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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Schools, School-Books and Schoolmasters, by 
+W. Carew Hazlitt
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Schools, School-Books and Schoolmasters
+
+Author: W. Carew Hazlitt
+
+Release Date: November 15, 2011 [EBook #38017]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCHOOLS, SCHOOL-BOOKS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive.)
+
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+
+
+
+
+
+  A SELECT LIST OF
+  Works or Editions
+  BY WILLIAM CAREW HAZLITT
+  OF THE INNER TEMPLE
+  _CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED
+  1860-1888_.
+
+
+1. History of the Venetian Republic; Its Rise, its Greatness, and its
+Civilisation. With Maps and Illustrations. 4 vols. 8vo. _Smith, Elder &
+Co._ 1860.
+
+A new edition, entirely recast, with important additions, in 3 vols. crown
+8vo, is in readiness for the press.
+
+2. Old English Jest-Books, 1525-1639. Edited with Introductions and Notes.
+_Facsimiles._ 3 vols. 12mo. 1864.
+
+3. Remains of the Early Popular Poetry of England. With Introductions and
+Notes. 4 vols. 12mo. _Woodcuts._ 1864-66.
+
+4. Handbook to the Early Popular, Poetical, and Dramatic Literature of
+Great Britain. Demy 8vo. 1867. Pp. 714, in two columns.
+
+5. Bibliographical Collections and Notes. 1867-76. Medium 8vo. 1876.
+
+This volume comprises a full description of about 6000 Early English books
+from the books themselves. It is a sequel and companion to No. 4. See also
+No. 6 _infrâ_.
+
+6. Bibliographical Collections and Notes. SECOND SERIES. 1876-82. Medium
+8vo. 1882.
+
+    Uniform with First Series. About 10,000 titles on the same principle
+    as before.
+
+    "Mr. W. C. Hazlitt's second series of _Bibliographical Collections and
+    Notes_ (Quaritch) is the result of many years' searches among rare
+    books, tracts, ballads, and broadsides by a man whose specialty is
+    bibliography, and who has thus produced a volume of high value. If
+    any one will read through the fifty-four closely printed columns
+    relating to Charles I., or the ten and a half columns given to
+    'London' from 1541 to 1794, and recollect that these are only a
+    supplement to twelve columns in Hazlitt's _Handbook_ and five and a
+    half in his first _Collections_, he will get an idea of the work
+    involved in this book. Other like entries are 'James I.,' 'Ireland,'
+    'France,' 'England,' 'Elizabeth,' 'Scotland' (which has twenty-one and
+    a half columns), and so on. As to the curiosity and rarity of the
+    works that Mr. Hazlitt has catalogued, any one who has been for even
+    twenty or thirty years among old books will acknowledge that the
+    strangers to him are far more numerous than the acquaintances and
+    friends. This second series of _Collections_ will add to Mr. Hazlitt's
+    well-earned reputation as a bibliographer, and should be in every real
+    library through the English-speaking world. The only thing we
+    desiderate in it is more of his welcome marks and names, B. M.,
+    Britwell, Lambeth, &c., to show where all the books approaching rarity
+    are. The service that these have done in Mr. Hazlitt's former books to
+    editors for the Early-English Text, New Shakspere, Spenser, Hunterian,
+    and other societies, has been so great that we hope he will always say
+    where he has seen the rare books that he makes entries
+    of."--_Academy_, August 26, 1882.
+
+7. Bibliographical Collections and Notes. A THIRD AND FINAL SERIES. 1886.
+8vo.
+
+    Uniform with the First and Second Series. This volume contains upwards
+    of 3000 articles. All three are now on sale by Mr. Quaritch.
+
+8. Memoirs of William Hazlitt. With Portions of his Correspondence.
+_Portraits after miniatures by John Hazlitt._ 2 vols. 8vo. 1867.
+
+    During the last twenty years the Author has been indefatigable in
+    collecting additional information for the _Life of Hazlitt_, 1867, in
+    correcting errors, and in securing all the unpublished letters which
+    have come into the market, some of great interest, with a view to a
+    new and improved edition.
+
+9. Inedited Tracts. Illustrating the Manners, Opinions, and Occupations of
+Englishmen during the 16th and 17th Centuries. 1586-1618. With an
+Introduction and Notes. _Facsimiles._ 4to. 1868.
+
+10. The Works of Charles Lamb. Now first collected, and entirely
+rearranged. With Notes. 4 vols. 8vo. _E. Moxon & Co._ 1868-69.
+
+11. Letters of Charles Lamb. With some Account of the Writer, his Friends
+and Correspondents, and Explanatory Notes. By the late Sir Thomas Noon
+Talfourd, D.C.L., one of his Executors. An entirely new edition, carefully
+revised and greatly enlarged by W. Carew Hazlitt. 2 vols. 1886. Post 8vo.
+
+
+11a. Mary and Charles Lamb. New Facts and Inedited Remains. 8vo. _Woodcuts
+and Facsimiles._ 1874.
+
+    The groundwork of this volume was an Essay by the writer in
+    _Macmillan's Magazine_.
+
+12. English Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases. Arranged alphabetically and
+annotated. Medium 8vo. 1869. Second Edition, corrected and greatly
+enlarged, crown 8vo. 1882.
+
+13. Narrative of the Journey of an Irish Gentleman through England in
+1751. From a MS. With Notes. 8vo. 1869.
+
+14. The English Drama and Stage, under the Tudor and Stuart Princes.
+1547-1664. With an Introduction and Notes. 8vo. 1869.
+
+    A series of reprinted Documents and Treatises.
+
+15. Popular Antiquities of Great Britain. I. The Calendar. II. Customs and
+Ceremonies. III. Superstitions. 3 vols. Medium 8vo. 1870.
+
+    Brand's _Popular Antiquities_, by Ellis, 1813, taken to pieces,
+    recast, and enormously augmented.
+
+16. Inedited Poetical Miscellanies. 1584-1700. Thick 8vo. With Notes and
+Facsimiles. 50 copies privately printed. 1870.
+
+17. Warton's History of English Poetry. An entirely new edition, with
+Notes by Sir F. Madden, T. Wright, F. J. Furnivall, R. Morris, and others,
+and by the Editor. 4 vols. Medium 8vo. 1871.
+
+18. The Feudal Period. Illustrated by a Series of Tales (from Le Grand).
+12mo. 1874.
+
+19. Prefaces, Dedications, and Epistles. Prefixed to Early English Books.
+1540-1701. 8vo. 1874.
+
+    50 copies privately printed.
+
+20. Blount's Jocular Tenures. Tenures of Land and Customs of Manors.
+Originally published by Thomas Blount of the Inner Temple in 1679. An
+entirely new and greatly enlarged edition by W. Carew Hazlitt, of that
+Ilk. Medium 8vo. 1874.
+
+21. Dodsley's Select Collection of Old Plays. A new edition, greatly
+enlarged, corrected throughout, and entirely rearranged. With a Glossary
+by Dr. Richard Morris. 15 vols. 8vo. 1874-76.
+
+22. Fairy Tales, Legends, and Romances. Illustrating Shakespear and other
+Early English Writers. 12mo. 1875.
+
+23. Shakespear's Library: A Collection of the Novels, Plays, and other
+Material supposed to have been used by Shakespear. An entirely new
+edition. 6 vols. 12mo. 1875.
+
+24. Fugitive Tracts (written in verse) which illustrate the Condition of
+Religious and Political Feeling in England, and the State of Society
+there, during two centuries. 1493-1700. 2 vols. 4to. 50 copies privately
+printed. 1875.
+
+25. Poetical Recreations. By W. C. Hazlitt. 50 copies printed. 12mo. 1877.
+
+    A new edition, revised and very greatly enlarged, is in preparation.
+
+26. The Baron's Daughter. A Ballad. 75 copies printed. 4to. 1877.
+
+27. The Essays Of Montaigne. Translated by C. Cotton. An entirely new
+edition, collated with the best French text. With a Memoir, and all the
+extant Letters. _Portrait and Illustrations._ 3 vols. 8vo. 1877.
+
+    The only library edition.
+
+28. Catalogue of the Huth Library. [English portion.] 5 vols. Large 8vo.
+1880. 200 copies printed.
+
+29. Offspring of Thought in Solitude. Modern Essays. 1884. 8vo, pp. 384.
+
+    Some of these Papers were originally contributed to _All the Year
+    Round_, &c.
+
+30. Old Cookery Books and Ancient Cuisine. 12mo. 1886.
+
+31. An Address to the Electors of Mid-Surrey, among whom I Live. In
+Rejoinder to Mr. Gladstone's Manifesto. 1886. 8vo, pp. 32.
+
+  "Who would not grieve, if such a man there be?
+   Who would not weep, if Atticus were he?"--POPE.
+
+32. Gleanings in Old Garden Literature. 12mo. 1887.
+
+33. Schools, School-books, and Schoolmasters. A Contribution to the
+History of Educational Development. 12mo. 1888.
+
+34. Studies in Jocular and Anecdotal Literature. 12mo. _In January next._
+
+
+
+
+SCHOOLS, SCHOOL-BOOKS, AND SCHOOLMASTERS.
+
+
+
+
+  SCHOOLS SCHOOL-BOOKS AND SCHOOLMASTERS
+
+  A Contribution to the history of Educational
+  Development in Great Britain
+
+
+  BY W. CAREW HAZLITT
+
+
+  LONDON
+  J. W. JARVIS & SON
+  KING WILLIAM STREET, STRAND
+  1888
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+Although the commencing section has been thrown into the introductory
+form, it has seemed to me necessary to annex a few lines by way of
+preface, in order to explain that the following pages do not pretend to
+deal exhaustively with the subject of which they treat, but offer to
+public consideration a series of representative types and selected
+specimens. To have barely enumerated all the authors and works on British
+education would fill a volume much larger than that in the hands of the
+reader.
+
+My main object has been to trace the sources and rise of our educational
+system, and to present a general view of the principles on which the
+groundwork of this system was laid. So far as I am capable of judging,
+the narrative will be found to embody a good deal that is new and a good
+deal that ought to be interesting.
+
+The bias of the volume is literary, not bibliographical; but its
+production has involved a very considerable amount of research, not only
+among books which proved serviceable, but among those which yielded me no
+contribution to my object.
+
+W. C. H.
+
+  BARNES COMMON, SURREY,
+  _November 1887_.
+
+
+
+
+SCHOOLS, SCHOOL-BOOKS, AND SCHOOLMASTERS.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+    Introductory survey of the old system of teaching--Salutary influence
+    of the Church--Education of Englishmen in their own homes and on the
+    Continent--Severity of early discipline--Dr. Busby.
+
+
+I. A fair body of authentic evidence has been collected, and is here
+before us, exhibiting and illustrating the origin and progress of the
+educational movement, and the opportunities which our ancestors acquired
+and improved for mental cultivation and literary development.
+
+An attentive consideration of the ensuing pages may bring us to the
+conclusion that the English and Scots, at all events, of former days were
+not ill provided with facilities for mastering the rudiments of learning,
+and that the qualifications necessary and sufficient for ordinary persons
+and careers were within the reach of all men, and, as time went on, women,
+of moderate intelligence and resources.
