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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Electricity for the 4-H Scientist, by Eric B.
+Wilson
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Electricity for the 4-H Scientist
+       Idaho Agricultural Extension Service Bulletin 396, June, 1962
+
+
+Author: Eric B. Wilson
+
+
+
+Release Date: November 16, 2011  [eBook #38036]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELECTRICITY FOR THE 4-H
+SCIENTIST***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Kevin Handy, John Hagerson, Matthew Wheaton, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 38036-h.htm or 38036-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38036/38036-h/38036-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38036/38036-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+Idaho Agricultural Extension Service
+Bulletin 396
+June, 1962
+T-1
+
+ELECTRICITY FOR THE 4-H SCIENTIST
+
+Safety
+Uses
+Economy
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Division I
+4-H Electric
+
+University Of Idaho
+College of Agriculture
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO USE THIS BOOK IN FULFILLING THE GOALS OF THE 4-H ELECTRIC PROJECT
+FOR THE FIRST AND SUCCEEDING YEARS
+
+
+The minimum goals for credit in the 4-H Electric project vary according
+to the 4-H member's age and the number of years he or she has taken the
+electric project. For example, if you are a 4-H member beginning the 4-H
+Electric project at the age of 10, you will not be required to earn as
+many credit points as a 14-year-old 4-H member beginning the 4-H
+Electric project. However, if you are a 12-year-old in your second year
+of electricity you must earn as many credit points in that year as a
+14-year-old does in his or her first year.
+
+Each lesson or goal has been designated a certain number of credit
+points. These are shown near the title of each lesson or goal. You
+decide on the lessons you want to study, list them, and add up the
+credit points.
+
+For a full year's 4-H project credit, the total of your credit points
+should be at least as many as shown in the following table:
+
+Examples of reading the table below are as follows: (a) An 11-year-old
+member is required to complete 13 credit points the first year, (b) A
+14-year-old is required to complete 17 credit points his first year, (c)
+A 14-year-old taking the electric project for the third year must
+complete 16 credit points that year.
+
+We recommend that, if you are taking the 4-H Electric project, you start
+with the first lesson in the book and go on through to the back of the
+book in advanced years. But you may skip the less important or less
+interesting parts so long as you learn the basic lessons. A way to find
+out whether you know the basic lessons is to read them through and try
+to answer all questions under the heading "What Did You Learn." If you
+can answer these questions you may not wish to spend the time doing the
+things listed under "What To Do."
+
+    Minimum Number of Credit Points Required for Each Year's Work in
+    the 4-H Electric Project
+
+    4-H Member's|     4-H Member's Year in 4-H Electric Project
+    Age         |
+                | 1st Year | 2nd Year | 3rd Year | 4th or
+                |          |          |          | Later Years
+    10-11       |    13    |    15    |          |
+    12-13       |    15    |    17    |    19    |   20
+    14-15       |    17    |    19    |    21    |   21
+    16 & over   |    19    |    21    |    21    |   21
+
+
+This system of credit points makes it possible for you to do the things
+you want to do with electricity and get credit for them in the 4-H
+Electric project.
+
+
+4-H Electric, Division I
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+    Lesson                                   Credit    Page
+    Number  Title                            Points    Number
+            How to Use This Book                          1
+    B-1     Getting Acquainted With Electricity 3         2
+    B-2     Tools for Electricians              4         7
+    B-3     Rewire a Lamp--Be a Lamp Detective  3         11
+    B-4     Make a Trouble Light                3         15
+    B-5     What Makes Motors Run               5         18
+    B-6     Taking Care of Electric Motors      3         23
+    B-7     Reading the Electric Meter          4         26
+    B-8     Ironing is Fun                      3         30
+    B-9     Let's Be Friends With Electricity   2         35
+    B-10    How Electric Bells Work--For You    3         39
+    B-11    First Aid for Electrical Injuries   2         43
+    B-12    How Electricity Heats               3         47
+    B-13    Mysterious Magnetism                2         50
+    B-14    Give Your Appliances and Lights a
+            Square Meal                         2         54
+    B-15    You Can Measure Electricity         4         58
+
+
+
+    UNIVERSITY OF IDAHO
+    COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
+    AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE
+    Eric B. Wilson, Extension Agricultural Engineer
+    1962
+
+Published and distributed in furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June
+30, 1914, by the University of Idaho Extension Service, James E. Kraus,
+Director; and the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Co-operating.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-l
+
+Credit Points 3
+
+GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH ELECTRICITY
+
+
+Electricity serves you best when you understand how it works and use it
+properly. As a 4-H member, you should know about electricity and help to
+show others the way to obtain its tremendous work-saving benefits as
+well as how to use it with safety.
+
+A good way to think of electricity is to compare it with water. It acts
+a lot like water. However it is made of tiny parts of atoms called
+electrons. When there are more than the normal number of electrons in
+anything, it is said to be negatively charged; when there is a shortage
+of electrons, it is positively charged. As water flows downhill,
+"seeking it's level," electrons flow from negative to positive, seeking
+to "balance" the charge.
+
+
+Electrical Conductors
+
+Even if you're never going to repair a lamp or make a chick brooder, you
+should know about conductors and insulators. This is because you happen
+to be a fairly good conductor of electricity. Electricity will pass
+easily through you to other conductors--the ground, for instance. When
+this happens you may get a shock, burn, or serious injury. But it
+doesn't ever have to happen, if you learn to understand your friend,
+electricity.
+
+Silver, copper, iron, aluminum and many other metals are very good
+conductors. Water, acids, and salts are too. Electricity passes over or
+through them very easily. Like water pipes, the larger the conductor,
+the more electricity it can carry. When conductors are too small for the
+amount of electrons trying to move over them, they get hot, melt, may
+start fires. That's why wire size is important.
+
+
+Electrical Insulators
+
+Insulators are the opposite of conductors. Electricity has trouble
+passing through some materials. Rubber, most plastics, dry wood, oils
+and glass are some of the good insulators. It's the amount and kind of
+insulation that counts. If it has enough force, electricity can pass
+through just about anything--even jump gaps!
+
+Electricity, like water, flows along the easiest paths. It is always
+trying to get to the ground. The earth attracts it. It stays on the
+wires unless a person, a wet branch, or some other conductor gives it a
+path to the ground. Do not touch any wire which might be carrying
+electricity.
+
+
+Play It Safe
+
+If you should touch a "hot" wire accidentally and are standing on a dry
+piece of wood, the conducting pathway to the ground is not good and the
+electricity may keep running along its wire. But do not touch some other
+conductor with another part of your body. This would complete a circuit
+through your body and would be very dangerous. Always make sure there is
+plenty of good insulation material or plenty of distance between you and
+anything which might be carrying electricity.
+
+Remember, too, insulation is of little use when it is wet. Dew, mist,
+rain, condensation, a damp floor can change the whole picture. If you
+understand electricity and how it acts, you'll be safe enough, because
+you won't take chances or expose yourself to injury.
+
+
+Electrical Terms
+
+_Alternating Current_--Usually referred to as "AC," alternating current
+is current which reverses its direction of flow at regular intervals, 60
+times a second.
+
+_Direct Current_--"DC" current flows only in one direction. Battery
+current is DC.
+
+_Ampere_--Amperes are units by which the rate of flow of electrical
+current (electrons) is measured. An ampere is 6.3 billion electrons
+passing one point in a circuit, in one second. This compares with the
+way the flow of water is measured in gallons per second.
+
+_Volts_--A volt is a unit to measure the tendency of electrons to move
+when they are shoved. Voltage is the amount of "push" behind the
+electrons. It's like water pressure in a pipe. Home power lines carry
+115 volts (110 to 120 volts). For appliances such as electric stoves,
+washers and driers, a second 115-volt line should be added, giving 230
+volts (220 to 240 volts).
+
+_Watts_--Watts equal volts times amperes. Light bulbs, electric irons
+and other appliances are usually marked with the voltage they require
+and the number of watts.
+
+_Kilowatts_--Your electric bill usually reads in kilowatt hours. A
+kilowatt is 1000 watts. A kilowatt hour equals 1000 watts used for 1
+hour. One kilowatt equals about 1-1/3 horsepower. A kilowatt is usually
+indicated by "kw" and a kilowatt hour by "kwh."
+
+_Circuits_--A closed circuit is one in which the electricity is flowing,
+lighting a light, running a motor, or some other appliance. The circuit
+runs all the way from the place the electricity is being generated to
+your home, through the appliance or light bulb, and back to the
+generator.
+
+Circuits are opened and closed by switches. When the circuit is opened,
+the electricity stops at the switch. Before working on a switch, socket,
+fuse, or any part of the wiring be sure to open the main switch. The
+main switch is usually at the fuse box or near it. Appliances should be
+disconnected when you work on them. Everyone in the family should know
+where the main switch is so it can be pulled in case of accidents, fire,
+flood, or windstorm damage.
+
+_Fuses and Circuit Breakers_--These are the safety valves of your
+electrical system. The different electrical circuits in your home are
+meant to carry only certain amounts of electricity. Some carry only 15
+amps, others can carry 20 or more. They are marked to show capacity.
+
+When a fuse burns out or a circuit breaker opens, look for an overload
+of lights and appliances on the circuit before you try to replace the
+fuse or close the circuit breaker. Without these safeguards, the
+overloaded electric line will heat up and may start a fire. Even if no
+fire starts, electricity will be wasted and the homeowner will be paying
+for electricity that's doing no good.
+
+Remember: If you ever have to replace a fuse, pull the main switch
+first. Keep a flashlight handy in your house. It seems that fuses
+usually blow at night, and it doesn't pay to stumble or fumble around
+electric wires in the dark.
+
+
+WHAT TO DO: Make A Circuit Board
+
+So that you can show others how electricity travels from here to there,
+and how it behaves under different conditions, make an electric circuit
+board.
+
+
+ _Materials Needed:_
+
+      Piece of 3/4" board about 4" x 6"
+      l-l/2-volt No. 6 dry cell battery
+      Two pieces of bell wire, each 24" long, one black, one white
+      Two 10-penny box nails (3")
+      Three 3-penny box nails (1")
+      Two small screws or carpet tacks
+      Two 2-inch rubber bands
+      Two miniature sockets with solder terminals
+      Two l-l/2-volt flashlight bulbs
+
+    _Tools Needed:_
+      Ruler, pencils, hammer, pliers or vise.
+
+
+
+_Making the Board:_
+
+1. Lay out the board with a pencil and ruler as indicated in Figure 1.
+
+2. Bend the three-inch nail as shown in Figure 2, using pliers, vise and
+hammer.
+
+3. Pound the one-inch nails into the board for a half-inch at points A,
+C, and D. Use the three-inch nail to make a hole a half-inch deep at B.
+Put the crank nail in this hole and pound in a little farther. Attach
+the lamp socket brackets at E and F. Stretch the rubber band as in
+Figure 3.
+
+4. Lay out the electricity path, the circuit (Figure 3). Use the black
+wire for the positive side of the circuit (the center pole of battery).
+Twist it around the switch crank B, and the center pole of battery. Run
+another piece to the outside terminal of bulb socket at E. Run white
+piece to negative pole of battery from the other terminal at E.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1 (Circuit Board)]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2 (Switch)]
+
+5. Close the switch. The rubber band should hold the switch nail tightly
+against nail at C. Does the bulb light? __________ If it doesn't, check
+the connections.
+
+Now you have a circuit--a closed circuit when the electricity runs all
+the way from the positive pole to the negative pole. The black wire is
+the hot side, the live wire, because it carries the full load of the
+battery up to the bulb.
+
+Remember, battery current is direct current, DC. In the case of
+alternating current, AC, such as most homes and buildings use, the
+electricity flows in first one direction and then the other.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3 (Closed Circuit)]
+
+
+Parallel Wiring
+
+To make this circuit hookup, attach another white wire to the negative
+pole of battery and a terminal of the second flashlight bulb. Run a
+black wire from the other terminal to the switch terminal at C (Figure
+4). Close switch. Both bulbs will light.
+
+Trace the circuit. Electricity is going equally to each bulb, the same
+amount that went to the single bulb. The difference is that the battery
+will last only half as long. It's like a pail of water with two open
+spigots. The pail empties twice as fast as it would with just one spigot
+open. This type of wiring is called parallel wiring. If one bulb is
+unscrewed, the other will stay lit.
+
+[Figure 4 (Parallel Wiring)]
+
+
+Series Wiring
+
+To do this, run the negative wire to one terminal of the second bulb and
+attach a wire from the other terminal to a terminal of the first bulb.
+The other terminal connects with the switch at C (Figure 5). This is
+series wiring. If one bulb is unscrewed, the other will fail to light
+because the circuit is broken for both. Anything that breaks the circuit
+has the effect of opening the switch.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5 (Series Wiring)]
+
+Show there is a circuit through the bulb by screwing and unscrewing it.
+Also, "jump" the socket by running the wire from C to the other terminal
+of the bulb at E while it is unscrewed. Bulb at F will light. Trace this
+circuit.
+
+
+SUGGESTED DEMONSTRATIONS
+
+Using the Circuit Board, you can give many demonstrations of the way
+electricity flows, works and behaves.
+
+
+Water And Electricity
+
+To help others understand electricity better, draw a water system on an
+electric circuit board paralleling the circuit. For the battery show a
+water tank, pipes instead of wires, faucets instead of switches.
+Somewhere on the board paste a comparison of electrical terms with terms
+used in describing water, such as the following:
+
+    Wire equals Pipe
+    Volts equal Pressure
+    Amperes equal Rate of Flow - gallons per second
+    Watts equal Pressure times Rate of Flow
+    Switch equals Faucet
+    Current equals Flowing Water
+
+
+Show how to figure the wattage that a circuit protected by a 15 ampere
+fuse can handle. Do it with actual things or cut-out pictures of light
+bulbs, irons, toasters, coffee-makers, etc.
+
+You know that Amperes times Volts equal Watts. If the voltage is 115, a
+15 amp circuit can handle 115 volts times 15 amps, or 1725 watts.
+
+The name plates on electric motors indicate the amperage at full load.
