Procuradores from 1834 to 1837. + +The Cortes of Cadiz, on 14th October, 1810, declared:-- + + + "The kingdoms and provinces of America and Asia are, and ought to + have been always, reputed an integral part of the Spanish monarchy, + and for that same, their natives and free inhabitants are equal + in rights and privileges to those of the peninsula." + + +These are very noble words, and, delivered in the majestic language +of Castile by some enthusiastic orator, must have gone straight to +the hearts of those that heard them. + +Spain is as celebrated for orators as Great Britain for the lack of +them. Our generation has never produced a speaker like Castelar. But, +unfortunately for the Philippines, these grand and sonorous phrases +dissolved in air, and led to nothing practical. The friars stoutly +opposed what to them seemed dangerous innovations; they were +successful, and darkness again prevailed. + +The insurrection of Cavite, in 1872, resulted in the execution or +exile of many members of the masonic body, and the brotherhood was +for some years under a cloud. + +The Peninsular Spaniards dissociated themselves from the revolutionary +party. To use a simile which has been employed in England to describe +the difference between Liberals and Radicals, they were "going by +the same train, but not going so far." + +The Creoles and Mestizos gradually founded new societies, which were +alleged to aim at obtaining reforms by legal and constitutional means. + +"The Asociacion Hispano-Filipina" had for its first president Doroteo +Cortes, and amongst its officers Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, Pedro +Serrano, and Deodato Arellano. + +The "Liga Filipina" was founded by Dr. Rizal and Domingo Franco; +its first president was shot. Nearly all the members were Masons; +they were well off, and of fair education, not inclined to put their +persons or property in danger. They did not want to fight. Their +programme may be summed up as follows:-- + + + 1. Expulsion of the friars, and confiscation of their estates. + 2. The same political, administrative and economical concessions + as had been granted to Cuba. Freedom of the press, and freedom + of association. + 3. Equalisation of the Philippine and Peninsular armies, and a + just division of Civil Service posts between natives and + Spaniards. + 4. Return to owners of lands usurped by the friars, and sale of + such lands as really belonged to the Orders. + 5. Prevention of insults to the Philippine natives, either in + sermons or in the press. + 6. Economy in expenditure. Reduction of imposts. Construction of + railways and public works. + + +It was certainly not without risk to be a member of one of these +societies, for the Orders are vindictive in the extreme, and are not +troubled with scruples when it is a question of punishing an opponent. + +Still, the Creole and Mestizo element were made cautious by +the possession of property, and its members cannot be called +fighting-men. They did not intend to run the risk of having holes +bored through them. + +They founded newspapers in Spain; they wrote violent articles, +they made speeches, they obtained the support of some Liberals and +anti-clericals in the Peninsula, and numbered many adherents in the +islands. Still, they were comparatively harmless. Not so, however, +was a society which was formed of very different elements. Taking a +hint, perhaps, from the murderous brotherhood of the Ku-Klux-Klan, +some resolute and courageous Tagals imagined and formed that terrible +secret society, the Katipunan. There is no K in the Spanish alphabet, +but this letter is found in the Malay dialects, and consequently +in Tagal. Therefore, the symbol of the society, K.K.K., was as +distinctly anti-Spanish as was the full title, which was represented +by the initials-- + + + N M A N B + + +The words corresponding to these initials were:-- + + + Kataas-taasan Kagalang-galang Katipunan + or Sovereign Worshipful Association + + Nang Manga Anac Nang Bayan + of the (plural) sons of the Country. + + +They used signs and passwords. There were three grades of members:-- + + + 1st grade Katipun word Anak nang bayan. + 2nd grade Kanal word Gom-bur-za. [8] + 3rd grade Bayani. + + +Andres Bonifacio, a warehouse-keeper in the service of Messrs. Fressel +& Co., of Manila, was the guiding spirit of this society, and at +the meeting of 1st January, 1896, the Supreme Council was elected +as follows:-- + + + President Andres Bonifacio. + Fiscal and Doctor Emilio Jacinto o Dison, alias Ping Kian. + Treasurer Vicente Molina. + Councillors Pantaleon Torres. + Hermengildo Reyes. + Francisco Carreon. + Jose Trinidad. + Balbino Florentine + Aguedo del Rosario. + + + K + K K + Z LL B + + +The members of the Katipunan were poor people--writers, common +soldiers, washermen, mechanics, and tenants on the friars' +estates. They subscribed small sums monthly for the purchase of arms, +and for other expenses. Bearing in mind how many conspiracies had been +denounced to the priests by the women, the leaders of this movement +gave their meetings the outward appearance of benevolent associations, +and directed the members to represent the society to their wives in +that light. + +Later on a woman's lodge, with twenty-five members was organised, +under the presidency of Marina Dison, but the women were not informed +of the true object of the society. + +Fray Eduardo Navarro, Procurator of the Augustinians, in a +cleverly-written work, entitled 'The Philippines; a Study of Certain +Matters of Moment,' published in 1897, prints under No. 3 of the +Appendix the title granted by the Walana Lodge, No. 158, certifying +that "our dear sister, Purificacion Leyva, has been initiated in the +degree of Companion-Mason at the session of 8th April, 1894." + +On reading this work, I infer that the friars considered the Katipunan +a Masonic body, but this is a mistake. The Katipunan adopted some +of the Masonic paraphernalia, and some of the initiatory ceremonies, +but were in no sense Masonic lodges. + +The programme of the Katipunan was, in its own words, "to redeem the +Philippines from its tyrants, the friars, and to found a communistic +republic." This was simple and direct, and they meant it. + +How many men were affiliated to this society cannot be known. Estimates +range from 10,000 to 50,000 members. I think there can be no doubt +that it was the most potent factor in the insurrection of 1896, and +that its members, unlike the Creoles and Mestizos, were ready to give +their lives for their cause. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +THE INSURRECTION OF 1896-97. + + Combat at San Juan del Monte--Insurrection spreading--Arrival + of reinforcements from Spain--Rebel entrenchments--Rebel arms + and artillery--Spaniards repulsed from Binacayan--and from + Noveleta--Mutiny of Carabineros--Prisoners at Cavite attempt + to escape--Iniquities of the Spanish War Office--Lachambre's + division--Rebel organization--Rank and badges--Lachambre + advances--He captures Silang--Perez Dasmarinas--Salitran--Anabo II. + + +The Augustinians take credit to themselves that one of their order, +Father Mariano Gil, parish priest of Tondo, discovered the existence +of the revolutionary conspiracy, on the 19th August. But already on +the 5th of July a lieutenant of the Guardia Civil had declared in +a written report that there were over 14,000 men belonging to the +valley of the Pasig, affiliated to the conspiracy. + +A council of the authorities was convened on the 6th of August, but +nothing was done. On that same date, however, the Governor of Batangas +telegraphed that a discovery of arms, ammunition and Republican flags +had been made at Taal. In consequence of this, General Blanco ordered +some arrests to be made. + +On the 19th, Father Gil gave information to General Blanco that +he had discovered the existence of a secret revolutionary society, +and two days later Blanco reported to the Government in Madrid that +there existed a vast organization of secret societies. + +At this time the garrison of Manila consisted of some 1500 men, most of +them being natives. As arrests were being continually made, the members +of the Katipunan, or those suspected of being such, left their homes +and took to the woods although very poorly equipped with fire-arms. + +On 30th August a party of the rebels under Sancho Valenzuela, +Modesto Sarmiento, and others had a fight with some native cavalry +and Guardias Civiles at San Juan del Monte near Manila. The rebels +lost heavily in killed, their chiefs were taken prisoners and shot +on the 4th September, at the Paseo de la Luneta. + +A Spanish artilleryman was murdered by some rebels at Pandacan about +this time, and martial law was proclaimed. + +The Guardia Civil, all native soldiers, was now concentrated in +Manila abandoning their outlying posts. After many vacillations and +contradictory cablegrams to the Government in Madrid, General Blanco +now definitely asked for large reinforcements. + +On September 1st, the people of Noveleta revolted and killed a captain +and a lieutenant of the Guardia Civil and three days later the rebels +penetrated to the town of Caridad, close to Cavite. + +Early in September rebels were in arms, and dominating great part +of the Provinces of Manila, Cavite, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga and +Nueva Ecija. + +By the middle of the month rebel bands appeared in Tarlac, Pangasinan, +Laguna, Morong and Tayabas. + +On the 9th September, the Cavite rebels attacked San Roque, which is +close to the town of Cavite, and burned part of it. On the 12th, +thirteen persons who had been convicted by a court-martial of +complicity in the revolt were shot in Cavite. + +The cables from General Blanco to the Madrid Government were all this +time misleading and contradictory, and showed that he had no grasp +of the state of affairs. These dispatches were subjected to severe +criticism in the Heraldo, a Madrid newspaper. + +By the middle of September troops arrived from Zamboanga and other +southern stations, and the garrison of Manila was brought up to +6000 men, two-thirds of whom were natives. Reinforcements were sent +to Cavite, for the rebels were in great force about Silang, Imus, +and Noveleta. + +On the 17th September another attack was made by the rebels on San +Roque, but was repulsed. + +On the 1st October the mail steamer Cataluna arrived with a battalion +of marines from Spain, greatly to the delight of the Spaniards, +who gave the force an enthusiastic reception. + +Next day the ss. Monserrat arrived with more troops, and from this +time forward troops kept pouring in. + +Still General Blanco remained on the defensive in and around the city +of Manila and the town of Cavite, and repulsed attacks made by the +rebels on the magazines at Binancayan and Las Pinas. + +The rebels were now firmly established over the rest of the Province +of Cavite. The natural features of this part of Luzon made the +movements of regular troops extremely difficult. The country +abounds in rivers which run from south to north parallel to each +other at short distances. They run at the bottom of deep ravines, +which present excellent positions for defence. Many of these rivers +have dams across them and the sluices in these might be opened by +the defenders, or the dams could be blown up in case a column of the +assailants should be entangled in the ravine below, when they would +inevitably be overwhelmed in the descending torrent. + +In places the country could be flooded and thus be rendered impassable +for troops. + +But the industry of the rebels, skilfully directed, had added +enormously to these natural advantages. From the reports of +eye-witnesses I can affirm that the entrenchments of the Tagals were +colossal. Tagals and Boers have demonstrated that a competitive +examination is not necessary to enable fighting-men to entrench +themselves. The Tagal lines ran from the delta of the Zapote River to +Naic in an almost unbroken line, approximately parallel to the coast. + +They were doubled and trebled in front of villages or towns and across +the roads. + +The trace was en cremaillere, the section being 6 feet thick at the +top and 8 feet high, the exterior face vertical, with a revetment +of bamboos fastened together with rattans. It was in fact a bank of +earth built up against a strong bamboo fence. + +The defenders fired through loop-holes left in the parapet, and were +very well covered, but they could only fire straight before them +and horizontally. + +The defences of the towns had thicker and loftier parapets; in some +cases there were three tiers of loop-holes properly splayed. + +The insurgents were very insufficiently armed, and at first there were +ten men to a rifle. The man who was reputed the best shot carried +the rifle and cartridge belt, and if he was killed or wounded in +an engagement, the next best shot took the weapon and continued the +fight. In the early actions there was scarcely ever a rifle left on +the ground by the insurgents. + +The only cannon the rebels had at first were some ancient brass +swivel guns called falconetes or lantacas, which they took from the +estate-houses at Imus and Malabon. + +They also had some brass mortars like quart pots, which are used +for firing salutes on feast days. These they fastened at an angle +to blocks of wood, thus making small howitzers, quite effective at +short range. They loaded these with the punchings from boiler-plates +and broken cooking-pots. + +They showed a considerable ingenuity in making cannon out of any +materials at hand. They would take a steel boiler-tube, a stay tube +for choice, say about three inches bore and a quarter of an inch +thick. Plugging up one end and drilling a touch-hole, they would +drive this tube into a hole bored in a log of hard wood turned on the +outside to a taper, then they drove eight or nine wrought-iron rings +over the wood. They drilled through the wood to suit the touch-hole +and the gun was ready. + +They fitted no trunnions, but mounted this rude cannon upon a solid +block of wood. + +In other cases they made some wire guns by lapping steel boiler-tubes +with telegraph-wire. + +Towards the end of the campaign of Lachambre's division against the +rebels, some modern field-pieces of eight centimetres were captured +from them, but it is not clear where these came from. + +To supplement their scanty stock of rifles, they made some hand-guns +of gas-tube. These were fired by applying a match or lighted cigar +to the touch-hole, and would seem to be very clumsy weapons. But I +may say that when on a visit to the estate of Palpa, in Peru, I saw a +Chinaman who was in charge of the poultry corral, kill a hawk hovering, +with a similar gun. + +The Spanish Military and Naval Authorities now took the revolt very +seriously, and on the 8th November the squadron comprising the +Castilla, Reina Cristina, and other vessels, and the guns of the +forts at Cavite and Puerto Vaga, opened upon the rebel position at +Cavite, Viejo, Noveleta, Binancayan, and other places within range, +and kept it up for hours. The next morning the firing was resumed +at daylight, supplemented by the guns from launches and boats well +inshore. Troops were landed under the protection of the squadron, +and advanced against the entrenchments of Binancayan. They delivered +three frontal attacks with great gallantry, reaching the parapet each +time, but were beaten back, leaving many dead upon the ground. No +flanking attack was possible here for the parapet extended for many +miles each way. + +A simultaneous attack was made upon Noveleta by a column of 3000 +Spanish and native infantry under Colonel Fermin Diaz Mattoni. + +This force started from Cavite and marched through Dalahican and +along the road to Noveleta. This road is a raised causeway running +through a mangrove swamp, having deep mud on each side impassable +for troops. This is at least a mile of swamp, and the troops advanced +along the causeway and crossed a bridge which spanned a muddy creek. + +No enemy was in sight, and the town was not far off. Suddenly the +head of the column fell into a most cunningly devised pitfall. The +road had been dug out, the pit covered with wattle, and the surface +restored to its original appearance. The bottom of the pit was set +with pointed bamboo stakes which inflicted serious wounds upon those +that fell upon them. + +At the moment of confusion the rebels opened a withering fire from +concealed positions amongst the mangroves upon the column standing +in the open. + +The Spaniards and native troops made great efforts to get forward, +but could not stand the fire and had to retire. When they got back +to the bridge it was down, and they had to wade across the creek +under a close fire from the rebels hidden amongst the mangroves. In +this action the Spaniards are said to have lost 600 killed and many +hundreds wounded. The loss fell principally on the 73rd and 74th +Regiments of Native Infantry. + +The rebels were greatly encouraged, and got possession of a large +number of rifles, with ammunition and accoutrements. + +Both these attacks were made under the direction of General Blanco, +who witnessed them from a lofty staging erected within the lines of +Dalahican. After these disasters he resumed the defensive, except that +the squadron and the batteries at Cavite and Puerto Vaga frequently +bombarded the rebel positions. + +At this time thousands of natives were in prison in Manila awaiting +their trial. A permanent court-martial had been organised to try the +suspects. Great numbers were shot, and many hundreds were transported +to the Caroline Islands, to Ceuta, and Fernando Po. Wealthy natives +were mercilessly blackmailed, and it is reported that those who were +discharged had to pay large sums for their release. + +The Spanish Volunteers in Manila committed many arbitrary and even +outrageous actions, and aroused the hatred of the natives far more +than the regular troops did. They allowed their patriotism to carry +them into most lamentable excesses. + +On the 25th February a rising and mutiny of the Carbineers or +Custom-House Guards took place in Manila at the captain of the port's +office. The scheme miscarried and was only partially successful. The +officer on duty was shot, and also the sergeant, and the rebels made +off with some rifles and ammunition. + +The volunteers and some troops hastily called together pursued the +rebels through Tondo as far as the Leper Hospital, till nightfall, +the last volley being fired at 6.15 P.M. In this affair the mutineers +lost a great many men, but some of them got away and joined the rebels. + +Blanco had not been severe enough with the rebels or suspected +rebels to please the friars. His management of the attacks upon +Noveleta and Binancayan had been faulty, and his health was bad. It +was not surprising, having the priests against him, and the military +dissatisfied, that he was recalled. He left at the end of 1896. General +Polavieja, an officer who had risen from the ranks by his military +talents, and who, when serving in Cuba, had very accurately gauged the +situation, and had made a remarkably clever report to the government, +was sent out to replace Blanco. Polavieja was inexorable with the +rebels and their sympathisers. Military executions took place about +once a week for two months. Francisco Roxas, a mestizo ship-owner, +Numeriano Adriano, and many other mestizos and natives were shot at +the Paseo de la Luneta. + +On December 6th the prisoners in Cavite jail rose, murdered their +jailer, and attempted to escape. One hundred and fifty prisoners were +concerned in this affair. Of these, forty-seven were shot in the +streets of the town, and twenty-one were captured, whilst thirteen +were shot in the bushes behind Canacao. Those recaptured were tried +for prison-breaking, and were all shot the next morning. + +By the beginning of 1897, a large number of troops had arrived from +Spain. They were, however, largely conscripts, raw youths who had never +handled a rifle, mere raw material in fact, sent out without uniform +or equipment, many having only what they stood up in, or at most, +having a spare shirt and a singlet tied up in a handkerchief. We talk +about the shortcomings of our War Office officials, and certainly +they sometimes give examples of wooden-headed stupidity, and are +behind the age in many particulars. But for deliberate inhumanity, +for utter callousness to human suffering, to loss of health and +life, I think the Spanish War Office could hardly be outdone. And I +speak of their misdeeds from personal knowledge in the Philippines +and in Cuba. What an enormous amount of suffering was caused to the +working-people of Spain by the sending to Cuba and to the Philippines +of over 200,000 men in 1895-96. Never in this generation were men +shipped away so destitute of clothing, provisions, surgeons and +medical comforts. Never have I seen troops in the field with such +wretched equipment, or so devoid of transport, tents, and supplies. + +Whatever successes they achieved were secured by the inborn valour of +the troops, and by extraordinary exertions on the part of the generals +and staff to improvise on the spot what the national treasury should +have supplied them with at the commencement of hostilities. + +The raw recruits having been drilled and exercised with the rifle were +organised in fifteen battalions and called Cazadores (chasseurs). These +battalions, with four regiments of native infantry and some native +volunteers, were formed into brigades under Generals Cornell, Marina, +Jaramillo and Galbis. The first three brigades constituted a division, +which was placed under the command of General Lachambre, an officer +of great energy, and of long experience in the Cuban wars. + +By the beginning of 1897 the Tagal rebellion had concentrated its +forces in the province of Cavite. Embers of rebellion still smouldered +in other provinces of Luzon, but many rebels from outlying places +had thrown in their lot with those of Cavite, and in great numbers, +very indifferently supplied with arms and ammunition, but amply with +provisions, they confidently awaited the long-prepared attack of +the Spanish forces behind the formidable entrenchments that their +persevering labour had raised. In the interval they had organised +themselves after a fashion, and had instituted a reign of terror +wherever they held sway. + +The organisation of the rebels in the province of Cavite was of a +somewhat confused nature, and seemed to respond to the ambition and +influence of particular individuals rather than to any systematic +principle. + +Thus Silang was declared a vice-royalty under Victor Belarmino, +styled Victor I. + +The rest of the province was divided into two districts, each ruled +by a council; the first was Imus and its vicinity, under Bernardino +Aguinaldo with ministers of war, of the treasury, of agriculture and +of justice. + +The second was San Francisco de Malabon, presided over by Mariano +Alvarez, with ministers of state as above. + +But above the kingdom of Silang and the two republics, the President +of the Katipunan, Andres Bonifacio, held sway as lieutenant of the +Generalissimo Emilio Aguinaldo. He resided in his palace at San +Francisco, and from there dictated his orders. The supreme power was +in the hands of Aguinaldo. + +All these authorities exercised despotic power, and certainly +ill-treated and robbed their own countrymen who did not desire to +join them, far more than the Spaniards have ever done in the worst +of times. They frequently inflicted the death-penalty, and their +so-called courts-martial no more thought of acquitting an accused +person than a regimental court-martial in England would. The terrible +President of the Katipunan ultimately became a victim of one of these +blood-thirsty tribunals. + +Their military organization was curious. The province was sub-divided +into military zones. First Silang, second Imus, third Bacoor, fourth +San Francisco de Malabon, fifth Alfonso. Each zone had an army which +consisted of all the population able to work, and was divided into two +parts, the active or fighting force and the auxiliary but non-combatant +part. The active force was divided into regiments and companies, and +these last into riflemen and spearmen, there being commonly five of +the latter to one of the former. Besides the usual military ranks, +they instituted the following functionaries: + + + Minister of Marine Marcelo de los Santos. + Principal Chaplain to the Forces Eladio Almeyda. + Intendant-General of Taxes Silvestre Aguinaldo. + General of Artillery Crispulo Aguinaldo. + Inspector of Ordnance Factories Edilberto Evangelista. + General of Engineers + Judge Advocate General Santos Nocon. + + +All the above held the rank of lieutenant-general. The badges of rank +were as follows: + + +Rebel Badges of Rank. + +Generalissimo, K on the hat or cap. + Z. L. I. B. on the arm. + Vertically stacked Maltese cross, K, and Maltese + cross on the left breast. + +Lieutenant Generals, K in concentric circles with eight segments. + +Marshals, K in lower half of concentric circles. + +Brigadiers, K in triangle with circle at each corner. + +Colonels, Three K's surrounding Maltese cross. + + K +Majors, K + K + +The Ministers, K + +The Secretary to the +Generalissimo, K K K + + +The rebels occupied the whole of the province of Cavite, except the +fortified town of that name containing the naval arsenal, and a small +strip on the shores of the Laguna where the Spanish troops were posted. + +Cornell's brigade was at Calamba and Marina's brigade at Binan. They +had outlying detachments amounting to 1500 men at Santa Cruz, Santo +Domingo, Tayabas, and along the line from Tanauan to Banadero, leaving +each brigade 4000 men for the advance into the rebel territory. The +divisional troops numbered about 1300, making a total of 9300 +combatants. + +The brigade under Jaramillo had its headquarters in Taal, Batangas +Province, with outlying detachments at Batangas, Calaca, Lian Balayan +and Punta Santiago, and a force holding the line of the Pansipit River, +altogether amounting to 1000 men, leaving 1600 free to operate. + +Besides this a fourth brigade, not belonging to the division, +having General Galbis as brigadier, was extended along the northern +bank of the Zapote River, under the immediate orders of the +governor-general. The Lakes of Bay and Bombon (Taal) were guarded +by armed steam-launches and other small craft, whilst the gunboats +of the squadron patrolled the sea coast. The rebel province was thus +held in a grip of iron. + +On the 12th February, 1897, General Lachambre reported himself ready +to advance. General Polavieja ordered Jaramillo to attack the rebel +trenches at Bayuyungan on the 14th, and to keep up the attack until +Lachambre had seized Silang, when he was to attack Talisay on the Lake +of Taal. The marines at Dalahican were ordered to attack Noveleta, +whilst Lachambre was to advance on the 15th, the two brigades taking +different routes, but converging on Silang. + +The march was extremely difficult, and the nine-centimetre guns were +only taken through, at the cost of most strenuous efforts. The enemy +tenaciously defended every favourable position, and were only driven +off at the cost of many lives. + +On the 19th, Silang, one of the principal rebel towns, was taken +by assault and at the point of the bayonet, after a preparatory +bombardment in which the artillery fired 105 rounds of shell, whilst +25,000 rifle cartridges were used by the infantry. + +The rebels lost 2000 men killed and wounded, whilst the Spanish losses +were 12 killed and 70 wounded. The town was strongly entrenched and +stoutly defended, and its capture with so small a loss may justly +be called a creditable operation. Marina's brigade attacked from the +south and Cornell's brigade from the east. + +The action lasted from 7 to 11.30 A.M. The rebels were discouraged, +but still, on the 22nd, they delivered an attack as if they would +retake the town, and pressed on with great fury. They killed four of +the Spaniards and wounded twenty-one, but in the end were driven off, +leaving 400 dead on the ground. The houses in Silang were found fully +furnished and provisioned. In the house of the so-called Viceroy of +Silang, Victor Belarmino, the principal ornament of the sala was a +chromo-lithograph portrait of the Queen Regent. + +The church-doors were wide open and the altars profusely +illuminated. On the sacristy table lay the priestly robes and +ornaments, ready, doubtless, for the celebration of a Te Deum for the +expected victory. But he who was to wear them, the celebrated Tagal +Bishop, lay with a bullet through his heart across the parapet he +had fiercely defended. + +Lachambre preserved the best houses around the church and convent and +utilised them as storehouses, hospital, and barracks, burning the +rest of the town as a punishment to the rebels. He then garrisoned +and fortified the post and connected it with the telegraph line. + +On the 24th Lachambre marched from Silang, his main body advancing by +the direct route to Perez Dasmarinas parallel to the River Casundit, +a flanking force of three companies guarding the left of the column, +whilst Lieutenant Colonel Villalon, with a battalion and a half +having started an hour earlier than the main body, took the road to +Palimparan, having the Rio Grande on his right, and by his advance +protecting the right flank of the column. Villalon advanced rapidly, +and, brushing aside all opposition, rushed Palimparan with a loss +of one killed and one wounded, killing seven of the rebels in the +attack. Here he bivouacked, and at sunset was joined by another +force consisting of half a brigade under Colonel Arizon, detached +from General Galbis' force on the Zapote River. + +In the meantime the main body had advanced to within three miles of +Perez Dasmarinas and bivouacked at the hamlet called Sampalcoc. On +the following day Perez Dasmarinas was taken by assault, after a +short bombardment by the mountain batteries. The rebels were strongly +entrenched, and made a stout resistance. They had flooded the rice +fields to the east of the town and rendered them impassable. + +The town was attacked from the south and west, but it took hours of +hard fighting for the Spaniards to break in, and even then the rebels +fought hand to hand, and many preferred death to surrender. Those +who fled were taken in flank by Arizon's force, which approached the +northern end of the town from the eastward. The loss of the Spaniards +was 21 killed and 121 wounded, whilst the natives left 400 dead at +the foot of their defences, and a great number were killed outside +the town. + +The early part of the defence was directed by Aguinaldo, but he fled +when the Spanish forces closed up, leaving Estrella, an ex-sergeant +of the Guardia Civil, in his place. Estrella fled later on when the +Spaniards had entered the town. Unintimidated by this rude lesson, +the rebels that same night fired into the town, and on the 27th they +attacked a column which went out to make a reconnaissance towards +Palimparan, and gave a mountain battery a chance, which they promptly +took, of getting at a dense body of them with case. The artillery fired +22 rounds in this action, and the infantry used 63,000 cartridges. The +Spanish loss was two killed and ten wounded, whilst the rebels lost +at least 300. + +The church, convent, and stone homes round the Plaza of Perez +Dasmarinas were loopholed and prepared for defence, and occupied +by a garrison of two companies of infantry. Owing, however, to the +difficulty of bringing up supplies, the division could not resume its +advance till the 7th March. Then the division took the eastern road to +Imus, whilst the half brigade under Arizon marched by a parallel road +on the right flank, which converged upon the Imus road at Salitran, +a village with a large stone estate-house belonging to the Recollets, +strongly entrenched and held by the rebels. + +On arriving within range two guns of Cornell's brigade opened fire +on the estate-house from an eminence, but after the fifth round the +Spanish flag was shown from the house, it having been occupied by +Arizon's force arriving from the east after a very slight resistance, +for the rebels seemed to have no one in command. They had prepared +for an attack from the east, but when they found the Spaniards +arriving in great force upon their right flank, enfilading their +strong entrenchments, they became demoralised and took to flight. + +The scouts now reported that a formidable entrenchment a mile and a +quarter long, was occupied by the rebels about a mile north of the +village. This entrenchment, called Anabo II., covered both the roads +to Imus, and each flank rested on a deep ravine--the eastern end had +a redoubt, and the western end a flanking epaulement. + +The ground in front was perfectly open, and there was difficulty in +making a flanking attack, so General Zabala, with a half brigade, +made a direct attack. The fighting line gradually advanced, taking +such cover as the pilapiles of the rice-fields could give, until they +arrived within 100 yards of the parapet, when Zabala, waving high +his sword, gave the order for the assault, falling a moment after +pierced through the breast by a shot from a lantaca. Two captains fell +near him, but the lieutenants led their companies to the assault; +the cazadores sprang across the ditch and clambered up the high +parapet with the agility and fury of leopards, bayoneting those of +the defenders who remained to fight it out, and sending volley after +volley into those who had taken to flight. + +The Spanish loss was 11 killed and 33 wounded, whilst 200 of the rebels +were killed. This heavy loss did not however appear to intimidate them +in the least, for on the 8th they made two desperate attempts to retake +the position, in both of which they came within close range of the +Spaniards, who poured repeated volleys into them by word of command, +whilst the mountain-guns played upon them with ease. In this action +the Spaniards lost 5 killed and 25 wounded, and they calculated the +rebel killed at 300. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +THE INSURRECTION OF 1896-97--CONTINUED. + + The Division encamps at San Nicolas--Work of the native engineer + soldiers--The division marches to Salitran--Second action at + Anabo II.--Crispulo Aguinaldo killed--Storming the entrenchments + of Anabo I.--Burning of Imus by the rebels--Proclamation by + General Polavieja--Occupation of Bacoor--Difficult march of the + division--San Antonio taken by assault--Division in action with + all its artillery--Capture of Noveleta--San Francisco taken by + assault--Heavy loss of the Tagals--Losses of the division--The + division broken up--Monteverde's book--Polavieja returns to + Spain--Primo de Rivera arrives to take his place--General Monet's + butcheries--The pact of Biak-na-Bato--The 74th Regiment joins + the insurgents--The massacre of the Calle Camba--Amnesty for + torturers--Torture in other countries. + + +On the 10th (March) the division marched to Presa-Molino, which was +occupied that same evening, and leaving three companies of infantry to +guard the position, the division continued its march through a most +difficult country, arriving in the afternoon on the Zapote River, +in touch with the 4th Brigade, formerly commanded by Galbis and now +by Barraquer. + +From there Lachambre with his staff rode over to Paranaque, and +reported himself to the Captain-General Polavieja. + +The troops encamped on the downs of San Nicolas, one brigade on +each side of the River Zapote. Notwithstanding the comparatively +favourable emplacement of the camp, the troops and their officers +suffered severely from the effect of the climate upon frames weakened +by over-exertion, by indifferent nourishment and by sleeping on +the ground. Malarial fevers, intestinal catarrh, dysentery, and +rheumatism sapped their vitality, whilst nostalgia preyed upon the +younger soldiers and depressed their spirits. Since the 15th February +the division had lost in killed, wounded, and invalided, no less than +135 officers, and troops in greater proportion. + +Yet still greater exertions were to be required from the soldiers. The +4th Brigade was incorporated in the division, and two additional +battalions, one from the 3rd Brigade and the other from the Independent +Brigade, brought the number of combatants nearly up to 12,000. + +Having previously made a practicable road by Almansa to Presa Molino +and Salitran, defended by redoubts at the most difficult fords, +and having organised his transport with such means as the country +afforded, Lachambre again set out, his objective being Imus, but the +attack was to be from Salitran. + +The work of the native engineer soldiers, and of the 74th Native +Regiment in constructing this road and the redoubts, merits the +highest praise, and it must be admitted that it is almost impossible +for an army of white men to carry on a campaign in the Philippines +or in similar territory, without the assistance of native pioneer or +engineer troops. + +The road being ready, and the convoys of provisions having gone +forward, on the morning of the 22nd March the division started on +its march to Salitran, where it arrived on the evening of the 23rd, +having had some sharp skirmishes on the way. + +Early on the 24th the division set out for Imus, and once more the +formidable trenches and redoubts of Anabo II., restored, strengthened, +and crowded with determined defenders, barred their path. These works +had once already been taken by assault, and had cost the division +the loss of the brave General Zabala and other officers and men. + +Protected on each flank by a deep ravine with a river at the bottom, +and with open ground in front, the attack had been rendered more +difficult by flooding the arable land before the trenches, and the +position of the rebels was an exceedingly strong one. Lachambre had +to accept a direct attack, but he sent a body of troops forward on +each flank to advance simultaneously and overlap the ends of the +entrenchment. + +The infantry deployed, the firing line advanced under fire without +stopping to within three hundred yards of the parapet, when +they halted, taking what cover they could and keeping up a steady +fire. Then the mountain battery was brought up and fired common shell +at close range, breaching the parapet. A rush forward soon brought +the firing-line within 150 yards of the parapet. General Marina, +watching the engagement well to the front, had one of his staff +officers killed at his side; seeing the favourable moment arrive, +he gave the order for the assault. + +Once more the troops exhibited their conspicuous bravery. The long +line, led by its officers, dashed forward with the bayonet, the +bugles sounding the charge, and with impetuous speed, soon reached +the parapet. However terrible the attack, the stout-hearted Tagals +stood firm, disdaining to fly. + +Bolo and bayonet clashed, European courage and Malay fury had full +play, till in the end, as ever in equal numbers and in stand-up fight, +the European prevailed. Many of the defenders fell, the rest sought +safety in flight. + +The engagement lasted two and a half hours without cessation, and +over three hundred rebel dead were counted in or near the works, +amongst them was Crispulo Aguinaldo, a brother of General Emilio +Aguinaldo. The Spaniards lost 9 killed and 108 wounded. + +After a short rest the division resumed the advance upon Imus, and +bivouacked after marching about a couple of miles. + +On the 25th the advance was continued on a broad front. Scarcely had +the division marched for half-an-hour when the leading ranks came +in sight of another line of entrenchments more than two miles long, +six feet high, and five feet thick, well protected with cane fences in +front, one of these being at a distance of 100 yards from the parapet. + +Lachambre orders the centre to make a direct attack and the wings a +flanking movement. The rebels retain their fire till the Spaniards +arrive within two hundred yards, and then the parapet is crowned with +flame both from small arms and lantacas. The scene of the day before +was repeated, the parapet stormed, with a rebel loss of over six +hundred. After a short halt the advance against Imus was resumed. The +distance was short, and the appearance of the thousands of bayonets +and the explosion of a few shells produced an indescribable panic +amongst the inhabitants and the many who had come from other towns +to assist in the defence. + +They took to flight, disregarding the protests of their leaders +Emilio Aguinaldo and Andres Bonifacio. In order to cover his retreat, +the former ordered the magazine to be blown up and the town to be +burned. This delayed the advance of the Spaniards in the centre, but +the wings moved forward and the thousands of fugitives were exposed to +a flanking fire, and more than eight hundred of them bit the dust. It +was afternoon before Lachambre could enter what remained of Imus, +when as a mark of honour for their splendid services, the colour +of the 74th Regiment of Native Infantry was raised upon the tower +of the church--all the troops presenting arms and afterwards giving +enthusiastic cheers. + +Thus was taken the citadel of the Katipunan with a loss to the +Spaniards of 25 killed and 129 wounded. + +The taking of Imus gave General Polavieja an opportunity of offering +an amnesty to the rebels, which he did not neglect. On the 26th of +March he issued a proclamation offering pardon to all who had borne +arms against the Royal Authority, or who had assisted the rebels, +provided they presented themselves before Palm Sunday the 11th of +April. Leaders of the rebels were to present themselves with their +forces and arms. + +On the 26th March the division, leaving a garrison in Imus, started +for Bacoor to take the defences in reverse, and such was the effect on +the rebels of their defeat at Imus and of the advance in overwhelming +force, that they fled, and the division occupied Bacoor almost without +firing a shot. + +It was otherwise with Binacayan, for Marina's Brigade having made a +reconnaissance in force on the 28th, were received with a heavy fire, +and after an hour's skirmish in which some were killed on each side, +they returned to their camp at Bacoor; Lachambre considering that +an attack in that direction would result in a useless waste of life, +for the advance would be along narrow causeways across swamps. Having +received provisions and ammunition by sea from Manila, he returned +with his division to Imus, the garrison of which had not been molested +by the rebels. + +At daylight on the 31st March, the division left Imus and marched +across country in a westerly and southerly direction, fording numerous +streams running at the bottom of deep ravines, as well as many +irrigating canals and ditches. Soon after the start the right flank +was fired upon, the fire increasing as the column moved forward. The +engineers had to improve the approaches to the fords of the Rivers +Julian and Batong Dalig under fire. + +The leading brigade carried several entrenchments on its front and +flank without halting, but extending skirmishes on either flank to +beat off the enemy. The rear brigade was attacked on both flanks and +had to fight a rearguard action as well. The division bivouacked for +the night at Bacao, a point from which it threatened the rebel towns of +San Francisco, Santa Cruz, Rosario and Noveleta, all within easy reach. + +The losses on the day's march were 6 killed and 37 wounded, whilst +400 rebel killed were counted on open ground, and many must have +fallen amongst the bushes and trees. + +They, however, were not at all dismayed, and surrounded the bivouac +at night, firing repeated volleys and engaging the outposts. + +On the following day (1st April), the division with all its baggage +crossed the River Ladron, and took up a position in the centre of a +large tract of rice-fields, having Noveleta on the north, San Francisco +on the south, Rosario and Santa Cruz to the west, and San Antonio on +the east. San Antonio was first taken by assault after the parapet +had been breached by the fire of two batteries of mountain guns. The +fugitive Tagals who escaped with their lives took refuge in Noveleta. + +The situation was now as follows: Arizon's Brigade threatened Noveleta, +Marina's Brigade threatened Rosario and Sarralde's Brigade attacked +Santa Cruz--the baggage being in the centre and out of fire. + +At this moment a dense mass of the enemy issuing from San Francisco, +made a desperate attack upon the Spaniards nearest to them. + +The whole of the division with its twelve guns, was now in action +and surrounded by the enemy, Lachambre in the centre keenly watching +the fight. When he judged the right moment had arrived, he ordered +Arizon's Brigade to storm Noveleta. + +The Brigade greeted this order with thundering shouts of "Viva Espana," +and with the pluck that has always distinguished the Spanish soldier +when well led, carried the entrenchments at a run, and fought a hand to +hand combat with the defenders, who were either killed or driven out, +notwithstanding that these were the very best of the rebel troops, +amongst them being many of Aguinaldo's Guards, wearing a special +uniform, some of them having served in the native regiments. Here, +again, the 74th Native Infantry distinguished themselves by their +remarkable bravery, and once more their colour was displayed from +the church tower as a recognition of their valuable and loyal services. + +The capture of Noveleta placed the division in communication with +the marines occupying the entrenchments of Dalahican. + +This action cost the division 11 killed and 58 wounded, but many +hundreds of the rebels were killed. + +In consequence of this, the rebels abandoned Cavite, Viejo, and +Binacayan, which were occupied the following day without resistance. + +The rebels, however, on the 4th, and again on the 5th, attacked the +troops in Noveleta and sustained the combat for some time, killing +10 and wounding 33 Spanish, but leaving 50 of their own dead on +the ground. + +On the 6th the division marched from Noveleta, which was occupied +by a garrison of marines, and took the direction of San Francisco, +the advanced guard in extended order across the same open ground upon +which the engagement of April 1st was fought. The rebel positions +on the right flank were marked by lines of skirmishers with their +supports and reserves. The Tagals had, however, inundated the part +of this plain immediately in front of the town, and the advance was +made with great difficulty; the guns and ammunition boxes having to +be carried by the gunners with the assistance of the infantry. With +undaunted bravery the troops struggled on under a heavy fire, but +Lachambre, realising the difficulty and the danger incurred, changed +the direction of the advance. The right wing under Arizon inclined to +the right, and the left, under Marina, bore away to the left. Half a +brigade crossed the River Ladron, notwithstanding the opposition of +the rebels, and attacked the town from the east. Firmer ground was soon +reached, the guns that had cost so much labour taking up, were mounted, +and a rain of shell soon fell amongst the rebels. The infantry poured +in steady volleys, advancing in the intervals of firing. The whole +combined attack being within a proper distance for the final rush, +Lachambre gave the word, and like greyhounds released, the Spanish +and native infantry leaped to the assault. The parapet was high and +deep the ditch, for the defenders had not spared their labour on it, +and as the Spanish line reached the edge, the rebels boldly mounted +the parapet and discharged their arms at close quarters. In this +critical moment the moral superiority of the white man once more was +manifest. The Spanish troops reached the parapet and a hand-to-hand +combat with the bolder rebels took place, the bayonet against the +spear or bolo. The less-determined of the enemy fled, and in a few +minutes 120 Tagals lay dead against the parapet, and five guns and +eighty rifles remained as trophies to the victors. The companies +re-formed for the pursuit, but the enemy fired the thatched huts +to interpose a curtain of flame between them and their pursuers; a +measure which was only partially successful, for some of the troops, +nimbly darting through the lanes, shot down or bayoneted many of +the fugitives, killing 400 in the pursuit, besides those who died at +the entrenchments. The Spanish loss was 25 killed and 125 wounded, +including several officers. The fighting had lasted four hours over +very difficult ground, and the troops were exhausted. Lachambre +therefore camped in the town, which has many fine edifices and a +spacious, church and convent. The bells of the church, in a joyful +peal, announced the Spanish triumph. The rebels were under the command +of Andres Bonifacio, the President of the formidable Katipunan. This +terrible blow to the insurrection was followed by the occupation of +the towns of Santa Cruz and Rosario, without firing a shot. + +Many of the natives had joined the rebellion under compulsion, and +had long desired to submit themselves. Now they came in by hundreds +every day to claim the amnesty offered by General Polavieja. + +Fifty-two days had the campaign lasted, fifty-seven combats had taken +place, and the total loss of the division was 1 general, 14 officers, +and 168 men killed, and 56 officers and 910 men wounded. Probably a +far larger number died or were invalided from disease, induced by the +fatigue, exposure and privations inseparable from such a campaign, +especially as most of the men were mere youths, raw recruits, and +with little possibility of taking care of themselves, even if they +knew how. Notwithstanding the excessive fatigue and the depressing +nature of the surroundings, the Spanish troops maintained a fine +martial spirit, and ever showed themselves ready to respond to +the calls made upon them. They were well led by their officers, +who devoted themselves unsparingly in their country's service, and +they had confidence in their generals, who were untiring in their +exertions to do their best for their men. Lachambre displayed the +greatest solicitude for the well-being of the force under his command; +whilst showing the utmost resolution, and pushing his attacks home +in every case, yet he sacrificed his men as little as possible, and +always had patience to wait till his flanking attacks could join in +the assault. The distances the division had to traverse were very +small, but the absence of roads and bridges made the provisioning of +the army a matter of the utmost difficulty. + +Those who know the poverty of the Spanish Army in animals, +vehicles, and stores, will understand what Lachambre and his staff +accomplished. On the 12th April, 1897, the division was broken up, +and the brigades were stationed at various places in Cavite and the +neighbouring provinces. + +The general, brigadiers, officers, and troops, are fortunate in having +as chronicler of their exploits, so painstaking and appreciative an +officer as Lieut.-Colonel Don Federico de Monteverde y Sedano, who in +his book, 'La Division Lachambre,' published in 1898, gives a detailed +account of the campaign, with sketches illustrative of the various +actions. Senor Monteverde does justice to every Spaniard, from the +divisional-general downwards. I could wish he had said something more +about the services of the 73rd and 74th Regiments of Native Infantry, +who seem to have been always in the forefront of the battle and where +the hardest work was being done, as in assisting the magnificent +engineer corps, without whom I doubt if the campaign could have been +successful. His book, however, is invaluable to those who may have +to conduct operations in the Philippines, and the invariable success +achieved by Lachambre, contrasts remarkably with the failures in the +early part of the rebellion, and one cannot help seeing a parallel +between this little war and the greater one in South Africa. Each was +mismanaged at the beginning, but as soon as the invading forces were +organised in one command, success was achieved. + +A few days after the breaking up of the division, General Polavieja +embarked for Spain, very much broken in health. In a letter written +on the 9th March to the Minister of War, Polavieja declared himself +too ill to ride and asked for his relief. He, however, still remained +at Paranaque, directing the campaign till after the capture of San +Francisco. + +The Spanish press took sides for or against him, the papers advocating +the interests of the friars praised him, whilst the Liberal press +held him up to ridicule. + +There is no doubt that he directed the military operations in an +efficient manner, but under his government the arbitrary arrests, +cruelties, and tortures, inflicted upon all who were suspected of being +sympathisers with the rebels, or from whom money would be extorted, +that had begun under Blanco, continued and increased. For Blanco, +having been informed of the cruelties inflicted, issued an order +forbidding the practice. + +The next governor-general was General Primo de Rivera, who had held +that office from 1880 to 1883, and had found it a very profitable +one. He arrived on the 23rd April and went to the front on the 29th; +on the 4th May, Naic was taken, also a small place called Quintana, +and Indang. At Naic there was very heavy fighting, and some at Indang. + +The troops then advanced to Maragondon, which was taken on the 10th +after a most stubborn resistance, the Spaniards losing many men and +the rebels still more heavily. + +This place was the last where the rebels made a stand, in Cavite +province. After this defeat they dispersed in roving bands and kept +on the move. + +The whole province was a scene of desolation, towns burnt, churches +bombarded, stone houses blown up, property looted, putrefying bodies +lying about in hundreds, the fields laid waste, the cattle driven off, +the country depopulated, a remnant of the inhabitants hiding in the +woods; a few of the bolder ones returned to the ruined houses. Such +was the result of this unhappy rebellion. + +I have this description from an eye-witness, and he assured me that he +had been told by a colonel commanding one of the most distinguished +regiments engaged in the campaign, that not less than 30,000 natives +lost their lives in that province alone during the rebellion. + +The rebels gave no quarter to Spaniards, and the Spaniards only +occasionally took prisoners. However, once taken they were usually +released after being exhorted to return to their homes. + +Whilst the operations of Lachambre's division were proceeding in +Cavite, General Monet, with a force of 3000 men, was carrying on an +indiscriminate butchery of men, women, and children, in Bulacan and +Pampanga, but he displayed no military qualities, and ultimately +escaped, leaving his forces to surrender. + +The Spanish Volunteers in Manila continued their series of abominable +outrages, although in August, Primo de Rivera issued a decree +forbidding intimidation, plundering and ravishing. He was ultimately +obliged to disband them. + +Driven out of Cavite, the remnant of the rebels under Aguinaldo took +refuge in the hills and held a strong position near Angat, in the +province of Bulacan. As it would have taken a long time to reduce them, +Primo de Rivera tried conciliation, and employed Don Pedro Paterno, +a native gentleman of means, who had been educated in Spain, as +mediator. By his instrumentality, an arrangement was arrived at which, +after being approved by the Government in Madrid, was signed by the +mediator as attorney for the rebels and the governor-general for Spain. + +This, known as the pact of Biak-na-bato, was signed on December +14th, 1897. + +In consequence, Aguinaldo and a number of the prominent rebels were +escorted to Hong Kong by a relative of the governor-general, and +there received a sum of $400,000, being the first instalment of the +sum agreed upon. + +They lived in a quiet and economical manner upon their own +resources. They did not divide the indemnity nor convert it to their +own use, but kept it as a war fund in case of need. + +The event showed the wisdom of this course, for Primo de Rivera had +led them to understand that an amnesty and reforms were to follow, +but, apparently, had caused the Spanish Government to look upon the +arrangement in a very different light, and he subsequently denied +that any treaty existed. No reforms were ever granted, and things +in Luzon went on in the same old way. The friars joined in raising +a large subscription for Primo de Rivera, and this seemed to incline +him more favourably towards them. + +The amnesty was disregarded, and the priests continued their arbitrary +courses against those who had been concerned in the rebellion. Bands +of marauders infested the provinces and the country was in a very +unsettled state, some insurgent bands approaching Cavite. + +On March 24th, the 74th Regiment of Native Infantry in garrison at +that town, the regiment that had distinguished itself so remarkably in +Lachambre's division, being always in the front, was ordered to march +out against them. Whatever the reason, whether they felt that their +splendid services had not been duly acknowledged, or, as is likely, +their pay was months in arrears, they refused to march against their +own countrymen. Eight corporals were called out of the ranks and shot +then and there in the presence of the regiment, which was again ordered +to advance, and a threat made that a refusal would mean death to all. + +All did refuse and were sent to barracks to await sentence. The next +morning the entire regiment with arms and equipment, marched out +and deserted in a body to the insurgents, saying they were willing +to fight the foreign enemies of Spain, but not against their own +friends. The following day another regiment joined them, but I have +no note of its number. + +It was now that an event occurred in Manila that showed how little +desire there was amongst the Spaniards to treat the natives with +ordinary justice, much less to conciliate them. + +This was the massacre of the Calle de Camba, quite a short distance +from the American Consulate, and it was perpetrated on the 25th and +26th of March. On the first of those day a number of Visayan sailors +from the vessels in the Pasig had assembled in a house in the above +street, which was their usual resort. + +Somehow the story got about that an illegal assembly was being held, +and the police, without more ado, attacked the meeting and shot down +a dozen, taking sixty-two prisoners. The next morning the whole of +these prisoners were marched to the cemetery, and all shot, though +many them were known to have been merely passing by at the time. + +This is vouched for by Mr. Oscar F. Williams in an official letter +to Mr. Cridler, dated 27th March, 1898. It could hardly have been +a mere coincidence that a revolt of the Visayas broke out about ten +days later, when they made a desperate attack upon the city of Cebu +in which many lives were lost and much property damaged. + +It seems hardly worth while to relate any more instances of Tagal +revenge or Spanish brutality. The country that had been almost pacified +was now again in revolt and amongst the insurgents were two battalions +of well-trained and veteran troops. + +But now events were impending of transcendent importance--the +Spanish-American War had broken out. + +Previously, however, Primo de Rivera left Manila to return to Spain, +but before going he granted an amnesty to all who had tortured +suspected persons to extort evidence from them. + +Some of the victims had died under torture rather than bear witness +against their friends, for the Tagal is a Stoic after the manner +of the Red Indian. Others survive, mere wrecks, maimed for life, +and living mementoes of Spanish cruelty. + +Torture for extracting evidence from suspected persons is illegal in +all Christian countries and their dependencies, and also in Japan, +but has not yet been entirely routed out in British India nor in +Egypt. In 1897, four cases of police torture in the North-West +Provinces and Oudh, ended in convictions. + +In Spain, some police officers are now on their trial for applying +the thumb-screw to the fingers of anarchist prisoners in the Castle +of Monjuich with such severity, that one of them, a railway porter, +lost the use of his hands and arms. And Ysabelo de los Reyes, a native +of Ilocos, declares that he was tortured in the same prison by thirst, +having been fed upon salt food and deprived of water. + +Last March (1900), a captain of police was tried at Sambor, in +Austrian Galicia, for torturing prisoners with the thumb-screw +and by deprivation of food, and was sentenced to a long term of +imprisonment. In Corea, China, and Siam, torture forms part of the +legal procedure before sentence, to say nothing of the various +and lingering deaths the judge may order after the prisoner has +confessed. Let us hope that now there will be no more of it in the +Philippines. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +THE AMERICANS IN THE PHILIPPINES. + + Manila Bay--The naval battle of Cavite--General + Aguinaldo--Progress of the Tagals--The Tagal Republic--Who + were the aggressors?--Requisites for a settlement--Scenes + of drunkenness--The estates of the religious orders to be + restored--Slow progress of the campaign--Colonel Funston's + gallant exploits--Colonel Stotsenburg's heroic death--General + Antonio Luna's gallant rally of his troops at Macabebe--Reports + manipulated--Imaginary hills and jungles--Want of co-operation + between army and navy--Advice of Sir Andrew Clarke--Naval officers + as administrators--Mr. Whitelaw Reid's denunciations--Senator + Hoar's opinion--Mr. McKinley's speech at Pittsburgh--The false + prophets of the Philippines--Tagal opinion of American Rule--Senor + Mabini's manifesto--Don Macario Adriatico's letter--Foreman's + prophecy--The administration misled--Racial antipathy--The curse + of the Redskins--The recall of General Otis--McArthur calls + for reinforcements--Sixty-five thousand men and forty ships of + war--State of the islands--Aguinaldo on the Taft Commission. + + + +Manila Bay. + +The width of the entrance to the vast Bay of Manila is nine and a +half marine miles from shore to shore. It is divided into two unequal +channels by the Island of Corregidor and Pulo Caballo, and a rock +called El Frayle, about a mile and a half from the southern shore, +farther reduces that channel. + +The Boca Chica, or northern entrance between Corregidor Island and +Punta Lasisi, is two marine miles wide, and in the middle of the +channel the depth of water is about thirty fathoms. + +The Boca Grande, or southern entrance between Pulo Caballo and El +Frayle, is three and a half marine miles wide, with a depth of water +in the fairway of about twenty fathoms. + +In both channels the tide rushes in and out with great force. + +With channels of such a width there was no difficulty in taking a +squadron in at night, and little chance of suffering damage from the +hastily improvised batteries of the Spaniards. + +And it will be evident to all having the slightest knowledge of +submarine mining that the conditions are most unfavourable to defence +by such means. As a matter of fact, the Spaniards possessed only +nine obsolete submarine mines fitted to explode by contact. These +were sent over to Corregidor, but were not sunk, as it was obvious +that they were useless. + +On the other hand, it was a perfect position for the employment of +torpedo boats or gunboats, there being excellent anchorage for such +craft on both sides of the Channel and in Corregidor Cove. But at the +time of the declaration of war, the Spaniards had no torpedo boats +in the Philippines. The Elswick-built cruisers Isla de Cuba and Isla +de Luzon were fitted with torpedoes, and might have been watching the +channels for a chance to use them. Admiral Montojo knows best why he +did not detach them on this service. + +There was then nothing to prevent the entrance of the American +Squadron; the mines, torpedo boats and narrow channels only existed +in the imagination of some American newspaper correspondents. + +But Admiral Dewey's exploit does not need any such enhancing, it +speaks for itself. + +To any one having a knowledge of the Spanish navy, and especially +of the squadron of the Philippines, the result of an action against +an American Squadron of similar force could not be doubtful. As a +matter of fact the Spanish ships, except the two small cruisers +built at Elswick in 1887, were quite obsolete. The Castilla and +Reina Cristina were wooden vessels, standing very high out of the +water, and making admirable targets, whilst their guns were small, +some of them had been landed at Corregidor, though never placed in +battery. The boilers of one vessel were in the arsenal. + +But even allowing for the fact that the tonnage of the American +Squadron was half as much again as that of the Spaniards, and that +they had more than twice as many, and heavier guns, no one would +have supposed it possible that the Spanish Squadron could have been +completely destroyed without inflicting any damage upon the enemy. + +It was indeed a brilliant victory, reflecting great credit upon +Admiral Dewey and the officers and crews of the American ships, not +only for what they did that day, but for their careful preparation +that enabled them to score so decided a success. + +The Spanish sailors put up a good fight and showed pluck, but they +had no skill as gunners, and so failed in the hour of their country's +need. Admiral Montojo bravely commanded his fleet, but as soon as +the action was over he seems to have considered that his duty had +terminated, for he returned to his Villa in San Miguel, leaving the +remnants of his squadron and the Cavite arsenal to its fate. + +We must infer that Admiral Dewey's victory and its consequences +were not foreseen by the American Government, for they had made no +preparations to send troops to Manila, and from the time they learned +of the destruction of the Spanish Squadron, till they had assembled +a force strong enough to take and hold the city, three weary months +elapsed. This was a very hap-hazard way of making war, and the delay +cost many thousands of lives as will be seen later on. + + + +General Aguinaldo. + +On the 19th May, 1898, Don Emilio Aguinaldo, former chief of the +insurgents, arrived in Manila in pursuance of an arrangement with +the American Consul-General at Singapore. He came with a suite of +seventeen persons on board an American gunboat, and after an interview +with Admiral Dewey, was landed at Cavite and given two field-pieces, +a number of rifles and a supply of ammunition. + +He soon reasserted himself as the leader of the insurrection, which was +already in active progress, and gained some signal successes against +the Spaniards. On the 24th May he issued a proclamation enjoining his +followers to make war in a civilized manner and to respect property. + +I do not intend to discuss the negotiations between Mr. Pratt and +Aguinaldo, nor between the latter and Admiral Dewey. This subject +has been very fully treated by Mr. Foreman in the second edition of +his book. The treating with Aguinaldo was not approved by Mr. Day at +Washington, and the Consul-General and Consuls who had participated +in it, and even taken credit for it, were severely rapped over the +knuckles and promptly adopted an apologetic tone (see Blue Book). But +whatever was the agreement with Aguinaldo, it is evident that had it +not been for his assistance and that of the insurgents, the Spanish +forces could have retired from Manila to Tarlac or other place inland +out of reach of the guns of the fleet and could have prolonged their +resistance for years. + + + +The Tagal Republic. + +The Tagals had made much progress since the insurrection of +1896-7. Their ideas had advanced considerably since their rudimentary +organization in the Province of Cavite, as can be gathered from the +improved style of the various proclamations and decrees published +by Aguinaldo. + +They now organized a Government, a real Civil Administration, extending +over a great part of Luzon, and sent an expedition to Visayas. They +established a Constitution, a representative government, and reopened +the courts and schools, whilst the native clergy carried on public +worship as usual. Aguinaldo repeatedly asserted the determination +of the Tagal people to fight to the death for independence. At this +time the insurgents held 9000 Spaniards as prisoners of war, and they +claimed to have 30,000 men under arms. + +Paymaster Wilcox, U.S.N., and Mr. Leonard R. Sargent who travelled +through part of Luzon for more than 600 miles, and during six weeks, +reported [9] to Admiral Dewey that a regular and orderly Administration +had been established, and was in full working order. + +Aguinaldo was at the head of this Government and of the army +co-operating with the American forces by the written request of General +Anderson. This should have ensured him and those with him at the very +least courteous and considerate treatment at the hands of the American +Commanders, and in fact he received this from Admiral Dewey. But as +soon as the direction of affairs passed into the hands of the general +commanding the army the deeply-rooted contempt felt by Americans for +the coloured races was allowed full play, Aguinaldo and his staff +found themselves ignored, or treated with scarcely veiled contempt, +and the estrangement was gradually increased. + +I do not know which party was the aggressor on February the 4th, 1899, +each swears that it was the other. The cui bono test cuts both ways, +for whilst it appears that the attack on Manila secured two doubtful +votes in the Senate for the ratification of the Treaty whereby the +Philippines were bought from Spain, on the other hand, Aguinaldo may +have felt it necessary to prove to America that the Philippines would +fight rather than bow their necks to the Yankee yoke. So that both +parties may have had an interest in beginning hostilities. In any case, +the next day Aguinaldo offered to withdraw to a greater distance if an +armistice was arranged, but Otis declared that "fighting must go on." + +Personally, I think that if a sympathetic and conciliatory attitude had +been adopted, had the local government established been recognized, +had Aguinaldo and his staff been given commissions in the Native +Army or Civil Service, and the flower of the Tagal Army taken into +the service of the United States, a peaceful settlement could have +been made on the lines of a Protectorate. + +I therefore look upon the war as unnecessary, and consider the lives +already sacrificed, and that will have to be sacrificed, as absolutely +thrown away. + +The tragical side of American unpreparedness is manifest in the state +of anarchy in which the whole Archipelago has been plunged by the +American unreadiness to occupy the military posts as soon as they were +vacated by the Spanish garrisons. A hideous orgy of murder, plunder, +and slave-raiding has prevailed in Visayas, and especially in Mindanao. + +Three conditions were essential to a peaceful settlement:-- + +First.--A broad-minded and sympathetic representative of America, +fully authorized to treat, and a lover of peace. + +Second.--A strict discipline amongst the American forces. + +Third.--The principal aim and object of the Tagal insurrection must +be secured. + +General Otis does not seem to me to fulfil the first condition, +he lacked prestige and patience, and he showed that he had an +insufficient conception of the magnitude of his task by occupying +himself with petty details of all kinds and by displaying an ill-timed +parsimony. Apparently he had no power to grant anything at all, +and only dealt in vague generalities which the Tagals could not be +expected to accept. + +As regards the second point, I regret that I am not personally +acquainted with the gentlemen from Nebraska, Colorado, Dakota and +other states serving in the United States Army or volunteers. I have +no doubt that they are good fighting-men, but from all I can hear +about them they are not conspicuous for strict military discipline, +and too many of them have erroneous ideas as to the most suitable +drink for a tropical climate. + +Manila was in the time of the Spaniards a most temperate city; a +drunken man was a very rare sight, and would usually be a foreign +sailor. Since the American occupation, some hundreds of drinking +saloons have been opened, and daily scenes of drunkenness and +debauchery have filled the quiet natives with alarm and horror. When +John L. Motley wrote his scathing denunciation of the army which the +great Duke of Alva led from Spain into the Low Countries, "to enforce +the high religious purposes of Philip II.," not foresee that his +words would be applicable to an American Army sent to subjugate men +struggling to be free "for their welfare, not our gain," nor that this +army, besides bringing in its train a flood of cosmopolitan harlotry, +[10] would be allowed by its commander to inaugurate amongst a strictly +temperate people a mad saturnalia of drunkenness that has scarcely +a parallel. + +Such, however, is undoubtedly the case, and I venture to think that +these occurrences have confirmed many of the Tagals in their resolve +rather to die fighting for their independence than to be ruled over +by such as these. + +More important still was it to take care that the Tagal insurrection +should not have been in vain. That rebellion probably cost fifty +thousand human lives, immense loss of property, and untold misery. It +was fought against the friars and was at last triumphant. The +Spanish friars had been expelled and their lands confiscated. Were +the Americans to bring them back and guarantee them in peaceable +possession, once more riveting on the chain the Tagals had torn off? + +This seems to have been General Otis' intention. I think he might +have stood upon the accomplished fact. But he did not. + +The Treaty of Peace under Article VIII. declares that the cession +cannot in any respect impair the rights of ecclesiastical bodies +to acquire and possess property, whilst Article IX. allows Spanish +subjects to remain in the Islands, to sell or dispose of their property +and to carry on their professions. Presumably General Otis felt bound +by the Treaty in which these general stipulations had been embodied +by the Peace Commission, in direct contradiction to the advice +given them by Mr. Foreman (see p. 463, 55th Congress, 3rd Sess., +Doc. No. 62, part 1), who pointed out the necessity of confiscating +these lands, but Mr. Gray replied: "We have no law which will allow +us to arbitrarily do so." + +As soon as the effect of the treaty was known, Archbishop Nozaleda, +who had fled to China from the vengeance he feared, returned to +Manila. He seemed to have a good deal of interest with General Otis, +and this did not please the natives, nor inspire them with confidence. + +Furthermore, it was reported and generally believed that the friars' +vast estates had been purchased by an American Syndicate who would +in due time take possession and exploit them. + +One can understand the Tagals' grief and desperation; all their blood +and tears shed in vain! The friars triumphant after all! + +I do not wish to trace the particulars of the wretched war that +commenced February, 1899, and is still (October, 1900) proceeding. + +In it the Americans do not seem to have displayed the resourcefulness +and adaptability one would have expected from them. For my part, I +expected a great deal, for so many American generals being selected +from men in the active exercise of a profession, or perhaps controlling +the administration of some vast business, they ought naturally to +have developed their faculties, by constant use, to a far greater +degree than men who have vegetated in the futile routine of a barrack +or military station. They prevailed in every encounter, but their +advance was very slow, and their troops suffered many preventible +hardships. We know very little as to what happened, for the censors, +acting under instructions from General Otis, prevented the transmission +of accurate information; nothing was cabled, except the accounts of +victories gained by the American troops. + +It would not be right, however, to pass over the fighting without +rendering due tribute to the heroism of the American officers and +soldiers. + +Who can forget Colonel Funston's gallant exploit in crossing the Rio +Grande on a raft under fire with two companies of Kansas Infantry +and enfilading the Tagals' position? Or his leading part of same +regiment in a charge upon an enemy's earthwork near Santo Tomas, +where he was wounded? + +What could be finer than the late Colonel Stotsenburg's leading of the +Nebraska regiment in the attack on Quingua, where he was killed? And +since we are speaking of brave men, shall we not remember the late +General Antonio Luna and his gallant rally of his army in the advance +from Macabebe, when he fearlessly exposed himself on horseback to +the American fire, riding along the front of his line? To justify +the slow progress of the army, jungles, forests, swamps and hills +were introduced on the perfectly flat arable land such as that around +Malolos, Calumpit, and San Fernando, extending in fact all the way from +Manila to Tarlac. [11] This country supports a dense population, and +almost every bit of it has been under the plough for centuries. The +only hill is Arayat. During the dry season, say from November to +May or June, the soil is baked quite hard, and vehicles or guns can +traverse any part of it with slight assistance from the pioneers. The +only obstacles are the small rivers and creeks, mostly fordable, and +having clumps of bamboos growing on their banks providing a perfect +material for temporary bridges or for making rafts. + +The campaign was marked by an absence of co-operation between the land +and sea forces. Admiral Dewey, apparently, was not pleased with the +way things were managed, for he is said to have stayed on board his +ship for months at a time. The warships remained at anchor in Manila +Bay whilst arms [12] and ammunition were landed at the outposts or +on the coasts without hindrance, and it was not till November that +troops were landed at Dagupan, the northern terminus of the railway, +though this obviously ought to have been done in February, so as to +attack the enemy front and rear. + +The necessity for small gunboats soon made itself felt, but such +was the jealousy of the army towards the navy that it was decided +that these must be army gunboats, and General Otis is reported to +have purchased thirteen small gunboats at Zamboanga, in March 1899, +without consulting or informing Admiral Dewey or even asking for an +escort for them. It so happened that the Spaniards evacuated Zamboanga +before any American forces arrived, and the insurgents promptly took +possession of the gunboats already paid for and proceeded to plunder +them of everything useful to them. A native account says that they +took the gunboats up the Rio Grande into the interior, but this is +denied by the Americans. Ultimately a cruiser was sent down to convoy +the gunboats, and if I am correctly informed, they were commissioned +in charge of junior naval officers. + +Obviously, the services of the navy should have been utilised to the +utmost extent, and advantage should have been taken of the prestige +they had gained by the victory over the Spaniards, and of the great +popularity and sympathetic personality of Admiral Dewey. A serious +responsibility rests upon whoever allowed jealousy to prevent the +co-operation of the land and sea forces, since by failing to secure +this they needlessly sacrificed the lives of American soldiers and +prolonged the war. + +Lieut.