+
+Moreover, when the taste for a more elaborate and extended system of
+training, and for a circle of accomplishments, set in with the Stuarts,
+the appliances of every kind for gratifying and promoting it were
+superabundant; and London and other cities swarmed with experts, who
+either attached themselves to academies or worked on their own account,
+waiting on their clients or receiving them at their own places of
+business. The youth of family who had passed from the grammar-school or
+the tutor to the University, enjoyed, from the moment when professors
+began to flock hither from France, Italy, and Germany as to the best
+market, greatly increased facilities for completing themselves in special
+departments of science, as well as in such exercises as were thought to
+belong to gentlemen. As our intercourse with the Continent became more
+regular and general, its fashions and sentiments were gradually
+communicated to us, and we began to overcome our old insular prejudices. A
+familiarity with other languages and literatures than our own, and with
+the pursuits and amusements of countries which a narrow strip of sea
+separated, was the beneficial consequence of the French and Italian
+sympathies which the union of the crowns, after the death of the last of
+the Tudors, introduced into England.
+
+We are scarcely entitled to plume ourselves on the elevation from which it
+is our privilege to look back on obsolete educational theories and
+principles. The change which we witness is of recent date and of political
+origin. It is within an easily measurable number of years that the
+democratic wave has loosened and shaken the direct clerical jurisdiction
+over our schools and our studies. What more significant fact can there be,
+in proof of the conservative bigotry of those who so long exercised
+control in schoolroom and college, that a primer compiled in the first
+quarter of the sixteenth century was still substantially the standard
+authority less than a hundred years since?
+
+When we regard a History of English Literature, and the works which either
+constitute its principal strength and glory, or even such as, rather from
+the circumstances connected with them than their own intrinsic importance,
+lend to it a certain incidental or special value, it becomes natural to
+inquire by what process or course of training the men and women whose
+names compose the roll of fame became, or were aided at least in becoming,
+what they were and remain?
+
+As for the women, they followed their studies at home under governesses
+and professors; and Ballard's volume on Learned Ladies will shew what was
+capable of accomplishment in a few isolated and conspicuous cases, before
+any scheme for the higher education of the sex had been broached. But it
+is with the men that I have more particularly to deal.
+
+Every eminent Englishman who has done more or less to augment and enrich
+our literary stores, and an infinitely greater number who have adopted
+other vocations, passed of course through the scholastic ordeal. They were
+sent to school, and perhaps to college; and they had books put into their
+hands, as our boys have books put into theirs--books written by the
+scholars of the time up to the knowledge and opinion of the time.
+
+With the fewest exceptions, the boy was the father of the man, and what he
+had himself acquired he was content to see his children acquire. There
+were centuries during which the lines of instruction and the scope of
+culture varied little.
+
+The greater part of our early English teachers came across the sea, or had
+been educated there; our best books were modelled on those of French or
+Roman grammarians, and the improvement in our system was due, when it
+came, to the _gymnasia_ and academies of the Continent.
+
+
+II. We all know that the Church in early times, before it became a
+conflicting and mischievous influence, did much valuable work toward the
+development and progress of literature and art, and was instrumental in
+preserving many monuments of ancient learning and genius, which might
+otherwise have perished. But the strong clerical element in the old social
+system operated beneficially on our English civilisation in another
+equally important way.
+
+For a vast length of time the schools attached to the monasteries were not
+only the best, but almost the sole seminaries where an education of the
+higher class could be obtained. They were, in point of fact, the
+precursors of the similar establishments subsequently attached to some of
+the colleges; and it is further to be remarked, that, besides the ordinary
+features of a mediæval scholastic _curriculum_, they taught music for the
+sake of keeping a constant succession of candidates for the choir of the
+chapel. It was through the monks and through an ecclesiastical channel
+that we derived both our most ancient schools of music and our primitive
+educational machinery, the two alike destined to become sensible, in
+course of time, of a potent secular influence, scarcely imaginable by
+their monastic institutors.
+
+Bishop Percy says that the system of instruction appears to have consisted
+of learning the Psalms, probably by heart, and acquiring the principles of
+music, singing, arithmetic, and grammar. Some of the boys, he adds, who
+had made the art of music their profession, assisted in later life at the
+religious services on special occasions, while others relinquished their
+original callings, and sought their fortune as minstrels and instrumental
+players.
+
+Altogether, it is evident that music and other branches of a liberal
+training were primarily indebted at the outset, and long subsequently, for
+their encouragement and diffusion to the only class which was at the
+period capable of undertaking tuition. We have to seek in the Church of
+the Middle Ages the source of all our scholastic erudition and refinement,
+and of all the humanising influence which music, in all its forms, has
+exerted over society.
+
+
+III. Carlisle, in his well-known work on the Endowed Schools, supplies us
+with some very desirable facts touching the cathedral institutions which
+preceded the lay seminaries, and over which the bishop of the diocese
+presided _ex officio_. The pupils in these institutions were termed the
+scholastics of the diocese; and one of the latest survivals of the system
+was, perhaps, the old St. Paul's, which Colet's endowment eventually
+superseded. The preponderant element here was, of course, clerical; the
+boys were, as a rule, educated with a view to ecclesiastical preferment;
+and those studies which lay outside the requirements of the early Church
+were naturally omitted. It was a narrow and warping course of discipline,
+which lasted, nevertheless, from the days of Alfred to the age of the
+Tudors.
+
+But these cathedral schools themselves had grown out of the antecedent
+conventual establishments, of which hundreds must have at one time existed
+among us, and consequently the former represented a forward movement and a
+certain disposition to relax the severity and exclusiveness of purely
+religious education. As we see that subsequently it was the practice to
+attach to a college a preparatory school, as at Magdalen, Oxford, so in
+the mediæval time almost every monastic house had its special educational
+machinery for training aspirants to the various orders. This point does
+not really come within my immediate scope; but I thought it well to shew
+briefly how, as the lay schools evolved from the cathedral schools, so the
+latter were an outcome from the conventual. There seems, however, to have
+been one marked difference between the monastic or conventual and the
+cathedral programmes, that in the latter the sciences of law and medicine,
+having become independent professions, were abandoned in favour of the
+academies, where youths on quitting school were specially inducted into a
+knowledge of those Faculties.
+
+Prior to the institution of colleges and schools of a better class, the
+nobility and gentry often sent their children to the monasteries and
+convents to be initiated in the elements or first principles of learning.
+The sort of education obtained here must have been of the most meagre
+character; the course was restricted to grammar, philosophy of the cast
+then in vogue, and divinity; the classics were treated with comparative
+neglect, and a study of the living languages was still more remote from
+their design.
+
+Even so late as the Tudor time, those who could afford to send their
+children abroad found the education better, and probably cheaper; some
+distinguished Englishmen, driven from their country by political or
+religious differences, brought up their families whitherever they fled as
+a matter of necessity.
+
+Sir Thomas Bodley, in the account of his life written by himself in 1609,
+acquaints us with the fact that when his father was living at Geneva, the
+great centre of the Protestant refugees, and he was a boy of twelve, he
+was sufficiently advanced in learning, through his father's care, to
+attend the lectures delivered at that University in Hebrew, Greek, and
+divinity, in which last his teachers were Calvin and Beza; and besides
+these studies he had private tutors in the house of the gentleman with
+whom he boarded, including Robertus Constantinus, the lexicographer, who
+read Homer to him. On the return of the Bodleys to England upon the
+accession of Elizabeth, the member of the family who was destined to
+immortalise their name was sent to Oxford.
+
+Bishop Waynflete appears to have been among the earliest men who
+perceived the necessity, at all events, of grounding boys more thoroughly
+in grammar, and he was the prime mover in the establishment of schools at
+Waynflete, Brackley, and Oxford, where the Accidence and Syntax were
+taught on an improved plan. The last-named seminary was within the
+precincts of Magdalen College, and became by far the most important and
+most famous of the three, in consequence of its good fortune in having
+among its masters men like Anniquil and Stanbridge, who took a real
+interest in their profession, and bred scholars capable of diffusing and
+developing the love of acquiring knowledge and the art of communicating
+it.
+
+As Knight observes, grammar was the main object; but then the method was a
+great advance on the old monastic plan. Even Jesus College, Cambridge, was
+merely erected and endowed for a master and six fellows, and a certain
+number of scholars to be instructed in grammar.
+
+At the time of the Civil War, John Allibone, a Buckinghamshire man, and
+author of that rather well-known Latin description of the University as
+reformed by the Republicans in 1648, was head-master of Magdalen School.
+
+In the English _Ship of Fools_, 1509, which is a good deal more than a
+translation, Barclay ridicules the archaic system of teaching, and Skelton
+does the same in his poetical satires. It was by the indefatigable
+exposure of the inefficiency and unsoundness of the prevailing modes of
+instruction that reforms were gradually conceded and accomplished. In all
+political and social movements the caricaturist plays his part.
+
+It is not surprising to find Ascham in his turn, fifty years later on,
+taking exception to the school-teaching and teachers which had educated,
+and more or less satisfied, so many anterior generations.
+
+We naturally encounter in much of the literary work of the seventeenth
+century advice and information in matters relating to scholastic and
+academical culture wholly unhelpful to an inquiry into the training of the
+middle class. In the section of a well-known book, entitled _The
+Gentleman's Calling_, 8vo, 1660, dedicated to our immediate subject, the
+anonymous author observes: "Scarce any that owns the name of a
+_Gentleman_, but will commit his Son to the care of some Tutor, either at
+home or abroad, who at first instils those Rudiments, proper to their
+tenderer years, and as Age matures their parts, so advances his Lectures,
+till he have led them into those spacious fields of learning, which will
+afford them both Exercise and Delight. This is that _Tree of Knowledge_
+upon which there is no interdict...."
+
+The preceding extract points to a sphere of life which was wont to
+conclude its preparatory stage with the Grand Tour and an initiation into
+the profligacy of all the capitals of Europe; but we see that it deals
+with a case in which a tutor took a youth almost, as it were, from his
+nurse's apron-strings, and does not merely indicate a finishing course.
+The volume from which the passage comes has a promising title, and might
+have been intensely interesting and truly important; but it was written by
+some dry and pedantic scribbler, and, like Osborne's _Advice to a Son_,
+1656, and many other treatises of a cognate character, is a tissue of
+dulness and inanity. It is characteristic of the whole that portraits of
+Jeremiah and Zedekiah are selected as appropriate graphic embellishments.
+
+From a woodcut on the back of the title-page of a _Grammatica Initialis_,
+or Elementary Grammar, 1509, we form a conclusion as to the ancient
+Continental method of instruction. This engraving portrays the interior of
+a school, apparently situated in a crypt; the master is seated at his desk
+with a book open before him, and above it a double inkstand and a pen,
+both of primitive fabric. The teacher is evidently reading aloud to his
+four scholars, who sit in front of him, a passage from the volume, and
+they repeat after him, parson-and-clerk-wise. They learn by rote. They
+have no books before them. They represent a stage in the teaching process
+before the science of reading from print or MS. had been acquired by the
+scholar, and copies of school-books were multiplied by the press. There
+was no preparation of work. The quarter wage included no charge for books
+supplied. The teaching was purely oral. So it was probably throughout. It
+was thus that Stanbridge, Whittinton, Lily, and their followers conducted
+their schools, long after the cradle at Magdalen had been reinforced by
+other seminaries all over the country.