+You can convert this to watts, of course, by multiplying amperage by the
+line voltage. Motors require an additional amount of electricity when
+they start. You need to allow for this fact, so fuses will not blow or
+circuits trip when a motor is turned on. You will learn more about this
+when you study electric motors.
+
+
+For More Information
+
+Your leader has many other sources of information about electricity and
+demonstrations you can perform. Ask him. Also, libraries have many books
+about electricity and its history, which are very interesting and
+useful. Maybe you can find an electrician, someone from your power
+supplier, or an equipment dealer who will talk to your club on
+electricity or electrical safety.
+
+
+What Did You Learn?
+
+(Underline the correct answers then discuss in the group.)
+
+1. In a water pipe system water flows. In an electrical circuit
+(electrons) (atoms) (charges) flow.
+
+2. Electricity or electrons flow (easier) (harder) (about the same) in a
+conductor than in an insulator.
+
+3. Rubber is a good (conductor) (insulator) (ground).
+
+4. The most common material used as an electrical conductor is (glass)
+(silver) (copper).
+
+5. The unit of electrical pressure or push is the (ampere) (volt)
+(watt).
+
+6. The rate of flow of electricity is measured in (gallons) (amperes per
+minute) (amperes).
+
+7. Volts times amperes equals (watts) (kilowatt hours) (alternating
+current).
+
+8. A dry cell battery (stores) (makes) (uses) electrical energy.
+
+9. In a parallel circuit the electricity has (one) (two or more) (no)
+paths to travel.
+
+10. In a series circuit with two bulbs and a switch the bulbs are
+(brighter) (dimmer) (the same) as when they were in the parallel
+circuit.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-2
+
+Credit Points 4
+
+TOOLS FOR ELECTRICIANS
+
+    Who goeth a borrowing
+    Goeth a sorrowing
+    Few lend (but fools)
+    Their working tools
+
+    Tusser 1524-1580
+
+
+Whenever a job comes up, it saves time and trouble when you have the
+right tools and they are all where you can find them. Electrical work
+takes some special tools and some everyday tools.
+
+If you have ever watched a good electrician at work, you've seen how
+neatly he stores his tools in a box so every one of them is handy. When
+a lineman climbs a pole, he has his regular tools in a holster on his
+belt. Special tools are kept in a box in racks in the repair truck, all
+ready for instant use. Wouldn't you like to have electrician's tools all
+handy, ready for use, and know how to use them properly?
+
+
+Basic Tools for Electrical Work
+
+
+_Knife_
+
+A good knife with a sharp blade is one of the most useful tools. A
+camper's or electrician's type knife is probably best because it has
+other useful parts besides the cutting blades--a screwdriver or punch,
+for instance. Of course, you'll never use the cutting blades as a
+screwdriver. This knife should be kept clean, dry, sharp, and free from
+rust. Put a little oil on the joints from time to time. Remember, "Never
+whittle toward you and you'll never cut yourself."
+
+
+_Pliers_
+
+A pair of electrician's pliers should be part of your kit. Wrap the
+handles with plastic insulating tape. Even though you're not going to
+work on "hot" electric lines, it pays to play safe. Later on, as you
+learn more about electricity, you'll want a pair of needle-nose pliers
+for the fine work.
+
+
+_Screwdrivers_
+
+You'll want a screwdriver which has true corners. A 4 to 6 inch plastic
+handled screwdriver with a narrow blade is best. You'll probably need
+more than one size to fit the various size screws you'll be turning.
+
+Screwdrivers are easily damaged if you try to use them as chisels and
+pry bars, or use them in screw slots which are too large for the blade.
+
+You can be hurt by the screwdriver if you try to screw or unscrew things
+you are holding in your hand. Keep your free hand away from the end of
+the screwdriver. Place the work on a bench or where it can be handled
+easily.
+
+
+_Soldering Iron_
+
+A good 100 to 250-watt electric soldering iron will be useful. Later on
+you may want to buy a soldering gun, but unless you are doing a lot of
+soldering it won't be necessary. A supply of resin-core electrician's
+solder will be needed. Acid-core solder reacts with copper and in time
+causes a bad splice.
+
+
+_Tape_
+
+Once it was necessary to use two types of tape on splices--rubber tape
+with friction tape over it. Now there is a plastic tape on the market
+which takes the place of both and has good insulating quality. It is
+called electrical tape, or plastic tape, and resists water, oils (which
+would damage rubber tape), and acids. You'll need a lot of tape in your
+electrical work, so keep a roll on hand.
+
+
+_Other Tools and Equipment_
+
+As you go along in electrical work, you'll be adding tools and other
+equipment, such as a trouble light and maybe an ammeter or voltmeter.
+Other tools you'll want to add will be a Phillips screwdriver, open end
+wrenches, a crescent wrench, small hack saw, hand drill and bits.
+
+You'll also be using some regular carpenter's tools such as hammers,
+saws, and so on. Unless you use them frequently, you don't need to keep
+them in your electrical kit.
+
+It's a good idea to start acquiring a supply of electrical
+parts--lengths of wire, fuses, switches, sockets, plugs, and other items
+that will come in handy. There are parts you can salvage from old lamps,
+motors, and other equipment. Such a collection can be a real treasure
+chest when you need a part in a hurry. But be sure to throw away all
+faulty parts.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1. Completed tool chest.]
+
+
+WHAT TO DO: Build a Tool Chest
+
+To keep your tools always ready for use, a tool chest will be very
+handy. It's the 4-H way to work. You'll be surprised how much easier it
+makes a job when you have your tools, various parts and repair equipment
+all in one place. You can make the chest (Figure 1) with a saw, plane,
+screwdriver, pencil, ruler or carpenter's square, and hammer.
+
+
+_Materials You'll Need:_
+
+A piece of lumber 1" by 10" by 8 feet long. (1" lumber is actually only
+3/4" thick--this is the thickness you'll be working with.)
+
+2 small hinges, with wood screws
+
+1 small hasp, with wood screws
+
+2 small handles with wood screws, or one large handle
+
+1 small chain, 10" to 12" long
+
+Some No. 6 penny finishing nails or wood screws about the same length
+
+
+_Making The Chest:_
+
+1. Cut your lumber into the following pieces:
+
+1 piece 10" x 18" for top
+
+1 piece 8-1/2" x 16-1/2" for bottom
+
+2 pieces 6" x 8-1/2" for two ends
+
+2 pieces 6" x 18" for front and back
+
+2. Lay out pieces as shown in Figure 2.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2]
+
+Then, set up the two end pieces and nail to bottom section. Refer back
+to Figure 1 as you go along to see that box is shaping up as shown. Nail
+the front and back sections to the ends along the bottom. Wood screws
+can be used instead of nails.
+
+3. Lay the top in place and attach hinges to the back side, about two
+inches in from each end.
+
+4. Attach one part of hasp to the top, and the other part to front board
+in center. Fasten the handles to each end.
+
+5. Attach chain to the top and front so the top will stay open when
+chain is fully extended.
+
+Now you can invent your own improvements for your chest. You can paint
+it, put your name on it, and your club emblem and name if you wish. You
+can put a rack on the inside of the cover to hold your work sheets and
+other booklets and materials. You can install special slots or straps to
+hold each tool in its place along the sides of the box. Maybe you will
+want to put some partitions in the box to separate various electrical
+equipment such as wires, fuses, switches, and plugs.
+
+
+_A Working Kit_
+
+An accessory which you may want to add to your tool chest is an apron or
+holster to wear when you are moving around on the job. An apron can be
+made of a size of cloth about 18 by 20 inches. It should be folded up
+from the bottom, and sewn to fit the number and size of tools you have.
+Figure 3 shows such an apron.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3. Apron.]
+
+You can make a lineman's holster in the same way, using plastic or soft
+leather. Merely make belt loops by cutting on the dotted lines. A snap
+fastener will hold the flap over the tools so they won't fall out.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4. Lineman's Holster.]
+
+
+Demonstrations You Can Give
+
+Show and tell others the proper handling, care and use of tools.
+
+Show and tell how to build an electrician's tool kit.
+
+
+For Further Information
+
+Ask your power supplier or an electrician to tell the club about the
+various tools of the electrician's trade and demonstrate them. Ask your
+leader how to get exhibit material or information about electrical tools
+and their use and then tell the club about them.
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-3
+
+Credit Points 3
+
+REWIRE A LAMP--BE A LAMP DETECTIVE
+
+
+[Illustration: The Line-Up Of Lamp Suspects]
+
+One of the duties of a law officer is to prevent crime. It's that way
+with the lamp detective. You can become one. In the average home there
+are lamps about to commit the crime of shocking people, starting fires,
+and stealing electricity. Some are refusing to do their job well and
+some are no-goods, sitting in closets or attics, doing nothing. You can
+put these lamps to working again safely and well. Become the lamp expert
+in your family.
+
+
+What's In A Lamp?
+
+A lamp gives light for comfortable and convenient use in the home. It
+consists normally of a stand, switch, cord, lampshade holder, and shade.
+Some lamps have diffusing bowls which reduce glare and shadows.
+
+The most common fault found in an old lamp is in the cord, but sometimes
+the switch or the wiring in the lamp is bad. Look over all the lamps in
+your home and find the ones needing to be fixed.
+
+
+WHAT TO DO--Rewire A Lamp
+
+Somewhere around your house you can probably find a lamp that is no
+longer used or needs repairing. You can make it useful again and at the
+same time learn how to wire a lamp.
+
+
+_Materials Needed_:
+
+Tools: Pocket knife, small or medium screwdriver, and pliers
+(electrician type is best).
+
+_New Lamp Cord_: For each lamp to be rewired, you'll need 6 feet of cord
+plus the length of wire within the lamp stand. Lamp cord wire comes in
+two sizes, No. 18 and No. 16 AWG (American Wire Gauge). No. 18 is
+smaller than No. 16, but is adequate for most lamps. Cords are made with
+surface coverings of several different materials: braided cotton, rayon
+or silk, and molded rubber or plastic. Braided cord is decorative, but
+rubber or plastic is easier to work with and is usually more desirable.
+
+_Switch_: If the switch is bad, get a new one. Socket switches are made
+with push-through, turn-knob, or pull-chain controls. The pull-chain
+type is seldom used on modern table or floor lamps. Your lamp may have a
+separate push-switch in the base. In this case, get the same kind for
+replacement. Some switches are "3-circuit" switches for use with high,
+medium, and low-light bulbs.
+
+_Plug_: Plugs are made of various materials, mostly hard rubber or
+molded plastic. Some have a shank or handle for better grasping. This
+type is more desirable. The plug on the old cord may be good, and if so,
+may be used on the new cord.
+
+
+How To Do It:
+
+1. If the plug on the old cord is good and you plan to use it, remove it
+from the old cord.
+
+2. Measure and cut a new lamp cord equal to the length of the cord
+within the lamp, plus 6 feet.
+
+3. Pass one end of the new cord through the center of the plug. Strip 2
+inches of the fabric insulation off cord, or in case of a rubber cord,
+split cord back two inches. Be sure no bare wire shows in long split
+section (Figure 1).
+
+4. Use knife to strip insulation off wire for 3/4" on end of each cord.
+Be careful. Don't cut yourself. Don't cut wires. Use a light touch,
+slope the knifeblade and slice with knife edge away from you (Figure 1).
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1 (Ready to Wire Plug)]
+
+5. Twist exposed strands of each wire tightly to make a good conductor,
+and place each conductor around its proper terminal in the direction in
+which the screw tightens (Figure 2).
+
+6. Tighten screws on terminal posts. Pull cord until slack is out. Lay
+aside until ready to attach to lamp.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2 (Attaching Cord to Plug)]
+
+7. Remove lamp shade, shade-holder, bulb, and diffusing bowl, if there
+is one.
+
+8. Separate the metal shell of socket from its cap by pressing on shell
+at place marked "press," and pull socket from cap.
+
+9. Pull on socket body to get some slack in lamp cord. Loosen screws and
+detach cord. Pull cord out through base of lamp. You can splice new cord
+to the old one and use the latter to "string" the new wire.
+
+10. Pass the new cord up through the lamp base and socket cap, tie a
+simple half-hitch knot in the cord to prevent strain on the terminals,
+and attach wires to the terminals on the socket (Figure 3). If there is
+likely to be any strain on cord, use an Underwriters' knot. Twist
+strands and attach wire in direction in which screw tightens.
+
+11. Pull slack out of cord in lamp so that socket rests in socket cap,
+replace shell and reconnect cap. Be sure the fiber insulator is in the
+shell. You'll feel or hear a click when the notches in shell are locked
+to the projections in the cap.
+
+12. Replace bulb, inspect carefully, and test. (In floor lamps where the
+cord runs through the center post and out under the base, the cord will
+last longer if it is fastened with tape so it doesn't rub edge of lamp
+base when lamp is moved.)
+
+13. If the lamp has a porcelain socket, simply disconnect the wires at
+the terminals, remove the old wire and connect the new one.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3 (Socket and Switch Assembly)]
+
+
+What Did You Learn?
+
+Underline correct answers then discuss in the group. (There may be more
+than one correct answer.)
+
+1. The part of the lamp that usually wears out first is (the socket)
+(the cord) (the plug).
+
+2. Lamps that waste electricity are those which have (bad wiring)
+(frayed cords) (dirty shades or bulb).
+
+3. To unplug a lamp you should grasp (cord) (plug) firmly and pull.
+
+4. Wire in lamp cord usually comes in sizes 16 or 18. Size 16 is the
+smaller (true) (false).
+
+5. In fastening wire around a terminal post it should go around in a
+(clockwise) (counter-clockwise) direction.
+
+6. When the switch on a lamp is turned off, the electricity only goes as
+far as (the wall plug) (the switch).
+
+7. An Underwriters' knot should be used (only when there is room for it
+in the plug) (whenever there is likely to be strain on the cord, even if
+you have to replace the plug with a larger one).
+
+
+SUGGESTED DEMONSTRATIONS
+
+Show how to inspect a lamp and its cord. You might tie tags on the cord
+and lamp at points of danger or failure--at the plug, wear points next
+to lamp base, bad sockets.
+
+Demonstrate the process of repairing a lamp cord, socket and plug.
+
+Make a board display of the parts of the lamp socket showing cord
+attached.
+
+Make a display of the types of lamp cords and plugs in common use.