-General Sir Andrew Clarke, R.E., a former governor of the +Straits Settlements, and the greatest authority in England on the +affairs of the Malay States and Islands, was good enough to write a +letter which was forwarded to Mr. Day, and published in the Blue Book, +p. 628. + +He pointed out that, although a moderate military force might be +desirable at one or two important centres, a naval force was of more +value, especially gunboats able to move freely amongst the islands +and ascend the many rivers and inlets of the sea. + +Therefore to the fleet and its officers he advised that political +and civil administration of the Philippines should, at least in the +first instance, be entrusted. Sir Andrew believed, and I venture to +say that I thoroughly agree with him, that amongst the officers of +the United States navy, active and retired, can be found many men of +wide experience, broad views, and generous sympathy well fitted to +administer the affairs of the protectorate. Sir Andrew also advised, +as Foreman did, and as I do, that the members of the Religious +Orders, i.e., the Augustinians, the Dominicans, the Franciscans, +and the Recollets, should be advised to return to Spain, receiving +compensation for their property. + +Sir Andrew Clarke summed up his advice as follows: "Enlist native +sympathy by fairness and justice, and rule through native agents, +supervised by carefully selected American residents." + +As the fleet, by destroying the Spanish squadron, had rendered it +possible to bring troops by sea, and by capturing the arsenal and +blockading the Port of Manila, had invigorated the insurrection, +and in fact had brought about the cession of the islands by Spain, +it would appear to outsiders that it and its officers had a strong +claim to the leading part in completing the settlement and pacification +of the Archipelago for which the best authorities considered them to +possess special qualifications. Besides, if peace was really wanted, +it would have been better to entrust the negotiations to the man +who had had his fight rather than to one looking for his chance. The +craze for military renown is nowhere more rampant than in the United +States. Occasions are few and far between, and we must not expect +generals to throw them away and fly in the face of Providence. + +This, however, did not commend itself to those who pull the strings; +we ignore the reasons, but we see the result. Perhaps it was thought +that to allow Dewey to add to his victor's laurel wreath the palm of +the pacificator would be too much honour for one man, and might raise +him to an inconvenient height in the estimation of his fellow citizens. + +A year and twenty days after his decisive victory Admiral Dewey sailed +from Manila in his flagship. Wherever the British ensign flew he was +received with every demonstration of honour and respect both by naval +and military officers and by civilians. His reception in New York was +marked by an almost delirious enthusiasm. But long before he arrived, +Mr. Whitelaw Reid, disgusted with the conduct of the campaign, made +a speech at the Miami University and denounced the President for +neglect of duty which brought on the war in the Philippines. + +He said: "If the bitterest enemy of the United States had sought to +bring upon it in that quarter the greatest trouble in the shortest +time, he could have devised for that end no policy more successful than +the one we have already pursued." It must be added that Mr. Whitelaw +Reid, perhaps to prevent being accused of having sympathy with the +enemy, denounced Aguinaldo and the Tagals as rebels, savages and +treacherous barbarians, unfit for citizenship or self-government, and +declared that the Philippines belong to America by right of conquest. + +I suppose Mr. Whitelaw Reid, or perhaps any citizen of the United +States, has a right to denounce his own President, and certainly +the management of the Philippine annexation has been bad from the +beginning. + +But I think Mr. McKinley was badly served by the Peace Commission. They +seem to me to have made many and egregious mistakes. + +1. They took General Merritt's opinion that the Tagals would submit, +and accepted Mr. Foreman's assurance of Tagal plasticity and +accommodating nature. + +2. They disregarded the intimation of D. Felipe Agoncillo, the +accredited agent of the Tagals, that these would accept no settlement +to which they were not parties. + +3. They treated several millions of civilised Christian people like +a herd of cattle to be purchased with the ranch. + +4. Under Article VIII., they guaranteed the religious orders the +possession of estates already taken from them. + +5. Under Article IX., they gave the expelled friars the right to +return and exercise their profession. + +To illustrate their careless procedure, I may add that they did not +even accurately determine the boundaries of the Archipelago to be +ceded, and now, in August 1900, $100,000 is to be paid to Spain for +Sibutu and Cagayan Sulu Islands, left out by mistake. If any man has a +right to say, "Save me from my friends," that man is William McKinley. + +As regards Aguinaldo and the Tagals, I think that Mr. Whitelaw Reid's +irritation at their protracted resistance has led him on too far. I +prefer the opinion of Senator Hoar, who, speaking in the Senate of +three proclamations of Aguinaldo, said: "Mr. President, these are +three of the greatest state papers in all history. If they were found +in our own history of our own revolutionary time we should be proud +to have them stand by the side of those great state papers which +Chatham declared were equal to the masterpieces of antiquity." + +In the same speech he says, and I commend his words to the reader's +attention: "Mr. President, there is one mode by which the people of +the Philippine Islands could establish the truth of the charges as +to their degradation and incapacity for self-government which have +been made by the advocates of Imperialism in this debate, and that +mode is by submitting tamely and without resistance to the dominion +of the United States." + +Mr. Whitelaw Reid, however, was perfectly right in one thing. The +Philippines belong (or will belong) to America by right of conquest. On +August 28th, 1899, Mr. McKinley addressed the 10th Pennsylvania +Regiment at Pittsburgh soon after their arrival from Manila. He +said: "The insurgents struck the first blow. They reciprocated +our kindness with cruelty, our mercy [13] with Mausers.... They +assailed our sovereignty, and there will be no useless parley until +the insurrection is suppressed and American authority acknowledged +and established. The Philippines are ours as much as Louisiana, by +purchase, or Texas, or Alaska." Here we get down to the bed rock, +and discard all flimsy pretences. The Americans have undertaken a war +of conquest, they bought it in fact, but I fear they are not happy +either about its material progress or its moral aspect. We shall have +to wait till November to see what they think about it. + +But whenever the cost in lost lives, ruined health, and shattered +minds, to say nothing of dollars, comes to be known, there will be +a great outcry in America. + +Mr. McKinley and his advisers are much to be pitied, for they were +misled by the information given them by those they relied on. + + + +The False Prophets of the Philippines. + +Here is an extract from General Merritt's evidence taken from the +Blue Book, fifty-sixth congress, third session, document No. 62, +part I, p. 367: + + + Mr. Reid: Do you think any danger of conflict is now reasonably + remote? + + General Merritt: I think there is no danger of conflict as long as + these people think the United States is going to take possession + there. If they imagine or hear from any source that the Spaniards + are to be reinstated there, I think they will be very violent. + + Mr. Davis: Suppose the United States, by virtue of a treaty with + Spain, should take Luzon ... paying no attention to the insurgents + --how would that be taken by Aguinaldo? + + General Merritt: I think Aguinaldo and his immediate following + would resist it; but whether he could resist to any extent I do not + know, because his forces are divided. I believe that, as matters + go, Aguinaldo will lose more or less of his power there. + + The Chairman: If the United States should say, We will take this + country and govern it our own way, do you think they would submit + to it? + + General Merritt: Yes, sir. + + Mr. Davis: How many troops in your opinion will be necessary to + administer the government of this island--to secure the + administration of our government there? + + General Merritt: From 20,000 to 25,000 would be requisite at first. + + +I admire the conviction of this distinguished officer that the benefits +of American rule would be highly appreciated by the Tagals, of whom, +by-the-bye, he knew next to nothing, having only been a few weeks in +Manila amongst sycophantic Mestizo-Americanistas. + +That interesting people were, however, of a different opinion. On +p. 4582 of the 'Congressional Record,' I find that Senor Mabini, in +a manifesto published at San Isidro, April 15th, 1899, states that +"race hatred is much more cruel and pitiless among the Anglo-Saxons" +(he is comparing them with the Spaniards). Again he says, "Annexation, +in whatever form it may be adopted, will unite us for ever to a nation +whose manners and customs are different from our own, a nation which +hates the coloured race with a mortal hatred, and from which we could +never separate ourselves except by war." The outbreaks against the +negroes that have recently happened [August, 1900] in New Orleans, +Liberty City, Georgia, and in New York, seem to justify Senor Mabini's +remarks. + +Don Macario Adriatico, in an answer to a message of General Miller, +writing from Jaro, January 3rd, 1900, says: "It could easily be +conceived that the Philippines would not suffer a new reign, least of +all of a nation on whose conscience the curse of the Redskins rests +as a heavy load." + +In other documents they refer to the probable action of the Trusts, +and anticipate that, what with the Sugar Trust, the Tobacco Trust, +and the Hemp Trust, they would soon find themselves reduced to the +condition of porters and workmen, or even of domestic servants. + +They seem to have an intelligent anticipation of what will probably +befall them when conquered, and hence their desperate resistance to +a large American army. + +But let us now turn up the evidence of another expert on the +Philippines, Mr. John Foreman, who also ventured to prophesy what +the Tagals would do (Blue Book, before mentioned, p. 443). + + + Mr. Foreman (answering Mr. Day): "The Tagals are of a very + plastic nature, willing in their nature (sic), I should say, to + accommodate themselves and take up any new established dominion + which might be decided upon, and I think they would fall into + any new system adopted. + + "The inhabitants of the Central Islands or Visayas are more + uncouth, decidedly less hospitable, and somewhat more averse + to associations and relations with outsiders than the Tagals, + but I think they would easily come under sway. They want a little + more pressure and would have to be guided, more closely watched, + and perhaps a little more of the iron hand used than in Luzon." + + +Thus was the administration in Washington misled, and it is probable +that the American military chiefs reported that they could easily +overcome all opposition, so they were allowed to try. + +Yet in June, 1900, we read, "The recall of General Otis is taken +to mean that the administration considers the war to be at an end, +and that there is no longer any necessity for military rule." + +General McArthur is appointed to the command, however, and the first +thing he does is to cable to Washington for more troops, whilst Admiral +Remey asks for an extra battalion of marines. These are to be sent, +also at least three regiments of infantry. Sixty-five thousand men +and forty ships of war are now admitted to be the proper garrison to +hold down the Philippines. + +However necessary reinforcements may be, so deep is the racial +antipathy between the United States' soldiers, white or black, +and the natives, that every additional man sent out is a source of +disaffection, and even exasperation. Not only will the volunteers +become demoralised and diseased in mind and body by their sojourn in +America's new possession, but the very fact of their presence renders +the pacification of the country more difficult. The more troops are +kept there, the more discontented the natives will be. + +To bring this chapter up to date, the position seems to be as follows: +There is a recrudescence of activity amongst the insurgents; fighting +is going on over a great part of the Archipelago, the American troops +are harassed and overworked, sickness is rife, including the bubonic +plague; yet, notwithstanding all this, the Taft Commission has taken +over the administration of the islands from September 1st. + +The date fixed is not a convenient one for the Commission, as it is +in the middle of the rainy season, but it has probably been selected +to suit the presidential campaign in America. + +Aguinaldo has issued a proclamation warning the Filipinos against the +Taft Commission, which, he says, has no authority from Congress; does +not represent the sentiments of the American people, and is simply the +personal instrument of Mr. McKinley sent out to make promises which +it has no power to keep, and which the United States Government will +not be bound to observe. He denounces the Americanistas, and threatens +condign punishment to all who accept offices under the Commission. It +would appear that a settlement on present lines is still some way off. + +Judge Taft seems to have inherited the cheerful optimism of General +Otis. On September 1st he reported that the insurrection is virtually +ended, and on 20th forwarded another favourable report. On 21st, +General McArthur cabled accounts of engagements in several provinces +of Luzon. The American troops at Pekin are being hurried to Manila, +as the reinforcement of General McArthur is absolutely imperative. + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +NATIVE ADMIRATION FOR AMERICA. + + Their fears of a corrupt government--The islands might be an + earthly paradise--Wanted, the man--Rajah Brooke--Sir Andrew + Clarke--Hugh Clifford--John Nicholson--Charles Gordon--Evelyn + Baring--Mistakes of the Peace Commission--Government should be a + protectorate--Fighting men should be made governors--What might + have been--The Malay race--Senator Hoar's speech--Four years' + slaughter of the Tagals. + + +Not a few of the natives in arms were, and still are, sincere admirers +of the true greatness of the United States. The noble deeds and words +of America's great men attain the summit of human grandeur in their +fervid imaginations. + +The statesmen and the historians of the great Republic receive their +tribute of praise from Filipino lips. + +The names of Washington, Lincoln, Prescott, Motley, are known and +honoured by them. Were the natives treated according to the immortal +principles of right and justice laid down or praised by such as +these, they would welcome the tutelage, and, in fact, all Asia might +envy them. + +But they will never consent to become the prey of the politician, +the boss, the monopolist, and the carpet-bagger, and from these they +must be assured of protection before they will submit. + +What confidence can they have in a form of government under which +the tariffs on their great staples will be made in the interests of +their American competitors. + +Under such a system, and with a pension list steadily growing by +millions of dollars year by year, their comfortable competence would, +in a few years, be reduced to the hideous poverty of over-taxed +British India. + +Having passed so many years amongst this people, I may be expected +to give some opinion as to whether the Philippines can be governed +by America. + +The islands were badly governed by Spain, yet Spaniards and natives +lived together in great harmony, and I do not know where I could +find a colony in which the Europeans mixed as much socially with +the natives. Not in Java, where a native of position must dismount +to salute the humblest Dutchman. Not in British India, where the +Englishwoman has now made the gulf between British and native into +a bottomless pit. + +It will be difficult for the Americans to avoid this social ostracism +of the natives, and in this respect they are not likely to do as well +as the Spaniards, being less tolerant. + +As regards the administration of the government, no doubt great +improvements can be made; but I abstain from prophecy, remembering +Merritt's and Foreman's want of success in that line. There is +certainly a wonderful opportunity to show the world how to govern a +tropical protectorate or dependency. + +So rich a country with so intelligent and industrious a population +only requires good guidance to make it an earthly paradise. But +the guidance should be given by the gentle hand of an elder sister, +and not by the boot of a frontier ruffian. + +Much as our officials praise the administration of the Indian +Empire, I think it quite possible with a few years of disinterested +tutelage to weld the Philippines into a nation, more united, freer, +happier, richer and better educated, than the finest state in that +vast possession. What is wanted is The Man, no stubborn and tactless +general "spoiling for a fight," harsh, peremptory, overbearing, but +a civilian of the highest rank, or a naval officer, one of America's +very best, full of sympathy, tact and patience, yet firm as Stonewall +Jackson. He must have a gracious presence, and "magnetism" in the +highest degree, for he must rule by personal influence, by inspiring +confidence and affection. + +Not otherwise did Rajah Brooke obtain his election to the sovereignty +of Sarawak; Sir Andrew Clarke pacify the Malay Peninsula; nor is it +otherwise that Hugh Clifford is leading the Malays of North Borneo +to peaceful pursuits. + +The man, when found, must be invested with absolute power, and be +backed up by all the forces of the Republic. + +The British Government gave America an example of what to avoid +when it sacrificed Governor Eyre, of Jamaica, to a shrieking gang +of pseudo-philanthropists, when, in a great emergency, whilst the +honour of white women and the lives of men were at the mercy of a mob +of negroes, he omitted some legal technicality before hanging one of +the cowardly instigators. + +However, I do not think America will go back on her sons like that. + +Great Britain has produced some men who could have taken up the +burden of the Philippines. It happens that the three I shall cite +were all soldiers, but their extraordinary magnetic qualities by no +means proceeded from their profession. + +The God-like man who died at Delhi, the beloved of John Lawrence, +would have made an ideal ruler: the people would have worshipped him. + +The hero who died at Khartoum could have ruled the Philippines, +or any Asiatic or African country, and the people would have loved him. + +To quote one who is still with us, Lord Cromer has coped with +difficulties of a different kind, yet, perhaps, as great as those of +the Philippines, and in a few years has changed the face of the land of +Pharaoh, and lightened the lot of millions. This has been done by the +assistance of a few engineers, administrators, judges and soldiers. He +and all of them have displayed the most unfailing tact and patience, +indomitable courage and fortitude, and each has put honour and duty +before all. Men like John Nicholson, Charles Gordon and Evelyn Baring, +are rare, but their peers doubtless exist amongst Americans of the good +old colonial stock, and it is the President's business to find them, +and send them out to protect and govern America's great dependency. + +America has, I suppose, taken these islands from Spain to save them +from the ruthless [14] Teuton, and to show the world that she can +do for the Philippines what we have done for Egypt. Unfortunately, +she began wrong by treating with Spain, and buying the islands, +as if the natives were cattle on a ranch. + +Then the Peace Committee went wrong over the estates of the Religious +Orders, as before explained. + +In my opinion, the form of government should be a protectorate, +varying in character with the civilisation of the different islands, +the executive functions being in the hands of the natives whenever +possible, but under inspection to prevent abuses. On this basis peace +could, I think, be made, and then America should remember that the +most worthy of the natives are precisely those who have been in arms +for their freedom. Their chiefs (with one or two exceptions), are the +men who should be appointed to govern provinces, and the fighting-men +enrolled in the native army. + +No offices of government should be given to the so-called +Americanistas, who are mostly people who need not be taken into +account, and whose support is worth nothing. They will go on with +their pettifogging and their pawnbroking, and that is enough reward +for them. They are Americanistas because they cannot help themselves, +and not from any attachment to American ways. Formerly the Spaniards +protected them; now the American bayonets stand between them and the +Tagal bolos. + +Without this, well they know that what happened to the mulattos in +Hayti would surely happen to them sooner or later--perhaps sooner. + +It is, indeed, sad to see what is, and to think what might have been +accomplished by a little patience, a little forbearance, a tinge of +sympathy, for a gallant people struggling for freedom and light. But +no patience was vouchsafed to them, no forbearance was shown them, +nor can I discover in what has been done the faintest sign of sympathy +for them. + +Yet the Malay race can claim to have enlisted the sympathies of +some not undistinguished men. Rajah Brooke, Spenser St. John, Hugh +Clifford, Professor Blumentritt, Louis Becke, Joseph Conrad--the +names that first occur to me--have all confessed to an affection for +them. The old Spanish conquerors speak of their dignified courtesy +and gentle manners. + +There are, however, in America, generous souls who can judge +the Tagals fairly and even indulgently. I do not allude to those +who raise a clamour to discredit the administration for political +purposes, but to the noble, eloquent, and truly patriotic speech, +inspired in the best traditions of the United States, delivered by +Mr. Hoar in the Senate on April 17th. I hope that touching appeal to +the national conscience will bear fruit, and that, by the exercise +of true statesmanship, an end may be put to this dreadful war, and +a pacification effected satisfactory to Filipinos and Americans. + +For four long years, slaughter and destruction have ravaged one of +the fairest lands on earth, converting what might be a paradise into +a pandemonium. + +What evils have these poor Tagals not suffered in that time? Arbitrary +imprisonment, torture, confiscation of property, banishment to +unhealthy places, military executions, bombardments, the storming and +burning of towns, indiscriminate slaughter, and the bubonic plague, +added to the calamities they are always exposed to--volcanic eruptions, +floods, earthquakes, typhoons, locusts, epidemics. + +Famine seems to be the only calamity they have been free from, but +even that may not be far distant. + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES. + + At the Spanish conquest--Rice--the lowest use the land + can be put to--How the Americans are misled--Substitutes + for rice--Wheat formerly grown--Tobacco--Compania + General de Tabacos--Abaca--Practically a monopoly of the + Philippines--Sugar--Coffee--Cacao--Indigo--Cocoa-nut oil--Rafts of + nuts--Copra--True localities for cocoa palm groves--Summary--More + sanguine forecasts--Common-sense view. + + + +Agricultural. + +The great wealth of the Archipelago is undoubtedly to be found in +the development of its agriculture. Although the Central and Ilocan +Mountains in Luzon and parts of Mindanao are rich in gold, it is the +fertile land, the heavy rainfall and the solar heat, that must be +utilized to permanently enrich the country. The land is there and the +labour is there, and all that is wanting is capital, and a settled +government that will make roads and bridges and keep them in repair, +clear the rivers of obstructions and improve the ports, and above +all, establish and maintain some tolerable courts of justice. The +sun, the rain, the soil, and the hardy Philippine farmer will do the +rest--a population equal to that of Java could live in affluence in +the Philippines. + +The agriculture of the Philippines at the time of the first arrival +of the Spaniards consisted mainly in the cultivation of rice. It is to +the Spaniards that the natives owe the introduction of maize, coffee, +cacao, sesame, tobacco, the indigo plant, the sweet potato, and many +fruits. They also imported horses, horned cattle, and sheep. But +the great development of the cultivation of sugar and hemp is almost +entirely due to British capital, with some assistance from Americans. + +The natives probably learned from the Chinese how to terrace the +hillsides and the sloping lands, and how to erect the pilapiles, or +small dykes, for retaining the rain. At that time, and for centuries +after, taxes were paid in paddy as they have been in Japan until +quite recently. + +Under the heading "Tagals," a description is given of the planting +of paddy, and an illustration shows the aspect of a newly-planted +paddy-field or tubigan. Mountain rice-lands are called bacores or +dalatanes. The cutting and harvesting of paddy is paid for in kind, +sometimes in Camarines Sur, a third of the crop is given for getting +it in, but in the province of Manila it is cultivated in equal shares +to the farmer and the owner of the land. + +By looking at the illustration it will be seen that, the fields +being divided into such small patches of irregular shapes at +different levels, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to use a +reaping-machine. I have elsewhere given the reasons for my opinion +that the cultivation of rice is the lowest use that the land and +the husbandmen can be put to, and whenever the cultivation is given +up, it is probably an indication that the cultivators are raising +some more profitable crop, and earning money by exporting valuable +produce, wherewith to import rice from countries in a lower stage +of civilisation. + +This is most certainly the case in the Philippines, and year by year, +as the exports of hemp, sugar and tobacco have increased, the imports +of rice from Saigon and Rangoon have risen correspondingly. And yet the +United States' Department of Agriculture, issued in the latter part of +1899 a circular with the title,'Plant Products of the Philippines,' +[15] which, amongst other inaccurate appreciations, says: "It seems +strange that an almost exclusively agricultural country should not +produce enough food for its own population, but such is at present the +case with regard to the Philippines." It proceeds to say that in some +years the value of rice imported into Manila from Saigon was valued +at $2,000,000. But I would point out to the author of that circular +that the export of the three great staples of the Philippines in +those years averaged, perhaps, $30,000,000, and this, evidently, +could not have been accomplished if they had cultivated their own rice. + +The Spaniards sometimes raised this same groundless clamour, and, +perhaps, the author of the circular took it from them; but I look +upon it as a great mistake arising from insufficient knowledge of +the subject. The rice imported into Manila is largely shipped to the +tobacco and hemp provinces, Cagayan and Albay, where the people are +exclusively employed in the cultivation and preparation of those +valuable products, and are far richer, and on a higher grade of +civilisation than the rice-growers of Cochin China. + +In the Philippines themselves, the people of the rice-growing districts +are the poorest and most backward of all. + +Besides paddy, the natives cultivate the dava or mijo (Panicum +miliaceum), the mongo, a species of lentil (Phaseolus mungo), called +in some provinces balat or balatong, for their own consumption. + +When rice is dear, they mix a certain amount of maize with it, and +when it is really scarce they eat the seeds of the sorghum (Holcus +saccharatus) instead of it. They also make an infusion of these seeds, +which is not unlike barley-water. The camote (Impomoea batata) is +the principal food of the more uncivilised tribes. + +All the natives find a great resource in the banana, which the Tagals +called saguin. The following varieties are excellent: Bungulan, +Lacatan, Ternate, and Tindoc. + +Wheat was formerly grown in northern Luzon. The late Archbishop +of Manila, Fray Pedro Payo, informed me that, when he was a parish +priest years ago, he always ate bread made from Philippine flour, +which he thought far better and safer than the Californian flour that +had superseded it. + +Tobacco is an important crop in the Philippines, and from the year +1781 was cultivated in Cagayan as a government monopoly. In the +villages of that province the people were called out by beat of drum +and marched to the fields under the gobernadorcillo and principales, +who were responsible for the careful ploughing, planting, weeding, +and tending, the work being overlooked by Spanish officials. Premiums +were paid to these and to the gobernadorcillos, and fines or floggings +were administered in default. The native officials carried canes, +which they freely applied to those who shirked their work. + +In another part of the book I have referred to the series of abuses +committed under the monopoly: how the wretched cultivators had to +bribe the officials in charge of the scales to allow them the true +weight, and the one who classified the leaves, so that he should +not reject them as rubbish and order them to be destroyed; in fact, +they had to tip every official in whose power it was to do them any +injustice. Finally, they received orders on the treasury for the +value of their tobacco, which were not paid for months, or, perhaps, +for years. They sometimes had to sell their orders for 50 percent of +the face value, or even less. + +However, even the Spanish official conscience can be aroused, and at +the end of 1882 the monopoly was abolished. + +Here it is only right to honourably mention a Spanish gentleman to +whom the natives of the Cagayan Valley in a great measure owe their +freedom. Don Jose Jimenez Agius was Intendente General de Hacienda, +and he laboured for years to bring about this reform, impressed +with the cruelty and injustice of this worst form of slavery. The +Cagayanes were prohibited from growing rice, but were allowed as +an indulgence to plant a row or two of maize around their carefully +tilled tobacco-fields. + +Possibly this circumstance has led the author of the circular I have +before quoted to make the extraordinary statement: "Tobacco, as a +cultivated crop, is generally grown in the same field as maize." Does +he think it grows wild anywhere? + +In 1883, the "Compania General de Tabacos de Filipinas" was established +in the islands, the capital being raised in Paris and Barcelona. + +This Company has been under very capable management; the technical +department being overlooked by M. Armand Villemer, a French engineer +of great ability and experience. The Company has done a great deal +to improve the cultivation of the plant and the preparation of the +leaf. They run light draught paddle-steamers and barges on the Cagayan +River, and sea-going screw-steamers from Aparri to Manila. + +Their estates are mentioned under the heading "Cagayanes." + +Besides the Cagayan Valley, the following Provinces produce tobacco +in considerable quantities. + +In Luzon, the Ilocos North and South, Abra, Union, Nueva Ecija. Also +Masbate, Ticao, and most of the Visayas Islands. The Igorrote also +raise a considerable quantity. + +The quantity of tobacco and cigars exported since 1888 is given in +the Appendix; and, seeing the enormous extent of land still available +in the Cagayan Valley, there can be no doubt that the production can +be very largely increased as the demand grows. + +The export of leaf tobacco from Manila, the only shipping port, has +increased from 204,592 quintals in 1888, to 287,161 quintals in 1897, +and during the same period the export of cigars has increased from +109,109 mil to 171,410 mil. + +The cultivation of the Musa textilis is almost a monopoly of the +Philippines, and, indeed, of certain parts of them. + +Volcanic soil, a certain elevation above the sea, and exposure to +the breezes of the Pacific, a bright sun and an ample rainfall, +seem necessary to the production of a fine quality of this fibre. + +Several attempts have been made to produce this fibre elsewhere; the +Government of British India sent a gentleman to Manila to study the +question. He wrote a report, but I have never heard that any abaca +was produced. + +The plant was said to grow wild all along the Sarawak rivers; but +here again some mistake must have been made, for nothing seems to +have come of it. + +There is, in fact, nothing so far to compete with it, and there +is an immense and growing market. The price has lately fluctuated +enormously, and I do not intend to prophesy what profits might be +made in planting it. + +In 1897, no less than 915,338 bales were exported, about 114,400 +tons, and if we take the average price at that time as $15 per bale, +we get a sum of over $13,730,000 as the value of that year's export, +the largest in quantity, but not in value. + +The export of hemp has been almost entirely developed by British and +American enterprise, and dates from very recent times. + +The spread of the sugar-cane cultivation in the Philippines from the +year 1870 was rapid, and is in great measure due to the advances +made by British and American houses to the planters. It was for +many years a most profitable business, and this is proved by the +large and handsome houses of the planters in the towns of the sugar +districts. The continual increase of the beet sugar production, however +brought down prices to such an extent as to reduce the profits below +the heavy interest paid on loans or advances. But it seems now that +bottom has been reached, and that rising prices and more economical +methods of financing and of manufacturing will give the planters a +fresh start. Those who know what has been and is being done by central +sugar factories in Cuba, will not doubt the possibility of doing +better in the Philippines, where labour is cheaper and is on the spot. + +Under the headings Pampangos, Pangasinanes, and Visayas, will be found +many interesting particulars of the working of sugar plantations in +these provinces. + +In 1893, the export of sugar amounted to 260,000 tons; since then it +has declined, but in 1897 it still amounted to close on 200,000 tons. + +The export of coffee has almost entirely ceased, and the cause is +ascribed to the ravages of an insect which destroys the bushes. Lipa, +in Batangas province, was the great coffee centre, and became one +of the richest towns in Luzon. Notwithstanding this prosperity, the +plantations were never cultivated with proper care. Weeding was much +neglected. In 1888, the export reached 107,236 piculs, but in 1897 +it had fallen to 2111 piculs. + +There is an opening for coffee-planting on many of the elevated +plateaux of the islands, and capital with skill ought to find its +reward. + +The Moros of Lake Lanao export a certain quantity of coffee of +indifferent appearance but excellent flavour. + +Cacao grows well in many parts of the Archipelago, but I have never +seen any large plantations of it. A few trees may be seen in the +gardens of old houses, but they must be protected from insects and +rats, and require looking after. + +The quantity raised in the islands is not sufficient to supply the +home demand, so that cacao beans are imported from Venezuela and +chocolate from Spain. + +It is a risky business to plant cacao in the northern Philippines; +the trees are delicate and suffer from the typhoons. And the produce +is so valuable that, unless watched at night or protected in some way, +the cones may when nearly ripe be carried away by thieves. + +In Palawan, where the typhoons do not ravage, I have seen cacao trees +30 feet high, with an abundant crop. + +The plant from which indigo is elaborated was cultivated in former +years to a considerable extent in some provinces, notably the Ilocos, +but the export trade was destroyed by the adulterations of the Chinese. + +In 1895, 6672 quintals were exported from Manila, but only 462 quintals +in 1896. Ten specimens of Ilocos indigo were shown at the Madrid +Exhibition of 1887, and the price varied from $12 to $67 per quintal. + +For home use the dye is sold in a liquid form, contained in large +earthen jars called tinajas. It is known as Tintarron. + +Sesame and other oil-giving seeds are cultivated to a small extent +in several provinces, but neither the seed nor the oil figure in the +list of exports. + +The cocoa-nut palm grows in most of the lowlands of the Philippines, +except in the North of Luzon. In suitable soil it grows to the very +edge of the sea, as in the Cuyos Islands, In the provinces of Laguna +and Tayabas there are large numbers of these trees and a lively +business is carried on in making oil from nuts or in sending them to +Manila for the market or for shipment. + +When large quantities are to be sent, they are formed into rafts in +a very ingenious manner, each nut being attached by a strip of its +own fibre without any rope being required. + +These rafts are sometimes a hundred feet long and ten or twelve feet +wide, and are navigated across the lake and down the Pasig. Finally +they are brought alongside a steamer, the nuts are cut adrift and +thrown into the hold through the cargo ports. + +The nuts that are to be used for making oil are stripped of their +husks and cut in halves. They then pass to a workman who is provided +with an apparatus called a Cutcuran. This is mounted upon a trestle +and consists of a revolving shaft of hard polished wood, carrying +on its overhanging end an iron disc about three inches in diameter +having teeth like the rowel of a spur. + +This is set edgeways in a slot in the shaft. On each side of the +trestle near the ground is a treadle; from one of these a cotton +cord passes over the shaft taking a round turn and is made fast +to the other treadle. The operator sits astride the trestle with a +foot on each treadle. By working them alternately he produces a rapid +revolution of the shaft in alternate directions, and the cutting disc +being double-edged it cuts both ways. By holding a half nut against +the revolving cutter he in a few seconds rasps out every particle of +the nut which falls upon a tray in fine shreds. + +The shredded material is then heated in a cast-iron pan over a slow +fire, and whilst hot is filled into bags of strong material which +are placed in the press. + +This is constructed entirely of hard wood, and the pressure is obtained +by driving wedges with a heavy mallet. + +The system is primitive, but all the apparatus is practical and +very cheap. + +D. Carlos Almeida of Binan stated to me in 1890 that 400 large +cocoa-nuts gave by this process one tinaja or jar of oil, equivalent +to 101/2 English gallons, which was then worth on the spot six Mexican +dollars. It is sold in Manila. At this time cocoa-nuts were sold in +Santa Cruz, the capital of the Laguna, for about $15 per thousand. The +oil cake was used either to feed pigs or as a manure about the roots +of coffee-plants. The owner of cocoa-palm groves in Luzon or Visayas +lives in anxiety during several months of each year, for should +the vortex of a typhoon pass over or near his plantation, a large +proportion of his trees may be destroyed. + +The true locality for such plantations is in the southern and western +parts of Mindanao and Palawan, to the south of a line drawn from +the northern point of Mindanao to Busuanga Island in the Calamianes, +preferring the most sheltered spots. + +In this region the danger from typhoons is inconsiderable, and the +trees flourish exceedingly. I have been shown trees in bearing at +Puerta Princesa which I was assured were only three years old. I +saw older trees bearing immense bunches of nuts, too many to count, +and it seemed wonderful to see a slender trunk bearing aloft sixty +feet in the air so heavy a load. From fifty to one hundred trees +can be planted on an acre according to the space allowed to each, +and when in full bearing after six or seven years each tree might +give eighty nuts in a year. The crop goes on all the year round. + +Copra is prepared from the nuts either by drying the whole nut under +cover in the shade, allowing the water to become absorbed and then +breaking up the kernel for bagging, or else by breaking it up first +of all and drying it in the sun. + +In the first case a large airy shed is required, and the process takes +three months. In the latter case three days of sunshine will suffice, +but the kernels must be protected from the dew at night and from any +chance shower of rain. Artificial heat does not produce good copra, +and besides is expensive to apply. + +Making copra is one of the most paying enterprises in the Philippines, +but it requires capital to be laid out several years beforehand, +unless a plantation can be bought to start with. + +Previous to 1890, the quantity of copra exported was so small that +no record was kept of it. In that year 74,447 piculs were exported, +and the trade has gone up by leaps and bounds, so that in 1897 no +less than 811,440 piculs were sent out, over fifty thousand tons. + +The present position of agriculture seems to be that there are in +the Philippines somewhere about six millions of civilised Christian +people tilling eight million acres of land, and exporting some thirty +million dollars' worth of produce each year. They also raise a large +quantity of food-stuffs for their own consumption, but import perhaps +a couple of million dollars' worth of rice because it is cheaper to +buy it than to grow it, as we in England import wheat for the same +reason. The area of land under cultivation is computed at one-ninth +of the total area of the islands. + +The author of the circular Plant Products of the Philippines, to +which I have before referred, makes the following remarks: "In view of +the natural fertility of the soil and the vast extent of these rich +lands not yet under cultivation, it is safely assumed that the total +agricultural production of the islands could be increased tenfold." + +This gentleman seems to be of a sanguine disposition, and he reminds +me rather of Oscar F. Williams' cheerful optimism. But in one way he +is more cautious than that gentleman. He does not fix a time for his +prophecy to be accomplished. + +I would point out, however, that in the seventy-five million acres +comprised in the islands there are volcanic cones, peaks of basalt, +stony plains, unexplored regions, swamps and other undesirable +localities for establishing farms or plantations, and that some of the +good lands are held by warlike tribes who would resent any intrusion +into their domains. + +There are, it is true, great tracts of land in Mindanao and Palawan, +and no doubt in time they will come under cultivation. + +Taking everything into consideration, I hold to my view that with +peace, honest government and a good Vagrancy law, the export of +produce might be doubled in twenty years if capital is forthcoming in +sufficient amount. The land is worth nothing without the husbandmen, +and it will take the Philippines a long time to recover from the +devastating effects of the insurrection of 1896-7 and the American +war of subjugation. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +FORESTAL. + + Value exaggerated--Difficulties of labour and transport--Special + sawing machinery required--Market for timber in the islands--Teak + not found--Jungle produce--Warning to investors in companies--Gutta + percha. + + +During the three and a quarter centuries the Spaniards have held the +Philippines, the forests of Luzon have supplied enormous quantities +of the finest timber for building houses, churches, convents, bridges, +warships, lighters and canoes. No care has ever been taken to replant, +and the consequence is that at this day long logs of many kinds most +wanted are not obtainable, all the large trees of valuable timber have +long ago been cut, and only in the most distant and least accessible +places are any worth having to be found. + +The greatest nonsense is talked about the value of the Philippine +forests, but in fact it is only in the fever-stricken Island of +Mindoro, and in certain parts of Palawan and Mindanao, that any large +and valuable trees can be found. + +Labour is a great difficulty; wood-cutters are scarce, and they are a +wild, unruly lot; only men inured to such a rough life can resist the +malaria of the woods, and even they are occasionally down with fever. + +Chinamen would not venture into the forests, and only the natives +of each district are available, as they do not care to go far from +their houses. In order to engage them it is necessary to make them +advances of money which it will seldom be possible to recover. A good +deal of tact is required in dealing with the cutters, they are very +independent and will not put up with abuse. A considerable capital +is required to give advances to, and feed these men, also for buying +buffaloes, which die unless good care is taken of them. + +If a cutter can be found who has buffaloes of his own, it is better +to hire them with him, as then they are sure to be taken care of. + +The dragging the large logs to a river or port can only be done by +teams of buffaloes. The conditions prevailing prevent the employment +of chutes, wire ropes and winding engines, or tram-lines. + +The valuable trees do not grow together in numbers as in the forests +of California and Oregon, but are found at considerable distances +from each other. It is therefore only possible to commence the use +of mechanical conveyance at the spot where the logs can be assembled +by animal labour. Even so, the number of logs from any district will +be so small that it will hardly pay to lay down a tramway. + +The logs are squared in the woods and the butt ends are rounded like +the runners of a sleigh, two holes are chopped at the top corners +with a small adze called a palacol, through which rattans are passed +for the buffaloes to be yoked to. They are then dragged down to the +river or sea. The wood is too heavy to float, and bundles of bamboos +are attached to it to give it buoyancy. + +The idea of putting up saw-mills in the forests is absurd--for the +reason given above. + +The wood is very hard and tough, and specially made machinery is +required to work it. + +The framing must be heavier, the feed lighter, and the teeth of +the saws much smaller and with less set. I have had some excellent +machinery and saws specially made in England for this purpose, by +Thomas Robinson & Son of Rochdale, but I sent home logs of the woods +required to be worked, for the saws, planers, and moulding cutters +to be made to suit. The ordinary sawing machinery as shown in trade +catalogues would be of no use at all. + +The whole business is extremely risky, it requires a manager, immune +to jungle fever, a man of great vigour yet patient and tactful. Such a +man, understanding the native ways, would probably succeed after years +of hard and dangerous work; but I warn any one thinking of taking up +this business that in Luzon valuable trees are few and far between, +and distant from port or river, whilst in other islands where there +are timber trees they stand there because no one could ever be induced +to go and cut them. + +As for exporting these timbers to the United States or other places, +there is no need to do that, for demand for timber in Manila and other +towns is greater than the supply, and iron construction is increasing +in consequence. + +Oregon or Norway pine is of no use for building purposes in the +Philippines, for it would be devoured within a year or two by the anay +(white ants). I am told, however, that in spite of warnings the United +States military authorities have constructed stables and storehouses +of this timber. + +I think it quite useless to mention the names of the different +Philippine timbers, as those who take an interest in them can purchase +the 'Manual de Maderero' (Wood-cutters' Manual) and obtain all the +information they require from it. + +Molave is the most important, being proof against the white ants, +and almost imperishable. Ypil and yacal are splendid woods for large +roofs. They can be obtained long enough for tie-beams, even for wide +spans, and excellent roof-frames can be made by bolting them together. + +On the Zambales mountains and in Benguet and Lepanto there are +forests of coniferae. When the Manila-Dagupan Railway was being +built, I had some sample sleepers brought down from thence. They +were quite suitable, but could only be used if thoroughly creosoted, +as otherwise they would merely provide food for the white ants. As +there are no gasworks in the Islands, creosote could not be produced, +nor would it pay to import it from Hong Kong or elsewhere on account +of the freight and duties. + +There is no market in the islands for pine and no one cuts the +trees. They are not of great size. The Igorrotes burn them to clear +the land for planting. + +True ebony is not found in the forests, but a very handsome and heavy +wood, called Camagon, is the nearest approach to it, being dark-brown +nearly black, streaked with bright yellow. It is found of larger size +than ebony and is sold by the pound. + +Teak has often been reported to exist and samples of the alleged +teak have been shown to me. On comparing them with teak from +Rangoon a considerable difference was noted and the characteristic +odour was absent. My own impression is that there is no teak in +the Philippines. I have paid two dollars a cubic foot for teak in +Manila and if there was any to be had, this price would, I think, +have fetched it out. + +As for such jungle produce as gum-damar, canes, and rattans, if the +reader will refer to my remarks on Palawan he will see that the most +valuable products are mostly worked out, and that in any case this +is not white man's business. + +There is, however, one branch that, in view of increasing scarcity +and rising price, should be carefully looked after by the Philippine +Administration; I refer to the collection of gutta-percha in +Mindanao. This caused quite a boom for a short time, but as usual +the Chinamen got hold of the stuff and mixed it with various kinds +of rubbish, so that it was soon discredited in the European market. + +An official of high-standing might be appointed to the double office of +Protector of the Natives, and Conservator of the Forests in Mindanao, +and rules for collecting the gutta without destroying the trees should +be prepared and enforced by personal visits from the conservator and +his deputies, to whom all the gutta should be handed, being paid for +in cash. This would probably yield a large revenue to the Government +and greatly benefit the natives, for they might receive half the value +of the gutta instead of the minute fraction the Chinese now give them. + +The reader who has perused the previous remarks will no longer be +liable to be caught by tales of the fabulous riches of the Philippine +forests. And, above all, he should keep clear of any companies that +may be formed to exploit them. Energetic and tactful individuals may +succeed, but the success will be due to personal qualities, and will +be contemporaneous with that gifted party and disappear with him. This +is what happened to the "Laguimanoc Saw Mills and Timber Company" +as soon as the founder left. + +A large proportion of the jungle produce of Mindanao, Palawan, and +the smaller Southern Islands is smuggled away by the Chinese traders +to Sandakan or Singapore. + +All that appears in the Table of Exports is two or three hundred tons +of gum copal shipped each year from Manila. + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +THE MINERALS. + + Gold: Dampier--Pigafetta--De Comyn--Placers in + Luzon--Gapan--River Agno--The Igorrotes--Auriferous + quartz from Antaniae--Capunga--Pangutantan--Goldpits at + Suyuc--Atimonan--Paracale--Mambulao--Mount Labo--Surigao--River + Siga--Gigaquil, Caninon-Binutong, and Cansostral + Mountains--Misamis--Pighoulugan--Iponan--Pigtao--Dendritic gold + from Misamis--Placer gold traded away surreptitiously--Cannot + be taxed--Spanish mining laws--Pettifogging lawyers--Prospects + for gold seekers. Copper: Native copper at Surigao and + Torrijos (Mindoro)--Copper deposits at Mancayan worked by + the Igorrotes--Spanish company--Insufficient data--Caution + required. Iron: Rich ores found in the Cordillera of Luzon--Worked + by natives--Some Europeans have attempted but failed--Red + hematite in Cebu--Brown hematite in Paracale--Both red and + brown in Capiz--Oxydized iron in Misamis--Magnetic iron + in San Miguel de Mayumo--Possibilities. Coal (so called): + Beds of lignite upheaved--Vertical seams at Sugud--Reason + of failure--Analysis of Masbate lignite. Various Minerals: + Galena--Red lead--Graphite--Quicksilver--Sulphur Asbestos--Yellow + ochre--Kaolin, Marble--Plastic clays--Mineral waters. + + +It is a great mistake to suppose that nothing is known of the geology +and mineralogy of the Philippines, or that no attempts have been made +to exploit them. + +The maps of the Archipelago are marked in dozens or hundreds of places, +coal, copper, lead, iron, gold, and a number of works treating of +the subject have been published. Amongst the authors are the mining +engineers, Don Enrique Abella and Don Jose Centeno. But some of their +most important reports are still in manuscript, for the revenues of +the Philippines were almost entirely absorbed in paying the salaries +of the officials, and there was a great disinclination to spend money +in any other way. + +At the Philippine Exhibition, held at Madrid in 1887, more than +seven hundred specimens of auriferous earths or sand, gold quartz, +and ores of various metals were shown, and in this branch alone there +were 109 exhibitors from all parts of the Archipelago. + +Besides ores there were the tools and utensils used by the miners, +and models of the furnaces and forges in which the metals were reduced +and worked, with the metals in different stages of concentration or +manufacture, and a complete show of the finished products. + +A great many Mining Companies have been formed in Spain or in Manila +at different times which have all failed from a variety of causes, +want of skill, bad management, costly administration, or because the +richness of the vein or seam had been exaggerated. + +The difficulty of getting labour is considerable, as mining is a work +the generality of natives do not care to take up, although in some +provinces they are used to it, for example, in Camarines Norte and +in Surigao. + +Employers seem to forget that the ordinary food of a native, rice +and fish, is not sufficiently nourishing to enable him to do hard +and continuous work, such as is required in mining. A higher rate of +pay than the current wage is essential, to allow the miner to supply +himself with an ample ration of beef or pork, coffee and sugar, +and provision should be made for him to be comfortably housed. + +In this complaint of want of labour it is not always the native who +is to blame, and if a mine cannot afford to pay a reasonable price +for labour, it had better stand idle. + +Probably the one great reason why mines have not prospered in the +Philippines is that there has never been slavery there, as in Cuba, +Peru, Mexico, Brazil, ancient Egypt, and other great mining countries, +where whole populations have been used up to minister to the avarice +of their fellow-men. + +Names of some Metals in Tagal. + + + Gold Guinto. + Silver Pilac. + Copper Tangso. + Lead Tinga. + Tin Tinga puti. + Iron Bacal. + Steel Patalim. + Forged Steel Binalon. + Coal Uling. + + + +Gold. + +From my remarks upon the other minerals it will be seen that I have +no illusions on the immediate prospects of working them. + +With gold, however, it is different. For centuries large quantities +have been collected or extracted, mostly, no doubt, from placers, +still some rich veins are known to exist. + +The early writers agree that gold is plentiful. Dampier says: "Most, +if not all, the Philippine Islands are rich in gold." + +Speaking of the Batanes Islanders, he says:-- + + +"They have no sort of coin, but they have small crumbs of the metal +before described" (he seemed at first to doubt whether it was gold), +which they bind up very safe in plantain leaves or the like. This +metal they exchange for what they want, giving a small quantity of +it--about two or three grains--for a jar of drink that would hold +five or six gallons. They have no scales, but give it by guess." + + +In the 'Relacion de las Islas Filipinas,' 1595(?), the author remarks +that the Tagals "like to put on many ornaments of gold, which they +have in great abundance." + +Farther on, he says of Luzon:-- + + +"The people of this island are very clever in knowing" (valuing) +"gold, and they weigh it with the greatest subtleness and delicacy +which has ever been seen; the first thing they teach their children +is to know gold and the weights used for it, for amongst them there +is no other money." + + +Farther on, he says:-- + + +"Ilocos ... has much gold, for the principal mines of these islands +are in the mountain ranges of this province, of which they get the +advantage, for they trade with the miners more than any people. The +Spaniards have many times endeavoured to people the mines so as to +work them, but it has not been possible up to the present, although +the Governor, Gonzalo Ronquillo, took the greatest pains, and it cost +him many men, the country being so rough and destitute of provisions." + + +In Pigafetta's 'Voyage Round the World' (Pinkerton), Vol. ii., p. 333, +we read that at Caraga (Mindanao) a man offered an ingot of massive +gold for six strings of glass beads. + +On p. 331, he says:-- + + +"The king who accompanied us informed us that gold was found in his +island in lumps as large as walnuts, and even as an egg, mingled with +earth; that they used a sieve for sifting it, and that all his vessels, +and even many of the ornaments of his house were of this metal." + + +On p. 348, he says that he saw many utensils of gold in the house of +the Raja or King of Butuan. + +On p. 349, we find the following remarks:-- + + +"What most abounds is gold. Valleys were pointed out to me in which +by signs they made me comprehend there were more lumps of gold than +we had hair on our heads, but that, for the want of iron, the mines +exact greater labour to work them than they feel inclined to bestow." + + +Coming down to later days, Thomas de Comyn, 1810, writes:-- + + +"Gold abounds in Luzon and in many of these islands; but as the +mountains which contain it are in the power of pagan Indians, the veins +are not worked, nor even the mines known. These savages collect it +from placers or streams, and bring it as dust to the Christians who +inhabit the plains, in exchange for coarse cloth or fire-arms, and +at times they have brought it in grains of one or two ounces' weight. + +"It is the general opinion that this class of mines abound in the +province of Caraga, situated on the east of the great island of +Mindanao, and that there, as well as at various other points, gold +is found of 22 carat fine." + + +He states that the Royal Fifth, or rather Tenth (for it was found the +mines could not pay a fifth, and it was reduced by half), in the year +1809 amounted to $1144. This would represent an extraction of gold +equal to only $11,440; but this was probably but a small part of the +whole, as from the circumstances of the case the gold dust from the +washings would be surreptitiously disposed of, and only the few mines +that were worked, paid the tax. I had occasion, about twelve years +ago, to make inquiry how much gold was raised in Camarines Norte, +and a person well-informed on the subject estimated it at a value of +$30,000 gold dollars. + +Gold is certainly very widely distributed in the islands. I have +seen women washing the sands of the River San Jose del Puray in the +province of Manila, and noted what small specks they collected. I +was informed that their average earnings were about 25 cents per +day. Whether these sands could be dredged and washed mechanically on +a large scale with profit I cannot say. + +In 1890, I ascended the Puray River and went up the Arroyo Macaburabod +to where it bifurcates. There, close to the boundary of the province +of Manila and district of Moron, I found a face of disintegrated +quartz glittering with large crystals of iron pyrites. + +This was near a geological frontier where the igneous and sedimentary +rocks joined, and the neighbourhood was highly mineralized, there being +iron, coal, and gold within a short distance. I took a large number +of samples, and the analyst Anacleto del Rosario declared that one +of them gave an assay of 17 dwts. of gold to the ton. But of course +such assays prove nothing, for the accidental presence of a grain of +gold in the sample would make all the difference in the results. + +Near Gapan in Nueva Ecija more profitable washings are situated, +and at times large numbers of men and women are to be seen at work, +especially after a sudden flood has come down. The sands of the River +Agno also yield gold, and the washing for it is quite an industry +amongst the Pangasinan women about Rosales, but the return is said +to be small. But after a north-westerly gale has heaped up the black +sand at the mouth of this river in the Bay of Lingayen, the people +turn out in numbers to wash it, and sometimes have better luck. But +although these washings are poor, a considerable quantity of gold +is obtained from the Igorrotes, and there is no doubt that these +people have for centuries worked quartz veins or pockets, and that +they only extract sufficient for their modest requirements in the way +of purchasing cattle, cloth, and tools. They do not hoard any gold, +for they say that it is safer in the mine than in their houses. When +one of them requires a few ounces he goes to his mine, gets it out, +and immediately proceeds to purchase what he wants. Possibly they +do not consider the supply inexhaustible, and they have thought for +to-morrow, or for those who will come after them. It is not their +object to exhaust the bounties of nature in the shortest possible time. + +When they have found a rich pocket they build a house over the pit, +and when not at work they cover the hole with roughly-hewn planks or +logs ; they take precautions in disposing of the detritus, so that +it does not call attention from a distance. + +In the Exhibition of 1887 the Comandante Politico-Militar of +the Province of Benguet showed samples of auriferous quartz from +Antaniac and from Capunga, also quartz with visible threads of gold +from the latter place, also leaf gold from the veins, two specimens +of auriferous quartz from Pangutantan with gold extracted from it, +and gold-dust from the River Agno. + +Other exhibits included specimens of gold-bearing rock from Lepanto +and Infantas, and compact auriferous quartz from the celebrated +gold-pits of Suyuc near Mancayan. All these quartz reefs are worked +by the Igorrotes. + +Gold is also found near Atimonan in Tayabas, but the neighbourhood of +Paracale and Mambulao, and the slopes of Mount Labo are most famous +in Manila. + +During the last century large quantities of gold were taken from +the surface-workings, which are now exhausted, or only afford a +miserable living to the natives who treat the auriferous earths in +a very primitive way. + +The gold having been taken, the next thing was to use the reputation of +the mines to attract capital, and this was done to some considerable +extent, one company being founded on the ruins of another. One of the +later ones was the "Ancla de Oro," or Golden Anchor, but its capital +was expended without results. The late Don Antonio Enriquez, a Spanish +gentleman well-known to British and Americans in Manila, worked some +mining properties there for some years, and had faith in them. + +He consulted me about them, and I forwarded some samples of the ores +to my agents in London, who had them analyzed by Messrs. Johnson & +Matthey, but the results were not encouraging, and did not confirm +the analysis made in Manila. + +About 1890, Messrs. Peele, Hubbell & Co. got out an American mining +expert, whose name I forget, but I believe he was a mining engineer +of high standing. He spent some time at Mambulao and Paracale, and +made a careful examination of the country. It was understood that +his report did not encourage any further expenditure in prospecting +or development. But of late years further attempts have been made to +boom the place, and the Mambulao Gold Mining Syndicate, London, 1893, +has been formed. I am unaware on what new information the promoters +rely to justify their bringing this place again before the public. + +Surigao, in the old kingdom of Caraga, is rich in gold which is very +widely disseminated. Father Llovera, a missionary who, in March, 1892, +made an excursion up the River Siga to visit some unbaptized Mamanuas +in the mountains, declares that the sands contain much gold, so much +so that particles were plainly visible. This river takes its rise in +the eastern Cordillera, between Cantilan and Jabonga, and runs in a +north-easterly direction into the southern part of Lake Mainit. The +missionary also declares that veins of gold were visible in some of +the pieces of rock lying in the bed of the river, which they broke +to examine. But he does not seem to have brought back any specimens, +as one would expect. + +His declaration is confirmed by Dr. Montano, a French traveller and +skilled explorer, who however does not say that he saw the gold dust +amongst the sand. + +From Surigao to Gigaquil the people are engaged in washing the sands +for gold. + +Foreman states that for many months remittances of four or five +pounds weight of gold were sent from Mindanao to a firm in Manila, +and that it was alluvial gold from Surigao extracted by the natives. + +Don Jose Centeno, Inspector of Mines, says in a report: "The most +important workings effected in Surigao are in the Caninon-Binutong +and Cansostral mountains, a day's journey from the town. + +"These mountains consist of slaty talc much metamorphosed, and of +serpentine. In the first are found veins of calcite and quartz from +half-an-inch to three inches thick, in which especially in the calcite +the gold is visible mixed with iron and copper pyrites, galena and +blende. It is a remarkable circumstance that the most mineralized +veins run always in an east and west direction, whilst the poor +and sterile veins always follow another direction. The workings are +entirely on the surface, as the abundance of water which flows to +them prevents sinking shafts, and nothing is known of the richness +at depth. Rich and sterile parts alternate, the gold being mostly in +pockets. From one of the veins in Caninoro in a length of eighteen +inches one hundred ounces of gold were taken." + +Some time after this find, Messrs. Aldecoa & Co., a Manila firm, +erected stamps at Surigao, and a certain amount of gold was sent up by +every steamer to Manila, but in spite of the apparently favourable +circumstances, the enterprise was ultimately abandoned and the +machinery removed. + +I do not know the reason, but people in Manila are so used to the +collapse of mining companies that it is regarded as their natural +and inevitable end, and no explanations are required. + +Nieto (p. 75) mentions the northern parts of the province of Surigao +and Misamis as the richest in gold. In Misamis there is both alluvial +gold and rich quartz reefs, the richest known spots being Pighoulugan +on the River Cagayan, Iponan and Pigtao. The ore at the latter place +is auriferous iron pyrites, called by the natives Inga. + +Nuggets weighing from two and a half to four ounces have been found in +these places, so that Pigafetta's stories are not without foundation. + +On March 20th, 1888, a clerk of Don Louis Genu, a merchant in Manila, +called upon me on business and exhibited a large pickle bottle full +of gold which he had just received from Cagayan de Misamis. There +were several pounds weight of it, and I carefully examined it with +a lens. I found it in pieces, many of them half an inch or more in +length, slightly flattened, and having minute particles of white +quartz adhering to them, and a few loose particles of quartz. The +pieces were not water-worn, and had evidently formed part of a seam +of dendritic or lace gold, such as I had seen exhibited by a vendor +of mining properties in Denver, Col., just a year before. + +This exhibit opened my eyes to the possibilities of gold mining in +Mindanao, but I did not leave my business to go prospecting. + +The natives of this part of Mindanao look upon washing for gold as +their chief resource. A certain quantity of what they collect is used +to make ornaments, and passes from hand to hand instead of coin in +payment of gambling debts, and stakes lost at cockfights. The Mestizos +and Chinamen get hold of the rest and send it away surreptitiously, +so that no statistics can be collected. It is impossible to tax gold +collected in this way, but the Government might derive a profit by +establishing posts in each district where gold would be purchased +at a fixed price and so get, say, ten or twenty per cent. out of it +instead of allowing the Chinese and Mestizos to make perhaps forty +or fifty per cent. according to the ignorance of the vendor. + +Foreman is probably quite right in saying that the influence of the +friars has always been exerted against any mining company, whether +Spanish or foreign. They did not want a rush of miners and Jews to +the Philippines. But now, under the American Government, their power +must decline, and new undertakings will, in a measure, be free from +this hindrance. + +The Spanish mining laws and regulations are excellent and a perfect +model for legislation on the subject. They are based on the principle +that the ownership of the surface gives no title to the minerals +underneath, which belong to the State. The owner can, however, obtain +a title by developing a mine. + +The ingenuity and unscrupulousness of that vile breed, the native +Pica-Pleito or pettifogging lawyer, has greatly contributed to stop +Europeans from proceeding with mining enterprises, as success would +bring down these blackmailers in swarms. + +It is to be hoped that the new government will lay a heavy hand on +these birds of prey. Rightly considered, they are only a species of +vermin, and should have verminous treatment. + +Now that the fortune of war has handed over the sovereignty of the +Philippines to an enterprising and energetic race, I cannot doubt +that the mystery of centuries will be dispelled. + +Amongst the Californian, Colorado, or Nevada volunteers, there +should be men having the courage, the knowledge of prospecting, +and the physical strength necessary for success in this quest, if +they can obtain permission from their superiors to attempt it. The +prospects are so good that they should not have any difficulty in +getting capitalists to finance them. + +They will require to go in a strong party to prevent being cut off +by the savages, and to escort their supplies of provisions. + +As deer and wild pig abound they will be able to supply themselves in a +great measure with meat by sending out a couple of good shots to hunt. + +For such as these gold mining ought to be most remunerative, and +enable those who survive the many perils to retire with a fortune +after a few years of hard work. But so far as I know there is not at +present sufficient information about any mines in the Philippines, +whether of gold or any other metal, to warrant the establishment of +companies for purchasing and working them. + +Mining claims can be staked out and registered under the present +laws by natives or foreigners, but in limited areas, and placers or +river beds can be worked by all without leave or license, and cannot +be monopolised. + +I wish to avoid prophesy, but I shall be much surprised if the +Philippines, in American hands, do not turn out in a few years an +important gold-producing country. + + + +Copper. + +Native copper has been found in several places in the islands, +amongst them are Surigao and Torrijos in Mindoro. + +In the article on the Igorrotes, I have spoken of the copper mines +of Mancayan, and related how, when worked by the savages they were +successful to the extent of supplying themselves with cooking-pots, +trays and ornaments, besides leaving an annual surplus of about +nineteen tons of copper, which was sold. + +A Spanish company obtained the concession about 1864, and drove out +the natives. + +The title was the Sociedad Minera de Mancayan, and they experienced +considerable difficulties in getting a merchantable product, their +science being at a disadvantage compared to the practical knowledge +of the Igorrotes. They, however, persevered, and got up to a make of +about 180 tons in one year--nearly ten times the production obtained +by the Igorrotes. But the usual fate of Philippine mining companies +overtook them, and the works were closed in 1875, it was said from +scarcity of labour. + +Several kinds of ores are found at Mancayan, almost on the surface, +red, black and grey copper, also sulphates and carbonates of copper. + +About Mambulao cupro-ferruginous quartz and copper pyrites are found, +but are not worked. + +I am quite unable to venture any opinion on the prospects of +copper-mining and smelting in the Philippines, but no doubt experts +will shortly obtain the necessary data to decide what can be done, +but capital should be laid out with great caution, and the many +difficulties of climate, carriage and labour taken into consideration. + + + +Iron. + +There is plenty of iron ore in the Philippines. In Luzon it occurs +plentifully in the western spurs of the Cordillera all the way from +Bosoboso to San Miguel de Mayumo, and it is now worked near the latter +place in a primitive way. Plough-shares, cooking-pots and bolos are the +principal productions; the fuel used in all cases is charcoal. I sent +to the Philippine Exhibition of 1887 at Madrid a dozen bolos made from +native iron. The ore is very rich, giving 70 to 80 per cent. of iron; +when polished it is of a beautiful silvery white colour, very tough, +and of the finest quality. Attempts have been made by Europeans to +work the iron ores of Luzon, but they have invariably ended in the +bankruptcy of the adventurers, and in one case even in suicide. + +When deer-shooting at the Hacienda de San Ysidro above Bosoboso many +years ago, I learned from the natives there that in the next valley, +not far from the hamlet of Santa Ines, there existed the remains +of some old iron-works, abandoned years ago. They said there were +unfinished forgings still lying about, amongst them two anchors. I +did not, however, go to examine them, being intent on shooting. + +Red hematite is found in Cebu, brown hematite in Paracale and other +parts of Camarines Norte, and both red and brown in Capiz. In Misamis +oxydized iron is found. Some of the iron about San Miguel de Mayumo +is magnetic. + +I do not believe that at present, and for many years to come, it is +possible to work these ores and make iron and steel to compete with +American or British imported iron. + +But the time may come when, under different conditions, these +remarkable ores may be turned to account; in fact, it is asserted a +scarcity of high class iron ore will soon occur, in which case the +Philippine ores of such extraordinary richness will come into use. + + + +Coal. + +It is common to see coal mentioned amongst the mineral resources of +the Philippines, but so far as I have been able to learn, no true +coal has been found there, nor in any of the adjacent islands. There +are beds of lignite of varying quality, and when enthusiastic finders +are told of the poor quality of their samples, they reply at once, +"It will be better at depth." + +The Philippine formations seem to greatly resemble those of Borneo, +and there it was found that the lignite got poorer at depth, so that +mines were abandoned from this cause alone. + +The Philippine beds of lignite have been violently upheaved by the +cataclysms of former ages, and are often turned up vertically, +as at the mines of Sugud in Albay. I was consulted about these +mines after a considerable sum had been thrown away. The Spanish +engineer employed commenced by building himself a commodious house; +he then laid a tramway from the port to where the mine was to be, +and bought a winding engine. The available capital was expended, +and nothing more was done. + +The position of the seams at Sugud very much resembles the occurrence +of the seams at the Pengaron mine in Borneo, which stopped work 18th +October, 1884, after a precarious existence of thirty-six years, on +account of the poor quality of the coal and the relatively high cost +of extraction. This is on the authority of Dr. Theodor Posewitz in +'Borneo: its Geology and Mineral Resources,' 1892, and what follows +so exactly applies to all the so-called coal in the Philippines, +that I shall quote the paragraph:-- + + +P. 480.--"A number of analyses were carried out, and practical tests +were applied on board various ships. The result was always ore or +less favourable, yet nobody would have the coal." + + +The coal mine in the British Colony of Labuan was given up after +several years' working. + +People blame the Spanish Government, the priests, the natives, +the roads, but the reason of failure in the Philippines is very +simple. "Nobody would have the coal," that is to say on board ship. The +lignite could be used on land, but there is little demand for it, +except for navigation. Some of it is liable to spontaneous combustion +in the bunkers, some is so charged with sulphur as to be bad for the +furnaces, or else it will not keep steam. I doubt if there is any good +coal between Japan and Australia, and as long as coal from there can +be delivered at present prices in Manila, I don't advise anybody to put +money into Philippine coal unless they know more about it than I do. + +It has often been said that the Philippines have never been +explored. This is, however, only true of certain regions, and as +regards beds of the so-called coal you will find them marked on the +maps all over the principal islands. + +If you proceed to the village nearest the spot, you will find, very +probably, that the seam has been known for a century, and that pits or +adits have been made and a lot of money spent to no purpose. Nobody +ever made any money out of Philippine lignite that I know of, but I +don't prophesy whether anybody ever will. + +I append an analysis of some so-called coal that was brought me from +Masbate in 1889. + + + Analysis of Masbate Lignite. + + Laboratory of A. del Rosario y Sales. + + No. 1367. 16th April, 1889. + + Lignite from Masbate. + + Colour, black. + Physical condition, fragile. + Fracture, splintery. + Colour, when reduced to powder, blackish brown. + Burns with difficulty, giving a short flame; not very smoky, and + leaves a brick-red ash. + Coke not very spongy, pulverulent and lightly agglutinated. + Density at 33 deg. C., 1.3082. + + Analysis. + + Hygroscopic water 3.73 + Volatile constituents 45.49 + Coke Fixed carbon 48.20 + Ash Silica 12 + Aluminic 2.46 + Ferric, calcic + Magnesic + Chloric + Sulphuric acids, etc. + + 100.00 + + + Coke = 50.79. Equivalent calories 5203.44 + Ash = 2.58. Absolute calorific effect, centesimal 64.41 + Sulphur per 100 of lignite 0.1633 + Iron calculated in metallic state 1.2173 + Lead reduced by 1 gramme of combustible (mean) by + Berthier's assay grammes 21.90 + + + +Various Minerals. + +Lead.--Galena is found in Tayabas and in Camarines Norte; in the +latter province there is found chromate of lead with ferruginous +quartz. This ore is often found mixed with iron or copper pyrites, +and sometimes with blende. + +I have seen samples of galena from Cebu which was said to be +auriferous, but I have never heard that any of these ores have been +worked anywhere in the islands. + +If it should be found profitable to smelt the gold-bearing ores, as +is so splendidly done at Denver, Col., the galena will be necessary +to the success of the process. + +Red Lead is found in Camarines Norte and other places. + +Graphite.--In 1891 some pieces of this valuable mineral were shown +to me by a native, who said he had found the ore in Mindoro, but he +would not say from what locality. + +Quicksilver.--I have seen small bottles of this handed round by +native disciples of Ananias. But I have never seen a bit of cinnabar +or other ore of mercury, and I shall not believe there is any of this +metal in the Philippines until I see the ore in situ, or have good +testimony to that effect. + +Sulphur abounds; there are several places where it can be obtained +in large quantities near the volcanoes. + +Asbestos.--This curious mineral would not strike a native as being +of value. + +All I can say about it is that at the Madrid Exhibition of 1887 a +specimen of this substance was shown by the Civil Governor of Ilocos +Norte as having been found in that province. + +Yellow Ochre is found in Batangas, Camarines, Albay, Leyte and Antique, +amongst other places. + +Kaolin is found in Manila, Batangas and Camarines Sur, and probably +in many other places. + +Marble of a yellowish colour has been quarried at Montalban. I +have used some of it, but found it full of faults, and not very +satisfactory. + +Plastic Clays for pottery and for making bricks and tiles abound. + +Mineral Waters.--As might be expected in a volcanic region, hot +springs and mineral waters of very varied constituents abound. + +I do not think that the analyses of these would interest the general +reader. + +I may say that I have derived great benefit from the hot-springs of +Los Banos on the lake, and greatly regretted that I could not remain +at the extraordinary vapour baths of Tibi near Tabaco. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +MANUFACTURES AND INDUSTRIES. + + Cigars and cigarettes--Textiles--Cotton--Ahaca--Jusi--Rengue--Nipis + --Saguran--Sinamay--Guingon--Silk handkerchiefs--Pina--Cordage-- + Bayones--Esteras--Baskets--Lager beer--Alcohol--Wood oils and + resins--Essence of Ylang-ilang--Salt--Bricks--Tiles--Cooking-pots-- + Pilones--Ollas--Embroidery--Goldsmiths' and silversmiths' work-- + Salacots--Cocoa-nut oil--Saddles and harness--Carromatas--Carriages + --Schooners--Launches--Lorchas--Cascos--Pontines--Bangcas--Engines + and boilers--Furniture--Fireworks--Lanterns--Brass Castings--Fish + breeding--Drying sugar--Baling hemp--Repacking wet sugar--Packing + tobacco and cigars--Oppressive tax on industries--Great future for + manufactures--Abundant labour--Exceptional intelligence. + + +The manufactures of the Philippines, such as they are, have been +mentioned when describing the different tribes or peoples and only +a summary is necessary here. + +The making of cigars and cigarettes employs probably 30,000 people in +the Province of Manila, the vast majority being women. But the best +cigars are made by men who have been trained under skilled operatives +brought from Havana. + +A vast improvement has taken place since the Government monopoly has +been abolished, and now the Manila cigars are as well-made and are +put up in as tastefully decorated boxes as the Havanas. + +Cigarettes are now largely made by machines; the Compania de Tabacos +de Filipinas having rows of them in their factories. + +Textiles are made in hand-looms all over the Archipelago by the women +in their spare time. + +But in certain Provinces large numbers of women are regularly employed +at the loom-working for those who make a business of it. In Ilocos and +Union very excellent coverlets, sheets, serviettes, handkerchiefs and +towels are woven from cotton, as well as the fabrics called abaca, +jusi or rengue, nipis, saguran, sinamay and guingon. This last is +very suitable for military or naval uniforms; it is a blue cotton +cloth similar to what sailors call dungaree. + +In some of the towns of Pampanga and Bulacan, notably in Baliuag +where the people are specially clever and industrious, excellent silk +handkerchiefs are woven. In Camarines and Albay the fabrics of abaca +are more commonly woven, and in Cebu the women are accustomed to work +at the loom. + +But it is from Ilo-ilo and neighbourhood that a very large trade is +done with the other islands in many kinds of textiles. There also the +Visayas work industriously at it as a trade and produce most beautiful +fabrics of pina, silk, cotton, and abaca, as well as the cheaper sorts +for the use of the working classes. In some of the mixed materials a +beautiful effect is produced by running stripes of silk, either white +or of the most brilliant colours, lengthways through the piece. I +have sent some of these jusi dress fabrics to ladies in England and +they have been greatly appreciated when made up by a bonne faiseuse. + +They are very suitable for wearing in the Philippines or elsewhere +in the tropics, being light and gauzy. This material, as well as +some of the other fine gauzy fabrics, takes a long time to make in +a hand-loom, the advance is imperceptible. I should like to put some +of the calumniators of the Filipinos to work a hand-loom and make a +dress-length of jusi. I think every one would recant before he had +made a yard. + +At the Philippine Exhibition of 1887 there were more than three hundred +exhibitors of textiles, and one of them, the Local Board of Namaypacan +in the Province of Union, showed one hundred and forty-five different +kinds of cloths. + +There are several rope-works at Manila and the material used is abaca, +the ropes produced are equal to any to be had anywhere. + +In Camarines Sur both harness and hammocks are made from this material. + +In the Provinces ropes are made of cabo-negro, a black fibre from the +wild palm, said to be indestructible; of buri, of fibre from the anabo, +of the bark of the lapuit, and of rattan. Bayones or sacks for sugar, +esteras or sleeping mats, hats and cigar cases, and baskets of all +sorts, are made at different places and from the commonest up to the +very finest. That called the Tampipi is now regularly kept in stock +in London, and is very handy for travelling. + +There is a lager beer brewery in Manila that must have piled up money +since the American garrison arrived. + +Alcohol is distilled both from sugar and from the juice of the +nipa-palm (Nipa fructicans). + +The oils and resins of Ilocos have been mentioned when describing the +Ilocanos; they are not exported, finding a ready market in the country. + +Essence of Ylang-ylang is distilled in Manila and other towns; it +used to fetch formerly 1000 francs per kilogramme. + +Salt is made at many places between Paranaque and Cavite. + +Bricks, tiles, cooking pots [bangas], stoves [calanes], sugar moulds +[pilones], and draining pots for the pilones [ollas], are made in +many provinces. + +The industry of the women is also shown by the very beautiful +embroideries of all sorts, either in white or coloured silks or in +gold or silver. Some of this latter work, however, is done by men. + +In some cases they introduce seed-pearls or brilliant fish-scales in +their work. The slippers worn by the women on grand occasions are +often works of art, being richly embroidered in silver and gold on +cherry coloured velvet. + +Some notable pieces of goldsmiths' and silversmiths' work have been +done in Manila, and in the provinces some of the natives carve bolo +handles and other articles out of buffalo horn and mount them in +silver with much taste. + +The salacots, or native hats, are beautifully woven by hand from +narrow strips of a cane called nito [lygodium], and the headmen have +them ornamented with many pieces of repousse silver (see Illustration). + +Cocoa-nut oil is expressed in the province of the Laguna, in Manila +and other places. Soap of the ordinary kind is manufactured from it. + +Saddles and harness are made in all the leading towns, and the ordinary +country vehicle, the carromata, is made in the chief towns of provinces +and some others; but some of the components, such as the springs, +and axle-arms and boxes are imported. But in Manila really elegant +carriages are constructed, the leather for the hoods, the cloth for +the linings, the lamps, as well as a good deal of the ironwork, being, +however imported. + +In former years large frigates have been built, armed, and fitted out +at Cavite and other ports, but at present the ship-building industry +is in decadence, and the shipwrights capable of directing so important +a job have died out. The increasing scarcity and high price of timber +is now a difficulty, and sailing vessels are in little demand. Small +steamers and launches are now built, but larger steamers are ordered +from Hong Kong or Singapore, or, in case of vessels well able to make +the passage, the order goes to England. + +The native craft called lorchas, pailebotes, pontines, barotos, paraos, +cascos, guilalos, barangayanes, bangcas, vintas and salisipanes are +still built in large numbers. The last are very light and fast craft +used by the Moros on their piratical expeditions. + +Engines and boilers for steam launches are made in Manila, church +bells are cast of a considerable size; iron castings are also made. + +Amongst the miscellaneous articles manufactured are all sorts of +household furniture, fireworks and lanterns. Dentists, painters, +sculptors and photographers all practise their trades. + +There is no doubt that the Filipinos have learnt a certain amount +from the Spaniards as regards their manufactures; but, on careful +consideration, I think they have learnt more from the Chinese. Their +first sugar-mills were Chinese and had granite rollers, and from them +they learnt the trick that many a moulder might not know, of casting +their sugar-pans in a red-hot mould and cooling slowly and so getting +the metal extremely thin yet free from defects. The casting of brass +cannon and of church bells has been learnt from them, and doubtless +they taught the Igorrotes how to reduce the copper ores and to refine +that metal. Again, the breeding of fish, an important business near +Manila, and the manufacture of salt round about Bacoor comes from +them. I am not sure whether the hand-loom in general use is of the +Chinese pattern, but I think so. + +Distilling the nipa juice is certainly a Chinese industry, as also +the preparation of sugar for export. This is done in establishments +called farderias, and is necessary for all sugar made in pilones +or moulds. The procedure is described under the head of Pampangos, +and an illustration is given of the process of drying the sugar on +mats in the sun. + +Many native men and women and numbers of Chinese coolies are employed +in Manila, Ilo-ilo, and Cebu in preparing produce for shipment. + +The hemp used to come up from the provinces loose or merely twisted +into rolls to be pressed into bales at the shipping ports, but of +late years several presses have been erected at the hemp ports in +Southern Luzon and on the smaller islands. + +There are a number of hemp-presses in Manila, each requiring about +sixty coolies to work it, and one or two clerks to attend to the +sorting and weighing. + +They were paid so much per bale pressed. + +Steam, or hydraulic presses, would long ago have been substituted but +for the fact that the clerks or personeros were each allowed one or +two deadheads on the pay list, and this was so profitable to them +that they strongly opposed any changes, and none of the merchants +cared to take the risk of the innovations. + +Two presses were set in line, astride a pair of flat rails, a small +one called the Bito-bito for the first pressure on the pile of hemp, +and the large one to squeeze down the bale to its proper size. + +They were simply screw presses having hardwood frames set deep into +massive stone foundations and surrounded by a granite pavement. + +A pair of these presses, i.e., a Bito-bito and a press erected in +Manila under my direction in 1888, cost $4400, the woodwork foundation +and pavement costing $2850, and the screws, nuts, capstan-heads, +etc., costing $1550. The small press had a screw 4 inches diameter +and 6 feet long, and was worked by two or four men. The large press +had a screw 8 1/4 inches diameter, and 12 feet long. + +Both screws worked in deep gun-metal nuts and had capstan-heads. When +the large press was near the end of its travel the capstan bars +were manned by forty coolies putting out their utmost strength and +shouting to encourage each other as they tramped round on the upper +floor keeping step. + +The turn out was about 250 bales from daylight to dark. Each bale +weighed 2 piculs, say 280 lbs., or eight to the English ton. The +bales should measure 10 cubic feet, that is a density of 28 lbs. per +cubic foot. The hemp could be pressed into a smaller volume, but it +is asserted that the fibre would be seriously damaged. Sometimes from +careless pressing the bales measure 12 cubic feet. They swell after +leaving the press and after being moved. + +At the date I have mentioned, the charge for screwage was 50 cents +per picul, but it has been raised since then. + +Dry sugar was exported in its original bags, and loading and shipping +cost 121/2 cents per picul. Wet sugar usually required repacking for +export, and the charge for discharging the coaster and rebagging was +171/2 cents per picul, as well as 121/2 cents for loading and shipping. + +It lost 21/2 per cent. in weight in repacking and 10 per cent. during +the voyage in sailing vessel to Europe or America. So that altogether +one-eighth of the total was lost to the shipper, and there was a +good perquisite to the skipper or mate in pumping the molasses out +of the bilges. + +The repacking was usually done by natives, and the old mat bags +scraped by women who receive half the sugar they save. The mats are +sold to the distillers and are thrown into their fermenting vats, +to assist in the manufacture of pure Glenlivat or Bourbon whisky, +Jamaica rum or Hollands gin. + +In 1891 I saw on board a steamer just arrived from Antwerp hundreds +of cases containing empty gin bottles packed in juniper husk, the +labels and capsules bearing the marks of genuine Hollands. + +They were consigned to one of the Manila distillers, and must have +enabled that respectable firm to make a large profit by selling their +cheap spirit as imported liquor. + +Undoubtedly the manufactures and industries of the Philippines are in +a primitive condition, but the tax called the Contribucion Industrial +has discouraged improvements, for as soon as any improved machinery +or apparatus was adopted, the tax-gatherer came down upon the works +for an increased tax. Thus any sort of works employing a steam-engine +would be charged at a higher rate. This tax, if it cannot be abolished, +should be reformed. + +There is a great future before the manufactures of the Philippines, +for the people are industrious, exceptionally intelligent, painstaking +and of an artistic temperament, so that an ample supply of labour is +always available for any light work if reasonably remunerated. They +will not need much teaching, and only require tactful treatment to +make most satisfactory operatives. + + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROSPECTS. + + Philippines not a poor man's country--Oscar F. Williams' letter--No + occupation for white mechanics--American merchants unsuccessful + in the East--Difficulties of living amongst Malays--Inevitable + quarrels--Unsuitable climate--The Mali-mali or Sakit-latah--The + Traspaso de hambre--Chiflados--Wreck of the nervous system--Effects + of abuse of alcohol--Capital the necessity--Banks--Advances to + cultivators--To timber cutters--To gold miners--Central sugar + factories--Paper-mills--Rice-mills--Cotton-mills--Saw-mills--Coasting + steamers--Railway from Manila to Batangas--From Siniloan to the + Pacific--Survey for ship canal--Bishop Gainzas' project--Tramways + for Luzon and Panay--Small steamers for Mindanao--Chief prospect + is agriculture. + + +The commercial prospects of the Islands are great, even if we do not +instantly take for gospel the fairy tales we are told about Manila +becoming the centre of the trade of the Pacific. There can be no +doubt that if peace and an honest administration can be secured, +capital will be attracted and considerable increase in the export of +hemp, tobacco, and sugar will gradually take place as fresh land can +be cleared and planted. As I have elsewhere said, the Philippines +in energetic and skilful hands will soon yield up the store of gold +which the poor Spaniards have been so mercilessly abused for leaving +behind them. But the Philippines are not and never will be a country +for the poor white man. + +A white man cannot labour there without great danger to his health. He +cannot compete with the native or Chinese mechanic, in fact he is not +wanted there at all. For my part, I would never employ a white man +there as a labourer or mechanic, if I could help it, more especially +an Englishman or an American, for I know from experience what the +result would be. As foreman or overseer a white man may be better, +according to his skill and character. + +Now let me, as soon as possible, expose the absurdity of a mischievous +letter, which I fear may already have done much harm, but I hope my +warning may do something to counteract its effects. I quote from the +Blue Book so often mentioned: pp. 330-1. + + + +Mr. Williams to Mr. Day. + +U. S. S. Baltimore, Manila Bay, +July 2nd, 1898. + +Sir, + +* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * + +If long occupation or possession on the part of our government +be considered, I believe early and strenuous efforts should be +made to bring here from the United States men and women of many +occupations--mechanics, teachers, ministers, ship-builders, merchants, +electricians, plumbers, druggists, doctors, dentists, carriage and +harness makers, stenographers, type-writers, photographers, tailors, +blacksmiths, and agents for exporting, and to introduce American +products natural and artificial of many classes. To all such I pledge +every aid, and now is the time to start. Good government will be +easier the greater the influx of Americans. + +My despatches have referred to our present percentage of export +trade. If now our exports come here as intestate, duty free, we have +practical control of Philippine trade, which now amounts to many +millions, and because of ingrafting of American energy and methods +upon the fabulous natural and productive wealth of these islands, +can and probably will be multiplied by twenty during the coming +twenty years. All this increment should come to our nation and not +go to any other. + +* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * + +I hope for an influx this year of 10,000 ambitious Americans, and +all can live well, become enriched.... + + +(Signed) O. F. Williams, +Consul. + + + +I venture to say that the man who wrote this astonishing letter, +taking upon himself the responsibility of advising "early and strenuous +efforts" to send from the United States thousands of men and women +of many occupations to Manila, and of assuring them that "all could +live well and become enriched," knew nothing at all about the state +of the Philippine Islands, and is a most unsafe guide. + +What on earth would all these tradespeople find to do in the +Islands? Where could they be housed? How could they be supported? If +they came in numbers, the doctors and druggists might indeed find +full employment prescribing and making up medicine for the many +sufferers from tropical ailments, especially the typhoid fevers, +that would attack the unacclimatised immigrants and the ministers +could earn their daily bread by reading the Burial Service, whilst +the type-writers would be busy typing letters to friends at home +announcing the deaths that occurred; and warning them against +coming to starve in Manila. But I defy any one to explain how the +ship-builders, electricians, plumbers, tailors and blacksmiths are +to make a living. As regards merchants or agents for exporting, +I may say that Americans have not been very successful in Manila in +this capacity. The great and influential firm of Russell & Sturgis +came to grief through over-trading, and another