+
+There is no written record of this fashion of communicating information
+from the master to the pupil, so diametrically opposed to modern ideas,
+but conformable to an era of general illiteracy; it is a sister-art, which
+lends us a helping hand in this case by admitting us to what may be viewed
+as an interior coeval with Erasmus and More.
+
+The modern school-holidays appear to have been formerly unknown. In the
+rules for the management of St. Paul's and Merchant Taylors', for
+instance, where a vacation is called a _remedy_, no such indulgence was
+permitted save in cases of illness; and it is curious that in the account
+which Fitzstephen gives of the three seminaries already established in
+London in the reign of Henry II. the boys are represented as spending the
+holy days (rather than holidays) in logical or rhetorical exercises and
+disputations.
+
+In all the public schools, indeed, holidays were at first intimately
+associated with the recurrence of saints' anniversaries and with festivals
+of the Church, and were restricted to them. The modern vacation was not
+understood; and the first step toward it, and the earliest symptom of a
+revolt against the absence of any such intervals for diversion from
+studies and attendance at special services, was an appeal made in 1644 to
+the Court of the Company by the scholars of Merchant Taylors "for
+play-days instead of holy-days."
+
+The object of this petition was to procure a truce with work and an
+opportunity for exercise and sport, in lieu of a system under which the
+boys, from their point of view, merely substituted one kind of task for
+another; but the time had not yet arrived for reform in this matter; our
+elders clang tenaciously to the stern and monotonous routine which they
+found established, and in which they had been bred; and the feeling in
+favour of relaxing the tension by regular intervals of complete repose is
+an incidence of modern thought, which betrays a tendency at the present
+moment to gravitate too far to the opposite extreme.
+
+A quite recent report of one of the great schools in the United
+States--the West Point School--manifests a survival of the old-fashioned
+ideas upon this subject, carried out by the Pilgrim Fathers to the
+American Plantations; and whereas in the mother country the original
+release from work in order to attend religious services has resolved
+itself into the latter-day vacation or holiday, the modern educational
+system beyond the Atlantic seems to withdraw the boys from the church, not
+in favour of the playground or the country, but as a means of lengthening
+the hours of study.
+
+
+IV. Ingulphus, who lived in the reign of Edward the Confessor (A.D.
+1041-66), furnishes us with the earliest actual testimony of a schoolboy's
+experiences. "I was born," he tells us, "in the beautiful city of London;
+educated in my tender years at Westminster: from whence I was afterwards
+sent to the _Study of Oxford_, where I made greater progress in the
+Aristotelian philosophy than many of my contemporaries, and became very
+well acquainted with the Rhetoric of Cicero." It is very interesting to
+learn further that, when he was at school at Westminster, and used to
+visit his father at the Court of Edward, he was often examined, both on
+the Latin language and on logic, by the Queen herself.
+
+Insights of this kind at so early a period are naturally rare, and indeed
+we have to cross over to the Tudor time and the infancy of Eton before we
+meet with another such personal trait on English ground.
+
+Thomas Tusser, author of the _Points of Good Husbandry_, admits us in his
+metrical autobiography to an acquaintance with the severity of treatment
+which awaited pupils in his time at public schools, and which, in fact,
+lingered, as part of the gross and ignorant system, down to within the
+last generation. We have all heard of the renowned Dr. Busby; but that
+celebrated character was merely a type which has happened from special
+circumstances to be selected for commemoration. Tusser, describing his
+course of training, says:--
+
+  "From Paul's I went, to Eton sent,
+   To learn straightways the Latin phrase;
+   Where fifty-three stripes given to me
+         At once I had.
+   For fault but small, or none at all,
+   It came to pass that beat I was:
+   See, Udall, see the mercy of thee
+         To me, poor lad!"
+
+But this kind of experience was too common; and it had its advocates even
+outside the professional pale: for Lord Burleigh, as we learn from Ascham,
+was on the side of the disciplinarians.
+
+Sir Richard Sackville, Ascham's particular friend, on the contrary,
+bitterly deplored the hindrance and injury which he had suffered as a boy
+from the harshness of his teacher; and Udall himself carried his
+oppression so far as to offend his employers and procure his dismissal.
+
+Nash, in _Summer's Last Will and Testament_, 1600, makes Summer
+say:--"Here, before all this company, I profess myself an open enemy to
+ink and paper. I'll make it good upon the accidence, body of me! that in
+speech is the devil's paternoster. Nouns and pronouns, I pronounce you as
+traitors to boys' buttocks; syntaxis and prosodia, you are tormentors of
+wit, and good for nothing, but to get a schoolmaster twopence a week!"
+
+In a French sculpture of the end of the fourteenth century we have
+probably as early a glimpse as we are likely to get anywhere graphically
+of a scene in a school, where a mistress is administering castigation to
+one of her pupils laid across her knees, the others looking on. But it
+soon became a favourite subject for the illustrator and caricaturist.
+
+The strictness of scholastic discipline existed in an aggravated form, no
+doubt, in early days, and formed part of a more barbarous system of
+retribution for wrong done or suffered. The principle of wholesale and
+indiscriminate flagellation for offences against the laws of the school or
+for neglect of studies marched hand in hand with the vindictive
+legislation of bygone days; and doubtless, from the first, the rod often
+supplied a vent for the temper or caprice of the pedagogue.
+
+At Merchant Taylors' in my time the cane was freely used, and the forms of
+chastisement were the _cut on the hand_ and _the bender_, for which the
+culprit had to stoop.
+
+The _régime_ of the once redoubtable Dr. Busby at Westminster was a kind
+of survival of the Draconic rule of Udall at Eton when poor Tusser was
+there; and it is exceedingly probable that in the time of Charles II.
+notions of what was salutary for youth in the shape of _unguentum
+baculinum_, or stick-ointment, had undergone very slight alteration since
+the previous century. Busby, of whom there is a strange-looking portrait
+in Nichols' _Anecdotes_, was the most sublime of coxcombical Dons, and
+within his own pale an autocrat second to none of the Cæsars. Smaller
+luminaries in the same sphere paid him homage in dedicatory epistles.
+
+Everybody must remember the traditional anecdote of the visit of Charles
+II. to Westminster, and of the King, with his hat under his arm, walking
+complacently behind Busby through the school, the latter covered; and of
+the head-master, when his Majesty and himself (_Ego et rex meus_ over
+again) were beyond observation, bowing respectfully to Charles,
+trencher-cap in hand, and explaining that if the boys had any idea that
+there was a greater man in England than him, his authority would be at an
+end.
+
+But there is a second story of Busby and a luckless Frenchman who threw a
+stone by accident through one of the windows while the lessons were in
+progress and the principal was hearing a class. Busby sent for the
+offender, thinking it was one of the boys in the playground; but when the
+stranger was introduced, it was "Take him up," and a flogging was
+inflicted before the whole assembly. The Frenchman went away in a fury,
+and at once sent a challenge to Busby by a messenger. The Doctor reads the
+cartel, and cries, "Take him up," and the envoy shares the fate of his
+employer. He, too, enraged at the treatment, returns, and demands
+compensation from Monsieur; but the latter shrugs his shoulders, and can
+only say, "Ah, me! he be the vipping man; he vip me, he vip you, he vip
+all the world."
+
+It was of Busby that some one said how fortunate it was for the Seraphim
+and Cherubim that they had no nether extremities, or when he joined them,
+he would have "taken them up," as the Red Indian in his happy
+hunting-grounds still pursues his favourite occupation on earth.
+
+Charles Burney, one of a famous and accomplished family, kept school at
+one time at Greenwich. He subsequently removed to Chiswick. There are
+still persons living who recollect him and his oddities. He was a great
+martinet--a miniature Busby; but a singular point about him was his habit
+of inserting in the quarterly accounts sent to the parents a charge for
+the birch-rods bought in the course of the term, and applied for the
+benefit of his pupils. This was a novel and ingenious method, a treatment
+of the question from a financier's point of view; and if black draughts
+and blue pills were recognised as legitimate items in the school-bill, why
+not the materials for external application?
+
+The condition of the schoolmaster himself, on the other hand, and of his
+allies, the tutor and the usher, was as far removed from our present ideas
+as the code which he enforced and the books which he expounded. The freer
+diffusion of knowledge and an advanced civilisation have tended to
+liberate the schoolboy from the barbarous despotism of his teachers, the
+majority of whom were latter-day survivals of a decadent type, and to
+raise the latter in the social scale. The rod is broken, and Busbyism is
+extinct. But the successors of that renowned personage enjoy a higher rank
+and enlarged opportunities, and may maintain both if they keep pace with
+the progress of thought and opinion.
+
+The schoolmaster has set his house in order at the eleventh hour, in
+obedience to external pressure, coming from men who have revolted against
+the associations and prejudices of early days, and inaugurated a new
+educational Hegira; and the evolutions of this modern platform are by no
+means fully manifest.
+
+The propensity of the class to adhere to ancient traditions in regard to
+the application of corporal punishment was, of course, to be checked only
+by the force of public opinion. Had it not been that the latter was
+gradually directed against the evil, the probability is that this would
+have ranked among those popular antiquities which time has not seriously
+or generally touched. But so early as 1669 a representation on the
+subject was actually laid before Parliament in a document called "The
+Children's Petition: Or, A modest remonstrance of that intolerable
+grievance our youth lie under in the accustomed severities of the
+school-discipline of this nation." This protest was printed, and facing
+the title-page there meets the eye a notice to this effect: "It is humbly
+desired this book may be delivered from one hand to another, and that
+gentleman who shall first propose the motion to the House, the book is
+his, together with the prayers of posterity,"--in which last phrase a
+double sense may or may not lurk.
+
+It required many attacks on such a stronghold as the united influence and
+prejudice of the teaching profession to produce an effect, and probably no
+effect was produced at first; for in 1698 another endeavour was made to
+obtain parliamentary relief, and in this instance the address humbly
+sought "an Act to remedy the foul abuse of children at schools, especially
+in the great schools of this nation."
+
+These preparatory movements indicated the direction in which sentiment and
+taste were beginning to stir, not so much at the outset, perhaps, from
+any persuasion that greater clemency was conducive to progress, but from a
+natural disposition on the part of parents to revolt against the senseless
+ill-usage of their boys by capricious martinets.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+    The Foundations--Vocabularies, Glossaries, and _Nominalia_--Their
+    manifold utility--Colloquy of Archbishop Alfric (tenth
+    century)--Anglo-Gallic treatise of Alexander Neckam on utensils
+    (twelfth century)--Works of Johannes de Garlandia--His Dictionary
+    (thirteenth century) and its pleasant treatment--The Pictorial
+    Vocabulary--Anglo-Gallic Dictionary of Walter de Biblesworth (late
+    thirteenth century).
+
+
+I. The origin and history of a class of documents which may be viewed as
+the basis and starting-point of our educational literature have first to
+be considered. I refer to the vocabularies, glossaries, and _nominalia_,
+which afford examples of the method of instruction pursued in this country
+from the Middle Ages to the invention of printing.