+
+Using two lamps, one with clean bulb and shade, the other dusty, show
+how the former gives more light.
+
+
+For More Information
+
+Lamps have an interesting history. Look it up in your local library. Ask
+someone from your power supplier or electric dealer to talk to the club
+about the different kinds of lamps. Your leader has or can get
+additional information on lamps, if you wish.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+What Did You Exhibit
+
+What Did You Demonstrate
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-4
+
+Credit Points 3
+
+MAKE A TROUBLE LIGHT.
+
+
+A handy piece of equipment in the home and on the farm is a heavy-duty
+extension cord with a shielded light and a side outlet on it. When you
+want to work on the car or tractor in the yard at night, the trouble
+light is better than a flashlight. You can use it both for light and as
+an extension cord. It is safer than matches or a lantern, especially
+around the garage or barn.
+
+It is easy to make a trouble light, and it gives you good practice in
+electrical work. Of course you can buy one, but you wouldn't have the
+fun of making it nor would it suit your needs. Trouble lights are not
+for permanent use--they're for emergency use and to provide light or
+electricity in places where they are seldom needed. When you find a
+trouble light being used as permanent wiring, that's the place to
+install an outlet.
+
+
+What Size Cord?
+
+Choose the right kind of cord. What length will be best for your various
+uses? A cord too long may be bothersome to use and store. What will be
+the heaviest load you are likely to put on the cord, in amperes? Check
+appliances you may want to connect to it. No. 16 wire can carry 10
+amperes safely for a distance of 50 feet, while No. 18 can carry only up
+to 7 amperes for a distance of 40 feet. You'll want a "hard service"
+cord, called S, ST, or SO-type cord by electricians. Junior hard service
+cords, known as SJ, SJT, or SJO, are fine for lighter duty.
+
+
+Cord, Plug and Guard
+
+A rubber-handled socket should be used for safety and to withstand hard
+knocks. It should have a switch on it, preferably a push switch in a
+recess in the handle.
+
+The connector or attachment plug should be of rubber or solid plastic
+and have a metal cord grip fastened to it. This grip will hold the cord
+firmly and prevent strain on the terminal connections.
+
+[Illustration: Finished Trouble Light]
+
+Get a good lamp guard. If the wire is too light, it may bend and break
+the bulb when hit or dropped. For the lamp itself, get a rough service
+lamp. An ordinary lamp won't last long with rough usage.
+
+
+How to Make the Trouble Light
+
+_Tools Needed:_
+
+Your 4-H electrician's kit or screwdriver, knife and soldering iron
+
+_Materials Needed:_
+
+1. About 20 feet of 2-wire, No. 16 heavy duty (hard service)
+
+2. A rubber-handled socket with switch and a side outlet
+
+3. A shielded lamp guard
+
+[Illustration: Materials Needed]
+
+4. A good connector plug cap, preferably with a clamp-type grip for the
+cord
+
+5. A rough service lamp bulb
+
+6. Solder and flux
+
+
+_Steps to Take:_
+
+1. Remove about 2 inches of the outer covering of cord at one end.
+
+2. Separate the wires and cut away the filler material.
+
+3. Remove 3/4 inch of the conductor insulation from the end of each wire
+and tightly twist the strands together to form a firm conductor. Be
+careful not to cut any of the fine wires. Ends may be soldered.
+
+4. Slide the plug in position on the cord.
+
+5. If there is no cord grip, tie the underwriters' knot (Figure 1). If
+there isn't room enough, make an "S" loop by passing the wires around
+the prongs before fastening them to the terminal screws as explained in
+the next step.
+
+6. Loop the bare part of the wire around the screw in the direction the
+screw is turned to tighten (clockwise direction). This will prevent the
+wires from being forced out from under the head of the screw as it is
+tightened. Now repeat with the second wire, wrapping it around the other
+prong of the plug.
+
+
+_Connecting the socket._
+
+1. Separate the parts of rubber-handled socket (Figure 2).
+
+2. Prepare the other end of the cord as in steps 1, 2, and 3 above.
+
+3. Insert the cord through the rubber handle and socket guard.
+
+4. Tie the holding knot (underwriters' knot) as explained in Step 5.
+
+5. Connect wires to terminal screws and assemble the rubber-handled
+socket.
+
+6. Screw in the rough service lamp and test your cord.
+
+7. Put the shielded lamp guard on the socket and tighten the holding
+clamp until it is firmly in place. You are now ready to use or
+demonstrate your trouble light.
+
+8. After you've made your trouble light, decide on a good place to keep
+it where it will be handy for use. Loop it carefully and hang it over a
+wooden dowel rather than a nail. It will last longer.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1 Tying an Underwriter's Knot]
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2 Disassembled Light]
+
+
+What Did You Learn?
+
+(Underline correct answer)
+
+1. A Junior Hard Service Cord is known as an (SO-Type) (SJO-Type) cord.
+
+2. You disconnect a cord by (jerking it from the socket) (grasping plug
+and pulling it out).
+
+3. Brass sockets are unsafe because (they break too easily) (the exposed
+metal can cause short circuits).
+
+4. Rubber-covered cord is safer for emergency cords than fabric because
+(it will stretch) (it will insulate and protect the wires inside).
+
+5. In a trouble light (any kind of bulb will do) (a rough service bulb
+is best).
+
+
+Ideas for Demonstrations and Exhibits
+
+1. Show how to make your trouble light and a method of storing it.
+
+2. Show a safe trouble light, and an unsafe trouble light with danger
+points marked.
+
+3. Show cutaway pieces of different types of cord.
+
+
+For More Information
+
+Ask your power supplier, county highway engineer, police official or
+leader to tell you about various types of portable emergency lights and
+their uses.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-5
+
+Credit Points 5
+
+WHAT MAKES MOTORS RUN
+
+
+What makes an electric motor run? Can you make an electric motor that
+will run? Certainly you can, and by doing so you'll learn why it runs.
+It won't be mysterious any more and you'll be ahead of all the millions
+of people who use motors every day and never know why or how the motor
+converts electrical energy into useful power.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+Motors Are Magnets
+
+You know how one end of a compass needle always points to North. No
+matter how you turn the compass, the same end of the needle always
+swings to the North. The earth itself and that small compass are both
+magnets (Figure 1). Each has a North pole and a South pole. Around the
+poles of each there are magnetic fields, invisible lines of force that
+attract and repel.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1. The same end of the compass needle always
+points to the earth's magnetic North Pole.]
+
+The N poles _repel_ each other and so do the S poles. The N and S poles
+_attract_ each other. In other words, opposite poles attract; poles that
+are alike repel each other.
+
+Lay 2 bar magnets on a table side-by-side. If both N poles are at one
+end, they'll repel each other and almost flip around until there's a N
+pole lying next to a S pole (Figure 2).
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2. Small bar magnets laid side by side move so
+that the North pole of one is near the South pole of the other.]
+
+Now suppose we place one of the bar magnets on the table. The other,
+we'll fix on a pivot so it can spin around. This one we'll move so its N
+pole almost touches the fixed magnet's N pole. As soon as we release it,
+the movable magnet will spin around so its S pole will be near the N
+pole of the stationary magnet. That's an electric motor--almost.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3. A movable bar magnet pivots so its South pole
+is near the North pole of a stationary magnet.]
+
+It's not quite a motor because the rotating magnet will just move as far
+as it has to in order to get the opposite poles together. You might be
+able to cause the movable bar magnet to make turn after turn. You could
+do this by turning the fixed magnet quickly end for end. This wouldn't
+be very practical as a motor.
+
+
+We Can Improve It
+
+If we could change the pole on one end of the rotating magnet just as
+soon as it reaches the attracting pole, it could make a complete circle.
+In doing that, the pole at the near end of the rotating magnet would be
+repelled by the stationary magnet and pushed away. As soon as the
+opposite end of the rotating magnet would come into the magnetic field,
+it would be drawn to the stationary magnet. In order to keep the "motor"
+running, we would have to constantly change the poles at each end on
+every half revolution.
+
+
+We Need An Electromagnet
+
+We can't reverse the poles on simple bar magnets, but we can on
+_electromagnets_. We can make one by wrapping a wire several times
+around an iron core to form a coil. This magnet will also have a N and a
+S pole when connected to electrical current. The big difference is that
+the poles can be changed instantly by reversing the current in the wire.
+
+
+Switching Poles Automatically
+
+The rotating electromagnet will have to be connected to the 2 wires
+through which we pass the current. Since it's rotating on a center
+shaft, we can't have a solid connection. Instead we have to extend the
+wires from the coil out along the shaft and let the electric contact be
+made with brushes which touch the wires along the shaft.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4. A rotating electromagnet changes poles as
+contacts are made first one way, then the other.]
+
+This is a simple way to reverse the current in the coil of the
+electromagnet.
+
+
+Increasing Efficiency
+
+Instead of using only one pole of a stationary magnet, we can use both.
+This is done by shaping the stationary magnet around the path of the
+rotating electromagnet. This way we have the benefit of the attracting
+and repelling forces from both poles. The effect is doubled.
+
+We can also wrap wires around this circular iron and make an
+electromagnet of it. But when we wire this magnet we use no brushes
+because we want the current to flow in one direction only.
+
+The stationary electromagnet is called the _field_. The rotating
+electromagnet is the _armature_.
+
+
+WHAT TO DO: Make A Motor
+
+
+_Tools Needed:_
+
+Pocket knife, hammer, vise (or 2 pairs of pliers).
+
+
+_Materials Needed_:
+
+    1 roll of No. 24 enameled wire
+    1 roll of electrician's tape
+    3 - 4" (20-penny) nails
+    4 - 2-1/2" (8-penny) nails
+    4 - 3" brads (10 penny)
+    Wood board for motor base
+    2 staples or 4 small brads
+    2 tacks
+    2 - 3 volt dry cell batteries (or a 6
+    volt transformer).
+
+
+Step No. 1-Armature
+
+Wrap about 1-1/2" of a 4" nail with two layers of tape. This will be the
+shaft.
+
+The iron core will be made of two pairs of 2-1/2" nails. Wrap tape
+around each pair with heads and points alternated.
+
+Center both pairs on each side of the shaft. Place them about 1" from
+the head of the shaft nail. Wrap them together with two layers of tape
+from tip to tip.
+
+Start at the shaft and wind No. 24 enameled wire to one end and back.
+Then do the same on the other end. Always wind in the same direction.
+Leave 6" of spare wire at start and finish.
+
+
+Step No. 2-Commutator
+
+Scrape all insulation off the ends of the wire. Bend the bare ends back
+and forth as shown. Lay them flat over the taped shaft-one on each side
+of the shaft.
+
+Hold the commutator down with narrow strips of tape. Wrap tightly near
+the core and at the opposite end.
+
+
+Step No. 3-Field
+
+Make the core by bending two 4" nails in the middle at right angles.
+Space the heads about 3" apart to form a horseshoe. Wrap together with
+two layers of tape.
+
+Wind about 400 turns of wire around the center. Leave 4" of spare wire
+at start and finish. Attach to wood base with staples at each end of
+the wire. Small brads, bent over, will do just as well.
+
+
+Step No. 4--Armature Supports and Brushes
+
+Scrape the insulation from the ends of two 6" pieces of wire. Tack
+them to the base and bend them as shown to make brushes.
+
+Drive two pairs of 3" brads into the base about 3-1/4" apart and in a
+line midway between the field poles. Wrap wire around the supports to
+form armature bearings.
+
+Scrape insulation off ends of wire from the field. Connect one end to
+a brush wire.
+
+
+_Assemble As Shown_
+
+Adjust the position of commutator and tension of brushes against it for
+best operation.
+
+Take the armature off the motor and connect the commutator wires to a
+dry cell battery. Test the polarity of each end of the armature with a
+compass. Switch the connections on the commutator and test again. See
+how the compass needle changes direction?
+
+With the armature still off, connect the field coil directly to the dry
+cell. Test the polarity of each end of the field with the compass. How
+can you reverse the polarity? Try it. It's easy.
+
+Reassemble the motor again and start it. Push the field poles slightly
+out of alignment with the turning armature. What happens to the motor's
+speed? Can you tell why?
+
+This time, push the field poles completely out of the way. Test the
+polarity of the armature as you slowly turn it by hand. Do you see what
+happens and why it does?
+
+Try to reverse the direction of rotation of your motor by reversing the
+connections at the battery. What happens? Can you explain why?
+
+
+Demonstrations You Can Give
+
+Make a display board showing the parts of the toy motor and explain how
+each part works compared with the parts of a commercial motor.
+
+
+For Further Information
+
+There are several other types of toy motors you can build. Your club
+leader or power supplier can help you find information about them.
+
+1. Did your toy motor run?
+
+2. Did your motor speed up or slow down when you pushed the field poles
+out of line? Why?
+
+3. What happens to the magnetic polarity of the armature when you turn
+it slowly by hand and check it with a compass?
+
+4. How can you reverse the direction of rotation of your toy motor?
+
+Is there another way too?
+
+What is it?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-6
+
+Credit Points 3
+
+TAKING CARE OF ELECTRIC MOTORS
+
+
+Through the magic of electric motors, much of our work is done faster
+and better at lower cost than we could do it without the help of the
+electric motor. People who use motors and treat them properly have much
+more time for other work and for leisure time activities. A
+1/4-horsepower motor running quietly and steadily hour after hour will
+do the work of one man, and operate all day for about 5 cents without
+tiring. On many jobs it will work without "supervision", turning on and
+off automatically, as required. It does this on water pumps, in heating
+and cooling units, and on fans and similar appliances.
+
+All that a motor needs to do its work is electricity and a little care.
+Let's see what you can do to give proper care to motors in your home and
+on your farm.
+
+
+You'll Need
+
+A light oil (SAE 10) for motors of less than one horsepower and a
+slightly heavier oil (SAE 20) for larger motors. See if you need grease
+for cups which may be on large motors. If so, be sure you use
+ball-bearing grease and not ordinary cup grease. Cotton waste or clean
+rags will be needed for wiping off the motors, and a tire pump or vacuum
+cleaner for blowing out the dust or dirt.
+
+[Illustration: Some motors have instructions for oiling on the
+name-plate.]