noteworthy firm, +Messrs. Peele, Hubbell & Co. failed from rash speculations in sugar, +and not from any persecutions by the Spanish authorities, as has been +falsely stated in a magazine article. I speak with knowledge on the +matter, as I was well acquainted with this firm, having been their +Consulting Engineer for the construction of the Slipway at Canacao for +which they were agents. I think it only right to say that the gentlemen +who were heads of these American firms were worthy upholders of the +high reputation of their country. They failed, but no imputations +rested on the characters of the partners, and I have always heard +them spoken of with great respect, especially amongst the natives. + +Those of them who were personally known to me were men who invariably +showed every courtesy and consideration to all who came in contact with +them, whether Europeans or natives. Notwithstanding their misfortunes +they were a credit to their country, and they did a good deal towards +the development of the trade of the Philippines. + +I believe that the estates of Russell & Sturgis when realised, +paid all their liabilities in full, and besides left considerable +pickings in the hands of the liquidators and their friends. Two or +three firms were built up out of their ruins. Some Chinese half-castes +and natives had received heavy advances from this firm, especially +about Molo and Yloilo. One well-known individual had received $60,000, +and when summoned before the court he claimed the benefit of the 'Laws +of the Indies,' by which his liability was limited to $5. The judge, +however, ordered him to repay the principal at the rate of a dollar +a month! I had this information from the judge himself. + +Curiously enough, American merchants have been equally unsuccessful +in other parts of the Far East. Many will remember the failure of +Messrs. Oliphant & Co., the great China merchants, agents for the +American Board of Missions, [16] notwithstanding their desperate effort +to retrieve their position by reviving the coolie trade with Peru, and +in later days Messrs. Russell & Co. of Hong Kong also came to grief. + +I can give no explanation of the reasons for these four great failures, +but I conjecture that all these firms were in too much of a hurry, +and tried to "hustle the East." Yet in face of this calamitous +experience, Oscar F. Williams advises more to come, "pledges every +aid," and predicts that "trade can, and probably will, be multiplied +by twenty during the coming twenty years." + +For my part, I should think it great progress if the exports and +imports of the Philippines could be doubled in twenty years. The +idea of sending plumbers to Manila where lead pipes are not used, +is a comicality only matched by the suggestion that tailors are +wanted amongst a population dressed in cotton shirts and trousers, +and where the white people wear veranda-made white duck suits. + +Both notions are more suitable for a comic opera than for an official +document. + +There is only one more paragraph in this letter that I need comment on. + +Mr. Williams says: "Good government will be easier, the greater the +influx of Americans." + +To those who know the East there is no necessity to argue on this +point. I therefore state dogmatically that the presence of white +settlers or working people in the Islands would add enormously to +the difficulties of government. This is my experience, and during +the Spanish Administration it was generally admitted to be the case. + +In British India the Government does not in the least degree favour the +immigration of British workmen. The only people who are recognised as +useful to that country are capitalists and directors of Agricultural +or Industrial enterprises. + +A large number of American mechanics turned loose amongst the +population would infallibly, by their contempt for native customs, +and their disregard of native feeling, become an everlasting source +of strife and vexation. Impartial justice between the parties would +be unattainable; the whites would not submit to be judged by a native +magistrate, and the result would be a war of races. + +It may be taken as probable that there is no crime, however heinous, +that could be committed by an American upon a native, that would +involve the execution of the death penalty on the criminal. [17] On +the other hand, I can quite believe that natives laying their hands +upon Americans, whatever the provocation, would be promptly hanged, +if they were not shot down upon the spot. The natives, it should +be remembered, are revengeful, and will bide their time; either to +use the bolo upon one who has offended them, to burn down his house, +set fire to his crop, or put a crow-bar in amongst his machinery. I +fear that American brusqueness and impatience would often lead to +these savage reprisals. + +I think, therefore, that the American Administration of the Philippines +should be empowered to prevent or regulate the immigration of +impecunious Americans or Europeans whose presence in the Islands +must be extremely prejudicial to the much-desired pacification. No, +the poor white is not wanted in the Islands, he would be a curse, and +a residence there would be a curse to him. He would decay morally, +mentally, and physically. The gorgeous East not only deteriorates +the liver, but where a white man lives long amongst natives, he +suffers a gradual but complete break-up of the nervous system. This +peculiarity manifests itself amongst the natives of the Far East +in the curious nervous disorder which is called mali-mali in the +Philippines and sakit-latah amongst the Malays of the Peninsula and +Java. It seems to be a weakening of the will, and on being startled, +the sufferer entirely loses self-control and imitates the movements +of any person who attracts his attention. It is more prevalent amongst +women than men. I remember being at a performance of Chiarini's Circus +in Manila, when General Weyler and his wife were present. The clown +walked into the ring on his hands, and a skinny old woman amongst the +spectators who suffered from the mali-mali at once began to imitate +him with unpleasing results, and had to be forcibly restrained by +the scandalised bystanders. + +Running amok marks a climax of nerve disturbance, when the sufferer, +instead of committing suicide, prefers to die killing others. + +He usually obtains his wish, and is killed without compunction, +like a mad dog. + +Both natives and white residents are at times in rather a low +condition of health, and if after exercise or labour they fail to get +their meal at the proper time, when it comes they cannot eat. In its +lighter form this is called desgana or loss of appetite, but I have +seen natives collapse under such circumstances with severe headache +and chills. This more serious form is known as traspaso de hambre, +and is sometimes the precursor of fever and nervous prostration. + +The Roman Catholic Church has had the wisdom to recognise and make +allowance for the liability of residents and natives of the Philippines +to this serious disorder, and has relaxed the usual rules of fasting, +as being dangerous to health. + +Amongst the Europeans who have been long in the Islands, many are +said to be "chiflado," a term I can only render into English by the +slang word cracked. This occurs more particularly amongst those who +have been isolated amongst the natives. + +It is not easy to account for, but the fact is undeniable. I have +heard it ascribed to "telluric influence," but that is a wide and +vague expression. Perhaps the explanation may be found in the extreme +violence of the phenomena of nature. + +The frequent earthquakes, the almost continuous vibration of the soil, +the awe-inspiring volcanic eruptions, with their sooty black palls of +ash darkening the sky for days together, over hundreds of miles, the +frightful detonations, [18] the ear-splitting thunder, the devastating +rage of the typhoons, the saturated atmosphere of the rainy season, +and the hot dry winds of Lent, with the inevitable conflagrations, +combine with depressing surroundings and anxieties to wreck the nerves +of all but the strongest and most determined natures. If to all this +the white resident or sojourner in the Philippines adds the detestable +vice of intemperance, or even indulges in a liberal consumption of +spirits, then instead of merely shattering his nerves, he is likely +to become a raving maniac, for it takes much less whisky to bring on +delirium tremens there, than it does in a temperate climate. + +Long sojourn in some other lands appears to act in a different +manner. In tropical Africa it seems to be the moral balance that +is lost. The conscience is blunted if not destroyed, the veneer of +civilisation is stripped off, the white man reverts to savagery. The +senseless cruelties of Peters, Lothaire, Voulet, Chanoine, and of +some of the outlying officials of the Congo Free State are not mere +coincidences. They must be ascribed to one common cause, and that is +debasement by environment. The moral nature of a white man seems to +become contaminated by long isolation amongst savages as surely as +the physical health by living amongst lepers. + +If a poor white man wishes to sink to the level of a native, he has +only to marry a native woman, and his object will be fully attained in +a few years. But he will find it very much to his pecuniary interest, +for she will buy cheaper and sell dearer than he can, and will +manage his house and his business too, most economically. Some of her +relations will come and live with him, so that he will not feel lonely, +and a half-caste family will grow up round about him, talking the +dialect of their mother, which he, perhaps, does not understand. But if +the poor white man takes out a white wife, he will probably have the +pain and distress of seeing her fade away under the severity of the +climate, which his means do not permit him to alleviate. White women +suffer from the heat far more than men. Children cannot be properly +brought up there after the age of twelve. They must either be sent +home to be educated, or allowed to deteriorate and grow up inferior +to their parents in health, strength, and moral fibre. When I think +of these things, I feel amazed at Oscar F. Williams' presumption +in writing that letter. I hope that not many have taken his advice, +and that any who have will call on him to fulfil his imprudent pledges. + +However, now I have done with the poor white man. Capital is the +great necessity of the Philippines. The labour is there if Generals +Otis and McArthur have left any natives alive. + +More banks are wanted. At present there are three important banks in +Manila, and two of them have branches in Yloilo. The Hong Kong and +Shanghai Banking Corporation has the largest resources; next comes the +Chartered Bank of India, Australasia, and China, and lastly the Banco +Espanol Filipino. The first two give the most perfect facilities for +business. I was only interested in importing, but certainly nothing +more could be desired by an importer than their system of opening +credits against shipping documents; for practically he only had to +pay for the goods when they arrived in Manila. All their business +was done in the most expeditious manner, and I could suggest no +improvement on their methods. + +The Banco Espanol Filipino was in a measure under government control, +its procedure was consequently very slow, and its ways those of +bygone days. + +These banks, however, did not advance money to cultivators to clear +lands, plant crops, or erect machinery, as the returns are too slow, +not to say doubtful. Yet this is what is wanted; banks in Manila +and the chief towns that will advance money for such purposes, under +the advice of experts personally acquainted with the cultivators and +their lands. Such a business certainly requires great intelligence +and discernment. + +Still there is a future for such banks, for agriculturists have to +pay enormous rates of interest and commissions for money to carry +on their plantations. Such banks could also finance timber-cutters, +gold miners, and other bona fide workers. + +Amongst the enterprises I have recommended when writing about +the Pampangos, and others engaged in planting sugar-cane, is the +establishment of central sugar factories in suitable localities. Such +undertakings, judiciously administered, would have every prospect +of success. + +There is also room for paper-mills, rice-mills, cotton-mills, +and saw-mills, but all these, especially the last, need careful +consideration for the selection of the locality where they are to be +placed. The manufacture of various kinds of leather could be greatly +extended and improved. There is employment for more coasting steamers +and schooners. The latter and hulls of small steamers can be built +in the country from the native timber. + +Although the development of means of communication is all-important, +it is evident from the configuration of the Archipelago that no great +length of railway is required, nor would it pay to construct them +in so mountainous a country. Water-carriage is all-important. In +Luzon a line of railway might be made from Manila to Batangas with +a branch into the Laguna province. It would traverse a fertile and +thickly-populated country. + +A short line of railway or electric tramway from near Siniloan on +the Lake to the Pacific would be most useful in giving access to and +developing the eastern coast, or contra costa, as it is called. This +coast is very backward in every way, indeed from Baler to Punta +Escarpada on its extreme north, it is quite unknown, and remains in the +possession of the Dumagas, an aboriginal tribe of heathen savages of +low type, just as at the time of the Spanish conquest; and it would be +worth while to study the question of cutting a ship-canal through this +narrow strip of land if the mouth could be protected from the Pacific +surf. There is also Bishop Gainza's project that might be revived, that +of cutting a canal for country craft from Pasacao in Camarines Sur to +the River Vicol. In Negros and Panay some short lines from the ports +through the sugar lands might pay if constructed very economically. + +Tramways between populous towns not far apart in Luzon and Panay +would probably pay very well, as the people are fond of visiting +their friends. + +It will probably be many years before Mindanao will be in a position +to warrant the construction of railways. The island has relapsed into +barbarism as a consequence of the withdrawal of the Spanish garrisons +and detachments, and of nearly all the Jesuit missionaries. + +It could, however, give employment to a flotilla of small steamers +and sailing vessels on its northern and southern coasts. + +Such is my opinion in brief upon the possibilities of the development +of industries and commerce. + +That the commerce of the islands, now mainly British, will ultimately +pass into American hands, can scarcely be doubted. They are not yet +firmly seated in power, but their attitude to British and foreign firms +is already sufficiently pronounced to allow an observant onlooker to +make a forecast of what it will be later on. + +Dominating Cuba, holding the Philippines, the Sandwich Islands and +Porto Rico, the Americans will control the cane sugar trade, the +tobacco trade, and the hemp trade, in addition to the vast branches +of production they now hold in their hands. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +LIFE IN MANILA. + +(A CHAPTER FOR THE LADIES.) + + Climate--Seasons--Terrible Month of May--Hot + winds--Longing for rain--Burst of the monsoon--The + Alimoom--Never sleep on the ground floor--Dress--Manila + houses--Furniture--Mosquitoes--Baths--Gogo--Servants--Wages + in 1892--The Maestro cook--The guild + of cooks--The Mayordomo--Household budget, + 1892--Diet--Drinks--Ponies--Carriage a necessity for a lady--The + garden--Flowers--Shops--Pedlars--Amusements--Necessity of access + to the hills--Good Friday in Manila. + + + +Climate. + +The average shade temperature of Manila all the year round is 83 deg. +Fahrenheit. The highest I have ever seen there was 96 deg., at 2 P.M. in +May, and the lowest 68 deg., at 6 A.M. in December. + +The temperature of the sea-water on the shore at Malate is usually +82 deg., and that of well-water about the same. The water-pipes from the +reservoir at San Juan del Monte are not buried, but are carried on an +embankment. They are partly shaded from the sun by clumps of bamboos, +but on a hot afternoon the water sometimes attains a temperature +of 90 deg. + +Those figures are high, yet the heat is mitigated by the sea-breeze, +and the nights are usually cool enough to allow a refreshing sleep. + +The climate of Manila is not harmful to the constitutions of healthy +Europeans or Americans between twenty and fifty years of age, provided +they at once adopt a mode of life suitable to the country, and in +clothing, diet, habits and recreations, adapt themselves to the new +conditions. On the other hand, I apprehend that, for persons of either +sex over fifty who have had no previous experience of life in the +tropics, there will be great difficulty in acclimatising themselves, +and the mortality amongst such will be abnormal. Ladies' complexions +will not suffer more than if they lived in a steam-heated house in +Harlem, New York. + +In all this part of the world the weather depends upon the +monsoons. These blow with great regularity over the ocean, six months +from the north-east and six months from the south-west. Their action +on any particular place is, however, modified by the situation of +mountains with regard to that place. The changes of the monsoon occur +in April--May and October--November. It is the south-west monsoon +that brings rain to Manila, and it has a fine stretch of the China +Sea to career over, all the way, in fact, from the shores of Sumatra, +till it drives the billows tumbling and foaming into the bay. + +The typhoons form far out in the Pacific near the region of the Western +Carolines, and, whirling round the opposite way to the hands of a +watch, they proceed on a curve that may strike Luzon, or, perhaps, +go on for a thousand miles or more, and carry death and destruction +to the fishermen of Fo Kien or Japan. + +When a typhoon passes clear, the usual result is several days of +continuous heavy rain, but the air is cleared and purified. But should +the vortex of the cyclone pass over your residence, you will not be +likely to forget it for the rest of your life. + +The year in Manila may be roughly divided into three seasons:-- + + + Rainy Season--June, July, August, September. In these four months + about 100 inches of rain may fall, and 20 more in the rest of + the year. + Cool Season (so-called)--October, November, December, January. + Hot Season--February, March, April, May. + + +May is the terrible month of the year, the month of fevers and +funerals. Let all who can, leave Manila before this month arrives. + +Hot, dry winds, dust-laden, pervade the houses, and have such an +effect even on well-seasoned hardwoods, that tables, wardrobes and +door-panels, split from end to end, or from top to bottom, with a +noise like a pistol-shot, leaving cracks a quarter of an inch wide +that gape till the rainy season restores the moisture. + +At this time the heat is at its maximum, and all nature gasps or +fades. Not a drop of rain has fallen for months, the roads are inches +deep in dust, the rivers nearly stagnant, and covered with a green +scum, the whole country quite brown, the vegetation burnt up by the +sun. Only the cockroaches rejoice; at this season they fly at night, +and you may have a few fine specimens of the Blatta Orientalis alight +on your face, or on the back of your neck, should you doze a moment +on your long chair. Personally, I am proof against a good deal, but +must confess that the hairy feet of a cockroach on my face or neck +make me shudder. + +As the month draws to a close, every afternoon the storm-clouds +gather over the Antipolo Hills. All Manila, lying in the glare and +dust, prays for rain. Overhead, a sky like burnished copper darts +down heat-rays that penetrate the roofs, and literally strike the +heads of the occupants. The dry air is surcharged with electricity to +such an extent that every living thing feels the powerful influence; +the sweetest natures become irritable, and quite ready to admit that +"this is, indeed, a beastly world." + +The nervous system suffers, the newspapers relate cases of stabbing, +or even running amok amongst the natives, and perhaps some suicides +occur. If, as not unfrequently happens, you should at this time +receive an invitation to the funeral of a friend or compatriot just +deceased from typhoid fever, and to be buried within twenty-four +hours, you will begin to wonder whether Manila is good enough for +you. Day after day the rain-clouds disperse amidst the rumbling of +a distant thunder-storm, and day after day do longing eyes watch for +their coming, and hope for the cloud-burst. + +At last, when the limit of endurance seems reached, a cool breath of +air heralds the downpour. The leaves rustle, the feathery bamboos +incline before the blast, the sky darkens, the cataracts of heaven +are loosed, and the water tumbles down in torrents. + +Now keep yourself in the house, and on the upper floor, and let the +water from your roofs run to waste. The natives, usually so careless of +a wetting, avoid bathing or wetting themselves with the first waters, +which they consider dangerous, and not without reason. The exhalations +from the newly-wetted earth are to be avoided; these earth-vapours are +called by the Tagals Alimoom. Now the dust is washed off the roofs and +leaves, and in three days the fallows are covered with small shoots +of grass or weeds, the maidenhair ferns and mosses spring from every +stone wall. The reign of dust is over; the reign of mud begins. Now the +frogs inaugurate their nightly concerts. After a time you get used to +the deafening noise; you do not even hear it. But they suddenly stop, +and you are astonished at the stillness. + +As the rainy season proceeds, the air is almost entirely saturated +with moisture: the saturation in August sometimes exceeds 97 per cent. + +Now green mould will grow upon your boots and other leather articles, +if left a couple of days without cleaning. Everything feels damp, +and it is a good plan to air your wardrobe round a brazier of red-hot +charcoal. + +You will have noticed that the natives universally build their houses +upon piles. So do the Malays all over the Far East. This is the +expression of the accumulated experience of centuries, and you will +be wise to conform to it by never sleeping on the ground floor. To +a dweller in the Philippines this tip is worth the price of the book. + + + +Dress. + +The dress of both sexes should be as light as possible; my advice is, +wear as little as possible, and wear it thin and loose. The access +of air to the body is necessary to carry off the perspiration, some +of which is in the form of vapour. + +Ladies will find the greatest comfort in the simple but elegant +dresses called batas, which are princess robes made of embroidered +cambric or lawn. The materials for these dresses can be purchased in +Manila, and excellent sempstresses and embroiderers can be hired at +moderate wages, and the dresses made in the house. For the evenings, +thin silk or muslin dresses, cut low, are most suitable. + +Men who are young and robust should wear white duck jackets, +and trousers without waistcoats. Elderly men, or those subject to +rheumatism, will do well to wear thin flannel suits. The material +for these can be got in Hong Kong. For travelling and shooting, +unbleached linen, guingon, or rayadillo, is the best material, +made into Norfolk jackets and pantaloons. I always found white or +brown leather shoes the best wear, and canvas shooting-boots capped +and strapped with leather. A Panama hat, or a solar topee, is the +best head-wear. If one has to be much in the sun, a white umbrella, +lined with green, should be carried. Dress is not an expensive item +in Manila. Up to 1892, the washing for a whole family, with bed and +table-linen, could be done for $12 per month. + + + +Houses. + +Most of the older houses in Manila are of ample size, and well suited +to the climate, but some of the newer ones, built to the designs +of a Spanish architect, and having glass windows, are very hot and +uncomfortable. It is essential to live in a good-sized house, so +as to escape the heat by moving to a different part as the sun goes +round. Thus you will have your early breakfast in one corner of the +balcony; your tiffin, perhaps, on the ground floor; your tea in the +open corridor looking on the garden, and your dinner, at 7.30 P.M., +in the dining-room under the punkah. + +House-rent is paid monthly, and, up to 1892, a good detached house of +moderate size could be got in one of the best suburbs for $100 per +month, and for less in Santa Ana. Such a house would stand in its +own garden, and would have stables for several horses, and shelter +for one or two carriages. + +I understand that house-rent is now nearly doubled in consequence +of the American competition. From their lavish expenditure, we must +infer that the new-comers possess large private means in addition to +their salaries. + + + +Furniture. + +The furnishing of a tropical house is much simplified, because no +carpets or curtains are needed. The floors are of polished hardwood, +and they take a good deal of work to keep them in good order. A +few rugs can be put down here and there, if a little colour is +required. Where the floor is bad, Chinese matting can be laid down at +small expense. Some of the Mestizos import costly furniture, but few +of the European residents attempted to follow their example. Vienna +bent-wood furniture, with cane seats, was commonly used, and was very +suitable, also bamboo or rattan furniture, brought from China or made +in the country. Such things as wardrobes or bookcases should have +ring-bolts on each side for lashing to the walls. A child or grown +person might be killed by a heavy piece of furniture falling on it +during an earthquake. + +Furniture of all sorts is made in Manila of Red Narra, or other +wood, by Chinese cabinet-makers, who will work to purchasers' +requirements. Very excellent teak-wood furniture is made in Hong Kong +and Shanghai. + +The problem of furnishing a large house for a moderate sum, and making +it comfortable, and at the same time artistic and refined, is not a +difficult one, and has often been very satisfactorily solved in Manila. + +Large stoneware flower-pots and pedestals can be purchased in Manila, +and no more suitable ornament can be found than handsome palms, ferns, +or flowering plants, for halls, corridors, or reception rooms. + +The beds should be large, and have thin, hard mattresses and horse-hair +pillows stuffed rather hard. The coolest thing to lie upon is a fine +grass mat, or petate. Covering is seldom required. On the bed will +be seen a large bolster lying at right angles to the pillows, so as +to be parallel to the sleeper. The use of this is not apparent to +the newly-arrived Briton or American. This is the Abrazador, used +throughout the boundless East. + +The candidate for repose, whether on the hard bed, or harder floor +or deck, lies on his side, and rests his upper arm and leg on the +Abrazador, thus relieving his hip and shoulder from much of his +weight. He takes care to keep it a little way off his body to allow +the air to circulate. + +A mosquito-net must be fitted to every bed, but may not always be +required. In the sleeping-room there should be no curtains, and +the least possible amount of furniture, and, during the hot season, +the bed should stand in the middle of the room. It is advisable to +have no light in the bedroom, but good lights are a necessity in +the dressing-rooms. + +By being careful about this you will keep your bedroom free from +mosquitoes. Petroleum is commonly used in the Philippines for lighting, +and unless the lamps are of the best quality, and carefully trimmed, +there is considerable danger of accident. I used to keep some plants +in pots in each room so as to throw the earth over any oil that might +get alight. Whenever there was a shock of earthquake, I extinguished +the petroleum lamps, and lighted candles instead. And whenever we went +out to a dinner or dance, every petroleum lamp was extinguished, and +cocoanut-oil lights or candles substituted in case of an earthquake +whilst we were out. + +Frequent baths are indispensable to good health in Manila. Enormous +earthenware tubs, made in China, can be procured. These are placed +in the bath-room, and filled in the evening, so that the water gets +refreshingly cool during the night. It is not at all advisable to get +into the water, as the effect is not so good as dashing the water over +the head with a small bucket called a tabo. By using the water thus, +and rubbing the skin briskly with a towel, a reaction soon sets in, +and the bather feels quite invigorated. + +A bath of this kind when rising, and another before dressing for +dinner, will do much to mitigate the rigour of the climate. + +From several stories told me by friends recently returned from Manila, +it would seem that the Americans there, or some of them, at least, +are not sufficiently alive to the necessity of daily baths, but I +refrain from giving particulars. + +This seems strange when one remembers the profusion with which baths +are provided in all the modern hotels in the great cities of America. + +Now I must tell you about gogo. This is the dried bark of a creeper +that grows wild in the woods, and it is the finest thing possible to +keep your hair in order. + +There are several kinds of this plant, the three most commonly used +are gogo bayugo (Entada scandens Benth.); gogong casay (Peltophorum +ferrugineum Benth.); gogong paltaning (Albizzia saponaria Blum.). + +As washing the hair with gogo is one of the luxuries of the +Philippines, I shall describe how it is done. + +A servant pounds a piece of the stem and bark, and steeps it in a +basin, twisting and wringing it occasionally until the soluble part +has been extracted. He then adds to the liquor two or three limes, +squeezing the juice out, and soaking the peel. He also throws in +a handful of crushed citron-leaves, and strains the liquor through +muslin. + +The servant then ladles this over your head with a calabash, or +cocoa-nut shell, whilst you rub your hair with your hands. + +As the liquor is strongly alkaline, you must be careful to keep +your eyes closed until the head has been rinsed with water. Your +hair-wash is made fresh whenever you want it, and may cost from two +to three pence. + +The fragrance of the citron-leaves is delicious, and when you have +rinsed and dried your hair, you will find it as soft, as bright, and as +sweet-smelling as the costliest perfumes of Bond Street could make it. + + + +Servants. + +In the good old times we were well off for servants in Manila. They +flocked up from the provinces seeking places, and those employers +who took pains to enquire closely into the antecedents of applicants, +could almost ensure being well served. + +Englishmen paid good wages, and paid punctually, hence they could +command the best servants. + +Personally, I may say that I kept my servants for years--some nearly +the whole time I was in the islands. I had very little trouble with +any of them. There are people who say that they have no feeling, +but I remember that when I embarked with my family on leaving Manila, +my servants, on taking leave at the wharf, were convulsed with tears +at our departure. + +A family living comfortably in a good-sized house would require the +following servants:-- + + + Wages in 1892. + Dollars. + + Mayordomo, or steward, who would act as butler 8 per month. + Two houseboys, one would valet the master, the + other would trim lamps and pull the punkah, @ $6 12 per month. + Sempstress or maid to mistress 6 per month. + Gardener or coolie, would carry water for + baths, sweep and water 6 per month. + Coachman, would look after one pair of horses + and carriage 12 per month. + Food for six servants, @ $3 each 18 per month. + Maestro cook 18 per month. + -- + 80 + + +American competition for servants has more than doubled these rates +of pay. Cooks get $50 now. + +The house-boys and maid live in the house, and sleep on the floor, +with a grass mat and pillows. The mayordomo sometimes lives quite +near, being, perhaps, a married man. The coachman has his room by +the stables, and the gardener lives in the lodge, or in a small hut +in the garden. + +The maestro-cook does not usually sleep on the premises. He +arrives about 11 A.M., bearing two baskets depending from a pinga, +or palma-brava staff, resting on his shoulder. These baskets will +contain the day's marketing--eggs, fish, meat, chicken, salad, +tomatoes, bananas, firewood, and many other things. + +He promptly sets to work, and by twelve, or half-past, presents a +tiffin of three or four courses. + +His afternoon is devoted to preparing the more elaborate dinner due +at 7.30 P.M., when he will be ready to serve soup, fish, entrees, +a roast, a curry, and sweets, all conscientiously prepared, and sent +in hot. Most excellent curries are made in Manila, both by Chinamen +and natives. To my mind, the best are made from prawns, from crab, +or from frogs' legs. If you cannot eat anything else at dinner, +you can always make out with the curry. + +The dinner over, the cook asks for orders, and takes his departure, +to return with perfect punctuality the following day. + +The Chinese cooks all belong to a guild, which is a trades' union +and a co-operative society, and are bound to follow the rules. + +They would never dream of going into a market and bidding one against +the other. + +Their system is to assemble early every morning at the guild house, +and for each man to state his requirements. A scribe then tabulates the +orders--so many turkeys, so many chickens, etc., and two experienced +cooks are commissioned as buyers to go into the market and purchase +the whole lot, the provisions being afterwards fairly divided amongst +the members, each having his turn to get the choice pieces, such as +saddle of mutton, kidneys, etc. But if a dinner-party is contemplated, +the cook who has to prepare it gets the preference. + +They thus obtain everything much cheaper than the native cooks, even +after taking a good squeeze for themselves. I believe that they have +a fixed percentage which they charge, and would consider it dishonest +to take any more, whilst the guild would not approve of their taking +any less. + +If you send away your cook, the guild will settle for you who is +to replace him. All your culinary fancies will be well known to the +council of the guild, and they will pick out a man up to your standard. + +It was customary to give the cook a fixed sum per day to provide +tiffin and dinner, and this was paid once a week. + +I found that two dollars a day was sufficient to amply provide for my +family, and I could have one guest to tiffin or dinner without notice, +and be confident that the meal would be sufficient. In fact, this was +part of my agreement with the cook. By giving short notice, the dinner +could be extended for two or three people at an additional charge. + +The cook rendered no account of the money he received; but, if I +was not satisfied with the meals he provided, I admonished him, +and if he did not do better I discharged him. I may say, however, +that there was very seldom cause for complaint, for the Chinese are +thorough business men. + +When a dinner-party was given, the cook provided according to order, +and sent in his bill for the extras. There was no housekeeping, and +no need to order anything, and you knew exactly how much you were +spending weekly, and how much a dinner-party cost. + +The cleaning and polishing your plate and glass, the laying the +table, the tasteful adorning of it with variegated leaves, with +ferns or flowers, and the artistic folding of the serviettes, may +with confidence be left to the mayordomo's care; every detail will +be attended to down to the ylang-ylang flowers in the finger-bowls. + +With such servants as these, the mistress of the house, free from +domestic cares, may take her shower-bath, and, clad in Kabaya +and Sarong, await the moment when she must resume the garments of +civilisation, and receive her guests looking as fresh, in spite of +the thermometer, as if she had stepped out of a coupe in Piccadilly +or Fifth Avenue. Ladies used to the ministry of Irish Biddy or Aunt +Chloe ought to fancy themselves transported to heaven when they find +themselves at the head of a household in Manila. + +I append a note of household expenses for a family living moderately +in Manila in 1892. I suppose the cost has been doubled under American +rule. + + + +Household Budget in 1892. + +For a family of three adults and three children. + + + Mexican Dollars. + +House-rent per month 100 +Servants' wages and food per month 80 +Washing per month 12 +Forage and grain for two ponies per month 16 +Allowance to cook for market per month 60 +Extra for two dinner-parties of six or eight +guests each 20 +Bill at Almacen (grocery store) for groceries, +ordinary wines, spirits, and petroleum per month 65 +Bill at Botica (drug store) for soda water, ice +and various articles per month 20 +Case of champagne for dinner-parties per month 25 +Repairs to carriage, shoeing horses, materials +for cleaning stable, etc. per month 10 +Garden expenses--plants, tools, hose per month 5 +Subscriptions to clubs, telephone, newspapers, +and charities per month 20 +Tobacco and cigars per month 7 +Taxes on servants and horses per month 10 +Clothing for self and family per month 50 +Pocket money, entertainments, and sundries per month 100 + ----- + Per month 600 + + Say $7,200 per annum. + + + +Diet. + +For the benefit of Boston readers (if I should be lucky enough to +have any in that learned city), I may say that pork and beans is not +a suitable diet for a tropical country. I should also forbid the "New +England dinner," and roast goose, or sucking pig, stewed terrapin, +and pumpkin pie. A light diet of eggs or the excellent fish to be had +in Manila, chickens fattened on maize, beef or mutton, once a day, +and rice, vegetables and salad, with plenty of ripe fruit, according +to the season, is desirable. The fare can be diversified by oysters, +prawns, crabs, wild duck, snipe, and quail, all of which are cheap +and very good in the season. There are no pheasants in Luzon, but +the jungle cock (labuyao) is as good or better. + +In the tropics a good table is a necessity, for the appetite needs +tempting. Such a diet as I have mentioned will keep you in health, +especially if you are careful not to eat too much, but to eat of the +best. If you economise on your table you will have to spend the money +at the drug-store. Taboo pork, because--well, when you have been a +week or two in the country you will not need to ask why--Moses and +Mahomet knew what they were about. + +My remarks about drinks are intended for the men, as ladies do not +need any advice on this subject. In a tropical climate it is necessary +to be very careful in the use of spirits. + +Having lived for more than twenty-five years in the tropics, and +having kept my health remarkably well, I feel warranted in giving my +experience. I have made surveys, or directed works, in many climates, +exposed to all weathers, and I know that the very worst thing a man +can take, if he has to work or march in the sun, is spirits. There is +nothing that will predispose him to sunstroke as much as spirits. For +marching, walking, or shooting, in the sun, I know nothing like cold +tea without milk or sugar. It should be poured off the leaves after +infusing for two minutes. + +When you reach shelter you can take a lemon squash or a cagelada--this +is the juice of cageles (a kind of orange) with sugar and water--which +is a most cooling drink. Never take spirits to buck you up to your +work. Whatever spirits you drink, let it be after sunset. I am a +believer in drinking wine at meals; it makes me shudder to see people +drinking tea, lemonade, or milk, with their dinners, and laying up +for themselves torments from dyspepsia, for which they have to swallow +pills by the boxful. + + + +Ponies. + +There is a race of ponies in the islands that is descended from Spanish +and Arab horses, and owing to an absolutely haphazard breeding, the +size has diminished, although the symmetry has been preserved. Those +from Ilocos are the smallest, but they are the hardiest and most +spirited. + +A pair of ponies and a Victoria is an absolute necessity for a lady +in Manila, and I have little doubt that an American judge would +declare the "failure to provide" to be cruelty and grant a divorce +if applied for. + +Both harness and carriages are made in the city, but imported harness +can be had, better finished, at double the price. + +In my time a fine pair of ponies could be bought for $200 to $300; +a new Victoria for $500, and harness for $60. The cost of keeping a +pair of ponies was $16 per month, and a coachman $12 per month, food, +and livery. What the cost is now I have no information. + +The public carriages were not fit for a lady to use, though sometimes a +suitable one could be hired by the week or month from a livery stable. + +The ponies are wonderfully strong and sure-footed. I weigh over 200 +lbs., yet some of these ponies have carried me about all day over +rough ground without stumbling. They carry a lady beautifully, and +riding is the best form of exercise a lady can take. + + + +The Garden. + +The garden will be a great source of occupation to the mistress of +the house. If it is sheltered from the wind and supplied with water, +she can grow almost anything. And plants will come up quickly, too, +under the influence of the heat and moisture. + +There are nursery gardens at Pasay, where all sorts of plants and +seedlings can be obtained; in fact, these are hawked about morning +and evening. + +The so-called gardener rarely has much skill, but he will clean up +the garden and water it, and do what he is told. + +The most beautiful and delicate ferns can be grown, and +magnificent orchids got to flower, if they are well sheltered in +a mat-shed. Bananas and pines grow without trouble, and radishes, +salads, tomatoes, cucumbers, and melons, can be raised. + + + +Shops. + +You can get most things you want in Manila. The drug-stores are mostly +in German hands, but there is one English one where the usual English +articles can be got. + +There is an ample supply of wines, spirits, and preserved provisions +at the grocers, and the drapers keep on hand any quantity of silks, +muslins, and piece-goods, with all the necessary fixings. French and +German shoes are in plenty. + +The goods in the jewellers' shops and in the fancy bazaars are all of +a very florid style, to suit the gaudy taste of the wealthy Filipinos. + +Such piece-goods and haberdashery as are in common use are brought +round to the ladies at their own houses by Chinese hawkers, who, +having small expenses, sell remarkably cheap. + +They are always very civil and attentive, and will gladly get you +any article that they have not in stock at the moment. + +Ladies save going about in the heat and dust by purchasing from +these men. + + + +Amusements. + +The amusements for ladies were limited to riding, lawn-tennis, boating, +picnics, and frequent dances. I remember many delightful dances +in Manila. One was given to the officers of the U.S.S. Brooklyn, +and another to the U.S.S. Richmond. At the latter, the ladies were +in traje del pais, i.e., dressed as natives and mestizas. And very +handsome some of them looked. Now and again some theatrical company +would come over, mostly from Saigon. There were a good many dinner +parties given amongst the British community, and weekly receptions +at most of the principal houses, during the time I lived in Manila, +where you could get a little game of cards, dance, flirt, or take it +easy, just as you liked. + +The ladies very wisely took a rest from two to four, to be fresh for +the evening. The proper hour for calling was at 9 P.M. or 10 A.M. on +Sundays after High Mass. + +I knew several ladies, English and American, who look back upon a +term of years spent in Manila as the happiest in their lives. + +Children born in Manila can remain there without damage to their +health till ten or twelve years old, and after having spent a few +years at home are indistinguishable from children born and brought +up in England. + +The principal thing lacking in Manila is means of access to the hills +where people could go occasionally for a change and during the hot +season. I have little doubt that the Americans will provide this +before long. + +Manila was not without its frivolous element; but there was one +period of the year when all frivolities were suspended, and religious +observances monopolised the people's time. That was in Lent, and the +ceremonies culminated on Good Friday. + +The Very Noble and always Loyal City of Manila celebrates the +greatest day of the Christian year very devoutly. On foot, and robed +in black, its inhabitants high and low throng the churches and attend +the procession. + +All shops are closed, vehicular traffic is suspended, the ensigns +hang at half-mast, the yards of ships are crossed in saltire; not a +sound is heard. + +The capital and the whole of the civilised Philippines mark the +crucifixion of our Saviour by two days of devotion, of solemn +calm. Under Spanish rule a stately procession, attended by the highest +and the humblest, filed slowly through the silent streets, the Civil +Government, the Law, the Army, the Navy, the Municipality and the +Religious Orders, being represented by deputations in full dress, +who followed bare-headed the emblems of the faith in the presence of +an immense crowd of natives, who bent the knee and bowed the head in +homage to the crucified Saviour. + +I never failed to witness this imposing spectacle when in Manila, +and it was mortifying to me to remember that Good Friday in London +is nothing but a vulgar holiday, and that probably not one person out +of a hundred in its vast population realises in the least degree the +event that solemn fast is intended to commemorate. + +The death-like stillness of Good Friday remained unbroken till High +Mass was over on Saturday morning, when the cathedral bells rang out +a joyous peal, soon taken up by the bells of the numerous churches +in the city and all over the provinces. + +The ensigns were run up to the staff or peak, the yards were squared, +and royal salutes thundered out over land and sea, whilst clouds of +white smoke enveloped the moss-grown ramparts of the saluting battery, +and the useless, lumbering masts and spars of the flagship. Then +steam-whistles and sirens commenced their hideous din, the great doors +of the houses were thrown open, and hundreds of bare-backed ponies, +with half-naked grooms, issued at full gallop to the sea or river. + +Then Manila resumed its every-day life till the next Holy Thursday +came round. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +SPORT. + +(A CHAPTER FOR MEN.) + + The Jockey Club--Training--The races--An archbishop + presiding--The Totalisator or Pari Mutuel--The Manila + Club--Boating club--Rifle clubs--Shooting--Snipe--Wild + duck--Plover--Quail--Pigeons--Tabon--Labuyao, or jungle + cock--Pheasants--Deer--Wild pig--No sport in fishing. + + +Manila was not so badly off for sport as might be thought. The +pony-races, conducted under the auspices of the Jockey Club, excited +the greatest interest amongst all classes. + +The ponies underwent their training at the race-course in Santa Mesa, +and their owners and other members of the club were provided with +early breakfast there. The native grooms took as much interest in +the success of the pony they attended as the owner, and they backed +their favourite for all they were worth. + +Only members were allowed to ride, and the weights were remarkably +heavy for such small ponies. When the races came off, business was +almost suspended for three days, and all Manila appeared at the +race-course. There were sometimes two thousand vehicles and immense +crowds on foot. + +The ladies in their most resplendent toilettes were received by the +stewards, presented with elegantly-bound programmes, and conducted +to their places on the grand stand. + +Presently a military band would strike up the "Marcha Real," as the +Governor-General's equipage entered the enclosure, and that exalted +personage, dressed in black frock coat and silk hat, white trousers +and waistcoat, with the crimson silk sash of a general, just peeping +from under his waistcoat, was conducted to his box, followed by his +suite and the favoured persons invited to join his party. + +The highest authority in the country presided and handed the prizes to +the winning jockeys, who were brought up to him by the vice-president +of the club. But on an occasion when the Governor-General and Segundo +Cabo were absent, I witnessed the races which were presided over +by no less a personage than His Grace the Archbishop of Manila, +Fray Pedro Payo, in his archiepiscopal garments, and smoking a big +Havana cigar. The old gentleman enjoyed the sport and most graciously +presented the handsome prizes to the winners. + +Betting was conducted by the totalisator, or pari-mutuel, the bet +being five dollars, repeated as often as you liked. As I presume my +readers understand this system, I shall not describe it. The natives +bet amongst themselves to a considerable amount. + +Pavilions were erected by different clubs or bodies, and a +profuse hospitality characterised each day. Winners of large +silver cups usually filled them with champagne and passed them +round. Bets were made with the ladies as an excuse for giving them +presents. Dinner-parties were given in the evenings at private houses, +and there were dinners at the clubs. There were two race-meetings in +the year. No doubt this sport, temporarily interrupted by insurrection +and war, will again flourish when tranquillity prevails. + +There was a boating-club in connection with the British Club at +Nagtajan, now removed to Ermita, and some very good skiffs and boats +were available. There was a regatta and illuminated procession of +boats each year. + +Polo clubs and rifle clubs had a rather precarious existence, +except that the Swiss Rifle Club was well kept up, and there were +some excellent shots in it. There was a lawn tennis club, which had +ladies and gentlemen as members, and some very good games were played +there and valuable prizes given. + +Shooting was a favourite sport with many Englishmen and a few mestizos. + +Excellent snipe-shooting is to be had in all the paddy-fields around +Manila and the lake. But at San Pedro on the Pasig, there is a wide +expanse of rough ground with clumps of bushes, and it was here that +the most exciting sport was to be had, and it took some shooting +to get the birds as they flew across the openings between the +bushes. Snipe-shooting began in September, when the paddy was high +enough to give cover, and lasted to the end of November. The birds, +when they first arrived, were thin, but they soon put on flesh, and +by November were fat and in splendid condition for the table. There +is no better bird to be eaten anywhere than a Manila snipe. Bags of +eighty were sometimes made in a morning by two guns. + +Excellent wild-duck and teal-shooting was to be got on and around +the lake and on the Pinag de Candaba, and wherever there was a sheet +of water. When crossing the lake I have seen wild fowl resting on the +surface in such enormous numbers that they looked like sandbanks. They +are not easy to approach, but I have killed some by firing a rifle +into the flock. The crested-lapwing and the golden-plover are in +plenty, and on the seashores widgeon and curlew abound. Inland, on +the stubbles, there are plenty of quail. Pigeons of all sorts, sizes, +and colours, abound at all times, especially when the dap-dap tree +opens its large crimson blossoms. Some kinds of brush-turkeys, such +as the tabon, a bird (Megapodius cuningi) the size of a partridge, +that lays an egg as large as a goose egg and buries it in a mound of +gravel by the shore, are found. + +The labuyao, or jungle cock, is rare and not easy to shoot in a +sportsmanlike way, although a poacher could easily shoot them on a +moonlight night. + +In the Southern Islands some remarkable pheasants of most brilliant +plumage are to be found, and whilst in Palawan I obtained two good +specimens of the pavito real (Polyplectron Napoleonis), a very handsome +game bird with two sharp spurs on each leg. They are rather larger +than a partridge, but their fan-shaped tails have two rows of eyes +like a peacock's tail, there being four eyes in each feather. + +Deer and wild-pig abound, and can be shot within four hours' journey of +Manila by road. Round about Montalban is a good place for them. They +are plentiful at Jala-jala, on the lake at Porac in Pampanga, and +round about the Puerto Jamelo and Pico de Loro, at the mouth of Manila +Bay. In fact, they are found wherever there is cover and pasture for +them. The season is from December to April. + +The usual way is to go with a party of five or six guns and employ +some thirty native beaters, each bringing one or two dogs. + +The guns are stationed in suitable spots and the beaters and their +dogs, fetching a compass, extend their line and drive the game up to +the guns. This is rather an expensive amusement, as you have to pay +and feed the beaters and their dogs; but it is very good sport, and +in proceeding and returning to camp from two beats in the morning and +two in the afternoon, you got quite as much exercise as you want or as +is good for you. The venison and wild-pig is very good eating, but it +is difficult to get it to Manila fresh, whatever precautions you take. + +Taken all round, Luzon is well supplied with game, and may be +considered satisfactory from a sportsman's point of view. + +There is no sport to be had in fishing; in Luzon, so far as I know, +there are no game fish. When living on the banks of the Rio Grande, +near Macabebe, I noticed some natives taking fish at night by placing +a torch on the bow of a canoe, which was paddled by one man slowly +along near the bank, another man standing in the bow with a fish-spear +of three prongs, similar to the "grains" used in England. As the fish +came up to the light he struck at them with his spear and managed to +pick up a good many. + +This appeared good sport, and I arranged for a native to come for me +in a canoe with torch, and I borrowed a spear. We started off, but +there was some difficulty in standing up in a small, narrow canoe, +and darting the spear. My first stroke was a miss, the fish escaped; +my second, however, was all right, and I shook my catch off the spear +into the canoe, but the native shouted out, "Masamang ahas po!" (a +poisonous snake, sir) not forgetting to be polite even in that +somewhat urgent situation. The snake was wriggling towards me, but +I promptly picked him up again on the spear and threw him overboard, +much to my own relief and that of the Pampanga. + +It was one of those black and yellow water-snakes, reputed as +poisonous. That was enough fishing for me, and I remembered that I had +a particular appointment at home, and left fishing to professionals. + +Curiously enough, fish cannot be taken by the trawl, for a mestizo +got out a trawling steamer with gear, and men to handle it, and after +repeated trials in different places, had to give it up as a bad job. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +BRIEF GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF LUZON. + + Irregular shape--Harbours--Bays--Mountain ranges--Blank + spaces on maps--North-east coast unexplored--River and + valley of Cagayan--Central valley from Bay of Lingayen + to Bay of Manila--Rivers Agno, Chico, Grande--The Pinag of + Candaba--Project for draining--River Pasig--Laguna de Bay--Lake + of Taal--Scene of a cataclysm--Collapse of a volcanic cone 8000 + feet high--Black and frowning island of Mindoro--Worcester's pluck + and endurance--Placers of Camarines--River Bicol--The wondrous + purple cone of Mayon--Luxuriant vegetation. + + +The island of Luzon is of so irregular a shape that it cannot be +intelligibly described without the aid of a map. + +That part of it to the north and west of the isthmus of Tayabas lies +with its longitudinal axis due north and south, and has a fairly +even coast line, there being only two great indentations, the Bays of +Lingayen and Manila, both on the west coast. There are also on that +side and to the south the smaller bays of Subic, Balayan, Batangas, +and Tayabas. + +On the east coast of this northern part are the unimportant bays of +Palanan, Dilasac, Casiguran and Baler, besides the great bay of Lamon, +sheltered by the islands Calbalete and Alabat. + +But in the remainder of Luzon, from the isthmus of Tayabas eastward +and southward, the coast line is most irregular, and the width much +reduced. A chain of mountains commencing at and forming the two +above-mentioned islands and running in a south-easterly direction +forms the peninsula of Tayabas. + +Another range, starting near the Bay of Sogod, runs a little south of +east as far as Mount Labo (1552 metres), turns south-east, and runs +along the southern shore of the fertile valley of the River Vicol, +and with many a break and twist and turn reaches Mount Bulusan, whose +slopes run down to the waters of the Strait of San Bernardino. The +convolutions of this range form on the south the secure harbour of +Sorsogon, and on the north the bays of Albay, Tabaco, Lagonoy and +Sogod, besides a multitude of smaller ports and bays, for the coast +line is wonderfully broken up by spurs of the main ranges running out +into the sea. Luzon generally is very mountainous, and more especially +so that part lying to the north of 16 deg. 5', where the great ranges +of mountains run in crooked lines but with general north and south +direction. The range running parallel to the Pacific coast is called, +in its most southern part, the Caraballos de Baler, and the rest of +it, up to Punta Escarpada, is known as the Cordillera del Este, or +the Sierra Madre. The central range, starting from Mount Caraballo in +the latitude before mentioned, is called the Cordillera Central for +about a degree of latitude, and from there is known as the Cordillera +del Norte, terminating at Punta Lacatacay, in longitude 121 deg. east +of Greenwich. + +The mountains on the western coast are not so lofty, nor do they form +a connected range. They are known as the Sierras de Ilocos. Some of +these ranges are thirty or forty miles long. There are cuts in places +where rivers find an outlet to the sea, such as the Rio Grande de +Laoag, the Rio Abra, and some lesser streams. All these ranges have +spurs or buttresses. Those of the Central Cordillera extend as far, +and join with, the coast range on the west, covering the whole country +and leaving no large plain anywhere, for the valley of the Abra though +long is very narrow. There is a little flat land about Vigan. + +But the eastern spurs of the central range, in the part of Luzon under +consideration, do not interlace with the spurs of Sierra Madre, but +leave a magnificent valley more than two degrees of latitude in length +and varying breadth. This is the only great valley of northern Luzon, +and through it runs the Rio Grande de Cagayan and its tributaries, +the Magat and the Rio Chico, with numerous minor streams. + +Coasting steamers with about twelve feet draught cross the bar of +the Rio Grande and lie at Aparri. The river is navigable in the dry +season as far as Alcala for light draught steamers. Alligators abound +in these rivers. In this valley, which extends through the provinces +of Cagayan and Isabela up into Nueva Vizcaya, there is to be found a +great extension of rich alluvial soil on which can be raised, besides +other tropical crops, most excellent tobacco, the cultivation of +which was for many years obligatory upon the inhabitants, who were +forbidden to grow rice. + +Little has been done in the way of making a trigonometrical survey of +the Highlands of Luzon, but some military reconnaissance sketches have +been made from time to time by staff or engineer officers employed in +building forts, and from these several maps have been compiled. One of +the most complete of these is by that intrepid explorer and painstaking +geographer, D'Almonte. Another map has been published by Colonel +Olleros. It must be admitted that these maps do not agree with each +other, but that is not unusual in maps of the Philippines, and results +from a custom of the Spanish engineers of doing too much in the office +and not enough in the field. Colonel Olleros has, however, on his map +shown the lesser known mountain ranges very vaguely, and has left more +than a thousand square miles of territory quite blank. This tract lies +between the central range and the Cagayan River, and is inhabited by +the Apayaos, Calingas, Aripas, and Nabayuganes. Olleros also leaves +some large blanks on the east coast, and he is quite right to do so, +for this coast has hardly been visited since Salcedo sailed past it at +the time of the Conquest, and nothing is known about that part of the +island which remains to this day in possession of the savage Dumagas, +a Negrito tribe. That coast is almost entirely destitute of shelter, +and is exposed to the full force of the Pacific surf. It is made more +dangerous by tidal waves which are formed either by distant cyclones +or by submarine upheavals and occur without warning. + +The largest and richest valley in Luzon is that which extends without +a break from the shores of the Bay of Lingayen to the Bay of Manila, +having an area of some 3000 square miles, and comprising the best +part of the Provinces of Pangasinan, Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, +Bulacan and Manila. + +The town of Tarlac is situated about half-way between the two bays, +and approximately marks the watershed. About half-way between Tarlac +and the northern shores of Manila Bay there rises from the plain an +isolated mountain of volcanic origin, Mount Arayat. The crater has been +split through and the mountain thus shows two peaks. It is covered with +forest to the very summit. Arayat was thrown up within historic times, +and the Indians have a tradition that it was completed in one night, +which is a most unlikely story. + +Mount Arayat is 2880 feet in height, and in fine weather is plainly +visible from Manila and Cavite, and even from the mouth of the bay. + +The principal rivers of this valley are the Agno, the Dagupan, the +Rio Grande and the Rio Chico of Pampanga. + +The Agno rises in the mountains of Lepanto, runs south through the +province of Benguet, and S.W., W. and N.W. in Pangasinan into a +labyrinth of creeks communicating by many mouths with the Bay of +Lingayen. The river between Dagupan and San Isidro is navigable +for vessels drawing seven or eight feet, and such craft could reach +Salasa. From there to Rosales only lighters of very small draught +could pass, and after a long spell of dry weather rice-boats drawing +only one foot sometimes run aground. Its principal tributaries are +the Tarlac and the Camiling, with dozens of smaller streams bringing +the whole drainage of the eastern slopes of the Zambales mountains +from Mount Iba to San Isidro. + +The Dagupan river rises in the mountains about the limits of Union and +Benguet and runs parallel to the Agno to 16 deg. N. lat., and between it +and the sea. Then it turns to the westward, and runs past the towns +of Urdaneta, Sta, Barbara, and Calasiao, entering the Bay of Lingayen +at Dagupan. It has a multitude of small tributaries which are very +differently shown on D'Almonte's and Olleros' maps, and undoubtedly +this part has never been surveyed. + +The Pampanga river has its source on the southern slopes of the +Caraballo, in about 16 deg. 10' N. lat. It runs south in two branches, +the Rio Grande and the Rio Chico; the first, being the easternmost, +receives the drainage from the western slopes of the Cordillera del +Este, whilst the Chico receives tributaries from both sides in the +flat country and also the overflow from the Lake of Canarem. + +These two branches unite just north of Mount Arayat, and continue in +a southerly direction. The river is navigable for small craft drawing +three feet as far as Candaba in the dry season, and in the rainy +season as far as San Isidro in Nueva Ecija. When in flood during +the rainy season, this river brings down a large body of water and +annually overflows its banks in certain places, where gaps occur. The +escaping water spreads itself over a low plain forming an inundation +some sixteen miles long and several miles wide, called the Pinag de +Candaba. This remains during the rainy season, and when the level +of the Rio Grande has fallen sufficiently, the water of the Pinag +commences to fall also, and during the middle and latter part of the +dry season, and the beginning of the rainy season, only patches of +water remain here and there, which are utilized for breeding fish, +and a crop is raised on the land left dry. A project for draining +the Pinag and reclaiming the land was many years ago got up by a +Spanish colonel of engineers, and, at the request of an English +company, I went up to investigate and report on it. I found that, +irrespective of the difficulties and expense of the proposed works, +the vested rights of the natives of the many towns and villages in +and around the Pinag rendered it impossible to carry out the scheme. + +Vast flocks of wild duck and other water-fowl frequent the Pinag, +and good sport is to be had there. Below the Pinag the river spreads +itself over the low country, forming a labyrinths of creeks mostly +navigable for craft drawing three to four feet, but the mouths are +all very shallow and the bars can only be crossed about high tide. The +water is brackish or salt. An immense extent of country is intersected +by these creeks, certainly 200 square miles, and there are said to +be 120 mouths connecting with the bay. With the exception of two or +three of the principal channels, this swamp has never been surveyed, +and what is shown on the map is merely guessed at. The muddy soil +is covered with mangrove in the low parts submerged at each tide, +and with the Nipa palm where the banks rise above high water. Under +the heading Pampangos will be found particulars of the manufacture +of nipa-thatch carried on here, and of collecting and distilling +the juice. With the exception of a few half-savage natives the only +living things are wildfowl, fish in abundance, alligators, snakes, +and blue crabs. This is indeed a great dismal swamp, more especially +at low tide. + +It is difficult to find one's way in these creeks, and although +I frequently traversed them, I found it necessary to take a swamp +Indian as a guide. + +The city of Manila is situated astride the River Pasig on a strip +of land between the Bay of Manila and a great sheet of freshwater +called the Lake of Bay. In consequence of this situation, Manila +can communicate by the bay, the lake, the creeks and rivers with the +provinces of Bataan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Morong, Laguna, +and Cavite. Until the opening of the Manila-Dagupan railroad the +whole transport of the Archipelago was by water, and the possession +of navigable rivers meant progress and wealth, whilst the absence +of rivers meant stagnation and poverty. Around the city the land is +quite flat, but at about four miles distance there is a sharp rise +to a plateau of volcanic tuff, the surface of which is from sixty to +eighty feet above sea level, of which more anon. The River Pasig is +the overflow from the lake and the outlet for the River San Mateo, +which runs into it at right angles. The lake serves as a receiver for +the great floods that come down the San Mateo valley; for the level of +that river at Santolan, the intake of the waterworks, sometimes rises +more than twenty feet. When this occurs, the flood on reaching the +Pasig is divided; part runs into the lake, and part into the bay. The +current of the Pasig in that part between the junction of the San +Mateo and the outlet from the lake is reversed. Then when the flood +subsides, the water which has entered the lake runs out very slowly +into the bay, for the head produced by the greatest flood becomes +insignificant from being spread over the vast extent of the lake. + +Rice, sugar, cocoa-nuts, bamboos, timber, and fruits are the principal +products of the province of La Laguna. The inhabitants supply the +Manila markets with poultry. The Pasig and the lake are navigated by +light draught steamers which ply daily to Binan, Calamba, and Santa +Cruz. There are also numerous native small craft, which bring down +the produce. To the south of Manila the province of Cavite slopes +gently up from the shores of the bay and from the lake to the +high cliffs at the northern end of the volcanic lake of Taal. The +valley is intersected by numerous streams all of which run into the +bay. Part of this province, near Manila, is a stony and sandy desert, +but other parts of it are extremely fertile, and large crops of rice, +with some coffee, and cacao, and fruits, are raised. The Augustinians +and Dominicans have large estates here, and have expended considerable +sums on dams to retain water for irrigation. + +The Lake of Bombon, or Taal, has in its centre an island containing +the remains of the volcano. From the nature of the surrounding +country it is conjectured that on the spot now occupied by the lake +a volcanic mountain, some 8000 feet high, formerly stood. The great +bed of volcanic tuff already mentioned, extending from thence up to +Meycauayan more than sixty miles distant, is thought to have been +ejected from that lofty volcano, leaving a vast hollow cone, which +ultimately collapsed, causing a convulsion in the surrounding country +that must have rivalled the famous cataclysm of Krakatoa. This is +the opinion of D. Jose Centeno, a mining engineer employed by the +Spanish Government, and was fully confirmed by my learned friend, +the late Rev. J. E. Tenison-Wood, who carefully examined the locality, +and studied all the records. + +The province of Batangas is very rich and fertile; it has some +mountains, but also a considerable extension of sloping or flat +land. In beauty it will compare with the best parts of Surrey, such +as the view from Leith Hill, looking south. Sugar and coffee are the +principal products, and the towns of Taal, Bauang, Batangas, and Lipa +are amongst the wealthiest of Luzon. The fields are well cultivated, +and oxen are much used, both for ploughing and for drawing carts. The +beef in this province is excellent. + +Opposite to this beautiful and wealthy province lies the huge island +of Mindoro. Ever black and gloomy does it look, its lofty mountains +almost perpetually shrouded in rain-clouds. When I lived in Balayan +I had a good view of this island from my windows, and can scarcely +remember its looking otherwise than dark and forbidding. Nothing +comes from it but timber and jungle produce. There are known to be +some beds of lignite. Only the coast is known, and the jungle fever +prevents exploration. The island of Marinduque is healthier and more +advanced. It produces hemp of fine quality. + +The province of Tayabas is very mountainous, and is still mostly +covered with forest; there are no wide valleys of alluvial soil. Some +rice is grown, also large quantities of cocoa-nuts, and some coffee +and cacao. Timber and jungle produce form the principal exports. I +have seen many specimens of minerals from this province and think it +would be well worth prospecting. But the climate is unhealthy, and +dangerous fevers prevail. This circumstance has been useful to the +Spanish Government, for when a governor or official had made himself +disliked he could be appointed to Tayabas with a fair prospect of +getting rid of him either by death or by invaliding in two or three +years at most. + +Camarines Norte is also mountainous, and there is not much cultivation, +only a little rice and hemp. The population is very sparse, +and the inhabitants are mostly employed (when they do anything) +in washing for gold at Mambulao, Paracale, and other places on the +Pacific coast. If they strike a pocket, or get a nugget, they go on +the spree till they have spent it all and can get no more credit, +and then unwillingly return to work. Camarines Sur possesses a wide +expanse of fertile soil in the valley of the River Bicol, in which +are the Lakes of Buhi and Bato, and the Pinag of Baao. The Bicol +rises in the province of Albay and runs through the whole length of +Camarines Sur, generally in a north-westerly direction, running into +the great Bay of San Miguel. It is navigable for small vessels up +to the town of Nueva Caceres. Alligators abound here. A gap in the +coast range gives access to this valley from the port of Pasacao. The +ground is level for leagues around, yet from this plain two extinct +volcanoes rear their vast bulk, the Ysarog, 6500 feet high, and +the Yriga, nearly 4000 feet high. Camarines Sur contains more than +five times as many inhabitants as Camarines Norte, although not very +different in area. Their principal occupation is the cultivation of +the extensive rice lands. They also produce some hemp and a little +sugar. Large quantities of rice are exported to Manila, to Albay, +and to Bisayas. Cattle are raised in the island of Burias, which +belongs to this province; it also produces some palm sugar. This +province is much richer than either Tayabas or Camarines Norte. + +The province of Albay is the southernmost and easternmost part of +Luzon, and is one of the richest and most beautiful regions of that +splendid island. The northern part, which commences at Punta Gorda +on the Bay of Lagonoy, is similar to the neighbouring Camarines Sur, +as is also the western part, about the shores of Lake Bato. A little +to the southward, however, the gigantic Mayon rears its peak 8000 +feet into the sky. The symmetry of this wondrous cone is but feebly +rendered by the photograph. Some of the most violent eruptions of this +remarkable volcano are mentioned under another heading in the Appendix. + +On this volcanic soil, with the life-giving heat of the sun tempered +by frequent rains, the vegetable kingdom flourishes in the utmost +luxuriance. Tree-ferns, lianas, orchids, palms grow vigorously. On +the mountain slopes the Musa textilis, or abaca plant, finds its most +congenial habitat. Little rice is grown, the inhabitants being mostly +engaged in the more remunerative occupation of planting and preparing +this fibre. + +A description of the manner of its preparation, with photographs +of the growing plants and of the apparatus for cleaning the fibre, +will be found under the description of the Vicols. + +The island of Catanduanes belongs to Albay province, and its +characteristics and productions are the same. The configuration of +the province of Albay is most favourable to the production of this +fibre. The plant seems to require a light volcanic soil, a certain +height above the sea, and exposure to the Pacific breezes in order +to flourish. + +To summarise the description of Luzon we may say that its agricultural +wealth, present and future, lies in the valley of the Rio Grande +of Cagayan, in the great valley lying between the Gulf of Lingayen +and the shores of the Bay of Manila, in the rich lands of Cavite, +Batangas, and Laguna, in the valley of the River Bicol, and on the +slopes of the volcanoes of Albay. + +The production of the great northern valley is principally tobacco; +of the middle valley, sugar and rice; of the southern valley, rice, +and of the volcanic slopes, Manila hemp. The Sierras of Ilocos are +highly mineralised, as are also the mountains of Tayabas, whilst as +already stated washing for gold is the principal industry of Camarines +Norte. Parts of this great island, as in Bulacan and Pampanga, support +a dense population of 500 to the square mile; whilst, in other parts, +hundreds or even thousands of square miles are absolutely unknown, +and are only populated by a few scattered and wandering savages, +many of whom have never seen a white man. + + + + + + + +THE INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES. + + +Description of their appearance, dress, arms, religion, manners +and customs, and the localities they inhabit, their agriculture, +industries and pursuits, with suggestions as to how they can be +utilized, commercially and politically. With many unpublished +photographs of natives, their arms, ornaments, sepulchres, and idols. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +Aetas or Negritos, Including Balugas, Dumagas, Mamanuas, and +Manguianes. + + +These people are generally considered to be the aborigines of the +Philippines, and perhaps at one time inhabited the entire group. The +invasion of the Malays dispossessed them of the littoral, and of +the principal river valleys, and the Spanish Conquest drove them +gradually back into the mountains. It seems strange that these +irreclaimable savages should be able from their eyries on Mount +Mariveles to distinguish a great city with its Royal and Pontifical +University and yet remain unconverted, uncivilised, and independent +of all authority, just as they were before Legaspi arrived. + +They are a race of negroid dwarfs of a sooty black colour, with +woolly hair, which they wear short, strong jaws, thick lips, and +broad flat noses. The men I have seen in the jungle near Porac and at +Mariveles were about 4 feet 8 inches in height, and the women about +a couple of inches shorter. The men only wore a cord round the waist +with a cloth passed between their legs. The women wore a piece of +cloth around the hips, and as ornaments some strings of beads round +their necks. However, like many other savages in the Philippines and +elsewhere, those of them, both men and women, who are accustomed to +traffic with the Christian natives, are possessed of clothes which +they put on whenever they enter a village. Their appearance was not +prepossessing; the skin of a savage is rarely in good order or free +from some scaly eruption, and the stomach is commonly unduly distended +from devouring large quantities of vegetable food of an innutritious +character. Still they were not so unpleasing as might be supposed, +for although their figures are not good according to our standards, +nor are their muscles well developed, either on arms or legs, +yet there was a litheness about them that gave promise of extreme +agility and great speed in running. As a matter of fact, they do +run fast, and climb trees in a surprising way. The Tagals and other +Malays who go barefooted use their toes to pick up an object on the +ground rather than stoop as a European would do, but the toes of the +Negritos are more like fingers. They come near the Quadrumanes in +this respect. The men carried bows, about five feet six inches long +and a quiver full of iron-pointed arrows--also a wood-knife, or bolo, +very roughly made. The former they make themselves; but the latter +they obtain from the Tagals. I can confirm from my own experience a +statement of various travellers, that they are fond of lying close +to fires or in the warm ashes, for when I arrived at a bivouac +of these people near Porac, their skins were covered with ashes, +and I saw that they had recently arisen from their favourite lair, +the prints of their forms being plainly visible. They had with them +some wretched starveling dogs which assist them in the chase. + +It would seem that the Negritos must be descended from a race which +formerly extended over a vast area, for remains of them exist in +Southern India, in the mountains of Ceylon, and in the Andaman Islands. + +In the Malay Peninsula they are called Semang. From the description +of them given by Hugh Clifford, in his interesting book, 'In +Court and Kampong,' they appear to be identical with the Philippine +Negritos. Crauford, in his 'History of the Indian Archipelago,' gives +the measurement of a Negrito from the hills of Kedah as four feet +nine inches. Mr. F. V. Christian, in a paper recently read before +the Royal Geographical Society, stated that he had found tombs of +Negritos on Ponape one of the Caroline group. + +The Negritos build no houses, and are nomadic, in the sense of +moving about within a certain district. They live in groups of +twenty or thirty under a chief or elder, and take his advice about +camping and breaking up camp, which they do according to the seasons, +the ripening of jungle fruit, movements of game, etc. They seem to +have great reverence for their dead and for their burial-grounds, +and apparently dislike going far away from these places where they +suppose the souls of their ancestors are wandering. They bury their +dead, placing with them food and weapons for their use, and erect a +rough shelter over the graves. + +It would be curious to learn the opinion of these poor savages +on the proceedings of some learned Teuton, prowling around their +graveyards in search of skulls and skeletons for the Berlin or Dresden +Ethnographical Museum. + +They have no tribal organisation and even make war on other groups, +seeking victims for the death-vengeance. They are therefore unable +to assemble in large numbers; nor is it easy to see how they could +subsist if they did so. They put up rough sloping shelters against +the sun and wind, consisting of a framework of saplings or canes, +covered with coarse plaited mats of leaves which they carry with them +when they move their camp. + +In Pampanga and Bataan, they are occasionally guilty of cattle +stealing, and even of murdering Christians, if a favourable opportunity +presents itself. In such a case an expedition of the Cuadrilleros of +the neighbouring towns is sent against them. + +If they can be found, their bows and arrows are no match for +the muskets of the Cuadrilleros, and some of them are sure to be +killed. After a time peace is restored. + +The trade for jungle produce is too profitable to the Christians for +them to renounce it, whatever the authorities may order. + +The Negritos do not cultivate the ground but subsist on jungle fruits +and edible roots, their great luxury is the wild honey which they +greedily devour, and they barter the wax with the Christians for +rice and sweet potatoes. They also hunt the deer and wild pigs, and +as Blumentritt says, they eat everything that crawls, runs, swims, +or flies, if they can get it. They chew buyo like the Tagals and +other Malays, and are inordinately fond of smoking. + +They are said to hold the lighted end of their cigars in their mouths, +a thing I have seen done by the negroes on the Isthmus of Panama. + +They appear to have no religion, but are very superstitious. They +celebrate dances at the time of full moon, the women forming a ring +and the men another ring outside them, something like a figure in the +Kitchen Lancers. They move round to the sound of some rude musical +instruments in opposite directions. + +Whether this performance is intended as a mark of respect to the +moon, or is merely held at the full for the convenience of the light, +I cannot say. + +Several travellers have stated that they sacrifice pigs when +it thunders. As thunder-storms are very frequent and often of +extraordinary violence in the Philippines, this custom would imply the +possession of a large number of pigs on the part of the Negritos. Those +of Mariveles and of the Zambales mountains do not appear to possess +any domestic animals, except dogs, and they find it difficult to +kill the wild pigs, active as they are. Consequently, I think this +must apply to those Negrito tribes, such as the Balugas and Dumagas, +of whose condition I shall speak later. They are also said to offer +up prayers to the rainbow. This offering can be made with greater +ease than the sacrifice of a pig, but the frequency of rainbows at +certain seasons will keep them pretty closely to their devotions. + +Ratzel, 'History of Mankind,' vol. i., p. 471, says: Among the Negritos +of Luzon, a fabulous beast with a horse's head which lives in trees +is venerated under the name of Balendik. And on p. 478: When killing +an animal, the Negritos fling a piece heavenwards crying out at the +same time, "This is for thee." + +They show great respect for old age, and the British War Office might +learn something from them for they are reported to tend with love +and care every old man of warlike repute. + +Their language largely consists of curious clicks and grunts, and +those of them who trade with the Christians usually learn enough of +the local dialect to do the necessary bargaining. + +There are some varieties of the Negritos who are more or less mixed +up with the Malays, but their origin is not clear. + +The Malay women are very unprejudiced, perhaps there are no women +on earth more ready to form temporary or permanent alliances with +foreigners: they do not disdain even the Chinamen. They perhaps do +not like them, but they know that John Chinaman makes a good husband, +provides liberally for his family, and does not expect his wife to +do any hard work. + +By some writers the Malay women, notably the Visayas, are accused +of unbounded sensuality (Anto. de Morga. Sucesos de Filipinas), +but anyhow the Tagal women draw the line at Negritos, and will have +nothing to do with them. + +Fray Gaspar de San Agustin however thought that the Visaya women +would not be so particular. + +This being so, the hybrid races in Luzon must have sprung from the +union of Remontados--that is to say, of Malays who took refuge in +the hills either from a natural love for savage life, or as fugitives +from justice--with the Negrito women. + +Amongst these varieties are the Balugas, who live in the eastern +cordillera of Nueva Ecija, in north and south Ilocos, and in the +mountains of Tayabas. Some of these people have advanced a step in +civilisation, they build huts and do a little rude cultivation. + +The Dumagas, another hybrid race, occupy the eastern slopes of the +Sierra Madre from the northern frontier of El Principe district to the +Bay of Palanan, where the last Tagal village is situated, the Tagals +thinly peopling the shores. But from Palanan to Punta Escarpada the +whole coast is in the undisputed possession of the Dumagas. + +The Dumagas keep up a friendly communication with the few Christian +villages near them, and do a small trade with them. They even work on +their lands and help in fishing for a small remuneration, generally +paid in cotton cloth. + +They have no known religion, they marry without ceremony, and are +said to disregard the ties of kinship. + +Those who live far from the Christian villages are said to be entirely +brutal and devoid of all virtue, for they will sell their own children +for a little rice. They are almost irreclaimable from their savage +and independent character. + +Some of these Dumagas live amongst the Irayas and the Catalanganes, +two heathen and semi-independent tribes showing signs of Mongolian +blood, who occupy a considerable stretch of country in the province of +Cagayan between the Rio Grande and the Sierra Madre, say about twenty +geographical miles north and south of the 17th parallel. These Dumagas +intermarry with the tribes they live amongst, and have adopted their +dress, religion, and customs. + +The Mamanuas, also a hybrid race, inhabit the mountains of the +north-east promontory of Mindanao. They are few in number. There were, +in 1887, four Jesuit mission stations amongst them, three of which +are on Lake Mainit, or Sapongan, as it is called on some maps. + +The Manguianes, who are probably a hybrid Negrito-Visaya race, occupy +almost the whole interior of Mindoro, up to within two leagues of the +coast. There are a few in the mountains of Romblon and Tablas. There +are three varieties of these people, those residing near the western +coast are much whiter, with lighter hair and full beards. + +Those living in the centre of the island are of a darker colour, have +sloping foreheads and less intelligence, while those of the southern +part, by their oblique eyes, aquiline noses and olive colour, show +signs of Chinese blood. + +They are docile and do not fly from civilised man. A primitive +agriculture and the collection of jungle produce enables them to +obtain from the Christians, in exchange, rice, knives, bells, gongs, +tobacco, and buyo. They are not much advanced in religion, but are +very superstitious. They believe that the spirits of their ancestors +and relations never leave the places where they lived, but remain to +protect their descendants and families. There is noted amongst these +people a strong sense of morality and honesty, which unfortunately +is not recognised by their Christian neighbours, who are accustomed +to oppress them with the most exaggerated usury. + +Since these words were written, Dean C. Worcester has published his +book on the Philippines, and amply confirms these remarks. He saw +a good deal of the Manguianes, and bears testimony to their honesty +and morality, and adds: "On the whole, after making somewhat extensive +observations amongst the Philippine natives, I am inclined to formulate +the law that their morals improve as the square of the distance from +churches and other civilising influences." + +He gives some particulars of their laws, and of their ordeals, which +are common to many of the Malays. There are some Manguianes in the +Island of Palawan. They inhabit the mountains in the interior of +the southern part of the island, and little is known about them, +for the pirate races, or Mahometan Malays, who occupy the coasts, +keep a strict watch to prevent their communicating with outsiders. + +The few who have been seen by the Spaniards, are said to be +industrious, and physically similar to the Tagbanuas. Their customs +are said to be influenced by their constant intercourse with the +Mahometans. They were thought to number about 4000 in 1887, by Don +Felipe Canga Arguelles, the Governor of the Island. The Moors appear +to oppress the Manguianes of Palawan much as the Christian natives +do the Manguianes of Mindoro. + +The illustration represents a Negrito from the Island of Negros, a very +favourable specimen of his race. He wears the head-dress of a chief, +and is armed with a bow and arrow of portentous length. His figure, +though not muscular, gives promise of great agility. + +The Negritos of Palawan are few in number, and resemble those of +Mariveles. They use a piece of cloth, made of the inner bark of a +tree as their only garment. They call this the Saligan. They inhabit +the upper parts of the mountains between Babuyan and Barbacan, say +from 10 deg. to 10 deg. 20' N. latitude. They do a little agriculture in a +primitive fashion. The men clear the land, the men and women together +do the planting, and the women alone the reaping. + +Their arms are bows and arrows, and the only education of the young +is in archery, which is taught them by their mothers from their +earliest infancy. + +They are said to be generous, hospitable, and inoffensive, but +extremely revengeful if they are ill-treated. They have no religion, +but perform certain ceremonies from time to time. Canga-Arguelles +computed them to number about 500 in 1887. + +The only use the Negritos can be to the United States will be as +a subject of study for the elucidation of problems in ethnography, +and to furnish skeletons for the museums. + + + + + + + +PART I. + +Luzon and Adjacent Islands. + + + + + +Chapter XXIII. + +Tagals (1). [19] + + +The most important race in the Archipelago is the Tagal, or Tagalog, +inhabiting Central Luzon, including the following provinces:-- + +Batangas, Bulacan, Bataan, Camarines Norte, Cavite, Laguna, Manila, +part of Nueva Ecija and Tayabas, the districts of Infanta, Morong, +and part of Principe, also the Island of Corregidor and the coast +of Mindoro. They probably number about one million five hundred +thousand souls. + +Antonio de Morga, in his work 'Sucesos de Philipinas,' says (p. 126): +"The women wear the baro and saya, and chains of gold upon their +necks, also bracelets of the same. All classes are very clean in +their persons and clothing, and of good carriage and graceful (de +buen ayre y gracia"). + +They are very careful of their hair, washing it with gogo and anointing +it with ajonjoli oil [20] perfumed with musk. + +In the 'Relacion de las Islas Philipinas,' 1595 (?), the anonymous +author said of the Tagals: "The people of this province are the best +of all the Islands, more polite, and more truly our friends. They +go more clothed than the others, the men as well as the women. They +are light-coloured people of very good figures and faces, and like +to put on many ornaments of gold, which they have in great abundance." + +In other respects, however, they seem, from the same author, to be +less worthy of praise, for he goes on to tell us: When some principal +man died, in vengeance of his death they cut off many heads, with +which they made many feasts and dances.... They had their houses +full of wood and stone idols, which they called Tao-tao and Lichac, +for temples they had none. And they said that when one of their +parents or children died the soul entered into one of these idols, +and for this they reverenced them and begged of them life, health, +and riches. They called these idols anitos, and when they were ill +they drew lots to find which of these had given them the illness, +and then made great sacrifices and feasts to it. + +They worshipped idols which were called Al Priapo Lacapati, Meilupa, +but now, by the goodness of God, they are enlightened with the grace +of the Divine Gospel and adore the living God in spirit. + +The old writer then remarks on the cleverness and sharpness of the +boys, and the ease with which they learned to read and write, sing, +play, and dance. + +This characteristic appears general to the Malay race, for, speaking +of the Javanese, Crauford says: They have ears of remarkable delicacy +for musical sounds, are readily taught to play upon any instrument +the most difficult and complex airs. + +According to Morga, at the time of the Conquest, the Tagals wrote +their language in the Arabic character. He says: They write well in +these Islands; most people both men and women, can write. This tends +to show that the equality of the sexes, which I shall refer to later, +has been customary from ancient times. + +Tomas de Comyn (1810) says: + +The population of the capital, in consequence of its continual +communication with the Chinese and other Asiatics, with the sailors +of different nations, with the soldiers, and with the Mexican convicts +who are generally mulattoes, and who arrive in some number every year, +has come to be a mixture of all the bloods and features, or otherwise +a degeneration of the primitive race. + +At Cainta, on a branch of the Pasig, the natives are darker, taller, +and of a different type. This is accounted for by the fact that, +in 1762-63, during the English invasion, a regiment of Madras Sepoys +occupied the town for many months, long enough, in fact, to modify the +native type to such an extent as to be plainly visible 125 years later. + +Crauford says that some Christian inhabitants of Ternate followed +their priests (Jesuits) to Luzon when the Spaniards were driven out of +Molucas by the Dutch in 1660. They were located in Marigondon. There +is now a town called Ternate between Marigondon and the sea, near +Punta Restinga. But, with the exception of the capital and these +two places, I think the Tagals have not greatly altered in physical +characteristics since the Conquest--notwithstanding Ratzel's statement +that "Spanish-Tagal half-breeds in the Philippines may be numbered +by the hundred thousand," which I consider erroneous. + +The fact is, that wherever a small number of male Europeans live +amongst a native race, the effect on the type is smaller than may +be supposed, and what there is becomes obliterated or disseminated +in course of time. Colour may be a little altered, but all the other +characteristics remain. The mestizas are not so prolific as the native +women, and notwithstanding Jagor's assertion to the contrary, they +often marry natives, and especially if their father has died while +they were young. I knew in the town of Balayan three handsome sisters, +daughters of a Spaniard who had died many years before. Although they +lived in a house which had been at one time the finest in the town, +and still retained some remnants of its former grandeur, they had +reverted entirely to the native customs and dress. They spoke only +Tagal, and all three of them married natives. + +The tendency of the Philippine native to revert to old customs is +well marked, and I agree with Jagor when he says: "Every Indian +has an innate inclination to abandon the hamlets and retire into +the solitude of the woods, or live isolated in the midst of his own +fields," in fact to Remontar. + +The Tagals are considered by Wallace as the fourth great tribe of the +Malay race. He only mentions the Tagals, but in fact the population +of the Archipelago, except the Negritos and some hybrids, belongs +to the Malay race, although slightly mixed with Chinese and Spanish +blood in a few localities. They are here and there modified by mixture +with other races, and everywhere by their environment, for they have +been Roman Catholics and subject to Spanish influence, if not rule, +for upwards of three centuries. + +They differ little in physical appearance from the Malays proper +inhabiting the Peninsula, and although their manners and customs are +somewhat changed, their nature remains the same. They retain all the +inherent characteristics of the Malay. + +The Tagal possesses a great deal of self-respect, and his demeanour is +quiet and decorous. He is polite to others, and expects to be treated +politely himself. He is averse to rowdiness or horse-play of any kind, +and avoids giving offence. + + + +Characteristics--Family Life. + +For an inhabitant of the tropics he is fairly industrious, sometimes +even very hard working. + +Those who have seen him poling cascos against the stream of the Pasig +will admit this. + +He is a keen sportsman, and will readily put his money on his favourite +horse or game-cock; he is also addicted to other forms of gambling. The +position taken by women in a community is often considered as a +test of the degree of civilisation it has attained. Measured by this +standard, the Tagals come out well, for amongst them the wife exerts +great influence in the family, and the husband rarely completes any +important business without her concurrence. + +Crauford considers the equality of the sexes to be general throughout +the Indian Archipelago, more particularly in the Island of Celebes, +where the inhabitants are the most warlike of all. + +The Tagals treat their children with great kindness and forbearance, +those who are well-off show much anxiety to secure a good education +for their sons, and even for their daughters. + +Parental authority extends to the latest period in life. I have seen +a man of fifty years come as respectfully as a child to kiss the +hands of his aged parents when the vesper bell sounded, and this +notwithstanding the presence of several European visitors in the house. + +Children, in return, show great respect to both parents, and come +morning and evening to kiss their hands. I may remark that their +manner of kissing is different to ours. They place the nose and lips +against the cheek or hand of the person to be saluted, and draw in +the breath strongly. + + + +Appearance--Manners. + +The Malays in general are not, perhaps, a handsome race, their flat +noses disfigure them in the eyes of the recently-arrived European or +American, and it takes time to get accustomed to them. + +Still, their rich brown skin often covers a symmetrical, lithe and +agile figure, the small hands and feet denoting their Turanian origin. + +The youth of both sexes up to the age of puberty are not seldom +of striking beauty, and their appearance is not belied by their +behaviour. They are trained in good manners from their earliest youth, +both by precept and example. + +Palgrave says of them: "Nowhere are family bonds closer drawn, family +affections more enduring, than amongst the Malay races.... His family +is a pleasing sight, much subordination and little restraint, unison in +gradation, liberty not license. Orderly children, respected parents, +women subject, but not suppressed, men ruling, but not despotic, +reverence with kindness, obedience in affection, these form a lovable +picture, nor by any means a rare one in the villages of the Eastern +Isles." + +It may here be interesting to note the very contradictory opinions +that have been expressed upon this subject. + + +John Foreman. W. G. Palgrave. + +'The Philippine Islands,' 'Malay Life in the Philippines,' +p. 194. p. 146. + +"Home discipline and training "Children early trained by +of manners are quite ignored, precept and example to good +even in the well-to-do families. manners, show less disposition +Children are left without to noise and mischief than is +control, and allowed to do just ordinary elsewhere at their +as they please, hence they age." +become ill-behaved and boorish." + + +As will be seen in my text, my own experience rather confirms +Palgrave's opinion, and I should say that even the children of the +peasantry would compare favourably both in manners and intelligence +with the children at the Board Schools in London, and to say nothing +of Glasgow or Liverpool. + +Amongst the Tagals, it is customary when speaking of or to a man to use +the prefix Si--thus Si Jose, Mr. Joseph--whilst a woman is spoken of +or to as Aling Maria, Miss Mary. The word Po is used for Sir. Thus: +Oo-po--Yes, sir; Hindi-po--No, sir; Uala-po--There is none, sir; +Mayroom-po--There is some, sir. + + + +Cleanliness. + +The sense of personal dignity and self-respect, the dominant feeling +in the Malay nature, is shown in the Tagals by a general cleanliness +in their persons and clothing. They usually live near water, and +nearly all of them can swim. + +The heat of the climate makes bathing a pleasure, and as the +temperature of the sea or river is commonly 83 deg.F., a prolonged +immersion causes no inconvenience. + +On the morning of a feast-day the number of bathers is increased, +and at the time of high tide, a very large proportion of the +population seems to be in the water, both sexes and all ages mixing +indiscriminately, the adults decently covered and all behaving +themselves as decorously as the bathers at Brighton, Newport, or +Atlantic City. + +They have not yet arrived at that precise stage of civilisation that +develops the Rough, the Larrikin, or the Hooligan. Palgrave says: +A Malay may be a profligate, a gambler, a thief, a robber, or a +murderer, he is never a cad. + +Palgrave had not great opportunities of knowing the Tagals, but I +confirm the above opinion, although I do not agree with the views on +the future of the Philippines, and what is best for them, expressed +in his fantastic and hyphen-infested verbiage, all seemingly written +for effect. + + + +Superstitions. + +The Tagal is extremely superstitious, and like his kinsman, the +Dayak, he is a believer in omens, although he has not reduced them +so completely to a system, and three centuries of Christianity have +diverted his superstitions into other channels. + +In his mind, each cave, each ravine, each mountain, each pool, each +stream, has its guardian spirit, to offend or to startle which may +be dangerous. These are the jinni of Southern Arabia and Socotra. + +The Balete tree (Ficus Urostigima--Sp.) corresponds to our Witch Elm, +and certainly at night has a most uncanny appearance. Each of these +great trees has its guardian spirit or Tic-balan. + +Daring, indeed, would be the Indian who would pass such a tree, +enter a cave, ascend a mountain, or plunge into a pool without bowing +and uttering the Pasing tabi sa nono [By your leave, my Lord] that +may appease the spirit's wrath, just as the Bedouin of Dhofar cry, +"Aleik Soubera--aleik soubera," to propitiate the jinni. + +His mental attitude in this respect reminds me of a story told me +many years ago by a lady residing in Hampshire. A lady neighbour of +hers inquired from her whether she taught her children to bow when +the Devil's name was mentioned. My informant replied in the negative, +whereupon the lady remarked, "I do, I think it is safer." This is the +way with the Tagal, he bows because he thinks it is safer. If that +prudent lady is still alive and may chance to read this, she may be +pleased to learn that her opinion is shared by the whole Malay race. + +Child-birth has its anxieties everywhere, and the more artificial +the life the woman has led, the more she suffers at that critical +time. The Tagal woman whose naturally supple frame has never been +subjected to tight-lacing, nor compressed within a tailor-made costume, +has a far easier time of it than her European sister, but superstition +and quackery combine to terrify and ill-use her. + +The Patianac, an evil spirit, profits by the occasion, and his +great delight is to obstruct the birth, or to kill and devour the +infant. The patianac might be busy elsewhere, but from the ridge-pole +of the house a bird of ill-omen, the dreadful Tic-tic, raises a warning +cry, for its office and delight is to call the attention of the evil +spirit to the opportunity of doing mischief. Instantly every door +and window is closed and every chink stopped to prevent its entrance, +whilst the anxious father and his kinsmen, naked as they were born, +walk around and underneath the house, slashing the air with sticks +or bolos to frighten away the spirit. Sometimes a man will get up on +the ridge-pole to drive away the Tic-tic. + +Meanwhile, in the stifling room, it is too often the case that violent +means are used to expedite the birth, so violent indeed, that they +sometimes result in the permanent injury or in the death of the woman. + +Some years ago the Government instituted an examination for midwives, +and only those were allowed the practice who had been properly +instructed, so that these absurdities and cruelties are on the wane, +except amongst the poorest or in outlying districts. + +The Asuan is merely a cannibal ghost, but the Tagal ghost throws +stones, a thing I have not heard of a ghost doing in Europe. + +All sorts of stories are told about the Asuan, similar to ghost +stories in other lands. + +About 1891 a house in Malate was stoned night after night, and +although every effort was made to find out the authors, they were +never discovered, and the natives steadfastly believed it to be the +doing of the Asuan. + +There is another superstitious idea firmly rooted in the minds of +the Tagals and other natives, of which the following is an instance: +A villainous-looking native had been captured with some property stolen +from my house, and was sent to the lock-up at the police station, from +whence he promptly escaped, but was recaptured later. My coachman, +a most meritorious servant who had been with me for years, assured +me in an impressive manner, and with an air of conviction, that +the culprit was one of those wizards who are able to pass through +a keyhole by drawing themselves out into the thinness of a piece of +string, and my other servants accepted this view implicitly. + +The famous Tulisanes or bandits, thoroughly believe in the power of the +Antin-Antin or amulet to render them invulnerable to bullets. It is, +indeed, remarkable that notwithstanding the numbers of these criminals +who have been shot by the Guardia Civil with their Antin-Antin upon +them, this absurd belief should flourish, but there is no doubt it +does. These charms consist of any sort of necromancers' rubbish, or +are sometimes writings in invocations, usually worn round the neck +under the clothing. + +The profession of the Roman Catholic religion has perhaps helped this +superstition to linger on, for the wearing of scapularies is common, +especially amongst the women. These articles are manufactured for +the priests and some are sent out to Antipolo, to be blessed at the +shrine of Nuestra Senora de Buen Viage y de la Paz, and sold to the +pilgrims who crowd in thousands to this shrine in May of each year. + +A Tagal woman sometimes wears as many as three of these scapularies +hung from silk threads round her neck and covered by her upper +garment. They usually dispose two in front, where they conceive the +danger is greatest, and one on the back, as a further precaution +against an attack from the rear. + +Wearing these holy amulets, and having crossed herself and uttered +a prayer before coming downstairs in the morning, the Tagal wife or +maid feels that she has done all she can, and that if any backsliding +should occur, during the day, it will not be her fault. + +She believes greatly in lucky or holy numbers--I heard the following +story related by a native lady to a native priest when going to +Batangas by steamer. + +The lady was telling the priest of her husband's illness (it appeared +to have been congestion of the lungs), and she prepared and applied a +poultice of three heads of garlic in honour of the Three Persons of the +Blessed Trinity; this not producing the desired effect, she then made a +poultice of five heads of garlic, in honour of the Five Wounds of our +Blessed Saviour, and successively others of seven heads, in honour of +the Seven Pains of the Blessed Virgin; twelve heads in honour of the +Twelve Apostles, and last of all a poultice of thirty-three heads +of garlic in honour of the Thirty-three years our Blessed Saviour +remained on earth. The priest had nodded approval as she went on, +but as she stopped he said: "And then?" To which the lady replied, +"Then he died." + +This poor man came off easily, for in some cases people who suffer +from fits and other diseases are thought to be possessed by devils, +and are severely beaten to drive out the evil spirit. The patient +does not always escape with his life. + +The women often dream of lucky numbers in the Manila Lottery and make +every endeavour to purchase the number they have dreamt of. + +Amongst the Christian superstitions may be mentioned the feast of San +Pascual Bailon at Obando. Those who attend this function are commonly +the rowdier class of inhabitants of the Capital, and they go mostly +on foot, making music and dancing on the way. They also dance in the +courtyard in front of the church, not forgetting to refresh themselves +with strong drink in the meanwhile. + +This is not at all an edifying spectacle, for the dancers are covered +with dust and with the perspiration from their active exertions. I +do not know the legend that gives occasion to this curious form of +devotion. Occasionally, and especially during Holy Week, another form +of penitence is practised by the natives. I remember, about 1892, +seeing one of these penitents, a man having a mask on his face, the +upper part of his body bare, and a long chain fastened to one ankle +and dragging on the ground behind him. In one hand he bore a flagellum +with which he from time to time lashed himself on the shoulders, +which bore evident marks of the discipline they had received. A youth +who followed him occasionally jerked the chain, throwing the penitent +violently at full length upon the dusty road. This form of penitence +is not approved, however, by the priests, for when I called on the +parish priest, the same evening, I mentioned the circumstance to him, +and he directed the penitent to be locked up, to stop what he rightly +termed a scandal. + +On many occasions the natives had got up a religious excitement, +and great gatherings have taken place at some spot where a miraculous +appearance of the Blessed Virgin, or some supernatural manifestation +has been alleged to have occurred. + +All these affairs have been somewhat sceptically inquired into by the +priests under a general order to this effect issued by the archbishop, +and so far as my experience goes, the excessive religious ardour of +the natives has rather been checked than stimulated. + +When writing about the Visayas I shall have more to say about +misdirected religious zeal. The Tagals practise circumcision as +a hygienic measure, and not as a religious rite. The operation is +usually performed at the age of fourteen by a companion or friend of +the patient, and a sharp flint or piece of volcanic glass (obsidian) +is used for this purpose. From what I have heard, this custom is really +maintained by the women, who refuse their favours to the uncircumcised +of their own nation, though with foreigners they are more complaisant. + + + +Cursing. + +In cursing, the Tagal displays a directness quite worthy of the +Anglo-Saxon. All his remarks are very much to the point, and would +have earned the approval of the late lamented and reverend author of +the Ingoldsby Legends. Leaving out the world-wide reflections upon +the virtues of an opponent's female ancestry, since these appear to +belong indiscriminately to all nations, the principal Tagal curses +are as follows:-- + + + 1. May an evil wind blow upon you. + 2. May the earth open and swallow you up. + 3. May the lightning strike you. + 4. May the alligator eat you. + + +The superiority of the Tagal style as compared with the French +Mortbleu, Ventre bleu, must be apparent to all unprejudiced +observers. The Tagal has drawn all his curses from the grand and awful +operations of nature in his own country, except the last, where he +invokes the dreaded saurian, the most fearsome inhabitant of the +Philippine swamps, rivers, and coasts--formerly venerated by his +ancestors and respectfully addressed by them as nono, or grandfather. + +Under American guidance and example, I think the Tagals quite capable +of developing a startling vocabulary of swear-words, and in course +of time rivalling their instructors in profanity, with a touch of +their old style to give a little local colour. + + + +Courtship. + +Courtship is sometimes a long business amongst the Tagals. It is still +customary in the country districts for the impecunious candidate for +matrimony to serve the father of the damsel he desires to wed for a +period which may extend to a couple of years or more. He is called a +Catipado, and is expected to make himself generally useful, and to +take a hand in any labour that may be going on, sowing or reaping, +mending the roof, or patching the canoe. + +It is his privilege to assist the girl of his choice in her +labours. The girls of a household are expected to husk the rice +for the next day's use. This is done in the cool of the evening, +out of doors, a wooden mortar and long heavy pestle being used. It +is a well-recognised occasion for the lover to assist and entertain +his sweetheart. + +Very pretty do the village maidens look, as, lightly clothed in almost +diaphanous garments, they stand beside the mortars plying the pestle, +alternately rising on tiptoe, stretching the lithe figure to its full +height and reach, then bending swiftly to give force to the blow. + +No attitude could display to more advantage the symmetry of form which +is the Tagal maiden's heritage, and few sights are more pleasing than +a group of these tawny damsels husking paddy midst chat and laughter, +while a tropical full moon pours its effulgence on their glistening +tresses and rounded arms. + + + +Marriage. + +But let us return to the Catipado. He must be very careful not to +give cause of offence to the elders of the family, more especially +towards the end of his term, as there may be a disposition amongst +them to dismiss him, and take on another to begin a new term. In fact, +many natives have shown themselves so unwilling to consent to their +daughter's marriage, when no sufficient reason could be given for +their refusal, that the Governor-General, representing the Crown, +is entrusted with a special power of granting the paternal consent +in such cases. + +No regular marriage can be celebrated whilst the girl is a minor, +without the father's consent. + +When this is refused, and the patience of the lovers is exhausted, +the girl leaves her father's house and is deposited in the house of +the fiscal, or churchwarden, under the care of his wife. + +A petition on stamped paper is then prepared, reciting the +circumstances; this goes to the parish priest and to the +Gobernadorcillo, who require the father to state the grounds of +his refusal. If they are satisfied that no good reason exists, +the petition, with their approval noted on it, goes to the +Governor-General, and in due time a notification appears in the +official Gazette that the Governor-General has been pleased to overrule +the father's negative, and a license (on stamped paper also) for the +marriage to be celebrated, is delivered to the priest. This procedure +is very necessary, but it has the disadvantage of being slow and +expensive, so that in some cases, instead of adopting this course, +the youthful pair allow themselves some advances of the privileges of +matrimony, and perhaps there arrives a time when the obdurate parent +finds himself obliged to consent to legalise an accomplished fact to +avoid an open scandal. + +The erring damsel, however, may think herself lucky if she escapes +a fatherly correction laid on with no grudging hand, before the +reluctant consent is granted. + +The priest will of course require the youthful sinners to confess +and do penance for their previousness before he will marry them. + +The marriage ceremony is a very simple one, and usually takes place +after early Mass. The priest fixes the fee according to the means +of the party; it is often a substantial one. After the ceremony +comes a Catapusan or assembly, when the relatives and friends are +entertained. There will be music, and unless the priest disapproves +of dancing, that will be indulged in. The Augustinians mostly allow +dancing, but the Dominicans often object to it as an immoral amusement. + +The house will be hung with bright-coloured cloths and paper lanterns; +the table loaded with refreshments, both light and heavy. + + + +Wedding Feasts. + +Roast pig is a standing dish at these feasts, the animal being roasted +whole, on a spit over a fire made on the ground. A professional roaster +superintends the operation, and the pig is brought to a fine even +colour all over. Sometimes there are roast turkeys or roast mutton and +kid, possibly beef cooked in various ways, surely fish of different +kinds, fresh, salted, or smoked; the indispensable boiled rice or +morisqueta, and an abundance of sweets, fruits in syrup, guava jelly, +and Dutch cheese. There will be chocolate and perhaps coffee. As to +drinks, besides some native brews, there will be Norwegian or German +export beer, or Tennant's beer in stone bottles, square-face gin, +and Spanish red wine (Vino Tinto). + +Unlimited Buyo, cigarettes and cigars are provided. All these things +are hospitably pressed upon all comers, especially upon any European +present. If his politeness prevents his refusing this miscellaneous +assortment, unless he is favoured with the digestion of an ostrich, he +will rue it next day, and perhaps for several days. The worthy priest +is naturally in the place of honour, and like the wise man he mostly +is, he perhaps brings, slung under his habit, or sends beforehand, +a capacious leather bottle, with a supply of generous wine direct +from some convent vineyard on the peninsula, a pure natural wine, +undefiled and unfortified by German industrial spirit. A tall and +portly Augustine monk, in his spotless and ample white robes, presents +a very imposing and apostolic appearance, and looks quite in his place +at the head of the table. The host seldom sits down with his guests, +but busies himself attending to their wants. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +TAGALS AS SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. + + +The houses of the well-to-do natives are large and airy, and are kept +scrupulously clean under the vigilant eye of the mistress. + +Hospitality is a characteristic of the Tagal. According to his means +he keeps open house on religious feast-days or on family festivals, +and readily invites to his table at any time travellers who may be +passing through the town. Having enjoyed their hospitality on many +occasions, I can testify to their kindness and liberality. They placed +at my disposal their riding-ponies, vehicles or canoes, and did all +in their power to show me anything remarkable in their neighbourhood. + +The Tagals make good soldiers, and can march long distances +barefooted. Morga remarks how quickly they learned to use the arquebus +or musket in the wars of the conquest. They gave proofs of their +pluck and endurance when assisting the French in Tonquin. If well +led they will advance regardless of danger; when once engaged they +become frenzied and blood-thirsty, most difficult to restrain. They +are not improved by being made to wear gloves, boots, helmets, and +European uniforms. + +In this they are not singular, for the Ceylon Rifle Regiment (a Malay +corps) was utterly ruined, and never did any good after being put +into boots and gloves by some narrow-minded martinet. + +As sailors they are unsurpassed in the East. They navigate their +schooners and lorchas with much skill, although the rigging and +outfit is seldom kept in thorough good order unless they have a +Spanish captain. + +They serve both as sailors and firemen in the fine flotilla of +coasting-steamers belonging to Manila, and they manned all the smaller +vessels of the Spanish Navy in the Philippines. + +Most of the British and foreign steamers in the far East carry four +Manila men as quarter-masters. They are considered to be the most +skilful helmsmen. Their ability as mechanics is remarkable. They +bear out entirely Morga's description of them: "Of good talent for +anything they undertake." + +They will, without any European supervision, heave down wooden +sailing-vessels up to about 1000 tons, and repair the keel, or +strip, caulk, and re-copper the bottom. I have often seen this +done. They build from the excellent hard wood of the country, +brigantines, schooners, lorchas, also cascos, and other craft for +inland navigation and shallow waters. These latter vessels are most +ingeniously contrived, and admirably adapted to the conditions under +which they are to be used, and although not decked, carry their cargoes +dry, and in good order, in the wettest weather. They make the most +graceful canoes, and paddle or punt them with remarkable dexterity. + +In Manila and Cavite are to be found a fair number of native +engine-fitters, turners, smiths and boiler-makers. + +There must be some 400 steam sugar-mills in the islands (besides +6000 cattle-mills). The engine-drivers and firemen are all natives, +and mostly Tagals. + +There are also in the capital large numbers of native house-carpenters, +quarrymen, stone-masons, and some brick-layers and brick-makers. + +Curiously enough, foundry work is not much done by Tagals, although +when Legaspi arrived in Luzon he not only found cannon mounted at +Manila, but there was a cannon-foundry there, and another at Tondo. + +There are foundries at the latter place to this day belonging to +Chinese half-castes, but church bells are more to their way now +than cannon. They, however, cast small brass mortars with handles +like quart pots, which are used for firing salutes at the feasts of +the church. But I think most of the workmen were then, and are now, +Chinese. + +They make their own gunpowder, and fireworks of all kinds. They are +inordinately fond of these, and get up very creditable displays. They +are careless in handling them, and I was eye-witness of an explosion +of fireworks during a water fete, on the passing in front of the +governor's palace at Malacanan, when a number of people were killed. I +never learned how many had perished, and the newspapers were forbidden +to enlarge upon it. + +Excellent carriages are built in Manila entirely by native labour, +the carromatas, or two-wheeled vehicles used for travelling, being +made in the suburbs, or in Malabon. + +Carriage-building is an important trade, for an incredible number of +vehicles of all sorts are used in Manila. + +Of an evening, in the Luneta, some hundreds may be seen, and on one +occasion, at the races of the Jockey Club in Santa Mesa, two thousand +vehicles were reported to be present. + +Painting and decorating is executed by Manila men in excellent +style. This art was taught them by Alberoni, and other Italians. Their +pupils have covered the walls of many buildings with frescoes in the +Italian style, very fairly done. There is much scope for their art +in decorating altars and shrines. + +The Tagals also show some talent for sculpture, as any visitor to +Manila can see for himself by inspecting the Jesuit Church, which +is a marvel of patient artistic labour, having taken eleven years +to construct. Some of the carving there, however, is so delicate and +minutely detailed, that it appears more suitable for a show case in +a museum than for the adornment of a place of worship. Of course, +every detail of design is due to the Jesuits themselves, amongst whom +talented men of every profession can be found. + +As a fisherman, the Tagal excels, and the broad expanse of Manila Bay, +some 700 square miles in area, gives ample scope for his ingenuity. He +practises every kind of fishing Corrales de Pesca, or fish-stakes +within the five-fathom line, casting nets and seines in the shallow +water, huge sinking nets attached to bamboo shear-legs mounted on +rafts in the estuaries, drift nets and line-fishing in the deeper +parts of the bay. + +From Tondo, from Paranaque, Las Pinas, Bacoor, and Cavite Viejo, +and from dozens of other villages, go hundreds of large canoes, +crowded with men, and heaped up with nets, to fish near the San +Nicolas Bank, or about Corregidor Island, and they often return with +large catches. Some fish by night, with torch and spear; in fact, +they seem to be quite at home at any kind of fishing. + +The nets and sails of the canoes, and the clothes of the fishermen, +are all tanned by them with the bark of the camanchile tree. + +The salting, drying, or smoking of the fish caught in the bay is quite +an extensive business. The smoked sardines, or tinapa, are very tasty, +as also the pickled mullet roes called Bagon de Lisa. But the small +shrimps fermented in a jar, and brought to a particular stage of +putrefaction, [21] much appreciated by the natives, will not suit +European or American tastes. + +The vast Bay of Manila holds fish and mammals of all sorts and sizes, +from small fry to that huge but harmless monster of the deep, Rhinodon +tipicus, with a mouth like the opening of a hansom cab, scooping in +jelly-fish by the bushel. + +The peje-rey, like a smelt, the lenguado, or sole, the lisa, or +mullet, the bacoco, corbina, pampano, and others whose names I have +forgotten, are excellent. The oysters are good, but very small. Prawns +are excellent, large and cheap. Crabs are good, but large ones are +not plentiful. Clawless lobsters are caught amongst the rocks of +Corregidor and Mariveles. The largest turtle I have ever seen was +caught off Malabon. It can be seen in the Jesuits' Museum, Manila. + +Sharks of all sorts, enormous saw-fish, [22] hideous devil-fish, +[23] and monstrous conger eels, as well as poisonous black and yellow +sea-snakes, abound, so that the fisherman does not have everything his +own way. Amongst these men are to be found some excellent divers. I +have found them quite able to go down to the keel of a large ship and +report whether any damage has been done. Where a sheet of copper has +been torn off, they have nailed on a new sheet, getting in two or three +nails every time they went down. I enquired from one of these men who +had frequently dived for me, when a European diver with diving-gear +could not be obtained, if he was not afraid of sharks? He answered, +"No es hora del tiburon"--it is not the sharks' time--and I found he +considered that he was very fairly safe from the sharks between ten and +four. Before ten and after four was a dangerous time, as the sharks +were on the look-out for a meal. I cannot say that I should like to +trust to this, especially as I have seen sharks about at other times, +and one afternoon, in the bay, had to keep off a hammerheaded-shark +from coming near a British diver who was examining the rudder of a +steamer, by firing at it from the stern. Some sharks are heavy and +slow-moving creatures, but the hammer-headed kind are endowed with +a surprising activity, and twist and turn like an eel. + +My native diver informed me that he was much more afraid of the +Manta than of any shark, and that once when he was diving for some +purpose--I do not recollect when--at the bottom a shade fell on him, +and, on looking up, he beheld an enormous manta right above him--in +his words, "as big as a lighter." However, it passed on, and he was +able to regain the surface. + +Perhaps the most remarkable talent possessed by the Tagal is his gift +for instrumental music. + +Each parish has its brass band supplied with European instruments, +the musicians generally wearing a quasi-military uniform. If the +village is a rich one, there is usually a string band as well. They +play excellently, as do the military bands. Each infantry battalion +had its band, whilst that of the Peninsular Artillery, of ninety +performers, under a band-master holding the rank of lieutenant, was +one of the finest bands I have ever heard. There were few countries +where more music could be heard gratis than in the Philippines, +and for private dances these bands could be hired at moderate rates. + +The Tagal is also a good agriculturist. According to his lights, he +cultivates paddy with great care. It is all raised in seed-plots, the +soil of which is carefully prepared, and fenced about. The fields are +ploughed and harrowed whilst covered with water, so that the surface +is reduced to soft mud. When the ground is ready for planting, the +whole population turns out, and, being supplied with the young shoots +in bundles, of which tally is kept, proceed to plant each individual +shoot of paddy by hand. + +Ankle-deep in the soft mud of the paddy-fields stand long rows of +bare-legged men, women and children, each in a stooping position, +holding against the body with the left hand a large bundle of +rice-plants, incessantly and rapidly seizing a shoot with the right +hand, and plunging it into the black slime with the forefinger +extended. + +Hour after hour the patient toil goes on, and day after day, in all the +glare of the burning sun, reflected and intensified from the surface +of the black water, till the whole vast surface has been planted. The +matandang-sa-naya, or village elder, then announces how many millions +of rice shoots have been put in. The labour is most exhausting, +from the stooping position, which is obligatory, and because the eyes +become inflamed from the reflection of the sun on the black water. As +the paddy is planted during the rainy season, it often happens that +the work is done under a tropical downpour instead of a blazing sun. + +When driving along a road through paddy-fields in October, it +seems incredible that every blade of that luxuriant crop has been +transplanted by hand. Yet the people who do this are branded as +lazy. I think that they are quite ready to work for a sufficient +inducement. Whenever I had works to execute I never experienced any +difficulty in obtaining men. I made it a rule to pay every man with +my own hands every Saturday his full wages without deductions. On +Monday morning, if I wanted 300 men, there would be 500 to pick and +choose from. I should like to see some of their depreciators try an +hour's work planting paddy, or poling a casco up stream. + +The undulating nature of the ground renders it necessary to divide +paddy land into small plots of irregular outline at varying levels, +divided from each other by ridges of earth called pilapiles, so as +to retain the rain or irrigation water, allowing it to descend slowly +from level to level till it reaches its outlet at the lowest point. The +Tagals fully justify their Turanian origin by the skill and care which +they show in irrigation. About Manila, the sacate, or meadow-grass, +which is the principal food of the thousands of ponies in the city, +is cultivated on lands which are exactly at a level to be flooded by +the spring-tides. + +The mango-tree is carefully cultivated, and the fruit is, to some +extent, forced by lighting fires of leaves and twigs under these trees +every evening in the early part of the year to drive off insects, +and give additional warmth. + +In Batangas and La Luguna, and, to some extent, in Bulacan, the Tagals +cultivate the sugar-cane successfully. + +But where they really shine, where all their care is lavished, +where nothing is too much trouble, is in the cultivation of the buyo +(Piper betel). This is a climbing plant, and is grown on sticks +like hops. There were many plantations of this near Pineda, which I +frequently visited. It is grown in small fields, enclosed by hedges +or by rows of trees to keep off the wind. + +The soil is carefully prepared, and all weeds removed. As the tendrils +grow up, the sticks are placed for them. The plants are watered by +hand, and leaf by leaf carefully examined every morning to remove +all caterpillars or other insects. The plants are protected from the +glare of the sun by mat-shades supported on bamboos. + +The ripe leaves are gathered fresh every morning, and taken to market, +where they find a ready sale at remunerative prices for chewing with +the areca nut, and a pinch of slaked shell lime. + +Whenever I have had Tagal hunters with me deer-shooting, I have +been struck with their knowledge of the natural history of their +locality. They thoroughly understood the habits of the game, and +almost always foretold correctly the direction from which the deer +would approach the guns. + +They have names for every animal and bird, and for the different ages +or conditions, or size of antlers, of the deer. + +Even insects and reptiles are named by them; they could give details +of their habits, and knew whether they were poisonous or dangerous. + +They always showed themselves greatly interested in sport, and much +appreciated a good shot. They spoke of a gun that killed well as a hot +gun (baril mainit). If they were trusted with a gun they were very +reluctant to spend a cartridge unless for a dead certainty. If two +cartridges are given to a hunter, he will bring in two deer or pigs, +otherwise he will apologise for wasting a cartridge, and explain how +it happened. + +Their usual way of taking game is to set strong nets of abaca in the +woods in the form of a V, then the beaters and dogs drive the game +towards the hunters, who are concealed near the apex, and who kill +the deer or wild pigs with their lances whilst entangled in the nets. + +I have found the Tagals very satisfactory as domestic servants, +although not so hard-working as the Ilocanos. Some of them could clean +glass or plate as well as an English butler, and could lay the table +for a dinner party and ornament tastefully with flowers and ferns, +folding the napkins like a Parisian waiter. + +They could also write out the menu (their orthography having been +previously corrected), and serve the dinner and wines in due sequence +without requiring any directions during the meal. + +Some of them remained in my service the whole time I was in the +Philippines; one of them, Paulino Morillo, came to England with me +in charge of my two sons, and afterwards made three voyages to Cuba +with me. I gratefully acknowledge his faithful service. His portrait +is appended. + +I did not find them sufficiently punctual and regular as cooks, nor +did they make their purchases in the market to as much advantage as the +Chinese cooks, who never bid one against another to raise the price. + +As clerks and store-keepers I found the Tagals honest, assiduous, +and well-behaved. As draughtsmen they were fairly skilful in drawing +from hand sketches, and excelled in copying or tracing, but were quite +untrustworthy in taking out quantities and computing. Some of them +could write beautiful headings, or design ornamental title-pages. I +have by me some of their work that could not be done better even in +Germany or France. But the more skilful they were the more irregular +was their attendance, and the more they had learned the worse they +behaved. + +When doing business with the Tagals, I found that the elder men could +be trusted. If I gave them credit, which was often the case, for +one or two years, I could depend upon the money being paid when due, +unless some calamity such as a flood or a conflagration had rendered +it absolutely impossible for them to find the cash. In such a case +(which seldom happened) they would advise me beforehand, and perhaps +bring a portion of the money, giving a pagare, bearing interest, for +the remainder, and never by any possibility denying the debt. I never +made a bad debt amongst them, and gladly testify to their punctilious +honesty. This idea of the sacredness of an obligation seems to prevail +amongst many of the Malay races, even among the pagan savages, as +I had occasion to observe when I visited the Tagbanuas in Palawan +(Paragua). They certainly did not learn this from the Spaniards. + + + +The More Instruction the less Honesty. + +When dealing with the younger men who had been educated in Manila, +in Hong Kong, or even in Europe, I found that this idea had been +eradicated from them, and that no sufficient sense of honour had been +implanted in its stead. + +In fact, I may say that, whilst the unlettered agriculturist, with his +old-fashioned dress, and quiet, dignified manner, inspired me with +the respect due to an honest and worthy man, the feeling evolved +from a discussion with the younger and educated men, dressed in +European clothes, who had been pupils in the Ateneo Municipal, or in +Santo Tomas, was less favourable, and it became evident to me that, +although they might be more instructed than their fathers, they were +morally below them. Either their moral training had been deficient, +or their natures are not improved by education. I usually preferred +to do business with them on a cash basis. + + + +Unsuitable Training. + +Dare I, at the tail-end of the nineteenth century, in the days of +Board Schools, County Councils, conscientious objectors, and Hooligans, +venture to recall to mind a saying of that grand old Conservative, the +Peruvian Solomon, Tupac Inca Yupanqui? "Science should only be taught +to those of generous blood, for the meaner sort are only puffed up, +and rendered vain and arrogant by it. Neither should such mingle in +the affairs of state, for by that means high offices are brought into +disrepute." [24] + +That great monarch's words exactly express my conclusions about the +young Tagals and other natives. + +To take a young native lad away from his parents, to place him in a +corrupted capital like Manila, and to cram him with the intricacies +of Spanish law, while there is probably, not in all those who surround +him, one single honest and upright man he can look up to for guidance +and example, is to deprive him of whatever principles of action he may +once have possessed, whilst giving him no guide for his future conduct. + +He acquires the European vices without the virtues; loses his native +modesty and self-respect, and develops too often into a contemptible +pica-pleito, or pettifogger, instead of becoming an honest farmer. + +The more educated Tagals are fond of litigation, and with the +assistance of native or half-caste lawyers will carry on the most +frivolous and vexatious lawsuit with every artifice that cunning and +utter unscrupulousness can suggest. The corrupt nature of the Spanish +courts is a mainstay to such people. Although they may be possessed +of ample means litigants often obtain from the court permission to +sue a foreigner in forma pauperis. + +They are unscrupulous about evidence, and many will perjure themselves +or bring false witnesses without shame. It is said that blank stamped +paper of any year can be obtained for a sufficient price for the +purpose of forging documents relating to the sale of land; as there +are people who regularly keep it for this purpose. + +The feeling of envy is strong within them, and any Spaniard or +foreigner who appears to be succeeding in an industrial enterprise in +the provinces, such as planting or mining, is sure, sooner or later, +to be attacked by the pettifoggers or their men of straw, and he will +be bled heavily when he comes before the courts, and perhaps have to +go to the Court of Appeal or even to the Tribunal Supremo in Madrid +before he can obtain a verdict in his favour. + +The credulity of the Tagal is remarkable; he has on occasion given +way to outbursts of ferocity, involving death and destruction to +numbers of innocent people. + +In 1820, during an epidemic of cholera, he was led to believe that +this strange sickness had been produced by the foreigners, who had +poisoned the water. An indiscriminate massacre of foreigners was the +consequence of this calumny, and but few escaped. The authorities, +always prompt to repress uprisings against the Government, allowed time +for the foreigners to be massacred before they interfered. It is not +easy to say how many English, French, or Americans met their deaths +at the hands of the populace, for such details are never allowed to +be published. + +I may say, however, that one should not be too hard on the Tagals +for this crime, since at a much later date a massacre of priests +occurred in Madrid, on account of a similar belief. It was started +because a lad, the servant of a priest, was seen to throw some white +powder into the Fuente Castellana. I have not at hand the details of +this massacre, but the friars were slaughtered like pigs. + +In the dreadful epidemic of cholera in 1882, the natives behaved very +well, and I must give General Primo de Rivera credit for keeping +strict order and promptly organising the construction of temporary +hospitals, the inspection of every parish of the city, the conveyance +of the sick to hospital, and the burial of the dead. It was done +under military direction, and with the assistance of the priests, +the civil authorities, and the principal inhabitants. No disturbances +occurred owing to the strong hand of the Governor-General, although +some of the evil-disposed natives began to murmur about the doctors +carrying about the disease. + +The mortality was dreadful; I believe that some 30,000 people lost +their lives in the city and province of Manila in three or four +months. In order to nurse the sick and bury the vast number of dead, +it was necessary to employ the convicts and prisoners. All these people +behaved remarkably well, although many succumbed to the disease. The +survivors were pardoned outright, or had their sentences reduced. If +the Governor-General had shown signs of weakness, the horrors of 1820 +might have been repeated. + +To give a better idea of the credulity of the Tagals and other +natives, I may say that in 1868 telegrams were received in Manila +(via Hong Kong), which were made public in the islands, announcing +the Spanish revolution of September, and the news, with stupendous +exaggerations, reached the remotest villages and the most miserable +huts. A general and indelible idea took possession of the minds of +the natives that Revolution (they thought it was a new emperor or a +great personage) had decreed that all were equal, that there should +be no difference between Indians and Spaniards, that the latter had +to return to Spain and Indians be substituted in all employments, +and that the tribute would be greatly reduced. That there would be +no conscription nor corvee (personal work), that the Pope would name +several Indian bishops, and that the Spanish priests would return +to the Peninsula. That a new captain-general would arrive who would +marry a native lady, who would be made a princess, that their children +would be kings and sovereigns of the Philippine Empire. + +All this was confirmed by prophecies, by dreams, and revelations, and +great miracles by the Virgin of Antipolo and of St. Joseph, and other +patrons of the Indies, not omitting St. Peter, for whom the native +clergy profess a profound veneration, and who is the patron saint of +a brotherhood which has caused much trouble in the Philippines. + +General Gandara, informed of all these absurdities by the friars, +did not fail to appreciate the immense importance of the movement +which, like the teachings of the so-called gods of Panay and Samar +who collected thousands of followers, might produce a general +insurrection. He therefore took due precautions, and invited all +the Spaniards in the Philippines, without distinction of party, in +support of the Government constituted in Spain. There was, however, +much agitation and much travelling to and fro amongst the native +clergy and the pettifogging lawyers. It was, however, not till 1872 +that the conspirators succeeded in producing the mutiny of Cavite, +which was quickly suppressed, with much slaughter of the mutineers. + +The chief amusement of the Tagal is cock-fighting. I shall not +describe this well-known sport, but will remark that it provides no +inconsiderable revenue. The right of building and running the cock-pits +of each province is farmed out to Chinese or Chinese half-breeds, +and no combats may take place except in these places. They are +opened after Mass on Sundays and feast-days, and on some other days +by special leave from the authorities. The love of this sport and the +hope of gain is so general that the majority of the natives of Manila +are breeders of game-cocks, which they tend with assiduous care, and +artisans often carry their favourite birds to their work and tether +them in the shade, where they can keep them in view. Horse-fights +occasionally take place. The ponies of the Philippines, although +not usually vicious to man, will fight savagely with each other, and +inflict severe bites. I remember a case where two ponies harnessed to +a victoria began fighting and a Guardia Civil attempted to separate +them, when one of the ponies seized him by the thigh, lifted him +off his feet, and shook him as a terrier might shake a rat; the +flesh of the man's thigh was torn away and the bone left bare. This +dreadful wound caused his death. The occurrence took place in front +of the church of Binondo in Manila. Bull fights have been an utter +failure in Manila, although many attempts have been made to establish +them. Flying kites is a great amusement with young and old in the +early months of the year, when the N.E. monsoon blows. Fights are +organised: the competing kites have crescent-shaped pieces of steel +attached to the tails, and the competitor who can cut the string of +his opponent's kite by causing his own to swoop suddenly across it, +is the winner. Betting on the result is common. The Tagals are also +fond of the theatre, and some years ago there was a Tagal theatre in +Binondo where comedies in that language were played. I have also met +strolling players in the country towns. + +But of all kinds of shows a good circus is the one that fetches his +last dollar out of the Tagal. Guiseppe Chiarini reaped a silver harvest +in Manila on both occasions he pitched his tents there. His advance +agent, Maya, a Chilian, paved the way for success, and the pompous +announcement that Chiarini was born in the sacred city of Rome, greatly +impressed the natives, who flocked in thousands to his circus. Chiarini +considered himself able to tame the most vicious horse, and purchased +a fine Manila pony that no one could manage. The beast, however, +was not subdued by his powers, and, seizing the tamer's cheek, bit +off a large piece. + +On feast days in the larger towns, open-air plays are sometimes +given, and what with preparations, rehearsals, and performance, +absorb the attention of a large number of the inhabitants for a +couple of months. I witnessed a very notable performance of this +kind some years ago at Balayan in the province of Batangas, the +characters being played by the sons and daughters of the principal +people there. The subject was taken from the 'Wars of Grenada.' In +the first act we saw a Christian king and his court, also his only +and peerless daughter. After these had had their say, an ambassador +from the Moslem king was announced, and the king summoned his council +to consider the communication. He took his seat upon the throne, +with grey-bearded councillors on each side. The Moslem envoy, and his +suite and escort, entered on horseback and very unnecessarily galloped +about and gave an exhibition of their horsemanship. Then the envoy, +still on horseback, harangued the king, and arrogantly demanded the +hand of the beauteous princess for his master, threatening war to +the knife in case of refusal. He then retired to his camp. + +Next came the discussion of the demand which the grey-beards think +it hopeless to resist. The Moslem envoy was sent for, and amid great +grief the princess was about to be confided to his care, when there +rushed in a young Christian warrior and his followers, who swore they +would never allow a Christian princess to wed a Paynim, and dismissed +the envoy with contumelious remarks. He retired vowing vengeance. All +this occupied a long time, and I did not remain for the rest. I think +it took two days to act. But from the volleys of musketry and firing +of rockets and mortars which I heard, a sanguinary war must have been +waged and many of the characters must have perished. The play was +acted in a more spirited way than usual; some of the male performers +declaimed their parts with energy. Some were mounted on fine ponies, +and were well got up and armed. + +The girls' dresses were rich, and they wore a great deal of +jewellery. Some of the princesses were very handsome girls. There is a +sort of a superstition that any girl performing in one of these pieces +is sure to be married within a year. This makes them very ready to +undertake a part, as they obtain an excellent opportunity to display +their charms to advantage, and so help to fulfil the prediction. The +play was witnessed by the mass of the population of Balayan and by +numerous visitors from the neighbouring towns. It was considered a +very successful performance, and it carried my memory over the wide +Pacific to Peru, where I have seen similar plays acted by the country +people in the Plaza of Huacho. + + + +Tagal Literature. + +Tagal literature does not amount to very much, and the policy of +the Government of late years has been to teach Spanish as well as +the native dialects in the schools. This did not meet the approval +of the old school of priests; but many of the younger ones have +accepted the Government view. In the Exhibition of the Philippines, +Madrid, 1887, Don Vicente Barrantes showed twenty volumes of grammars +and vocabularies of the Philippine dialects, and thirty-one volumes +of popular native poetry, besides two volumes of native plays. The +Reverend Father Raimundo Lozano exhibited twenty-eight volumes of +religious works in the Visayas-Panayano dialect, and the Reverend +Father Francisco Valdez a study of the roots of the Ilocan dialect +in manuscript. Many works in the native dialects have been written by +the Spanish priests, such as one by the Reverend Father Manuel Blanco, +the learned author of the 'Flora Filipina,' of which I give the title +and the first verse:-- + + + Tagaloc verses to assist in "Manga dalit na Tagalog at + dying well. pagtulong sa mamaluatay na + tanang Cristiana." + + +Manila, 1867, VIII., 62 pag 8o. + + + "Aba bumabasa baquin baga caya + Tila camuntima i nata cang bohala." + + +I now give the title of a secular poem in English and Tagal, that +the reader may compare the words and note the subject:-- + + + Story of the life of the "Salita at buhay nang + beauteous shepherdess marilang na pastora na si + Jacobina, a native of Jacobina tubo sa Villa + Moncada, who became the Moncada Naguing asaua + wife of the King, nang Policarpio de + Policarpio de Villar, Villar sa cabarian nang + in the kingdom of Dalmacia nagga roon nang + Dalmatia, and bore a isang supligna anac ang + son named Villardo. pangaia i si Villardo." + + +The poem begins-- + + "O maamong Ester mananalong Judit + Mariang linanag nitong sang daigdig." + + +and concludes-- + + + "Panang nang pupuri ang lahat nang cabig + Sa yanang inaguling ang tinamo i sangit." + + +I do not think it is necessary to quote any more, as this gives the +reader sufficient idea of the language. + +There is much that is good in the Tagal, much to like and +admire. Antonio de Morga, Sinibaldo de Mas, Tomas de Comyn, Paul de la +Gironiere, Jagor, Bowring, Palgrave, Foreman, Stevens, Worcester--all +have some good to say of him, and with reason. But the piratical +blood is strong in him yet. He requires restraint and guidance from +those who have a higher standard for their actions than he has. Left +to himself he would infallibly relapse into savagery. At the same +time he will not be governed by brute force, and under oppression +or contumelious treatment he would abandon the plains, retire to the +mountains, and lead a predatory life. Although not just himself nor +truthful, he can recognise and revere truth and justice in a master +or governor. Courageous himself, only a courageous man can win his +respect. He is grateful, [25] and whoever can secure his reverence +and gratitude will have no trouble in leading him. + +I have testified to the Tagal's excellence in many handicrafts and +callings, yet I greatly doubt whether they have the mental and moral +equipment for any of the professions. I should not like to place my +affairs in the hands of a Tagal lawyer, to trust my life in the hands +of a Tagal doctor, nor to purchase an estate on the faith of a Tagal +surveyor's measurement. + +I do not say that they are all untrustworthy, nor that they can never +become fit for the higher callings, but they are not fit for them +now, and it will take a long time, and a completely changed system +of education, before they can become fit. + +What they want are examples of a high type of honour and morality that +they could look up to and strive to imitate. There are such men in +America. Whether they will be sent to the Philippines is best known +to Mr. McKinley. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + +Pampangos (2). + + +The Pampangos are close neighbours of the Tagals. They inhabit the +rich and fertile province of Pampanga and a large part of that of +Tarlac. There are also some detached colonies of them in the towns +of Bataan, Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan, and Zambales. The population of +Pampanga is given in the census of 1876 as 226,000. Allowing one-half +the population of Tarlac to belong to this race, we have to add +41,000, and supposing one-tenth the population of Bataan, Nueva Ecija, +and Zambales, to be Pampangos, say 27,000, we get 294,000 as their +number in 1876. Doubtless they have largely increased since then. The +Pampangos speak a different language from the Tagals, yet they can +understand each other to some extent. Many of the better class speak +both languages. The Pampango does not greatly differ from the Tagal in +appearance or character, but his environment and his occupations are +different. He is not so much a sailor, a fisherman, or a mechanic. He +excels in agriculture, is a good organiser of labour, rides well, +is a good hunter, and makes a bold and determined soldier. Large +numbers of this war-like race have fought under the Spanish flag +against the Mahometan princes of the Moluccas, of Mindanao, and Sulu, +as also against the British and the Dutch. + + +Pampangos as Cultivators. + +The towns of San Fernando, Guagua Bacolor, Mexico, Angeles, Candaba, +and many others have been built up by Pampanga industry. They contain +many fine houses, where the European traveller is sure of a hospitable +reception. + +The staple crop of Pampanga is sugar, and I shall explain their +organisation for its cultivation and manufacture. + +In Luzon the land is usually cultivated under an arrangement known +as Aparceria. + +The conditions of Aparceria vary according to the locality, and to +established custom, since on the land near a town a smaller share is +given to the cultivator than on land near the forests, where if he +were not satisfied he might commence to clear land for himself. Also +the land near the towns is more valuable than that at a distance for +various reasons. + +The following is an example of the terms usual in Pampanga. The +land-owner provides: + + + A. Cleared land ready for the plough. + B. Sugar-cane points for the first planting. + C. Sugar-mill, boiling-pans and the building for same. + D. Money advances to keep the cultivator and his family, and for + taking off the crop. + E. Carts for carrying the cane to the mill. + + +The cultivator, or inquilino, provides: + + + 1. His labour and that of his family for ploughing, planting and + cultivating the cane and fencing the plantations. + 2. The ploughs and implements of husbandry. + 3. The cattle (water buffaloes) for the above labours and for + working the mill if it is a cattle mill. + + +The money advanced to the cultivator by the land-owner is charged 20 +per cent. per annum interest. + +For a daily task of 9 pilones from cattle-mills or 10 pilones from +steam-mills there are employed: + + + 2 Labourers to cut cane at 25 cents and food .50 cents. + 1 Carter at 25 cents and food .25 + 2 Mill attendants at 25 cents and food .50 + Sugar boiler and fireman at 25 cents and food .75 + 1 Megass carrier at 25 cents and food .25 + ------ + Mexican dollars 2.25 + + Or 25 cents per pilon. + + + +Sugar Crop. + +The land-owner pays the men's wages, and the cultivator gives them +three meals a day and cigars. + +The sugar-moulds (pilones) cost about 121/2 cents each, and the cost +is divided between the parties. + +In making up the account, 61/2 per cent. per annum is charged on the +value of the land, machinery and building. + +The molasses which drains from the sugar belongs to the land-owner. + +These pilones are supposed to contain 140 lbs. of sugar when +filled. They are placed upon a small pot to allow the molasses to drain +off. When delivered their weight may be from 112 to 120 lbs. according +to the time they have been draining. This sugar polarises about 80 +per cent. according to circumstances and requires to be treated at +the farderias in Manila to bring it up to an even sample before it +is exported. The sugar loaves are cut up, sorted, crushed, mixed +with other sugars, sun-dried, and a certain quantity of sand added +before being put into bags for export as Manila Sugar, usually No. 7 +or No. 9 Dutch standard. It will be seen from the above figures how +moderate the expenses are. Of course each land-owner has a number of +cultivators, and often a number of mills. + +Notwithstanding the low price of sugar which has prevailed for many +years, the provinces of Pampanga has made money out of it as the +handsome houses of the land-owners in all their towns testify. + +The sugar crop in Pampanga has never quite reached a million pilones, +but has exceeded nine hundred thousand, say from fifty to sixty +thousand English tons. The cane is crushed in small steam or cattle +mills having three horizontal rollers. + +These mills are mostly made in Glasgow and have now in Pampanga +entirely superseded the Chinese mills with vertical rollers of granite +or the native mills with vertical rollers of hard wood. [26] + +In former years I pointed out, in a report written for General +Jovellar, what a great advantage it would be to Pampanga if the +planters would abandon the use of pilones and make sugar suitable +for direct export and so obviate the manipulation in the farderias +at Manila. + +They could make a sugar similar to that produced in Negros and known +as Ilo-ilo. + +Now that the Philippines have passed into the hands of the United +States, I do not doubt that central sugar factories will be established +and will turn out centrifugal sugars polarizing 96 per cent. similar +to the Cuban sugar. + + + +Pampangos as Fishermen. + +There are some Pampanga fishermen on the River Betis, at San Jose, +and amongst the labyrinth of creeks and mangrove swamps forming the +north-western shores of Manila Bay. + +Their avocation is not destitute of danger, for these swamps are +the home of the alligator. [27] Although they are not as large as +some I have seen in the River Paraguay or on the River Daule, in +Ecuador, they are quite large enough to seize a horse or a man. I +was once visiting Fr. Enrique Garcia, the parish priest of Macabebe, +when a native woman came in and presented him with a dollar to say +a Mass in thanksgiving for the escape of her husband from death that +morning. She told us that he was pushing a shrimp-net in shallow water +when the buaya seized him by the shoulder. The fisherman, however, +called upon his patron saint, and putting out his utmost strength, +with the aid of Saint Peter, succeeded in extricating himself from +the reptile's jaws and in beating him off. His shoulder, however, +was badly lacerated by the alligator's teeth. It was lucky for him +that he was in shallow water, for the alligator usually holds its +prey under water and drowns it. + +The Pampangos also fish on the Rio Grande, the Rio Chico, and in the +Pinag de Candaba. This latter is an extensive swampy plain, partly +under cultivation in the dry season, partly laid out as fish-ponds. + +The Nipa palm grows in abundance in the delta of the Betis, and +small colonies of half-savage people are settled on dry spots amongst +these swamps engaged in collecting the juice or the leaves of this +tree. The stems are punctured and the juice runs into small vessels +made of cane. It is collected daily, poured into jars and carried in +small canoes to the distillery where it is fermented and distilled. + +The distilleries are constructed in a very primitive manner, and are +worked by Chinese or Chinese half-breeds. + +The produce is called Vino de Nipa, and is retailed in the native +stalls and restaurants. + +The leaves are doubled and sewn with rattan strips upon a small piece +of bamboo, they are taken to market upon a platform laid across the +gunwales of two canoes. This arrangement is called bangcas mancornadas, +canoes yoked together. The nipa is sold by the thousand, and serves to +thatch the native houses anywhere, except in certain parts of Manila +and other towns where its use is forbidden on account of the great +danger of its taking fire. + +From circumstances that have come under my own observation, I believe +it to be a fact that when trade in nipa thatch is dull, the canoe-men +set fire to the native houses in the suburbs of Manila to make a +market. I have noticed more than once that houses have commenced to +burn from the upper part of the thatched roof where they could not +have caught fire accidentally. The Province of Pampanga extends to +the westward, as far as the crests of the Zambales mountains, and the +Cordillera of Mabanga is included within its boundaries. There is but +little cultivated land beyond the town of Porac to the westward. Here +the Pampangos trade with the Negritos, who inhabit the Zambales range, +getting from them jungle produce in exchange for rice, tobacco, sugar, +and other articles. Occasionally the Negritos steal cattle from +the Pampangos or at times murder one of them if a good opportunity +presents itself. + + + +Pampangos as Hunters. + +The natives of this part of the province are good wood-men and hunters. + +In addition to taking game by nets and ambuscade, some of them hunt +the deer on ponies which are trained to run at full speed after the +game, up or down hill, and to get near enough for the rider to throw +or use his lance. + +Being at Porac in 1879 with the late Major Deare, 74th Highlanders +(now 2nd Batt. Highland Light Infantry), an enthusiastic sportsman, +we saw two men who had practised this sport for years, and were told +that their arms, ribs, legs and collar-bones had been broken over and +over again. We saw them gallop down a rocky and precipitous descent +after a deer at full speed. + +We could only wonder that they were alive if that was a sample of +their hunting. Their saddles were fitted with strong martingales and +cruppers and with triple girths so that they could not shift. The +saddles themselves were of the usual native pattern, like miniature +Mexicans. The men were light weights. + +N.B.--If any reader of this contemplates travelling in the +Philippines, let him take a saddle with him. It should be as small +as he could comfortably use, and light. The ponies are from twelve +to thirteen hands high, but are remarkably strong and clever. I know +from experience that a good one will carry fourteen stone over rough +ground with safety. + + + +Tulisanes. + +Pampanga has produced some notable bandits or Tulisanes who have given +the Spaniards much trouble. Of late years there has been a diminution +in the number of crimes of violence, due in a great measure to the +establishment of the Guardia Civil by General Gandara in 1867. + +I once built a nipa house on the banks of the Rio Grande, near +Macabebe, and resided there for several months, carrying on some +works. I was new to the country and ignorant of the customs of +the people. + +There were no other Europeans in the vicinity, except the priests. + +I took care to treat all my native neighbours with strict justice, +neither infringing their rights, nor allowing them to impose on me. + +There came to stay with me Mr. A. B. Whyte, then an employe, now a +partner in one of the leading British firms in Manila, who frequently +had ten thousand dollars in gold in his safe, and similar sums were +remitted to him from Manila at different times for the purchase +of sugar. + +One day we received a visit from an officer of the Civil Guard who came +to warn us that we were in danger of an attack, that his post was too +far off for him to protect us, and that the locality bore a very bad +name for crimes of violence. We thanked him for his visit and warning, +entertained him to lunch, and informed him that we intended to remain, +after which he returned to his post at Apalit. On making inquiry we +found that some of our immediate neighbours were well-known bandits, +but were thought to have retired from business. However, they never +attacked us, and probably prevented any other Tulisanes from doing so +lest they should get the blame. But had I encroached on their land or +treated them contemptuously, or had I allowed them to impose upon me, +I do not doubt we should have been attacked and to say the least we +might have found ourselves in a tight place. + +A nipa house is no place to defend, for it can be burnt in a few +minutes in the dry season, and a spear can be pushed through the sides, +or up through the floor with ease. + +In cases like this one cannot entirely depend upon the assistance +of native servants, for they have sometimes joined with criminals to +rob or murder their master. + +There is a curious custom amongst bandits to invite an outsider to +join them in a particular enterprise, and it is considered mean and as +denoting a want of courage to refuse, even when a servant is invited +to help rob or kill his master. Moreover, there is much danger in +refusing to join the bandits, for it will give dire offence to them and +perhaps have fatal consequences. This invitation is called a Convite +[see Chap. V.]. + +The hereditary taint of piracy in the Malay blood, and the low +moral standard prevailing in the Archipelago, as well as fear of the +consequences of a refusal, render it more difficult than a stranger +can realise for a native servant to resist such a temptation. + + + +Pampanga Women. + +The women in Pampanga are smart in appearance, clever in business, +and good at a bargain, whether buying or selling. The men are well +aware of this and when selling their produce or buying a sugar-mill, +they like to have the assistance of their wives, who are always the +hardest customers to deal with. + +They are excellent sempstresses and good at embroidery. In some +villages they make very durable silk handkerchiefs with coloured +borders of blue, red or purple. Straw hats, mats, salacots, cigar +and cigarette cases are also made by them. + +Their houses are kept clean, and the larger ones are well-suited for +entertainments, as the sala and caida are very spacious, and have +polished floors of narra, or some other hard close-grained wood very +pleasant to dance on. + +A ball at a big Pampanga house is a sight that will be +remembered. Capitan Joaquin Arnedo Cruz of Sulipan, on the Rio Grande, +a wealthy native sugar-planter, used to assemble in his fine house the +principal people of the neighbourhood to meet royal or distinguished +guests. One of his daughters is married to a distinguished lawyer, +my friend Don Felipe Buencamino, author of the remarkable State +paper addressed to the United States Senate, and published in the +Congressional Record of January 9th, 1900, pp. 752-53-54. Capitan +Joaquin possessed a magnificent porcelain table-service of two hundred +pieces, specially made and marked with his monogram, sent him by a +prince who had enjoyed his hospitality. + +He gave a ball for the Grand Duke Alexis of Russia, who afterwards +declared that the room presented one of the most brilliant sights he +had ever seen. + +This from a son of an Emperor might seem an exaggeration, but brilliant +is the only word that can describe the effect produced on the spectator +by the bright costumes and sparkling jewellery of the women. + +Their dress seems to exercise a fascination upon Europeans which the +costume of any other eastern country fails to do. + +Monsieur Paul de la Gironiere, in his charming book, 'Vingt Ans aux +Philippines,' says, about the Mestiza dress: "Nothing so charming, +so coquet, so provocative as this costume which excites to the highest +point the admiration of all strangers." + +He goes on to say that the women are well aware of this, and that on +no account would they make a change. I will add my opinion that they +are quite right, and may they ever stick to the saya, the baro, and +the tapis under the Stars and Stripes, may they ever be as natural, +as handsome and as prosperous as when the writer dwelt amongst them +on the banks of the Rio Grande under the paternal rule of Alcalde +Mayor Don Jose Feced y Temprado. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + +Zambales (3). + + +The Zambales are a small and unimportant tribe of the Malay race, with +some admixture of Negrito blood. They inhabit part of the province of +Zambales from the River Naja down to South Felipe, a coast village +in 15 deg. N. latitude, and in their mountains there roam a good many +Negritos. The Zambales are subjugated and converted to Christianity, +but some still maintain a partial independence amongst the mountains, +paying, however, the "Reconocimentio de Vassallaje." At the time of +the conquest, these people were famous head-hunters, and otherwise +manifested a bloodthirsty disposition. They lived in villages of +thirty to forty families, quite independent of each other, and their +chiefs possessed but little influence. When one of a family died the +surviving male relatives put on a black head-cloth or turban, which +they durst not remove until one of them had killed some one else so +as to satisfy the death vengeance. A murder could be atoned for by a +payment in gold or in goods, or a slave or Negrito might be delivered +up to be sacrificed to the manes of the departed. It was customary +amongst them to take with them to their feasts the heads or skulls +they possessed. The heads were placed on poles and ceremonial dances +were performed around them. They also emulated the Vikings by making +drinking cups out of their enemies' skulls. + +Their religion was similar to that of the Tagals. Their principal god +was called Malayari, but he had under him two deputy gods, Acasi and +Manglobag, and a large number of inferior gods. Their chief priest +was called Bayoc, and exercised great influence amongst them. They +celebrated baptism with the blood of a pig. Amongst them, as in +Borneo and with many tribes of Malays who are not Mahometans, the +pig is considered as the most acceptable sacrifice to the gods. For +particulars about this I refer the reader to 'Life in the Forests of +the Far East,' by Spenser St. John. + +Now, at last, they have been brought into the Christian fold, +though, perhaps, amongst the pine-clad mountains, heathen customs +maintain their hold upon the wild hillmen. These latter trade with +their Christian and partly-civilised brethren, bringing them jungle +produce, tobacco, and the small bezoar stones, so highly prized +by the Chinese, in return for articles they require. The Zambales +raise some rice and a little sugar. Their trade is inconsiderable, +their exports being limited to Sapan wood, jungle produce, timber, +fire-wood, and charcoal, all of which is shipped to Manila, where it +finds a ready sale. The total population of this province was 94,551 +in 1876, but only a portion of these were Zambales. + + + +Pangasinanes (4). + +The Pangasinanes inhabit the north-western part of the province of +Pangasinan, and the northern part of the province of Zambales from +the River Naja, which runs into the Bay of Bazol, round Cape Bolinao +to Sual, including the Island of Cabarruyan and Santiago. But the +southern and eastern part of their province is partly inhabited by +Pampangos and Ilocanos. + +On the other hand, there are some Pangasinanes scattered about the +northern part of Nueva Ecija amongst Tagals and Ilocanos, and there +are a few as colonists in Benguet. + +In former times the Pangasinanes occupied a wider extent of +country. When Juan Salcedo arrived he found them occupying the southern +part of La Union; but they have been and are still being pushed back +by the more hard working and energetic Ilocanos. + +As the limits of their province do not correspond to the ethnographical +boundaries, it is not easy to estimate their numbers. I think there +may be about 300,000 of them. + +The Pangasinanes were subjugated by the Spaniards in 1572, and in +1576 they were all Christians. Their manners and customs are similar +to those of the Pampangos and Tagals, but they have a rougher and +more uncouth appearance. Their chief occupation is cultivating rice, +and whenever this is the case the people are poor and little advanced +in civilisation. It is the lowest kind of agriculture any people +can follow. The first sign of prosperity in an eastern people is +given when they begin to import rice, as it shows that they have +a more remunerative occupation to follow than cultivating it for +themselves. Thus the Cagayanes who grow tobacco, the Pampangos who +grow sugar, and the Vicols of Albay and neighbouring islands who grow +hemp, all import rice. + +Mr. J. W. Jamieson, the Acting British Consul at Sumao, in a report on +the trade of Yunnan, issued the 7th of December, 1898, says: "Apart +from minerals, the province possesses a few other resources and the +inhabitants are lazy and unenterprising to a degree. So long as they +can grow enough rice to feed themselves and procure enough cotton to +make the few articles of clothing necessary in this equable climate, +they are content." + +I am glad to find this confirmation of my views in this +matter. Mr. Jamieson's remarks apply to all the rice-growers I +have seen. + +The rice is raised in the delta of the Agno and about that +river. Formerly, the Pangasinanes not only sent rice to Manila, +but exported it to China, Siam, and Annan. + +For this trade they built their own vessels at Lingayen, and in the +flourishing period, some twenty-five years ago, their shipwrights used +to turn out eight or ten schooners in a year, vessels able to carry +300 to 400 tons dead weight. Since the introduction of steamers into +the coasting trade, the construction of sailing vessels has greatly +diminished. Still, they turn out two or three a year. + +In some parts of the province they make sugar, but it will not compare +in quality with that made in Pampanga. It has a smaller grain and a +paler colour, but less sweetening power. The average of thirty samples, +taken as the sugar was ladled out of the tacho, was-- + + + Crystallizable sugar 70.40 per cent. + Uncrystallizable 13.00 + Ash 1.97 + + +It is drained in pilones, or earthenware moulds; but, unlike the +Pampanga custom, the moulds are not delivered with the sugar, but +the leaf is wrapped in the dried sheaths of the palm, tied about +with split rattan. Most of the sugar is sent by sea to Manila and +exported to China for direct consumption in one of the provinces +where it finds a ready sale. + +Indigo was formerly cultivated here and exported, and at one time +a good deal of Sapan wood was also exported, but the trade in these +articles has almost ceased. + +Amongst the industries of Pangasinan may be mentioned the manufacture +of hats, hundreds of thousands of which were made at Calasiao from +grass or nito, and sent to Boston or New York. There are also at +Calasiao, and in some other towns, blacksmiths who forge excellent +bolos or wood-knives from the iron-bands taken off bales of cotton +cloth or sacking. + +Carromatas, the two-wheeled vehicles of the country, are constructed +in Lingayen and Dagupan, and are said to be very well made. + +I may mention here that the ponies raised in these provinces are +inferior to the Ilocanos or even the Albay breed. + +The sands of the River Agno near Rosales, and of the streams coming +down from Mount Lagsig, are washed for gold, principally by women +who obtain but a meagre return. + +The civilisation of the Pangasinanes is only skin-deep, and one of +their characteristics is a decided propensity to remontar, that is, +to abandon their towns or villages and take to the mountains, out of +reach of all authority. There are some great land-owners in Pangasinan; +one of them, Don Rafael Sison, owns an estate that stretches from +Calasiao and Santa Barbara to Urdaneta. + + + +Ilocanos (5). + +This hard-working and industrious race occupies the northern and +western shores of Luzon, from Point Lacatacay on the 121st meridian, +east from Greenwich, to San Fabian, on the Gulf of Lingayen. This +includes the three provinces of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, and La +Union. The Ilocanos have also pushed into the north-eastern part of +Pangasinan, where they occupy seven towns, and they inhabit the town +of Alcala in the province of Cagayan, several villages in Benguet, +parts of the towns of Capas and O'Donnell in the provinces of Tarlac, +and some towns in Zambales and Nueva Ecija. They are all civilised +and have been Christians for three centuries. Amongst them dwell many +converted Tinguianes and Igorrotes, who speak the Ilocan dialect. + +Blumentritt attributes the energy and activity of the Ilocanos to an +admixture, even though it be small, of these brave and hardy races. In +dress and appearance they are similar to the Tagals, and like them +carry the indispensable bolo. They cultivate tobacco, cotton, rice, +maize, indigo, sugar-cane, and a little cacao and coffee. They also +grow the pita (Agave Americana), which gives the fibre for the nipis +textiles, ajonjoli (Sesamum indicum, L.), from which they extract oil, +which is used in medicine and for the hair, and they even grow some +wheat. They extract a black resin from the Antong (Canarum Pimela), +which is used as incense or for making torches; another resin from +the Bangad, which is used as a varnish, another from the Cajel (Citrus +Aurantium), and many others used either in medicine, for torches, for +varnishing, or for paying the seams of wooden vessels. They get gum +from the Balete (Ficus Urostigma), and from the Lucban, or orange tree +(Citrus decumana, L.), oil from the Palomaria (Calophyllum inophyllum, +L.), and from a large number of other trees, some only known by the +native name, and the use of which is uncertain. They obtain dyes +from many trees growing wild in the forests, amongst others from the +Tabungao (Jatropha Curcas, L.), the Lomboy (Eugenia Lambolana, Lam.), +the sibucao (Coesalpinia Sappan, L.). Their cultivation of indigo is +declining, partly because the demand has diminished in consequence of +the introduction of chemical substitutes, and also because the Chinese, +into whose hands the whole produce of these provinces found its way, +adulterated it so abominably as to discredit it altogether. Yet so +great is the facility of Ilocan territory for growing indigo, that +Gregorio Sy Quia of Vigan exhibited in Madrid in 1887 no less than +seventy-five different kinds of indigo, and seventy-five different +seeds corresponding to the samples. At the same exhibition, no less +than twenty-four different kinds of rice were exhibited from Ilocos, +and this by no means exhausts the list. Every kind has a distinctive +name. The textile industry flourishes amongst these industrious +people. The Local Committee of Namagpacan, in the province of La +Union, sent to Madrid for the above-mentioned exhibition, no less +than 145 different textiles, whilst other towns sent looms and other +implements. Amongst the articles woven are quilts, cotton blankets +(the celebrated Mantos de Ilocos), napkins and towels, and a great +variety of material for coats, trousers, women's dresses and other +uses. Guingon (called by sailors dungaree), a blue stuff for clothing, +costs from $0.50 to $0.31, 2s. 8d. per vara (2 feet 9 inches), +a mixture of cotton and silk, for men's wear, $1.25 per vara, silk +handkerchiefs $0.25 each. + +The Ilocans also make nets for fish, and for deer and pigs; baskets +of all sorts, salacots or hats. + +They grow two kinds of cotton for textiles, the white and the +Coyote. Another kind, a tree cotton from the Boboy (Eriodendron +anfractuosum, D.C.), is only used for stuffing pillows. They extract +oil from the seeds of all three kinds. + +Like the other civilized natives they live principally on rice and +fish, which they capture in large quantities. Blumentritt mentions +two kinds, the "Ipon" and the "Dolon," which they salt or pickle. + +They have fine cattle, which they sell to the Igorrotes. It will +be noted that the Tinguianes, on the other hand, sell cattle to +the Ilocanos. The ponies of Ilocos are highly valued in Manila, +where there is a great demand for them. They are smaller than the +ponies of other provinces, but are very hardy and spirited, and +go at a great pace. Tulisanes formerly infested these provinces +and found a ready refuge in the mountains, when pursued by the +cuadrilleros, or village constables, who were only armed with bolos, +lances, and a few old muskets. But the creation of the Civil Guard, +formed of picked officers and men, who were armed with Remingtons and +revolvers, and whose orders were, "Do not hesitate to shoot," made this +business very dangerous, and the three provinces suffer little from +brigandage. When Juan Salcedo conquered the Ilocos, he found a caste +of nobles amongst them who possessed all the riches of the country, +and treated the cailanes, or serfs, with great rigour. Their tyranny +caused several bloody rebellions, and although at present matters in +this respect have improved, there is still room for complaint that +the people who do the work do not get a fair remuneration for it, +the rich man always endeavouring to keep the poor man in permanent +indebtedness. In consequence of this, the Ilocanos are ever ready to +emigrate, and besides the places I have mentioned, there are thousands +of them in Manila and other parts of the islands. They easily obtain +employment either as servants, cultivators, or labourers, for they are +superior in stamina to most of the civilised races, and in industry +superior to them all. + +I have no doubt that there is a great future before this hardy, +enterprising, and industrious people. + + + +Ibanags or Cagayanes (6). + +The Ibanags inhabit the Babuyanes and Batanes Islands and the northern +coast of Luzon, from Point Lacaytacay to Punta Escarpada, and all +the country comprised between the Rio Grande and the summits of the +Sierra Madre as far south as Balasig. + +They also hold the left bank of the river from the sea, right up to the +confluence of the River Magat for an average width of some five miles. + +They are said to be the finest race and the most valiant men in the +islands, and to have manfully resisted the Spaniards. + +However, they were conquered and converted to Christianity. From the +year 1781 they have been subjected to the worst form of slavery, the +forced cultivation of tobacco. The detestable abuses brought into this +system by the unblushing rascality of the agents of the treasury, +became, finally, so glaring, and the condition of the Ibanags so +dreadful, that, in 1882, the Governor-General, Moriones (see Chapter +"Spanish Government"), forced the hand of Canovas and the royal family, +who desired to sell the monopoly, and this horrible slavery ceased, +having lasted over a century, going from bad to worse. + +Since that date the condition of the Ibanags has greatly improved; they +have continued the cultivation of tobacco, and private enterprise has +done much to introduce the finest seed and to improve the cultivation +and preparatory operations. The "Compania Tabacalera de Filipinas," +a Franco-Catalan enterprise, has established the Haciendas of San +Antonio, San Rafael, and Santa Isabel, in the district of Isabela. + +They have built large warehouses in Tumauini and have agents in all +the principal towns. + +On the river they have a stern-wheel steamer, the Antonio Lopez, +and a number of steel-lighters for carrying down tobacco. + +The tobacco is ready for transport in December and January. It is sent +down the river to Aparri, from whence it is shipped to Manila. In a +normal dry season (February to August), the river is navigable for +steamers of two feet draught up to Alcala, the trade of which town +is not important; but that of Tuguegarao is so, and up to that point +the current is not strong. + +Amongst the Ibanags the distinction of noble and plebeian has been +as strongly marked as amongst the Tagals, Pampangos, and Ilocanos, +and the intense cupidity of the nobles, or rather usurers, which name +better describes them, has led to many bloody outbreaks on the part +of the oppressed and enslaved debtors. + +The government has steadily encouraged the Ilocanos and others to +settle in Cagayan and plant tobacco, giving them free passages and +advances of money in the days of the monopoly. + +On the other hand, the discontent of the Ibanags has led them +to migrate to other provinces when possible, for the authorities +prevented them from doing so by force when they could. They especially +endeavoured to get to Manila, and I remember many years ago the +arrival of a starving and ragged band, who had tramped all the way +from Isabela to Manila to escape from their cruel task-masters. + +However, things are better with them now, and I hope means will be +found under the Stars and Stripes to introduce a better system of +finance, and to curb the greed of the usurer, either by legislation +or by competition on a fair and humane basis. The Ibanag language is +spreading greatly amongst the hill-tribes around them as a commercial +language, just as Ilocano is spreading on the West Coast. + +Under American influence an immense development of the provinces +of Cagayan and Isabela may be expected in the near future, and the +Ibanags will doubtless benefit by this. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + +Igorrotes (7). + + +This is an important, and to me, the most interesting of the +independent or partly subdued races of the Philippines. They are a +fine, hardy, industrious, and warlike race, well worth a great and +patient effort to bring them within the pale of Christianity, and +to advance the civilisation they have already attained. They are of +a dark bronze colour, with straight black and abundant hair, large +dark eyes set rather obliquely as amongst Chinese. Their faces are +broad with high cheek-bones, the nose aquiline and the head large. The +features in general have a Mongolian cast, and a certain nasal twang +in their speech resembles that of the Southern Chinese. The men have +capacious chests, showing good lung-power, their muscles well developed +indicating great strength and ability to resist fatigue. The women +have also well-marked figures and rounded limbs. The fashions vary +with different tribes, but it is common to find both sexes wearing +their hair cut in a fringe over the forehead, but reaching down to +the eyebrows, long enough at the sides to cover the ears, left long +at the back of the head, where it is gathered up into a knot. + +The Igorrotes of Lepanto wear beards, some of them are as thick +as a Spaniard's, but the tribes farther South pull out, not only +their beards, but all the hair on their bodies, except that of the +head. Their dress varies from a mere apron (Bahaque) when at work in +the fields, to an ornamental jacket very smartly cut and elaborate +sword-belt when at war or on any full-dress occasion. These jackets are +very handsome and have stripes of blue, crimson and white. They wear +a variety of head-dresses, turban, Salacot or a kind of cocked-hat +and feathers. Both men and women wear cloaks or plaids of bright +colours made of cotton. Although the word Igorrote has come to be +almost a generic name for the heathen Highlanders of North Luzon, +it is here limited to those who dwell on the Western part of the +Cordillera Central, comprising the whole of the districts of Benguet +and Lepanto, part of Bontoc and parts of the Provinces of La Union +and Ilocos Sur. The sub-tribes Buriks and Busaos are included. + +Tattooing is very general amongst them. In some districts you can +hardly find a man or woman who has not a figure of the sun tattooed in +blue on the back of the hand, for in Central Benguet they worship the +sun. Some of them tattoo the breast and arms in patterns of straight +and curved lines pricked in with a needle in indigo blue. The Busao +Igorrotes, who live in the North of Lepanto, tattoo flowers on their +arms, and in war-dress wear a cylindrical shako made of wood or plaited +rattan, and large copper pendants in their ears. These people do not +use the Talibon, and prefer the spear. The Burik Igorrotes tattoo +the body in a curious manner, giving them the appearance of wearing +a coat of mail. But this custom is probably now becoming obsolete, +for at least those of the Igorrotes who live near the Christian +natives are gradually adopting their dress and customs. + +White is the colour of mourning, as amongst the Moros of Mindanao and +Sulu. Both sexes are fond of personal ornaments, such as ear-rings, +collars, arm-rings, bangles, leg-rings and belts. Collars of +crocodiles' teeth are highly esteemed. In the long list of their +manufactures I shall enumerate their ornaments. Their arms are the +talibon, a short double-edged sword; the gayang, a javelin or assegai; +and the aligua, a light axe, having a spike at the back opposite to +the cutting edge. After throwing their javelins, they rush on with +their drawn swords, holding their shield, called a calata, on the +left arm. This is made of light wood and is long and narrow. With the +exception of the shape of the shield their equipment is much like +that of the Roman Legionaries twenty centuries since. The aligua +appears to be used, not as a fighting weapon, but to decapitate +their fallen enemies and as a means of carrying the head home on a +spike. Great rejoicings, with feasts and dances, were held after a +successful skirmish, and large quantities of liquor consumed. But the +constant pressure of the Spanish authority has in a great measure +stopped these petty wars. They make a kind of beer called Basi by +fermenting cane-juice, and another liquor, something like the chicha +of the Peruvian Coast Indians, from rice. This latter is called +bundang. They are great smokers, and make their own pipes of various +materials. They appear not to have universally adopted the Malay +custom of chewing buyo. There is a settlement of Christian Igorrotes +on the coast of Ilocos Sur, close to the boundary of La Union, +which has been established many years. But in general the Igorrotes +have steadily refused to embrace Christianity, and evidently do not +want to go to the same heaven as the Spaniards. The behaviour of the +troops led against them in 1881 by General Primo de Rivera doubtless +confirmed them in this repugnance. The expedition did not do much in +the way of fighting, Remingtons and mountain-guns failed to subdue +the bold mountaineers armed only with javelin and sword. The Spanish +officers and men, however, are reported to have abominably mishandled +the Igorrote women. For this ravishing foray the late King Alfonso +XII. bestowed the title of Vizconde de la Union upon Primo de Rivera, +and showered promotions and crosses upon his staff. + +The Igorrotes live in villages with a population of three or four +hundred souls. There is a chief to each, but the villages are +not organised into states, each being independent. The chief is +supposed to be chosen from the families called Mainguel, who have +distinguished themselves in war. As a matter of fact, the richest +man usually becomes chief. The wealthy families vie with each other +in the grand feasts which they give to all comers. The noble and +the illustrious guests are personally invited to these feasts, but +the common people assemble at beat of drum. The chief presides at the +meeting of the Bacuanes or nobles in whom are vested the village lands, +and who direct its affairs. + +The common people are in a kind of bondage to the nobles, and +cultivate their lands for them. In Lepanto they are called cailianes +as in Ilocos. Their houses are square, and similar to those of +the other natives in the outlying districts, being raised on posts +above the ground-level. A framework of bamboos is supported on four +trunks of trees, the roof is thatched with cogon (elephant grass) +and the sides are closed in by canes, bamboos or pine planks. Each +house stands in an enclosure of its own, strongly fenced with rough +stones or posts. They are far inferior to the Christian natives +in the arrangement of their houses. Instead of having a separate +kitchen on a pantalan or raised platform, the fire is made in the +centre of the house, and the smoke finds its way out through a hole +in the roof. The rafters and inside of the thatch is blackened by +the soot. They make no windows to their houses and only a small door, +the ladder to which is drawn up when they retire to rest. They are not +clean in their persons, and neglect to wash their clothes, or clean +the interiors of their houses. They thus compare very unfavourably +with the Tagals as regards cleanliness, although, as we shall see, +in some other respects they are greatly above them. Each village has +its Town Hall, which they call the Balta-oa. This is where the Town +Council assembles to settle the affairs of the community, to hear +requests for divorces, and to administer the law to offenders. Public +festivities also take place here. + +They are monogamous, and have the highest respect for the holiness +of the marriage tie. It is not absolutely indissoluble, but can be +dissolved by the village council on serious grounds; but apparently +divorce is systematically discouraged, and the sacredness of marriage +is upheld. In former times adulteresses were punished by beheading, +but more lenient views now prevail, and a good whipping is considered +sufficient to meet the case. Generally death only dissolves the tie, +and even then only partially, as re-marriage is difficult; for it is +not proper for the widow to marry again without the consent of her +late husband's family, which may not easily be obtained, and if she +contracts new ties, the children of her first marriage are removed from +her control. On the other hand, Igorrote respectability requires that +a widower should entirely neglect his toilet and commune silently with +his grief for several years before taking to himself a new wife. Like +most heathen, they show the greatest respect and affection for their +parents, and cherish them to their life's end. + +In sharp contrast with the license accorded to young girls by the +Tagals and Visayas, the Igorrotes carefully guard the chastity of their +daughters, and do not allow them to go about without a chaperon. The +father even often accompanies them on their excursions. When they +arrive at the age of puberty, the boys and girls are separated. + +In each village there are two special buildings not too near each +other. In one of these the girls sleep under the watchful guard of +a duenna, who looks after their morals, and in the other the youths +under the care of an elder. The youth caught violating the sanctity of +the damsels' dormitory, or the maiden who is detected in an intrigue, +or shows signs of maternity, may expect a severe correction. They do +not seem to raise as many difficulties about the marriage of their +daughters as the Tagals do, and they do not make it a matter of a +mercenary bargain. When a youth takes a fancy to a marriageable maiden +of his own degree, he applies through his parents to the father of the +girl, and if he and his daughter look with favour on the proposal, +the young man is admitted to cohabit with the damsel. But if within +a certain period the girl does not show signs of succession, the +would-be bridegroom is sent about his business. On the other hand, +if pregnancy is announced, the wedding takes place with all possible +ceremony, including an invocation of the Anitos or ancestral gods, +feasts and dances, which last eight or nine days, but the young couple +are excused from attendance. The Igorrotes, in fact, openly recognise +a custom which is practised to a great extent in the agricultural +districts of England and Scotland, with this difference, that the +Christian youth in the latter countries often evades the marriage, +while the heathen Igorrote carries out his engagement. I think, +on the whole, the heathen comes out best. + +Although so desirous of offspring, they like to have them come one +at a time, and they consider it to be an evil omen when one of their +women brings forth twins. In such a case the last born is handed over +to whoever desires to adopt it. This is held to avert the omen and +straighten things out again. + +Of late years the establishment of forts with the Tagal or Visayas +garrisons in the Igorrote territory, and closer contact with Christians +generally, have tended to demoralise the heathen, and, above all, +to lower somewhat their lofty ideal of chastity. + +Amongst the Igorrotes of Lepanto, and those farthest removed from +Spanish influence, when a man of position dies, a notification is +sent to all his blood-relations, even though they reside at a great +distance, and the corpse is not buried until they have all arrived +and have each taken the dead man's hand in theirs, inquiring of him +tenderly why he has abandoned his family. All this time a great feast +is going on outside the house, vast quantities of rice and meat are +provided and consumed, and an unlimited allowance of beer drunk by +the guests. The expense is often out of all proportion to the means +of the family and perhaps involves them in debt for years. + +In the Igorrote territory under Spanish influence this extravagance +and delay of burial is discouraged. Some of the Igorrotes dry their +dead over a fire in a similar way to the Tinguianes. The dead are +buried in a sitting posture, after the manner of the Peruvian Indians, +but enclosed in coffins, which are placed in any small cave or cleft +in the rocks, enlarged by hand if necessary. The Igorrotes believe +in a Supreme Being, the creator and preserver; he is called Apo in +Benguet, and Lu-ma-oig in Lepanto. The wife of Apo is called Bangan, +the daughter Bugan and the son Ubban. There are two inferior gods, +Cabigat and Suyan, these deities hold intercourse with mankind +through the Anitos or ancestral spirits, some good, some evil, +who reward or chastise mankind in this life. They represent these +spirits by roughly-carved idols of wood. Some of these idols are +male and others female. Occasionally the carving is of an obscene +nature, and similar to some clay images I have seen taken from tombs +in Peru. They practise family prayer, and the object of it is to +solicit the favour of the Anitos. Sometimes the will of the Anitos +is declared through an old priestess called an Asitera, who receives +a fee for her pains. The ancestral spirits are more worshipped than +the gods. Poultry, swine, and dogs, may not be slaughtered except in +a sacrificial manner. There is a priest in every village called the +Manbunung who first consecrates the animal to the Anitos, and then +kills it and returns it to the owner, reserving, however, the best +piece for himself. In company with his first-born son he takes the +lead at prayer-meetings, or on special occasions, such as illness, +marriage, the commencing some important work, or averting some evil +omen. This man makes some pretence at healing the sick, but rather +with charms and incantations than by administering medicine. There +is a sacred tree near each village, which is regarded as the seat of +the Anitos. In the shade of this is a sacrificial stone. Sometimes +near a house may been seen a small bench for the Anitos to repose on, +and a dish of rice or other food for their refreshment. The Igorrotes +believe that there are two places where the souls of the dead travel +to. One is an agreeable residence provided with everything necessary +to happiness, and is for the spirits of those who have died a natural +death. But if they have been evil-doers, such as robbers or murderers, +and have escaped due punishment on earth, they are punished here by +the other souls before being allowed to enjoy the advantages of the +place. But the souls of brave warriors killed in battle, and of women +who have died in child-birth, arrive at a much more desirable place, +a real heaven, and reside amongst the gods. + +The Igorrotes of Cabugalan in Lepanto regard eels as the embodiment +of their ancestors; they will not catch them or do them any harm, +but feed them when opportunity offers. The Asiteras assist at feasts +and make invocations and propose toasts which are drunk by the men +present. The private or family feasts are called Bumaguil, being +held in the giver's house or courtyard, but public entertainments or +feasts of the whole village are called Regnas, and are held in or in +front of the Balta-oa or Town Hall. They are preceded and followed +by songs and dances. The songs are inharmonious and monotonous. The +dances vary with the localities. In one dance bowing to the beer-mugs +is a feature. As amongst other Malay races, ordeals are in fashion +to decide disputes. One consists in a priest or chief scratching the +scalps of the disputants with a small iron fork. Whoever loses most +blood during this operation has lost his case. The Igorrotes work +hard at their agriculture, and their rice-farming is excellent. They +plough the valleys with the aid of buffaloes and terrace the hillsides, +which they cultivate by hand. They burn down the pine-forests to clear +the hills. They irrigate where possible, carrying the canals over any +ravine by means of rude aqueducts. They grow considerable quantities +of tobacco, [28] which is, however, of inferior quality. This they +sell to the civilised natives, and it is exported. I suppose it goes +to Hamburg to make German Havana cigars, just as conger eels go to +Paris to make fillets of soles. They cultivate sweet potatoes, also +the ordinary potatoes, which grow well, and although small, are much +prized in Manila, and meet with a ready sale. The Igorrotes of Lepanto +eagerly seek new seeds to plant. It is strange that an agricultural +people like this should have little or no idea of breeding cattle, but +instead of doing so, they purchase from the Ilocanos and others cattle, +horses, and pigs for consumption, paying good prices for them. They +even buy dogs to eat. I have been assured by Mr. Ernest Heald, formerly +British Vice-Consul at Sual, that he has often seen Igorrotes returning +to the hills from Dagupan, leading strings of dogs, which they had +purchased for food at prices varying from twenty-five to fifty cents, +and that the dogs seemed to have an instinctive idea what they were +being taken away for. The cooking of the Igorrotes is abominable, +especially their way of cooking meat. It would not obtain the approval +of Brillat Savarin. They seem to have no objection to eating it putrid, +and their robust constitutions apparently prevent their suffering +from ptomaine poisoning. The most remarkable characteristic of the +Igorrotes is their skill as smiths, miners, and metallurgists. Their +forges are not usually in their villages, but are hidden away in the +forest; they use piston-blowers instead of bellows, and charcoal as +fuel. Their lance-heads, swords, and other weapons are well shaped +and of excellent quality. They worked the copper ores of Mancayen in +Lepanto very successfully. From official documents it appears that +from 1840 to 1855 they sold on an average each year about nineteen +tons of copper, either in ingots or manufactured. Then a Spanish +Company took up the work and ignominiously failed. Gold mining and +washing was formerly a monopoly of the nobles, and the washing is +so still to some extent. For centuries, and long before the Spanish +conquest, the Igorrotes have brought down gold to trade with the coast +natives. Such particulars as are known to me about Igorrote mining, +smelting, and gold-washing, will be found under the headings Gold, +Copper, Iron, in Chapter XVI. + +I have added to this account of them a list of such of their +manufactures as I have seen or could learn of, and in most instances +I have given the Igorrote name. The Igorrotes have several dialects, +so that the names of the various articles may vary according to the +locality. Herewith a list of the dialects and the places where each +is spoken, taken from Spanish official sources. + + + Dialect. Locality. + + Benguetano. The greater part of Benguet. + Igorrote. Lepanto. + Igorrote del Abra. Five villages of Bontoc. + Igorrote de la Gran Cordillera. By the reduced Igorrotes and + the independent tribes of the + Caraballo. + Igorrote Suflin. In fifteen villages of that + Cordillera. + + +Many of the Principales or head-men and others under Spanish influence +speak and write Ilocano, which they find necessary for their trade +with that people. More than twenty years ago there were seven schools +in Lepanto regularly attended by five hundred and sixty-two children, +of whom one hundred and ten could then read and write Spanish. No +doubt by this time these schools have considerably increased. + +I am much impressed by the great industry of these people and with the +great skill they show in everything they undertake. It is therefore +disappointing to read in Foreman's book 'The Philippine Islands,' +p. 213: "Like all the races of the Philippines, they are indolent to +the greatest degree." Foreman goes on to say, Polygamy seems to be +permitted, murders are common, their huts are built bee-hive fashion, +they keep a Dr. and Cr. account of heads with the Negritos. All this +is probably in consequence of accepting idle stories as facts, and +is nothing less than a libel on the Igorrotes. A people who believe +in a Supreme Being, Creator of heaven and earth, in the immortality +of the soul, in an upper and lower heaven, in punishment after +death, if it has been evaded in life, who are strict monogamists, +and who have a high belief in the sacredness of the marriage tie; +a people who guard the chastity of their daughters as carefully as +the British or the Americans; a people physically strong, brave, +skilful, and industrious, have nothing in common with the wretches +Foreman described under their name. These people live in the fairest +and healthiest parts of Luzon, no fevers lurk amongst those pine-clad +mountains, no sultry heats sap the vital powers. What an opportunity +for a grand missionary enterprise! What a noble material to work on, +every condition seems favourable. The very fact of their rejection of +the form of Christianity presented to them, and their distrust of the +Spaniards, may influence them in favour of some simpler doctrine. I +shall feel well repaid for my labour in describing these people, +if the truthful picture I have attempted to present of them should +interest those who have the means and the will to inaugurate a new era, +to help them along the Path. A perusal of what the old chroniclers say +about them convinces me that they have done much themselves to improve +their moral condition, and that many detestable customs, at all events +attributed to them, have long since been relegated to oblivion. + +I now give a list of the Missions in the Igorrote and Tinguian +territory that existed in 1892. + + + Missions in Tinguian and Igorrote Territory. + + 1892. + + Province. Town. Population. Missionaries. + Rev. Father-- + + Abra Pidigan. 2,418 P. Ornia. + Bucay. 3,688 J. Lopez. + La Paz y San Gregorio. 2,802 P. Fernandez. + Villavieja. 1,912 M. Fonturbel. + Bangued. 8,702 A. Perez. + Tayum. 3,064 L. Vega. + Dolores. 2,522 F. Franco. + Lepanto Cervantes y Cayan. 2,200 A. Oyanguren. + Benguet La Trinidad y Galiano. 849 J. Garcia. + R. Rivera. + -------- + 28,157 + + +All the inhabitants of these towns and villages are Christians, and +either they or their ancestors were baptised by missionaries of the +Augustinian order. + + +Some Manufactures of the Igorrotes. + +Weapons. + +Native Name. + +Say-ang Lance, for war or for killing deer. +Talibon Short double-edged sword. +Ligua, or Aligua Axe used for decapitating the fallen enemy. +Calasag or Calata Long narrow wooden shields. +Bunneng Wood knife. +Sayac or Dayac Sharp bamboo spikes to be set in the paths. + Bows and arrows (the Igorrotes possess + these, but are not skilful archers). + Clubs. +Gay-ang Javelins (favourite weapons of Igorrotes). + +Accoutrements. + +Alpilan or Sacupit Knapsacks. +Lagpi. Haversacks. + Saddles. + Bridles. +Rangan Saddle-bags. +Baot Whips. +Upit Pouch for medicine and antidote for + snake bite. +Sac-dey Uniform or war jackets. +Bariques Chief's sword belt. +Balques Ancient sword belts used by their ancestors + are preserved as heirlooms in the family. + +Clothing. + +Tacoco Hat made of rattan for head-men. + ,, for married men. +Suebong ,, ,, bachelors, woven from cane. + ,, ,, women. +Sachong ,, ,, chiefs. +Calogon or catlocon ,, made of rattan and cane used by + Christian Igorrotes. +Sarquet or Barguet Headcloth used by head-men. +Loc-bo Caps. +Olei or Ulas Cloaks or plaids. +Cobal Loin-cloth of bark or cotton. +Baag or Bahaque Aprons. +Palingay ,, for women. +Atten Skirts used by head-men's wives or + daughters. +Tachun Waterproof hoods to cover the head and the + load carried on the back, e.g., to keep + tobacco dry in transit. +An-nanga Waterproof capes of Anajas leaves. + Sandals. + Clogs. +Ampaya, Samit Tapis, cloth worn by women round the hips. +Barique or canes Sashes. +Baquet Woman's belt to hold up the tapis. +Bado Woman's shirt. + Shirts made of the bark of the pacag. + +Ornaments. + +Chacang A gold plate used by head-men or chiefs + to cover their teeth at feasts or when + they present themselves to Europeans of + distinction. +Balangat A coronet of rattan. +Aponque Collar or necklace. +Apongont A coronet of scented wood (candaroma). +Ono Necklace of reeds and coloured seeds. +Bariques ,, vertebrae of snakes. +Siquel Necklace made of seed of climbing plant + called Bugayon. + ,, ,, white stones. + ,, ,, crocodiles' teeth. + ,, ,, boars' tusks. + ,, ,, mother-of-pearl. +Al-taque Coronet of polished mother-of-pearl. +Garin Bangles or bracelets of copper. +Bali Arm-rings, often of copper and gilt. +Baney Leg rings of nito and fibre, or of copper, + used by men. +Arisud Ear-rings. +Tabin ,, of copper, used by men. +Bit-jal or Bit-hal Bracelets of boars' tusks. +Galaong or Galang Bracelets of mother-of-pearl. +Onon-ipit Necklace or collar of metal, having three + pendants, the centre one being tweezers + for pulling out hairs, the other two + instruments for cleaning out the ears. + +Household Goods. + +Gui-pan Small knife for peeling roots and + splitting cane. +Lodo Ladle of cocoa-nut shell for water. +Idas Wooden spoons. +Latoc Large wooden dish, with receptacles for + sauce and salt. +Dalela Rice dish of copper. +Sagatan Strainer of cane and rattan. +Sarangos-an Funnel made of a cocoa-nut shell. +Labba Basket used for carrying provisions. +Pidasen Baskets for domestic use. +Tinac-dag +Alat or Minuiniata Small basket for collecting eggs. +Babaco Provision basket. +Bigao Basket for cleaning rice. +Opit-daguil Provision basket. +Opigan or Acuba-quigan Basket for keeping clothes in. +Cal-culven Cane basket blackened by smoke. +Tapil Small basket of cane. +Hugones Great baskets to hold rice. +Agabin Creels for carrying fish. +Apisang or Sacupif Large basket used for carrying tobacco on + the back. +Sulpac Large bamboos for carrying water. +Tang-tang Calabashes for measuring or holding basi. +Ting-galon Goblet of plaited cane used at feasts for + drinking basi. +Pambian Spinning wheels. +Paga-blang Looms. +La-labayan Apparatus for holding skeins of cotton. +Qui-tan-gang Wooden drainer for the spoons or paddles + used for stirring up the basi when + brewing it. +Balai-ti-ado Rack to hold spoons. +Quil-lit Earthen cooking-pot. +Ongot Drinking-cup for water. +Soled Dish of plaited rattan for boiled camote + (sweet potatoes). +Dapilag Dish of plaited rattan for boiled rice. + +Personal Effects. + +Palting Pouches for tobacco and gold. +Upit Tobacco pouch plaited of rattan. +Suput Purse made of cotton ornamented with + copper wire. +Cuaco Pipes of wood, stone, clay, or metal. +Nupit Tobacco boxes. +Sacopit Carved walking sticks. +Tad Umbrellas. +Pamiguin Pneumatic tinder-box, or fire squirt. +Apit Pocket book of cane and rattan. +Dubong Deer-skin pouch used when travelling. +Quidatang Case with fittings for striking a light. +Sagay say Combs. + Tooth-brushes. + +Miscellaneous. + +Tali Ropes of Alinao bark. +Sinal-lapid Ropes of Labtang bark. +Raten Nets for taking deer and pigs. +Chi-ay Traps for taking jungle-fowl. +Anitos Images of the household gods. +Sipas Foot-balls of rattan. +Disig Humming tops. +Casabang Branch of a tree used to frighten away + snakes. + Hammocks for sleeping or travelling. +Tugas Throne for a chief and his favourite. + Harrows. + Ploughs. + Cradles. + Coffins. + +Musical Instruments. + +Sulibao or Culibao Large drum, played with one stick. +Quinibal Small drum held between the knees and + played with two sticks. +Calalen or Bab-balasan Flutes played by single women. +Cong-gala or Flutes (nose flutes) played by men. +Tong-gala +Ganza Large flat gong held in right hand, and + played with left, vibrations stopped with + right elbow. If a human jaw-bone, taken + from a dead enemy, is fitted as a handle, + the value is enhanced. +Pinsac A small gong. +Bating-ting or Triangles made of iron. +Palas-bating-ting +Cingo-cingco Violin played by single men. + Guitar, the body made from cocoa-nut shell. +Palgong-bocancang Cane instrument played by the women going + to and coming from their work. Holding it + in the right hand, they cover the orifice + with the index-finger, and strike the other + end on the left hand. + +Mining Tools, etc. + +Native names unknown Crow-bars. + Hammers. + Wedges. + Outfit for gold washing. + Blowers for smiths' forges. + Furnaces for smelting copper. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. + + +Isinays (11). + +A small tribe living in the northern part of Pangasinan, towards +Mount Caraballo del Sur. They are now merged in the Pangasinanes, +and have lost all distinctive customs. + + + +Abacas (12). + +A small tribe living about Caranglan in the South Caraballo. They were +formerly fierce and warlike, but have been pacified and converted +to Christianity. They had a separate language which has died out, +and their customs are now those of the Christian natives. + + + +Italones (13). + +These people live in the south-west corner of Nueva Vizcaya, about +the head-waters of the River Magat. They are numerous, and occupy +many towns and villages, amongst them Bayombong, Dupax, Bambang, +and Aritas. They were formerly warlike head-hunters, and are said to +have devoured the hearts and brains of their slain enemies in order +to inherit their courage and wisdom. This is a Chinese idea, and is +even now practised in Canton, where pieces of the heart and liver of +a particularly hardened and desperate criminal are retailed by the +executioner at a high price for the above purpose. They wear their +hair long like the Ilongotes. Their weapons were the lance, shield, +or wood-knife, and in their customs and religion they resembled the +Igorrotes. They were said to ornament the hilts of their swords with +the teeth of their slain enemies. All these detestable customs have +now disappeared; they have been converted to Christianity, and now are +peaceful agriculturists and hunters. Game and fish abound; a telegraph +line runs through their territory with a station at Bayombong. This +is part of the line from Manila to Aparri. + + + +Ibilaos (14). + +These savages inhabit the hilly country about the sources of the River +Casepuan, which, according to D'Almonte's map, is a tributary of the +River Casiguran, which runs into the Bay of Baler; but, according +to Olleros, is a tributary of the Rio Grande de Cagayan. However +this may be, their habitat is on the borders of Nueva Ecija and +Nueva Vizcaya. Some of these people have been subjugated, but the +others live a nomadic life in the mountain forests, and resemble the +Negritos. Their pleasure is to lie in wait and shoot the passers-by +with their arrows. Like the Italones they are said to ornament +their weapons with the teeth of the slain, and, like them, wear +their hair long. The independent Ibilaos live by the chase, and on +jungle produce, and do no cultivation. They are small of stature and +weak. It is possible that they are a hybrid Negrito Malay race. Their +bloodthirsty propensities make them a curse to their neighbours. + + + +Ilongotes (15). + +The Ilongotes inhabit the rocky fastnesses of the range of mountains +on the east coast, called the Caraballo de Baler, the whole length +of the Distrito del Principe, the north-east corner of Nueva Vizcaya +and a strip of the southern part of Isabela. + +Their neighbours on the east are the Negritos, who live along the +sea-shore. These people are also their neighbours on the north, +where they inhabit the mountains. + +On the west they have the Ifugaos in the northerly part of their +boundary, and civilised Indians of mixed races in the southern +part. Their nearest neighbours to the south are some scattered Tagals. + +Blumentritt describes them from a photograph lent him by +Dr. A. B. Meyer, as having eyes long and deeply sunk, upper lip and +chin hairy, the hair long plaited in a tail, and often reaching the +hips. A Spanish authority describes them as similar to the other +hillmen, but wearing long hair, and dirty and disagreeable in their +aspect + +Their dress is as primitive as that of the other savage races, +the adult men wearing a band of beaten bark round the waist, the +women wearing a tapis, and the children going quite naked. They wear +rings or spirals of brass wire on their arms, necklaces, and other +ornaments. But when the men have occasion to go into the Christian +villages, they wear shirts and trousers. I have myself seen instances +of this custom amongst the Tagbanuas in Palawan. + +They are clever smiths and know how to temper their weapons. Their +lances have different shaped heads, and the shafts are made of Palma +Brava. Their swords are well-made and ornamented, and are carried in +a wooden scabbard from a belt of webbing. This appears to be their +favourite weapon. They never go unarmed, even for a few paces, and +they sleep with their weapons beside them. Their shields are of light +wood, carved, and painted red. + +Their domestic life is not unlike that of the Christian natives, +for they are not polygamists; they, however, are more careless and +dirty. They purchase their wife from her parents. They subsist by +hunting and fishing, and by cultivating rice, maize, sweet potatoes, +and other vegetables. They grow tobacco, which they exchange for +other goods with the Christian natives. They catch the wild carabaos +in traps. They are ineradicably addicted to head-hunting, and wage +a continual war with all their neighbours, but if an interval of +peace occurs, they fight one family or clan against another, for they +must have heads. The marriage ceremony cannot be completed till the +bridegroom has presented the bride with some of these grisly trophies; +heads of Christians for choice. + +They signify war by placing arrows in the path and sprinkling blood +upon it. Treaties of peace, or rather truces, are sometimes ratified by +human sacrifices, and the ceremony of blood-brothership is practised. + +They have few religious practices, although they believe in a Supreme +Being, and in the ancestor-worship common to the country. The relatives +assemble to celebrate a birth by a feast. On the fifth day a name +is given to the infant. They take care of the sick and endeavour to +cure them with herbs, to which they ascribe medicinal virtues. If the +patient dies, the relatives devour everything in the house in order to +mitigate their grief, and they bury the corpse within twenty-four hours +of death, placing some provisions upon the grave. From a statement +in a Spanish official publication, the Ilongote dialect is spoken +in two towns and twenty-two rancherias of Nueva Vizcaya, and in four +rancherias in the district of Principe. This shows that at least on +their western border they are now somewhat held in check. But the +poor Negritos still have to suffer their incursions. + + + +Mayoyaos and Silipanes (16). + +These people are very numerous, and inhabit the north-west corner +of Nueva Vizcaya, and the south-west corner of Isabela, between the +Cordillera Central and the River Magat. For neighbours, they have on +the east the Ifugaos, those deadly lasso-throwers; on the west, the +Igorrotes are separated from them by the Cordillera; to the north +they have the Gaddanes, and the Itetapanes, and to the south the +Italones. In appearance, dress, arms and ornaments, they resemble the +Igorrotes of Lepanto. The Ifugao language is spoken at the missions +of Quiangan and Silipan, and in a large number of hamlets of these +people. They were pacified and converted to Christianity about half +a century ago, and are gradually improving in civilisation. + + + +Ifugaos (17). + +The Ifugaos, who bear a strong resemblance to the Japanese, inhabit +a territory in central Nueva Vizcaya, and in the south of Isabela, +mostly between the River Magat and the Rio Grande, but they have +a great many hamlets on the left bank of the Magat. They cultivate +rice, camote, and other crops, but prefer to live by robbery whenever +possible. They are persistent head-hunters, frequently at war with +the neighbouring tribes, or amongst themselves. + +One notable peculiarity must be mentioned. Besides the lance, knife, +and bow and arrows, they use the lasso, which they throw with great +dexterity. Lurking near a trail, they cast the fatal coil over some +unwary traveller, and promptly decapitate him, to add his skull to +their collection, and decorate their hut. + +It is their custom to wear as many rings in their ears as they have +taken heads. + +Major Galvez, after a skirmish with these people, found the corpse +of one of their warriors who wore thirty-two death-rings in his ears. + +Their religion is said to be after the style of the Igorrotes, and +some other hill-tribes of Luzon. Their chief god Cabunian had two +sons, Sumabit and Cabigat, and two daughters, Buingan and Daunguen, +who married amongst themselves, and from them the human race is +descended. Ancestor-worship is also practised. The Spaniards built +and garrisoned a chain of forts in the Ifugao territory to keep them +in order, and of late years their murderous incursions have been +kept in check. It would require an enquiry on the spot to say whether +there is any prospect of this tribe becoming civilised, and converted +to Christianity. + + + +Gaddanes (18). + +The Gaddanes occupy the north-east quarter of Saltan and Bondoc, +and their territory stretches over into Isabela in a south-easterly +direction to the River Magat, thus bordering on the five-mile strip +of Ibanag territory on the left bank of the Rio Grande. The upper +part of the Rio Chico runs through their Saltan territory, and the +River Libug through their Isabela territory. + +In appearance they are darker than any other of the hillmen of +Luzon. They are not as well built as the Igorrotes. They have round +eyes, and large, flat noses. They are very dirty. Their houses are +built on lofty piles, and the ladder is drawn up at night, or in war +time. They are partly converted to Christianity, and are of a milder +disposition than their neighbours. + + + +Itetapanes (19). + +These people live in Bontoc, almost the centre of Northern Luzon. On +the west they have the Busaos Igorrotes, on the east the Gaddanes, +to the north-west they have the Guinanes, and to the south the +Mayoyaos. They are more like the Gaddanes than any other neighbours, +especially in the eyes and hair, yet in other respects they are +something like the Negritos in appearance, and much more so in their +dispositions and customs, for it has not been possible to civilise +them. Their arms are the same as the Busaos, and, like them, they wear +a cylindrical shako, which they dye a brilliant red. They appear to +be a hopeless race. + + + +Guinanes (20). + +These terrible neighbours of the peaceful Tinguianes inhabit both +slopes of the Cordillera Central in Abra and Bontoc. They do not pass +to the west of the River Abra, or its affluent, the Pusulguan. + +On the south the Guinanes have the warlike Busaos, who are well able to +defend themselves, and to retaliate on their aggressors. Consequently, +the Tinguianes are the principal victims; in fact, some years back, +they had no peace, and are not now free from danger. + +The fame and respect enjoyed by a successful head-hunter is the great +incentive to them to persevere in their sanguinary forays, which they +conduct with the greatest cunning. + +The return of the head-hunters to their village with their ghastly +trophies is celebrated by prolonged and frantic orgies--feasting +and drinking, singing war-songs, music and dancing. In fact, their +rejoicings only differ in degree and intensity from those customary +in Christian nations to celebrate the slaughter of their enemies. + +So fond are the Guinanes of getting heads, that when not at war with +other tribes they fight amongst themselves. + +They are much like the Igorrotes, and, like them, are settled in towns +and villages. They practise agriculture, and are excellent smiths, +and forge specially good knives, which are much esteemed by the Busaos, +and find a ready sale amongst them. + +Little is known of their manners and customs, or of their numbers, +since few travellers care to run the risk of having their skulls +added to the collection of some connoisseur. + +I cannot suggest any use this tribe could be to the United States, +for I do not think the most enthusiastic or devoted missionary would +hanker after being appointed to convert them, and even if such an +one could be found, the probability of his success would be very small. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + + +Calauas, or Itaves (21). + +A small tribe, living in a strip of country stretching across the +great loop formed by the Rio Chico de Cagayan just before it enters +the Rio Grande. They are peaceful and industrious cultivators, +and grow rice and excellent tobacco. In former days, when the State +monopoly was in force, they used to smuggle this, and were attacked, +and their plantations laid waste in consequence. But now they are +able to trade freely, and must have become prosperous. Very little +is known about them. The word Calauas is also spelt Calaguas. + + + +Camuangas and Bayabonanes (22). + +These people live in the southern part of the province of Cagayan, +say about 17 deg. 30' north latitude. On the north they have the Calauas, +or Calaguas, and on the south the Dadayags. D'Almonte's map shows no +hamlets in their territory, and the nearest visita is Gamuasan. Nothing +is known about them, and Blumentritt considers it not improbable that +they are a branch of the Dadayags. + + + +Dadayags (23). + +A small tribe living in the north-west comer of Isabela, not far from +the left bank of the Rio Grande. + + + +Nabayuganes (24). + +These people, who have a language of their own, live in two +long valleys extending from the Cordillera Central towards the +east. According to D'Almonte's map, these parallel valleys lead down +to the town of Malaneg, and in each of them there is a river. That +in the northern valley is called the River Nabbuangan, and that in +the southern valley the River Nabbuanguan. They join before reaching +Malaneg, forming the River Nagalat, a tributary of the Rio Chico +de Cagayan. Nothing is known of their religion or nature. On the +north-east of the Nabayuganes live the Aripas. + + + +Aripas (25). + +This tribe inhabits the hills to the west of the junction of the Rio +Grande and Rio Chico of Cagayan. They have the Apayaos on the west, +the Ibanags on the east, the Calingas on the north, and the Ilanes +on the south. They are peaceful, and partly converted to Christianity. + + + +Calingas (26). + +These people inhabit the mountains to the north of the Aripas. On +their north and east they have the Ibanags, and on the west the +Apayaos. They are supposed to have a good deal of Chinese blood in +their veins. They are now peaceful, like the Aripas. + + + +Tinguianes (27). + +The Tinguianes inhabit the western half of the province of Abra, and +their villages are thickly scattered about on the eastern slopes of +the Ilocos mountains, and on the banks of the River Abra. They have +also pushed their way to the extreme north-east corner of Abra, and +they extend southwards and westwards along the coast as far as Punta +Darigayos. Santiago is a Christian Tinguian town, and was founded +in 1736. + +The Tinguianes are of a peaceful disposition, and are gradually +becoming civilised and converted to Christianity. In fact, of late +years, the advance of the Spaniards has been considerable. It is only +in the more remote parts of their territory that some of them retain +their independence, and their ancient laws, beliefs and customs. The +constant intercourse they have with the Ilocanos has resulted in +spreading that dialect amongst them, whilst their own language is +dying out. + +In appearance the Tinguianes differ considerably from the other +mountain tribes of Luzon, being taller, and of a much lighter +colour. Their noses are not flattened like those of the Malays, but +are aquiline, and remind one of the features of the Cholos of the +Peruvian coast. They are a cleanly people; the men wear turbans, +jacket and trousers; the women belonging to their nobility have +their garments beautifully embroidered. They wear arm-sheaths, and +sometimes leg-sheaths, made of plaited fibre, and ornamented with +beads, or with coloured stones, brought from the Batanes islands, +which they purchase in Ilocos. They also wear necklaces of these +stones, copper or silver ear-rings, and other trinkets. + +Spanish writers consider these people to have a strong admixture of +Chinese blood, and suppose it may be from a remnant of the pirates +under Li-ma-hon, who were defeated by Juan Salcedo in 1574. The learned +Blumentritt, however, dissents from this opinion, which he considers to +be a modern invention, and gives Salcedo credit for doing his work very +thoroughly, and not letting many of the pirates escape. He says that, +although in dress and appearance the Tinguianes are very similar to +the fishermen of the province of Fo-Kien, there are no Chinese words +to be found in their dialect, and that consequently the intermixture +of Chinese can only have been small. However this may be, the coast of +Fo-Kien, which is opposite Formosa, is only about 500 miles from the +Port of Vigan, the currents are favourable for the southerly voyage, +and sailing craft can cross in either monsoon. Consequently, either +as traders, fugitives, or castaways, Fo-Kien sailors or fishermen +could easily have arrived on the coast. + +The Tinguianes assiduously cultivate their land, and irrigate their +rice-fields with some skill. They breed horses and cattle, which +they sell in the markets of Ilocos, as well as jungle produce, wax, +skins and gold-dust. They raft timber down the Abra River and make +for sale various articles of wood, such as bateas, ladles and spoons, +also they make mats and baskets. + +Their marriages are conducted in a similar manner to those of other +tribes, the ceremony, whether Christian or heathen, being followed by +the usual feasts and dancing, and music in the intervals of eating and +drinking. Their instruments are drums, flutes and guitars. As usual, +roast pig is the principal dish, the animal being roasted whole on +a spit of cane. When the feast is over the newly-married couple are +conducted to their house by the principal chief or elder. A large mat +being spread on the ground they lie down on it keeping at a distance +of several feet from each other. A boy of six or eight years of age +then lies down between them, and the elders retire leaving the trio +together. The bride and bridegroom are forbidden to indulge in any +caresses, nor even to speak to each other till the following day. The +healthy life led by the women enables them to recover very rapidly +after child-birth. In fact, they return to their usual avocations +directly after the ceremony of purification, which consists of washing +the newly-born infant in running water. Divorce among the heathen is +merely a matter of paying a fine of some thirty dollars, in money or +in kind, to the village chief or elder, or to the Goberna-doreillo, +if the village is under Spanish rule. Divorce is not allowed amongst +those who are converted, and this must be a great hindrance to their +acceptance of Christianity. + +They take little care of the sick, and when hope is given up the +patient is left alone to die. The Peruvian Indians have a similar +custom. Amongst the Serranos, when a sick person does not soon show +signs of recovery, a family meeting is called, and a fixed sum is +voted for his cure, say twelve or twenty reals. When this amount has +been spent, the patient is removed from his couch and laid upon a +hide on the ground outside the house. A child is posted to fan him +and keep off the flies, and only water is given him till he dies. + +The Tinguianes formerly buried their dead in pits dug under their +houses, after subjecting the corpses to a baking or drying process, +and on certain days in the year food was placed near the tombs for the +souls of the dead to partake of. Those who are converted have of course +to bury their dead in the cemetery, and to pay a fee to the priest. + +They share the idea that seems to prevail amongst all Malays, that the +soul is absent from the body during sleep, and that consequently it +is dangerous and wicked to awake anybody suddenly. The most dreadful +thing that can happen to anybody, therefore, is to die whilst sleeping, +leaving his soul wandering about. Their most desperate curse is to +wish that this may happen to an adversary. This seems to reach a higher +level of cursing than the oaths of the Tagals which I have previously +mentioned. The usual respect for ancestors is shown, and any weapons +or ornaments which have belonged to them are carefully preserved as +valued heirlooms. The names of an ancestor must, however, on no account +be pronounced by his descendants, so that if any necessity arises to +answer a question which involves mentioning the name of one, a friend +not related to the person enquired about must be called in to answer. + +Monsieur de la Gironiere visited these people, and describes them +as men of good stature, slightly bronzed, with straight hair, +regular profiles, and aquiline noses. The women truly beautiful and +graceful. They appeared to him to resemble the people of the South +of France, except for their costume and language. The men wore a +belt and a sort of turban made from the bark of the fig-tree. Their +arms consisted of a long lance, a small axe, called aligua, and a +shield. The women wore a belt and a narrow apron which came down to +their knees, their heads being ornamented with pearls, and grains of +coral and gold were fixed amongst their hair. The upper parts of their +hands were painted blue, and they wore plaited sheaths ornamented +with beads on their fore-arms; these sheaths strongly compressed the +fore-arm, being put on when the women were young, and they prevented +the development of the fore-arm, whilst causing the wrists and hands +to swell. This is a beauty amongst the Tinguianes as the little foot +is amongst the Chinese. + +They occupied seventeen villages, and each family had two habitations, +one on the ground for use in the day, and one fixed on piles or on +the summits of lofty trees, as much as sixty or eighty feet from the +ground, where they sleep, to protect themselves from the nocturnal +attacks of the Guinanes, their mortal and sanguinary enemies. From +these lofty dwellings they threw down stones upon assailants. In +the middle of each village there is a large shed which serves for +meetings and public ceremonies. He further states that after an attack +of the Guinanes had been repulsed from Laganguilan-y-Madalay by the +Tinguianes he went to an assembly at that village and witnessed a +ceremony in honour of the victory. The heads of the slain enemies were +exhibited to the crowd, and various speeches were made. The skulls +were then split open and the brains removed and given to some young +girls, who worked them up with their hands in a quantity of basi or +native beer. The compound was then served in cups to the chiefs, who +partook of it with every appearance of enjoyment, and was afterwards +handed round to all the warriors in due order. M. de la Gironiere and +his Tagal servant also partook of this refreshment out of politeness +to their hosts. The ceremony was followed by a dance and a smoking +concert, during which copious libations of basi were consumed. + +M. de la Gironiere has omitted to mention how his hosts, after this +drunken orgy, managed to regain their elevated sleeping quarters, +sixty or eighty feet from the ground. One would think that the Tinguian +coroner would have been busy the next morning. He, however, does tell +us that, being unable to sleep, he got up in the night and looked +about him, finding a well or pit, which he descended. At different +levels in this shaft were short galleries or niches, and in each of +these was a dried or mummified corpse. This shaft was sunk inside +the house where he slept. + +He learnt from the Tinguianes that they believed in the existence +of the soul, that it leaves the body after death, but remains in +the family. Also that they venerated any strange object, such as a +rock or tree which resembled some animal. They would make a hut over +or near it, and celebrate a feast, at which they sacrificed pigs; +they afterwards danced and drunk basi, then burnt down the hut and +retired. They had, he says, only one wife, but might have several +concubines, who, however, did not inhabit the conjugal domicile, but +each had a hut of her own. The riches of a Tinguian was demonstrated +by the number of porcelain vases he possessed. According to M. de la +Gironiere, the Tinguianes mummified their dead by subjecting them to a +long drying process. The body, propped up on a stool, was surrounded +by braziers with charcoal or wood embers, and the moisture which +exuded from it was wiped off by the women with cotton. When the body +was well dried up it was kept above ground for fifteen days and then +committed to the tomb. The neighbours and friends kept up the wake +and pronounced eulogies on the defunct until they had consumed all +the eatables and liquor in the house, when they took their departure. + +These people must have very greatly increased in numbers, as the +Spanish authority has extended its protection to them, checking the +incursions of the Guinanes and other savages. It has been stated that +in former years the Tinguianes were much sought after as recruits for +the garrison of Manila. They do not appear to be a warlike race, yet so +fine a body of men ought to be able to supply a battalion of infantry +for the native army which the United States will have to raise, for +nobody can suppose that 25,000 young Americans can be permanently kept +in garrison in the Archipelago. But this I discuss in another chapter. + + + +Adangs (28). + +According to D'Almonte's map in the latitude of Pasuquin, Province +of Ilocos Notre, the Cordillera del Norte bends to the eastward and +throws out a spur to the north-west, forming a Y, and enclosing a +considerable valley, through which runs a river called the Bate, +Bucarog, or Arimit, which falls into the Bay of Bangui. This is the +habitat of the Adangs, a small tribe, yet a nation, for their language +has no resemblance to that of any of their neighbours. Their customs +are nearer those of the Apayaos than any other. They are civilised and +have been Christians for generations. Their chief town is Adan or Adam. + + + +Apayaos (29). + +This race was formerly very warlike, but is now more civilized, and +many even converted to Christianity. They inhabit the mountainous +region round about the River Apayao, on the east of the Cordillera +del Norte and extend down towards the plains of the Rio Chico. + +They pay some attention to agriculture, and besides growing vegetables +and maize for their own use, they raise tobacco and cacao which +they trade away to the Ilocanos in exchange for such articles as +they require. + +Their houses compare favourably with those of the other +hill-tribes. They are raised to a considerable height, being square +in form with heavy hardwood posts at the corners. The floor is made of +cedar planks, the roof is thatched with cogon or reeds, and the walls +and partitions are of plaited palm leaves. A fire-place is arranged in +one corner. They ornament the walls with remarkable taste, hanging up +the ornaments and arms of their ancestors, which they greatly prize +and will not part with for any price. + +They also highly value Chinese and Japanese pottery or porcelain. + +Needless to say that the worship of ancestors is with them piously +performed. + +They used to be head-hunters and made the death of any of their +chief men an excuse to lie in ambush and massacre any inoffensive +passers-by for the purpose of taking the heads to place round the +corpse and afterwards bury them with it. + +However, the steady pressure of the Spanish authority, during long +terms of years, has nearly eradicated this detestable custom, and +if practised at all, it is only in the remoter fastnesses of the +mountains, where they cannot yet be controlled. + +The Apayaos living in the plains are mostly reduced to obedience, +and many pay the poll-tax. + +It would seem that there is a prospect of these people being civilised +and becoming useful cultivators. + + + +Catalanganes and Irayas (30-31). + +The Irayas live in scattered hamlets on the summits of the Sierra +Madre, and on its western slopes right down to the Rio Grande. Their +territory extends for about twenty geographical miles on each side of +the 17th parallel. Amongst them live many Negritos who have renounced +their nomadic life, and have adopted the manners and customs of their +hosts. The tattooing of the Irayas and Negritos is similar. The Irayas +are a Malay tribe amongst whom are found individuals of a Mongolian +type, others are hybrid Negrito Malays. + +They do a little slovenly agriculture, using buffaloes for +ploughing. They catch an abundance of fish from the four considerable +streams running through their territory. They consume a large quantity +of fish with their rice, and salt and sell the surplus to their +neighbours. They are characteristically light-hearted and hospitable, +and readily receive remontados and other strangers. Their religion is +the usual Anito worship. They build wretched houses, and are very dirty +in their habits, throwing their refuse down in front of the house. + +The Catalanganes take their name from the River Catalangan which runs +into the Rio Grande near Ilagan. They are a branch of the Irayas, +but show a more strongly marked Mongolian type. + +They are cleaner than the Irayas, and more industrious, and provident, +storing up provisions against a bad harvest. + +Their fields are much better kept than those of the Irayas, and they +employ their spare time in felling trees and hewing them into canoes, +which find a ready sale at Ilagan. + +They dress much like the Christian Malays, but are tattooed in patterns +of Chinese or Japanese origin. + +Their laws prescribe severe penalties for theft and other +crimes. Their weapons are bows and arrows, and they are said to be +very cowardly. Their choice of weapons confirms this statement. + +They differ much from the Irayas in character, for they are +inhospitable, avaricious and greedy, and of a gloomy disposition. On +the other hand, they keep their houses cleaner. + +They have temples for worship, and some roughly-made +monuments. According to Semper, they have two pairs of gods which they +specially worship in June: Tschichenan, with his wife Bebenaugan, +and Sialo with his wife Binalinga. The usual ancestor-worship also +prevails, and they show great respect for the Anitos according to +seniority, providing special shelters and little benches near their +houses for their convenience. + +Both Irayas and Catalanganes have Gobernadorcillos appointed by the +Spanish Military Governor of Isabela. They pay the poll-tax, called +by the Spaniards "Acknowledgment of Vassalage," but are otherwise +independent and administer their own laws and customs. They are quite +peaceful, and will doubtless in time advance in civilisation. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXX + + +Catubanganes (32). + +A tribe of savages inhabiting the mountains of Guinayangan in +Tayabas, from whence they raid the Christian villages and drive off +cattle. Nothing is known about their origin or habits; they have some +wandering Negritos as neighbours. + + + +Vicols (33). + +The Vicols inhabit the southern half of the province of Camarines +Norte, the whole of Camarines Sur and Albay, the islands of +Catanduanes, Burias, and Ticao, and the northern shores of +Masbate. They are civilised, and have been Christians for centuries. + +They speak a dialect of their own, which, according to Jagor, +is midway between Tagal and Visay, which dialect is spoken in its +greatest purity by the inhabitants of the Isarog volcano and its +immediate neighbourhood, and that thence towards the west the dialect +becomes more and more like the Tagal, and towards the east like the +Visay until by degrees, before reaching the ethnographical boundary, +it merges into those kindred languages. + +In manners and customs they appear to be half-bred between these two +races, yet, according to F. Blumentritt, they preceded the Tagals, +and were in fact the first Malays to arrive in Luzon. They show signs +of intermixture with Polynesian or Papuan stock. + +They are physically inferior to the Tagals, nor do they possess the +proud warlike spirit of the dwellers in north Luzon. They are less +cleanly, and live in poorer houses. + +The men dress like the Tagals, but the women wear the patadion instead +of a saya, and a shirt of guinara. + +Blumentritt says the men carry the Malay kris instead of the bolo, but +I did not see a kris carried by any one when I visited the province. + +In fact, the regulations enforced at that time by the Guardia Civil +were against carrying such a weapon. The bolo, on the other hand, +is a necessary tool. + +I visited the province of Camarines Sur, going from Manila to Pasacao +by sea, and from there travelled by road to an affluent of the River +Vicol, and then by canoe on a moonlit night to Nueva Caceres, the +capital of the province. + +Here I met a remarkable man, the late Bishop Gainza, and was much +impressed by his keen intellect and great knowledge of the country. + +He was said to be a man of great ambition, and I can quite believe +it. Originally a Dominican monk, it was intended that he should have +been made Archbishop of Manila, but, somehow, Father Pedro Paya, at +that time Procurator of the Order in Madrid, got himself nominated +instead, and Gainza had to content himself with the bishopric of +Nueva Caceres. + +He was a model of self-denial, living most frugally on a small part of +his revenue, contributing a thousand dollars a year to the funds of +the Holy Father, and spending the remainder in building or repairing +churches and schools in his diocese, or in assisting undertakings he +thought likely to benefit the province. + +Amongst other works, I remember that he had tried to cut a canal from +the River Vicol to the Bay of Ragay. He had excavated a portion of +it, but either on his death, or from the difficulties raised by the +Public Works Department, the work was abandoned. + +The Franciscan friars, who held the benefices in that province, +opposed him, and annoyed him in every possible way. + +The present bishop, Father Arsenio Ocampo, formerly an Augustinian +monk, is a clever and enlightened man, with whom I had dealings when +he was Procurator-General of his Order. + +I have made this digression from my subject, because so much has +been said against the clergy of the Philippines, that I feel impelled +to bring before my readers this instance of a bishop who constantly +endeavoured to promote the interests of his province. + +Nueva Caceres possessed several schools, a hospital, a lepers' +hospital, and a training-college for school-mistresses had just been +established by Bishop Gainza's initiative. + +The shops were mostly in the hands of Chinese, who did a flourishing +trade in Manchester goods, patadoins, and coloured handkerchiefs. + +There were several Spanish and Mestizo merchants who dealt in hemp +and rice. + +From Nueva Caceres I travelled by a good road to Iriga, a town near +the volcano of that name, passing close to the Isarog on my way. From +Iriga I visited the country round about, and Lake Bula. + +Some years after I went from Manila by sea to Tabaco, on the Pacific +coast of Albay, getting a fine night view of the Mayon volcano (8272 +feet) in violent eruption. + +From Tabaco I drove to Tivi and visited the celebrated boiling-well +and hot-springs at that place, much frequented by the natives, and +sometimes by Europeans, for the cure of rheumatism and other diseases. + +Now that the Stars and Stripes float over the Philippines it is to +be hoped that a regular sanatorium will be erected at this beautiful +and health-restoring spot, the advantages of which might attract +sufferers from all the Far East. + +On these journeys I had a good opportunity of studying the people. The +chief exports are Abaca (Manila hemp), and rice. In Camarines Sur +the principal crop is rice, whilst in Albay the hemp predominates, +and they import rice. + +The cultivation of rice, which I have briefly described when writing +of the Tagals, is not an occupation calculated to improve the minds +or bodies of those engaged in it, and I have noticed that wherever +this is the staple crop the peasantry are in a distinctly lower +condition than where cane is planted and sugar manufactured. Their +lives are passed in alternate periods of exhausting labour and of utter +idleness, there is nothing to strive for, nothing to learn, nothing +to improve. The same customs go on from generation to generation, +the same rude implements are used, and the husbandman paid for his +labour in kind lives destitute of comfort in the present, and without +hope for the future. + +Nor can the cultivation and preparation of hemp be considered as a +much more improving occupation. + +Little care, indeed, is required by the Musa textilis after the +first planting, and the cleaning of the fibre is a simple matter, +but very laborious. + +Several Spaniards are settled in these provinces, also a few agents +of British houses in Manila, and some Chinese and Mestizos. They +usually complain bitterly of the difficulty they experience in getting +hemp delivered to them owing to the laziness and unpunctuality of +the natives. + +Yet, notwithstanding this, most of them live in affluence and some +have amassed fortunes by Vicol labour. There is, in fact, a good deal +of money in Albay, Daraga, and other towns in the hemp districts, and +they are the happy hunting-ground of the Jew pedlar who there finds +a good market for yellow diamonds and off-colour gems unsaleable in +London or Paris. Houndsditch and Broadway will do well to note. + +The peasantry, however, either from improvidence or aversion to steady +labour, seem to be rather worse off than the Tagals and Pampangos, +more especially those amongst them who cultivate paddy. + +The whole of the large amount of hemp exported from Manila and Cebu +is cleaned by hand. + +Several attempts have been made to employ machinery, but the inherent +conditions of the industry are unfavourable to success in this line. + +The plants are grown principally on the eastern slopes of the volcanic +mountains of Southern Luzon, and the adjacent islands where the soil +is soft and friable and roads are unknown. + +The heavy stems of the plants cannot profitably be conveyed to fixed +works for treatment, and no machine has yet been devised light enough +to be carried up to the lates or plantations and able to compete with +hand labour. In a recent report to the British North Borneo Company, +Mr. W. C. Cowie mentions his hopes that Thompson's Fibre Company +are about to send out a trial decorticator, with engine and boiler +to drive it, to the River Padas, in that company's territories, for +cleaning the fibre of the numerous plants of the Musa textilis growing +in that region. It will be interesting to learn the result. Possibly +the conditions of transport by rail or river are more favourable than +in the Philippines, and in that case a measure of success is quite +possible. But few errors are more expensive than to unwarrantably +assume that machinery must necessarily be cheaper than hand labour. + +Anyhow, as regards the Philippines here is a nice little problem. If +the mechanics of Massachusetts and Connecticut cannot solve it, +I do not know who can. + +The Vicol labourers proceed to the lates in couples, carrying their +simple and efficient apparatus, all of which, except the knife, +they make themselves. + +One man cuts down the plant, removes the outer covering, and separates +the layers forming the stem, dividing them into strips about one and +a half inches wide, and spreading them out to air. + +The other man standing at his bench, takes a strip and places the +middle of it across the convex block and under the knife, which is +held up by the spring of a sapling overhead. Then, placing one foot +on a treadle hanging from the handle of the knife, he firmly presses +the latter down on the block. It should be explained that the knife +is not sharp enough to cut the fibres. Firmly grasping the strip +in both hands, and throwing his body backwards, he steadily draws +the strip towards him till all the fibre has passed the knife; then, +removing his foot from the treadle, the knife is lifted from the block +by the spring, leaving the pulp and waste behind it. Sweeping this +off, he reverses the half-cleaned strip, and twisting the cleaned +fibre round one hand and wrist, and grasping it also with the other, +he draws the part he formerly held, under the knife, pressing the +treadle with the foot as before, and thus completes the cleaning of +one strip. The fibre is often six feet long, and only requires drying +in the sun to be marketable. + +A man is able to clean about twenty-five pounds of hemp per day, +and receives one half of it for his labour. + +He usually sells his share to his employer for a trifle under the +market price. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + + +The Chinese in Luzon. + + Mestizos or half-breeds. + + +When Legaspi founded the city of Manila, in 1571, he found that Chinese +junks frequented the port, and carried on a trade with Tondo and the +other native towns. + +Three years later, the Chinese pirate, Li-ma-hon, made an attack on +the new city with a force of 2000 men in ninety-five small vessels, +but was repulsed. + +In 1603, the Chinese in Manila, under Eng-cang, rose against the +Spaniards, and entrenched themselves in the suburbs. The Spaniards +failed in the first assault with heavy loss, but ultimately the Chinese +were defeated, and 23,000 were massacred, the few remaining being made +galley-slaves. In 1639, another insurrection of the Chinese occurred +and again some 23,000 were massacred. + +In 1662, in consequence of the Chinese pirate Cong-seng demanding +tribute from the governor of the Philippines, a decree was made that +all Chinese must leave. The Chinese, however, refused, and entrenched +themselves in the Parian, or market-place, outside the walls. They were +attacked, and many thousands were killed. A body of 2000 endeavoured +to march north, but were massacred by the Pampangos. + +In 1762, when Manila was taken by the forces of the Honourable East +India Company, the Chinese eagerly joined in the plundering. It having +been rumoured that the Chinese intended to join the British forces, +Don Simon de Anda condemned them all to death, and most of them were +hung, their property passing to their executioners. + +In 1820, there occurred the fifth and last massacre of the +Chinese. The mob of Manila took advantage of the abject cowardice of +the acting-governor, General Folgueras, and of other authorities, +and for hours vented their spite on the unhappy Chinamen, showing +them no mercy, and carrying off their goods. + +Since that time no general massacre has taken place, but such is the +dislike of the natives to the Chinese, that these latter would have +been quickly exterminated if the Spanish Government had failed at +any time to protect them. + +The Chinese are mostly herded together in Manila, and in some of +the larger towns. Some few venture to keep stores in the villages, +and others travel about at the risk of their lives in the sugar, +hemp and tobacco districts, as purchasers and collectors of produce. + +I consider that they should not be allowed to do this, for the +invariable result of their interference is to reduce the quality of +everything they handle. Their trade is based upon false weights and +measures, and upon adulteration, or insufficient preparation of the +produce. They are very patient with the natives, and this gives them +a very great advantage over a European, even if the latter is used +to Eastern ways. An American would probably have less patience than +any European in negotiating a purchase of produce from an up-country +native; the waste of time would exasperate him. I feel sure that most +of those who know the Philippines will agree with me as to the evil +results of the operations of the Chinese produce-brokers. Adulterated +sugar, half-rotten hemp, half-cured tobacco, badly-prepared +indigo--that is what the Chinaman brings in. He spoils every article +he trades in, and discredits it in the world's markets. + +The Chinese nowhere cultivate the soil, except the gardens and +market-gardens around Manila, and a few of the large towns. + +This is, perhaps, not due to their unwillingness to do so, but because +they dare not; the natives are too jealous of them, and their lives +would not be safe away from the towns. + +Their genius is commercial, and they are at home in shop, bazaar, or +office. I think that the Chinese agriculturist does not leave his home +for the Philippines. Most of those in the islands come from Amoy, and +the district round that port. Some few are from Macao; they seem to be +all townsmen, not countrymen. Each shopkeeper has several assistants, +ranging in age from boys of ten or twelve upwards. On arrival, they are +placed in a sort of school--a very practical one--to learn Spanish; +for instance, numbers and coins, with such terms as Muy barato--very +cheap. As a Chinaman cannot pronounce the letter R, but substitutes L, +this becomes Muy balato. Thus, also, the Roo-Kiu Islands become the +Loo-Chew Islands, in Chinese. + +The Chinaman is an excellent shop-keeper or pedlar, and some years +ago, the British importers of Manchester goods made it a practice +to give credit for goods supplied to the Chinese; the banks also +extended some facilities to them. In consequence, however, of heavy +losses to several British firms, this custom has been abandoned, +or considerably restricted. + +The Chinese are good barbers, cooks and gardeners. As breeders of +fish they are unrivalled. Besides this they compete successfully +with the Tagal in the following trades: blacksmiths, boiler-makers, +stokers, engine-drivers, ship and house carpenters, boat-builders, +cabinet-makers and varnishers, iron and brass-founders, shoe-makers, +tin-smiths. These artisans are very industrious, and labour constantly +at their trades. Their great feast is at the Chinese New Year, which +occurs in February, when they take about a week's holiday, and regale +themselves on roast pig, and other delicacies, making also presents +of sweets, fruits, and Jocchiu hams, to their patrons and customers. + +There are Chinese apothecaries in Manila, but they are mostly resorted +to by their own countrymen, and their awful concoctions are nasty +beyond belief. They deal largely in aphrodisiacs. + +Some Chinese doctors practise in Manila, and are said to make wonderful +cures, even on patients given up by the orthodox medicos. They feel +the pulse at the temporal artery, or else above the bridge of the nose. + +They used to suffer a good deal from the jealousy of the Spanish +practitioners, and were persecuted for practising without a +qualification. + +Large numbers of Chinese coolies are employed in Manila handling coal, +loading and unloading ships and lighters, pressing hemp, drying sugar, +and in other work too hard and too constant for the natives. + +The number of Chinese in Luzon has been variously estimated at from +30,000 to 60,000 men, and two or three hundred women. The anonymous +author of 'Filipinas--Problema Fundamental' (Madrid, 1891), gives +the number of Chinese in the whole Archipelago as 125,000, and he +evidently had access to good information. The fact is nobody knows, +and in all probability the Spanish authorities had an interest in +understating the number. + +The Chinese were organised quite separately from the natives. Wherever +their numbers were considerable, they had their own tribunal, with +a Gobernadorcillo and Principales, the former called the Capitan-China. + +In Manila, this Capitan was a man of importance, or else the nominee of +such a person. Certain governors-general received, nay, even extorted, +large sums from the Capitan-China. Weyler is said to have been one of +these offenders, but Jovellar caused the Capitan-China to be turned out +of Malacanan for offering him a present. No one who knew them would +ever believe that Moriones or Despujols would condescend to accept +presents from the Chinamen. One favourite trick of the more corrupt +governors-general was to have some very obnoxious law made in Spain; +for instance, obliging the Chinese to become cabezas-de-barangay, or +responsible tax-collectors of their own countrymen, and then extort +a ransom for not putting the law in force. Weyler was said to have +received $80,000 from the Chinese on this account, but some of this +would have to go to Madrid. + +At another time it was proposed that the Chinese should be obliged to +keep their accounts in Spanish on books having every leaf stamped, and +that every firm should employ a trained accountant who had passed an +examination in book-keeping, and obtained a diploma as a commercial +expert. What it cost the Celestials to avoid this infliction I do +not know. + +Amidst all this extortion from the Spaniard, and notwithstanding the +ever-present hatred of the native, the Manila Chinaman is a sleek +and prosperous-looking person, and seems cheerful and contented. If +he becomes wealthy he may very likely become a Christian, less, +perhaps, from any conviction or faith, but from motives of interest, +and to facilitate his marriage to a native woman, or half-caste. He +invariably selects an influential god-father, and dutifully takes him +complimentary presents on his feast-day, wife's feast-day, etc. Baptism +used to cost him a substantial fee, but it brought him business, for +the priests were good customers to him. Now, however, with freedom +of religion, with civil marriage and the withdrawal of the friars, +he may be able to marry without the trouble of changing his religion. + +Whether Christian or heathen, he usually keeps a few sticks of incense +burning before an image at the back of his shop, and contributes to +any subscription the priest may be raising. + +I look upon the Chinaman as a necessity in the Philippines, but +consider that he must be governed by exceptional legislation, and not +be allowed to enter indiscriminately, nor to engage, as a matter of +course, in every calling. + +If attempts are to be made to settle them on the land, great care must +be shown in selecting the localities, and great precautions taken +to prevent fighting between the Chinese and the natives. However, +there should be plenty of room for tens of thousands of agricultural +labourers in Palawan and Mindanao; but I consider women to be +essential to the success of such colonies. The family is the base of +any permanent settlement, and it ought to be made a condition that +a considerable number of women should come over with the men. + + + +Mestizos, or Half-Breeds. + +From the intercourse of Spanish and other Europeans with +the native women, there has sprung a race called Mestizo, or +Mestizo-Espanol. Similarly, the Chinese, by their alliance with native +women, have produced the Mestizo-Chino, or Sangley. + +It is very difficult to say how many there are of these people, for +opinions differ widely. The anonymous author of a pamphlet called +'Filipinas' (Madrid, 1891), gives the number of Spanish Mestizos in +the Archipelago, in 1890, as 75,000, whilst he estimates the number +of Chinese Mestizos at no less than half a million. The Spanish +Mestizos vary much in appearance, character and education, according +to whether they have come under the influence of their father or +their mother. Many of them are people of considerable property, and +have been educated in Spain, Germany or England, or at the university +in Manila. Others have relapsed into the ordinary native life. As a +class they are possessed of much influence. Both in Manila and in the +country towns they own large houses, and much landed property. Their +superior intelligence and education enables them to prosper in business +or in professions. Some of them are doctors of medicine, or lawyers. A +very few have studied engineering. Again, a fair number are priests, +and of these, some are men of great learning. + +The Mestizos are the capitalists, which is to say the usurers of the +country. They have not personally participated much in the revolts +against the Spaniards, nor yet in the fighting against the Americans, +though they may have given small sums to assist the movement. They will +be there, though, when offices are to be distributed, and will make +hard masters, more oppressive, in fact, than any European or American. + +This is what M. Andre, Belgian Consul-General, says of them: "This +class is composed entirely of usurers and pawnees. All the pawn-shops +and gambling-houses belong to the principal Mestizo families. There +is not one family free from that stigma. In the plantations belonging +to the rich families of Mestizos or Indians, the workmen are treated +very inhumanly." + +There can be no doubt that the Spanish Mestizos are very unpopular +amongst the natives, and that an uncomfortable time would await them +should the islands become independent. They are perfectly aware of +this, and in their hearts long for the protection of one of the Great +Powers. At the same time, they are anxious to get the lion's share +of the loaves and fishes. + +The Chinese Mestizos differ both in appearance and character from +the Spanish Mestizos, owning less land, and being more addicted +to commercial pursuits, for which both sexes show a remarkable +aptitude. It is customary for the daughters, even of wealthy +families, to trade on their own account from an early age. A case +was mentioned to me where five dollars was given to a young girl to +begin trading. With this she purchased a pilon of sugar, and sending +out some of her father's servants to the woods, collected a large +quantity of guavas. She then caused the cook to make the material +into guava jelly, which she packed in tins or jars collected for the +purpose. Then another servant took the jelly out for sale, and disposed +of it all. The capital was soon doubled, and invested in sayas and +handkerchiefs bought at wholesale prices, which were then hawked round +by a servant. Some years afterwards, I made the acquaintance of this +young lady, and found that she was then dealing in diamond and pearl +jewellery, and had a large iron safe in which she kept her stock, +which was then worth several thousand dollars, all made by her trading. + +Chinese Mestizos are owners of cascos and lorchas for loading or +unloading vessels, also of farderias, or establishments for mixing +and drying sugar. + +In Manila, the Sangleyes, as they are called by the Spaniards +and natives, have a gobernadorcillo and tribunal of their own. In +Santa Cruz they are very numerous, and amongst them are to be found +jewellers, silversmiths, watch-makers, or rather repairers, sculptors, +gilders and painters, besides one or two dentists of good renown. + + + + + + + +PART II + +THE VISAYAS AND PALAWAN + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + +THE VISAYAS ISLANDS. + + Area and population--Panay--Negros--Cebu--Bohol--Leyte--Samar. + + +This name is given to the group of six considerable islands +lying between Luzon and Mindanao, and also to the race inhabiting +them. Beginning at the west, these islands are Panay, Negros, Cebu, +Bohol, Leyte, and Samar. There are also a number of smaller islands. + +Many of the larger as well as the smaller islands are thickly +populated, and an extensive emigration takes place to the great and +fertile island of Mindanao, where any amount of rich land waits the +coming of the husbandmen. I can find no later records of population +than the census of 1877. This may seem strange to an American, +but to those who know the ignorance and ineptitude of the Spanish +administration, it will seem a matter of course. Such data of the +population as the Government Offices possess, are mostly due to the +priests and the archbishop. + +Since 1877 there has undoubtedly been a great increase of population +amongst the Visayas, and in 1887 the population of Panay was considered +to be more than a million. + +The Visayas Islands contain fewer heathen than any other part of the +Philippines. In Panay there are a few Negritos and Mundos; in Negros +some Negritos and Carolanos. The illustration opposite p. 207 is a +full-length photograph of Tek Taita, a Negrito from this island. In +Cebu a few Mundos live around the peak of Danao. In Bohol, Leyte, +and Samar there are no heathen savages. + +It may be said that the heathen in these islands would have died out +before now but that they are reinforced continually by remontados, +or fugitives from justice, also by people whose inclination for a +savage life, or whose love of rapine renders the humdrum life of +their village insupportable to them. + +The following Table gives the area of each of the six larger islands, +and the population in 1877. + + + Area in square miles. + Population according to Census of 1877. + Capitals. + +Panay + (divided into 4,898 777,777 [29] Capiz. + three provinces-- Antique. + Capiz, Antique, Ilo-ilo. + Ilo-ilo) +Negros 3,592 204,669 Bacolod. +Cebu 2,285 403,296 Cebu. +Bohol 1,226 226,546 Tagbilaran. +Leyte 3,706 220,515 Tacloban. +Samar 5,182 178,890 Catbalogan. + --------- + 2,011,693 + + +Panay.