+
+Such of these manuals as we fortunately still possess represent the
+surviving residue of a much larger number; and from the perishable
+material on which they were written and their constant employment in
+tuition, it becomes a source of agreeable surprise that so many specimens
+remain to throw light on the mode in which elementary learning was
+acquired in England in the infancy of a taste for letters and knowledge.
+
+In the small volumes on _Cookery and Gardening_ by the present writer, he
+has, as a matter of course, called into requisition these early
+philological relics to illustrate both those subjects; and this fact
+testifies to the multiplicity of purposes for which such relics can be
+rendered serviceable. There is hardly, indeed, any aspect or line of
+mediæval life which these productions do not assist very powerfully in
+making more luminous and familiar. But their original design and
+destination were obviously educational. They were rude and imperfect
+vehicles, contrived by men of narrow culture and limited experience for
+the instruction of the young; and they were advisedly thrown, as far as
+possible, into an interlocutory form--the form most apt to impress
+circumstances and names on the memories of pupils. Some of these, which I
+shall presently describe a little more at large, were constructed on the
+interlinear principle, not, as among ourselves, for the edification of the
+learner, but, as Mr. Wright points out, for the preceptor's guidance in
+days when the latter was often a person of very mediocre attainments, and
+was incapable of dispensing with occasional assistance to his
+recollection. In other words, the majority of schoolmasters and ushers
+were merely the mechanical medium for conveying to the boys the lessons
+which they found set down in treatises prepared by persons of superior
+skill and erudition.
+
+These primitive schoolbooks are, as a rule, easily susceptible of
+classification under the heads of Vocabularies, Dictionaries, Colloquies,
+and Narrative or descriptive texts, of which the two latter divisions are
+usually interlinear, either in part or throughout. Some of these terms,
+again, were formerly understood in acceptations different from our own;
+for a Vocabulary was what we should rather call a Dictionary, and a
+Dictionary was what we should rather call a Phrase-Book.
+
+
+II. The most ancient item in the collection before me belongs to that
+century of which King Alfred just lived to witness the opening, the
+Colloquy of Archbishop Alfric, in Anglo-Saxon and Latin, and known only
+from an enlarged copy or transcript made by the writer's disciple and
+namesake. The original is supposed to have been compiled while Alfric was
+a monk at Winchester. He succeeded to the archbishopric in 995, and his
+pupil and editor died about the middle of the following century. The
+professed object of the undertaking was the acquisition of the Latin
+language by the Anglo-Saxon youth in the intervals of leisure from other
+pursuits or duties; and the process of instruction is conducted on the
+plan of a dialogue in Latin between a master and boys, with an interlinear
+Saxon gloss. It is significant of the harsh discipline which prevailed in
+those days that one of the foremost points of inquiry is in relation to
+flogging. The teacher asks if the boys choose to be flogged at their
+lessons, and the answer is that they would rather be flogged and taught
+than be ignorant, but that they rely on his clemency and unwillingness to
+punish them, unless he is obliged. The entire work deals with the matters
+which were most familiar to the student and came nearest home to their
+everyday life and sympathies; and this feature constitutes for us its
+special value and beauty. The Latin itself is indifferent enough, and
+bespeaks the acquisition of the tongue by Alfric and his follower from the
+earlier monkish authors, rather than from classical models. Many curious
+points might be elicited from the present composition and others of an
+allied character printed with it,--I mean such passages as those where the
+shepherd speaks of the danger from wolves, and the herdsman of the
+depredations of cattle-lifters. There was probably no occupation of the
+period which is not brought before us, and its particular specialities
+bilingually set out.
+
+The VOCABULARY, of approximately the same date, is in reality a Latin and
+Anglo-Saxon word-book. Like the _Colloquy_, it received subsequent
+additions--perhaps by the same hand; but they are in the form of a
+separate Appendix. Each section has its independent alphabet, and the
+articles which fall under it do not observe any apparent order. The same
+is to be said of all the works of this class belonging to the mediæval
+era.
+
+The Anglo-Gallic treatise of Alexander Neckam _De Utensilibus_ (twelfth
+century) is differently constructed from the Alfric Vocabulary, not as
+regards the text itself, which is also in Latin, but in having an
+interlinear gloss in Old French, and in following a descriptive form. It
+takes the various parts of a dwelling _seriatim_, the several occupations
+and callings of men, the mode of laying out a garden, and of building a
+castle.
+
+Perhaps the book by Neckam and the Dictionary of Johannes de Garlandia
+constitute together the most comprehensive and remarkable body of
+information in our literature respecting the life and habits of the
+Anglo-Saxons and Anglo-Normans.
+
+Johannes de Garlandia, whose work is common in MS. and who is also known
+as the author of other productions of a philological cast, commences his
+Dictionary by defining what a dictionary is. "Dictionarius," says he,
+"dicitur libellus iste a dictionibus magis necessariis, quas tenetur
+quilibet scolaris, non tantum in scrinio de linguis facto, sed in cordis
+armariolo firmiter retinere, ut ad faciliorem oracionis constructionem
+perveniat. Primo igitur sciat vulgaria nominare. Placet igitur a membris
+humani corporis incoare...."
+
+This phrase or word book, which was probably composed about 1220, enters
+into the most minute particulars under all the heads which it comprises,
+and is unquestionably of the highest value and interest as taking us back
+so far into the life of the past, and making us in a manner the
+contemporary of an Englishman who flourished six or seven centuries ago,
+and domiciled himself in France, chiefly at Paris, where he gives us an
+account of his house and garden, with all their appointments and
+incidence.
+
+There is a very curious passage in one of the glosses, where Johannes
+explains the derivation of _Pes_, which he traces from the Greek _pos_
+[_sic_], adding that thence the dwellers of the other world or hemisphere,
+_if it be true that there are any_, are termed Antipodes. As this was
+written nearly 300 years before Columbus, it might have supplied a note
+and a point to Mr. Beamish in his volume on the _Discovery of America by
+the Northmen in the Tenth Century_, 1841.
+
+The old dictionary-maker brings us so near to him by his pleasant
+colloquial method and familiar way of putting everything, and expects us
+to become acquainted into the bargain with his friends and neighbours, who
+resided at Paris under Philip Augustus, as if one might go there and find
+some of them still living. In other words, there was belonging to this man
+a natural simplicity of style and a communicativeness which together have
+rendered his treatise a work of art and a cyclopædia of information. He
+even leaves his house to go into the market with you and shew what his
+neighbour William has on sale there! How unspeakably more luminous and
+understandable the gone ages might have been if we had had more such!
+
+
+III. Passing from him, his pleasant book, and its pleasant associations
+with cordial regret, I just notice the other and latter-day word-books,
+which are really, in the main, of the same type as those of which a
+description has gone before. One only differs markedly from the rest in
+possessing graphic embellishments of a rude and quaint character; among
+the rest the portrait of a woe-begone gallant, and by his side an
+arrow-pierced heart. Some of the representations are, of course, happier
+than others; assuredly those of animals are pre-Landseerian. They are many
+degrees below the stamp of such artistic essays as one finds in the books
+of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, _as a rule_, both in England
+and abroad. Criticism lays down its arms.
+
+But I must dwell rather longer on one of the tracts in this series--the
+Anglo-Gallic Dictionary or _Phraseologia_ of Walter de Biblesworth. It is
+the most ancient monument of its particular kind of which I am aware, and
+is ascribed to the close of the thirteenth century, in other words, to the
+period embraced by the later years of the reign of Edward I. The
+orthography, which naturally strikes a modern French student as strange
+and uncouth, may be accepted as a key to the ancient pronunciation of the
+language, at all events in England, if not even among the French
+themselves; but the language, apart from the spelling, is remarkable for
+its plentiful use of expressions which have fallen into desuetude, and
+some of which, as _io_ for _je_, bespeak a Pyrenæan origin.
+
+This production is intituled "Le treytyz ke moun sire Gauter de
+Bibelesworthe fist à ma dame Dyonisie de Mounchensy, pur aprise de
+langwage, ço est à saver, du primer temps ke homme nestra, ouweke trestut
+le langwage pur saver nurture en sa juvente, &c." The text is in short
+rhyming couplets, and takes the child from its birth through all the
+duties, occupations, and incidents of life. To select a passage which will
+give a fair idea of the whole is not altogether easy; but here is an
+extract which is capable of puzzling an average French scholar of our
+day:--
+
+  "Homme et femme unt la peel,
+   De morte beste quyr jo apel.
+   Le clerk soune le dreyne apel,
+   Le prestre fat a Roume apel.
+   Ore avet ço ke pent à cors,
+   Dedens ausy et deors.
+     Vestet vos dras, me chers enfauns,
+   Chaucez vos bras, soulers, e gauns;
+   Mettet le chaperoun, coverz le chef,
+   Tachet vos botouns, e pus derechef
+   De une coreye vus ceynet."
+
+This didactic treatise is additionally interesting to the English student
+from its relationship, in the way of likely literary ancestry, to the
+subsequent compilations of a cognate sort by Lydgate and others. The
+diction is obscure enough, and has the air of having been the work of a
+man of imperfect culture, from the presence of such forms as _dreyne_ for
+_derreniere_ or _derniere_ and the abundance of false syntax, which ought
+not to have been so conspicuous, even at this remote date, in a
+composition professedly educational. Yet, after all deductions, the work
+is of singular curiosity and fascination, not only for its own sake, but
+as the best philological standard which we seem to have to put side by
+side with its successors in the same important direction.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+    Earliest printed works of instruction--Publications of Bishop
+    Perottus--His _Grammatical Rules_--Johannes Sulpicius and his _Opus
+    Grammaticum_--Some account of the book--Importance and influence of
+    these foreign Manuals in England--The _Carmen Juvenile_ or _Stans Puer
+    ad Mensam_--Alexander Gallus or De Villâ Dei and his _Doctrinale_--The
+    _Doctrinale_ one of the earliest productions of the Dutch press--Ælius
+    Donatus--His immense popularity and weight both at home and
+    abroad--Selections or abridgments of his Grammar used in English
+    schools.
+
+
+I. The most ancient published books of instruction for Englishmen in
+scholastic and academical culture emanated from a foreign country and
+press. When the Vocabularies, Grammars, and other Manuals ceased to
+circulate in a manuscript form, or to be written and multiplied by
+teachers for the use of their own pupils, the early Parisian printers
+supplied the market with the works, which it had been theretofore
+possible to procure only to a very limited extent, in transcripts executed
+by the authors themselves or by professional copyists.
+
+The educational writings of some of the men, whose influence for good in
+this direction had of course been greatly circumscribed by the ignorance
+of typography, found their way into print. But one of the foremost persons
+who addressed himself to the task of diffusing a knowledge of elementary
+learning and of teaching English by Latin was NICHOLAUS PEROTTUS, BISHOP
+OF SIPONTUM, whose _Grammatical Rules_ first appeared, so far as I know,
+in 1486.[1]
+
+The examples of fifteenth-century English, which make in our eyes its
+chief value, were of course introduced as casual illustrations.
+
+The lexicographical and grammatical works of this noted prelate
+undoubtedly exercised a very powerful and beneficial influence at, and
+long after, the period of their composition; and I am disposed to think
+that this was particularly the case with his _Rudimenta Grammatices_,
+1476, and his _Cornucopia Linguæ Latinæ_, 1490. The former was not only
+imported into this country for sale, but was reprinted here in 1512, and
+the _Cornucopia_ forms part of the groundwork of our own _Ortus
+Vocabulorum_, 1500.