+
+
+WHAT TO DO
+
+1. First, make a list of all the electric motors that work for your
+home. You may wish to make a separate list for your farm buildings.
+You'll probably be surprised at how many there are. Don't forget the
+sewing machine, the refrigerator, the freezer, the vacuum cleaner and
+other small but important motors. Don't touch any motor that is running.
+Disconnect them before you touch them.
+
+2. Make a motor service chart with columns headed: Use, Location,
+Horsepower, Volts, Amperes, Service Required, Date Serviced and What was
+Done. (See sample) Then list all the motors that require any servicing.
+Some will have the instructions on the motor or appliance; the
+instruction booklet that came with the motor or appliance will also tell
+what servicing is required.
+
+_Step 1._ Plan the job. Start with the motors in the home. Then you can
+care for the motors on the farm.
+
+_Step 2._ Be sure that any motor on which you are going to work is
+disconnected. Then wipe the outside case clean with a cloth. If the
+motor has openings in the end, use a vacuum cleaner to suck out dust,
+dirt or chaff. A tire pump may also be used to blow out this dirt. If
+you use compressed air, be sure the pressure is not high as it may
+damage wiring inside the motor. Dust-proof motors should be used in
+dusty or dirty places.
+
+_Step 3._
+
+[Illustration: If there are oil holes, oil according to the
+manufacturer's instructions.]
+
+If there are no instructions, remember a little oil goes a long way as
+far as motors are concerned. Motors of less than one horsepower require
+only 3 or 4 drops (not squirts) of oil every 3 or 4 months if the motor
+is used frequently. Too much oil can damage the motor. It spoils the
+insulation.
+
+If there are no oil holes or grease cups on the motor, it is probably
+lubricated by means of grease sealed in the bearings at the factory, or
+it may use greaseless bearings, and does not need to be oiled or greased
+periodically. Indicate on your chart all motors which need periodic care
+and see that it is given according to schedule.
+
+Wipe away any excess oil or grease. Be sure oil holes are capped or
+covered.
+
+_Step 4._ Reconnect motor and run for a moment.
+
+_Step 5._ Record on the chart the date you serviced the motor and what
+was done.
+
+
+What Did You Learn?
+
+How many motors are there in your home? ______ On the farm? ______
+
+How many motors need regular oiling or grease? ______
+
+How many are less than one-horsepower? ______
+
+SAE Oil ______ is used to oil motors up to 1/2 horsepower. How much
+oil?______
+
+SAE Oil______ is used for larger motors.
+
+
+Demonstrations You Can Give
+
+1. Show how to clean a small motor.
+
+2. Explain proper lubrication of motors.
+
+3. Using the chart prepared in this work sheet, give a talk about the
+motors that work for you-the job each one does, which ones need oil or
+grease, which need no attention, and why, etc.
+
+4. Use a homemade toy motor to explain "what makes motors run."
+
+5. Show proper way to replace worn cord on a small motor.
+
+
+For Further Information
+
+Ask your county Extension agent or 4-H leader for more literature on
+motors. They can help you obtain a film or a speaker such as a power
+supplier, a local electric dealer, or electrical contractor to discuss
+motors.
+
+Also visit your public library and see a science teacher for more
+information on motors.
+
+
+ELECTRIC MOTORS SERVICE CHART                              Sample
+
+Use a table like the following to list the motors around your farm and
+home.
+
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Motor   | Location |H.P.|Volt |Amp |Service        |Date Serviced and
+  Use     |          |    |     |    |Needed         |what was done
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Food    | Kitchen  |1/6  |120 |4.4 |Clean & Oil;   |9/1-Cleaned
+  Mixer   |          |     |    |    |cord needs     |w/cloth.
+  Repair  |          |     |    |    |repair         |Oiled w/#10 Oil;
+          |          |     |    |    |               |repaired cord
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Tool    | Farm     |1/4  |120 |5.8 |Clear, oiling; |10/6-Cleaned
+  Grinder | Shop     |     |    |    |Have switch    |w/vacuum Oiled #10
+          |          |     |    |    |Have switch    |oil. 10/20-Had
+          |          |     |    |    |repaired       |switch repaired
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Pump    |Pump      |1/3  |120 |7.2 |Oiling,        |9/26-Cleaned
+          |house     |     |    |    |cleaning       |w/tire pump;
+          |          |     |    |    |               |oiled w/10 oil
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-7
+
+Credit Points 4
+
+READING THE ELECTRIC METER
+
+
+There is no question but what electricity is one of the lowest cost
+services in the home and on the farm. A few pennies worth of electricity
+will provide the power to run machines that take the place of a man or
+of several men working all day. However, we all like to know what things
+cost.
+
+Sometime you may have to decide between different methods--man, horse,
+gasoline engine or electric motor power. Then you'll want to know how to
+figure the cost of electricity, as well as the cost of the original
+equipment. First of all, you should know how to read an electric meter.
+
+
+Reading a Meter
+
+Electric meters read in kilowatt hours, just as a water meter reads in
+gallons and a gas meter in cubic feet. A kilowatt hour is the electrical
+energy consumed by 1000 watts of electricity used for one hour. Ten
+100-watt light bulbs burning for one hour would use one
+kilowatt-hour--one kwh.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1. Some meters give the reading directly, like the
+mileage total on a speedometer.]
+
+Some meters are read directly, as shown in Figure 1. The more common
+type has four dials which are read from right to left--just the opposite
+from the way things are usually read. The hand on the extreme right
+turns clockwise, the next hand turns counter-clockwise, the next
+clockwise; the last hand on the left turns counter-clockwise.
+
+The first dial on the right can register up to 10 kilowatt-hours; the
+second up to 100 kwh; the third, to 1000 kwh; the fourth, to 10,000 kwh.
+After that, the meter starts over again. To take a reading you must read
+all four dials of the meter, from right to left.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2. Meter dials are read from right to left.]
+
+To read each dial, you use the number last passed by the dial hand. This
+may not be nearest the hand. For instance, if the pointer has passed 6
+and is almost on 7, you read it as 6. Write down the figures in the same
+order you read the dial, from right to left. Practice reading the meters
+shown in Figure 3 on the following page.
+
+
+What's Your Electric Bill?
+
+Meters aren't set back each month when the meter reader comes around.
+The difference in the readings from one month to the next shows how
+many kilowatt-hours have been used. If you know your electric rates, you
+can figure your bill by yourself. Your power supplier will furnish you
+with a rate schedule on request.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3. See if you can read the above correctly. The
+answers are shown in a box on the next page.]
+
+It will be interesting to you to find out how much it costs to operate
+the various electric appliances in your home. A sample rate schedule is
+shown in Figure 4.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4. Sample rate schedule. Note that as the use of
+electricity increases, the average cost per kwh is reduced.]
+
+
+Estimating Operating Costs
+
+To find the cost of operating any single appliance, three steps are
+necessary:
+
+1. Learn the wattage of the appliance.
+
+2. Estimate how many hours the appliance is used.
+
+3. Find its operating cost.
+
+
+_To Find Wattage:_
+
+Watts, you know, are the measure of electrical power. They are the
+product of voltage (pressure) times amperes (rate of flow). Volts times
+Amps equals Watts. The nameplate on the appliance will give the voltage
+required for proper operation as well as either amperage or watts. If it
+gives wattage, you have the information you want. Otherwise you must
+multiply volts times amps to get the wattage. When voltage is given as
+110-120, use 120 as your voltage. 120 volts is nominal today.
+
+
+_How Much Will You Use?_
+
+Now that you know the wattage of the appliance, multiply this figure by
+number of hours the equipment operates in one day. Divide this by 1000
+to get the kwh. Now multiply the result by the number of days the
+appliance is used each month. This tells you the number of kwh used by
+the appliance during the month.
+
+
+    |---------------------------------------------|
+    |                                             |
+    |Example No. 1                                |
+    |_Yard Light:_        300-watt lamp      |
+    |                                             |
+    |Amount of use: 3 hours per night. |
+    |                                             |
+    |Multiply lamp wattage times hours of use     |
+    |per night to get watt-hours per night. |
+    |                                             |
+    |300 times 3 = 900 watt-hours per night. |
+    |                                             |
+    |Divide watt-hours by 1000 to get kwh per     |
+    |night. |
+    |                                             |
+    |900 divided by 1000 = .9 kwh per night. |
+    |                                             |
+    |Multiply kwh per night times 30 to get kwh   |
+    |per month. |
+    |                                             |
+    |.9 times 30 = 27 kwh per month. |
+    |                                             |
+    |If the yard light is used 3 hours per night, |
+    |it consumes 27 kwh per month. |
+    |---------------------------------------------|
+
+
+Example No. 2
+
+_Coffee Maker_: 120 volts, 550 watts (from nameplate)
+
+Amount of use: 1/2 hour per day.
+
+Multiply wattage of coffee maker times hours of use per day to get
+watt-hours per day.
+
+550 times 1/2 hour = 275 watt-hours per day.
+
+Divide watt-hours by 1000 to get kwh per day.
+
+275 divided by 1000 = .275 kwh per day.
+
+Multiply kwh per day times 30 to get kwh per month.
+
+.275 times 30 = 7.250 kwh per month.
+
+If the coffee maker is used l/2 hour daily, it consumes 7.25 kwh per
+month.
+
+
+_Calculate Operating Cost Per Month_
+
+Now that you know the number of kilowatt hours an appliance uses, go to
+your rate schedule and your electric bill to see what the average kwh
+costs. Find the average cost of 1 kwh by dividing the amount of your
+bill by the total number of kwh used in a month.
+
+_Example_: 410 kwh used. $14.35 total monthly bill
+
+Average cost per kwh equals $14.35 divided by 410 kwh-3-1/2 cents per
+kwh.
+
+Therefore, the cost of operating the coffee maker for a month would be
+3-1/2 cents times 7.25 kwh--25.4 or 25 cents. Cost of operating the yard
+light would have been 94.5 or 95 cents a month.
+
+
+(a) 6357 (b) 1963 (c) 8996
+
+Correct answers to the meter readings shown on the preceding page.
+
+
+Adding Low Cost Helpers
+
+You can see, by looking at your rate schedule, that the average cost per
+kwh gets lower as you use more electricity. To find the cost of
+operating additional electrical equipment, the cost per kilowatt hour is
+found from the last "step" in the bill--the lowest cost per kwh of the
+electricity you're now using. Sometimes power suppliers give special
+rates for such equipment as electric water heaters.
+
+
+WHAT TO DO: Find the Cost of Operating Electrical Equipment
+
+Make and fill in the blanks of a chart showing the electrical equipment
+you have and the operating costs per month.
+
+Make a chart for the home (refer to chart one). Show the probable
+operating cost of equipment you might add to what you now have.
+
+
+Demonstrations You Can Give
+
+Show how to read a meter, making one with plywood or cardboard. Dials
+can be painted on the main board. Arrows can be attached so they will
+revolve to give different readings.
+
+Show how to find the wattage of various types of equipment.
+
+Show how to figure the cost of the average kwh in a home.
+
+
+For Further Information
+
+Your leader can get additional material for you or you may want to have
+someone from your power supplier talk to your club, telling about
+meters, how they work and how they are regularly checked for accuracy.
+
+Chart One-THE HOME
+
+
+    Column No.      1.      2.       3.            4.
+
+    Item          Wattage  Hours   KWH per        Cost per
+                  Rating   Used     Month           Month
+                           per   (col. 1x2)/    (Col. 3 x av. Remarks
+                           Month    1000           kwh cost)
+
+    Electric Iron  1100     30      33              .80
+    Stove           880     60      52.8           1.21        (Special
+                                                                 rate)
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-8
+Credit Points 3
+
+IRONING IS FUN WITH THE MODERN HAND IRON
+
+
+When you are getting ready to go to school or to a party, it probably
+gives you a good feeling to put on a clean, freshly-ironed skirt, blouse
+or dress. But did you ever think about the electric iron that helps so
+much to give you that well-dressed feeling? When you were younger, you
+may have had a play iron and pretended to iron your doll's dresses. Now
+you are old enough to learn about real irons--the different kinds of
+irons, how the iron heats, the kind of cord needed, the type of outlet
+necessary, how to use safety rules when you iron, and even how to help
+with the ironing.
+
+
+Important Things to Know
+
+There are many different irons, but the two kinds most important for you
+to know about now are the regular dry iron and the combination
+steam-and-dry iron.
+
+[Illustration: The thermostat keeps the iron at an even temperature.]
+
+It isn't weight alone that makes an iron do its job, but the heat of the
+iron. The heat is given off in the sole plate. The automatic iron has
+what is called a _thermostatic_ control which holds the temperature of the
+iron at the heat you want. Some clothes need to be ironed with a very
+hot iron, while others need only to be pressed lightly with a cool iron.
+The thermostat keeps the iron at an even temperature after you set it
+for the heat you want. The thermostat is the heart of the iron.
+
+Take a look at the iron used in your home. It isn't heavy to lift, and
+has a handle that fits your hand easily. It looks graceful and has a
+smooth bottom, called the sole plate. And it may have a narrow, pointed
+tip which is helpful in ironing pleats, corners and gathers.
+
+[Illustration: Your iron has a smooth bottom called the sole plate.]
+
+
+The Iron and Safety
+
+If you are going to learn to do some ironing yourself, the most
+important thing for you to remember is SAFETY. You should read all about
+the iron first in the instructions which came with it.
+
+Never use an iron carelessly. Remember the safety rules:
+
+1. An iron should never be left even for a few minutes without being
+disconnected. Turn off by removing the plug from the outlet, or by
+turning the control lever to "off."
+
+[Illustration: Take hold of the plug--not the cord--when you disconnect
+it from the outlet.]
+
+2. Let the iron cool before putting it away.
+
+3. Wrap the cord carefully around the iron after it is cold.
+
+4. Always stand the iron where it will not fall off on a child or pet or
+your own toes.
+
+WHAT TO DO: Learn About Your Iron
+
+Materials Needed: An automatic iron, some old play clothes, towels,
+napkins or handkerchiefs, and an ironing board.
+
+
+Steps to Take:
+
+1. Watch an experienced person iron.
+
+2. Ask questions about what clothes need to be sprinkled.