--This island is approximately an equilateral triangle, with +the western edge nearly north and south, having one apex pointing +south. A chain of mountains extends in a curved line from the northern +to the southern point, enclosing an irregular strip of land which +forms the province of Antique. The rivers in this part of the island +are naturally short and unimportant. The northern part of the island +is the province of Capiz, the principal river is the Panay, which, +rising in the centre of the island, runs in a northerly direction for +over thirty miles, entering the sea at the Bay of Sapian. The eastern +and southern part of the island is the province of Ilo-ilo. The +principal river is the Talana, which, rising quite near the source +of the River Panay, runs in a southerly and south-easterly direction +into the channel between Negros and Panay to the north of the island of +Guimaras. There are many spurs to the principal range of mountains, but +between them is a considerable extent of land under cultivation. The +province of Ilo-ilo is one of the richest and most densely-populated in +the Philippines. It now contains at least half a million inhabitants. + +Ilo-ilo is open to foreign commerce, and vice-consuls of many nations +reside there. Yet the port has neither wharves, cranes, moorings or +lights. The coasting steamers drawing up to 13 feet enter a muddy +creek and discharge their cargo on the banks as best they can, whilst +the ocean-going ships lie out in the bay and receive their cargoes +of sugar and other produce from lighters, upon each of which pilotage +used to be charged for the benefit of an unnecessary number of pilots, +and of the captain of the port, who received a share of the pilotage +and strenuously resisted a reform of this abuse. + +Under American protection, Ilo-ilo may be expected to become a +flourishing port, provided with every convenience for discharging, +loading, and repairing ships, as becomes the importance of its +trade. The town of Ilo-ilo contained many large buildings, some +of them owned by British subjects. During the fighting last year, +however, several buildings were burnt. + +During the Spanish rule the streets were entirely uncared for, being +a series of mud-holes in the rainy season, and thick with dust and +garbage in the dry season. + +The town and port together are notorious examples of all the worst +characteristics of Spanish rule. + +The principal towns of this wealthy province are Pototan, Santa +Barbara, Janiuay, and Cabatuan, each of which has more than 20,000 +inhabitants. + +The industries and productions of this and the other islands are +treated of under Visayas when describing the inhabitants. + +Negros.--A long island of irregular shape, lying between Panay and +Cebu. Its axis is nearly north and south, and a chain of mountains +runs up it, but nearer to the east than to the west coast. + +A little to the north of the centre of this chain, the celebrated +volcano Canlaon raises its peak over 8300 feet. It is frequently in +active eruption, and can be perceived at an immense distance when the +atmosphere is clear. I have seen it and its long plume of vapour from +a steamer when passing the north of the island. + +In the Sierra de Dumaguete, a range occupying the centre of the +southern promontory of the island, and about the centre of the range, +there is the volcano of Bacon, about which little is known. + +Cebu is a long and narrow island something in the shape of an +alligator, looked at from above, with the snout pointing to the +southward and westward. It is opposite to Negros, and separated +from that island by the Strait of Tanon. It is, in fact, a range of +mountains rising out of the sea, and is very narrow, being nowhere +more than 22 miles wide. There being a large population of Visayas, +and the mountains not being very high, the wandering heathen have to +a great extent been weeded out, and only a remnant of wretched Mundos +remain about the crests of the cordillera. + +The capital city, Cebu, was the first in the Archipelago to possess +a municipality, and was, in fact, until 1571, the capital of the +Philippines. + +It possesses some fine buildings; is the seat of a bishop, and formerly +of the Governor-General of Visayas. It is open to foreign commerce, +and vice-consuls of the principal nations reside there. + +There can be no rivers in an island of this configuration, for the +water runs away as from the roof of a house. The crops and industries +have been spoken of under the head of Visayas. + +There are considerable beds of lignite near Compostela, and various +efforts have been made to work them, so far, I fear, without much +success. Remarkable shells, and some pearls are obtained round about +Cebu and the adjacent islands. + +Bohol lies off the southern half of the eastern coast of Cebu, and +is only half the size of that island, but it has more than half the +population. It is hilly, and the towns and villages are situated +on the coast. Only the southern and eastern coast is visited by +coasting vessels, the navigation to the north and west being impeded +by a labyrinth of coral reefs. The soil of this island is not rich, +and the more enterprising of the natives emigrate to Mindanao. + +Leyte is an island of very irregular shape--something like a hide +pegged out on the ground--and lies between the northern half of Cebu +and the southern part of Samar, from which it is only separated by a +very narrow passage called the Janabatas Channel, and the Strait of +San Juanico. The southern extremity of Leyte approaches the northern +promontory of Mindanao, and forms the Straits of Surigao, the second +entrance from the Pacific to the seas of the Archipelago. The island is +mountainous, and has two lakes, one called Bito is at the narrowest +part, and one called Jaro, near the town of that name. There are +several good ports. The exports, which go to Manila, are hemp and +sulphur of great purity. + +Samar.--This is the largest of the Visayas, and yet has fewest +inhabitants. It lies to the eastward of all the other islands, +and consequently its east coast, like that of Luzon and Mindanao, +is exposed to the full fury of the north-east monsoon, and to the +ravages of the heavy rollers of the Pacific that burst without warning +on its rocky coast. + +Its chief port, Catbalogan, is situated on the western coast, and +is well-sheltered. From the coast many lofty peaks are visible, +but the interior of this island is little known. The exports are +hemp and cocoa-nut oil. The northern point of Samar approaches +the southern extremity of Luzon, and forms the historic Strait of +San Bernardino, one of the entrances to the Philippine Archipelago +from the Pacific. It was by this Strait that the annual galleon from +Acapulco entered, and here also the British privateers lay in wait +for their silver-laden prey. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +The Visayas Race. + + Appearance--Dress--Look upon Tagals as foreigners--Favourable + opinion of Tomas de Comyn--Old Christians--Constant wars with the + Moro pirates and Sea Dayaks--Secret heathen rites--Accusation of + indolence unfounded--Exports of hemp and sugar--Ilo-ilo sugar--Cebu + sugar--Textiles--A promising race. + + +The most numerous and, after the Tagals, the most important race in +the Philippines is the Visaya, formerly called Pintados, or painted +men, from the blue painting or tattooing which was prevalent at the +time of the conquest. They form the mass of the inhabitants of the +islands called Visayas and of some others. + +They occupy the south coast of Masbate, the islands of Romblon, +Bohol, Sibuyan, Samar, and Leyte, Tablas, Panay, Negros, and Cebu, +all the lesser islands of the Visayas group and the greater part of +the coast of the great island of Mindanao. In that island the Caragas, +a very warlike branch of the Visayas, occupy the coast of the old +kingdom of Caraga on the east from Punta Cauit to Punta San Agustin. + +Another branch of the Visayas distinguished by a darker colour and +by a curliness of the hair, suggesting some Negrito mixture, occupies +the Calamiancs and Cuyos Islands, and the northern coasts of Paragua +or Palawan as far as Bahia Honda. + +In appearance the Visayas differ somewhat from the Tagals, having +a greater resemblance to the Malays of Borneo and Malacca. The men +wear their hair longer than the Tagals, and the women wear a patadion +instead of a saya and tapis. + +The patadion is a piece of cloth a yard wide and over two yards long, +the ends of which are sewn together. The wearer steps into it and wraps +it round the figure from the waist downward, doubling it over in front +into a wide fold, and tucking it in securely at the waist. The saya is +a made skirt tied at the waist with a tape, and the tapis is a breadth +of dark cloth, silk or satin, doubled round the waist over the saya. + +In disposition they are less sociable and hospitable than the Tagals, +and less clean in their persons and clothing. They have a language of +their own, and there are several dialects of it. The basis of their +food is rice, with which they often mix maize. They flavour their +food with red pepper to a greater extent than the Tagals. They are +expert fishermen, and consume large quantities of fish. In smoking +and chewing betel they resemble the other races of the islands. They +are great gamblers, and take delight in cock-fighting. They are fond +of hunting, and kill numbers of wild pig and deer. They cut the flesh +of the latter into thin strips and dry it in the sun, after which it +will keep a long time. It is useful to take as provision on a journey, +but it requires good teeth to get through it. + +The Visayas build a number of canoes, paraos, barotos, and vintas, and +are very confident on the water, putting to sea in their ill-found and +badly-equipped craft with great assurance, and do not come to grief +as often as might be expected. Their houses are similarly constructed +to those of the other inhabitants of the littoral. + +Ancient writers accused the Visaya women of great sensuality and +unbounded immorality, and gave details of some very curious customs, +which are unsuitable for general publication. However, the customs I +refer to have been long obsolete among the Visayas, although still +existing amongst some of the wilder tribes in Borneo. The Visaya +women are very prolific, many having borne a dozen children, but +infant mortality is high, and they rear but few of them. The men +are less sober than the Tagals--they manufacture and consume large +quantities of strong drink. They are not fond of the Tagals, and a +Visaya regiment would not hesitate to fire upon them if ordered. In +fact the two tribes look upon each other as foreigners. When discovered +by the Spaniards, they were to a great extent civilised and organised +in a feudal system. Tomas de Comyn formed a very favourable opinion of +them--he writes, both men and women are well-mannered and of a good +disposition, of better condition and nobler behaviour than those of +the Island of Luzon and others adjacent. + +They had learnt much from Arab and Bornean adventurers, especially +from the former, whose superior physique, learning, and sanctity, as +coming from the country of the Prophet, made them acceptable suitors +for the hands of the daughters of the Rajas or petty kings. They had +brought with them the doctrines of Islam, which had begun to make +some converts before the Spanish discovery. The old Visaya religion +was not unlike that of the Tagals, they called their idols Dinatas +instead of Anitos--their marriage customs were not very different +from those of the Tagals. + +The ancestors of the Visayas were converted to Christianity at, or +soon after, the Spanish conquest. They have thus been Christians for +over three centuries, and in constant war with the Mahometan pirates +of Mindanao and Sulu, and with the Sea Dayaks of Borneo. However, in +some localities they still show a strong hankering after witchcraft, +and practise secret heathen rites, notwithstanding the vigilance of +the parish priests. + +A friar of the order of Recollets who had held a benefice in Bohol, +assured me that they have a secret heathen organisation, although +every member is a professing Christian, taking the Sacrament on the +great feasts of the Church. They hold a secret triennial meeting of +their adherents, who come over from other islands to be present. The +meeting is held in some lonely valley, or on some desert island, +where their vessels can lie concealed, always far from any church or +priest. All the Recollet could tell me about the ceremonies was that +the sacrifice of pigs formed an important part of it + +The Visayas are no less credulous than the Tagals, for in Samar, +during my recollection, there have been several disturbances caused by +fanatics who went about in rags, and by prayers, incoherent speeches, +and self-mortification acquired a great reputation for sanctity. The +poor ignorant people, deluded by these impostors, who gave themselves +out to be gods, and as such, impervious to bullets, and immortal, +abandoned their homes and followed these false gods wherever they went, +listening to their wild promises, and expecting great miracles. They +soon came into collision with the Guardia Civil; and on one occasion, +armed only with clubs and knives, they made a determined charge on a +small party of this corps under the command of a native officer. The +Guardia Civil formed across the road and poured several steady volleys +into the advancing crowd, breaking them up and dispersing them with +heavy loss and killing the false god. The native officer received +the laurel-wreathed cross of San Fernando as a reward for his services. + +The Visayas are taxed with great indolence, yet they are almost the +only working people in districts which export a great quantity of +produce. Leyte and Samar produce a good many bales of excellent +hemp, and it should be remembered that every bale represents at +least twelve days' hard work of one man in cleaning the fibre only, +without counting the cultivation, conveyance to the port, pressing, +baling, and shipping. + +In Negros and Panay the sugar estates are much larger than in Luzon, +and mostly belong to Spaniards or mestizos. They are not worked by +aparceria as in Luzon, but the labourers are paid by the day. Great +troubles often occur as bands of labourers present themselves +on the plantations and offer to work, but demand an advance of +pay. Sometimes, after receiving it, they work a few days and then +depart without notice, leaving the planter in great difficulty and +without redress. Strict laws against vagrants are urgently required +in Visayas. On the other hand the planter is more free to introduce +improvements and alterations than when working by aparceria when he has +to consult the inquilino or cultivator about any change. The cane-mills +are much larger than in Luzon, and are mostly worked by steam engines. + +The sugar is handled differently from the custom of Pampanga. Pilones +are not used, and no manipulation in farderias is required to +prepare it for export. The cane-juice is carefully clarified and +skimmed, then boiled in open pans to a much higher point than when +making pilon-sugar, and to get it to this point without burning or +over-heating much care and experience is required. + +From the teache it is ladled into large wooden trays, always in +thin layers, and is there beaten up with heavy spatulas until it +becomes, on cooling, a pale yellow amorphous mass. It is packed in +mat-bags, and is then ready for shipment. It travels well and loses +but little during a Voyage to San Francisco or New York. None of it +goes to England, which is now entirely supplied by the vile beet sugar +"made in Germany," except for a few hundred tons of Demerara crystals +imported for use by connoisseurs to sweeten their coffee. + +Ilo-ilo sugar is shipped under three marks, No. 1, No. 2, No. 3. An +assortment or cargo of this sugar should consist of 1-8th No. 1, +2-8ths No. 2, 5-8ths No. 3. + +A representative analysis of Ilo-ilo sugar is as follows: + + + No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. + + Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. + Crystallizable sugar 86.60 84.50 81.20 + Glucose 5.40 5.50 6.56 + Mineral matter (ash) 1.50 2.56 3.72 + Sand trace .24 1.28 + + +In Cebu the properties are small and are mostly in the hands of +Visayas. There are, perhaps, five or six steam-mills, but most of the +cane is ground in cattle-mills. They follow the practice of negroes +in making sugars direct for export, but the produce is of a lower +quality. An analysis of the Cebu sugar is as follows: + + + Cebu Superior. Cebu Current. + + Per Cent. Per Cent. + Crystallizable sugar 81.10 71.00 + Glucose 7.90 12.50 + Mineral matter (ash) 2.16 2.23 + + +The sugar produced in the other Visayas islands is quite insignificant. + +Ilo-ilo and Cebu are the principal ports in the Visayas +territory. Besides what they shipped to Manila in 1897, they exported +directly to the United States, Great Britain, or other countries, +the following: Ilo-ilo, 127,744 tons of sugar; 51,300 piculs of Sapan +wood; Cebu, 15,444 tons of sugar; 80,271 bales of hemp; 46,414 piculs +of Copra. And it must be remembered that the Visayas cultivate most +of the rice, maize, and other food-stuffs which they consume, and +also make their own instruments of agriculture. Besides this, Ilo-ilo +exported to other parts of the Philippines a million dollars' worth of +textiles of cotton, silk, and other fibres, made by the Visayas women +in hand-looms. The women in Antique make the finest pina, a beautiful +transparent texture of the utmost delicacy, woven from the fibres of +the leaves of a non-fruiting pine (ananas). When doing the finest work +they have to keep their doors and windows closed, for the least draught +would break or disarrange the delicate filaments. The export from other +ports in Visayas of textiles of cotton and silk is considerable, and, +in addition to what they sell, the Visayas women weave most of the +material for their own clothing and for that of the men. + +The Visayas also export mat-bags for sugar, which are called bayones; +mats for sleeping on, called petates or esteras; pillows stuffed +with cotton, hides, mother-of-pearl shell, Balate (Beche de Mer), +edible bird's-nests, gutta-percha, gum-dammar, wax, rattans, coffee +(of indifferent quality), and leaf tobacco. Both the island of Panay +and the coasts of Negros are dotted over with cane plantations. + +The Visayas extract oil from cocoa-nuts and forge excellent weapons +from scrap iron. The bands from bales of Manchester goods are much +esteemed for this purpose. + +If we take all these points into consideration, the Visayas may not +appear so deplorably indolent as they have been said to be. When +writing of the other races, I have pointed out that the indolence +imputed to them rather goes beyond what is warranted by the facts. + +It will be understood that there are degrees in the civilisation of +the Visayas, and as amongst the Tagals and other races, considerable +differences will be found to exist between the dwellers in the towns +and those in the outlying hamlets, whilst the Remontados may be +considered to have relapsed into savagery. + +The Visayas do a certain amount of trade with the heathen hill-men +of their islands, and as will be pointed out when describing these +tribes, it is hard to say whether the Christian Visayas or the +Mahometan Malays rob these poor savages more shamefully. + +The Visayas are a promising race, and I feel sure that when they have +a good government that will not extort too heavy taxes from them, +nor allow the native and half-caste usurers to eat them up, their +agriculture and industries will surprisingly increase. + +It is to the Visayas that the American Government must look to provide +a militia that will now hold in check, and ultimately subjugate, +the piratical Moros of Mindanao and Paragua. The fighting qualities +of this race, developed by centuries of combat with their Mahometan +aggressors in defence of hearths and homes, will be found quite +sufficient if they are well armed and led to make an end of the Moro +power within a very few years. + +That this aspiration is one well worthy of the countrymen of Decatur, +will, I think, be admitted by all who have read my description of +the Moros under the heading of Mindanao. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +The Island of Palawan, or Paragua. + + The Tagbanuas--Tandulanos--Manguianes--Negritos--Moros of southern + Palawan--Tagbanua alphabet. + + +The island of Palawan, or, as it is called by the Spaniards, +La Paragua, is situated between the parallels 8 deg. 25' and 11 deg. 30' +N. lat. The capital, Puerto Princesa, was founded in 1872, and is +situated on the east coast in lat. 9 deg. 45', being 354 miles from Manila, +210 miles from North Borneo, and 510 miles from Singapore. Palawan is +about 250 miles long, and from 10 to 25 wide, with an area of about +5833 square miles, the third in size of the Philippine Islands. There +are several good ports in the northern part, which is much broken up, +and its coasts studded with numerous islets, forming secure anchorages. + +Off the western coast is a large submarine bank, with many coral +reefs and islets. The navigation on this coast is very dangerous, +and can only be done in daylight. + +The harbour of Puerto Princesa is an excellent one, and sufficiently +large for all requirements. + +Limestone and other sedimentary formations predominate. No volcanic +rocks are known to exist. It is conjectured that the island has been +formed by an upheaval, and it bears little resemblance geologically +to any of the other Philippines. Plastic clays suitable for making +bricks, tiles, and pottery, abound. + +Nothing is known about the mineralogy, except that rock-crystal is +found, a magnificent specimen of great purity and value was sent from +the island to the Madrid Exhibition of 1887. + +A chain of mountains, with peaks of varying elevation up to 6500 feet, +runs lengthways of the island, much nearer to the western coast than +to the eastern. The descent from the summits to the eastern coast +is, therefore, gradual, and on the western coast it is abrupt. Mount +Staveley, Mount Beaufort (3740 feet), Pico Pulgar (4330 feet), and +the Peaks of Anepalian, are in the central part of the island. + +The following record is taken from the observations made by Captain +Canga-Arguelles, a former governor, during his residence of three +years in Puerto Princesa. + + + Month. Mean Temp. Barometer. + Fahrenheit. Inches. Rainy Days. + + January 85 30.34 4 + February 81 30 3 + March 85 30.07 4 + April 87 29.92 5 + May 84 29.80 4 + June 82 29.90 12 + July 80 .. 17 + August 82 29.84 4 + September 79 29.88 20 + October 85 29.90 20 + November 82 29.95 8 + December 82 30 4 + ----- + Mean 82.83 105 + + +It will be seen that the temperature is not excessive, and that +the distribution of the rainfall is favourable to agriculture and +planting. The force of the monsoon is much spent when it arrives +on the coast of Paragua, and the typhoons only touch the northern +extremity of the island. + +Volcanic phenomena are unknown, and there is no record of earthquakes. + +From the lay of the island there is always one coast with calm water, +whichever way the monsoon is blowing. + +The troops and civil population of Puerto Princesa suffer to some +extent from intermittent fevers; but the reports of the military, +naval, and civil infirmaries, state that the disease is not very +severe, and that it yields to treatment, and this assertion is +confirmed by the reports of the French travellers, Drs. Montano and +Rey and M. Alfred Marche. + +The northern part of the island has been colonised from the other +Philippines, and the Christian inhabitants number about 10,000 +distributed amongst several small villages. The southern coasts are +occupied by Mahometan Malays, who number about 6000, and the rest +of this large island, except Puerta Princesa, is only populated by +savages, the principal tribes being the-- + + + Tagbuanas, estimated to number 6,000 + Tandulanos, estimated to number 1,500 + Negritos, estimated to number 500 + Manguianes, estimated to number 4,000 + -------- + 12,000 + + +This gives a grand total of 28,000 inhabitants, or 5.6 to the +square mile. In the island of Luzon, in which extensive districts +are uncultivated and unexplored, the mean density of the population +in 1875, was 76.5 per square mile, and in the provinces of Batangan +and Pasgasinan, which are, perhaps, the best cultivated, the density +was 272 inhabitants to the square mile. + +The fauna has been studied to some extent, a French collector having +resided for a considerable period on the island. It comprises monkeys, +pigs, civets, porcupines, flying squirrels, pheasants, and a small +leopard, this latter not found in any other of the Philippines, +and showing a connection with Borneo. + +The island is covered with dense forests, which have been little +explored. + +The Inspeccion de Montes (Department of Woods and Forests) gives a +list of 104 different kinds of forest-trees known to be growing there, +and states that ebony abounds there more than in any other province +of the Philippines. According to Wallace, the camphor-tree is found +in the island. + +Amongst the timbers mentioned in the Woods and Forests lists are +ebony, camagon, teak, cedar, dungon, banaba, guijo, molave, and +many others of value. The forest or jungle-produce will comprise: +charcoal, firewood, bamboos, rattans, nipa (attap), orchids, wax, +gums, resins, and camphor. Edible birds'-nests are found in various +localities. Fish is abundant in the waters, and balate (Beche de mer) +is collected on the shores and reefs. + +Puerto Princesa is visited by a mail steamer from Manila once in +twenty-eight days. A garrison of two companies of infantry was kept +there, and several small gun-boats were stationed there, which went +periodically round the island. Piracy was completely suppressed, +and the Mahometan Malays were kept in good order by the Spanish forces. + +The dense primeval forests which have existed for ages, untouched +by the hand of man, undevastated by typhoons, volcanic eruptions, or +earthquakes, must necessarily have produced an enormous quantity of +decayed vegetable matter, rich in humus, and such a soil on a limestone +subsoil, mixed with the detritus washed down from the mountains, may +reasonably be expected to be of the highest fertility, and, perhaps, +to be equal to the richest lands of the earth, most specially for +the cultivation of tobacco. + +The varied climates to be found from the sea-level to the tops of the +mountains should allow the cultivation of maize, rice, sugar-cane, +cotton, cacao, coffee, and hemp, each in the zone most favourable +to its growth and fruitfulness. The exemption from typhoons enjoyed +by this region is most important as regards the cultivation of +the aborescent species, and the cocoa-nut palm would prove highly +remunerative on land not suited for other crops. + + + +Tagbanuas. + +The Tagbanuas are said to be the most numerous of the inhabitants of +Palawan. I understand that this word comes from Taga, an inhabitant, +and banua, country, and therefore means an original inhabitant of +the country, as opposed to later arrivals. + +They inhabit the district between Inagahuan, on the east coast, +and Ulugan and Apurahuan, on the west coast. Their numbers in 1888 +were estimated at 6000. In 1890 I spent ten days amongst these +people, and employed a number of them as porters to carry my tent, +provisions, and equipment, when travelling on foot through the +forests to report on the value of a concession in the neighbourhood +of Yuahit and Inagahuan. I therefore describe them from personal +knowledge. They are of a yellowish colour, and generally similar to +the Mahometan Malays of Mindanao. Those who have settled down and +cultivated land have a robust and healthy appearance; but those who +are nomadic, mostly suffered from skin diseases, and some were quite +emaciated. Their Maestro de Campo, the recognised head of their tribe, +lived near Inagahuan, and I visited him at his house, and found him +quite communicative through an interpreter. + +Maestro de Campo is an obsolete military rank in Spain, and a +commission granting this title and an official staff, is sometimes +conferred by the Governor-General of the Philippines, or even by +the King of Spain, upon the chiefs of heathen tribes, who have +supported the Spanish forces against the pirates of Sulu, Mindanao, +or Palawan. Sometimes a small pension accompanies the title. + +I also learnt much about the Tagbanuas from a solitary missionary, +a member of the Order of Recollets, Fray Lorenzo Zapater, who had +resided more than two years amongst them, and had built a primitive +sort of church at Inagahuan. + +They are sociable and pacific; their only weapons are the cerbatana, +or blow-pipe, with poisoned darts, and bows and arrows, for the knives +they carry are tools and not weapons. They do not make war amongst +themselves, but formerly fought sometimes to defend their possessions +against the piratical Mahometans, who inhabit the southern part of the +island. These heartless robbers, for centuries made annual raids upon +them, carrying off the paddy they had stored for their subsistence, +and everything portable worth taking. They seized the boys for slaves, +to cultivate their lands, and the girls for concubines, killing the +adults who dared to resist them. However, since the establishment of +a naval station and the penal colony at Puerto Princesa in 1872, the +coast has been patrolled by the Spanish gun-boats and the piratical +incursions have come to an end. The nomadic Tagbanuas, both men and +women, were quite naked, except for a cloth (tapa-rabo) which the men +wore, whilst the women wore a girdle, from which hung strips of bark or +skin reaching nearly to the knees. Round their necks they wore strings +of coloured beads, a turquoise blue seemed to be the favourite kind, +and on their arms and ankles, bangles made of brass wire. Coming out +of the forest into a clearing where there were two small huts built in +the usual manner, and another constructed in the fork of a large tree, +I found a group of these people threshing paddy. Amongst them were two +young women with figures of striking symmetry, who, on being called by +the interpreter, approached my party without the slightest timidity or +embarrassment, although wearing only the fringed girdle. I learnt that +they had both been baptized but on asking the taller girl her name, +instead of answering me, she turned to her companion and said to her, +"What is my name?" to which the other answered, "Ursula." I then asked +the shorter girl her name, and she also, instead of answering me, asked +the other girl, "What is my name?" to which the taller one answered, +"Margarita." These names had recently been given them instead of their +heathen names, and I could not be sure whether they had forgotten +their new names or whether, as is the case in several tribes, they must +never pronounce their own names nor the names of their ancestors. They +thankfully accepted a cigarette each, which they immediately lighted. + +On the following Sunday, these girls came to Mass at the Inagahuan +Church, completely dressed like Tagal women, and although they passed +in front of me, I did not recognize them until I was told, for they +looked much shorter. + +When the missionary accompanied me to visit any of these people, +I observed that as we approached a house the people were hurriedly +putting on their clothes to receive us, but they were evidently more +at ease in the garb of Adam before the fall. + +The Tagbanuas have no strong religious convictions, and can be easily +persuaded to allow their children to be baptised. The population of +Inagahuan and Abortan at the time of my visit was, according to the +missionary, 1080, of whom 616 were baptised. But from this number +many had been taken away by their half-caste or Chinese creditors +to Lanugan, a visita of Trinitian, to collect wax and almaciga--the +forests near Inagahuan and Yuahit being entirely exhausted. The +heathen Tagbanuas believe in future rewards and punishment, and call +the infernal regions basaud. They believe in a Great Spirit, the +creator and preserver, who presides over all the important acts of +life. They call him Maguindose, and make offerings to him of rice and +fish. Polygamy is allowed amongst them, but from what I saw is not +much practised. When a Tagbanua proposes marriage to the object of +his affections, he leaves at the door of her hut the fresh trunk of +a banana plant. If she delays answering till the trunk has withered, +he understands this as a negative, and the damsel is spared the pain +of verbally refusing; but if she approves of his suit, she sends him +her answer in good time. + +The lover then conveys to the house of the bride's parents, where +all her relations are assembled, large baskets of boiled rice. He +takes a morsel of this and places it in the mouth of the girl, she +then does the same to him, and by this symbolic act they assume the +responsibilities of matrimony. This particular ceremony is common to +many Philippine tribes. The remainder of the cooked rice furnishes +the basis of the marriage feast. + +They are said to cruelly punish adultery; on the other hand, divorce +is easily obtained. + +When one of their number is very ill, they get up a concert (?) of +gongs and drums with the hope of curing him, and during the performance +nobody must approach the patient's couch. I could not learn whether +the music was intended to cheer up the sick person, or to frighten +away the evil spirit, which they look upon as the cause of his malady; +but I incline to the latter belief, because the so-called music is +calculated to frighten away any living thing. + +If, however, the patient does not improve, he is then consulted as +to where he would like to be buried, and about other details of the +ceremony and funeral feast. This reminds me that I have read of a +Scotchwoman consulting her dying husband as to whether the scones +to be made for his funeral should be square or round. Such, however, +is the custom of the Tagbanuas. + +Immediately after death the relatives place by the corpse the weapons +and effects belonging to the deceased and sprinkle ashes on the floor +all around--then they retire and leave the dead alone for a time. Later +on, they return and carefully examine the ashes to see whether the +soul of the defunct, when abandoning the body, left any foot-marks. + +Then, forming a circle round the dead, they chant a dirge in honour +of the departed, after which they commit his body to the earth in the +midst of his cleared land, unless he has selected some other spot, +burying with him his arms and utensils, not forgetting the wood-knife +and a liberal ration of cooked rice and condiments for his journey +to the other world. They then abandon both hut and land and never +return to it. They bury small children in jars called basinganis. + +I was much interested in these people, and felt a great pity for +them. All energy and determination seemed to have been crushed out +of them by centuries of oppression from their predatory neighbours, +and when at last the Spanish gun-boats delivered them from these +periodical attacks, they were held in what was practically slavery by +their half-caste or Chinese creditors. The respectability of a Tagbanua +is measured by the weight of gongs he possesses, just as the importance +of a Malay pirate-chief depends on the weight of brass-guns he owns. + +The half-castes, or Chinese, will supply them with a brass-gong worth, +say $5, for which they charge them thirty dollars to account. This must +be paid in almaciga (gum-dammar) at $5 per picul. Consequently the poor +savage has to supply six piculs of almaciga. Now this gum was worth $12 +per picul in Singapore, and the freight was trifling. Consequently the +savage pays the greedy half-caste, or avaricious Chinaman, $72 worth +of gum (less expenses) for a $5 gong, and these rascally usurers take +care that the savage never gets out of their debt as long as he lives, +and makes his sons take over his debt when he dies. These terms are +considered very moderate indeed; when I come to speak of Mindanao +I shall quote some much more striking trade figures. Many of the +traders there would think it very bad business to get only $72 for +goods costing $5. + +Instead, therefore, of being allowed to till their land, these people +are hurried off to the most distant and least accessible forests to +dig for almaciga. This gum is found in crevices in the earth amongst +the roots of secular trees. I was assured that deposits had been found +of 25 piculs in one place--more than a ton and a half, but such finds +are rare, as the gum is now scarce. The savage has to hide or guard his +treasure when found, and he or his family must transport it on their +backs for twenty, thirty, or forty miles, as the case may be, making +repeated journeys to deliver it to their creditor. I think this hard +work, and want of good food, explains the emaciation I noticed amongst +these people. Some few of them were not in debt. Near Inagahuan, I +found a man named Amasa who had a small cane-field, and was at work +squeezing the cane with a great lever-press, which reminded me of +the wine-presses in Teneriffe. The lever was made of the trunk of a +tree; the fulcrum was a growing tree, whilst the pressing block was a +tree-stump hollowed at the top. The juice was boiled to a thick syrup, +and found a ready sale in the neighbourhood. Amasa was the biggest +and strongest man I saw amongst the Tagbanuas, and stood five feet +nine inches high. He possessed a comfortable house and clothes, +yet he accompanied me on one of my journeys as a porter, but the +exposure at night was too much for him, and he had an attack of fever +when he returned. Near Amasa lived a Christian woman named Ignacia, +a widow. She had lived ten years in one place, and had an abundant +supply of paddy stored in huge baskets in her house. She also had a +plantation of cacao trees, many of them in full bearing. They were +rather neglected, but had grown remarkably. I bought some of her +produce for my own use. + +I was surprised to find that the Tagbanuas could read and write; +one day I observed a messenger hand to one of them a strip of bark +with some figures scratched on it, which the latter proceeded to +read, and on inquiring from the missionary, I learnt that they had +an alphabet of sixteen or seventeen letters. I obtained a copy of +this from the Padre Zapater, and it will be found on page 319. They +do not use a pen, but scratch the letters with the point of a knife, +or with a nail, or thorn. + +The Tagbanuas are very fond of music and dancing. On the evening of +my arrival at Yuahit, a collection of about a dozen huts with forty +inhabitants, they gave an open-air performance in my honour. My party +consisted of a boat's-crew of eight Tagal sailors of the Navy, two +servants, an interpreter, and two companions. The orchestra consisted +of four brass gongs of varying sizes, and a tom-tom. Torches were stuck +in the ground to illuminate the scene, and the whole of the inhabitants +of the hamlet turned out and watched the proceedings with greatest +interest. The dances were performed by men, women, and children, +one at a time, and were perfectly modest and graceful. The women were +dressed in shirts and bright-coloured patadions, and were adorned with +silver rings, brass bangles, and armlets, some had strings of beads +round their necks. The best dance was performed by a young woman, +holding in each hand a piece of a branch of the bread-fruit tree, +which they call Rima, with two of the large handsome leaves. These +she waved about very gracefully in harmony with her movements. The +spectators behaved very well, and were careful not to crowd round me. I +rewarded the dancers with beads and handkerchiefs, and the musicians +with cigars. This dancing seemed to me a very innocent amusement, +but I was sorry to find that the missionary took a different view. He +associated the dances with heathen rites and forbade them, confiscating +the dearly-bought gongs of his converts, as he said they were used +to call up evil spirits. However, I observed that he had hung up the +largest gong to serve as a church-bell, after having sprinkled it with +holy water. I remembered having read how the Moravian missionaries +in Greenland put a stop to the dancing which formerly enlivened the +long dark winter of that desolate region, and I asked myself why the +Christian missionary, whether teaching in the icy gloom of the Arctic +circle, or in brilliant sunshine on a palm-fringed strand, must forbid +his converts to indulge in such a healthful and harmless recreation, +in both cases almost the sole possible amusement. I could see no reason +why the heathen should have all the fun. The labours of the missionary +were, however, very much to the benefit of the Tagbanuas, as inducing +them to settle down, build houses, and raise crops for their support. + +The Spanish gun-boats had stopped the inroads of Moros by sea, and +detachments of native troops along the coast stopped the raiding by +land. For twenty years the Tagbanuas had suffered little, and for +several years absolutely nothing from the Moros, yet they apparently +could not realise their security, and were afraid to accumulate +anything lest it should be taken from them. To the ravages of the +pirate, there has succeeded the extortion of the usurer, and John +Chinaman waxes fat whilst the wretched Tagbanua starves. + +Whilst travelling through the jungle I found some natives cutting +canes, and my interpreter pointed out to me an emaciated couple, and +assured me that during the famine of the previous season, these poor +wretches had killed and eaten their own child to save their lives. What +a state of things in a country where maize will grow up and give edible +grain in forty-two days from the date of planting it! I trust that the +change of government may result in some benefit to these poor people, +and that a Governor or Protector of Aborigines may be appointed with +absolute power who will check the abuses of the half-caste and Chinese +usurers, and give the poor down-trodden Tagbanuas, at one time I firmly +believe a comparatively civilised people, a chance to live and thrive. + + + +Tandulanos. + +The Tandulanos are physically similar to the Negritos, but less +robust. They inhabit the shores of Palawan, being scattered along +the western coast between the Bay of Malampaya and Caruray. They +are more savage than the other races of the island, but they fulfil +their engagements with rigorous exactness. They make rough canoes, +and subsist principally on fish and shell-fish, and they do no +cultivation. They are very skilful in the use of the harpoon which +they employ for fishing. If they can obtain iron, they use it for +their harpoon-points, otherwise they point them with the spike from +the tail of a skate. + +They use a most active poison on their harpoons and darts, so much so, +that it is said to produce almost instantaneous death. + +This poison is unknown to the other tribes. They refuse to sell their +cerbatanas, or blow-pipes, from which they shoot their darts. + +They are said to intermarry indiscriminately, without regard to +kinship. Their number was computed at 1500 in the year 1888, and they +are probably not much more numerous now. + +These people are, like the Negritos, whom they resemble, a hopeless +race, not capable of advancing in civilisation. + + + +Manguianes and Negritos of Palawan. + +These people have been described under the heading Aetas or Negritos, +in Part I. The first-named inhabit the interior of that part of the +island occupied by the Moros who jealously prevent them from holding +any intercourse with strangers. + +Moros of Southern Palawan.--These people do not differ in any essential +particular from the Moros of Mindanao. They look back with regret on +the good old days before the advent of the steam gun-boats, and the +establishment of the fortified posts along their shores when they +could make their annual raids and massacre, plunder, and enslave, +the wretched Tagbanuas without interference. They will doubtless take +full advantage of any negligence of the United States authorities to +keep up the gun-boat flotilla, and to maintain the military posts. + +They now live by agriculture, all the labour being performed by +slaves, and by trading with the savages of the mountains, vying with +the Christians in usurious rapacity. + +John Chinaman in Palawan is just the same as his brother in Mindanao--a +remorseless usurer, and a skilful manipulator of false weights and +measures, but no worse in the treatment of the unhappy aboriginal +than the Christian native or half-caste. + +Puerto Princesa, the capital, had a population at the time of my +visit in 1890 of about 1500, of which number 1200 were males and 300 +females. About half the males were soldiers and sailors, one-fourth +convicts, and the remainder civilians. Most of the women had been +deported from Manila as undesirable characters in that decorous +city. Notwithstanding their unsavoury antecedents, they found new +husbands or protectors in Puerto Princesa the moment they landed. Such +was the competition for these very soiled doves, that most of them +had made their new arrangements before leaving the jetty alongside +which the steamer they arrived in lay. + +There was some little cultivation round about the capital, but as +usual trading with the aborigines for gum, rattans, balate, green +snail-shells, and other jungle produce was the most entrancing pursuit. + +At a short distance from the town was a Government Sugar Plantation, +which I visited. If sugar planting could flourish anywhere, it surely +should have done so here, for the land cost nothing, the convicts +did all the unskilled labour and the machinery was paid for by the +Government. Yet the blighting influence of the official mind succeeded +even here in causing the place to be run at a loss. The sugar badly +prepared was shipped to Manila to be sold at a reduced price, and +sugar for the troops and general use was imported from other parts. + +The governor of the island, during the later period of Spanish rule, +has usually been a naval officer, and as the communications are +principally by sea, and any punitive operations have to be performed +by the gun-boat flotilla, this would seem to be a precedent the United +States might follow with advantage. + + + + + +Tagbanua Alphabet. + +Communicated to F. H. Sawyer by Fray Lorenzo Zapater, Missionary at +Inagahuan, Palawan. + + +[Illustration: Tagbanua Alphabet.] + + +N.B.--The Roman letters are to be pronounced as in Spanish and the +Tagbanua correspondingly, Ah, bay, say, day, aye or ee, o or oo, pay, +ku, etc. + + + +Notes by the Padre Zapater. + +(Translation.) + +1. The consonants in the Tagbanua alphabet are eleven and sometimes +twelve, but the vowels are three, since the ia and the oa which +are vowels, are compound letters, although strictly they may be +considered as vowels, but the ia and the ua are written the same, +as has been said. + +2. In reading the Tagbanua alphabet, you begin from the bottom upwards. + +3. To write the consonants with their vowels, for example, ba, be, +bi, bo, bu, you put a dash at the right or left. If on the right, +it means be, bi, and if on the left of the consonant bo, bu. + +N.B.--Father Zapater's note 3 is somewhat obscure, or rather badly +expressed. It perhaps ought to have been said that a dash right and +left means ba. + + + + + + + +PART III + +MINDANAO, INCLUDING BASILAN. + + +CHAPTER XXXV. + +BRIEF GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. + + Configuration--Mountains--Rivers--Lakes--Division into + districts--Administration--Productions--Basilan. + + +Mindanao is of a very irregular shape, which it is not easy to +describe. It has some resemblance to a winged skate, with a long tail, +one of the Raiidae, which is common in Manila Bay. The head of the skate +is turned to the east; the peninsula of Surigao forms the northern +wing, and Punta Panguian the tip of the southern wing, out of which, +however, a great piece has been bitten, corresponding to the Gulf of +Davao. The body is represented by the main part of the island, and +the tail commences at the isthmus of Tucuran and stretches westward +for a degree of longitude. This straight part is the old kingdom of +Sibuguey. On the north of it, however, a huge excrescence appears; this +is the peninsula of Dapitan, and on the south, opposite to it, there is +a similar projection, which is cut in two by the Gulf of Dumanquilas. + +Mt. Silingan represents the spike or hook usually found on the tails of +these fish, and from here the tail bends southward and westward through +an arc of 60 deg. This part represents the peninsula of Zamboanga, and +the town of that name is situated at the tip of the tail. A continuous +chain of mountains down the centre of the tail represents the vertebrae. + +Beginning on the east, we find a long stretch of coast from Surigao to +Cape San Agustin with only one or two anchorages for small vessels. The +rest of the coast is exposed to the full force of the Pacific Ocean, +and from November to April is quite open to the N.E. monsoon. It is +also subject to tidal waves or rollers just as are the coasts of Peru +and Chili. A destructive bore enters the river mouths and inlets, +and heavy seas get up off all the headlands. In the channels between +Surigao and the islands off the northern coasts, rapid currents +are formed and overfalls render navigation dangerous for country +vessels. In fact, during the strength of the N.E. monsoon the east +coast, from Placer to the Bay of Mayo, is hemmed in with surf, and +without a single port. Behind point Taucanan, however, is found Port +Balete and Port Pujada. This latter is the best port in the island, +being well sheltered from the N. and N.E. The country about it is well +watered, and produces timber trees of great size and fine quality. The +waters contain plenty of fish, and turtle, also some mother-of-pearl +shells. The forests give the best kinds of almaciga, and wax. + +The hill-men are partly independent but pacific, and the Visaya +population is considerable in the district of Mati. + +In general, the east coast is rocky, and very foul in many +places. The land is fertile and well-wooded. Gold is found in the +Cordillera, and on its eastern slopes all the way from Surigao to +Punta Tagobong. One of the northern towns is called Placer on this +account. The inaccessibility of the east coast during the strength +of the N.E. monsoon has retarded the civilisation of Surigao which +was settled in the early years of the conquest. The Caraga-Visaya, +who inhabit a considerable district on this coast, are old Christians +and have always been ready to fight for their faith. + +Practically parallel to this coast is a chain of mountains which +begins at Surigao and extends down to Punta San Agustin with hardly +a break. I shall call this the eastern Cordillera. In this chain, +near the northern end, lies Lake Mainit (Hot Lake), having steep sides +with twenty fathoms close to the edge, and two hundred fathoms in the +middle. This cavity has, no doubt, been formed by volcanic action, +like the lake of Taal. On the slopes of the mountains around it are +many thermal springs which run into the lake, and in rainy weather the +summits are always shrouded in vapour by the evaporation of the rain. + +The lake is subject to tremendous floods. Dr. Montano, who visited +it in December, 1880, speaks of a rise of twelve fathoms. He also +says that a ground-swell gets up in this sheltered lake; this must +be from some modified volcanic action still going on. As usual in +Philippine crater-lakes, this is a great breeding-place for alligators. + +The Eastern Cordillera being so near the coast, there are of course +no navigable rivers running into the Pacific, but the streams become +impassable torrents during the heavy rains which begin in June, and +prevent communication by land for many days or even weeks at a stretch. + +Approximately parallel to the Eastern Cordillera, and at about +fifty geographical miles distance, there stands another range which +I shall call the Central Cordillera. A line drawn from Punta Diuata +to the middle of the Gulf of Sarangani, nearly due north and south, +intersects Mt. Sinalagao, Mt. Panamoyan, the active volcano, Mt. Apo +and Mt. Matutuan, which appear to be the loftiest peaks of the range. + +From Mt. Panamoyan in about 7 deg. 50' N. Lat. a spur strikes eastwards at +right angles to the range, reaching half-way across the valley. This +spur then turns to the south parallel to the range for some twenty +miles, and from the middle of the east and west part, another spur +turns south for about 20 miles, thus forming a letter E with the +points looking south. + +In the wide valley between the Eastern and Central Cordilleras, and +taking the drainage of the whole watershed is the River Agusan. Rising +about the 7th parallel on the slopes of Mt. Tagoppo, this river runs +a very sinuous course in a general northerly direction, but inclining +slightly to the west, receiving innumerable tributaries on either +side. At about 8 deg. 15' N. Lat. the Agusan expands or overflows, forming +a series of shallow lakes, choked up with driftwood and vegetation, +and varying in extent with the rainfall. + +Continually gathering volume, it runs into the Bay of Butuan about 9 deg. +N. Lat. + +At Moncayo, in 7 deg. 45' N. Lat., the Agusan is one hundred yards wide, +and is navigable for canoes even much higher up. + +The spur previously spoken of as striking east and south from +Mt. Panamoyan, forms two small watersheds. The western one gives rise +to the River Libaganon, and the eastern to the River Salug. Both these +rivers run in a southerly direction, and unite to form the River Tagum, +which runs for a short distance S.E. and falls into the head of the +Gulf of Davao. + +A little way south of Mt. Panamoyan some mountain streams dash down +the sides of the Cordillera and running through a gap unite to form +the River Davao which flows in a south-easterly direction till it +reaches the plain, when it changes its course and runs east into the +Gulf of Davao. From Point Sipaca, in 9 deg. N. Lat., a range of mountains +stretches in a southerly direction for about sixty miles. Amongst +these are Mt. Sipaca, Mt. Saorag, and Mt. Quimanquil. With the +Central Cordillera this range forms a watershed, and the torrents +on the steep sides of Sinalagao and Quimanquil dash down and take +a southerly direction to form the headwaters of the River Pulangui +and ultimately become the Rio Grande. In 7 deg. 50' N. Lat. two important +affluents join, the River Sauaga and the River Malupati, a few miles +lower the Calibatojan and the Kaya-Kaya bring their tribute, and the +united flood with rapid current casts itself headlong into the deep +Canon of Locosocan and runs in this for over four miles to Salagalpon, +where another cataract occurs. The river continues for miles a rushing +torrent amongst huge boulders, at the bottom of this cleft, so narrow +in places, where the rocks jut out and nearly meet overhead, that it +seems like a tunnel. In 7 deg. 46' N. Lat. there is a small volcano close +to the left bank which, whenever it rains, becomes active and gives +off stifling fumes of sulphur. At Mantanil, in 7 deg. 40' N., the river +can be navigated on bamboo rafts, handled by skilled Manobo pilots, +but not without much risk; for some distance down there are two buchis, +or sinks, where the water runs down into subterraneous passages through +the river-bed, forming dangerous whirlpools. There are also several +rapids which require great dexterity to pass safely. The banks are +still high; but, on approaching the confluence of the Kulaman river, +on the left bank, the gorge is much lower, and on arriving at Ilang +the country opens out. + +South of the confluence of the River Molita, vintas can navigate +the river, and a little lower down, at the confluence of the River +Simuni, is the place reached by the gunboat Taal in 1863 on a 6-foot +draught. The river now runs in a southerly and westerly direction, +with dozens of bends till about 6 deg. 45' N. Lat., when, on reaching +Lake Liguasan (really a Pinag) a shallow and weedy expanse of water, +it turns to the west, and then north-west. At Tumbao it bifurcates, +and enters the Bay of Illana by two mouths forming a long narrow +delta of deep and rich alluvial soil. + +From Tumbao to Tamontaca is the most beautiful and fertile part of +this river. On both banks grow cocoa-palms, areca-palms, banana and +cacao-trees, coffee-bushes, and hemp plants in abundance, and amongst +them are groups of native houses forming a continuous village, +of which the placid river, here fifty yards wide, forms the main +street. These houses are mostly occupied by friendly Moros. + +Nearly parallel to the Sipaca-Soarag-Quimanquil range a second +range stretches irregularly in a north and south line, ending at the +coast near Cagayan. Amongst these mountains is Mt Quitanglag. From +Pt. Sulanan the western extremity of the Bay of Macajalar, a third +range stretches south, then south-east, then south again for some +thirty miles. Between this range and the Bay of Iligan there is +a fourth range of hills. These four ranges form three valleys or +watersheds, each of which has its river, with a general course from +south to north, all three running into the Bay of Macajalar. + +The most easterly is the River of Tagoloan which has fourteen +tributaries, the next is the River Cagayan with only three, then the +River Capay with seven tributaries, all on the left bank. + +Proceeding westward we come to the great and deep Lake of Lanao, +described under the heading Moros, but which has never been surveyed, +and then to the Gulf of Panguil, which, on the map, looks like a +forearm and clenched fist, which nearly cuts Mindanao in two. The +isthmus is only fourteen miles across in a straight line. + +This was formerly a regular pirates' track, over which they hauled +their vessels, but it was till lately guarded by a chain of forts +connected by a military road called the Trocha of Tucuran. + +Two rivers running in a general direction from west to east and having +between them a dozen tributaries, run into the Gulf of Panguil. The +most northerly of the two is the Mipangi and the other is the Lintogo. + +We now arrive at the peninsula of Sibuguey which I have likened +to the tail of the skate. Around Lake Lanao there is an irregular +loop of hills, and from the western end of this starts a cordillera +which stretches right down the centre of the peninsula of Sibuguey +and Zamboanga. A line drawn from Punta Sicayati (in the Dapitan +excrescence) to the eastern shore of the Gulf of Dumanquilas will +intersect a range of mountains which cross the Cordillera of Sibuguey +nearly at right angles and with equal arms north and south. But the end +of the northern arm bifurcates and throws out two ranges N.E. and N.W. + +In the watershed thus formed three rivers take their rise, and have +a general course from south to north but bearing a little to the +westward. The easternmost of these is called the Dapitan, and runs +into the bay of the same name. The next is the Dipolog, which runs +into the sea west of Punta Sicayab; and the last is the Lubungan, +running in about two leagues more to the west. + +The other rivers in the peninsula are so unimportant that I do not +enumerate them. Like those on the east coast they become raging +torrents in the rainy season. + +On the northern and southern coasts, which are more protected than the +eastern, sheltered anchorages are to be found here and there, but no +such fine natural harbours exist as abound in Southern Luzon. There is, +however, less need for them, as it is very rare that the typhoons, +which are so destructive in Luzon and the Visayas, cause damage in +Mindanao, except at its northern and eastern corner. But for service +on these coasts, vessels of a light draught of water are the most +useful, as they can more easily find sheltered anchorage. + +Mindanao is not nearly so unhealthy as is commonly supposed. Zamboanga +and neighbourhood, Davao, Surigao, Talisay, and several other +places, are really quite healthy for Europeans, if they take care +of themselves. + +Earthquakes are frequent. They would sometimes be destructive, but +there is so little in the way of buildings to destroy. + + +Divisions for Administrative Purposes. + +Zamboanga is the chief military station and the residence of the +commandant-general of the island. + +Mindanao is divided into five districts:-- + + + 1st. District chief town Zamboanga (capital of the island). + 2nd. District chief town Misamis (includes Lake Lanao). + 3rd. District chief town Surigao (includes the whole kingdom + of Caraga, also the valley of the Agusan). + 4th. District chief town Davao (shores of the bay and peninsula + of San Agustin). + 5th. District chief town Cotta-bato (valley of the Rio Grande + and ancient Sultanate of Buhayen). + + +The island of Basilan forms a sixth district under the +commandant-general of Mindanao. + +Each of these districts was under a politico-military governor and +other officials, as follows:-- + + + 1st District, Major, Naval Lieutenant, Captain of Port. + 2nd District, Lieut.-Colonel. + 3rd District, Lieut.-Colonel. + 4th District, Major. + 5th District, Lieut.-Colonel. + 6th District, Naval Lieutenant, Naval Station. + + +Besides these politico-military governors there were the following +officers in charge of military districts:-- + + + Mumungan in 2nd district (Fort Weyler and vicinity to look after + the Moros of Lake Lanao) Major. + Dapitan in 2nd district (To look after the Moros of Sindangan + Bay) Major. + Bislig in 3rd district (To look after the Mandayas and Manobos) + Captain. + + +To attend to the administration of justice there was a third-class +judge in each district. From their decisions there was an appeal to +the Audiencia at Cebu, and from there to the Supreme Court, Madrid. + +In Zamboanga where there is (or was) a custom-house, there resided a +Treasury delegate of the second class. In each of the other districts +there is one of the fourth class. + +The southern naval division has its headquarters at Isabela de Basilan. + + + +Productions of Mindanao. + +The climate and soil of Mindanao are suitable for growing almost +any tropical crop to great advantage: hemp, sugar cane, tobacco, +coffee, cacao, rice, indigo, sesame, maize, sweet potatoes, pepper, +all flourish. But the island is very backward; it is only recently +that the savage races have been settled in the reducciones. The +population is very sparse, and natives are more addicted to washing +the sands for gold or seeking jungle-produce than disposed to apply +themselves to agriculture. + +The exports have hitherto been very small. About some of the northern +ports a good beginning has been made in cultivating and preparing hemp, +and several Spaniards have laid out plantations there. + +There is a small export of coffee and cacao, and the circumstance +that the greater part of the island is free from typhoons renders it +exceptionally favourable for planting these valuable products, or for +growing unlimited quantities of cocoa-nut for making copra. For the +same reason the timber in Mindanao is larger than in the best districts +of Luzon, and some of the trees are truly magnificent. Mindanao, +with its inhabitants busily engaged in murdering their neighbours +and enslaving their children, can, of course, never prosper; but if +such outrages are repressed, and peace assured, the population will +rapidly increase and agriculture will prosper. + +Amongst the forest produce gutta-percha took a leading place, +but this product came through the hands of the Chinese traders, +who, as their custom is, adulterated it to such an extent that its +value became greatly depreciated in European and American markets, +and the trade fell off. Some lignite is found in Mindanao, but I have +no confidence in the value of Philippine coal-fields. They have been +too much broken up by volcanic action. I have very little doubt that +petroleum will be found in Mindanao when it is explored. It has been +reported in Mindoro and Cebu. + +The early explorers of the Archipelago state that the natives wore +little clothes, but abundance of gold ornaments. Now they wear more +clothes but little gold. It is surprising how quickly the heathen +become impoverished whenever they have Christian neighbours. + + + +Basilan. + +The sixth district of Mindanao is formed of the Basilan group of some +forty islands lying opposite to Zamboanga, having a total area of +170,000 acres. The only important one of the group is Basilan Island, +which has an irregular outline, an oval with two projections opposite +each other, east and west, the latter resembles a turtle's head and +the former a turtle's tail, so that the shape of the island on the +map is that of a turtle with his head to the west. The total length +from the point of the beak to the tip of the tail is about thirty-two +geographical miles, and the width across the body about twenty-one +miles. The port of Isabela is sheltered by the Island of Malamaui, +on which there is a Moro rancheria called Lucbalan, and a Christian +visita, Sta. Barbara. The capital, Isabela, is situated about the +centre of the channel, and to the east of the mouth of the Pasahan +(now called Isabela) River. + +To the south of the town, which is situated on a stony slope at a +short distance, the fort is placed at an elevation of about sixty +feet above the sea. It commands both entrances of the channel. + +There is a barrack near the fort, a prison, military infirmary, school, +town hall. The naval station consists of store-houses and workshops, +marine-barracks, hospital, and magazine. + +There is a church, and missionaries' residence. The island is hilly but +fertile in places. Some twenty to thirty acres are under cultivation +near Isabela, and the Moros who form the principal population make +their slaves work on the lands about their hamlets. There are no +manufactures worth mentioning. + +The Christian population is as follows:-- + + + Inhabitants. + + Town of Isabela 921 + Hamlet of San Pedro de Guihanan 130 + Hamlet of Santa Barbara 50 + Reduccion of Panigayan 25 + Reduccion of Tabuc 12 + Scattered Christians 12 + Members of the Naval Station 86 variable. + Garrison of the Fort 40 ,, + ------ + 1276 + + +The Moro population is distributed in about fifty villages or +hamlets. They can turn out about 4400 fighting-men, and are considered +valiant and hardy. + +The Moros of Basilan, according to Father Foradada, have not the +sanguinary instincts of those of Lake Lanao or of Jolo, and any +outrages they commit are, he thinks, due to the instigations of the +Moros of Jolo, who unfortunately keep up a communication with them +and corrupt them. + +Amongst the most influential Dattos of Basilan is Pedro Cuevas, +a Tagal. He was formerly a convict, but escaped, and, by force of +character and desperate courage, he became a leading man amongst +the Moros. Having rendered some services to Spain, he received a +pardon, and now has extensive plantations, a sugar-mill, and herds +of cattle. He is, in fact, about the richest and most influential +man in the island, and has become reconciled to the Church, and was +much trusted both by the military and naval authorities and by the +missionaries. + +The map of the island is from a report of Father Cavalleria who went +by sea right round it in 1893. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + +THE TRIBES OF MINDANAO. + + +Visayas (1) [Old Christians]. + +In another part of the book I have given a description of the Visayas +in their own islands, and have spoken of their enterprise and industry +as manifested in the extent of their exports of sugar and hemp, +and in their manufacture of textiles of the most varied kind. + +The Visayas of Mindanao have been modified by their environment both +for good and evil. Thus they are bolder and more warlike than their +brethren at home, having had for centuries to defend themselves +against bloodthirsty Moros. The Visayas of Caraga are especially +valiant and self-reliant, and they needed to be so, for the Spaniards, +whenever hard pressed by English, Dutch or Portuguese, had a way of +recalling their garrisons, and leaving their dependents to shift for +themselves. The Visaya of Mindanao, therefore, though not a soldier, +is a fighting-man, and their towns possess a rudimentary defensive +organisation called the somaten. This, I believe is a Catalan word, +and indicates a body of armed townsmen called together by the church +bell to defend the place against attack. This service is compulsory +and unpaid. + +The arms have been supplied by the Spanish Government, and have +generally been of obsolete pattern. I have seen in Culion flint-lock +muskets in the hands of the guards. Latterly, however, Remington +rifles have been supplied, and they are very serviceable and quite +suitable for these levies. + +The Visayas have been the assistants of the missionaries, and from +them come most of the school-masters and mistresses who instruct the +children of the recently-converted natives. + +Their language is fast extending, and their numbers are increasing, +both naturally, and by a considerable voluntary immigration from the +southern Visayas Islands. + +To the inhabitants of these small islands, fertile Mindanao, with its +broad lands, free to all, is what the United States were a generation +ago to the cotters of Cork or Kerry--a land of promise. + +There is, however, a demoralising tendency at work amongst the +Visayas. The profits of bartering with the hill-men are so great, that +they are tempted away from their agriculture, and from their looms, +to take up this lucrative trade, in competition with the Chinese. + +The Visaya has one great advantage over the Chinaman; he has the +courage to go up into the hills, and find his customers in their +haunts. This the Celestial could not do, but has to remain at his +store on the coast and await the hill-men. + +Both traders cheat the hill-tribes most abominably. + +Dr. Montano mentions a case which happened in Butuan in December, 1879. + +A Visaya went into the interior taking with him some threads of +different colours which he had purchased for seventy-five cents, and +returned with jungle produce worth ten dollars. This he invested in +beads, brass-wire, and other articles of trade, and returned to the +woods. In a month he came back, bringing produce to the value of 100 +dollars, and 400 dollars to his credit with the natives. + +The tribes of Mindanao pay their debts with scrupulous exactness. If +they die before paying, their sons assume the debt, and unless they +are killed or taken as slaves by other races, the money is sure to +be paid. Consequently, this rapacious usurer had sold them goods +costing 10 dollars, 75 cents, for 510 dollars, of which 110 dollars +in cash, and 400 dollars credit. It is satisfactory to learn that +the commandant at Butuan made him disgorge, and freed the hill-men +from their heavy debt. + +To sum up, the Visaya is a necessary man in Mindanao, and the +immigration should be encouraged. All the Visaya towns bordering on +the Moros should have their somatenes armed, exercised, and supplied +with ammunition. Amongst Visayas are to be found plenty of men well +suited to command these bands. As they are fighting the Moros for +life and property, they may be trusted to stand up to them manfully. + +The illustration shows a party of Visayas militia belonging to the +town of Baganga, in Caraga, under a native officer of gigantic stature, +Lieutenant Don Prudencio Garcia. + + + + +Mamanuas (2). + +A hybrid race between Negritos and Malays. + +They are not numerous, and live in the northern promontory of +Surigao, from near the River Agusan to the east coast, south of Lake +Mainit. They are, indeed, miserable wretches, wandering in the hills +and forest without any fixed habitation, their only property a lance, +a bolo, and some starveling curs. + +Sometimes they plant a few sweet potatoes, and at certain times +in the year they get wild honey; at other times they hunt the +wild pig. They lay up no provisions, and wander about naked and +hungry. They are difficult to convert, having no good qualities to +work upon. They promise anything, but never perform, being able to +give as a reason--some evil omen, for instance--that, on coming out +in the morning, they have heard the cry of the turtle-dove (limbucun) +on the left hand. + +Notwithstanding all these difficulties, the zeal of the missionaries +has not been wasted, and several reducciones of Mamanuas have been +founded, and are progressing to some extent. + + + +Manobos (3). + +The Manobos are a warlike heathen race, widely extended in +Mindanao. The great River Agusan, taking its rise in the district +of Davao, in 7 deg. N. latitude, falls into the Bay of Butuan about +9 deg. N. latitude. Its general course is parallel to the eastern +Cordillera, from which it receives numerous tributaries. At almost +8 deg. 15' N. latitude it expands, and forms four considerable lakes of +no great depth, and varying in extent according to the season. They +are partly covered by aquatic plants. These lakes are called Linao, +Dagun, Dinagat and Cadocun; they are quite near each other. The Manobos +inhabit this spacious valley from Moncado, in 7 deg. 45', to about 8 deg. 45' +N. latitude on the right bank, where they come in contact with the +Mamanuas and Mandayas; but on the left bank they extend nearly to the +sea, and up to the eastern slopes of the Central Cordillera. They even +extend over the Cordillera to the head waters of the Rio Grande. They +occupy the left bank of the Pulangui, and their southern frontier on +the Rio Grande is at 7 deg. 30' N. latitude, where one of their chiefs, +called the Datto Capitan Manobo, lives. The river is navigable for +vintas up to here, and, in 1863, the gunboat Taal, drawing six feet, +steamed to within five miles of this point, say up to the River +Simuni. They extend up the Pulangui to about 8 deg. 15' N. latitude. In +appearance they have a Mongolian cast of feature. Their faces are +longer than amongst the Mandayas; their noses are not flattened, +but straight, and projecting, and slightly curved at the lower +end. Their general aspect is robust; their stature is about 5 feet 7 +inches. Their usual dress consists of short drawers reaching to the +knee, and a sort of singlet, or short shirt. + +They live in clans under a bagani, or head-murderer (see Mandayas for +explanation), who is usually accompanied by his brothers-in-law. They +are polygamists; still, the first wife is the head, and all the others +must obey her. Each wife has her own house, just as the late Brigham +Young's harem had at Salt Lake City. But they are satisfied with fewer +than that prophet, there being none amongst their dattos who have +nineteen wives. They are slaveholders, as the children taken in war +become slaves, and all the work of cultivation is done by the women, +children and slaves. + +Their houses are built on piles, as are also their granaries. They +cultivate on a considerable scale, and raise quantities of rice, maize, +sweet potatoes and tobacco, not only to supply their own wants, but +to sell in boat-loads to the Visayas. Their arms are lances, shields, +swords and daggers, and, in some parts, bows and arrows. They are +said to be expert archers where they use the bow. They raise numbers +of horses for riding. + +In valour, and in disposition to come to close quarters in fighting, +they resemble the Igorrotes of Luzon. They stand up squarely to the +Moros, which few other races have the pluck to do. Like the Igorrotes, +their religion consists in ancestor-worship, but they call their +idols Dinatas instead of Anitos. They are much impressed by thunder, +which they call the voice of the lightning, and a rainbow fills them +with awe. Like the Tagals, and some races in British India, they +consider the crocodile a sacred animal, and respectfully address it as +grandfather. They also, like the old heathen Tagals, consider rocks, +caves, or balete trees, as residences of spirits. They celebrate a +feast in honour of the Dinatas after the harvest, and make sacrifices +of swine. + +Tag-Busan is their god of war, and it is usual amongst them to go on +the war-path after the harvest is secured; the bagani, as high priest +of this god, carries his talisman hung round his neck. + +They make ambuscades, and attack neighbours or enemies in the +most treacherous manner, either by setting fire to their houses and +murdering them as they attempt to escape from the flames, or they cut +through the piles supporting the houses, covering themselves with their +shields interlocked whilst doing so, and spearing the occupants when +the house falls. When an enemy has been felled, the bagani, taking +a consecrated sword, never used in fighting, cuts open the chest, +and immerses the talisman of the god in the blood; then, tearing +out the heart or liver, he eats a piece. The Sacopes are not allowed +this privilege, which belongs only to the chief, as the high priest +of the god of war. The children of the slain are taken as slaves, +and the young women for concubines. One of the prisoners is kept to +be sacrificed in some cruel manner to Tag-Busan on the return of the +expedition as a thank-offering. + +The death of a relative requires to be atoned for by the murder of +any innocent person passing by, the avenger concealing himself near +a path, and killing the first stranger who comes. + +The Manobos are very smart in handling canoes or rafts on their +rivers, which are very dangerous to navigate, and have many rapids and +whirlpools; the Pulangui even precipitates itself into a chasm, and +runs underground for a league and a half. However, the terrible picture +I have drawn of their habits is becoming year by year a thing of the +past to thousands of Manobos, although still kept up in places. The +intrepidity of the Jesuit missionaries is proof against every danger +and every privation, has carried them up the River Agusan, on which, +at short distances apart, they have established towns or villages, and +have brought many thousands of Manobos within the Christian communion. + +Father Urios, one of these missionaries, baptized 5200 heathen in one +year, and now no less than twenty Christian towns or villages stand +on the banks of the River Agusan and its tributaries, populated by +perhaps fifteen thousand Manobos, formerly heathens, who have given +up their detestable practices and their murderous slave-raids to +occupy themselves in cultivating the soil, whilst their children of +both sexes are receiving instruction from Visaya school-masters and +mistresses. There is always a tendency to remontar amongst them, and +sometimes nearly all the inhabitants of a village take to the woods +and hills. Yet, secure from attack, the number of converts steadily +increases. The Baganis have become gobernadorcillos, and their chief +vassals tenientes, jueces de paz, and cuadrilleros. Some of the old +Baganis who were well off were so anxious not to be behind the Visayas, +that they sent to Manila for hats, black cloth coats and trousers, +and patent leather shoes, to wear on the great feasts of the Church, +and on the occasion of the annual village festival. + +This is a long way from human sacrifices to the Tag-Busan, and +ceremonial cannibal rites, which these men formerly practised. I look +on this warlike and vigorous race as capable of becoming valuable +citizens, but they will require careful handling for some years to +come. They must not be rushed, for, if alarmed by innovations, they +may take to the woods en masse, and the labour of years will have +been wasted. + +I look to this tribe, when trained to use fire-arms, and stiffened +with a few Americans, to destroy the power of the pirate races--the +murderous, slave-hunting Moros, with whom it is useless to make +treaties, who cannot be converted till the power of their dattos is +broken, and who must be sternly put down by force unless the nascent +civilisation of Mindanao is to be thrown back for a century. + +In the beginning of June, 1892, a Bagani of the Manobos performed +the paghuaga, or human sacrifice, on a hill opposite Veruela, on the +River Agusan. The victim was a Christian girl whom he had bought for +the purpose from some slave-raiders. + + + +Mandayas (4). + +The Mandayas live on the Eastern Cordillera of Mindanao which +runs parallel to the coast, and their territory extends from the +7th to the 9th parallel. They occupy the country down to the River +Salug. They are remarkable for their light colour, some having quite +fair complexions. Their faces are wide, the cheek-bones being very +prominent; yet their appearance is not unpleasing, for they have +large dark eyes shaded by long eye-lashes. + +They are much respected by other tribes as an ancient and aristocratic +race, and the war-like Manobos eagerly seek, by fair means or foul, +to obtain Mandaya women for wives. + +They usually shave off their beards, and also their eyebrows, wearing +their hair long, tied in a knot at the back. + +They are powerfully built, and of good stature. The men wear short +drawers, and on grand occasions don an embroidered jacket. Both men +and women wear large ear-ornaments. The women are clad in a bodice +and patadion with ornaments of shells, beads, or small bells. The +men are of a bold and warlike disposition, ready to fight against +other villages of their tribe when not at war with the Manobos, the +Guiangas, or the Manguangas, their neighbours. They have a language +of their own which has a great affinity to the Visaya. + +Their houses, four or five forming a village, are built on lofty piles +thirty or forty, or even fifty feet above the ground. The floor is +of thick planks and has a parapet all round pierced with loop-holes +for defence. Above this parapet the house is open all round up to +the eaves, but this space can be closed in by hanging shutters in bad +weather. The construction of dwellings at such a height must involve +an enormous amount of labour. Each group of houses forming a village +is usually surrounded by a strong palisade of sharp-pointed posts, +and further defended by pits lined with sharp stakes, which are +lightly covered over with twigs and leaves. + +Several families live in one house, after the custom of the Dayaks of +Borneo, to provide a garrison for defence. An ample supply of arms is +kept in the house, bows and arrows, spears, swords and knives. They +are liable to be attacked in the night, either by the Manobos, +the Moros, or by the sacopes of some neighbouring datto, who shoot +flaming arrows covered with resin into the roof to set it on fire, +or covering themselves with their shields from the arrows of the +defenders, make a determined attempt to cut down the piles so that the +house will fall. The attacking party is most often victorious, and the +defenders, driven out by fire, or bruised and entangled amongst the +fallen timbers, are easily killed, the women and children, with the +other booty, being carried off by the assailants. Under this reign +of terror the population is diminishing. These people not only kill +for booty, but also for the honour and glory of it. Each warrior is +anxious to become a bagani, and to be allowed to wear the honourable +insignia of that rank. The dress of a bagani indicates approximately +the number of murders he has committed. A scarlet head-cloth shows +that he has killed from five to ten men; a red shirt, in addition, +from ten to twenty, whilst a complete suit of red shows that he has +murdered more than twenty persons, and is a much-desired and very +honourable distinction, a sort of D.S.O. or K.C.B. amongst them. + +All the dattos are baganis; they could hardly possess enough prestige +to govern their sacopes without this title. + +The Mandayas are superstitious, and much attached to their own +beliefs, and on this account it is difficult to convert them to +Christianity. The devotion of the Jesuits, however, has not been in +vain, and several pueblos on the east coast round about Bislig, Caraga, +and Cateel-Baganga are now inhabited by Christian Mandayas, some of +whom have intermarried with the Visayas, or "old Christians." These +Mandayas are now safe from attack. They give their attention to +cultivation, and are increasing in numbers and rising in the scale +of civilisation. + +Ancestral-worship is their religion, and their Dinatas, or wooden +idols, are stained red with the sap of the narra tree. They have +priestesses whom they call Bailanes, and they are said to occasionally +make human sacrifices. + +As amongst other tribes in Mindanao, the Limbucun, or turtle-dove, +is a sacred bird, and rice and fruit is placed for its use on a small +raised platform, and it is never molested. + +They are organised in a strict feudal system, the headman or datto of +each village is in fact the only free man of his clan. The others are +Sacopes--that is, followers or vassals who, as well as the datto, +possess slaves. A Mandaya datto can seldom raise more than fifty +spears; sometimes two or three federate, but expeditions on a large +scale cannot be undertaken, for it would be impossible to feed several +hundred men in their country, such is the poverty of the inhabitants. + +Sometimes a small group of Mandaya dattos recognises as suzerain +some neighbouring datto of the piratical Moros, who always tries to +keep them isolated and to prevent any intercourse or trade with the +Christians, unless through themselves. + +The Mandayas have canoes and bamboo rafts on the streams and rivers +running through their territory. They catch a good many fish. + +Their agriculture is on a very reduced scale, and is limited to small +plantations of rice and sweet potatoes near their villages; they +keep poultry. They do not dare to travel far from their houses for +fear they might be seized for slaves, or even sold to be sacrificed +on the death of a datto. Sometimes when a man has been condemned to +death for some crime his datto sells him to some person requiring a +victim for the death-vengeance, if he is assured that it is intended +to kill him. The datto thus combines the execution of justice with +a due regard to his own profit. + + + +Manguangas (5). + +According to Blumentritt, this tribe lives in the Cordillera Sagat, +and extends as far as the Great Lake Boayan or Magindanao, and an +old estimate gives their number as 80,000. On his map he shows, the +Lake and River Boayan in dotted lines, the latter is made to fall +into the Rio Grande. + +On two modern maps of Mindanao which I have, one by Jesuits and the +other from Don Jose Nieto Aguilar's book on this Island, neither +the river nor the lake appear; but, in their stead, a lofty range +of mountains is shown. In each of these maps the Manguanga territory +occupies an entirely different location. + +As the Jesuits have three reducciones or villages amongst this +tribe, I accept their map as constructed according to the latest +information. They show in their earlier maps the Manguanga territory +at the head of the Bay of Davao, its southern frontier being some +twelve miles from the sea, and about the head-waters of the River +Salug and the River Agusan. + +The reducciones are called Gandia, Pilar, and Compostela. In the +general Report of the Jesuit Missions of 1896, the mission station of +Jativa is stated to consist of six reducciones of Manobos, Mandayas +and Manguangas, with a total population of 1389. + +In the general report of the following year the Manguangas and other +tribes are not specifically mentioned, and the total population of +the mission station of Jativa is given as 1458. + +In a later ethnographical map of Mindanao the Manguanga territory +appears still more circumscribed, being limited to a strip of land +between the Rivers Julep and Nabo, affluents of the River Agusan; +Nieto's map, however, shows them extending over the Eastern Cordillera +towards Linguit, which is situated on the coast in about 7 deg. 50' +N. latitude. + +Dr. Montano, who went up the Rio Salug in 1880, passing through the +Manguanga territory, says he found the banks deserted. + +There can be no doubt that this once numerous tribe has been reduced +to a mere remnant, part settled