+
+
+II. Next in succession to Bishop Perrot, whose publications, however,
+cannot be said to belong to the present category in more than an
+incidental degree, was JOHANNES SULPICIUS VERULANUS, who is perhaps to be
+viewed as the leader of the movement for spreading, not only in France,
+but in England, a fuller and more scholarly acquaintance with the laws of
+grammar. Nearly the first book which proceeded from the press of Richard
+Pynson was his _Opus Grammaticum_, 4to, 1494.
+
+Almost every successive impression seems to differ in the contents or
+their distribution, owing, as I apprehend, to the circumstance that the
+volume was compounded of separate tracts, of which some were occasionally
+added or omitted at pleasure, or variously placed.
+
+The edition of 1505 comprises the undermentioned pieces:--
+
+    Sulpitii Verulani examen de 8 partibus orationis.
+    De declinatione nominum.
+    De preteritis & supinis.
+    Carmen iuuenile de moribus mensæ.
+    Vocabulorum interpretatio.
+    Iod. Badii Ascensii De regimine dictionum.
+    Sulp. Verul. De regimine & constructione.
+    De componendis ordinandisq. epistolis.
+    De carminibus.
+
+The title-leaf presents the woodcut, often employed by Pynson in his later
+performances, of a person, probably a schoolmaster, seated at a _plutus_
+or reading-desk, holding a paper in one hand, and reading from a book
+which lies open before him.
+
+Whatever may now be thought of them, the philological labours of
+Sulpicius, which were subsequently edited and glossed by Badius Ascensius,
+were long extremely popular and successful, and a very large number of
+copies must have been in English hands during the reigns of Henry the
+Seventh and his son. Of these, as I have said, some proceeded from the
+London press, while others were imported from Paris.
+
+The _fasciculi_ in one of 1511 are as follow:--
+
+    Sulpitii Examen de octo partibus orationis.
+    Carmen Iuuenile.
+    De declinatione nominum orthoclitorum.
+    ---------------------- heteroclitorum.
+    De nominibus heteroclitis.
+    De generibus nominum.
+    De verbis defectiuis.
+    De præteritis verborum.
+    De supinis ----------.
+    De regimine et constructione dictionum Libellus.
+    De componendis ornandisq; epistolis.
+    De Carminibus.
+    De quantitate syllabarum.
+    De A, E, &c. in primis syllabis.
+    ---------------- mediis ----.
+    De ultimis syllabis.
+    De Carminibus decoro [_sic_] &c.
+    Donati de figuris opusculum.
+    De latinarum dictionum recta scriptura.
+    De grecarum dictionum orthographia.
+    De ratione dipthongangi.
+    Ascensii de orthographia carmina.
+    Vocabulorum interpretatio.
+
+The _Carmen Juvenile_, inserted here and in the antecedent issues, is the
+poem better known as _Stans Puer ad Mensam_, and in its English dress by
+Lydgate. Mr. Blades tells us that the _editio princeps_ of the Latin poem
+appeared in 1483, and that Caxton printed Lydgate's English one at an
+anterior date. Lydgate, however, had been dead many years when his
+production saw the light in type, and as he could scarcely have translated
+the piece from Sulpicius, the probability seems to be that both resorted
+to a pre-existent original, which the Englishman rendered into his own
+tongue, and the foreign grammarian adopted or modernised. A comparison of
+the English text with that given in the work of Sulpicius shews
+considerable variations; the latter version is here and there more
+outspoken and blunt in its language than the paraphrase of the good Monk
+of Bury St. Edmunds. It is accompanied by a running gloss by the learned
+Ascensius; and although the book was ostensibly designed for the use of
+students, the contractions are unusually troublesome, and many of the
+proper names are exhibited in an orthography at any rate rather peculiar.
+The god whose special province was the management of the solar orb is
+introduced as _formosus appollo_. His substitution of _Vergilius_ as the
+name of the Latin poet is so far not remarkable, inasmuch as Polydore
+Vergil of Urbino appears always to have spelled his name so, and in the
+edition of Virgil by Aldus, 1501, the author is called _Vergilius_. I am
+afraid that if I were to furnish a specimen of the contractions, a modern
+typographer would be puzzled to reproduce it with the desirable
+exactitude.
+
+
+III. When one turns over the leaves of a volume of this kind, and sees the
+way in which the avenue to learning and knowledge was hampered by pedantic
+and ignorant instructors, it seems marvellous, not that the spread of
+education was so slow and partial, but that so many scholars should have
+emerged from such a process.
+
+A more obscure and repellent series of grammatical dissertations can
+hardly be imagined; yet Sulpicius holds a high rank among the promoters of
+modern education, as the precursor of all those, such as Robert
+Whittinton, John Stanbridge, and William Lily, who, after the revival of
+learning and the institution of the printing-press, prepared the way for
+improved methods and more enlightened preceptors. His followers naturally
+went beyond him; but Sulpicius was doubtless as much in advance of his
+forerunners as Richard Morris is in advance of Lindley Murray.
+
+After the restoration of letters, Sulpicius seems to have been the pioneer
+in re-erecting grammar into a science, and formulating its rules and
+principles on a systematic basis.
+
+In enumerating the aids to learning which the English received from the
+Continent, we must not overlook Alexander Gallus, or Alexander de Villâ
+Dei, a French Minorite and school-teacher of the thirteenth century, who
+reduced the system of Priscian to a new metrical plan, doubtless for the
+use of his own pupils, as well as his personal convenience and
+satisfaction.
+
+The _Doctrinale_ of Alexander, which is in leonine verse, circulated more
+or less in MS. during his life, and was one of the earliest books
+committed to the press, as a fragment on vellum with the types of Laurence
+Coster of Haarlem establishes. It was repeatedly published abroad, but
+does not really seem to have ever gained a strong footing among ourselves,
+since three editions of it are all that I can trace as having come from
+London presses, and of these the first was in 1503. It did not, in fact,
+command attention till we were on the eve of a great reform in our
+school-books; and while in France, if not elsewhere abroad, it preserved
+its popularity during two or three centuries, till it was supplanted by
+the Grammar and Syntax of Despauterius about 1515, here in a dozen years
+it had run its course, and scarcely left even the marks of its influence
+behind.
+
+
+IV. But the prototype of all the grammatical writers and teachers of early
+times in this as well as other countries was ÆLIUS DONATUS, a Roman
+professor of the fourth century, who probably acquired his experience from
+Priscian and the other works published under the Empire upon his favourite
+science, and who had the honour to number Saint Jerome among his
+disciples.
+
+Donatus is the author of a System of Grammar in three parts, and of a
+series of Prefaces and Scholia to Terence; and his reputation became so
+great and was so widely diffused, that a _Donatus_ or _Donet_ was a
+well-understood synonym for a Primer, and John of Basing even christens
+his Greek Grammar, compiled about 1240, _Donatus Græcorum_. Langland, in
+his _Vision concerning Piers Ploughman_, written a century later, says--
+
+  "Thaune drowe I me amonges draperes my donet to lerne;"
+
+and the _Testament of Love_ alludes to the work in similar terms. "In the
+statutes of Winchester College [written about 1386]," says Warton, "a
+grammar is called _Antiquus Donatus_, i.e. the Old Donat, or the name of a
+system of grammar at that time in vogue, and long before. The French have
+a book entitled 'Le Donnet, traitè de grammaire.... Among Rawlinson's MSS.
+at Oxford I have seen _Donatus opitimus noviter compilatus_, a manuscript
+on vellum, given to Saint Albans by John Stoke, Abbot in 1450. In the
+introduction, or _lytell Proheme_, to Dean Colet's _Grammatices
+Rudimenta_, we find mention made of 'certayne introducyons into latyn
+speche called Donates, &c. ... Cotgrave ... quotes an old French proverb:
+'Les diables etoient encores a leur Donat'--The devils were but yet in
+their grammar."
+
+In common with Æsop, the _Dialogus Creaturarum_, and other peculiarly
+popular works, Donatus lent his name to productions which really had no
+connection with his own, and we find such titles as _Donatus Moralizatus_,
+_Donatus Christianatus_, adopted by writers of a different class in order
+to attract attention and gain acceptance.
+
+In England, however, the Works of Donatus do not appear to have obtained
+the same broad footing which they probably did in Italy. The modern
+edition by Lindemann, taken from a manuscript at Berlin, exhibits the
+entire system divided into three sections or books. But all that we know
+to have passed the press, at all events in this country, are two pieces
+evidently prepared for petty schools--the _Donatus Minor_ and the _Donatus
+pro pueris_, both published at the end of the fifteenth or beginning of
+the sixteenth century.
+
+The former has on the title-page a large woodcut, representing a
+schoolmaster in a sort of thronal chair, with the instrument of
+correction in his hand, and three pupils kneeling in front of him. Both
+the teacher and his scholars wear the long hair of the period and plain
+close caps. It is curious that the pupils should not be uncovered, but the
+engraving could not, perhaps, be altered.
+
+"The work begins with the title 'De Nomine.' Almost every page has a
+distinct running title descriptive of the subject below treated of.
+Herbert properly adds: 'In this book the declension of some of the
+pronouns is very remarkable, viz. N. Ego. G. mei vel mis. N. Tu. G. tui
+vel tis. N. Quis vel qui, que vel qua, Quod vel quid. Pl. D. & Ab. quis
+vel quibus. Also Nostras and Vestras are declined throughout without the
+neuter gender.'"
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+    Rise of native teachers--Magdalen College School, Oxford--John
+    Annaquil, its first master, and his grammatical handbooks--The
+    _Compendium Grammatices_ with the _Vulgaria_ of Terence annexed--The
+    _Parvulorum Institutio_--Personal allusions in the examples
+    given--JOHN STANBRIDGE--Account of his works, with extracts of
+    interesting passages--ROBERT WHITTINTON--His sectional series of
+    Grammars.
+
+
+I. The influence of Donatus was both widespread and of prolonged duration,
+and we must regard the ancient capital of the civilised world as the focus
+and cradle of all modern grammatical literature. Upon the great revival of
+culture, many Englishmen repaired to Rome to undergo a formal training for
+the scholastic profession under the masters who arose there, among whom
+were Sulpicius, author, as we have seen, of several educational tracts,
+which obtained considerable currency here, and Johannes Balbus, who
+compiled the famous _Catholicon_.
+
+The LEXICON and DICTIONARY naturally followed the Primer; and our earliest
+productions of this kind were formed out of the Vocabularies composed and
+printed abroad--not in Italy, but in Germany, as a rule. But while in many
+instances we are made acquainted with the writers or editors of the
+smaller treatises, the names of those laborious men who undertook the
+compilation of the first type of glossographical Manual are scarcely
+known.
+
+But the time soon arrived when a native school of tuition was formed in
+England, and its original seat seems to have been at the Free School
+immediately adjacent to Magdalen College, Oxford.