+
+3. Study the thermostat settings on the dial or indicator.
+
+[Illustration: Most irons have a dial to set for the proper heat for
+different fabrics.]
+
+4. Ask about the kind of fabric each piece of clothing is--cotton,
+linen, silk, nylon, etc.--and why the iron should be at high heat for
+some, cooler for others.
+
+5. Set the thermostat for the amount of heat needed, and with an older
+person watching you, iron some handkerchiefs, napkins, bath towels, and
+a pair of play shorts or blue jeans.
+
+6. During a month iron some of these articles for your family, keeping a
+record of how many you do and what they were.
+
+7. Take care of your iron. Be responsible for storing it.
+
+  +--------+-----------------+-------------------+---------------------+
+  |        |       No.       |                   | Store Iron Properly |
+  |  Date  | Articles Ironed |  Type of Article  |      (check)        |
+  +--------+-----------------+-------------------+---------------------+
+  |        |                 |                   |                     |
+  +--------+-----------------+-------------------+---------------------+
+  |        |                 |                   |                     |
+  +--------+-----------------+-------------------+---------------------+
+
+
+IRONING IS FUN
+
+1. I (use) (do not use) an adjustable ironing Board at home. If I do, I
+adjust it to the height that just clears my knees easily as I sit in a
+comfortable chair. Yes No
+
+2. There are three kinds of irons usually used--dry iron, steam iron or
+a combination steam or dry iron. I use a ---- iron.
+
+3. I (have) (do not have) the instruction book. (If you do, read about
+the iron.) I know the iron's parts by their correct names. They are----.
+
+4. I disconnect the iron if I leave it even for only a minute. This is a
+safety measure as fires have been known to start from irons left
+connected. Yes No
+
+5. I take hold of the plug--not the cord--when disconnecting the iron.
+Yes No
+
+6. I wait until the iron is cold before wrapping the cord around the
+handle and storing the iron because----.
+
+7. Most irons have a thermostatic control. The iron I am using has
+settings for----.
+
+8. The purpose of the thermostat is----.
+
+9. These fabrics need high temperature.----
+
+These fabrics need medium temperature.----
+
+These fabrics need low temperature.----
+
+10. These fabrics need sprinkling.----
+
+11. The heat and smoothness of the sole plate smoothes the wrinkles.
+Pushing down on the handle or moving the iron rapidly only makes ironing
+hard work. I will iron slowly and steadily arranging and moving the
+garment with the left hand while guiding the iron with the right hand.
+(Or the other way for the left handed.) Yes No
+
+12. I have watched an experienced person iron. Yes No
+
+13. I have practiced on handkerchiefs, napkins and pillow cases.
+
+14. Here is my record of ironing for one month.
+
+
+    Month ----
+                                          Your Name ----
+
+    Date       I have ironed:
+    ---------+------------------------------------------------
+             |
+             |
+
+
+
+Demonstrations You Can Give
+
+1. Show a dry iron and a steam-and-dry iron. Tell the difference between
+them and when each is to be used.
+
+2. Display garments that look nice because they have been ironed
+properly, and those that have been ironed improperly. Explain about the
+heat, thermostat, type of iron and why results differ.
+
+
+For More Information
+
+At a club meeting ask a parent to give a demonstration of ironing
+different articles. Some power suppliers or dealers have people who will
+demonstrate the proper way to iron, and how to care for irons.
+
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-9
+Credit Points 2
+
+LET'S BE FRIENDS WITH ELECTRICITY
+
+Plan a Hazard Hunt
+
+
+Electricity can be your important lifelong friend and helper, so you
+will want to know all you can about it and how to treat it properly.
+However, careless and improper use of electricity can do a lot of harm.
+Used properly, and treated with respect, electricity can do wonderful
+things to help you every day in many ways.
+
+For safe and proper use of electricity, all wiring, fittings,
+insulation, cords and plugs must be in good condition. You can be a
+detective and track down defects in any such type of electrical
+equipment that you may be using in your home or on your farm.
+
+When you find anything that is wrong, and know where it is, and know
+what to do about it, you can very likely correct the condition yourself,
+such as replacing a worn extension cord with a new one. If you find
+defects in permanent wiring, or some places where wires are bare or
+terminals are needed, you should tell your parents about them.
+
+SAFETY FIRST, remember, should always be on your mind when working with
+anything electrical.
+
+
+WHAT TO DO:
+
+
+_1. Have A Hazard Hunt_
+
+Go on a Hazard Hunt to see how many electrical hazards you can find.
+Look for defects such as broken insulation, worn cords, splices that are
+not properly soldered and taped, loose connections, or switches that
+aren't working properly.
+
+There are many ways to have a Hazard Hunt. Choose the method that will
+be the most fun. Use the Hazard Hunt Guide in this outline to check your
+home, and other buildings. Maybe you'll want to have a friend help check
+your home, then you help him check his. Or, why not give each member of
+your family a Hazard Hunt Guide and have a contest? Parents may want to
+team up against you and other younger members of your family to see
+which team can find the most electrical hazards in some set time--say 30
+minutes.
+
+Have a Hazard Hunt Committee in your club check all member's homes and
+buildings and report its findings at the next club meeting.
+
+_To Make It More Fun_
+
+1. Put a hazard tag, like the one shown, (Figure 1) by each hazard that
+is found. Leave it until the hazard is corrected. Have another contest
+to see which member of the family corrects the most hazards.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1]
+
+2. Report on your Hazard Hunt at the next club meeting. Tell about the
+Hazards found, and what you have done or plan to do about them.
+
+3. Suggest that the entire club have an Electric Hazard Hunt at your
+club meeting places or any community building. This could be part of one
+meeting.
+
+4. Have a contest between two teams in the club to see which team can
+get the most homes in your community checked by the Hazard Hunt Guide.
+Losers could give a party for the winners.
+
+
+_2. Get Others Interested_
+
+Promote a community Electric Hazard Hunt. Enlist the support of power
+suppliers, electric supply and equipment dealers, schools, newspapers,
+radio and television stations.
+
+
+_What To Look For_
+
+Make a complete tour of your home and other buildings and see how many
+hazards you can locate. When you find a hazard, put a tag near it to
+mark it.
+
+
+SAFETY TIPS
+
+Put hazard tags _near_ the hazard but _not_ directly on broken or frayed
+wires, insulators, fittings, or other wiring equipment. Do not touch
+them either. Badly-frayed wires should be disconnected immediately from
+the power supply. In this way, you will not expose yourself to shock by
+accidentally touching an exposed live wire that may be carrying current.
+
+
+4-H Electric Hazard Hunt Guide
+
+_Wiring and Protective Devices_
+
+1. Cable or conduit splices not in boxes----
+
+2. Cable or conduit not securely clamped in boxes----
+
+3. Conduit or armored cable not properly grounded----
+
+4. Cracked or broken insulators (Figure 2)----
+
+5. Wire not completely covered with insulation----
+
+6. Worn insulation on wire----
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2]
+
+7. Old unused wiring not yet removed----
+
+8. Outlets, junction and switch boxes not securely fastened and covers
+not in place----
+
+9. Switches not working properly (sparks fly as switch is flipped)
+(Figure 3)----
+
+10. Fuses not of proper ampere rating for circuit----
+
+11. Extension cord used in place of permanent wiring----
+
+12. Pull chain socket without an insulating link in the chain----
+
+13. Pull chain socket near plumbing fixtures or where hands may be wet
+or one may stand in water----
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3]
+
+14. No moisture-proof cords for outside weather conditions or heavy
+rubber cords for motors and motor driven appliances
+
+
+_Lighting_
+
+1. Fixtures in farm buildings installed so that they might be easily
+damaged
+
+2. Lights in haymows and other dusty locations not protected by
+dustproof globes
+
+3. Outside sockets not waterproof
+
+4. Heat lamps not properly supported by non-current carrying wire,
+chains, or brackets (Figure 4)
+
+5. Light bulbs not frosted, shaded, or placed so that light is diffused
+to prevent glare
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4]
+
+
+_Auxiliary Wiring_
+
+1. Outlets overloaded--in other words, "octopus wiring"
+
+2. Extension cords placed under rugs
+
+3. Extension cords run through doorways (Figure 5)
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5]
+
+4. Extension cords or lamp cords should use underwriters' knot (Figure
+6)
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6]
+
+5. Plug connections fuzzy (Figure 7)
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7]
+
+6. Extension cords run over heaters or radiators
+
+7. Extension cords, or appliance or lamp cords, worn or frayed
+
+8. Heating appliances without regular asbestos covered wire
+
+9. Open sockets or outlets where a baby or small child might stick a
+finger or metal toy
+
+10. Broken plugs (Figure 8)----
+
+11. Loose prongs on appliance or lamps plugs----
+
+[Illustration: Figure 8]
+
+
+How Many Hazards Did You Find?
+
+Make a chart listing the hazards, their locations and what you did about
+them. Make your own chart and list what you find.
+
+Demonstrations You Can Give
+
+Show and tell others how to have a Hazard Hunt.
+
+For Further Information
+
+Check with your leader, then ask your power supplier or a local
+electrician to tell you about safe electrical wiring, connections and
+fixtures.
+
+    +-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
+    |Hazard                   | Location    |What I Did              |
+    +-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
+    |_Loose prong on lamp plug|Living Room  |Replaced with new plug_ |
+    +-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
+    |_Cracked insultor on     |Back of house|Notified power _        |
+    |_service wire in house   |             |supplier_               |
+    +-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
+    |_Conduit not securely    |Basement by  |Notified parents_       |
+    |_clamped to box          |fuse box_    |                        |
+    +-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
+    |_Extension cord, old and |Basement, by |Replaced with new_      |
+    |_worn                    |washing      |rubber-covered one and_ |
+    |                         |_machine     |protected it from _     |
+    |                         |             |_water_                 |
+    +-------------------------+-------------+------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-10
+Credit Points 3
+
+HOW ELECTRIC BELLS WORK--FOR YOU
+
+
+When was the last time you wanted to get a simple message like "You're
+wanted on the telephone," "There's someone here to see you," or "There's
+a car in the driveway," to someone around your place? Did you have to
+walk or run some distance and perhaps shout, too, to be heard by the
+other person? Perhaps you had to stop some other work, or interrupt your
+favorite kind of fun, to do this bit of messenger work.
+
+If the nature of the message is like one of those mentioned, and the
+number of people in hearing is not too great, then perhaps you can use
+bells or buzzers or both to do some of your messenger work for you. Even
+though a bell or a buzzer can't talk, it can convey a message.
+
+
+What to Do
+
+1. Learn how bells and buzzers work, and learn about the many different
+kinds.
+
+2. Plan and install a bell system for your home or farm.
+
+Bells and Buzzers Can Tell a Lot
+
+Electric bells and buzzers use the same basic principle as the telegraph
+system, invented by Samuel Morse in 1840. Although not as important
+today as it was before radio, telephone, and teletype became common, the
+telegraph is still in use.
+
+Bells and buzzers, however, are very common and have many uses. They are
+most often seen in the form of doorbells, and rare is the new home that
+does not have one or more. Service stations have bell systems to let the
+operator know that a car is waiting at the gas pumps. A clock signal
+reminds the homemaker when the cooking time is completed. Children are
+called to and released from school classes by means of bells and
+buzzers.
+
+Also, various alarms employing bells and buzzers warn us when it's time
+to get up, or even that the place is on fire, or that a burglar is
+trying to break in!
+
+Let's find out how bells and buzzers work, what different kinds there
+are, the different ways you can control them, and how you can put them
+to work for you.
+
+You'll find that buzzers and bells can help you with your 4-H projects,
+and with the proper controls, can be your eyes and voice in a dozen
+places at once.
+
+Why They Buzz or Ring--Electromagnetism
+
+If we were to look at an electric bell with the cover off, we'd find
+that it would be very much like Figure 1.
+
+A push on the button, which is just a switch that is normally held
+"open" or off by means of a spring, sends the current from the battery
+or transformer through the circuit.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1]
+
+You will see that the current passes first through two small coils of
+wire, and each coil has at its center a piece of soft iron called the
+core. When the current is on, the core becomes magnetized and attracts
+another piece of iron called the armature with its clapper attached.
+
+This action rings the bell, but it also breaks the current by pulling
+the spring away from the screw on its return to the power supply.
+
+With the power off, the electromagnet lets the spring return the
+armature to its normal position, contact is made again, and the cycle
+starts all over again--just as long as you continue to push on the
+button.
+
+Buzzers work exactly the same way, except that they do not have a bell
+and depend instead on the vibration of the armature for a noise that's
+not as loud or as musical.
+
+Gongs or chimes, that strike only once when the button is pushed, are
+made by connecting the armature with the screw by means of a flexible
+wire.
+
+
+A Special Kind of Electricity
+
+Most buzzers and bells work on a much lower voltage than you normally
+find in the wires in your house. Some are made to work at 6 volts,
+others at 10 volts, and still others at slightly higher voltages.
+
+You can get these low voltages by using one or more batteries, or by
+using a transformer connected to your house current. Most bells and
+buzzers are now powered through transformers.
+
+
+How to Control Them
+
+The push button is the most common means of control. You can use one
+button to control several bells, or several buttons to control one bell,
+or have several buttons control several bells. Because low voltage is
+used, adding extra buttons is simple, inexpensive, and safe.
+
+Buzzers and bells can also be controlled by: _clocks_, as in the
+interval timer on an electric range or in a school class bell system;
+_temperature detectors_, as in a fire alarm or freezer alarm; _door and
+window trips_, as in a one-man repair shop or in a burglar alarm; and
+_treadles_, as in the driveway of a service station.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2]
+
+
+Pick the Right Bell or Buzzer
+
+Some of the many different types of bells, and various ways of
+controlling them are suggested in the table below. Just remember that no
+matter what the job or conditions, you can probably find a bell or
+buzzer and controls that suit your need.