in the before-mentioned reducciones, +and part still wandering in mountains. + + + +Monteses or Buquidnones (6). + +The Spanish word Montes, means hill-man. Buquid, in Tagal, means +arable land; and Taga-buquid, a countryman. The Tagal equivalent of +hill-man is Taga-bundoc, which corresponds to the jungle-wallah of +British India. The word Buquidnones may mean cultivators, and their +extensive plantations fully justify this designation. It is therefore +rather a vague expression, but still designates a particular tribe +in Mindanao, whose numbers were estimated to amount to 13,000 ten +years ago, and who have probably largely increased since then. + +They occupy the valleys through which the Rivers of Cagayan and +Tagoloan run, and the hills between them and on both sides. + +They hold the country of the head-waters of the Pulangui, and the right +bank, as far south as the Manobos extend on the left bank, say to 7 deg. +30' N. latitude. In the north they extend right up into the peninsula +between the Bay of Macajalar and the Bay of Lunao, occupying the lofty +mountains of Sabrac, Sinalagao, Quimanquil, and the sacred Balatucan, +whence the souls of the dead jump from earth to heaven. + +Father Clotet, from whose letters to his superiors I have taken these +particulars, considers them to be divided into three large groups. + +The first consists of those living in the hills and valleys of the +rivers Tagoloan, Cagayan, and Iponam; the second, of those bordering +on the Manobos of the Agusan between Gingoog and Nasipit, and the +third of those who live on the right bank of the Pulangui and on some +of its affluents. + +They bear some resemblance to their neighbours the Manobos, being of +good stature, well-built, even handsome, and are of an affable and +friendly disposition; some of them are so smart and well-bred as to +be not in the least inferior to the most civilised of the Visayas, +and to judge by their free and open address, and the absence of all +affectation when settling their business with the old Christians, +nobody would take them for heathens. + +Father Urios said that, from the extent of their intelligence, they +were fit to be kings of the Manobos, so much superior were they +to these. + +In their dress they show a far greater idea of decorum and modesty +than any other race in Mindanao, both men and women. The latter wear a +white shirt, which is held in at the waist by a long skirt, reaching +to the ankles. Over this they wear a very short and tight jacket, +to the edges of which they sew strips of cloth of many colours in a +pleasing tracery, the short wide sleeves being trimmed in the same way. + +They show great taste in choosing the colours and designs with which +they ornament their dresses. On the left side at the waist they hang +some bead ornaments, small bells, and bunches of scented herbs. On +their legs they wear many loose rings of brass, copper, or silver, +which rattle when they walk. Their manner of dressing their hair +is singular, and characteristic. They take the bulk of the hair, +and without plaiting it they twist and knot it in a high and large +coil. All round the head fall curls cut to one length, but on the +forehead there is a fringe coming down almost to the eye-brows. They +secure the coil with a handsome and showy comb, well made of metal, +or precious metals, according to the means of the wearer. Many of them +are loaded with bracelets from the wrists to near the elbows, either of +metal, of tortoise-shell, or mother-of-pearl. In their ears they wear +large ornaments called balaring, made of a plug of soft wood, having +on each end a circular plate of brass, copper, silver, or of engraved +gold, one larger than the other. The hole of the ear is greatly +stretched to allow the smaller plate to pass through; the plug then +remains in the hole, and is covered at each end by the plates. They +wear also necklaces, sometimes of great value. These manufactures +seem to be very similar to those of the Igorrotes, which have been +detailed at length in the description of that interesting people. + +Father Clotet mentioned a curious necklace worn by one of these women, +formed of ancient silver coins, diminishing in size from the centre to +the extremities. In the middle was a silver dollar of Charles III. He +considered this to be worth thirty dollars, which was quite a capital +to a Montes in a small hamlet. + +Even when pressed by necessity they will not sell these ornaments, and +they consequently pass from father to son for many generations. They +wear rings of brass, silver or gold, not only on their fingers, +but also on their toes. + +The dress of the men on ordinary occasions is quite simple, but on +grand occasions they wear long trousers of European cloth, jackets of +the same stuff, and fine beaver hats. Their shirts of fine linen are +not worn outside the trousers as amongst the Tagals, only the front +being shown, which is often beautifully embroidered. Those amongst +them who, although heathens, have a frequent intercourse with the +Christians, have their hair cut short and take great care of it; but +those living amongst the hills let it grow long, and, rolling it into a +knot, tie it up in a kerchief like the charros of Aragon. Some of them +paint their teeth black, and file them into points. The wealthy men and +women cover their teeth with thin gold plates, like the chiefs amongst +the Igorrotes, but unlike them they take them off to eat. It would +seem to be indecent to show one's teeth to any person of superior rank. + +They believe in a future life, and are polytheists. They worship +the gods of the cardinal points: the god of the north is called +Domalongdong; he of the south, Ongli; of the east, Tagolambong; +of the west, Magbabaya. + +This last god, Magbabaya, which means Almighty, has, however, two other +gods of equal rank: Ibabasag and Ipamahandi. The first is invoked for +the safe delivery of pregnant women; the second takes care of the +horses and cattle, and as there is hardly a Buquidnon who does not +possess some of these animals to assist him in his labour, Ipamahandi +is constantly called upon to help them when any accident happens. + +Tagum-Banua, the god of the fields, is prayed to for a good harvest, +and a feast called the Caliga, corresponding to our harvest festival, +is held in his honour. The Tao-sa-sulup, or men of the woods, +correspond to the Tic-Balan of the old heathen Tagals, and inhabit +the trunks of secular trees, especially the Balete, or rocky crags +or caves, intervening in the affairs of mortals to favour them or +upset them. Consequently they make sacrifices to these spirits to +propitiate them and gain their favour. + +Tigbas is a much respected god, looked upon with special reverence +as having come down from heaven. He is represented by stone idols +on stone pedestals, only possessed by the principal dattos, who keep +them amongst the heir-looms of their ancestors, and only allow their +near relations or intimate friends to see them. + +Talian is a small idol in the figure of a monkey squatting, usually +made from the root of the willow. This they carry about with them, +hanging from a cord round its neck. When on a journey, if they fear +an ambush, they hold out the cord with the little idol on it like a +plumb-line, and let it spin. When it comes to rest, its face is turned +in the direction where the enemy is concealed. They then carefully +avoid that direction, if they have been following it, by turning off +and taking another path. If one of them is ill, they submerge the idol +in a cup of water which he immediately drinks. Otherwise, by simply +touching the suffering part, they find relief, and even a radical cure. + +The Busao, an evil spirit, must be kept in good humour, and to this +end they offer to it meat and drink, and sing and dance in its honour, +praying to it to deliver them from any calamity they fear. + +The elders are charged with the duty of offering fruits and of +sacrificing the pigs and fowls to the deities. It will be seen what a +strong religious bias prevails amongst these people, who are convinced +that all the affairs of life are in the hands of Divine Providence, +and of the necessity of prayer and sacrifice. + +Marriages amongst them are arranged by the parents or by the head +chief of their tribe, the Masalicampo (Maestro de Campo). A house +is prepared for the young couple, and an abundant feast is made +ready, including an ample supply of a fermented drink called pangasi, +which is preserved in large jars. When the guests have assembled, and +everything is ready, the bride and bridegroom exchange a few words, and +each receives from their respective fathers a small morsel of cooked +rice. This they hold out for a short time on the palms of their hands, +and then each places the morsel in the mouth of the other, and this +action solemnises the marriage. The Tagbanuas have the same custom. + +Immediately an animated conversation bursts out amongst the guests, +and a profuse and carefully-cooked feast is served. + +To the feast succeeds a prolonged drinking bout, the guests sucking +up the liquor through straws or canes from the jars which contain +it. Amongst the Monteses it is not considered good form to return +home from a wedding ostentatiously sober. + +Polygamy is allowed, but little practised, only the dattos having +two or perhaps three wives. + +Father Barrado, who was a missionary amongst them, remarked on the +repugnance these people have to pass through the territory of some +other datto, and Dr. Montano, who crossed Mindanao from Davao to +Butuan, confirms this very fully as regards Mandayas and Manobos. In +order that they may do this in safety, the principal dattos have a +large and highly-ornamented lance called a quiap. In return for a +small fee they lend this to any of their Sacopes who desire to pass +through another datto's territory as a passport, or safe conduct. When +carrying this lance, far from being molested, travellers are treated +with consideration and deference, even in time of war. + +The principal dattos show their grandeur by having enormous jars, +in which they preserve their heir-looms or rare and curious objects, +or use for holding provisions. Gongs also are much esteemed amongst +them. But their most precious possessions are certain wooden-boxes +or trunks with copper coins nailed all over them in patterns, in +which they keep their clothes and arms. In this they resemble the +rajahs and sultans of the Malays. They use swords and lances, bolos, +and sometimes the Malay kris with inscriptions and marks in Arabic, +these last are got from the Moros. Some of their arms are beautifully +made with carved handles of hard wood, and inlaid with silver, +having sheaths of polished wood. Some of them have coats of mail, +made of brass plates and wires, ornamented with silver. These appear +to be of great antiquity, and it is not known where they came from +originally. Others have quilted jackets such as Cortes found amongst +the Mexicans. Notwithstanding their amiable characteristics, they make +forays like the Manobos, and attack other tribes, killing the adults, +and carrying off the children as slaves and the girls as concubines. + +They use the pneumatic tinder-box like the Igorrotes. They are fond +of smoking, and raise large crops of excellent tobacco, selling their +surplus in Cagayan de Misamis. They prefer to smoke their tobacco +in pipes, which they make themselves. They also chew buyo. On their +voyages they carry pouches to contain their belongings, and a curious +crescent-shaped box made of brass plate, which they tie on in front. + +Although able to make long journeys on foot, they usually ride, and +are excellent horsemen, riding up and down the steepest paths. Their +horses are adorned with one or two necklaces of sleigh-bells, so that +they can be heard approaching from a distance. + +They have no calendar, but know from the appearance of certain +constellations in the heavens, to which they give names of their own, +that the rainy season is approaching, and they then set to work busily +to prepare their land for sowing or planting. + +They use the plough, and make extensive plantations of maize, +which is their principal article of food, and also of rice, they +sell the surplus to the inhabitants of the coast towns, for articles +they require, especially salt. They make small stone hand-mills for +grinding maize, and what is much more curious, they have invented +and manufactured cotton gins, having two wooden rollers geared +together, worked by a crank on the upper one. These gins work with +great regularity. + +In 1889 they were much interested in planting and preparing Abaca, +and Gingoog, one of their outlets, exported no less than 11,000 piculs, +or the equivalent of 5500 bales in twelve months. They also take down +to the coast-towns quantities of wax and resin. Their labour ought +to make them wealthy, but here again we find the rascally Chinaman, +who, intoxicating them with some vile spirits, deceives them in the +price, cheats them in the weight, and sends them back sick and ill +from their unaccustomed libations, with some wretched rubbish in +exchange for their valuable produce. By this means their industry is +checked, and those who take down goods return in worse plight than +they went. Any decent Government would prohibit the demoralisation +of this interesting people, but the Chinaman well understands how to +deal with the local Spanish authorities, and even subscribes largely +to the church, for he likes to have two strings to his bow. + +The musical instruments of the Monteses are clarinets, flutes, +guitars of three strings, and a small drum. + +At the time of the harvest, from the first peep of day to sunrise, +before beginning to work, they sing or chant certain songs, the men +and women taking alternate verses. + +They have courts of justice to punish robbery and other offences. Their +laws are traditional, passing from father to son, and occasionally +altered at the discretion of the principal datto, to whom they appeal +if they have been gravely offended. The principal datto having taken +his seat, his head is bound round with the pinditon, or head-cloth, +with three points, and he takes the quiap (already mentioned) in his +hand. He then invites two inferior dattos, who take seats one on each +side of him. The prisoner is then led forward by a guard, who sticks +their lances in the earth near the seats of the tribunal. The case +is argued on both sides, the court deliberates and gives judgment and +sentence, which is executed upon the spot, fine, corporal-punishment, +or death. This is quite an ideal criminal court, and worthy of all +respect. + +Amongst them it is considered as a want of education and good manners +to mention their own names, and if a stranger asks, "What is your +name?" the person interrogated does not answer, but some one else +replies, "His name is so-and-so." This actually happened to me amongst +the Tagbanuas of Paragua, when I visited them. (See Tagbanuas.) + +They believe in omens, and have many curious customs, too long to +relate, but I shall mention one. + +If a stranger enters a house to visit those who inhabit it, and during +the conversation a fowl should fly and pass before him, the people of +the house instantly kill it, and cooking it as quickly as possible, +they eat it in company with the visitor to allay his fright, and cause +his soul to return to his body, for it might have left him when he +was startled. + +The houses in their villages are large and well-built, sometimes the +walls are of thick planks of hard wood tied together with rattan, +for they use no nails. The houses in the country are smaller, and +low in the roof, but always so high from the ground that the longest +lance will not reach the floor. + +Great respect is shown to the dead. They are usually buried in their +fields with lance, sword, and bolo laid beside them. They make a +mound of earth over the grave, fixing several stakes like St Andrew's +crosses, and protecting the whole with the bark of a tree fastened over +the stakes. From a high post hangs a bag of rice, that the soul of the +defunct may sustain itself on the long journey to Mount Bolotucan, +the highest peak of the whole region. The soul having arrived on +this peak, gives one great jump, and reaches heaven, at a higher or +lower level, according to the greater or lesser probity of its life +on earth. Wherever it lands, there it remains to all eternity. The +relations make great lamentations at the death, and loose their hair +which they do not roll up for a greater or lesser period, according +to the love they bore the dead. + +It is pleasing to be able again to state that the bravery, the wisdom, +and the faith and charity of the Jesuits exercised amongst this race +has had a rich reward. During the four years which concluded in 1889, +no less than 6600 heathen Monteses renounced their superstitions, their +polygamy, and their slave-hunting murdering raids, and, accepting +the doctrines of our Saviour, were baptized into the Christian +faith. Besides the older coast towns, mostly occupied by Visayas, +twenty-four Christian villages extend from the Bay of Macajalar far +into the Montese country, now giving the hand to the military garrisons +on the Rio Grande amongst those irreclaimable pirates the Moros. + +The Cross was triumphing over the Crescent in Mindanao quite as much, +nay, much more, by the voices of the missionaries as by the Spanish +bayonets. It will be an outrage on Christianity, a blot on their +renown, if through ignorance or folly, the United States should so act +as to put a stop to this holy and civilising work, and so give occasion +for some future author to write another "Century of Dishonour." + + + +Atas or Ata-as (7). + +These people occupy a considerable territory from the River Libaganon, +which falls into the Gulf of Davao round the northern slopes of Mount +Apo, about the head-waters of the rivers running into Lakes Liguan +and Buluan. To the north they have the Tagavauas and the Manobos; +to the south the Vilanes, and on the east the Guiangas, Bagobos and +Calaganes. The swampy country on the west separates them from the +Moros of Lake Liguan. From the extent of their territory the Atas +are probably very numerous. + +They appear to be a hybrid Malayo-Negrito race, but have advanced +considerably in social organisation. They go decently dressed, the men +wearing short drawers and a shirt of Chinese pattern, and the women a +patadion and an embroidered bodice--with strings of beads round the +neck for ornament. They weave stuffs similar to those made by the +neighbouring tribes. They are said to be of a determined character, +and to stand up to the Moros in defence of their families and property. + +They also attack other tribes and commit atrocious murders, not +sparing women and children. + +A missionary passing near their territory on the River Libaganon in +November 1892, found several households in great grief on account of +unprovoked murders committed by the Atas. + +As the Atas live remote from the sea-coast and have no navigable rivers +running through their territory, the missionaries have not yet been +able to make much impression on them, but they are working their way +up the Davao River, and the reduction of Belen established in 1891 +is quite on the borders of the Atas territory. Murders, slave-raids, +and human sacrifices, are still the ordinary events of Atas life. + +The illustration shows two determined-looking Atas warriors with spear +and shield, two women and two young girls, all carefully dressed and +wearing their ornaments. + + + +Guiangas (8). + +The Guiangas live on the slopes of Mount Apo, to the North of the +Bagobos, whom they much resemble in manners and customs. In view of +the small territory they occupy, they cannot be numerous. + +They have a rather effeminate air, the men wearing their hair long; +but notwithstanding this, they are quite robust, of remarkable agility, +and very adroit in the use of arms. + +Montano gives the average height of the man as 5 feet 41/2 inches, +and measured some up to 5 feet 71/2 inches. The men wear short drawers +and huge ear ornaments. Their weapons are the bow and spear. They +are organised on the same feudal system as the other tribes being +governed by their dattos. Their houses, as usual, are built on high +piles. They are tolerably industrious, and occasionally work for the +Visayas on their plantations. They possess horses, cattle, and poultry, +and make the usual plantations of rice, camote, and maize. + +As regards their religion, Tighiama is the Creator, and Manama the +governor of the world. Todlay, the god of love, is husband of the +Virgin Todlibun, and the women celebrate certain rites in his honour. + +Dewata is the protector of the house, and he is said to love blood. It +is therefore incumbent on the head of every household to avenge any +insult in the blood of the offender. + +As amongst other tribes, the death of a datto, or of one of his +wives, requires a human sacrifice in number proportionate to the +rank of the defunct. The victims are usually taken from amongst the +slaves of the datto, but in some cases they are purchased by public +subscription. Being securely fastened to trees so that they cannot +move, the largest subscriber inflicts a stab--politely avoiding +giving a mortal wound, then the others follow in accordance with +the importance of their subscription. The cries of the victim, thus +gradually done to death, are drowned by the vociferations of his +executioners. These sacrifices are still carried on in the remoter +districts, but the missionaries are beginning to convert the Guiangas +nearest the coast, and have established several reducciones in Guianga +territory, such as Garellano, Oran, Guernica, Oyanguren. In the parish +of Davao and its missions, there were at the end of 1896 nearly +12,000 Christians, and the missionaries were actively at work and +were meeting with success. If they are re-established, and supported, +in a few years' time human sacrifices will only be a dread tradition +of the past. + +The illustration shows a group of Guiangas, both men and women, +the latter wearing many ornaments. + + + +Bagobos (9). + +This small tribe occupies the southern and eastern slopes of the +Apo volcano, reaching down to the coast of the Bay of Davao, between +the River Taumo on the north, and the River Digos on the south. They +also have an outlying settlement at Piapi--now called Vera--on the +Ensenada de Casilaran. The lower part of their territory is swampy, +and the inhabitants of this district suffer from fever and ague, and +present a sickly appearance. They resemble the Manobos in disposition +and in customs, and their weapons are the same. Their dress consists of +short drawers and a jacket. The women wear a shirt and patadion. They +are moderate in eating, and cleanly in their persons. Dr. Montano +greatly praises the beauty of their country, especially about the +banks of the Rio Matina. + +The peculiarity of the Bagobos is that they are horse-Indians, +everybody--men, women and children--rides in their country. + +They breed these horses, which are small, but endowed with remarkable +endurance, and their saddles, although rude, are scientifically +constructed, like miniature McClellans. They ride with very short +stirrups, and the men are always seen spear in hand when mounted. They +carefully preserve by tradition the genealogy of their horses, and +give their favourite animals a ration of 41/2 lbs. of paddy per day, +as well as grass. + +The basis of their food is rice and sweet potatoes, which they +cultivate, using the buffalo and plough, and getting the manual labour +done by their slaves. + +They plant coffee, cacao, and bananas, but having assured their +subsistence, they love to wander off into the woods to seek for +jungle-produce, such as wax, honey, almaciga, and the coarse cinnamon +of the country, all of which finds a ready sale on the coast. + +They are said to strictly perform all their engagements. + +They cultivate abaca, and from the filament of this plant their women +weave the tissues called dagmays, which they polish by rubbing them +with shells till they take a lustre like silk. They dye these stuffs +in a primitive manner, but with satisfactory results. + +The men are tolerable smiths, and forge their weapons from old +iron, which they obtain in barter. They make bits (for horses), +and bracelets, and collars of brass. Amongst them gold is said to be +dearer than in Paris, although the sands about Malalag, just south +of their territory, yield gold. + +The Jesuits have made many converts amongst them, and they were, till +the Spanish-American war, under the spiritual care of the veteran +missionary, Father Urios, and his assistants. In October, 1894, 400 +Bagobos were baptized. I am unable to give the numbers of the Bagobos, +even approximately, but, from the small territory they occupy, they +cannot be numerous. + +The illustration shows the celebrated Datto Manib, one of the principal +baganis (head-murderers) of the Bagobos, of the Apo, accompanied by +his lance-bearers, one of whom holds the quiap. Behind him are some +of his wives and children, and other followers. But not even the hard +heart of this blood-stained wretch could withstand the persuasion of +the Jesuits, and in 1894 he was baptized, and commenced to build the +town of Santillana for himself and followers. + + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII + +THE TRIBES OF MINDANAO--CONTINUED. + + +Calaganes (10). + +A small tribe living on the south-eastern slopes of Mount Apo, about +the head-waters of the River Digos, which runs into the Gulf of Davao, +a little north of the Ensenada de Casilaran. + +They are reported to be of good stature, and of a dark colour, to +understand the language of the Vilanes, but to speak their own tongue, +which is similar to the Manobo. They are industrious cultivators of +the soil, and store provisions for their use, never suffering from +famine, but rather assisting others less careful. Their country is +very broken, consisting of deep valleys, divided from each other by +lofty crests. These valleys are full of people, so that the tribe +must be numerous. + +Father Urios visited them in January of 1894, and was well treated. The +reducciones of Aviles and Melitta have been recently formed amongst +them, and their conversion was proceeding till the war began. Their +territory forms part of the parish and missions of Davao. + + + +Tagacaolos (11). + +The Tagacaolos live in the district of Davao, on the west coast of the +gulf from Malalao as far south as Lais. There are also some living on +the peninsula of San Agustin, between Cuabo and Macambol. Physically, +they are inferior to the neighbouring tribes, not so much in stature +as in muscular development. They are timid, and those who are +still heathen select places for their hamlets that cannot easily +be surprised, such as rocks, or crags without forest round them, +although this obliges them to carry water from a great distance. + +A considerable number of them have been converted, and settled in +hamlets near the coast, but the mass of them are still heathen. + +Their faces are long, the nose thin, and the extremity of it slightly +curved. + +They are the victims of the Bagobos and Guiangas, who attack them for +the purpose of carrying them off into slavery. They themselves prey +on the Vilanes, who are less capable of defence, and make slaves of +them. They also fight amongst themselves. They make human sacrifices +to their god Mandarangan, who lives in the crater of the Apo volcano, +to avert his wrath, and when any noise is heard from the volcano, +they consider that he is demanding a victim. + +In 1896, more than 300 Tagacaolos had been baptized, and were +living in a civilised manner in the town of Malalag, now called Las +Mercedes. The conversion of this tribe was being actively carried on +by the assistants of the veteran missionary, Father Urios, who resided +in Davao until the Spanish-American war. Las Mercedes was improving, +and promised to become a town of some importance. + +A detachment of infantry was stationed there. + +The influence of the missionaries extended beyond the reducciones, and +had some effect amongst the heathen in discouraging human sacrifices +and tribal wars. It may be expected that, before long, these dreadful +rites will be put an end to, if the missionaries are enabled to return. + + + +Dulanganes (12). + +The Dulanganes hold a territory about twenty miles square to the south +of the Tirurayes, which extends from the crests of the mountains to +the coast. On the east they have the Vilanes. I have not been able +to learn anything whatever about this people, nor, so far as I know, +are there any reducciones in their territory. + + + +Tirurayes (13). + +The Tirurayes occupy the hills to the south of the delta of the Rio +Grande, the coast being occupied by Moros. + +They are reported to be of low type, physically, and to hold the +chastity of their wives and daughters as of no account. + +The proximity of the Moros probably accounts for this looseness of +morals. The missionaries have been working amongst them for years, +and in 1891 they had baptized 109. However, the converts were not +settled in towns, but wandered about the hills as they liked. Since +then, more of them have been baptized, and were settled in Tamontaca, +and several reducciones have been founded in their territory. In +Tamontaca, during 1896, between heathen and Moros, there were 152 +conversions and baptisms during the year, besides 197 baptisms of +infants born of Christian parents. The Tagacaolos used to apply +to the missionaries for everything they required--medicine for the +sick, Spanish red wine for women after child-birth, or boards to make +coffins. So the missionaries not only had to bury them for nothing, +but had to find them the coffin into the bargain. + +On the other hand, the Tirurayes declined to cut timber for the +chapels at their reducciones, or to haul it to place, or to do any +kind of work unless paid for it. Their zeal does not lead them to do +anything for the Church as a free offering. They find it very hard to +break themselves of their nomadic customs, and are particularly apt to +remontar. However, they treated the missionaries with great respect, +and these could go anywhere amongst them without danger. + +Since the war, the missionaries have abandoned Tamontaca, and the +whole neighbourhood is in disorder. + + + +Tagabelies (14). + +The Tagabelies inhabit the hilly country between Lake Buluan and +the Gulf of Sarangani, to the west of the volcanoes Magolo and +Maluturin. They are reported to be very ferocious, and have not been +visited by the missionaries. + + + +Samales (15). + +These people inhabit the islands of Samal and Talicud, in the Gulf +of Davao, and are not to be confounded with the Moros Samales of +Tawi-tawi and Jolo. + +The Samales surpass both the Moros and Nisayas in muscular development +and stature. + +Their feet and hands are large; they have high and projecting +cheek-bones, and a stiff beard standing out round the face gives it, +according to Montano, something of a cat-like appearance. Both sexes +dress like the Moros. + +They are less ferocious than their neighbours, and do not, like them, +go about armed. + +They do not commit any aggressions, and are industrious. In character, +they are superior to the Moros, and are not like them--cunning and +deceitful. + +They have been on good terms with the Spaniards for a long time, +but until quite lately they were very obstinate, and could not be +persuaded to be baptized. + +They cultivate the usual crops, fish, and make salt. The women weave +dagmays. + +They used to have slaves, whom they purchased from the Moros or +Manobos, and treated them well. + +Formerly, they enclosed their dead in wooden coffins, made in two +parts, the shallower part serving as a lid. Each piece was hollowed +out of a solid log. They placed the coffins on a rude platform in a +cave or niche in the rocks, or else built a thatched roof over it to +keep off the rain. + +They placed near the coffin buyo and bonga for chewing, and vases +containing rice and maize. Each year after the harvest they went to +visit the dead, and renewed the offerings. + +Little is known of their former religion, but they worshipped the +serpent, and believed in the immortality of the soul, and in a place +of punishment by fire, which they called Quilut. + +The patience and zeal of the missionaries has, however, been richly +rewarded, and in June, 1894, a number of Samales were baptized, +including most of their dattos. By the autumn of that year there was +not a heathen left in the islands, and the Samales are now settled in +seven villages--San Jose, San Ramon, Alcira, Tarifa, Carmona, Cervera, +and Pena Plata. This last was the residence of the missionary, who +was accompanied by a lay brother. The population at the beginning of +1897 was 1625. + + + +Vilanes (16). + +These people, the prey of every warlike tribe, and even of the +Tagacaolos, live on the summit of the mountains of Buhian, to the +east and west of the lake of that name. + +Some of them extend as far south as the eastern shore of the Gulf of +Sarangani, and they people the two islands of Sarangani and Balut. + +They are short and thickset, with little agility. + +Montano describes them as having flat, broad noses, underhung jaws, +and receding foreheads, giving them an appearance of stupidity. + +Father Urios, however, writing about the Vilanes of Sarangani and +Balut, gives a more favourable description of them. He says they +are docile and industrious, and more active and intelligent than the +Moros Sanguiles, who live on these same islands. + +He thought them easy to convert, for they have no religious system of +their own; but they believe in God, and in the immortality of the soul. + +Although living so near the Moros, they have not adopted any of their +religious ideas. + +The Sarangani Vilanes dress like the Bagobos, and handle the lance +and the bow, and are good shots in hunting game. + + + +Subanos (17). + +The word Subanos means dwellers by the rivers, from suba--a river. + +This numerous tribe inhabits the western peninsula of Mindanao from +Misamis to Zamboanga, except the coasts which are mostly occupied by +Visayas or Moros. + +They are of a darker colour and inferior in physique to the Mandayas +and Monteses. + +Like other races in Mindanao the Subanos are organised under dattos +or baganis in a feudal system. It is said that he who has killed one +enemy may wear a red head-cloth, whilst other tribes only concede +this distinction to a warrior who has killed five. + +In religion, they are polytheists, and worship the following deities +amongst others: + + + Tagma-sa-dugat, or Lord of the Sea. + Tagma-sa-yuta, or Lord of the Earth. + Tagma-sa-manga bugund, or Lord of the Woods. + Tagma-sa-manga Suba, or Lord of the Rivers. + Tagma-sa-Saquit, or Lord Protector of the sick. + + +But they are said not to possess wooden idols like the Manobos, +Mandayas and Monteses. They raise rough altars of sticks, on which +they lay out offerings to their deities. They call these altars +Paga-paga. The offerings consist of rice, chickens, eggs, buyo and +tobacco, also a large jar of pangasi, a beer brewed from rice. When +making their offerings, they sing, dance, and pray round the altar +to the sound of the sucaran, a rough kind of cymbal or gong. Amongst +the Subanos only the dattos or rich men have more than one wife. The +marriage ceremonies are very elaborate, and conclude with two great +feasts or drinking bouts, one in the house of the bride's father, +the other in the house of the bridegroom. Divorce can be obtained if +the couple cannot agree, or if either quarrels with the father- or +mother-in-law. It is not readily conceded, and the case is sometimes +argued for days before the council of elders of the village. Children +are only given names when four or five years old. The Subanos have +no money in circulation, and any trading is effected by barter. + +They bury their dead the day after their decease, wrapping the body +in a mat. The grave is dug about a yard deep, and near the house. The +Balian or priest accompanies the bearers, and sprinkles water on +the house and ground as he goes. Women do not accompany the funeral +party. The body is laid on a bed of leaves, resting on a framework of +sticks or canes at the bottom of the grave. The sides are protected +in the same way, and over it another framework is constructed, +carrying an earthen jar containing food and clothing. The weapons +of the defunct are laid over him, and the grave is filled in with +earth, great care being taken not to let a particle of it touch the +body. Sacrifices are made to the god Diuata; these constitute the +funeral feast, which is consumed in silence. When it is concluded, +the dishes and pots which contained it are turned upside down. + +On the eighth day another feast is held, when they talk and dance, +intoxicating themselves with copious libations of pangasi. The priest +then goes through a ceremony the purport of which is to hand over the +soul of the defunct to Diuata-sa-langit, the god of heaven. He begs +the soul to go away with the god, and to trouble them no more. They +then renew the dancing and drinking, and thus conclude the period +of mourning. + +The houses of the Subanos are similarly constructed to those of the +Manobos, Monteses, and other tribes, but are not always raised so +high from the ground, and are more roughly built. Their food is +similar to that of the other heathen tribes. The men wear their +hair long, but coiled up on the head, and covered with a kerchief +worn like a turban. They dress in a tight jacket and trousers, +either white, blue, or red. Sometimes they wear a sash. The men do +not wear ear-ornaments of any kind. The women wear large combs made +by themselves from bamboos, but no head-covering. Their ornaments +are ear-rings, strings of beads round the neck, and many bangles +or bracelets of brass or silver. They are clothed in a short shirt, +either of homespun or Manchester cotton, and a skirt worn tight round +the body, and reaching below the knees. + +The weapons of the Subanos are the lance, which they call talanan, +a round shield they call taming, a scimitar they call campilan, +the Malay kris they call caliz, the machete or pes. + +Their agriculture and industries are very primitive, and on a small +scale. + +They have scarcely any other musical instrument than brass gongs +called Agum, which are played as dance music to their two dances, +the Saldiringan and the Sinigay. In the first of these dances the men +stand up in a row, opposite a row of women. All hold a palm-branch +in each hand with which to beat time. They jump up and down with eyes +fixed on the ground. + +For the Sinigay, however, the partners touch each other's hands, +but only with the points of the fingers. The Subano, equivalent to +our Mrs. Grundy, would feel shocked to see gentlemen dancing with +their arms round their partners' waists. + +The principal feast is called Birclog, and it lasts eight days. A large +shed is built, the priests offer prayers to the before-mentioned gods, +and sacrifice swine and poultry. The pigs are strangled by a rope +held or jerked by all the priests, and are placed on the altar one +at a time. Above the carcass is placed a live cock, which they kill +by wounding it through the mouth and letting it bleed to death. They +also offer tobacco, rice, and pangasi. + +The offerings are taken away to be cut up and cooked. They are then +served, and the pangasi goes round, the priests being always served +first and getting the best of everything, as seems to be the case +all the world over. + +When the first lot of people have been fed, they vacate the shed, +which is instantly filled by a fresh lot. Sometimes in one of these +feasts they consume twenty pigs and forty ten-gallon jars of the +strong rice-beer. When intoxicated, their conduct, according to Father +Sanchez, S.J., is apt to overstep the bounds of propriety, but in this +they are very much like more civilised people in the same condition. + +The only vessels possessed by the Subanos are some canoes, or dug-outs, +on the rivers. These are sometimes of great length, and are called +by them Sacayan. They propel them with great skill, using a long +double-ended paddle which they use standing up, and alternately on +either side. Like many other races of the Far East, they consider +a lunar eclipse as the precursor of great calamities, and make +a deafening noise to frighten away the serpent or dragon which is +swallowing the moon. They consider the turtle-dove, or limocon, as an +omen-bird, and will halt or perhaps return if they hear its cry when +starting on a journey. Also if they hear any one sneeze whilst going +down the ladder of the house, they return, and remain within doors. + +Some of the Subanos bear Moro titles, such as Timuay, which is +equivalent to third class judge. Father Vilaclara, S.J., a bold and +enterprising missionary, visited, in 1890, the house of a Subano +named Audos, who had recently succeeded his father as Timuay of the +Sindangan River. + +He counted twenty-nine persons, great and small, in the house, +but this did not include the whole family, as several were absent +at their occupations. The house was built on piles, according to the +universal custom, and the floor could not be reached from the ground +by the longest lance. It measured eighteen yards long by ten yards +wide, and formed one vast apartment, there being no partitions of +any kind. The floor was made of strips of bamboo, and on this account +it must be out of reach, for as the inhabitants sleep on grass mats +laid on the floor, they could easily be speared in the night through +the interstices of the canes. + +Five married couples and their children occupied this apartment, +each having its own part of the floor, its own store of rice, its own +pigs and poultry. Each family cooked and ate independently, but all +showed the greatest respect to the aged grandparents, and consulted +them about their affairs. Father Vilaclara appears to have ultimately +converted the whole family, beginning with the boys, whom he took under +his charge, dressed and fed them, and taught them to speak Visaya. + +Gold-washing and gold-mining is practised by the Subanos between +Dapitan and Misamis, where there is a vast extension of gold-bearing +sand and earth. Near Pigtao auriferous iron pyrites occurs. The native +name for this ore is Inga. + +Horses are very abundant in the district of Misamis, and in common +use for riding and as pack carriers. + +The Subanos have the reputation of being war-like, yet until +lately they were entirely dominated by the Moros wherever they came +in contact. Since 1893 the Spaniards have isolated them from the +Ilanao Moros by establishing a chain of forts, and making a Trocha, +or military road, across the narrow neck of land from Tucuran on the +Bahia Illana to Balatacan on Bahia Panquil. The width of the isthmus +here is about sixteen miles, and the forts are called Alfonso XIII, +Infanta Isabel, Sta. Paz, and Sta. Eulalia, and Maria Cristina. + +The Subanos appear to be much more refractory to civilisation and +Christianity than the Monteses, the Manobos or the Mandayas. This no +doubt comes from the strong influence that vile nests of pirates and +slave-traders around Lake Lanao has for centuries exercised over them, +but in time the Trocha, if kept as it should be, in the interests of +civilisation, will destroy that. + +The Jesuit missionaries were actively at work round about the Bay of +Dapitan in the extreme north of the Subano territory, and to some +extent round about Zamboanga in the extreme south, until the war +between Spain and America broke out. + +In the Dapitan district there were at the end of 1896 nearly 15,000 +Christians residing in the towns and villages under the spiritual, +and temporal guidance of the Jesuits. During that year 208 heathen +were baptized in the Dapitan district, but only 21 in the Zamboanga +district. + +It is safe to assume that in the Dapitan district alone there are +10,000 Christian Subanos. + +The number of heathen Subanos, amongst whom there are a few +semi-Mahometans, may be about 90,000. From these figures it is quite +evident that the missionary enterprise should be extended, but in +order to do this the insolence of the Moros must be chastised. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII + +The Moros, or Mahometan Malays (18 to 23). + + +These terrible pirates who have for centuries laid waste the coasts +of the Philippines and the adjacent islands, with fire and sword, +carrying off tens of thousands of Christians or heathen into slavery, +have only within the last few years had their power definitely broken +by the naval and military forces of Spain and by the labours of the +Jesuit missionaries, amongst the heathen tribes of the island. + +It is scarcely half a century since they annually attacked the +Visayas Islands and even Southern Luzon, and they have been, up to +quite lately, the great obstacle to the civilisation of the Southern +Philippines. In Culion, Cuyos and other islands the churches are built +within a stone fort, in which the population took refuge when the +Moros appeared. The old Spanish sailing men-of-war could not cope with +these sea rovers, who in their light prahus, salisipanes, or vintas, +kept in shallow water or amongst reefs where these vessels could not +reach them. Of course, if the pirates were surprised when crossing +open water, they ran great risks, since their artillery was always very +deficient, but they sailed in great numbers, and if it fell calm they +would cluster round a solitary man-of-war and take her by boarding. + +In consequence, a special force was raised in the Philippines to +protect the coasts against these pests. It was called "La Marina +Sutil," or the Light Navy. This force consisted of large flat-bottomed +launches propelled by oars and sails. They were half-decked forward, +and carried a long brass gun, on a slide, and some swivels on the +quarters. These boats were coppered and fitted with a cabin at the +after part. They carried forty or fifty men, all natives, and squadrons +of them were stationed at the principal southern ports from whence they +patrolled the coasts. Most of the officers were natives or mestizos; +some of them survive to this day. These vessels rendered good service, +and to some extent checked the incursions of the pirates, but they +had not the speed to follow up the fast-rowing vintas of the Moros, +which could always escape from them unless caught in narrow waters. In +1824, D. Alonso Morgado was appointed Captain of the Marina Sutil, +and severely chastised the Moros. + +Some of these rowing gun-boats are still to be seen rotting on the +beach at the southern naval stations. But the introduction of steam +gun-boats in 1860 gradually did away with the Marina Sutil, and sounded +the knell of piracy in the Philippines. The Moros received terrible +chastisement at the hands of these steam gun-boats, one of which, +with a crew of only forty men, has been known to destroy a whole +fleet of pirates, and now their power on the sea has become only a +dread tradition of the past. + +Even with all the advantages of steam propulsion, their suppression +has been a matter of the utmost difficulty, for the Moros are not only +possessed of the greatest personal valour, but are extremely skilful in +taking advantage of every circumstance that can favour their defence. + +Their towns are mostly built in the water, like the City of Brunei, +the houses having bamboo bridges to connect them with the shore, +which can be removed when desirable. They select a site well protected +by reefs or islands, or only to be approached by long and tortuous +channels through mangrove swamps enfiladed by guns cunningly concealed +from view; a very death-trap to an attack by boats. + +On rising ground and flanking their settlements they built their +Cottas or forts. The walls of these strongholds are a double stockade +of great trunks of trees, the space between them being filled with +rock, stones, or earth rammed in. Some of these walls are 24 feet +thick and as much as 30 feet high, defended by brass and iron guns, +and by numerous lantacas. Such places can stand a deal of battering, +and are not easily taken by assault, for the Moros mount the ramparts +and make a brave defence, firing grape from their guns and lantacas, +and as the assailants approach, hurling their spears on them to a +surprising distance, with accurate aim, and manfully standing up to +them in the breaches. + +Should the assault slacken they never fail to rush out, helmet on +head, clad in coats of mail, and with sword and buckler engage the +foe in a desperate hand-to-hand struggle where quarter is neither +asked nor given. + +The annals of Moro-Spanish war include many well-contested combats, +where, to use the language of Froissart, "many heavy blows were +given and received," where the most desperate exertions of Spain's +bravest officers, backed up by their war-like and hardy troops, not +seldom failed to carry the forts held by the indomitable and fanatic +Moros. Such Homeric combats were those between that dreaded Sultan +of Mindanao, Cachit Corralat and Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, +and Captain Atienzas' bold attack on the hosts of the confederated +Moros of Lake Lanao. Nor were the Spanish missionaries less active +than the soldiers on the field of battle, or in the most desperate +assaults. Crucifix in hand, Father San Agustin and Father Ducos +calmly walked through many a hail of bullets and many a flight of +spears leading and encouraging their half-savage converts in their +resistance to these cruel oppressors. + +Not to be out-done by either soldier or priest, Captain Malcampo, of +the Spanish Navy, drove his vessel, the Constancia, right up to the +Cotta of Pangalungan till her bowsprit touched the ramparts, then, +sword in hand, leading a company of boarders, and using the bowsprit +as a bridge, he carried the fort by assault, and put the garrison to +the sword. + +The thirsty soil of Mindanao has drunk freely of Spanish blood, +and Pampango, Tagal, and Visaya have all worthily borne their part +in this long drawn-out crusade of the Cross against the Crescent. + +But not alone the Moro sword and spear has delayed for so long the +conquest of Mindanao. Deadly fevers lurk in the lowlands, the swamps +and the creeks of that rich and fertile island. + +The Moros appear impervious to the malaria. At all events they live +and thrive in, or in close proximity to, mangrove swamp and flooded +jungle. The Tagal or the Visaya is not immune, and some even resist +an attack of the terrible perniciosa less than a white man. I shall +never in my life forget the awful sights I witnessed in 1887 and +1892 when some native regiments returned to Manila from the war in +Mindanao. Any one who saw Shafter's army disembark on their return +from Cuba will understand me. Those who could march were mere walking +corpses, but the shrunken forms, the livid tint and the glassy eyes +of those who could not stand (and there were hundreds of them), +brought the horrors of mismanaged war to the onlooker like one of +Vereschagin's realistic masterpieces. + +But as the slaughter of the Dervishes at Omdurman teaches, not even the +most dauntless bravery can prevail against modern weapons in the hands +of tolerably disciplined troops. The quick-firing gun, the howitzer +with shrapnell shell, the machine-gun and the magazine-rifle must +inevitably bring about the subjugation of every lowland population not +supplied with these dread engines of civilisation, and only the hardy +dwellers in Nature's loftiest fastnesses, the Himalayas or the Andes, +may hope to retain their independence in the future. + +It is a striking instance of the irony of fate that, just as modern +weapons have turned the scale in favour of the Spaniards in this +long struggle, and brought the Moros within measurable distance of +subjection, when only one more blow required to be struck, Spain's +Oriental Empire should suddenly vanish in the smoke of Dewey's guns, +and her flag disappear for ever from battlements where (except for +the short interval of British occupation, 1762-3) it has proudly waved +through storm and sunshine for three hundred and twenty-eight years. + +Such, however, is the case, and it now falls to the United States to +complete the task of centuries, to stretch out a protecting hand over +the Christian natives of Mindanao, and to suppress the last remains of +a slave-raiding system, as ruthless, as sanguinary and as devastating +as the annals of the world can show. + +The Moros of Mindanao are divided into five groups or tribes; Illanos, +Sanguiles, Lutangas, Calibuganes, and Yacanes. + +(18) The Moros Illanos, who are the most important and the most +dangerous community, are described fully later on. They inhabit the +country between the Bay of Iligan and Illana Bay, also round Lake +Lanao, the Rio Grande and Lake Liguan. + +(19) The Moros Sanguiles live on the south coast from the Bay of +Sarangani to the River Kulut. + +(20) The Moros Lutangas occupy the Island of Olutanga and parts of +the adjacent coasts, all round the Bay of Dumanguilas and Maligay, +and the eastern coast of the Bay of Sibuguay. + +(21) The Moros Calibuganes occupy the western coast of the Bay of +Sibuguay, they are also dotted along the outer coast of the Peninsula +as far as the Bay of Sindangan. They communicate by land across +the mountains. + +(22) The Moros Yacanes occupy the western part of the Island of +Basilan, and the islands of the Tapul group. + +(23) The Moros Samales are not inhabitants of Mindanao, but occupy +and dominate the Islands of Jolo, Tawi-tawi and most of the smaller +islands of those groups. + +Physically, the Moro is a man built for the fatigues of war, whether +by sea or land. + +His sinewy frame combines strength and agility, and the immense +development of the thorax gives him marvellous powers of endurance +at the oar or on the march. + +Trained to arms from his earliest youth, he excels in the management of +the lance, the buckler and the sword. These weapons are his inseparable +companions: the typical Moro is never unarmed. He fights equally +well on foot, on horseback, in his fleet war canoe, or in the water, +for he swims like a fish and dives like a penguin. + +Absolutely indifferent to bloodshed or suffering, he will take the life +of a slave or a stranger merely to try the keenness of a new weapon. He +will set one of his sons, a mere boy, to kill some defenceless man, +merely to get his hand in at slaughter. [30] If for any reason he +becomes disgusted with his luck, or tired of life, he will shave +off his eyebrows, dress himself entirely in red, and taking the oath +before his Pandit, run amok in some Christian settlement, killing man, +woman and child, till he is shot down by the enraged townsmen. + +Wanton destruction is his delight. After plundering and burning some +sea-coast town in Visayas or Luzon, they would take the trouble to +cut down the fruit trees, destroy the crops and everything else that +they could not carry away. + +Yet, as they made annual raids, it would have appeared to be good +policy to leave the dwellings, the fruit trees, and the crops, +in order to tempt the natives to re-occupy the town and accumulate +material for subsequent plundering. + +Commonly, very ignorant of his own religion, he is none the less +a fanatic in its defence, and nourishes a traditional and fervent +hatred against the Christian, whether European or native. + +Looking upon work as a disgrace, his scheme of life is simple; it +consists in making slaves of less war-like men, to work for him, +and taking their best looking girls for his concubines. His victims +for centuries, when not engaged on a piratical cruise, have been the +hill-tribes of the island, the Subanos, the Tagacaolos, the Vilanes, +the Manguangas and others. + +Originally immigrants from Borneo, from Celehes or Ternate, with some +Arab admixture, the Moros have for centuries filled their harems +with the women of the hill-tribes, and with Tagal and Visayas and +even Spanish women, taken in their piratical excursions. They are +now a very mixed race, but retain all their war-like characteristics. + +Cut off from the sea by the Spanish Naval forces, they turned +with greater energy than ever to the plundering and enslaving +of their neighbours, the hill-men. These poor creatures, living +in small groups, could offer but little resistance, and fell an +easy prey. But now the devoted labours of the Jesuit missionaries +began to bear fruit. They converted the hill-men, and gathered them +together in larger communities, better able to protect themselves, +and although the Moros sometimes burnt whole towns and slew all who +resisted, carrying off the women and children into slavery, yet, +on the other hand, it often happened that, getting notice of their +approach, the Jesuits assembled the fighting men of several towns, +and, being provided with a few fire-arms by the Government, they fell +upon the Moros and utterly routed them, driving them back to their +own territory with great loss. Of late years the Moros have found +their slave-raids involve more danger than they care to face, and +even the powerful confederation of Lake Lanao was, till the Spanish +American war, hemmed in by chains of forts and by Christian towns. + +But they have by no means entirely renounced their slave-raiding, +and in order to give a specific instance of their behaviour in recent +years, I will mention that on the 31st. of December, 1893, a party +of 370 of them, under the Datto Ali, son to Datto Nua, accompanied +by seven other Dattos, all well armed, and forty of them carrying +muskets or rifles, and plenty of ammunition, made an unprovoked and +treacherous attack on Lepanto, a Christian village in the Montes +country, near the confluence of the Kulaman River with the Pulangui, +between the Locosocan and Salagalpon cataracts. This is the extreme +southern settlement of the Jesuits, and the nearest missionary resided +at Linabo, whilst the nearest garrison was at Bugcaon, some four +leagues distant. + +The inhabitants, not being provided with fire-arms, sought safety +in flight, but the Moros captured fourteen of them. They profaned +the church, hacked to pieces the image of Our Saviour, and cut up +a painting of Our Lady of the Rosary, smashed the altar, and with +the debris, lighted a bonfire in the middle of the church, which, +strange to say, however, did not take fire. + +They stole the cattle and horses, looted the village, and marched +off with their spoil and the fourteen captives. + +When, however, they reached the ford on the River Mulita, five of +the Christians refused to proceed into slavery. These were the Datto +Mausalaya, another man named Masumbalan, and three women. They were +all put to death by the Moros and barbarously mutilated. The flesh +was cut from their bones, and it is said that the Moros consumed some +of it, and so terrified the other captives that they marched forward +into life-long slavery. + +Had the converts in Lepanto been supplied with a few fire-arms, +this disaster would not have happened. + +The Mindanao Moros commonly wear a bright coloured handkerchief as a +head-cloth or turban, a split shirt of Chinese pattern, wide trousers, +and gaudy sashes. + +The young men shave their heads, but after marriage they let their +hair grow long. + +The dattos, mandarines, and pandits usually cultivate a moustache, +others pluck out all the hair on the face. The poorer women commonly +dress in white and wear a jacket and a skirt coming down well below +the knee. The richer ones wear silks of the brightest colours. + +A white turban or head-cloth is a sign of mourning. + +The illustration shows a group of Moros of the East coast. They are +unarmed, unlike those of Lake Lanao. + +The Moro noble takes great pride in his long descent, and in the +distinction gained in war by his ancestors. During the long hours of +their friendly meetings called Bicharas, they relate to each other +tales of their ancestors' heroism. + +Their feudal system has been more or less copied by Subanos, Manobos, +Monteses and other hill-races. The datto or mandarin is the feudal +chief amongst all these, but the Moros have gone a step further, +and have instituted rajahs and sultans, although with only a shadowy +authority; for every important matter must come before the council +of dattos for approval. + +They use titles similar to those of the Malays of Borneo and +Johore. Tuang, the head-man of a village; Cuano, a Justice of the +Peace; Lamudia, Nacuda and Timuay, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd class judges; +Gangalia, a constable; Baguadato, a principal, or Cabeza; Maradiadina, +eldest son of a principal. A datto is known by the richness of his +apparel and by using gold buttons, and especially by always carrying +a handkerchief in his hand. He is usually followed by a slave carrying +his siri-box. + +Like the Malays, they call the heir of a rajah the Rajah-muda; the +nephew of a sultan uses the epithet Paduca; the son of a sultan calls +himself Majarasin, the pure or mighty. + +Orang-Kaya, corresponds to a magnate; Cachil, to a prince of the +blood. The war-minister of a sultan is called the Datto Realao. + +A principal priest is called a Sarif or sheriff; and an ordinary +priest a Pandita, or learned man. + +The learning of these worthies is of the most rudimentary description, +and consists in being able to read the Koran in Arabic, and to recite +certain prayers which they often do not understand. + +They have some wretched sheds for places of worship which they call +Langa. During the fast of Sanibayang, which lasts for seven days, +they are supposed to abstain from all nourishment. However, at +midnight, when they think their god may be napping, they indulge in +a hurried meal on the quiet. At the end of their week of abstinence +they undergo a purification by bathing, and indemnify themselves for +their fasts by several sumptuous banquets. They are forbidden to eat +swine's flesh, or drink spirituous liquors, but they are not at all +strict in their religion, and the savoury smell of roast pork has +been known to overcome their scruples. + +They are very fond of smoking tobacco, and of chewing buyo; some +indulge in opium smoking. + +Their amusements are gambling, cock-fighting, and combats of +buffaloes. Their slave-girls perform various libidinous dances to +the sound of the agun, or brass gong, and the calintangang, a kind +of harmonium of strips of metal struck by a small drum-stick. + +The dance called the Paujalay is usually performed at a marriage of +any importance, and the young dancers, clad in diaphanous garments, +strive to present their charms in the most alluring postures, for +the entertainment of the dattos and their guests. + +They have also a war-dance called the Moro-moro, which is performed by +their most skilful and agile swordsmen, buckler on arm and campilan +in hand to the sound of martial music. It simulates a combat, and +the dancers spring sideways, backwards or forwards, and cut, thrust, +guard, or feint with surprising dexterity. + +The Moros are polygamists in general, although the influence of the +Christian women taken as captives and sometimes married to their +captors, has, in many cases, succeeded in preventing their husbands +from taking a second wife. The cleverness and aptitude for business +of Christian Visayas, and Tagal women captives, has sometimes raised +them to the highest position in rank and wealth amongst the Moros; +and few of them would have returned to their former homes, even if +an occasion had offered. The custom of seizing girls for slaves and +concubines which has prevailed amongst the Moros for centuries, has +of course had the effect of encouraging sensuality, and the morals +of Moro society may be compared to those of a rabbit-warren. + +The Moros do not always treat their slaves with cruelty, they rather +strive to attach them to their new home by giving them a female +captive or a slave-girl they have tired of, as a wife, assisting them +to build a house, and making their lot as easy as is compatible with +getting some work out of them. + +But perhaps the greatest allurement to one of these slaves is when +his master takes him with him on a slave-raid, and gives him the +opportunity of securing some plunder, and perhaps a slave for himself. + +Once let him arrive at this stage, and his master need have no fear +of his absconding. + +The Spaniards have for years refused to send back any slaves who +claim their protection, yet it has been remarked by Dr. Montano, and +by missionaries and Spanish military officers, that slaves have been +employed fishing or tilling the ground near the Spanish outposts, +and only rarely would one step within the lines to obtain his liberty. + +If caught running away from their masters, the dattos, they are +sometimes put to death, or mutilated in a most cruel manner. + +The famous Datto Utto, of the Rio Grande, is said to have stripped +a runaway slave naked and to have tied him to a tree, leaving him to +be stung to death by the mosquitos or devoured piecemeal by ants. + +This same Datto Utto, towards the end of 1889, made himself so +objectionable to the Datto Abdul, one of his neighbours, that the +latter determined to place himself and his people under Spanish +protection. His village consisted of eighty houses and was situated +on the banks of Rio Grande. + +Datto Abdul gave proofs of engineering skill, for he constructed +eighty rafts of bamboos, and placing a house upon each with all its +belongings, inhabitants and cattle, he floated his whole village +fifteen miles down the river and landed at Tumbao, establishing +himself under the protection of the fort. + +The Datto Ayunan, who resides in the same neighbourhood, also came +over to the Spaniards, and learned to understand and speak Spanish very +fairly. He had at least three thousand followers, and in the fighting +on the Rio Grande in 1886-87 he took the field, supported the Spanish +forces against the other dattos, and rendered important services. + +Several other dattos and chiefs have submitted to the Spaniards; +for instance, the Sultan of Bolinson, who has settled at Lintago, +near the barracks of Maria Christina. In the district of Davao more +than five thousand Moros are living peacefully under Spanish rule. + +The famous Datto Utto, who gave so much trouble, lost followers and +prestige, and now where the Moro King of Tamontaca held his court and +reigned in power and splendour on the Rio Grande, a Jesuit Orphan +Asylum, and Industrial School flourished [till the war caused it +to be abandoned], bringing up hundreds of children of both sexes, +mostly liberated slaves of the Moros, to honest handicrafts or +agricultural labour. + +Amongst the Moros, the administration of justice is in the hands +of the dattos or of their nominees. Offences are punished by death, +corporal chastisement, or by fines. + +However, the customs of the country admit of an offended person taking +the law into his own hand. Thus he who surprises his wife in the act +of adultery may cut off one of her ears, shave her head, and degrade +her to be the slave of his concubines. + +If he catches the co-respondent he may kill him (if he can). + +A calumny not justified, is fined 15 dollars; a slight wound costs the +aggressor 5 dollars; a serious wound, 15 dollars, and the weapon that +did the mischief; a murder can be atoned by giving three to six slaves. + +Adultery incurs a fine of 60 dollars, and two slaves; or death, +if the fine is not paid. + +He who insults a datto is condemned to death, unless he can pay 15 +taels of gold, but he becomes a slave for life. The datto acting as +judge takes as his fee one-eighth of the fine he imposes. + +A slave is considered to be worth from 15 to 30 dollars according to +his or her capabilities or appearance. + +The dattos impose an annual tax on all their subjects whether Moros +or heathen. It is called the Pagdatto, and consists of a piece of +cloth called a Jabol, a bolo, and twenty gantas of paddy (equal to 10 +gantas of rice) from each married couple. A ganta equals two-thirds +of a gallon, so that the tax in rice would only be 6.6 gallons, +a little over 3/4 bushel. + +Their language is a degraded Arabic with words from Malay, Chinese, +Visaya, Tagal, and some idioms of the hill-tribes. + +Very few of them can read or write. + +Their year is divided into 13 lunar months, and the days of the week +are as follows:-- + + + Monday. Sapto. + Tuesday. Ahat. + Wednesday. Isnin. + Thursday. Sarasa. + Friday. Araboja. + Saturday. Cammis. + Sunday. Diammat. + + +Their era is the Hejira, like other Mahometans. + +Their marriage customs are peculiar. When one of them takes a fancy +to a damsel, he sends his friend, of the highest rank, to the house of +the girl's father, to solicit her hand. The father consults the girl, +and if she is favourable he makes answer that the young man may come +for her. The would-be bridegroom then proceeds to the mosque and calls +the Imam, who goes through a form of prayers with him, after which they +proceed in company to the maiden's house, followed by a slave bearing +presents, and from the street call out for leave to enter. The father +appears at a window and invites them in, but when about to enter, the +male relations of the damsel simulate an attack on the visitor, which +he beats off, and throws them the presents he has brought with him. + +He then enters with the Imam and finds the lady of his desires +reclining upon cushions, and presents his respects to her. The priest +then causes her to rise and, taking hold of her head he twirls her +round twice to the right, then taking the hand of the man he places +it on the forehead of the girl, who immediately covers her face. The +priest then retires, leaving them alone. The bridegroom attempts +to kiss and embrace the bride, who defends herself with tooth and +nail. She shrieks and runs, and the bridegroom chases her round and +round the room. + +Presently the father appears, and assures the bridegroom that he +may take for granted the virginity of his daughter. The bridegroom +then leaves the house to make preparations for the wedding-feast, +which begins that night, and finishes on the third night, when the +bride takes off all the garments she has worn as a maid and dresses in +handsome robes provided by the bridegroom. At the end of the feast, the +emissary who first solicited her hand for his friend conducts her to +the house of the bridegroom, accompanied by the guests singing verses +allusive to the occasion, and cracking jokes more or less indecent. + +Contrary to the custom in other countries, it is easier to get +divorced than to get married, for this is the privilege of the man, +who can repudiate his wife at any time. + +They celebrate the baptism of their children, and the circumcision of +their boys, with feasts and entertainments. They fire off cannon and +lantacas on the death of a datto, and with all sorts of instruments +make a hideous discord in front of the house of death. + +Professional wailers are employed, and the pandits go through many +days of long-winded prayer, for which they receive most ample fees. + +They have regular cemeteries, and, after the burial, place on the +grave the head of a cock with a hot cinder on the top of it. I am +quite unable to explain what meaning is attached to this custom, but +they are soaked in all sorts of superstitions, and thoroughly believe +in amulets or talismen, as do the Tagals in their Anting-Anting. + +Owing to the multitude of slaves they possess, they make considerable +plantations of rice, maize, coffee, and cacao. They sell the surplus +of this produce to Chinamen or Visayas settled in the coast towns, as +also wax, gum, resin, jungle-produce, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl +shell, balate and cinnamon. It is estimated that they sell produce to +the value of a million dollars a year. They also employ their slaves +in washing the sands for gold, and, according to Nieto, in mining +for silver and other metal. + +I have not seen this latter statement confirmed by any other author. + +Their industries are the forging of swords, cris, and lance-heads, +casting and boring their lantacas. + +To bore these long guns they sink them in a pit, ramming in the +earth so as to keep the piece in a truly vertical position. They +then bore by hand, two or four men walking round and turning the bit +with cross-bars. Some of these lantacas are worthy to be considered +perfect works of art, and are highly decorated. I have seen several +double-barrelled. (See Illustration.) + +The Moro women employ their slaves in spinning and weaving. They make +excellent stuffs of cotton and of abaca, dyeing them various colours +with extracts of the woods grown in the country. + +Their houses are large and spacious, and they live in a patriarchal +manner, master and mistress, concubines, children, and slaves with +their children, all jumbled together. They possess plenty of horses, +cattle, buffaloes, goats and poultry. + +They use Spanish or Mexican silver coins, but most of their +transactions are by barter. + +To wind up this description of the Moros of Mindanao, it must be +said of them that they are always ready to fight for the liberty of +enslaving other people, and that nothing but force can restrain them +from doing so. That they will not work themselves, and that as long +as their sultans, dattos, and pandits have a hold on them, they will +keep no engagements, respect no treaties, and continue to be in the +future, as they have always been in the past, a terror and a curse +to all their neighbours. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX + +THE CHINESE IN MINDANAO. + + + +Tagabauas (24). + +These people live in the very centre of Mindanao on the high peaks of +the cordillera. If a straight line be drawn on the map from Nasipit, +on the Bay of Butuan, to Glan, on the Gulf of Sarangani, it will +intersect their habitat which may extend from about 7 deg. 30' to 8 deg. +N. lat. I can learn nothing about their manners and customs. They +are reputed to be ferocious. + + + +The Chinese in Mindanao. + +The Chinese in Mindanao are almost entirely settled in the coast +towns, and are occupied in trade. They do not engage in agriculture, +but keep stores and sell to the civilised natives and to the hill-men. + +They understand that they need protection, and are equally ready to +make a present to the judge, to subscribe for a gilded altar for the +church, or to render service to the governor, in order to be on good +terms with the court, the priest, and the military. + +Very few Chinese women come over, therefore the men have native +wives or concubines, and are begetting Chinese half-castes on an +extensive scale. + +They are not averse to a little slave-dealing, and will casually buy +a boy or girl from slave-hunters, or will order such a slave as they +require from the slave-hunters, who then proceed to execute the order, +which probably involves the sacrifice of several lives. + +Thus they will order a smart boy, or a pretty girl, of fifteen or +sixteen, and so forth. + +Father Barrado, writing from Cotta-Bato, June 3rd, 1890, relates +that a boy of eight years of age was purchased by a Chinaman for +thirty dollars. + +As soon as his master had brought him to the house, he fastened the +door, and being assisted by four other Chinamen, tied the boy's hands +and feet, and gagged him. + +The four assistants then laid him out at full length on the ground, +face downwards, and held him firmly, whilst his master took a red-hot +marking-iron from the fire, and branded him on both thighs, just as +if he was marking a horse or a cow. + +Luckily, the boy escaped from the house, and found refuge with Father +Barrado, who took charge of him, and administered a severe reprimand +to the brutal Chinaman. + +The Chinamen abominably cheat all those who are unable to protect +themselves. Their business is based upon false weights and measures, +and on adulteration. In the end, they spoil every business they enter +upon, just as they have done the tea trade in their own country, +and the tobacco and indigo trade in the Philippines. + +They require to be closely looked after, and should be made to pay +special taxes, which they can well afford. + +Some of the Chinese become converts, not that their mean and sordid +souls are in any degree susceptible to the influence of the Christian +religion, but in order to obtain material advantages. + +They hope to be favoured in business, and to be able to get a Christian +wife, which otherwise might not be easy; for although a Visayas woman +does not disdain a Chinaman, she would not care to marry a heathen. + +In any case, the Chinaman most likely remains a heathen at heart, +and if he returns to China he becomes a renegade. + + + + + + +CHAPTER XL + +THE POLITICAL CONDITION OF MINDANAO, 1899. + + Relapse into savagery--Moros the great danger--Visayas + the mainstay--Confederation of Lake Lanao--Recall of + the Missionaries--Murder and pillage in Davao--Eastern + Mindanao--Western Mindanao--The three courses--Orphanage + of Tamontaca--Fugitive slaves--Polygamy an impediment to + conversion--Labours of the Jesuits--American Roman Catholics + should send them help. + + +The present condition of the island is most lamentable. Nothing could +be more dreadful; robbery, outrage and murder are rampant. Every evil +passion is let loose, and the labour of years has been lost. Mindanao, +which promised so well, has relapsed into savagery, as the direct +consequence of the Spanish-American war, and the cession of the +Archipelago to the United States. + +It should be understood that Spain, far from drawing any profit from +Mindanao, has, on the contrary, expended annually considerable sums, +derived from the revenues of Luzon and Visayas, in maintaining a +squadron of gunboats to police the seas, and keep down piracy, in +building and garrisoning forts to suppress the slave-trade, and in +assisting the missionaries to attract the heathen, by providing them +with seeds, implements of husbandry, and with clothing, also in giving +them fire-arms and ammunition to protect themselves from the Moros. + +Annuities were paid to friendly Moro dattos as rewards for services +rendered, or as compensation for the cession of some of their rights. + +The Moros have always been the great danger to the peace of the island, +as the Visayas have always been the mainstay of Spanish authority. + +Had it not been for the war with America, the Moros would have been, +by this time, completely subdued. + +Even as it was, half the island was practically free from danger +from them. If you draw a line on the map from Cagayan de Misamis to +the head of the Bay of Sarangani, it will roughly divide the island +into halves. The Moros who lived to the eastward of this line were +pacific, and some thousands of them had been baptized, and had given +up polygamy and slave-trading. + +Had they risen in arms--which was not at all likely--they could have +been put down by the Visayas militia under the local authorities. + +To the west of this line, until quite lately, the Spanish garrisons +dotted along the banks of the Rio Grande from Polloc and Cotta-bato to +Piquit and Pinto, dominated the Moro dattos of that region, and nearly +joined hands with the forts and garrisons on the rivers running into +the Bay of Macajalar. + +The only remaining seat of the Moro power was the country around Lake +Lanao, where the dattos had formed the Illana confederation to resist +the advances of the Christians. + +This lake has never been surveyed, and no two maps agree on its size, +shape or position. It is, however, known to be very different from +the other large lakes in Mindanao, which are shallow, whilst this, +on the contrary, is deep; in some places, three or four fathoms will +be found close in shore. At Lugud and Tugana the banks are steep. + +There are five or six islands in it; the largest is called Nuza. It +is high and flat-topped, situated near the middle of the lake, and +on it are five hundred houses. + +The length of the lake may be about 14 miles, and its greatest breadth +about the same. + +There is a road all round it, reported to be in good condition for +vehicles, except at Taraca, where the ground is soft. This road may be +about fifty miles long, and is said to have houses on both sides of it +nearly all the way. The accompanying sketch, from D. Jose Nietos' map, +shows forty-three towns clustered round the lake, but in reality it is +only one vast town, and the names are those of districts or parishes, +each under the rule of a datto. The Sultan lives at Taraca. + +The land about the lake is very fertile, and is cultivated by the +slaves. + +The produce is of excellent quality, and the Moros not only supply +themselves, but export annually about 1000 tons of rice, and 900 tons +of coffee. + +The River Agus, which drains the lake, is not navigable. + +Although it has a great body of water, the impetuosity of the current, +rushing amongst rocks, forms dangerous rapids. + +The surface of the lake must be considerably above the sea-level. + +The approaches to the northern end of the lake on both sides of the +river were defended by many cottas, or forts. Most of those were +taken and destroyed by the Spanish forces in 1894-96, but they are +now probably being rebuilt. + +Half-way between the lake and the Bay of Iligan stands Fort Weyler, +which had a strong garrison of infantry, cavalry, artillery and +engineers, and was impregnable to any Moro attack. To the south of +the lake, on the shores of Illana Bay, stand Forts Corcuera and Baras, +whilst to the westward, between Illana Bay and Panguil Bay, lie four +forts across the narrow isthmus called Alfonso XIII., Infanta Isabel, +Santas Paz, and Eulalia and Maria Cristina. + +These, with the trocha, or military road of Tucuran, cut off the +Illano Moros from communication with their brethren of Sibuguey, +or with their former victims, the Subanos. + +Further to the northward, Fort Almonte kept watch over the quondam +pirates of the Liangan River. + +These forts and posts were garrisoned by nearly 3000 regular troops, +all natives, except the artillery (see List of Posts in Mindanao, +p. 386), and in addition a field force of several thousand men, +also of the regular army, was encamped at Ulama, Pantar, and other +places to the north of the lake, and three small steam-vessels had +been transported overland in sections, and launched upon the lake. + +Thus everything was ready for the final blow, for the Moros were +completely hemmed in by Spanish garrisons or Jesuit reducciones; +but the breaking out of the Tagal insurrection, in 1896, obliged +General Blanco to withdraw, not only the field army, but to reduce +the garrisons in order to hold Manila and Cavite until the Peninsular +troops could arrive. + +Later on, the war between the United States and Spain, and the +immediate destruction of the Spanish naval forces by the American +squadron, caused the Spanish authorities to sink the flotilla in +the lake, to abandon all the posts on the north coast of Mindanao, +the trocha of Tucuran, and all the forts on the Rio Grande, +and to concentrate their whole force at Zamboanga, leaving the +recently-converted heathen and the missionaries to defend themselves +against the Moros as best they could. + +The missionaries of the district of Cotta-bato have taken refuge in +Zamboanga, fearing to fall into the hands of the Moros, who would exact +a heavy ransom for their delivery. As for the hundreds of liberated +slave children, both girls and boys, who were gathered together under +the protection of the missionaries at the asylum of Tamontaca, they +are doubtless once more in the hands of the cruel Moros of Lake Lanao; +some, perhaps, have been sold by these wretches to the heathen tribes +for twenty or thirty dollars each, to be offered up as sacrifices to +Tag-busan, the god of war of the Manobos, or to Dewata, the sanguinary +house-god of the Guiangas. + +The missionaries of the north of Mindanao were recalled by the Father +Superior to Manila; but in some of the towns the native converts +and Visayas have detained them by force, and keep a watch on them to +prevent their escape. They treat them well, and allow them to exercise +their ministry. + +As there are no Moros in that part of the island, the missionaries +are not in danger, for they are much beloved by their converts, +whose only desire is to keep them amongst them. + +The district of Davao has been, like other localities, the scene of +murder and pillage since the withdrawal of the Spanish authorities. At +midnight of February 6th, the bad characters and outlaws of the chief +town, under the leadership of Domingo Fernandez, a native of Zamboanga, +and formerly interpreter and writer in the office of the Governor +of Davao, rose in arms, and attacked the house of Don Bonifacio +Quidato, sub-lieutenant of the local militia. They cut his throat, +and bayoneted his wife as she lay in her bed. They then attacked all +the well-to-do people of the place, committing many barbarous acts, +and plundering their houses. + +Most of the Spanish residents escaped from the town in a lorcha, and, +after a terrible voyage of sixteen days, suffering from hunger, and +undergoing many severe privations, arrived in Zamboanga more dead +than alive. The veteran missionary, Father Urios, and three other +Spaniards, could not escape, and remained in the power of the bandits. + +This is only one instance of what is going on all over the island. In +the words of one who knows the country well, Mindanao has become a +seething hell, and is in a condition more dreadful than ever before +in historic times. + +But amongst these various tribes, Christian or heathen, there is said +to be one subject, and one only, upon which they all agree. They have +combined to resist by force the American invasion. If it is attempted +to conquer them by force of arms, it will be a difficult, a tedious, +and a costly operation--a campaign far more sickly than that now +proceeding in the arable lands around Manila, where the ground is hard, +the country very level, and where field-guns can be taken anywhere +during the dry season. It is my belief that, if skilfully handled, +half the island--the eastern half--could be pacified without war, +although, no doubt, gangs of bandits would have to be destroyed; +but this could be done by the Visayas and the converts, organised as +a militia, and paid whilst on active service. + +But this pacification requires the assistance of the missionaries. They +are not likely to give that assistance unless terms are made with them, +and one of those terms will surely be that they shall be allowed to +continue their beneficent work unhindered and unvexed. + +So the United States Government is confronted with a dilemma. Either +they must shoot down the new Christians, to introduce and enforce +freedom of worship which the converts do not want, and cannot +understand, or they must negotiate with the Jesuits for them to use +their influence to pacify the island, and thus subject themselves +to the abuse and the outcry such a proceeding will bring upon them +from the divines and missionaries of Protestant sects, and from their +political opponents. + +As for the western half of the island, a part may be pacified with the +help of the missionaries, but military operations on a considerable +scale will be required there sooner or later against the Moros of +Lake Lanao. + +This would be a holy war, a war of humanity, and I would say to +the Americans: Look back on the deeds of your forefathers, on the +days when your infant navy covered itself with imperishable glory, +when it curbed the insolence of the Bashaw of Tripoli, the Bey of +Tunis, and the Dey of Algiers, teaching all Europe how to deal with +Mediterranean pirates. Inspire yourselves with the Spirit of Decatur +and his hero-comrades whose gallant deeds at Tripoli earned Nelson's +praise as being "the most bold and daring act of the age," and do not +hesitate to break up this last community of ex-pirates and murderous +slave-hunters. + +The Moros of Lake Lanao could be simultaneously attacked from north and +south. In 1894, the Spaniards attacked by the north, and transported +all their artillery and stores and their small steamers built in +sections, by paths on the eastern side of the River Agus. Some of +the Moros remained neutral in that campaign. Such were the Dattos of +Lumbayangin and Guimba. Their cottas were spared. The distance in a +straight line from the mouth of the Agus near Iligan to the lake is +fifteen miles. + +The path winds a good deal, and the country is hilly, wooded on the +heights, and intersected by streams. There is a path on the west +bank of the Agus, the country there is more open, and a large part +of it is under cultivation. A good outfit of mountain-guns would be +required on this northern expedition. + +The other attack could be made from the south, the forces landing at +Fort Baras, or at Lalabuan. From either of these places there is what +in the Philippines is called a road to Ganasi at the southern end of +the lake. The distance in a straight line is about twenty miles. The +two roads join at about half way, just before coming to the cotta of +Kurandangan in the Sultanate of Pualas. + +This road is reported to have no steep gradients, no boggy parts, +and no unfordable streams. The country is fairly open, as there is +no thick forest, but only scrub and cogon, or elephant grass. From +a description given by a Tagal who traversed this road, it appears +to be practicable for field artillery. The combined attack, north and +south, could be supported by an advance from the eastward of irregular +forces of the Monteses from the reducciones of the Tagoloan, Sawaga +and Malupati Rivers, if they were supplied with arms and ammunition +for this purpose. + +It seems to me that we have here the usual three courses; the fourth, +to do nothing, and allow Moro and Christian to fight it out, would +be unworthy of the United States, or of any civilized government. + +1. Put a stop to slave-hunting and murdering by a military expedition +against the Moro Dattos. + +2. Maintain garrisons to keep the peace and protect the missionaries +and their converts and trust to their efforts to gradually convert +the Moros. + +3. Arm all the Christian towns round about the Moros and organise +the men as local militia, so that they can protect themselves against +Moro aggression. + +All these courses are expensive, the second less expensive than the +first, the third less expensive than the second. + +However, if either the second or third course is adopted, it is very +probable that before long the first course would become imperative, +for the Moros are faithless and treacherous in the extreme, and no +treaty unsupported by bayonets has the least chance of being respected. + +To adopt the second or third course, then, only amounts to putting +off the evil day. + +The missionaries can be of the greatest service in pacifiying the Moros +whenever the power of the dattos is broken and when slavery can be put +an end to. The object of the expedition I have spoken of should not be +to exterminate the Moros, but merely to break the power of the dattos +and pandits, and to free their followers and slaves from their yoke. + +It is generally taken for granted that a Moro cannot be converted, +but this is not the case in Mindanao. Father Jaoquin Sancho, S.J., +informs me that when the political power of the dattos has been +destroyed, their followers have been found ready to listen to the +teachings of the missionaries and beginning by sending their children +to school, then perhaps sanctioning the marriage of their daughters +with Christians, they have finally cast in their lot with the Roman +Catholic Church, not in scores, nor hundreds, but by thousands. He says +that his colleagues baptized in one year after 1892, in the district +of Davao alone, more than three thousand Mahometan Moros. He adds that +their religious receptivity is much greater than that of the heathen +tribes, that once baptized they remain fervent Christians, whilst +the Mandayas, Manobos, Monteses and other heathen are only too apt, +with or without reason, to slip away to the forests and mountains and +resume their nomadic life, their heathen orgies, and human sacrifices. + +I have already spoken of the success of the missionaries on the +Rio Grande and of their industrial and agricultural orphanage at +Tamontacca, where they were bringing up hundreds of children of both +sexes, mostly liberated slaves of the Moros, to be useful members +of society. This noble institution occupied the very spot where the +former Moro Sultan of Tamontacca held his court. + +Two or three more institutions like this, established at points a few +miles distant from Lake Lanao, and protected from aggression on the +part of the Moro, would gradually undermine the power of the Dattos +by affording an asylum to all fugitive slaves attempting to escape +from cruelties of their masters. + +For years past the Spaniards have protected all slaves who have fled +to them from their masters. The Datto Utto applied to General Weyler +to restore to him forty-eight slaves who had taken refuge at a Spanish +fort on the Rio Grande, but Weyler refused, reminding the datto that +he had signed an engagement to keep no slaves, but only free labourers, +who had the right to fix their residence where they pleased. + +I assume that no slaves who seek the shelter of the Stars and Stripes +will ever be sent back again into bondage. + +As a guide to the strength of the expedition which will sooner or +later have to be sent against the Moros of Lake Lanao, I may say that +the total war strength of the Moros of Mindanao was estimated in 1894 +at 19,000 fighting-men, 35 guns, 1896 Lantacas and 2167 muskets or +rifles. (See list, p. 387). + +They have probably since then obtained a large supply of rifles and +ammunition. This traffic in arms should be at once stopped. + +Swords and spears they have in abundance. + +But of these 19,000 men many have submitted to the Spanish rule, +or have become allies of the Spaniards, like the Datto Ayunan, the +Datto Abdul, the Sultan of Bolinson and many others. + +Probably 10,000 men would be the very utmost that the Moros of Lake +Lanao could bring on the field, and only a part of these would have +fire-arms, which they could have little skill in handling. + +They would on no account give battle in the open, but would fight +in the bush, and desperately defend their cottas. They would not +concentrate their forces, for want of transport for their food supply; +besides, the nature of the country would prevent this. + +They could not stop a flotilla from being launched on the lake and +from capturing the islands as a base of operations. + +The flotilla would be operating on inside lines of communication. It +could threaten one side of the lake, and in less than two hours be +landing troops on the opposite side. + +In fact, with a moderate force, their subjugation would not be so +difficult as has often been supposed. + +It should be made clear to the Sacopes and to the slaves that +the war is waged against the Sultans and Dattos, that the people +would have their lives and property and the free exercise of their +religion guaranteed to them, and that the adults should be exempt +from taxation and conscription for the rest of their lives or for +a term of years. Then the resistance would soon slacken, and the +sultans and dattos might be captured. Those who would not conform to +the new condition of things might be allowed to emigrate to Borneo or +elsewhere, but their subjects and slaves should by no means be allowed +to go with them, for they will soon become useful agriculturists and +good Christians, and Mindanao cannot spare them. + +The question of slavery, more especially of slave-concubines, +will require delicate handling, but by adopting a conciliatory but +firm policy, this curse may gradually be got rid of without causing +disturbance or bloodshed. Cranks and faddists should not be allowed +to handle this question, but it should be placed in the hands of some +one well versed in human nature, and a true friend of freedom. + +The wise policy of the British authorities in Zanzibar and Pemba is +well worthy of imitation. + +As happens in Africa, the greatest impediment to the conversion of +the heathen polygamist is the obligation to renounce all his wives +but one. This is a sore trial, more especially when they have paid +a good price for them, or if they are good cooks. + +Father Urios having persuaded a Manobo, who wished to be baptized, +to do this, the man said to him: "Of my two wives I have decided to +keep the elder, but I make a great sacrifice in separating from the +other, for I had so much trouble to obtain her. Her father would only +give her to me in exchange for fifteen slaves. As I did not possess +them, I was obliged to take the field against the timid tribes in an +unknown country, and to capture these fifteen slaves. I was obliged +to fight often, and to kill more than thirty men." + +The illustration represents a scene from the labours of Father Gisbert +amongst the Bagobos. He is exhorting a blood-stained old datto and +his wives and followers to abandon their human sacrifices, exhibiting +to them the image of the crucified Redeemer, whose followers he urges +them to become. + +As regards the maintenance of the missions, I do not for one moment +doubt that the liberality of the Roman Catholics of the United States +is quite equal to the needs of the pioneers of civilisation, who have +laboured with such remarkable success. + +Altogether the Jesuits administered the spiritual, and some of the +temporal affairs of 200,000 Christians in Mindanao. + +They educated the young, taught them handicrafts, attended to the +sick, consoled the afflicted, reconciled those at variance, explored +the country, encouraged agriculture, built churches, laid out roads, +and assisted the Administration. Finally, when bands of slave-hunting, +murdering Moros swept down like wolves on their flocks, they placed +themselves at the head of their ill-armed parishioners and led them +into battle against a ferocious enemy who gives no quarter, with +the calmness of men who, long before, had devoted their lives to the +Master's cause, to whom nothing in this world is of any consequence +except the advancement of the Faith and the performance of duty. + +They received very meagre monetary assistance from the Spanish +Government, and had to depend greatly upon the pious offerings of +the devout in Barcelona and in Madrid. It is to be feared that these +subscriptions will now fall off as Spain has lost the islands; if so, +it is all the more incumbent upon the Roman Catholics of America to +find the means of continuing the good work. + +I feel sure that this will be so--Christian charity will not fail, +and the missions will be maintained. + +For their devotion and zeal, I beg to offer the Jesuit missionaries +my profound respect and my earnest wishes for their welfare under +the Stars and Stripes. + +To my mind, they realise very closely the ideal of what a Christian +missionary should be. Although a Protestant born and bred, I see in +that no reason to close my eyes to their obvious merit, nor to seek to +be-little the great good they have done in Mindanao. Far from doing so, +I wish to state my conviction that the easiest, the best, and the most +humane way of pacifying Mindanao is by utilising the powerful influence +of the Jesuit missionaries with their flocks, and this before it is +too late, before the populations have had time to completely forget +the Christian teaching, and to entirely relapse into barbarism. + + +List of Posts in Mindanao Garrisoned by Detachments of the Native +Army with Spanish Officers in 1894. + + Field Officers. + Officers. + Men. +1st District. + + San Ramon .. 