+
+We find John Annaquil mentioned as the master of this seminary in the time
+of Henry the Seventh, and it is the most ancient record of it that has
+been apparently recovered. Annaquil, of whom our knowledge is extremely
+scanty, wrote, for the use more immediately of his own pupils, _Compendium
+Grammatices_, with an Anglo-Latin version of the _Vulgaria_ of Terence
+annexed. This volume was printed at Oxford by Theodore Rood about 1484;
+and an edition of the work entitled _Parvulorum Institutio_, ascribed to
+the same press, was doubtless prepared by Annaquil, or under his
+direction, for the benefit of his school. Such fragments as have been
+recovered of this book exhibit variations from the later copies, into
+which subsequent editors purposely introduced improvements and
+corrections. There are some familiar allusions here, such as, had they
+been more numerous, might have rendered these ancient educational tracts
+more attractive and precious even than they are. I mean such entries as,
+"I go to Oxford: _Eo Oxonium_ or _Ad Oxonium_." "I shall go to London:
+_Ibo Londinum_."
+
+Knight explains these references in his Life of Dean Colet: "It may not be
+amiss to remark that many of the examples in the Latin Grammar pointed to
+the then juncture of public affairs; viz., the prosecution of Empson and
+Dudley in the beginning of Henry VIII.'s reign: as _Regum est tueri leges:
+Refert omnium animadverti in malos_. And this humour was the reason why,
+in the following editions of the Syntax, there were examples accommodated
+to the respective years of the impressions; as, _Audito regem Doroberniam
+proficisci_; _Imperator_ [Maximilian] _meruit sub rege_, &c. There were
+likewise in that edition of Erasmus several examples referring to Dean
+Colet, as _Vixit Romæ_, _studuit Oxonii_, _natus est Londini_, _discessit
+Londini_, &c."
+
+Annaquil is supposed to have died about 1488, and was succeeded in his
+work by John Stanbridge, who is much better known as a grammarian than his
+predecessor. Stanbridge was a native of Northamptonshire, according to
+Wood, and received his education at Winchester. In 1481 he was admitted to
+New College, Oxford, after two years' probation, and remained there five
+years, at the end of which he was appointed first usher under Annaquil of
+the Free School aforesaid, and after his principal's death took his place.
+The exact period of his death is not determined; but he probably lived
+into the reign of Henry the Eighth.
+
+
+II. The writings of Stanbridge are divisible into two sections--those
+which he published in his own lifetime, and those which appeared after his
+death in the form either of reimpressions or selections by his pupil
+Whittinton and others. The former category embraces: 1. ACCIDENCE; 2.
+VOCABULA; 3. VULGARIA. In the latter I include: 1. ACCIDENTIA EX
+STANBRIGIANA EDITIONE RECOGNITA limâ Roberti Whittintoni; 2. PARVULORUM
+INSTITUTIO EX STANBRIGIANA COLLECTIONE. The first of these productions,
+not strictly to be regarded as proceeding from the pen of Stanbridge,
+bears the name of Whittinton; the second I merely apprehend to have been
+his. But the line of distinction between the publications of Stanbridge
+himself and posthumous, or at any rate not personally superintended
+reprints, is one which ought to be drawn.
+
+There is an edition of Stanbridge's _Accidence_, printed at the end of the
+sixteenth century by Caxton's successor at Westminster. The variations
+between it and the collections which were modelled upon it, probably by
+John Holt, whom I shall again mention, are thus explained and stated by
+the author of the _Typographical Antiquities_:--
+
+"This treats of the eight parts of reason; but they differ in several
+respects as to the manner of treating of them; this treating largely of
+the degrees of comparison, which the other (_Accidentia ex Stanbrigiana
+Collectione_) does not so much as mention. That gives the moods and
+tenses of the 4. conjugations at large, both active and passive, whereas
+this gives only a few short rules to know them by. Again, this shews the
+concords of grammar, which the other has not."
+
+There are at least three issues of the _Accidence_ from London presses,
+and a fourth in an abridged shape from an Antwerp one, presumably for the
+convenience of English residents in the Low Countries. The tide had by
+this time begun to a certain extent to flow in an opposite direction, as
+it were, and not only introductions to our own language were executed here
+and reproduced abroad, but Latin authors were beginning to find competent
+native interpreters, among whom John Annaquil was perhaps the foremost.
+
+Next to the _Accidence_ of Stanbridge I shall consider briefly his
+_Vocabula_, which was, on the whole, the most popular of his works, and
+continued for the greatest length of time in vogue, as I record editions
+of it as late as the period of the Civil War (1647). I have not, on the
+other hand, met with any anterior to 1510. Annexed is a specimen:--
+
+  _De naui et eius pertinentibus._
+
+  The formost parte   The hynder parte   The saylewarde   the bottom of the
+    of the shyppe      of the shyppe        =antenna=          shyppe
+    =Prora nauis=     =Puppis rostrum=                        =carina=
+
+    The takelynge   the mast      The cable      an anker     the stern
+     =Armamenta=    =malus=     =rudens simul=   =anchora=    =clauus=
+
+     The hatches          the pompe      the water pompe     the hatches
+       =foci=           =sentina cum=    =nautea nausea=     =transtra=
+
+   The sayle cloth    idem   the maste of the shyppe  to sayle   a shypman
+     =carbalus=    =et belum=       =nauergus=       =et nauigo=  =nauta=
+
+            Qui nauem regit            idem                    i. nauis
+            =nauicularius=        =et nauclerus=             =nauigiumq=;
+
+    Ptines ad naue       to rowe    qui remigat    the dockes   an ore
+       =naualis=        =remigio=     =remus=      =naualia=    =remex=
+
+   Ptinens ad naue     qui fregit nauem    the see            a wawe
+    =nauticus et=            =naufragus naufragium=   =ac mare=  =fretu=
+
+    To carry ouer    to dryue      to carry ouer   the toll, or the custome
+      =Trajitio=     =appello=     =transporto=            =portarjumq=;
+
+     A fery man   a fery barge    idem        a cokbote      a bottom
+     =Portitor=    =hyppago=     =ponto=    =Iynter quoq=;   =cymba=
+
+This extract is highly edifying. In the concluding line _ponto_, a
+ferry-barge, is the modern _punt_, and _lynter_, a cock-boat, is the early
+Venetian _lintra_, to which I refer in _Venice before the Stones_ as
+antecedent to the gondola.
+
+
+III. The remaining contribution of Stanbridge to this class of literature
+is his _Vulgaria_, which I take to be the least known. Dibdin describes it
+somewhat at large, and it may be worth while to transfer a specimen
+hither:--
+
+  "_Sinciput, et vertex, caput, occiput, et coma, crinis._
+
+   =hoc sinciput, is=, the fore parte of the heed
+   =hic vertex, cis=, for the crowne of the heed
+   =hoc caput, is=, for a heed
+   =hoc occiput, is=, the hynder parte of the heed
+   =hec coma, e=, for a brisshe
+   =hic crinis, nis=, for a heer
+
+         *       *       *       *       *
+
+      A garment       a clothe      idem      apparayle
+   =Hic indumentum=   =vestis=   =vestitus=   =amictus=
+      idem             idem                idem
+     =Ornatus=    =simul apparatus=   =amiculus idem=
+            a cappe              agat: e      idem
+   =Ista caput gestat apex=     =caliptra=   =galerus=
+     a cappe        idem       an hood        idem
+     =Biretum=      =pilius=   =cuculus=   =capitiumq=;
+
+          *       *       *       *       *
+
+   _Vulgaria queda cu suis vernaculis compilata iuxta
+   consuetudinem ludi litterarij diui Pauli._
+
+   Good morowe. =Bonu tibi huius diei sit primordiu.=
+   Good nyght. =Bona nox, tranquilla nox, optata requies, &c.=
+
+   Scolers must lyue hardly at Oxford,
+   =Scolasticos Oxonii parce viuere oportet.=
+
+   My fader hath had a greate losse on the see.
+   =Pater meus magna p naufragiu iactura habuit.=
+
+   Wysshers and wolders be small housholders.
+   =Affectatibus diuitias modica hospitalitate obseruant.="
+
+The abridgments of Stanbridge's _Accidence_ led, I presume, to the
+distinction of the original text as the _Long Accidence_, although I have
+not personally met with more than a single edition of the work under such
+a title. Dibdin, however, has a story that John Bagford had heard of one
+printed at Tavistock, for which the said John "would have stuck at no
+price."
+
+The chief of these adaptations of the _Accidence_ is the _Parvulorum
+Institutio_, which I have described as probably emanating, in the first
+place, from the earliest press for the use of the earliest known school at
+Oxford. But it was reprinted with alterations by Stanbridge, and perhaps
+by John Holt. In Dibdin's account of one of these recensions he
+observes:--
+
+"The work begins immediately on sign. A ij:-'What is to be done whan an
+englysshe is gyuen to be made in latyn? Fyrst the verbe must be loked out,
+and yf there be moo verbes than one in a reason, I must loke out the
+pryncypall verbe and aske this questyon who or what, and that word that
+answereth to the questyon shall be the nomynatyve case to the verbe.
+Except it be a verbe Impersonell the whiche wyll haue no nomynative case.'
+
+"On the last leaf but one we have as follows:--
+
+  =Indignus dignus obscenus fedus         Cice. qq hecauditu
+  acerbus.=                               acerba sunt.
+
+  =Rarus iucundus absurdus turpe          Tere. turpe
+  saluber.=                               dictu.
+
+  =Mirandus mirus pulchrum sit            Qui. multa
+  periculosus.=                           dictu visuq; miranda.
+
+  =Whan there cometh a verbe after        Teretius. quidna
+  sum es fui without a relatyve           incepturus es.
+  or a coniunccyon yf it be of the
+  actyue sygnyfycacyon it shall be        Tere. uxor tibi
+  put in a partycyple of the fyrst        ducenda est paphyle
+  sutertens yf he be of the passyue       Te oro vt
+  synyfacoon he shall be put in the    nuptie que fuerant
+  partycyple of the latter sutertens,     future fiant.
+  except exulo, vapulo, veneo, fio.=
+
+
+IV. Robert Whittinton, whose name is probably more familiar to the
+ordinary student than that of the man from whom he derived his knowledge
+and tastes, was a native of Warwickshire, and was born at Lichfield about
+1480--perhaps a little before. He received his education, as I have
+stated, at the Free School at Oxford, and is supposed to have gained
+admission to one of the colleges; but of this there is no certainty. He
+subsequently acquired, however, the distinction of being decorated with
+the laurel wreath by the University of Oxford for his proficiency in
+grammar and rhetoric, with leave to read publicly any of the logical
+writings of Aristotle; and he assumed the title of Protovates Angliæ, and
+the credit of having been the first Englishman who was laureated.
+
+It is certain that Whittinton became a teacher like his master Stanbridge,
+and among his scholars he counted William Lily, the eminent grammarian;
+but where he so established himself is not so clear, nor do we know the
+circumstances or date of his decease.
+
+I am going to do my best to lay before the reader of these pages a clear
+bibliographical outline of Whittinton's literary performances; and it
+seems to amount to this, that he has left to us, apart from a few
+miscellaneous effusions, eleven distinct treatises on the parts of
+grammar, all doubtless more or less based on the researches and consonant
+with the doctrines of his immediate master Anniquil and the foreign
+professors of the same art, whose works had found their way into England,
+and had even, as in the case of Sulpicius and Perottus, been adopted by
+the English press.