+
+
+SOME TYPICAL JOBS FOR BELLS & BUZZERS
+
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                  Number and
+                    Type of        location                Number and
+                    bell or        of  bells    Type of     location
+  Job               buzzer        and buzzers   control    of controls
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Summon others   In the house--   Enough to    Push-       One at the
+  to the           small to        cover all    buttons     telephone
+  telephone        medium buzzers  usual work               and each
+                  In               locations                extension
+                  outbuildings--                            phone
+                   medium to
+                   large bells
+                  Outdoors--
+                   large
+                   weatherproof
+                   bell
+                  All transformer-
+                   powered
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Notify club     Medium to large  One may be   Hose        One--in
+  member that      bell--          enough--if   diaphragm   the
+  car is at his    transformer-    mounted on               driveway
+  produce stand    powered         the back of  -----------------------
+                                   the stand     (Complete driveway
+                                                 including control,
+                                                 are available,
+                                                 ready to plug in.)
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Warn of power   Battery-powered  One near     Relay,       One, at
+  failure to       buzzer, medium  the          held open     main
+  incubator or     size            poultryman's as long as    switch of
+  brooder                          bedroom      power is on,  hatchery
+                                                closed by     or
+                                                spring if     brooder
+                                                interruption  house
+                                                occurs
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Warn of        Battery-powered   One, in or   Temperature  One, with
+  dangerously     buzzer, medium    near the    detector      bulb
+  warm            size              kitchen     (sensitive    inside
+  temperature                                   thermostat)   freezer
+  in freezer
+  ---------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+How to Plan Your System
+
+To save your time and steps when the telephone rings for someone else in
+your family who is some distance away, you can install a simple bell or
+buzzer system to summon that person.
+
+First, you must plan what you are going to do. On a large sheet of
+paper, draw to scale (roughly) a plan of your house and grounds,
+including those places where phones are located. It will help if you
+rule off your paper in 1/8" or 1/4" squares and let each square equal
+one foot. Show the location of poles supporting your wiring.
+
+Next, pick out those areas where you or others would likely be when
+someone else would answer the phone and want to call you to it.
+
+After you have thought about this, and talked it over with members of
+your family, show locations on your plan where you think you would like
+to have buzzers or bells, and show a button beside each telephone.
+(Generally, you should have a bell or buzzer near each phone, also.)
+
+Figure 3 shows diagrams of various types of systems, and will help you
+determine the number of wires you will have to install to connect the
+buttons and bells that you have planned.
+
+Inside, you will connect your transformer and the various buttons and
+bells with ordinary indoor bell wire. Outdoors, however, you should use
+weatherproof 2-wire or 3-wire telephone twist.
+
+Show on your plan the distances that must be traversed by each type of
+wire, and show the number of conductors in each. Don't overlook the
+vertical distances (one floor to another).
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3]
+
+
+Materials You'll Need
+
+Because no two situations are just alike, it will be necessary for you
+to make your own list of materials.
+
+As a guide, however, here is a list of typical materials, with the
+quantities left blank, for you to fill in as your own requirements and
+measurements dictate.
+
+        10-volt transformer
+    --- Door buzzers
+    --- Doorbells
+    --- Weatherproof outdoor type bells
+    --- ft. indoor bell wire
+    --- ft. 2-wire weatherproof telephone twist
+    --- ft. 3-wire weatherproof telephone twist
+    --- lbs. staples (insulated)
+    --- entrance insulators (for attaching
+        weatherproof to buildings and poles)
+
+Because your transformer must be wired into your regular house current,
+you should have some help on this from an electrician or other qualified
+person. Also, you should get that person to review your plans and
+materials list before you place an order.
+
+
+Install According to Your Plan
+
+With the aid of an electrician or other qualified person, install your
+transformer, and test it.
+
+You may then go ahead and complete your signal system, checking
+carefully with your plan, and making sure that your installations are
+both electrically and mechanically secure.
+
+Test your system in all possible ways that it might be used.
+
+
+Demonstrations You Can Give
+
+Build a demonstration board incorporating a farm or home layout, with
+pushbuttons or other controls and bells and buzzers appropriately
+located. Show and tell how the system would save time and energy.
+
+Show and tell how some of these work, and their value: power-off alarm,
+freezer alarm, fire alarm, driveway alarm.
+
+
+For More Information
+
+Ask your power supplier or your nearest electrical supply house for
+catalogs or literature on various types of signal systems, or ask a
+dealer to show you equipment he has in stock.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-11
+
+Credit Points 2
+
+FIRST AID FOR ELECTRICAL INJURIES
+
+
+What would you do if you saw someone who had been hurt by electricity?
+
+Did you know that you could save his life, if you had taken the time to
+learn and practice a few simple rules of electrical first aid?
+
+First aid training equips you to know what to do and what not to do for
+the injured until medical help can be obtained. While the main benefits
+are for you and your family, no one can call himself a good citizen if
+he fails to help a stranger who has been hurt.
+
+The information given here is only for electrical injuries. Perhaps what
+you learn will inspire you to take a complete course in first aid.
+
+
+What to Do
+
+Learn how to prevent electrical accidents, and what to do if an
+electrical accident occurs.
+
+1. Make an electrical hazard hunt in your home or on your farm. Point
+out to your parents everything that should be repaired or replaced for
+safety's sake.
+
+2. Read the first aid suggestions that follow. Learn them.
+
+3. Get to know the six steps that are outlined for mouth-to-mouth rescue
+breathing. Practice them on your brother, sister, or parents. Teach the
+entire family how to do it.
+
+
+Electricity Can Kill
+
+In this day of hundreds of uses of electricity, you should know about
+electrical dangers. Electrocution can occur from either low voltage
+(household type) or high voltage currents. Sometimes household voltages
+are more hazardous because people underestimate the dangers involved.
+
+A fraction of an ampere passing through your heart muscles can be fatal.
+Your body offers some resistance to the flow of electricity to ground.
+If you are standing on wet ground or in water, or if your skin is damp,
+this resistance is greatly reduced.
+
+Wire cables within walls and cords on appliances are all insulated with
+a shock proof covering. Continued use, age, or damage may expose a bare
+wire and create a hazard. The point of exposure need be only a fraction
+of an inch. Cords are often used and abused. Exposed wires and signs of
+wear are danger signals.
+
+Always be wary of overhead wires. People have been injured or killed
+when kite strings, model plane control lines, irrigation pipe, and water
+well equipment have come in contact with the power supplier's or their
+own overhead wiring.
+
+
+Prevent Accidents
+
+Underwriters' Laboratories (UL) have taken steps to see that minimum
+safety standards are met in the manufacture of electrical equipment.
+Look for the UL label when you buy cords or appliances. Never place
+cords under carpets or furniture, or drape them over a nail. Replace or
+repair worn cords without delay.
+
+Be especially careful when operating electric devices in the bathroom.
+Keep in mind the dangers of a wet floor, grounded metal pipes, and wet
+skin. Turning on an AC radio while you are taking a bath is asking for
+real trouble.
+
+There may be shorts in electric devices. Keep your hands dry when using
+them, and do not touch them along with grounded metal objects. If you
+ever get a slight shock, sound the danger signal and do something about
+it.
+
+
+Think, Then Act
+
+Your first thought in rescuing a victim from an electrical accident
+should be your own safety. Speed is also important, because a few
+seconds or minutes may save a life.
+
+The first question you should ask yourself is "Can I quickly turn off
+the power?" This would be easier to do in the home than outside. In the
+case of a victim trapped in a bathtub from a radio accidentally knocked
+into the water, it might mean simply removing the plug from the wall
+outlet. If a victim is found grasping shorted, permanently installed
+equipment and cannot let go, the main switch might be used for quick
+release of the current.
+
+Outdoors, especially with high tension wires, your danger in rescue is
+much greater. To handle the victim, touch him only with a long dry
+stick, dry rope, or a long length of dry cloth. Be sure your hands are
+dry and that you are standing on a dry board. A broom might be a good
+lever to pry a victim from a high tension wire but never use a green
+stick containing sap.
+
+
+
+First Aid
+
+Once the rescue has been made and the victim is free of further danger,
+check to see if breathing has stopped. If so, start artificial
+respiration _immediately_ and send someone for a doctor.
+
+Artificial respiration must be started as soon as possible after normal
+breathing ceases. _Most persons will die within 6 minutes or less if
+breathing stops completely unless they are given artificial
+respiration._ Precious minutes may have passed before you get to the
+victim. Since the victim may be within seconds of death by the time you
+are able to touch his body, you should seek to obtain an air flow to and
+from the lungs _immediately_.
+
+The victim may seem stiff as an effect of the current, so don't give up
+easily. Continue the procedure for several hours. If transportation is
+necessary, remember that there may be internal injury, fractures, or
+severe burns.
+
+
+Mouth-To-Mouth Rescue Breathing
+
+There are various effective ways to give artificial respiration, each
+with its advantages and disadvantages. The mouth-to-mouth method is
+recommended as a good one to master. It can be used on victims of
+drowning, suffocation, and asphyxiation, too. People have been known to
+save lives with less exposure to the correct procedure than you are
+getting by reading this. So, pay attention and remember what you read.
+
+Step 1. Turn the victim on his back. Wipe out victim's mouth quickly.
+Turn his head to the side. Use your fingers to get rid of mucus, food,
+sand, and other matter.
+
+[Illustration: Head Position]
+
+Step 2. Straighten victim's head and tilt back so that chin points up.
+Push or pull his jaw up into jutting out position to keep his tongue
+from blocking air passage. This position is essential for keeping the
+air passage open throughout the procedure.
+
+[Illustration: Push Jaw Up]
+
+[Illustration: Pinch Nostrils]
+
+Step 3. Take a deep breath, place your mouth tightly over victim's
+mouth, and pinch nostrils closed to prevent air leakage. For a baby,
+cover both nose and mouth tightly with your mouth. (Breathing through
+handkerchief or cloth placed over victim's mouth or nose will not
+greatly affect the exchange of air.)
+
+[Illustration: Breathe]
+
+Step 4. Breathe into victim's mouth or nose until you see his chest
+rise. (Air may be blown through victim's teeth, even though they may be
+clenched.)
+
+Step 5. Remove your mouth and listen for the sound of returning air. If
+there is no air exchange, recheck jaw and head position. If you still do
+not get air exchange, turn victim on side and slap him on back between
+shoulder blades to dislodge matter that may be in throat. Again, wipe
+his mouth to remove foreign matter.
+
+Step 6. Repeat breathing, removing mouth each time to allow air to
+escape. For an adult, breathe about 12 times per minute. For a child,
+take relatively shallow breaths, about 20 per minute. Continue until
+victim breathes for himself.
+
+
+What Did You Learn? True or False
+
+1. A broken arm should be splinted before artificial respiration is
+applied to a victim who is not breathing.
+
+2. A person who has been severely shocked with an electric current
+should lie down.
+
+3. A doctor should be called even though you successfully have revived a
+victim's breathing.
+
+4. A fraction of an ampere through the human heart muscles can be fatal.
+
+5. A copper wire would provide a better path than your body for stray
+currents, therefore all appliances should be grounded if possible.
+
+6. Outside wires are never a hazard because they are covered with
+insulation when they are installed.
+
+7. Cords need not be repaired until you can see bare wires.
+
+8. Tuning in an AC radio while you are bathing is always dangerous, even
+though your hands are dry.
+
+9. In an emergency, a broom is an acceptable tool for prying a victim
+off a high tension wire.
+
+10. In mouth-to-mouth breathing, an adult's lungs should be filled 12
+times per minute and a child's 20.
+
+
+Demonstrations You Can Give
+
+Show how to deal with an electrical first aid "problem" given to you by
+your leader.
+
+
+For More Information
+
+Ask your leader to have a first aid expert put on a demonstration. (Many
+industrial plants and power suppliers have such people.)
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-12
+
+Credit Points 3
+
+HOW ELECTRICITY HEATS
+
+
+In ancient times, people thought that heat was a material just as air
+is. They called it "caloric". When something got warm, they said,
+caloric flowed into it. When something cooled off, caloric flowed out of
+it. It did not bother them that they could not see caloric. They could
+not see air either!
+
+Now we know that heat is not a material. It does not take up space. It
+does not weigh anything. Instead, it is a form of energy. And when we
+say that heat is a form of energy, we mean that it can be used to do
+work.
+
+
+What to Do
+
+1. Make a simple resistance heater.
+
+2. Make some popcorn by:
+
+(a) conduction (b) convection (c) radiation
+
+
+"Resistance" Makes Heat
+
+There are at least four ways that electricity can make heat. The one
+that we'll cover here is _resistance_ heating. (The others are:
+_dielectric_ heating, where the lines of force of an electrostatic field
+pass through a non-conductive material and heat it; the _heat pump_,
+which is a refrigerator in reverse; and _electronic_ heating, which uses
+high frequency waves similar to radio waves to create high speed
+movement of the molecules or tiny particles which rub together to make
+heat.)
+
+_Resistance_ heating occurs because every conductor of electricity
+opposes the flow of current through it. Some conductors resist more than
+others. When they do, a certain amount of warming takes place. The more
+resistance that is offered, the more heating there is.
+
+Some materials, like silver, copper, and aluminum, offer little
+resistance. We say they are good conductors.
+
+Other materials, like iron, offer more resistance. They are still
+conductors, but not as good as the others mentioned.
+
+The _size_ of the conductor, and its _length_ are the other two things
+that affect its resistance. The _smaller_ it is, the greater its
+resistance. Also, the _longer_ it is, the greater its resistance.
+Therefore, when we only want to _move_ electricity from place to place,
+we want relatively large, "good" conductors. Here, we do not want to
+make heat. In fact, we want to avoid it, because too much heat in the
+wrong place can cause a fire.
+
+But when we want heat, we choose relatively small, "poor" conductors,
+and the more heat we want, the longer they must be. If you will think of
+the filament inside a lamp bulb; you may recall that it is a very fine
+wire, coiled so as to get a maximum length, and made of tungsten which
+has a high resistance.
+
+Because of all these factors, this filament glows at a white heat, and
+is a source of both light and heat.
+
+
+Make a Simple Resistance Heater
+
+_Materials you will need_:
+
+    1 dry cell battery
+    1 foot iron picture wire
+    Pliers
+
+Use a short strand of iron picture wire and hook the ends to the
+terminals of a dry cell battery. Use pliers so that you do not burn your
+fingers. Disconnect the wires as soon as they become hot. Tell why the
+wires heat.