1 12 Infantry. + Santa Maria .. 1 34 Infantry. + Margos-sa-tubig .. 2 60 Infantry. + +2nd District. + Fort Weyler, Mumungan 1 7 321 Infantry. + Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 1 18 Artillery. + Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 2 112 Engineers. + Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 1 30 Cavalry. + Fort Weyler, Mumungan .. 3 158 Disciplinary Battn. + Iligan .. 1 30 Tercio + Civil. + Almonte .. 2 58 Infantry. + Almonte .. .. 8 Artillery. + Almonte .. 1 20 Disciplinary Battn. + Tangok, Alfonso XIII. .. 1 20 Infantry. + Balatacan, Infanta Isabel .. 1 20 Infantry. + Trocha de Tucuran, Sta. Pax + and Sta. Eulalia Maria + Cristina .. 3 150 Infantry. + +Dapitan. + Sundangan .. 1 32 Infantry. + Parang-parang 1 3 500 Infantry. + Parang-parang .. 1 12 Artillery. + Parang-parang .. 2 60 Disciplinary Battn. + Parang-parang .. 3 60 Engineers. + Matabang .. 3 200 Infantry. + Matabang .. .. 10 Artillery. + Baras .. 3 200 Infantry. + Baras .. .. 10 Artillery. + +Sarangani. + Glan .. 2 45 Infantry. + Makra .. 1 32 Infantry. + Balut .. 1 20 Infantry. + Tumanao .. 1 Sergt. 15 Infantry. + +5th District. + Cottabato .. 3 100 Infantry. + Cottabato .. 1 12 Artillery. + Libungan .. 1 Sergt. 12 Infantry. + Tamontaca .. 1 20 Infantry. + Taviran .. 1 22 Infantry. + Tumbao .. 1 60 Infantry. + Kudaranga .. 1 20 Infantry. + Reina Regente .. 3 100 Infantry. + Pikit .. 1 60 Infantry. + 6 Artillery. + Pinto .. .. 60 Infantry. + 6 Artillery. + +Coast. + Pollok .. 1 Sergt. 11 Infantry. + Panay .. 1 11 Infantry. + Lebak .. 1 11 Infantry. + ---- ---- ------ + 2 65 2758 + +This number is exclusive of the garrisons of Zamoanga and Davao. + +Basilan 2 officers, 50 men. + + +Estimate of the Moro Forces in Mindanao in the Year 1894. + + +District. Fighting-men. Guns. Lantacas. Rifles. + +Tucaran 1,000 2 54 162 +Parang-parang 2,500 2 29 117 +Malabang 3,500 1 342 265 +Baras 2,000 4 19 23 +Lake Lanao and +surrounding district 10,000 26 1,452 1,600 + -------- ---- ------- ------- + 19,000 35 1,896 2,167 + + +The fighting-men of the River Pulangui, and the Rio Grande comprised +within the 5th District are not included in this list, as many of +them have submitted to the Spaniards, and there appears little to +fear from them. Only those who are quite independent and war-like, +and who may be considered dangerous have been set down. + + +Population of Mindanao in 1894. + +As given by Jose Nieto Aguilar. + + Districts. Area in Population Christians. Moros. Heathen. + Hectares. Total. + +[31] Zamboanga 2,984,696 17,000 8,000 90,000 115,000 +[32] Misamis + (Dapitan and + Camiguin Is.) 1,098,000 116,000 100,000 20,000 236,000 +[33] Surigao 1,070,190 68,000 8,000 12,000 88,000 + Bislig 441,291 21,076 .. 10,000 31,076 +[34] Davao 1,044,333 1,500 .. 17,300 18,800 + Cotta-bato 2,829,379 4,000 80,000 [35] 120,000 204,000 + ------- ------- ------- ------- + 227,576 196,000 269,300 692,876 + + + + + + +APPENDIX. + +SOME OF THE COMBATS, MASSACRES AND REBELLIONS, DISPUTES AND CALAMITIES +OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. + + +1521. Magellan and several of his followers killed in action by the +natives of Mactan, near Cebu; Juan Serrano and many other Spaniards +treacherously killed by Hamabar, King of Cebu. + +1525. Salazar fights the Portuguese off Mindanao, and suffers great +losses in ships and men. + +1568. Legaspi's expedition attacked in Cebu by a Portuguese fleet, +which was repulsed. + +1570. Legaspi founds the city of Cebu, with the assistance of the +Augustinians. + +1571. Legaspi founds the city of Manila, with the assistance of +the Augustinians. + +1572. Juan Salcedo fights the Datto of Zambales, and delivers his +subjects from oppression. + +1574. Siege of Manila by the Chinese pirate Li-ma-hon with 95 +small vessels and 2000 men. The Spaniards and natives repulse the +attack. The pirates retire to Pangasinan, and are attacked and +destroyed by Juan Salcedo. + +1577. War against Mindanao and Jolo, parts of which are +occupied. Disputes between the missionaries and the military +officers who desire to enrich themselves by enslaving the natives, +which the former stoutly oppose, desiring to convert them, and grant +them exemption from taxes according to the "Leyes de Indias." They +considered the cupidity of the soldiers as the chief obstacle to +the conversion of the heathen. The Crown decided in favour of the +natives, but they did not derive all the benefits they were entitled +to, as the humane laws were not respected by the governors. + +The Franciscans arrived in Manila. + +1580. Expedition sent by Gonzalo Ronquillo to Borneo to assist +King Sirela. + +1581. Expedition sent by the same to Cagayan to expel a Japanese +corsair who had established himself there. The expedition succeeded, +but with heavy loss. + +Expedition against the Igorrotes to get possession of the +gold-mines, but without success. + +The Jesuits arrive in Manila. + +1582. Expedition against the Molucas, under Sebastian Ronquillo. An +epidemic destroyed two-thirds of the expedition, which returned +without accomplishing anything. + +Great disputes between the encomenderos and the friars in consequence +of the ill-treatment of the natives by the former. Dissensions +between the Bishop of Manila and the friars who refused to submit to +his diocesan visit. + +Manila burnt down. + +1584. Second expedition against the Molucas, with no better luck +than the first. + +Rebellion of the Pampangos and Manila men, assisted by some +Mahometans from Borneo. Combat between the English pirate, Thomas +Schadesh, and Spanish vessels. + +Combat between the English adventurer Thomas Cavendish +(afterwards Sir Thomas), and Spanish vessels. + +1587. The Dominicans arrive in Manila. + +1589. Rebellion in Cagayan and other provinces. + +1593. Third expedition against the Molucas under Gomez Perez +Dasmarinias. He had with him in his galley 80 Spaniards and 250 Chinese +galley-slaves. In consequence of contrary winds, his vessel put into +a port near Batangas for shelter. In the silence of the night, when +the Spaniards were asleep, the galley-slaves arose and killed them +all except a Franciscan friar and a secretary. Dasmarinias built the +castle of Santiago, and fortified Manila with stone walls, cast a +large number of guns, and established the college of Sta. Potenciana. + +1596. The galleon which left Manila for Acapulco with rich +merchandise, was obliged to enter a Japanese port by stress of weather, +and was seized by the Japanese authorities. The crew were barbarously +put to death. + +1597. Expedition of Luis Perez Dasmarinias against Cambodia, which +gained no advantage. + +1598. The Audiencia re-established in Manila, and the bishopric +raised to an archbishopric. + +Expedition against Mindanao and Jolo, the people from which were +committing great devastations in Visayas, taking hundreds of captives. + +Much fighting, and many killed on both sides, without any +definite result. + +1599. Destructive earthquake in Manila and neighbourhood. + +1600. Great sea combat between four Spanish ships, commanded by +Judge Morga, and two Dutch pirates. One of the Dutchmen was taken, +but the other escaped. + +Another destructive earthquake on January 7th, and one less violent, +but long, in November. + +1603. Conspiracy of Eng-Cang and the Chinese against the +Spaniards. The Chinese entrench themselves near Manila; Luis Perez +Dasmarinias marches against them with 130 Spaniards. They were all +killed and decapitated by the Chinese, who then besieged Manila, and +attempted to take it by assault. Being repulsed by the Spaniards, +all of whom, including the friars, took up arms, they retired to +their entrenchments. They were ultimately defeated, and 23,000 of +them were massacred. Only 100 were left alive, and these were sent +to the galleys as slaves. + +1606. The Recollets arrive in Manila. + +Fourth expedition against the Molucas. Pedro de Acuna, having received +a reinforcement of 800 men--Mexicans and Peruvians--attacked and took +Ternate, Tidore, Marotoy and Herrao, with all their artillery and +provisions. He left 700 men in garrison there, and returned to Manila, +dying a few days after his arrival. The Augustinians furnished a +galleon for this expedition. It was commanded by the Rev. Father +Antonio Flores. + +1607. Revolt of the Japanese living in and near Manila, and heavy +losses on both sides. + +1609. Arrival of Juan de Silva with five companies of Mexican +and Peruvian infantry. Attack on Manila by a Dutch squadron of five +vessels. They were beaten off with the loss of three of their ships. + +1610. Unsuccessful expedition against Java. This was to have been +a combined attack on the Dutch by Portuguese and Spaniards, but +the Spanish squadron did not arrive in time to join their allies, +who were beaten by the Dutch fleet in the Straits of Malacca. + +Terrific earthquake in Manila and the eastern provinces. + +1616. Violent eruption of the Mayon volcano. + +1622. Revolt of the natives in Bohol, Leyte and Cagayan, which were +easily suppressed. + +1624. The Dutch landed on Corregidor Island, but were beaten off. + +1627. August. Great earthquake. + +1628. Destructive earthquake in Camarines. + +1638. Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera makes an attack on the Moros +of Mindanao, and conquers the Sultanate of Buhayen and island of +Basilan. He also defeats the Joloans. + +1639. Insurrection of Chinese in the province of Laguna and in +Manila. Out of 30,000, 7000 ultimately surrendered. All the rest were +massacred by the Tagals. + +1640. The Dutch attacked the Spanish garrisons in Mindanao and +Jolo. The governor-general, fearing they might attack Manila, withdrew +the garrisons from the above places to strengthen his own defences, +thus leaving the Moros masters of both islands. + +1641. Eruption of the Taal volcano. Violent earthquake in Ilocos. + +1645. The Dutch attacked Cavite and other ports, but were repulsed. + +Rebellion of the Moros in Jolo, and of the natives of Cebu and other +provinces, who were oppressed by forced labour in building vessels, +and other services. + +In these years there were great disputes between the Spaniards of the +capital and the friars. + +Great earthquake in Manila, 30th November, called St. Andrew's +earthquake. + +1646. Long series of strong earthquakes, which began in March with +violent shocks, and lasted for sixty days. + +1648. Great earthquakes in Manila. + +1653. Great devastations by the Moros of Mindanao, which were +severely punished. + +Rebellion in Pampanga and Pangasinan against being forced to cut +timber gratuitously for the navy. Suppressed after a serious +resistance. + +1658. Destructive earthquake in Manila and Cavite. + +1662. The Chinese pirate, Cong-seng, demands tribute from the +Governor of the Philippines. A decree is issued ordering all Chinamen +to leave the Philippines. The Chinese entrench themselves in the +Parian, and resist. Thousands were killed, and 2000 who marched into +Pampanga were all massacred by the natives. + +Great troubles occurred between the governor, Diego de Salcedo, +and the archbishop. + +1665. 19th June, violent and destructive earthquake in Manila. + +1669. During the government of Manuel de Leon, further troubles +occurred between the archbishop and the Audiencia. The archbishop +was banished, and sent by force to Pangasinan. But a new governor, +Gabriel de Cruzalegui, arrived, and restored the archbishop, who +excommunicated the dean and chapter. + +1675. Destructive earthquake in South Luzon and Mindoro. + +1683. Great earthquake in Manila. + +1689. Archbishop Pardo having died, was succeeded by P. Camacho, +and now great disorders arose from his insisting on making the diocesan +visit, which the friars refused to receive, and would only be visited +by their own Provincial. Again Judge Sierra required the Augustinians +and Dominicans to present the titles of the estates they possessed +in virtue of a special commission he had brought from Madrid, which +they refused to obey, and the end of the dispute was that Sierra was +sent back to Mexico, and another commissioner, a friend of the friars, +was appointed, to whom they unofficially exhibited the titles. + +1716. Destructive eruption of the Taal volcano, and violent +earthquake in Manila. + +1717. Fernando Bustillo Bustamente became governor, and +re-established garrisons in Zamboanga and Paragua. He caused various +persons who had embezzled the funds of the colony to restore them, +imprisoning a corrupt judge. He was assassinated by the criminals he +had punished, and nothing came of the inquiry into his death. + +1735. Earthquake in Baler, and tidal wave. + +At this time, the audacity of the Moro pirates was incredible. They +ravaged the Visayas and southern Luzon, and carried away the +inhabitants by thousands for slaves. The natives began to desert the +coast, and take to the interior. Pedro Manuel de Arandia, obeying +repeated orders, decreed the expulsion of the Chinese. + +1744. Another rising in Bohol, due to the tyranny of a Jesuit priest +named Morales. The chief of this rising was a native named Dagohoy, +who put the Jesuit to death, and maintained the independence of +Bohol, paying no tribute for thirty-five years. When the Jesuits +were expelled from the Philippines, Recollets were sent to Bohol, +and the natives submitted on receiving a free pardon. + +1749. Eruption of the Taal volcano, and earthquake in Manila. The +eruption lasted for twenty days. + +1754. Violent eruption of the Taal volcano, which began on 15th +May, and lasted till the end of November. This was accompanied +by earthquakes, an inundation, terrifying electrical discharges, +and destructive storms. The ashes darkened the country for miles +round, even as far as Manila. When the eruption ceased, the stench +was dreadful, and the sea and lake threw up quantities of dead fish +and alligators. A malignant fever burst out, which carried off vast +numbers of the population round about the volcano. + +1762. A British squadron, with troops from India, arrived in the +bay 22nd September, and landed the forces near the powder-magazine of +S. Antonio Abad. On the 24th, the city was bombarded. The Spaniards +sent out 2000 Pampangos to attack the British, but they were repulsed +with great slaughter, and ran away to their own country. + +The civil population of Manila were decidedly in favour of resisting +to the last drop of the soldiers' blood; but the soldiers were not at +all anxious for this. Confusion arose in the city, and whilst +recriminations were in progress, the British took the city by assault, +meeting only a half-hearted resistance. + +The natives immediately began plundering, and were turned out of the +city by General Draper. The Chinese also joined in the robbery, and a +few were hanged in consequence. The city was pillaged. The British +regiments are said to have behaved well, but the sepoys ravished the +women, and killed many natives. + +Cavite was about to be surrendered, but as soon as the native troops +there knew what was going on, they began at once to plunder the town +and arsenal. + +1763. A British expedition sailing in small craft took possession +of Malolos on January 19th, 1763. The Augustin and Franciscan friars +took arms to defend Bulacan, where two of them were killed in action. + +It was said that the Chinese were conspiring to exterminate the +Spaniards. Simon de Anda, the chief of the war-party amongst the +Spaniards, issued an order that all the Chinese in the Philippines +should be hanged, and this order was in a great measure carried +out. This was the fourth time the Spaniards and natives exterminated +the Chinese in the Philippines. + +Peace having been made in Europe, the British evacuated Manila +in March, 1774. + +In order to satisfy their vanity, and account for the easy victory +of the British, the Spaniards made various accusations of treachery +against a brave Frenchman named Falles, and a Mexican, Santiago de +Orendain. Both those men gallantly led columns of Pampangos against +the British lines in the sortie before mentioned. Although the +Pampangos, full of presumption, boldly advanced against the British +and sepoys, they were no match for disciplined troops led by British +officers, and were hurled back at the point of the bayonet. The +inevitable defeat and rout was made a pretext for the infamous charges +against their leaders. It may be asked, Was there no Spaniard brave +enough to lead the sorties, that a Frenchman and a Mexican were +obliged to take command? + +The Spaniards in this campaign showed themselves more at home in +making proclamations, accusations, and intriguing against each other, +than in fighting. However, the friars are exempt from this reproach, +for Augustinians, Dominicans and Franciscans, fought and died, and +shamed the soldiers. + +No less than ten Augustinians fell on the field of battle, nineteen +were made prisoners, and twelve were banished. The British are said +by the Augustinians to have sacked and destroyed fifteen of their +conventos, or priests' houses, six houses of their haciendas, and to +have sold everything belonging to them in Manila. The Augustinians +gave their church bells to be cast into cannon for the defence of +the islands. + +Spaniards and natives, however, showed great unanimity and enthusiasm +in massacring or hanging the unwarlike Chinamen, and in pillaging their +goods. Nearly all the Chinese in the islands, except those in the parts +held by the British, were killed. + +During the Anglo-Spanish war there were revolts of the natives in +Pangasinan and in Ilocos, then a very large province (it is now divided +into four), but both these risings were suppressed. The same happened +with a revolt in Cagayan. Disturbances also occurred in many other +provinces. + +Simon de Anda became Governor-General, and carried out the expulsion of +the Jesuits from the Philippines. Great troubles again occurred between +the Archbishop and the friars over the diocesan visit. + +1766. 20th July, violent eruption of the Mayon volcano. + +23rd October, terrible typhoon in Albay, causing enormous destruction +of life and property. + +1777. Jose Basco y Vargas, a naval officer, came out as +Governor-General, and found the country overrun with banditti. He made +a war of extermination against them, and then initiated a vigorous +campaign against the Moros. He repaired the forts, built numbers of +war vessels, and cut up the pirates in many encounters. Basco governed +for nearly eleven years. + +1784. During the government of Felix Marquina, a naval officer, the +Compania de Filipinas was founded to commence a trade between Spain and +the Philippines. Marquina was succeeded by Rafael Maria de Aguilar, +an army officer, who organized the land and naval forces, and made +fierce war on the Moros. He governed the islands for fourteen years. + +1787. Violent and destructive earthquake in Panay. + +1796. Disastrous earthquake in Manila. + +1800. Destructive eruption of the Mayon volcano. + +1807. Rebellion in Ilocos. + +When the parish priest of Betal, an Augustinian, was preaching to his +flock, exhorting them to obedience to their sovereign, a woman stood +up in the church and spoke against him, saying that they should not +believe him, that his remarks were all humbug, that with the pretence +of God, the Gospel, and the King, the priest merely deceived them, so +that the Spaniards might skin them and suck their blood, for the +priests were Spaniards like the rest. However, the townsmen declared +for the King, and took the field under the leadership of the priest. + +1809. The first English commercial house established in Manila. + +1811. Rebellion in Ilocos to change the religion, nominating a +new god called Lungao. The leaders of this rebellion entered into +negotiations with the Igorrotes and other wild tribes to exterminate +the Spaniards, but the conspiracy was discovered and frustrated. + +1814. Rebellion in Ilocos and other provinces. + +Prisoners released in some towns in Ilocos. This rebellion was in +consequence of General Gandaras proclaiming the equality of races, +which the Indians interpreted by refusing to pay taxes. + +1st February, violent earthquake in south Luzon and destructive +eruption of the Mayon volcano. Astonishing electrical discharges. + +A discharge of ashes caused five hours' absolute darkness, through +which fell showers of red hot stones which completely burnt the towns +of Camalig, Cagsana, and Budiao with half of the towns of Albay and +Guinchatau, and part of Bulusan. + +The darkness caused by the black ashes reached over the whole of Luzon, +and even to the coast of China. So loud was the thunder that it was +heard in distant parts of the Archipelago. + +Great epidemic of cholera in Manila. + +1820. Massacre of French, English, and Americans in Manila by the +natives who plundered their dwellings, after which they proceeded with +the fifth massacre of the Chinese. They asserted that the Europeans had +poisoned the wells and produced the cholera. The massacre was due to +the villainous behaviour of a Philippine Spaniard named Varela, who was +Alcalde of Tondo, equivalent to Governor of Manila, and to the criminal +weakness and cowardice of Folgueras the acting governor-general, who +abstained from interference until the foreigners had been killed, +and only sent out troops when forced by the remonstrances of the +friars and other Spaniards. + +The archbishop and the friars behaved nobly, for they marched out in +procession to the streets of Binondo, and did their best to stop the +massacre, whilst Folgueras, only attentive to his own safety, remained +with the fortifications. + +1822. Juan Antonio Martinez took over the government in +October. Folgueras having reported unfavourably of the officers of +the Philippine army, Martinez brought with him a number of officers +of the Peninsular army to replace those who were inefficient. + +This caused a mutiny of the Spanish officers of the native army, and +they murdered Folgueras in his bed. He thus expiated his cowardice in +1820. The mutiny was, however, suppressed, and Novales and twenty +sergeants were shot. Novales' followers had proclaimed him Emperor of +the Philippines. The constitution was abolished by Martinez, without +causing any rising. + +1824. Destructive earthquake in Manila. + +Alonzo Morgado appointed by Martinez to be captain of the Marina Sutil, +commenced an unrelenting persecution of the piratical Moros, causing +them enormous losses. + +1828. Another military insurrection, headed by two brothers, +officers in the Philippine army. + +From this date Peninsular troops were permanently maintained in Manila, +which had never been done before. + +1829. Father Bernardo Lago, an indefatigable missionary of the +Augustinian Order, with his assistants baptised in the provinces of +Abra and Benguet more than 5300 heathen Tinguianes and Igorrotes, +and settled them in towns. + +1834. Foreign vessels allowed to enter Manila by paying double dues. + +1836-7. Great disturbances amongst the natives in consequence of +the ex-claustration of the friars in Spain. The natives divided into +two parties. One wished to turn out the friars and all Spaniards, +the others to turn out all Spaniards except the friars, who were to +remain and take charge of the government. + +The disturbances were ultimately smoothed over. + +1841. Marcelino de Oraa being Governor-General, a sanguinary +insurrection burst out in Tayabas, under the leadership of a native, +Apolinario de la Cruz. He murdered the Alcalde of the province, and +persuaded his fanatical adherents that he would make the earth open +and swallow up the Spanish forces when they attacked. + +His following was composed of 3000 men, women, and children. They were +attacked by four hundred soldiers and as many cuadrilleros and +coast-guards, and suffered a crushing defeat, and a third of them were +slain. + +Apolinario de la Cruz was apprehended, and immediately put to death. + +Apolinario called himself the "King of the Tagals," and told his +followers that a Tagal virgin would come down from Heaven to wed him, +that with a handful of rice he could maintain all who followed him, +and that the Spanish bullets could not hurt them, and many other +absurd things. His followers declared that he had signified his +intention, in case of being victorious, to tie all the friars and other +Spaniards to trees, and to have them shot by the women with arrows. + +There lay in garrison at Manila at this time a regiment composed of +Tagals of Tayabas, and they also mutinied, and were shot down by +the other troops. + +1844. Royal order prohibiting the admission of foreigners to the +interior of the country. + +Narciso de Claveria became Governor-General, and organised a police +force called the Public Safety for Manila, and similar corps for the +provinces. Up to this time the Alcaldes Mayores of provinces had been +allowed to trade, and, in fact, were almost the only traders in their +provinces, buying up the whole crop. This forced trade is quite a +Malay custom, and is practised in Borneo and the Malay States under +the name of Serra-dagang. + +The Alcaldes Mayores used to pay the crown one third, or half, or all +their salary for this privilege, and took in return all they could +squeeze out of their provinces without causing an insurrection, or +without causing the friars to complain of them to the Government, for +the parish priests were ever the protectors of the natives against the +civil authority. This privilege of trading was now abolished as being +unworthy of the position of governor of a province. + +1851. Expedition by the Governor-General Antonio de Urbiztondo +against Jolo. The force consisted of four regiments, with artillery, +and a battalion of the inhabitants of Cebu, under the command of a +Recollet friar, Father Ibanez. These latter behaved in the bravest +manner, in fact they had to; for their wives, at the instance of the +priest, had sworn never to receive them again if they turned their +backs on the enemy. + +The undaunted Father Ibanez led them to the assault, and lost his life +in the moment of victory. Eight cottas (forts), with their artillery +and ammunition, were captured by this expedition, and a great number +of Moros were killed. + +After this the Jolo pirates abated their insolent attacks. Claveria +made an expedition against the piratical Moros and seized their island +of Balanguingin, killing 400 Moros, and taking 300 prisoners, also +rescuing 200 captives. He also captured 120 guns and lantacas, and +150 piratical vessels. This exemplary chastisement tranquillised the +Moros for some time. + +1853. 13th June. Loud subterranean noises in Albay and eruption of +the Mayon volcano. Fall of ashes and red-hot stones which rolled down +the mountain and killed thirty-three people. + +1854. Insurrection in Nueva Ecija under Cuesta, a Spanish mestizo +educated in Spain, where Queen Isabela had taken notice of him. + +He arrived in Manila with the appointment of Commandant of Carabineros +in Nueva Ecija, and immediately began to plot. The Augustine friars +harangued his followers and persuaded them to disperse, and Cuesta was +captured and executed, with several other conspirators; others were +banished to distant islands. + +In this year Manuel Crespo became Governor-General, and a military +officer, named Zapatero, endeavoured to strangle him in his own office. + +1855. Strong shocks of earthquake in all Luzon. Eruption of the +Mayon volcano. + +1856. In the latter part of this year a submarine volcanic explosion +took place at the Didica shoal, eight miles north-east of the island +of Camiguin in the Babuyanes, to the north of Luzon. It remains an +active volcano, and has raised a cone nearly to the height of the +volcano of Camiguin, which is 2414 feet high. + +1857. The old decrees against foreigners renewed. + +Fernando de Norzagaray became governor-general, and found the country +over-run by bandits, against whom he employed severe measures. He +greatly improved Manila. + +The French in Cochin-China, finding more resistance than they expected, +appealed to Norzagaray for help. He lent them money, ships, and about +a thousand native troops, who behaved with great bravery during the +campaign. + +1860. Ramon Maria Solano succeeded to the Government. + +In this year two steam sloops and nine steam gunboats were added to +the naval forces, and now the Moros could only put to sea running +great risks of destruction. + +These nine gunboats were the greatest blessings the Philippines +had received for many years. + +1861. Jose de Lemery y Ibarrola, Governor-General. Mendez-Nunez, +with the steam sloops and gunboats, inflicted terrible chastisement +on the piratical Moros. + +1862. Rafael de Echague y Bermingham became Governor-General. + +Second visitation of cholera in the islands, but not so severe +as in 1820. + +1863. Terrible earthquake in Manila and the surrounding country, +causing thousands of victims, destroying the cathedral, the palace +of the governor-general, the custom houses, the principal churches +(except St. Augustine), the public and private buildings, in fact, +reducing the city to a ruin. + +At this time the steam gunboats continually hostilised the Moros of +Jolo, and caused them great losses. + +1865. Juan de Lara y Irigoyen became Governor-General, and +took measures to subdue the bandits, who were committing great +depredations and murders. Hostilities continued in Jolo, as the Moros +had recommenced their piratical cruises. + +1866. Frequent earthquakes in Manila and Benguet. + +At this time the Treasury was in the greatest difficulty, and could +not meet the current payments. A large quantity of tobacco was sold +to meet the difficulty. + +1867. Jose de la Gandara y Navarro became Governor-General. To him +is due the credit of creating that excellent institution the Guardia +Civil, which has extirpated the banditti who infested the islands +for so many years. + +An expedition was sent against the Igorrotes, but without effecting +anything of consequence. + +1868. June 4th. Intense earthquake in the island of Leyte. + +1869. Carlos Maria de la Torre became Governor-General, and was not +ashamed to publish a proclamation offering the bandits a free pardon if +they presented themselves within three months. Hundreds and thousands +of men now joined the bandits for three months murder and pillage, with +a free pardon at the end of it. This idiotic and cowardly proclamation +was most prejudicial to the interests of the country. Finally a special +corps, called La Torre's Guides, was organised to pursue the bandits. + +1871. Rafael Izquierdo y Guttierez became Governor-General, and +raised the excellent corps called La Veterana to act as the police +of the capital. + +December 8th, eruption of the Mayon volcano, and discharge of ashes +and lava. Two persons smothered, and one burnt. + +16th February. Commencement of the series of earthquakes which +preceded the frightful volcanic eruption in the island of Camiguin +on 30th April. Full details of this terrible event are preserved. A +volcanic outburst took place on the above date at 344 metres from +the town of Cabarman, and near the sea. Great volumes of inflammable +gases were ejected from deep cracks in the neighbouring hills, +which presently took fire, and soared in flames of incredible height, +setting fire to the forests. The wretched inhabitants who had remained +in their houses found themselves surrounded by smoke, steam, water, +ashes, and red hot stones, whilst their island seemed on fire, and they +had sent away all their seaworthy craft with the women and children. + +At first the volcanic vent was only two metres high, but it continually +increased. + +After the eruption, the earthquakes decreased, and on 7th May entirely +ceased. + +The volcano gradually raised itself by the material thrown out to a +height of 418 metres. + +1872. Military revolt in Cavite, in which the native clergy were +mixed up. A secret society had been working at this plot for several +years, and was very widely extended. It inundated the towns of the +Archipelago with calumnious and libellous leaflets in the native +languages. The conspiracy coincided with the return of the Jesuits in +accordance with a Royal Order, and their substitution for the Recollets +missionaries in many parishes in Mindanao. In turn, the Recollets, +removed from Mindanao, were given benefices in Luzon which, for one +hundred years, had been in the hands of the native clergy, who were, +in consequence, very dissatisfied, and great hatred was aroused +against the Recollets. The mutiny was suppressed by the Spaniards +and the Visayas troops, who bayoneted the Tagals without mercy, +even when they had laid down their arms. + +Besides many who were shot for complicity in this revolt, three native +priests--D. Mariano Gomez, D. Jacinto Zamora, and D. Jose Burgos--were +garrotted in Bagumbayan on the 28th February. Much discussion arose +about the guilt or innocence of these men, and it is a matter on which +friars and native clergy are never likely to agree. + +Later on, a rising took place in Zamboanga penal establishment, but +this was put down by the warlike inhabitants of that town, who are +always ready to take up arms in their own defence, and are very loyal +to Spain. + +Loud subterranean noises in Albay. Eruption of the Mayon volcano, which +lasted for four days. + +1873. Juan de Alaminos y Vivar became governor-general. + +The ports of Legaspi, Tacloban and Leyte, were opened to foreign +commerce. + +November 14, 1873, violent earthquake in Manila. Eruption of the +Mayon volcano, from 15th June to 23rd July. + +1874. Manuel Blanco Valderrama, being acting governor-general, +fighting took place in Balabac, where the Spanish garrison was +surprised by the Moros. Jose Malcampo y Monge, a rear-admiral, took +over the government of the islands, and, during his administration, +the news of the proclamation of Alfonso XII, as King of Spain was +received, and gave great satisfaction in Manila, which had never +taken to the Republican Government in Spain. + +Malcampo led a strong expedition, consisting of 9000 men, against the +Moros, and took Jolo by assault, after bombarding the Cottas by the +ships' guns. At the end of his time, the regiment of Peninsular +Artillery had become demoralised, and its discipline very lax. Finally, +the soldiers refused to obey their officers, and broke out of barracks. + +Two of them were shot dead by the officer of the guard at the +barrack-gate, Captain Brull, but the affair was hushed up, and +no one was punished. Discipline was quite lost. + +1877. Great devastation by locusts in province of Batangas. Domingo +Moriones y Murillo arrived, and took over the government on 28th +February. His first act was to shoot a number of the Spanish mutineers, +put others in prison, and send back fifty to Spain in the same vessel +with Malcampo. This incident is related in greater detail in Chapter +III. The Treasury was in the greatest poverty, and the poor natives of +Cagayan obliged to cultivate tobacco and deliver it to the government +officials, had not been paid for it for two or three years, and were +actually starving. Moriones did what he could for them, and strongly +insisted on the abolition of the "estanco." + +To this worthy governor, Manila and the Philippines owe much. He +insisted on the legacy of Carriedo being employed for the object +it was left for, instead of remaining in the hands of corrupt +officials. + +He also made good regulations against rogues and vagabonds. + +1879. Nov. 8th. Violent typhoon passed over Manila, doing much +damage. + +July 1st. Commencement of earthquakes in Surigao (Mindanao), which +lasted over two months. + +1880. Fernando Primo de Rivera became Governor-General, 15th April. + +On July 14th, a violent earthquake took place, doing enormous damage +in the city of Manila and the central provinces of Luzon. The seismic +disturbance lasted till the 25th July. The inhabitants of Manila were +panic-stricken, and took refuge in the native nipa houses. + +General Primo de Rivera made an expedition against the Igorrotes, and +the vile treatment the soldiers meted out to the Igorrote women has +delayed for years the conversion of those tribes. + +1881. Eruption of the Mayon volcano, which began on July 6th, +and lasted till the middle of 1882. + +At times there were loud subterranean noises, after which the flow of +lava usually increased. + +1882. Dreadful epidemic of cholera which, in less than three months, +carried off 30,000 victims in the city and province of Manila. In the +height of the epidemic the deaths reached a thousand a day. The victims +were mostly natives, but many Spaniards died of the disease. Only +one Englishman died, and this was from his own imprudence. A typhoon +passed over Manila on October 20th, and caused great damage on shore +and afloat. Twelve large ships and a steamer were driven on shore, +or very seriously damaged. + +On November 5th, another typhoon, not quite so violent as the first, +took place. After this, the cholera almost entirely stopped. On +December 31st, another typhoon occurred. + +1883. Joaquin Jovellar y Soler, captain-general in the army, and +the pacificator of Cuba, assumed the government 7th April, and was +received with great show of satisfaction by the Spaniards. + +The old tribute of the natives was replaced by the tax on the +Cedulas-personales. + +During his time there were threats of insurrection, and additional +Peninsular troops were sent out. He resigned from ill-health +1st April, 1885. + +October 28th. Typhoon passed over Manila. + +1885. Emilio Terrero y Perinat assumed the government of the islands +on April 4th. + +He conducted successful expeditions against the Moros of Mindanao +and Jolo. + +In the month of May, during the great heat, the River Pasig was covered +with green scum from the lake. The water was charged with gas, the fish +and cray-fish died, and the stench was overpowering, even at a couple +of miles distance from the river. + +A huge waterspout was formed in the bay, and passed inland. + +November. Death of King Alfonso XII., and mourning ceremonies in +all the islands. + +October 2nd. Eruption of the Taal volcano. + +1886. 5th March. Separation of the executive and judicial +powers. Appointment of eighteen civil governors instead of +alcaldes--mayores of provinces. Very great inconvenience occurred +through the delay in sending out the Judges of First Instance, and +the duties were, in some cases, temporarily performed by ignorant +persons devoid of any legal training. + +11 P.M., 2nd April, an enormous flaming meteor traversed the sky, +travelling from E. to W., and when about the zenith it split into two +with a loud explosion, the pieces diverging at an angle of perhaps +45 deg.; they fell, apparently, at a great distance, producing a violent +concussion like a sharp shock of earthquake. + +24th April. Attack by bandits on the village of Montalban. Two of +them were killed by the Guardia Civil. + +8th July. Eruption of the Mayon volcano in Albay. It continued to +discharge ashes and lava, bursting out into greater violence at times +till the middle of March, 1887. + +March 19th. Don German Gamazo, Minister for the Colonies, lays before +the Queen-Regent, for her approbation, the project of the General +Exhibition of the Philippines, to be held in Madrid in 1887. In it +he says:-- + +"By this we shall bring about that the great sums of money which are +sent from the metropolis to purchase in foreign countries cotton, +sugar, cacao, tobacco, and other products, will go to our possessions +in Oceania, where foreign merchants buy them up, with evident damage +to the material interests of the country." + +When it is considered that the freight from Manila to Barcelona in the +subsidised Spanish Royal Mail steamers was considerably higher than +that charged in the same steamers to Liverpool, that enormous duties +were charged in Spain on sugar and hemp, which enter British ports +duty free, and that British capital was advanced to the cultivators +to raise these very crops, the idiotic absurdity and contemptible +hypocrisy of such a statement may be faintly realised by the reader. + +In May the mud of the Pasig became permeated with bubbles of gas, and +floated to the surface. On May 23rd, the writer witnessed several +violent explosions of fetid gas smelling like sulphuretted hydrogen +from the mud of the Pasig at Santa Ana. + +June 7th. Triple murder committed at Canacao by a Tagal from +jealousy. + +20th May. Three days' holiday and public rejoicings ordered in +honour of the birth of the King of Spain (Alfonso XIII.). + +1887. January 3rd. Troops embarked in Manila for the expedition +against the Moros of Mindanao under General Terrero. + +March 5th. The United States warship Brooklyn arrived in Manila. + +July 14th. The Penal Code put in force in the Philippines. + +December 3rd. The Civil Code put in force in the Philippines. + +1888. March 1st. A petition is presented to the Acting Civil +Governor of Manila by the Gobernadorcillo and Principales of Santa +Cruz, praying for the expulsion of the religious orders and of the +Archbishop, the secularization of all benefices, and the confiscation +of the estates of the Augustinians and Dominicans. See Chapter VI. + +December 15th. Violent eruption of Mayon volcano with subterranean +noises, storms, thunder and lightning. Don Valeriano Weyler, Marques +de Tenerife, became governor-general. + +1890. Agrarian disturbances occurred at Calamba and Santa +Rosa between the tenants on the Dominicans' estates and the lay +brother in charge. During this year there was a great increase +of secret societies. A woman admitted as a mason. A woman's lodge +established. See Chapter IX. + +February 21st. Violent eruption of the Mayon. + +February 24th. Several explosions occurred at the summit, discharging +showers of white-hot bombs. About 100 metres of the top toppled +over. Many of the inhabitants of the neighbouring towns fled to +a distance. + +1891. Don Emilio Despujols, Conde de Caspe, became +governor-general. See Chapter III. + +1893. Doroteo Cortes banished to the Province of La Union, other +malcontents banished to different localities. + +October 3rd. Eruption of the Mayon and explosion of volcanic +bombs. Loud subterranean noises and deafening thunder. + +A vast column of smoke ascended to the sky, from which proceeded +violet-coloured lightning. + +The eruption lasted till the end of October. + +1894. May. The Datto Julcainim, with seventy armed Moros from Sulu, +landed in Basilan Island to recover tribute from the natives, but +was sent back by a Spanish gunboat. + +1896. August 30th. Tagal insurrection broke out near Manila and in +Cavite Province. See Chapter X. + +1897. June 25th. Violent and disastrous eruptions of the +Mayon. Complete destruction of the villages San Antonio, San Isidro, +Santo Nino, San Roque, Santa Misericordia, and great damage to other +places by the incandescent lava. A dreadful tempest destroyed houses +and plantations in places where the lava did not reach. About 300 +people were either killed outright or died of their wounds. Fifty +wounded persons recovered. + +1898. March 24th. Revolt of the famous Visayas or 74th Regiment +at Cavite. + +March 25th. Massacre of the Calle Camba. + +April 24th. Meeting at Singapore between Aguinaldo and the United +States' Consul, Mr. Spencer Pratt. + +April 26th. Aguinaldo proceeds to Hong Kong. + +May 1st. Naval battle of Cavite. Destruction of the Spanish squadron +and capture of Cavite Arsenal by the Americans. + +May 19th. Aguinaldo and seventeen followers land at Cavite from +the United States' vessel Hugh McCullough, and are furnished with +arms by Admiral Dewey. + +May 24th. Aguinaldo proclaims a Dictatorial Government. + +June 23rd. He issues a manifesto claiming for the Philippines a +place, if a modest one, amongst the nations. + +August 6th. He sends a message to foreign powers claiming +recognition. + +August 13th. The American troops enter Manila, the Spaniards making +only a show of resistance. + +August 14th. The capitulation signed. General Merritt issues his +proclamation establishing a military government. + +August 15th. General McArthur appointed military commandant of the +Walled City and Provost-Marshal-General of the city and suburbs. + +September 29th. General Aguinaldo makes a speech at Malolos to +the Philippine Congress, the keynote of which was independence: +"The Philippines for the Filipinos." + +October 2nd. The Peace Commission holds its preliminary meeting +in Paris. + +November 13th. The insurgents invest Ilo-ilo. Fighting proceeding +in other parts of Visayas between Spaniards and natives. + +December 10th. The Peace Commission signs the Treaty. Don Felipe +Agoncillo, representative of the Philippine Government, hands in a +formal protest, of which no notice is taken. + +December 24th. The Spaniards evacuate Ilo-ilo. + +December 26th. The insurgents occupy the city. The Spaniards evacuate +all the southern island stations except Zamboanga. The Philippine +Congress at Malolos adjourns. + +December 29th. New Philippine cabinet formed; all the members +pledged to independence. + +President of Congress and Minister for Foreign Affairs, Senor Mabini; +Secretary for War, Senor Luna; Interior, Senor Araneta; Agriculture +and Commerce, Senor Buencamino; Public Works, Senor Canon. + +1899. January 5th. The Washington officials announce that they +"expect a peaceful adjustment." [Blessed are they who expect nothing.] + +President McKinley instructs General Otis to extend military +government with all dispatch to the whole ceded territory. + +January 8th. Protest of Aguinaldo against the Americans. + +January 12th. General Otis telegraphs to the War Department that +conditions are apparently improving. + +Other dispatches represent the situation as daily growing more acute. + +January 16th. A telegram was received at Washington from General +Otis, of so reassuring a character regarding the position at Manila +and Ilo-ilo, that the government officials accept without question +the correctness of his statement, that the critical stage of the +trouble there is now past and that he controls the situation. + +A commission nominated by President McKinley, consisting of +Dr. Schurman, President of Cornell University; Professor Worcester +of Michigan University, and Mr. Denby. + +January 21st. The Philippine constitution is proclaimed at Malolos. + +February 4th. Fighting between Filipinos and Americans began at +Santa Mesa 8.45 P.M., and continued through the night. + +February 5th. Fighting continued all day and ended in the repulse +of the Filipinos with heavy loss. + +General Otis wires: "The situation is most satisfactory, and +apprehension need not be felt." + +February 6th. The U.S. Senate ratifies the Peace Treaty with Spain +by 57 to 27. + +Senator Gorman in the course of the debate expressed his belief +that the battle at Manila was only the beginning. If the treaty was +ratified war would follow, lasting for years, and costing many lives, +and millions upon millions of money. + +[Senator Gorman makes a better prophet than General Merritt or +Mr. Foreman.] + +February 8th. General Otis wires: "The situation is rapidly +improving. The insurgent army is disintegrating, Aguinaldo's influence +has been destroyed." + +February 10th. The Americans attack and capture Calocan. President +McKinley signs the Treaty. + +February 11th. Ilo-ilo captured by General Miller without loss, +but a considerable part of the town was burned. + +February 18th. The American flag hoisted at Bacolod in Negros Island, +opposite Ilo-ilo. + +February 22nd. Tagals attempt to burn Manila, setting fire +simultaneously to the Santa Cruz, San Nicolas, and Tondo. Sharp +fighting at Tondo. Many natives were burned while penned in by the +cordon of guards. + +February 23rd. The Americans burned all that remained of +Tondo. General Otis issued an order requiring the inhabitants to +remain in their homes after 7 P.M. + +March 13. Oscar F. Williams does not expect to live to see the +end of the war. This is the man who on July 2nd, 1898, "hoped for an +influx that year of 10,000 ambitious Americans," who he said could +all live well and become enriched. See Chapter XVIII. + +Since the American occupation three hundred drinking saloons have +been opened in Manila. + +March 19th. Urgent instructions sent from Washington to Generals +Otis and Lawton to hasten the end. + +March 24th. Engagement at Marilao--the Filipinos are defeated. + +New York Times says the situation is both surprising and painful +to the American people. + +March 31st. The Americans occupy Malolos which the Filipinos had +set on fire, after some skirmishing. + +April 1st. Troops resting at Malolos. + +The ironclad Monadnock was fired on by Filipinos artillery at +Paranaque (three miles from Manila), and replied silencing the +guns on shore. + +April 20th. A column of General Lawton's force, 140 strong, +surrounded and captured by the Filipinos near Binangonan. + +April 23rd. Fighting at Quingua. Col. Stotsenburg killed. This was +a severe engagement. + +April 26th. Americans capture Calumpit. Washington "profoundly +relieved." + +April 27th. Fighting near Apalit. + +April 30th. General Otis believes that the Filipinos are tired of +the war. + +May 1st. Anniversary of the Battle of Cavite. + +May 2nd. Conference between Filipino envoys and General Otis with +the American Civil Commissioners. + +General Lawton captures Baliuag. + +May 12th. The Nebraska Regiment petitions General McArthur to relieve +them from duty, being exhausted by the campaign. Since February 4th, +the regiment has lost 225 killed and wounded, and 59 since the fight +at Malolos. + +May 18th. Filipino peace delegates enter General Lawton's lines at +San Isidro. + +May 20th. Admiral Dewey leaves Manila in the Olympia. + +May 22nd. The U.S. Civil Commission received Aguinaldo's Peace +Commissioners, and explained to them President McKinley's scheme +of Government. + +May 29th. Aguinaldo reported dead. + +May 30th. The authorities at Washington admit that more troops are +needed for Manila. + +June 1st. Mr. Spencer Pratt obtains an interim injunction in the +Supreme Court, Singapore, against the sale of Mr. Foreman's book, +"The Philippine Islands." + +June 5th. Skirmishing in the Laguna district. An attempt by the +Americans to surround Pio del Pilar fails. + +June 13th. A Filipino battery at Las Pinas, between Manila and +Cavite, consisting of an old smooth bore gun and two one-pounders +open fire on the American lines. A battery of the 1st Artillery, +the ironclad Monadnock, and the gunboat Helena directed their fire +upon this antiquated battery, and kept it up all the morning. + +A correspondent remarks, "This was the first real artillery duel +of the war." + +This developed into one of the hardest fights in the war, the +Filipinos made a determined stand at the Zapote bridge. + +Reports arrive that General Antonio Luna had been killed by some +of General Aguinaldo's guards. + +June 16th. The Filipinos attack the Americans at San Fernando and +are repulsed with heavy loss. + +Mr. Whitelaw Reid, addressing the Miami University of Ohio, denounces +the President's policy, or want of policy, in the Philippines. + +June 19th. American troops under General Wheaton march through +Cavite Province. + +June 21st. General Miles describes the situation at Manila as +"very serious." + +June 26th. Twelve per cent. of the American forces sick. Little +can now be attempted as the rainy season is now on. + +June 27th. General Otis reports that the Filipinos have no civil +government. + +June 28th. It is stated that General Otis will have 40,000 men +available for active operations after the rainy season. + +July 12th. General Otis asks for 2500 horses for the organisation +of a brigade of cavalry after the rainy season. + +The entire staff of correspondents of the American newspapers protest +against the methods of General Otis in exercising too strict a +censorship over telegrams and letters. They say, "We believe that, +owing to the official despatches sent from Manilla and published in +Washington, the people of the United States have received a false +impression of the situation in the Philippines, and that these +despatches present an ultra-optimistic view which is not shared by +general officers in the field." + +July 20th. The rainfall at Manila since 1st June has been 41 inches +and the country is flooded. + +July 23rd. Mr. Elihu Root nominated to succeed Mr. Alger as Secretary +for War. + +July 27th. General Hall's division captures Calamba on the lake. + +August 1st. Mr. Root sworn in as Secretary for War. He contemplates +increasing General Otis' available force to 40,000 men. + +August 15th. General McArthur's force captures Angeles. + +August 17th. Orders issued at Washington to form ten additional +regiments to serve in the Philippines. General Otis to have 62,000 +men under his command. + +August 23rd. General Otis applies the Chinese Exclusion law to +the Philippines. + +August 24th. The Moros sign an agreement acknowledging the +sovereignty of the United States over the entire Philippine Islands. + +The Moros of Western Mindanao are asking for permission to drive out +the insurgents. + +August 28th. President McKinley makes a speech to the 10th +Pennsylvanian Regiment lately arrived from Manila. See Chapter XII. + +September 1st. Fighting in Negros, American successes. + +September 14th. U.S. cruiser Charleston engages a gun mounted by +the Filipinos at Olongapo, Subic Bay, and fired sixty-nine shells +from her 8-inch guns without silencing the gun, notwithstanding that +the Filipinos used black powder. + +September 18th. Some of the U.S. Civil Commission had already +started to return; remainder leave. + +September 23rd. A U.S. squadron, consisting of the Monterey, +Charleston, Concord and Zafiro, bombarded the one-gun battery of +the Filipinos at Olongapo for six hours, and then landed 250 men who +captured and destroyed the gun which was 16-centimetre calibre. + +General Otis, in an interview, is reported to have stated that "Things +are going very satisfactorily." + +September 28th. General McArthur captures Porac. + +September 30th. General Aguinaldo releases fourteen American +prisoners. They looked well and hearty, and it was evident that they +had been well treated. + +October 8th. General Schwan advanced against Noveleta and encountered +a heavy resistance, but ultimately took the town and next day occupied +Rosario. + +October 18th. War now said to be beginning in its most serious +phase. The American troops, men and officers, said to be thoroughly +discouraged by the futility of the operations ordered by General +Otis. They feel that their lives are being sacrificed without anything +being accomplished. + +October 28th. 17,000 sick and tired soldiers have been sent home +and replaced by 27,000 fresh men. 34,000 are on the way or under +orders. Total will be 65,000 men and forty ships of war. + +October 31st. General Otis reports to the War Department that the +continuance of the rainy season still harasses the prosecution of +the campaign. + +Count Almenas, speaking in the Spanish Senate, said that through the +ignorance of the Peace Commission the Batanes Islands, Cagayan Sulu, +and Sibutu were not included in the scope of the treaty. + +November 7th. General Wheaton, with an American force lands at San +Fabian [Pangasinan] and marches towards Dagupan, driving the Filipinos +before him. + +November 13th. Tarlac captured by the Americans under Colonel +Bell. Telegrams from Manila state, "A careful review of the situation +made on the spot justifies the prediction that all organised hostile +operations on a definite plan are at an end." + +November 14th. The U.S. cruiser Charleston lost on the Guinapak +rocks to the north of Luzon, and the crew land on Camiguin Island. + +November 28th. The province of Zamboanga [Mindanao] said to have +surrendered unconditionally to the commander of the gunboat Castine. + +December 20th. General Lawton shot by the insurgents at San Mateo +whilst personally directing the crossing of the river by two battalions +of the 29th U.S. infantry. + +1900. January 20th. The Filipinos capture a pack train of twenty +ponies in the Laguna Province. American losses, two killed, five +wounded, nine missing. + +February 15th. American newspapers report many cases of insanity +amongst the U.S. soldiers. + +February 20th. General Otis signifies to the War Department his +desire for leave of absence from Manila to recruit his health. + +March 30th. The bubonic plague, extending in Luzon, and appears +in other islands of the Archipelago. Cases suspected to be leprosy +reported amongst the U.S. troops. + +Independent reports represent the situation in the Philippines +as most unsatisfactory. The islands are practically in a state +of anarchy. + +April 6th. The War Department issues an order recalling General +Otis, because his work has been accomplished, and appoints General +McArthur in his place. + +May 1st. Judge Canty, of Minnesota, makes a report upon the condition +of the Philippines. + +He says: "All the native tribes, except a small band of Macabebes and +the Sulu Mahometans, are against us, and hate the Americans worse +than the Spaniards.... The American soldiers are undergoing terrible +hardships, and are a prey to deadly tropical diseases." + +June 2nd. General McArthur asks for more troops, and at least three +regiments are to be sent. + +June 14th. Rear-Admiral Raney cables for another battalion of +marines. + +June 15th. Macaboulos, a Filipino chieftain, surrenders at Tarlac +with 8 officers and 120 riflemen. + +June 17th. A regiment of infantry and a battery of artillery embark +at Manila for China. + +June 19th. It is reported that, in all, 5000 men are to be sent +from Manila to China. + +June 20th. But to-day, the idea prevails in Washington that, under +present conditions, every soldier in the Philippines is needed there. + +July 27. Negotiations are being carried on between Spain and the +United States for the cession by the former to the latter of the +Sibutu and Cagayan Islands on payment of a sum of $100,000. + +August 4th. The Filipinos kill or capture a lieutenant of Engineers +and fifteen soldiers. + +August 8th. Miss Margaret Astor Chanler, who was engaged in Red +Cross work in Manila, declares that the hospitals are inadequate. This +is confirmed by the Washington correspondent of the World. He says +3700 men are now in hospital, and large numbers are unable to find +accommodation. Thousands who are down with fever and other diseases +are without doctors or medical supplies. Eight per cent. of the entire +force is incapacitated. + +August 15th. The Filipinos reported to be gaining ground. + +The cost of the war said to be nearly L40,000,000, 2394 deaths, +3073 wounded. There are said to be still 70,000 American troops in +the Philippines. The "goodwill" of the war cost L4,000,000. + +August 19th. Censored news despatches from Manila show that the +Filipinos are increasing their activity, and scorn the offers of +amnesty. + +September 1st. The Civil Commission in the Philippines, presided +over by Judge Taft, assumes the direction of the Government. Judge +Taft reports that the insurrection is virtually ended, and that a +modus vivendi is established with the ecclesiastical authorities! + +September 3rd. General McArthur cables that an outbreak has occurred +in Bohol, and that in an engagement near Carmen the Americans lost +1 killed and 6 wounded, and the Filipinos 120 killed. + +September 6th. The estimated cost of the Philippines to America is +estimated at three-quarters of a million dollars per day. + +September 12th. The first public legislative session of the Civil +Commission was held. Two million dollars (Mexican) were voted for +the construction of roads and bridges, $5000 for the expenses of a +preliminary survey of a railroad between Dagupan and Benguet, and +$5400 towards the expenses of the educational system. + +September 17th. General McArthur cables that Captain McQuiston, +who had become temporarily insane, shot a number of men of his +company. The others, in self-defence, shot and killed the captain. + +September 20th. The Civil Commission reports that large numbers of +the people in the Philippines are longing for peace, and are willing +to accept the government of the United States. + +General McArthur cables reports of fighting in the Ilocos Provinces, +from whence General Young telegraphs for reinforcements, also in +Bulacan, and in Tayabas. + +A desperate engagement is fought in the Laguna Province, where the +Americans made an attack upon the Filipino positions, and were repulsed +with heavy loss, including Captain Mitchell and Lieutenant Cooper. + +The Filipinos are constantly harassing and attacking the +American outposts and garrisons around Manila, and have caused fourteen +casualties amongst the troops. + + + + + CUSTOMS DUES ON EXPORTS, 1896-97. + + Articles. Tax per 100 kilos + Gross Weight. + + $ cts. + + Hemp or cordage 0.75 + Indigo 0.50 + Tintarron liquid indigo 0.05 + Rice 2.00 + Sugar 0.10 + Cocoa-nuts or copra 0.10 + Tobacco in cigars or cigarettes 3.00 + Tobacco in leaf from the provinces of + Cagayan, Isabela, and Nueva Vizcaya + in Luzon 3.00 + Tobacco in leaf from Visayas and Mindanao 2.00 + Tobacco in leaf from any other province 1.50 + + Estimated receipts from above tax in the + financial year 1896-97 $1,292,550 + + + + + + EXTRA IMPORT TAX ON CONSUMABLE ARTICLES. + + (This is in addition to the Customs dues.) + + $ cts. + + Spirits In barrels or demijohns per litre 0.20 + In bottles or flasks per litre 0.30 + Beer 0.10 + Vegetables or fruits, dried or green per kilog. 0.02 + Wheat flour per 100 kilog. 0.50 + Common salt per 100 kilog. 1.00 + Petroleum and mineral oils per 100 kilog. 1.00 + + Estimated receipts from above tax in the + financial year 1896-97 $301,000 + + + + + +EXPORT STATISTICS. + + +16 piculs = 1 ton of 20 cwt.; 8 bales hemp = 1 ton of 20 cwt.; +1 quintal = 100 lbs. Spanish, or about 1013/4 English. + ++-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| | | | | | | | | | | | | | +| | Sugar. |Hemp. | Copra. |Coffee.|Cordage.|Sapan-wood.|Hides and|M.-o'-P.| Gum. | Indigo. | Tobacco |Cigars.| +| | | | | | | |Cuttings.|Shells. | | | Leaf. | | ++-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| | Piculs. |Bales. | Piculs. |Piculs.|Piculs. | Piculs. | Piculs. |Piculs. |Piculs.|Quintals.|Quintals.| Mil. | +| {Manila |1,500,139|571,047| .. |107,236| 1,985| 12,006| 32,658| 184| 5,276| 4,639| 204,592|109,109| +|1888 {Cebu | 267,100| 90,385| | | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|1,197,851| .. | Small | .. | .. | 93,575| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+quantities+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |2,965,090|661,432| only |107,236| 1,985| 105,581| 32,658| 184| 5,276| 4,639| 204,592|109,109| +|-------------+---------+-------+ shipped. +-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| {Manila |1,565,668|475,638| No | 92,993| 1,487| 17,965| 7,701| 387| 7,326| 3,545| 203,085|120,532| +|1889 {Cebu | 187,791| 92,933| records | | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|1,748,049| .. | kept. | .. | .. | 60,739| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+ +-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |3,501,508|568,571| .. | 92,993| 1,487| 78,704| 7,701| 387| 7,326| 3,545| 203,085|120,532| +|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| {Manila | 874,088|449,606| 74,447| 76,756| 3,141| 21,934| 6,300| 501| 3,016| 374| 179,054|109,636| +|1890 {Cebu | 55,280| 56,549| | | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|1,431,054| .. | .. | .. | .. | 22,635| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |2,360,422|506,155| 74,447| 76,756| 3,141| 44,569| 6,300| 501| 3,016| 374| 179,054|109,636| +|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| {Manila |1,174,374|546,854| 245,309| 45,917| 2,403| 17,051| 5,439| 452| 4,168| 2,039| 195,925| 93,248| +|1891 {Cebu | 140,200| 88,693| | | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|1,357,685| .. | .. | .. | | 52,886| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |2,672,259|635,547| 245,309| 45,917| 2,403| 69,937| 5,439| 452| 4,168| 2,039| 195,925| 93,248| ++-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| {Manila |1,089,054|702,228| 259,539| 21,242| 1,762| 29,634| 6,032| 507| 5,005| 5,894| 253,850|138,389| +|1892 {Cebu | 294,220| 88,280| | | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|2,571,989| .. | .. | .. | | 36,277| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |3,955,263|790,508| 259,539| 21,242| 1,762| 65,911| 6,032| 507| 5,005| 5,894| 253,850|138,389| +|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| {Manila |1,712,059|561,391| 184,304| 4,910| 2,251| 53,319| 6,145| 671| 3,638| 940| 230,686|137,458| +|1893 {Cebu | 271,400| 80,080| | | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|2,203,523| .. | .. | .. | | 25,376| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |4,186,982|641,471| 184,304| 4,910| 2,251| 78,695| 6,145| 671| 3,638| 940| 230,686|137,458| +|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| {Manila |1,577,523|661,550| 512,729| 9,502| 1,787| 43,368| 5,236| 347| 1,788| 1,025| 191,706|137,877| +|1894 {Cebu | 163,172|119,721| | | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|1,369,507| .. | .. | .. | | 26,124| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |3,110,202|781,271| 512,729| 9,502| 1,787| 69,492| 5,236| 347| 1,788| 1,025| 191,706|137,877| +|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| {Manila |1,729,625|749,777| 549,319| 3,099| 2,938| 25,034| 6,714| 1,730| 4,044| 6,672| 233,702|146,372| +|1895 {Cebu | 209,352| 89,212| 44,352| | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|1,719,115| .. | .. | .. | | 11,100| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |3,658,092|838,989| 593,671| 3,099| 2,938| 36,134| 6,714| 1,730| 4,044| 6,672| 233,702|146,372| +|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| {Manila |1,563,477|669,778| 558,509| 1,421| 3,484| 12,930| 7,127| 204| 2,803| 462| 219,640|185,017| +|1896 {Cebu | 106,228| 86,818| 49,200| | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|1,957,099| .. | .. | .. | | 35,300| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |3,626,804|756,596| 607,709| 1,421| 3,484| 48,230| 7,127| 204| 2,803| 462| 219,640|185,017| ++-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| {Manila | 811,059|835,067| 765,026| 2,111| 3,786| 17,325| 11,081| 689| 4,029| 251| 287,161|171,410| +|1897 {Cebu | 247,110| 80,271| 46,414| | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|2,051,113| .. | .. | .. | .. | 51,300| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |3,109,282|915,338| 811,440| 2,111| 3,786| 68,625| 11,081| 689| 4,029| 251| 287,161|171,410| +|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| {Manila | 251,169|510,958| 252,840| 176| 72| 5,102| 3,648| 261| 1,122| 206| 175,170|103,707| +|1898 {Cebu | 159,469|235,597| 10,562| | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|2,449,023| 46,051| .. | .. | .. | 51,610| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |2,859,661|792,606| 263,402| 176| 72| 56,712| 3,648| 261| 1,122| 206| 175,170|103,707| +|-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| {Manila | 80,374|437,751| 215,819| 784| 183| .. | 6,226| 517| 2,840| 2,578| 114,261|111,646| +|1899 {Cebu | 210,780|148,049| 66,282| | | | | | | | | | +| {Ilo-ilo|1,197,700| 14,938| 9,221| .. | .. | 5,700| | | | | | | +| +---------+-------+----------+---- --+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ +| Total |1,488,854|600,738|[1]291,322| 784| 183| 5,700| 6,226| 517| 2,840| 2,578| 114,261|111,646| ++-------------+---------+-------+----------+-------+--------+-----------+---------+--------+-------+---------+---------+-------+ + +[1] Value $1,600,000. The copra comes from Laguna, Tayahas, Albay, +Samar, Leyte and Mindanao, and the bulk of it goes to Marseilles, +some to Liverpool, a little to Spain and Italy. + + + + + + + + +VALUE OF LAND. +MANILA-DAGUPAN RAILWAY. + + +First Section--Manila to San Fernando. + + First sub-section, Manila to Polo. + Second sub-section, Polo to Guiguinto. + Third sub-section, Guiguinto to Calumpit. + Fourth sub-section, Calumpit to San Fernando. + + +Second Section--San Fernando to Tarlac. + + First sub-section, San Fernando to Angeles. + Second sub-section, Angeles to Bamban. + Third sub-section, Bamban to Capas. + Fourth sub-section, Capas to Tarlac. + + +Third Section--Tarlac to Dagupan. + + First sub-section, Tarlac to Panique. + Second sub-section, Panique to Moncada. + Third sub-section, Moncada to Bayambang. + Fourth sub-section, Bayambang to San Carlos. + Fifth sub-section, San Carlos to Dagupan. + + + + + +AN ESTIMATE OF THE POPULATION OF THE PHILIPPINES IN 1890. + + +Peninsular Spaniards, including the garrisons, friars, +officials and private persons. 14,000 +Spaniards born in the islands. 8,000 +Spanish mestizos 75,000 +Foreigners of white races 2,000 +Foreign mestizos 7,000 +Chinese 125,000 +Chinese mestizos 500,000 +Moros of Mindanao, Jolo, Tawi-tawi, Basilan, Balabac, and +other islands 600,000 +Heathen in all the archipelago--Igorrotes, Manobos, +Subanos, Monteses, Ibilaos, Aetas, Ifugaos, etc., etc. 800,000 +Christian natives 5,869,000 + --------- +Total 8,000,000 + + +The above is taken from a pamphlet called 'Filipinas' Fundamental +Problem,' by a Spaniard long resident in those islands, published in +Madrid, 1891, by D. Luis Aguado. The pamphlet itself is a violent +attack on Rizal and those who sympathised with him, and holds out +as the only remedy against insurrection the encouragement of Spanish +immigration on an extensive scale. + + + + + + + +ESTIMATE OF PHILIPPINE INCOME AND EXPENDITURE, 1896-97. + + + $ +Direct Taxes-- + +Property tax, $140,280; industrial and commercial tax, +$1,400,700; cedulas personales, [37]$5,600,000; +capitation tax on Chinese, $510,190; acknowledgment of +vassalage from outlaws and heathen, $20,000; tax of 10 +per cent. on railway fares, $32,000; various surtaxes, +$63,000; tax of 10 per cent. on the pay of employes +paid by local funds, $80,000; tax of 10 per cent. on +the pay of employes paid by the State, $650,000 8,496,170 + +Custom House-- + +Imports, $3,600,000; exports, [38]$1,292,550; loading +tax, $410,000; unloading, $570,000; trans-shipment, +$1000; warehousing, $4000; fines, surtaxes, etc., +$22,000; tax on consumable goods, [39]$301,000 6,200,550 + +Monopoly-- + +Opium contract (farmed out) [40] 576,000 + +Stamps-- + +Stamped paper, do. for fines, for bills of exchange, +post office stamps, patent medicine stamps, stamps for +telegrams, receipts, signatures, passports, less +$200,000 paid to Bolmao and Hong Kong Cable Co., etc. 646,000 + +Lottery-- + +Profits of the Manila lottery, licenses for raffles, +etc. 1,000,000 + +Crown Property-- + +Rents of mining claims, $2000; royalties on forest +produce, $170,000; sale of Crown lands, of buildings, +and fines 257,000 + +Miscellaneous-- + +Unexpended balances, $50,000; produce of convict labour, +$4000; sale of buildings and stores of War Department and +Navy, $3800; profits on coining money, $200,000; sundry +receipts, $40,500 298,300 + + Total [41]$17,474,020 + + + + $ +General charges-- + +Ministry of the Colonies, Court of Audit, expenses of +Fernando Po, civil, military and naval pensions, interest +on savings bank deposits, passages of Government employes 1,507,900 + +State-- + +Diplomatic and consular expenses 74,000 + +Grace and Justice-- + +Courts of Justice, register of property, gaols, the +clergy, missionaries, public worship, passages of +missionaries, college for missionaries 1,896,277 + +Army-- + +Pay and allowances, provisions, forage, clothing, +war-like stores, invalids, orphans, extraordinary +credit for the campaign in Mindanao ($624,680) 6,042,442 + +Treasury-- + +Central administration, mint at Manila, provincial +administration, pay and allowances of corps of +carbineers (custom house guards), cost of selling +stamped paper, of collecting taxes, of working the +lottery 1,393,184 + +Navy-- + +Pay and allowances, victualling and clothing, material +for the station, for the squadron, material for the +arsenal ($1,260,652) 3,566,528 + +Civil Service-- + +Colonial Secretary (pay and allowances), Governor- +General, civil governors, political and military +governors, council of administration, the Guardia +Civil, post office, telegraph, health officers of +ports 2,198,350 + +Education and public works-- + +Technical schools, nautical do. of drawing, painting, +sculpture and engraving, university, normal school, +observatory of Manila ($20,000 per annum), pay and +allowances of engineers and assistants of public +works, of the woods and forests, of mines, and of the +model farms 615,198 + + Total 17,293,879 + + +N.B.--Expenditure on Army and Navy $9,608,970, considerably more than +half the total revenue. + + + + + + + +Value of Land. + + +Official valuation of land required for the construction of the +Manila-Dagupan Railway. The expropriation commenced in 1888 and +continued up to end of 1892, and the prices paid were far in excess +of estimate. + ++-------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +| | First Section. | Second Section. | Third Section. | ++-------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +| Sub-section | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | 5. | ++-------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +| From kil. | 0 | 13.8| 29.2| 45.8| 60.7| 75.5| 90.5|107.3|116.5|134.6|149.2|162.9|179.3| +| To ,, | 13.8| 29.2| 45.8| 60.7| 75.5| 90.5|107.3|116.5|134.6|149.2|162.9|179.3|192.3| ++-------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +| | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | $ | +|Water meadows or irrigated rice land |480 |240 |240 |240 |220 |200 |120 |100 | 88 | 80 |100 |140 |180 | +|Rice lands (dry), 1st class |200 |192 |180 |168 |120 |108 | 40 | 40 | 40 | 32 | 48 | 72 | 80 | +| ,, 2nd class |168 |160 |160 |152 | 72 | 60 | 24 | 24 | 24 | 16 | 28 | 40 | 44 | +|Cane fields, 1st class |272 |240 |260 |100 | 80 | 60 | 28 | 20 | 20 | 16 | 32 | 40 | 48 | +| ,, 2nd class |200 |160 |192 | 80 | 56 | 40 | 20 | 12 | 12 | 8 | 20 | 28 | 32 | +|Stony land near the sea |140 |120 | | | | | | | | | | | | +|Buyo (betel) plantations |240 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 72 | 72 | +|Nipa palm groves | 88 | 80 | 72 | 60 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 24 | +|Mangrove swamp | 76 | 60 | 48 | 32 | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 12 | 16 | +|Gardens and building lots |200 |180 |180 |160 |100 | 88 | 32 | 28 | 28 | 20 | 32 | 48 | 56 | +|Forest land | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 10 | 6.4| 4 | 2.4| 1.6| 4 | 4 | | +|Bush land | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 8 | 4.8| 2.4| 1.6| 1.6| 2.4| | | +|Pasture | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | .. | 12 | 10 | | | | | | ++-------------------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + + +Price is given in Mexican dollars per acre. + + + + + +CARDINAL NUMBERS IN SEVEN DIALECTS. + + + Peninsula Luzon. Borneo. North + and Three Dayak Dialects. Borneo. + Islands. + + Malay. Tagal. Pampango. Sabuyan. Lara. Salakan. Ida'an. + + 1 Satu. Isa. Isa or metung. Sat. Asa. Asa. Iso or san. + 2 Dua. Dalaua. Adua. Dua. Dua. Dua. Duo. + 3 Tiga. Tatlo. Atlu. Tiga. Taru. Talu. Telo. + 4 Ampat. Apat. Apat. Ampat. Apat. Ampat. Apat. + 5 Lima. Lima. Lima. Lima. Rima. Lima. Limo. + 6 Anam. Anim. Anam. Anam. Unum. Anam. Anam. + 7 Tujoh. Pito. Pitu. Tujoh. Ijo. Tujoh. Turo. + 8 Dulapan. Ualo. Ualu. Lapan. Mahi. Delapan. Walo. + 9 Sumbilan. Siam. Siam. Sambilan. Pire. Sambilau. Siam. +10 Sa'puloh. Sang puot. Apulu. Sapulo. Sapuloh. Sapuloh. Opod. + + + + + + +London: Printed by William Clowes and Sons, Limited, Stamford Street +and Charing Cross. + + + + + + + + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] England has 51,000 square miles area; Wales, 7378; Ireland, +31,759; Scotland, nearly 30,000. Total, Great Britain and Ireland, +etc., 121,000 square miles. + +[2] Worcester, p. 446, mentions Conifers at sea level in Sibuyan +Island, province of Romblon. + +[3] Called in Spanish the oropendola (Broderipus achrorchus). + +[4] A whip made from hippopotamus hide. + +[5] Expelled in 1768. Readmitted, 1852, for charge of schools and +missions. + +[6] Of these 4102 were baptisms of heathen in 1896. + +[7] Exchange was then at 4s. 2d. + +[8] This word is formed of the first syllable of the names of three +native priests executed after the Cavite mutiny, Fathers Gomez, +Burgos, and Zamora. + +[9] Report published in Outlook, September 1st and 21st, 1899. + +[10] The Abbe de Brantome, whose appreciative remarks upon the +courtesans who accompanied the Army of the Duke of Alva are quoted by +Motley in 'The Rise of the Dutch Republic,' would have been delighted +to take up his favourite subject and chronicle the following of the +American Army. + +[11] My remarks apply to the accounts published in the Times. + +[12] May 11th, 1899, The New York Herald's correspondent at Manila +reports that the insurgents have succeeded in landing ten machine +guns on the island of Panay. + +[13] The kindness and mercy are not obvious. + +[14] I think, in view of the German atrocities in Africa, including +many cases of flogging women, that this epithet is well earned. + +[15] In making these remarks, I am not in any way desirous of +depreciating the Department of Agriculture, for I hold the belief +that its reports are written with exceptional ability. But this +circular bears internal evidence of having been written by some +person, perhaps a consul, unfamiliar with Philippine agriculture, +and published without correction. + +[16] Their Hong was colloquially known as Sion Corner. + +[17] See the sentence of court-martial on Julius Arnold, musician +of M Company, 25th Infantry, for murdering a woman under the most +atrocious circumstances it is possible to imagine. + +[18] The Krakatoa explosion was heard all over the Southern Philippines +like the firing of heavy guns, although the distance in a straight +line is over 1500 miles. This will give some idea of the loudness of +volcanic explosions. + +[19] The territory occupied by each tribe is shown on the general +map of Mindanao by the number on this list. + +[20] Ajonjoli (Sesamun Indicum, L.). See Chap. XIX. for Gogo. + +[21] The Blachang of the Malays. + +[22] Pristiophoridae. + +[23] Raiidae. + +[24] 'Comentarios Reales.' Garcilasso Inca de la Vega. + +[25] Some ridiculous person has stated in a magazine article that +they have no word in Tagal equivalent to Thank you. This is not true, +for the word Salamat is the exact equivalent. + +[26] The roller pinions in both Chinese and native mills are of +hard wood. + +[27] Crocodilus Porosus. + +[28] They sell about 25,000 bales per annum. + +[29] The above was the Christian Visyas population, and is exclusive +of Negritos, Mundos, and other heathen savages and remontados. The +area is taken from a Spanish official report. + +[30] See 'In Court and Kampong,' by Hugh Clifford. + +[31] The territory of Sibuguey is almost unexplored. + +[32] The principal industry of Christians or Moros, is washing the +sands and alluvial soils for gold, which is found in abundance. +Agriculture is progressing. + +[33] The principal industry is washing the sands and mining for gold. + +[34] From Jesuit records the Christian population of Davao was 12,000 +in 1896. This number included over 3000 converted Moros. There were +also some 2,000 Moros residing there. The Jesuits residing on the +spot must know best. + +[35] Nieto gives the total as 200,000. I have divided them as above. + +[36] Value $1,600,000. The copra comes from Laguna, Tayahas, Albay, +Samar, Leyte and Mindanao, and the bulk of it goes to Marseilles, +some to Liverpool, a little to Spain and Italy. + +[37] The total receipts from this tax are $7,000,000 + The local funds receive 20 per cent., say $1,400,000 + ---------- + Remainder $5,600,000 + +[38] See Table of dues on Exports. + +[39] See Table of this tax. + +[40] In August 1900 the Straits Settlements Government received offers +for the opium and spirit farms in Singapore, Penang and Malacca, for +three years from January 7th, 1901, amounting to $385,000 per month. + +[41] In 1886-87 the revenue only amounted to $9,324,974; the Army +estimates for 1888 were $3,918,760, the Navy $2,573,776. If to the +revenue of 1896-97 we add the amount paid over to local funds, the +total will be double the revenue raised ten years before. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Inhabitants of the Philippines, by +Frederic H. Sawyer + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INHABITANTS OF THE PHILIPPINES *** + +***** This file should be named 38081.txt or 38081.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/8/0/8/38081/ + +Produced by Tamiko I. 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