+
+I will first give the titles of the several pieces succinctly, and then
+proceed to furnish a slight description of each:--
+
+   1. De Nominum Generibis.
+   2. Declinationes Nominum.
+   3. De Syllabarum Quantitate, &c.
+   4. Verborum Præterita et Supina.
+   6. De Octo Partibus Orationis.
+   7. De Heteroclitis Nominibus.
+   8. De Concinnitate Grammatices et Constructione.
+   9. Syntaxis. [A recension of No. 8.]
+  10. Vulgaria.
+  11. Lucubrationes.
+
+These eleven _fasciculi_ actually form altogether one system, and some of
+them have their order of succession in the author's arrangement indicated;
+as, for instance, the _Verborum Præterita et Supina_, which is called the
+Fifth Book of the First Part; but others are deficient in this clue, so
+that if one classes them, it must be in one's own way.
+
+
+V. The treatise on the _Kinds of Nouns_, in one of the numerous editions
+of it at least, is designated _Primæ Partis Liber Primus_, which seems an
+inducement to yield it the foremost place in the series. But it will be
+presently observed that, although the collection in a complete state is
+susceptible of a consecutive arrangement, the pieces composing it did not,
+so far as we can tell, follow each other originally in strict order of
+time.
+
+Of the tract on the _Declensions of Nouns_, which stands second in order,
+Dibdin supplies us with a specimen:--
+
+  De nto singu-  =Anchise et Ve-=  =Capis filius=  =Qui fingit elegan-=
+   lari prime     =neris filius,=   =es, ut An-=    =tia carmina, a,=
+   declina-       =as, ut Aeneas=   =chises.=       =ut poeta.=
+   tionis.       Rectus as, es, a; simul am dat flexio prima.
+                          =Aeneæ=        =Aeneæ=
+                 =ut huius=       =huic=
+                           =musæ=        =musæ=
+
+  De gto et dto     Ac dat dipthongum genitiuus sic que datiuus
+    singularibus                          =hi poete=    =o poete=
+    et nto et veto  Singularis, sic pluralis primus quoque quintus
+    pluralibu.             =familie et=      =aulai pro aulae=
+                    =vt huius=         =huic=
+                            =familias=       =pictai pro pictæ.=
+                    Olim rectus in a, genito dedit as simul ai.
+                    =vt hic Judas, huius Jude, vel Juda=
+                    Ex Judas Juda aut Judæ dat pagina sacra
+                    =vt hic Adam. huius Adam. huic Adam, &c.=
+                    Barbara in am propria aut a recto non variantur.
+
+We must now pass to the treatise _De Syllabarum Quantitate_, which, in a
+chronological respect, ranks first among Whittinton's works, as there was
+an edition of it as early as 1513.
+
+This tripartite volume, 1. _On the Quantity of Syllables_; 2. _On Accent_;
+and 3. _On the Roman Magistrates_, is noteworthy on two accounts. The
+second portion embraces the earliest specimen in any English book of the
+poems of Horace, and the concluding section is a kind of rudimentary
+Lemprière. Subjoined is a sample of the lines upon accents, from Dibdin:--
+
+  "=Accentus tonus est per que fit syllaba quevis
+   Cognita: quado acui debet, vel qu gravari
+   Accentus triplex; fit acutus vel gravis, inde
+   Est circuflexus: qui nunc fit rarus in vsu.
+   Syllaba cum tendit sursum est accentus acutus
+   Est gravis accentus sed syllaba pressa deorsum
+   Fit circuflexus gravis in prima: sed in altum
+   Attollit mediam, postrema gravis reciditque.="
+
+This metrical exposition, which will not be mistaken for the language of
+Horace, is followed by a commentary in prose.
+
+The next three divisions do not call for any particular criticism. They
+treat of the _Eight Parts of Speech_, the _Irregular Nouns_, and the _Laws
+of Grammatical Construction_, of which the last is the first cast of the
+_Syntax_.
+
+There remain the _Vulgaria_ and the _Lucubrations_, which are far more
+important and interesting, and of which there were numerous editions. The
+subjoined samples will shew the principle on which the _Vulgaria_ was
+compiled:--
+
+"Befe and motton is so dere, that a peny worth of meet wyll scant suffyse
+a boy at a meale.
+
+"Whan I was a scholler of Oxforthe I lyued competently with vii. pens
+commens wekely.
+
+"Be of good chere man for I sawe ryght nowe a rodde made of wythye for
+the, garnysshed with knottes, it wolde do a boy good to loke vpon it.
+
+"A busshell of whete was holde at xii. pens.
+
+"A gallon of swete wyne is at viii. pens in London.
+
+"A gallon of ale is at a peny and ferdynge.
+
+"I warne the fro hens forthe medle not with my bokes. Thou blurrest and
+blottest them, as thou were a bletchy sowter."
+
+Such bits as these were decidedly worth extracting, yet Dibdin, with the
+very copy of the book from which they are derived before him, let them
+pass. In this volume Whittinton takes occasion to speak in eulogistic
+terms of Sir Thomas More.
+
+Of the _Lucubrations_ the most interesting portion to an English reader
+will be the
+
+  "_To arraye or_   _To backbyte._    The goute.
+    _to dyght._        Detraho        Arthesis
+   Orno                Detracto       Arthtica passio
+   Vestio              Obtrecto       Morbus articularis
+   Amicio              Maledico       Chiragra
+   Induo               Carpo          Podagra
+   Como                &c. &c. &c.
+   Colo
+
+   _An alyen or_    _To playe the_   _To be wode._
+   _outlandysshe._    _brothell._      Seuio
+   Alienagena          Scortari       Furio
+   Peregrinus          Prostitui      Insanio
+   Aduena              Fornicari      Excandeseor
+   Alienus             Merere         Bacchor
+   Exterus             Struprari        _Wodnesse or_
+   Externus            Adulterari         _madnesse._
+   Barbarus            Cohire         Insania
+   Extraneus           Concumbere     Seviciæ
+                         &c. &c.      Furor."
+
+The copious storehouse of equivalent phrases in Latin composition shews us
+in what wide vogue that language was in England at this period, as there
+is no corresponding facility offered for persons desirous of enlarging
+their English vocabulary. The influence of the scholars of France, Italy,
+Holland, and Germany long kept our vernacular in the background, and
+retarded the study of English by Englishmen; but the uprise of a taste for
+the French and Italian probably gave the first serious blow to the
+supremacy of the dead tongues, as they are called, and it became by
+degrees as fashionable for gentlemen and ladies to read and speak the
+languages in which Molière and Tasso wrote as the hybrid dialect in which
+erudite foreigners had been used to correspond and compose.
+
+Whittinton styles himself on the title-pages of several of his pieces
+_laureatus_ and _protovates Angliæ_. In one place he speaks of being
+"primus in Angliâ lauri coronam gestans," and elsewhere he professes to be
+_magister grammatices_. As Warton and others have speculated a good deal
+on the real nature and import of the dignity which this early scholar
+claimed in regard to the laurel crown or wreath, it may be worth noting
+that Wood furnishes the annexed explanation of the point:--
+
+"In the beginning of the year 1513, he supplicated the venerable
+congregation of regents under the name and title of Robert Whittington, a
+secular chaplain and a scholar of the art of rhetoric: that, whereas he
+had spent fourteen years in the study of the said art, and twelve years
+in the informing of boys, it might be sufficient for him that he might be
+laureated. This supplication being granted, he was, after he had composed
+an hundred verses, which were stuck up in public places, especially on the
+door or doors of St. Mary's Church [Oxford], very solemnly crowned, or his
+temples adorned with a wreath of laurel, that is, decorated in the arts of
+grammar and rhetoric, 4 July the same year."
+
+The biographer of Colet is undoubtedly correct in supposing that the
+ancient poet-laureatship was nothing more than an academical degree, and
+that in this sense, and in no other, Skelton bore that designation, as
+well as Bernardus Andreas, who was tutor to Prince Arthur, elder brother
+of Henry VIII.
+
+It also appears from the account of the decoration of Whittinton that he
+had commenced his qualification for a schoolmaster as far back as 1499,
+which is reconcilable with the date assigned to his birth (1480).
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+    Educational tracts produced by other writers--_Parvula_--Holt's _Milk
+    for Children_--Horman's _Vulgaria_ and its singular curiosity and
+    value--The author's literary quarrel with Whittinton--The contemporary
+    foreign teachers--Specimen of the Grammar of Guarini of Verona
+    (1470)--Vestiges of the literature current at Oxford in the beginning
+    of the sixteenth century--The printed works of Johannes de Garlandia.
+
+
+I. Of independent tracts intended for the use of our early schools, there
+were several either anonymous or written by persons whom we do not
+recognise as writers of more than a single production.
+
+In the former category is placeable the small piece published three or
+four times by Wynkyn de Worde about 1509, under the title of _Parvula_ or
+_Longe Parvula_. It is a series of rules for translation and other
+exercises in the form of question and answer, thus:--
+
+"Q. What shall thou do whan thou hast an englysshe to make in latyn?
+
+"A. I shal reherse myne englysshe ones, twyes, or thryes, and loke out my
+pryncypal, & aske y questyon, who or what."
+
+A second publication is the _Milk for Children_ of John Holt, of Magdalen
+College, Oxford, who had the honour of numbering among his pupils Sir
+Thomas More. One of the most interesting points about the little book to
+us nowadays is that it is accompanied by some Latin hexameters and
+pentameters and an epigram in the same language by More. The latter has
+the air of having been sent to Holt, and inserted by him with the heading
+which occurs before it, where the future Chancellor is termed "disertus
+adolescentulus."
+
+A decided singularity of this volume is the quaint device of the author
+for impressing his precepts on those who read his pages or attended his
+academy by arranging the cases and declensions on woodcuts in the shape of
+outstretched hands.
+
+Besides his _Milk for Children_ and the _Parvulorum Institutio_, to the
+latter of which I have already referred, Holt appears to me the most
+likely person to have compiled the tract called _Accidentia ex
+Stanbrigiana Collectione_, a small grammatical manual based on that of his
+predecessor or even colleague at Magdalen School; and this may be the work
+to which Knight points where he says that Holt put forth an Accidence and
+Grammar concurrently with his other tract, though the biographer of Dean
+Colet errs in placing Stanbridge after Holt in chronological sequence.
+
+Another of the miscellaneous unofficial pieces, answering very nearly to
+the mediæval _Nominale_, has no other title than _Os, Facies, mentum_, and
+is a Latin poem descriptive of the human form, first printed in 1508, with
+an interlinear English gloss. It begins thus:--
+
+  a mouthe     a face      a chyne    a toth     a throot    a tonge
+    Os         facies       mentu      dens       guttur     lingua
+  a berde      a browe      abrye    a forhede    teples     a lype
+   Barba     supercilium    ciliu      frons      tepora     labru
+                           roffe of the mouth
+                                palatum
+
+There is nothing, of course, on the one hand, recondite, or, on the other,
+very edifying in this; but it is a sample of the method pursued in these
+little ephemerides nearly four centuries ago.