+
+
+Conduction is "Touching" Heat
+
+Conduction occurs when you set a pan containing food right on a heating
+element. An egg cooking in a hot frying pan is a good example of
+conduction at work. This method is the most efficient single way of
+using electric heat for cooking.
+
+
+Convection Depends on Air
+
+Convection warms food in pans that are not actually touching the heating
+element. It uses the hot air around the element to carry heat to the
+pan.
+
+Your oven in your range works by convection. Most houses are warmed in
+winter in the same way. The heat produced in a furnace warms the air as
+it circulates through. This air in turn keeps your body warm.
+
+
+Radiation is Like the Sun
+
+Radiation heating is more difficult to explain. It results when heat or
+energy waves strike an object and are converted into heat. The energy we
+receive from the sun is a good example. When you are wearing dark
+clothes on a chilly day, you may become uncomfortably hot. The sunshine
+warms you even though the air around you has not been heated. Radiant
+energy has a way of being absorbed by dark objects and reflected by
+light colored or shiny surfaces. Did you ever notice how snow melts
+faster on a black top road than it does on a concrete road?
+
+The electric heat lamp is one of the most familiar sources of radiant
+heat. Other examples are panels and cables that are built into the walls
+and ceilings of homes to provide heat.
+
+
+Make Popcorn 3 Ways
+
+How do you make popcorn? Did you know that you can do this kind of a
+heating job three different ways?
+
+
+_Materials Needed_
+
+    Popcorn
+    Cooking oil or shortening
+    Salt and butter
+    4-qt. saucepan, with cover. (A glass cover
+      is preferred.)
+    Potholder
+    Electric range
+    2 250-watt heatlamps
+    2 spring clamp type lampholders
+    Wire mesh corn popping basket or wire
+      mesh kitchen strainer (improvise a
+      screen wire cover)
+
+_First_, make popcorn the way you usually do. Set a front surface unit
+control on the range at "medium high". Pour enough oil to very lightly
+cover the bottom of the pan. When the pan is hot, pour in enough popcorn
+to cover the bottom with one layer of kernels. Use the potholder in one
+hand to hold the cover on, and with the other move the pan back and
+forth across the unit. When the popping stops, remove from the heat.
+
+How did the heat get to the popcorn?
+
+_Second_, make popcorn in the oven. Add the oil to the pan, cover it and
+put it in the oven. Turn the oven on, with the automatic control set at
+400 deg. When the oven indicator light goes off, this means that the proper
+temperature has been reached. With the potholder, remove the pan and add
+one layer of popcorn kernels. Replace the pan in the oven. When the
+popping stops (listen for it) remove the pan.
+
+What kind of heating took place here?
+
+_Third_, make popcorn with the heat lamps. Clamp the lampholders to the
+back of a chair or other vertical support. They should be 6 to 8 inches
+apart and pointed directly at each other. Put about 2 tablespoonfuls of
+popcorn in the Wire basket or strainer. Do not add oil. Hold the basket
+midway between the two lamps. When the popping stops, turn off the
+lamps.
+
+What kind of heating was this?
+
+Now, butter and salt the popcorn you have made and share it with others.
+
+
+What Did You Learn?
+
+1. How is heat transferred from one body to another?
+
+2. Could chicks or pigs receive warmth from a heat lamp without the air
+in the pens becoming warm? Explain.
+
+3. How does a broiler unit in a range cook meat?
+
+4. How does an oven bake food?
+
+5. Tell why iron picture wire was used instead of copper wire for your
+heating demonstration.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-13
+
+Credit Points 2
+
+MYSTERIOUS MAGNETISM
+
+
+In ancient times, people found certain rocks that clung together in
+bunches. These rocks were very mysterious. People didn't understand them
+and many superstitions grew up about lodestones, as these rocks were
+called. Lodestone (sometimes spelled loadstone) means leading stone.
+People even told Columbus not to sail out of sight of land because a
+giant lodestone was just over the horizon waiting to pull all the nails
+out of his ships.
+
+The Chinese were the first to use magnets. They found that if you hung a
+lodestone by a string, one end of the stone would always point in the
+direction of the North Star. They had the first magnetic compasses.
+
+An artificial magnet can be made by stroking or gently rubbing a piece
+of steel with a lodestone. This piece of steel then can be used to
+magnetize another piece of steel. This can be continued on and on.
+Lodestones are not always available but you can get the same results
+with an electric current. So, magnetism and electricity are very closely
+related.
+
+
+What to Do
+
+Learn about magnetism by doing the experiments that follow.
+
+Seeing is believing!
+
+
+Materials You Will Need
+
+
+    2 dry cell batteries (#905)
+    A few feet of No. 18 bell wire
+    3  steel knitting needles or similar hard steel
+    2 ft. of light thread
+    Sheet of light cardboard or stiff paper
+    Permanent magnet (bar or horseshoe)
+    Compass
+    1 or more large nails or spikes
+    Red and black china-marking pencils or crayons
+
+    Iron filings
+    Wire cutters
+    Carpet tacks
+
+
+(Iron filings usually can be found under the grinding wheel in a shop.
+If you can't find any, rub some steel wool pads together to produce bits
+of metal that will do.)
+
+
+"See" a Magnetic Field
+
+Cover the permanent magnet with the cardboard or paper. Sprinkle iron
+filings on the paper. Tap the paper and note the pattern formed. Strings
+or lines of filings pass from one pole of the magnet to the other. The
+area covered by the filings is the center of the magnetic field. To
+remember this, you might compare the magnetic lines of force that
+arrange the iron filings to the contour strips in a farmer's field.
+
+This magnetic field is one of the important things in our everyday life
+with electricity. If it were not for the magnetic field, we would not
+have electric motors. Telephones, radios, television, and many other
+things we use every day also depend on this magnetic field.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1]
+
+
+Make an Electro-Magnet
+
+You can make magnetism work for you by winding several turns of
+insulated wire around one or more large nails or spikes (soft iron).
+Connect one end of the wire to the battery. Touch the other end of the
+wire to the other terminal for a few seconds and see how many tacks you
+can pick up. Repeat the experiment using as many turns as possible. How
+many more tacks were you able to pick up?
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2]
+
+You have made what we call an electromagnet. When you disconnect the
+wire, the nails fall off. This is one of the advantages of an
+electromagnet. We can turn magnetism on and off as we wish. Picture a
+crane operator throwing the switch and picking up scrap iron and steel.
+Then he opens the switch to drop the scrap metals.
+
+Soft iron can be magnetized easily as you have just seen, but loses its
+magnetism in a short time. Steel is harder to magnetize but holds its
+magnetism almost indefinitely.
+
+
+Make a Permanent Magnet
+
+Wrap the insulated bell wire around the steel knitting needle. The wire
+should be wrapped the full length of the needle. One end of the wire is
+connected to the battery. The other end of the wire is then touched for
+just a few seconds to the other terminal. This should make the needle
+into a permanent bar magnet. If you did not get results, try two
+batteries in series, wind more turns of wire on the needle, and leave it
+connected a little longer. Do the same thing with the second knitting
+needle. In the same way, you can magnetize a screwdriver, so that you
+can use it to pick up and hold steel screws. Don't do it unless you want
+your screwdriver to be magnetized.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3]
+
+
+See How They Attract and Repel
+
+Take one of the magnetized needles and hang it with a thread. A thread
+stirrup (Figure 4) will help keep it level. Be sure it is not near other
+large pieces of steel. Watch the needle. Does it settle down, pointing
+in one direction? (Check to see if this is the same direction as your
+compass). If it does, you have made a compass. The tip of the needle
+pointing north is called the North Pole (North-seeking pole). The other
+end is called the South Pole. Mark the North Pole with a stroke of the
+red marking pencil. Mark the South Pole black. Do the same thing with
+the second needle. You can show this with a sewing needle, and a notched
+cork, and a bowl of water. Rest the needle in the notched cork, and
+float it on the water.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4]
+
+Hold the compass near the North Pole of the needle. What happens? Does
+the South Pole of the needle attract the North or South Pole of the
+compass? Try this with the second magnetized needle. See if you can
+prove the rule that like poles repel (drive away) and unlike poles
+attract.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5]
+
+Connect one end of a wire loop to the battery and run the wire directly
+over the compass. Touch the other end of the wire to the battery. Which
+way does the compass point now? If you get some motion out of the
+compass needle, this proves there is a magnetic field around the wire
+when current is flowing. This relation between electricity and magnetism
+is the thing that makes electric motors and generators work.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6]
+
+
+Make Many From One
+
+Lay the third needle (unmagnetized) on a table and stroke it with one of
+the magnetized needles. (See diagram) Always stroke it in the same
+direction. Raise the magnetized needle at least two inches on each
+return stroke. Thus you can magnetize the needle by using the other
+needle.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7]
+
+Use the wire cutters to cut the first magnetized needle in short
+lengths. (Cover the needle with a cloth to keep the pieces from flying.)
+Can you show by using the compass that each piece is a complete magnet?
+Hold one end, then the other, of each piece to a compass. Does each
+piece have both a North Pole and a South Pole?
+
+
+Magnetism and Animals
+
+The things you have done show that electricity and magnetism are related
+in many ways. Magnetism is mysterious, and there are still things to
+discover about it. It is thought that animals and birds are aided in
+their sense of direction by magnetism. It is commonly known that when a
+person gets lost in the woods, he tends to go around in circles.
+Possibly this is caused by the earth's magnetic field.
+
+
+What Did You Learn?
+
+1. Where are natural magnets obtained?
+
+2. How can artificial magnets be made?
+
+3. What material is needed for a permanent magnet? For a temporary
+magnet?
+
+4. How can you find out which is the North Pole of an unmarked magnet?
+
+5. How many poles does a magnet have?
+
+6. Which magnetic poles attract each other?
+
+7. Why couldn't you make a compass out of a strip of plastic?
+
+8. What causes the compass to change direction when a wire carrying
+battery current is held over the needle?
+
+9. List the materials you would need and tell how you would build a
+homemade compass.
+
+10. Tell what you enjoyed most about becoming acquainted with mysterious
+magnetism.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-14
+
+Credit Points 2
+
+Give your appliances and lights a square meal
+
+
+Would you say that having enough to eat was pretty important in the home
+that you know?
+
+The "food" for your appliances and lights is electricity, and like you
+they must be "fed" enough.
+
+
+What to Do
+
+1. List the appliances and lights in your home.
+
+2. See if any of them are "starving" for the electricity they need.
+
+3. Learn how the electricity gets to where it's used.
+
+4. Make a chart of the electrical circuits in your home.
+
+5. Make sure that each circuit is protected with the right fuse or
+circuit breaker.
+
+
+Count Your Electrical Blessings
+
+Many people in much of the rest of the world wish that they could trade
+places with us, because we have so many electrical appliances in our
+homes.
+
+Of course, we have not always had as many appliances as there are today.
+When electricity first came along, people used it only for lights. Then,
+they began to add flatirons, washing machines, refrigerators, coffee
+percolators, and radios.
+
+Then more and more electrical things were made for people to use and
+enjoy. Now we have dozens and dozens of uses for electricity in our
+homes.
+
+How many different uses for electricity are there in your home today?
+Ask your parents how many there were when your home was built or first
+wired. How many were _common_ when your parents began to keep house?
+
+
+Some Homes Are Behind Times
+
+Many older homes were built before electricity was available, and were
+wired later. And like them, some older homes that were wired as they
+were built had only enough wiring for lights and a few other appliances,
+because those were the only uses that were known at that time.
+
+But people kept on living in these homes, and kept adding to the uses
+they made of electricity without adding to their wiring.
+
+What has this meant? Well, if electricity were like cars and trucks, you
+could say that some people are trying to put turnpike traffic through a
+back-country dirt road!
+
+
+Watch for Signs of Starvation
+
+Of course, as your state has done with its highways, some people have
+expanded and modernized their wiring. But many others have not yet seen
+this need, or if they have, they may have to do it again.
+
+Here's why:
+
+Your power supplier delivers current to you at the right voltage or
+electrical pressure. If the wires in your house are large enough, they
+will pass this full voltage on to the appliances.
+
+But if your wiring is too small, the electricity arrives at the
+appliances so weak that they can't work properly, and much of what you
+pay for is wasted.
+
+Here are some things you can watch for in your own home. They will tell
+you whether your appliances are getting enough electrical "food" or not.
+
+1. _A shrinking TV picture_--If it draws in from the sides of the
+screen, fades, loses contrast, or if the sound becomes distorted, you
+may have low voltage.
+
+2. _Too much fuse blowing or circuit breaker tripping._
+
+3. _Heating appliances are slow to do their jobs._
+
+4. _Lights dimming_, when motors or other appliances are turned on.
+
+
+There Should Be Enough Ways to Get "Appliance-Food" Around
+
+If appliances in your home show these starvation signs, then you may not
+have enough ways for the electricity to get to where it's used.
+
+There are three kinds of these electrical highways or circuits, and your
+home should have enough of each:
+
+1. _General purpose circuits_--These serve lights all over the house,
+and convenience outlets everywhere except in the kitchen, laundry, and
+dining areas.
+
+A rule-of-thumb is: There should be at least one general purpose circuit
+for each 500 sq. ft. of floor space.
+
+2. _Small appliance circuits_--These are not used for lights, but
+instead they supply convenience outlets in the kitchen, laundry, and
+dining areas where portable appliances are most used.
+
+Every home should have at least two small-appliance circuits.
+
+3. _Individual or special-purpose circuits_--One of these is needed for
+each: electric range, dishwasher, water heater, freezer, automatic
+washer, clothes dryer, air conditioner, pump, and house heating
+equipment.
+
+    +----------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |          |      |      |      |      |       |
+    |  Actual  |      |      |      |      |       |
+    |   Size   |      |      |      |      |       |
+    +----------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |  Gauge   |      |      |      |      |       |
+    |   Size   |  14  |  12  |  10  |   8  |    6  |
+    +----------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    | Fuse or  |      |      |      |      |       |
+    | Breaker  |  15  |  20  |  30  |  40  |   55  |
+    +----------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |Max. Watts|      |      |      |      |       |
+    |at 115 V. | 1725 | 2300 | 3450 | 4600 |  6325 |
+    +----------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+    |Max. Watts|      |      |      |      |       |
+    |at 230 V. | 3450 | 4600 | 6900 | 9200 | 12750 |
+    +----------+------+------+------+------+-------+
+
+[Illustration: Wire sizes commonly used in homes]
+
+
+Each Circuit Big Enough
+
+The capacity of each circuit is limited by the size of its wires. The
+chart above shows you the actual sizes of wires commonly used in
+permanent home wiring, and what each will carry. Notice that each size
+is given a number, and the smaller the number, the bigger the wire.
+
+Also notice that a given size of wire will carry twice as many watts at
+230 volts as it will at 115 volts. (Watts are figured by multiplying
+amps times volts.)
+
+General purpose circuits usually are either Number 14 or Number 12 wire,
+at 115 volts. What is the capacity of each, in watts? (Number 12 wire is
+recommended for all new general purpose circuits.)
+
+Small appliance circuits are required to be at least Number 12 wire.
+
+Individual circuits are always sized according to the appliance they
+serve. Find the size wire that should be used for a 10, 000-watt,
+230-volt range; a 1500-watt, 115-volt dishwasher; a 4500-watt, 230-volt
+clothes dryer. ________ ________ ________
+
+
+Only One Fuse Size Right
+
+A fuse in an electrical circuit is like an alert traffic
+policeman--stopping everything if there's danger. A circuit breaker
+serves the same purpose, and the right size is installed when the wiring
+is done.
+
+A policeman uses his brain to tell him when to blow his whistle, but a
+fuse depends on the size of the little fusible (meltable) metal link
+that you see under the glass.
+
+If too great an electrical load is added to a circuit, this link will
+melt and prevent a dangerous overload. If you put in a fuse with too
+heavy a link, it will not melt in time, and the wiring and equipment may
+be damaged.
+
+Therefore the right size of fuse is very important, and is something
+that you should check in your own home.
+
+See the chart above for the right fuse for each size wire.
+
+
+Make a Circuit Chart
+
+At one or more places in your home there is a box or panel containing
+the fuses or breakers for the various circuits. Attached to the inside
+of the door of each such panel should be a chart something like this:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+    +-----+---------------------+-----------+
+    | No. |     Description     | Fuse size |
+    +-----+---------------------+-----------+
+    |  1  |        Range        |    40     |
+    +-----+---------------------+-----------+
+    |  2  |   Kitchen Outlets   |    20     |
+    +-----+---------------------+-----------+
+    |  3  | Dining Room Outlets |    20     |
+    +-----+---------------------+-----------+
+    |  4  | Living Room Outlets |    15     |
+    +-----+---------------------+-----------+
+    |     |                     |           |
+    +-----+---------------------+-----------+
+    |     |                     |           |
+    +-----+---------------------+-----------+
+
+Notice that in our chart we have made columns for a description of what
+each circuit serves, its number or position in the panel, and the proper
+size fuse for it.
+
+Because most such charts leave out this last very important bit of
+information, you should make a complete new chart, like the one shown.
+Provide as many lines as there are fuse positions. Paste or tape it to
+the inside of the panel door.
+
+Then, ask permission of your parents to disconnect all the circuits by
+unscrewing the fuses or flipping the circuit breakers. _Do not touch
+anything but the fuse rim._ Then reconnect them, one at a time, to find
+out what each circuit serves. Turn on as many lights as you can, to help
+you in your detective work. Use a test lamp at those outlets that do not
+have a light connected to them. Write two or three words describing each
+circuit on the proper line on your chart.
+
+On a separate sheet, keep track of the appliances and lights that are on
+each circuit, and add up the watts. (If the name-plate of any appliance
+gives "amperes", "amps", or "A" instead of watts, just remember that
+amps times volts equals watts.) This will tell you if any of them are
+overloaded. Show this sheet to your parents.
+
+
+Check the Wire Sizes
+
+_Disconnect the main switch_, and determine the size of the wires in
+each circuit. Don't include the insulation in your measurement.
+
+
+_BE CAREFUL!
+
+Even though you have disconnected the main switch, the wires coming into
+it are still "live". So, do not touch any wires. Instead hold the wire
+size chart near them so that you can tell which gauge each one is._
+
+Write in the proper size fuse for each circuit on your chart.
+
+
+Replace Any Wrong-Size Fuses
+
+Do the fuse sizes you have written on your chart agree with the ones
+that are in place in the panel?
+
+Get the right size fuses and replace any that are wrong. Make sure that
+you have a reserve supply of the right sizes, and that they are handy
+for future use.
+
+
+Talk it Over With Your Parents
+
+Do you think that your home has enough of the proper size circuits? If
+not, talk it over with your parents. They may want to ask an electrician
+to go over the wiring and make the necessary changes.
+
+
+What Did You Learn?
+
+(Underline the right answer.)
+
+1. A (television set, radio) is very sensitive to changes in voltage.
+
+2. Dimming lights mean (static in the wires, an electrical overload).
+
+3. Wires that become warm from overload make it (more expensive,
+cheaper) to operate the equipment.
+
+4. A home of 2,000 sq. ft. should have at least (three, four) general
+purpose circuits.
+
+5. One solution to low voltage symptoms is (heavier fuses, more
+circuits).
+
+6. Full capacity for a Number 14 wire circuit at 115 volts is (1725
+watts, 3000 watts).
+
+7. A room air conditioner should be on (a general purpose, an
+individual) circuit.
+
+8. The purpose of a fuse is to (let you disconnect the circuit,
+automatically prevent overloading the circuit).
+
+9. The right size fuse is determined by (wire size, the store where you
+buy it).
+
+10. A circuit chart should give (circuit description and fuse size, the
+maker's name).
+
+
+Demonstrations You Can Give
+
+Ask your leader to help you plan a demonstration. You can show how
+lights dim when too many other appliances are connected, how a fuse
+protects against overloading, and the danger of using too large a fuse.
+
+
+For More Information
+
+Ask your Extension agent, power supplier, or electrician for additional
+help.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON NO. B-15
+
+Credit Points 4
+
+YOU CAN MEASURE ELECTRICITY
+
+
+Instruments that can detect or measure the flow of electricity have
+helped to make possible the wonders of electricity as we know them
+today.
+
+Scientists in laboratories must have measuring devices for experiments
+leading to new uses of electricity. Power suppliers must have
+instruments that tell what the generating equipment is doing and to
+measure the amount of electricity being sold to users. Factories need
+instruments that keep tab on electrical equipment to make sure
+electricity is being used efficiently.
+
+In fact, almost anywhere you find electric power at work you'll find
+electrical instruments--even in your home. The one you know best
+measures the amount of electricity used. Another, in the family car,
+shows whether the generator is charging the battery or if the battery is
+discharging.
+
+
+What to Do
+
+1. Make a simple kind of direct-current meter that will show you that
+there's a magnetic field around a wire carrying an electric current and
+that will detect a very tiny current.
+
+2. Make a more refined D.C. instrument (galvanoscope) and measure the
+voltage of different sizes of dry batteries, and show how an electric
+current can be induced.
+
+
+Tools and Materials You'll Need:
+
+    Pair of pliers, knife, small hammer
+    30 feet of No. 24 bell or magnet wire
+    Compass
+    Two coins--a penny and a dime
+    Fine sandpaper
+    Blotting paper
+    Plastic or cellophane tape
+    Wooden blocks (See Figure 4)
+    Glue
+    2 small nails
+    One #905 dry cell, a penlight battery, and
+      two regular flashlight batteries
+    Table salt
+    Drinking glass
+    2 paper clips
+    Two machine bolts
+
+
+How They Work
+
+Like many electrical things, most electrical instruments depend on the
+action of magnetism created by an electric current. There is a magnetic
+_field_ or lines of force around any wire carrying an electric current.
+If this field is controlled and made to react on a sensitive device,
+like an easily moved pointer, we have an electrical instrument.
+
+
+Detect a Magnetic Field
+
+First, let's prove that there is a magnetic field around any wire
+carrying an electric current. Take a piece of wire about two feet long
+and scrape off about an inch of insulation from each end. Connect one
+end to a battery terminal. Make a loop of wire that crosses the face of
+your compass, north to south. Now touch the other end of the wire to the
+other battery terminal.
+
+(DO NOT attempt to substitute alternating current, as from a model
+railroad transformer because its alternating current will cause the
+compass needle to swing rapidly from one side to the other.)
+
+[Illustration: Figure 1.
+
+Put your right hand beneath the wire so that your fingers point the way
+the needle deflects, and your thumb will point in the direction that the
+current is flowing.]
+
+What happens? Your compass needle should move to one side because it is
+very sensitive to magnetic influences. This proved that the wire created
+a magnetic field or lines of force when we passed electricity through
+it. (Figure 1)
+
+
+Detect a Tiny Current
+
+How sensitive is your simple electric meter? Take about five feet of
+wire and wrap it around your compass as in Figure 2, keeping the turns
+bunched together as much as you can. Leave about six inches at both ends
+of the wire extended for leads. Scrape the insulation off the last inch
+of both. Rotate the coil and compass until the needle and coil are
+parallel, both pointing north and south.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 2]
+
+Take a copper penny and a dime, and clean off any corrosion or film on
+the coin faces with a bit of fine sandpaper. Now take a piece of
+blotting paper about the size of the penny and dip it into strong salt
+water. Place the damp blotting paper between the penny and the dime.
+Place one of your compass coil leads against the dime, and the other
+against the penny as shown in Figure 3. Be sure you have good
+metal-to-metal contact between the wires and the coins.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 3]
+
+At the instant that you squeeze the leads against the coins, watch what
+is happening to the compass needle. It should move for an instant from
+the north position each time you press the leads against the two coins.
+
+Obviously, the little coin battery you have just made produces a very
+weak electrical current. Even so, your instrument should be able to
+detect it.
+
+
+Make a Simple Galvanoscope
+
+Now let's make a meter that is a little more practical to use. Broadly
+speaking, a galvanoscope is an instrument that detects the presence of
+electric currents. It sounds complicated but it is really quite simple.
+It is named in honor of an Italian professor named Galvani who made
+important early experiments with electricity.
+
+A refinement of the galvanoscope is today's galvanometer. Other related
+instruments are the voltmeter and ammeter. These are very important
+instruments to the electrical engineer.
+
+Using a glass or anything three to four inches in diameter, wind about
+20 turns of wire in a "bunched" coil as in Figure 4. Wrap the coil at
+several points with cellophane or plastic tape to keep it from
+unwinding.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 4]
+
+Make a wood base for your coil as shown in Figure 4. The compass support
+blocks can be thin wood slats. Do not attach them with steel nails or
+tacks. Use glue instead. Hold the coil in the slot between the blocks
+with glue or melted wax or use copper staples. Place the compass on the
+supports and rotate the base so that the compass needle and coil are
+parallel, pointing north and south.
+
+
+Measure the Voltage of Batteries
+
+Do you know what difference the size of dry cell battery makes in the
+voltage it supplies? Your meter can tell you.
+
+To test the voltage of batteries we must be able to control our
+galvanoscope. To do this, connect a glass of strong salt water in series
+with the battery as shown in Figure 5. Make sure the wire ends immersed
+in the salt water are scraped free of enamel.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 5]
+
+With one of the batteries connected, move the wires in the salt water
+first closer, then farther apart (keeping them parallel to each other)
+while watching your compass needle. When the needle stays 15 to 20
+degrees off north, lock the wires in the salt solution in place with
+paper clips.
+
+Now disconnect the battery you have been using and connect a smaller
+battery. If both batteries are fresh, the compass needle should return
+to almost the same spot. This proves that both batteries regardless of
+size put out the very same voltage. The larger ones, however, are
+designed to last longer.
+
+
+Measure the Difference between Series and Parallel
+
+Using the salt solution as in the previous experiment, connect two
+flashlight batteries in series as shown in Figure 6. The compass needle
+should move about twice as far as it did with one battery connected.
+This shows that when you connect batteries this way you double their
+voltage.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 6]
+
+Now place your batteries side by side and connect the two top terminals
+and the two bases as shown in Figure 7. The compass needle should move
+only as much as it did for one battery. This is called a parallel
+connection. You can see that this arrangement does not double the
+voltage, even though you used two batteries.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 7]
+
+While you have this hookup, try reversing the position of the leads
+connected to your batteries. Notice that reversing the direction of
+current flow in the coil causes the compass needle to swing in the
+opposite direction.
+
+
+Test for Induced Current
+
+Make a simple coil by winding about 50 turns of wire around a machine
+bolt core. The bolt should be 1/4 to 1/2" in diameter and about two
+inches long. Connect the coil to your galvanoscope as shown in Figure 8.
+Pass the coil back and forth close to the end of a permanent magnet.
+[Illustration: Figure 8]
+
+Notice a slight deflection of the compass needle with each pass. You
+have shown that electricity can be induced in a wire coil by moving it
+through a magnetic field. Currents generated in this way are called
+induced currents.
+
+[Illustration: Figure 9]
+
+Now make another coil and core just like the first one and arrange them
+and a connection as shown in Figure 9. If you make and break the current
+to the second coil, you will build up and collapse a magnetic field
+around the first coil and again induce a current in it. You will see the
+compass needle swing back and forth again.
+
+These last two experiments give you a crude idea of how an electric
+generator works, producing electric current by induction as a coil-wound
+rotor revolves within a magnetic field.
+
+
+What Did You Learn?
+
+What does every current-carrying wire have around it? How does this help
+us to measure electricity? How sensitive are electrical instruments?
+What is the difference in voltage between (a) a large and a small dry
+cell? (b) batteries connected in series and in parallel? (c) your
+original connection and the reverse of it? What similarity does the test
+for induced current show between movement through a magnetic field and
+the making and breaking of a direct current?
+
+
+Demonstrations You Can Give
+
+Show others how your galvanoscope can detect: whether a battery is
+producing current, which way the current is flowing, and whether a
+current is strong or weak. Demonstrate how a current can be generated
+using magnetism.
+
+
+For More Information
+
+Ask your power supplier representative to show you some of the
+instruments used by his organization, and to give you a brief
+explanation of how they work. Ask him or an electrician to give you a
+demonstration of a split-core ammeter.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELECTRICITY FOR THE 4-H SCIENTIST***
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