+
+
+II. The comparative study of Latin and English acquired increased
+prominence under the Tudors; and in addition to the regular text-books
+compiled by such men as Stanbridge and Whittinton, there is quite a small
+library of pieces designed for educational purposes, and framed on a
+similar model. Doubtless these were in many cases accepted in the schools
+on an equal footing with the productions of the masters themselves, or the
+latter may have had a hand, very possibly, in those which we have to treat
+as anonymous.
+
+Between the commencement and middle of the sixteenth century, during the
+reigns of the first and second Tudors, there were several of these
+unclaimed and unidentified compilations, such as the _Grammatica
+Latino-Anglica, Tractatus de octo orationis partibus_, and _Brief Rules of
+the Regiment or construction of the Eight Parts of Speech, in English and
+Latin_, 1537.
+
+The _Introductorium linguæ Latinæ_ by W. H. may perhaps be ascribed to
+William Horman, of whom we shall have more to say; and there are also in
+the category of works which had no particular width or duration of
+currency the _Gradus Comparationum_ of Johannes Bellomayus, and the
+_Regulæ Informationis_ of John Barchby.
+
+These, and others, again, of which all trace has at present disappeared,
+were employed in common with the regular series, constantly kept in print,
+of Whittinton and Stanbridge, prior to the rise of the great public
+seminaries, many of which, as it will be my business to shew, took into
+use certain compilations supposed to be specially adapted to their
+requirements.
+
+William Horman, who is presumed to have been the author of the
+_Introductorium_ above mentioned, was schoolmaster and Fellow of Eton
+College; in 1477 he became a perpetual Fellow of New College, Oxford, and
+he was eventually chosen Vice-Provost of Eton. He survived till 1535. From
+an epigram appended to the volume it is to be gleaned that Horman was a
+pupil of Dr. Caius, poet-laureate to Edward the Fourth.
+
+Of the _Gradus Comparationum_ the subjoined may be received as a
+specimen:--
+
+"What nownes make comparyson? All adiectyues welnere y betoken a
+thynge that maye be made more or lesse: as fayre: fayrer: fayrest: black,
+blacker, blackest. How many degrees of comparacyon ben there? iij. the
+positiue y comparatiue & the superlatyue. How knowe ye the posityue
+gedre? For he is the groude and the begynner of all other degrees of
+coparyson. How knowe ye the comparatyue degre? for he passeth his
+posityue with this englysshe more, or his englysshe endeth in r, as more
+wyse or wyser. How knowe ye the superlatyue degre? for he passeth his
+posityue with engysshe moost: or his englisshe endeth in est: as moost
+fayre or fayrest, moost whyte or whytest."
+
+
+III. The _Vulgaria_ of William Horman, 1519, is perhaps one of the most
+intrinsically curious and valuable publications in the entire range of our
+early philological literature. It would be easy to fill such a slender
+volume as that in the hands of the reader with samples of the contents
+without exhausting the store, but I must content myself with such extracts
+as seem most entertaining and instructive:--
+
+"Physicians, that be all sette to wynne money, bye and sylle our lyues:
+and so ofte tymes we bye deth with a great and a sore pryce. _Animas
+nostras æruscatores medici negociantur, &c._
+
+"Papyre fyrste was made of a certeyne stuffe like the pythe of a bulrushe
+in Ægypt: and syth it is made of lynnen clothe soked in water, stapte
+or grude pressed and smothed. _Chartæ seu papyri, &c._
+
+"The greattest and hyest of pryce: is papyre imperyall. _Augustissimum
+papyrum, &c._
+
+"The prynters haue founde a crafte to make bokis by brasen letters sette
+in ordre by a frame. _Calcographi arte, &c._
+
+"Pryntynge hathe almooste vndone scryueners crafte. _Chalcographia
+librarioru qstu pene exhavsit._
+
+"Yf the prynters take more hede to the hastynge: than to the true settynge
+of theyr moldis: the warke is vtterly marred. _Si qui libros, &c._"
+
+The rest are given without the Latin equivalents, which have no particular
+interest.
+
+"Scryueners write with blacke, redde, purple, gren, blewe, or byce: and
+suche other.
+
+Parchement leues be wonte to be ruled: that there may be a comly
+marget: also streyte lynes of equal distaunce be drawe withyn: that the
+wryttyng may shewe fayre.
+
+Olde or doting chourles can not suffre yoge children to be mery.
+
+I haue lefte my boke in the tennys playe.
+
+This ynke is no better than blatche.
+
+Frobeynes prynt is called better than Aldus: but yet Aldus is neuer the
+lesse thanke worthy: for he began the fynest waye: and left sauple by
+the whiche other were lyghtly provoked and taughte to deuyse better.
+
+There is come a scoolle of fysshe.
+
+The tems is frosne ouer with yse.
+
+The trompettours blowe a fytte or a motte.
+
+Vitelars thryue: by getherynge of good felowes that haue swete mouthes.
+
+The mokis of charter-house: neuer ete fleshe mete.
+
+We shall drynke methe or metheglen.
+
+We shall haue a iuncket after dyner.
+
+Serue me with pochyd eggis.
+
+He kepeth rere suppers tyll mydnyght.
+
+Se that I lacke nat by my beddes syde a chayer of easement: with a vessel
+vnder: and an vrinall bye.
+
+Women couette to sytte on lowe or pote stolys: men upon twyse so hye.
+
+It is couenyent that a man haue one seueral place in his house to
+hymselfe fro cobrance of wome.
+
+Women muste haue one place to themselfe to tyffil themselfe and kepe theyr
+apparell.
+
+They whyte theyr face, necke and pappis with cerusse: and theyr lyppis and
+ruddis with purpurisse.
+
+Tumblers, houndes, that can goo on huntynge by them selfe: brynge home
+theyr praye.
+
+Lytel popies, that serueth for ladies, were sutyme bellis: sutyme
+colers ful of prickkis for theyr defece.
+
+I haue layde many gynnys, pottis, and other: for to take fisshe.
+
+Some fisshe scatre at the nette.
+
+Poules steple is a mighty great thyng / and so hye that vneth a man may
+discerne the wether cocke.
+
+It is an olde duty / and an auncyent custume / that the Mayre of London
+with his bretherne shall offer at Poules certayne dayes in the yere.
+
+In London be. lij. parysshe chyrches.
+
+Two or. iij. neses be holsome: one is a shrowed toke."
+
+These selected extracts will convey some notion of the unusual curiosity
+of the _Vulgaria_ of Horman, of which a second edition came out in 1530;
+it is so far rather surprising that it did not prove more popular. But it
+had to enter into competition with books of a similar title and cast by
+Stanbridge and Whittinton, who had their established connection to assist
+the sale of their publications.
+
+The concluding item in this list of educational performances is also a
+curious philological relic, and a factor in the illustration of the
+imperfect mastery of English by foreigners of all periods and almost all
+countries. I allude to an edition of the _Declensions_ of the learned
+Parisian printer Ascensius with an English gloss. The tract was evidently
+printed abroad; and I am tempted to transcribe the paragraph on
+Punctuation, as it may afford an idea of the nature of the publication and
+of the English of that day as written by a foreigner. It will be observed
+that the author seems to confound the comma and the colon:--
+
+"_Of the craft of poynting._
+
+"Therbe fiue maner poyntys / and diuisios most vside with cunnyng men:
+the whiche if they be wel vsid: make the sentens very light / and esy to
+vnderstod both to the reder & the herer. & they be these: virgil / come
+/ parethesis / playne poynt / and interrogatif. A virgil is a
+scleder stryke: lenynge forwarde thiswyse / be tokynynge a lytyl /
+short rest without any perfetnes yet of sentens: as betwene the fiue
+poyntis a fore rehersid. A come is with tway titils thiswyse: betokynyng a
+lenger rest: and the setens yet ether is vnperfet: or els if it be
+perfet: ther cumith more after / logyng to it: the which more
+comynly can not be perfect by itself without at the lest sumat of it:
+that gothe a fore. A parenthesis is with tway crokyd virgils: as an olde
+mone / & a neu bely to bely: the whiche be set theron afore the begynyng /
+and thetother after the latyr ende of a clause: comyng within an other
+clause: that may be perfet: thof the clause / so comyng betwene: wer
+awey and therfore it is sowndyde comynly a note lower: than the vtter
+clause. yf the setens cannot be perfet without the ynner clause: then
+stede of the first crokyde virgil a streght virgil wol do very wel: and
+stede of the latyr must nedis be a come. A playne point is with won tittil
+thiswyse. & it cumith after the ende of al the whole setens
+betokinyng a loge rest. An iterrogatif is with tway titils: the
+vppir rysyng this wyse? & it cumith after the ende of a whole reason:
+wheryn ther is sum question axside. the whiche ende of the reson / tariyng
+as it were for an answare: risyth vpwarde. we haue made these rulis in
+englisshe: by cause they be as profitable / and necessary to be kepte in
+euery moder tuge / as i latin. ¶ Sethyn we (as we wolde to god: euery
+precher [? techer] wolde do) haue kepte owre rulis bothe in owre englisshe
+/ and latyn: what nede we / sethyn owre own be sufficient ynogh: to put
+any other exemplis."
+
+
+VI. It is perhaps fruitless to offer any vague conjecture as to the
+authorship of the _Ascensian Declensions_. Many Englishmen resident in
+Paris, Antwerp, and Germany might have edited such a book. The orthography
+and punctuation are alike peculiar, and suspiciously redolent, it may be
+considered, of a foreign parentage; but one of our countrymen who had long
+resided abroad, or who had even been educated out of England, might very
+well have been guilty of such slips as we find here. A Thomas Robertson of
+York, of whom I shall have more presently to say, was a few years later in
+communication with the printers and publishers of Switzerland, and became
+the editor of a text of Lily the grammarian. Robertson, as a Northern man,
+was apt, in writing English, to introduce certain provincialisms; and I
+put it, though merely as a guess, that he might have executed this
+commission, as he did the other, for Bebelius of Basle.
+
+Two years subsequently to the appearance of his _Vulgaria_, Horman
+involved himself in a literary controversy with Whittinton in consequence
+of an attack which he had made on the laureate's grammatical productions
+in a printed Epistle to Lily; it was the beginning of a movement for
+reforming or remodelling the current educational literature, and Horman
+himself was a man of superior character and literary training, as we are
+able to judge from the way in which he acquitted himself of his own
+contribution to this class of work.
+
+A curious and very interesting account of the dispute between Lily and
+Horman, in which Robert Whittinton and a fourth grammarian named Aldrich
+became involved, is given by Maitland in his Notices of the Lambeth Palace
+Library. I elsewhere refer to the warm altercation between Sir John Cheke
+and Bishop Gardiner on the pronunciation of Greek. Both these matters have
+to be added to a new edition of Disraeli's _Quarrels of Authors_.
+
+The Salernitan gentleman (Andrea Guarna) who set the Noun and the Verb
+together by the ears in his _Grammar War_, acted, no doubt, more
+discreetly, since he reserved to himself the power to terminate the fray
+which he had commenced.
+
+
+VII. Generally speaking, it is the case that the men who compiled the
+curious and highly valuable Manuals of Instruction during the Middle Ages
+were superseded and effaced by others following in their track and
+profiting by their experience. The bulk of these more ancient treatises,
+such as I have described, still remained in MS. till of recent years, like
+the college text-books, which are yet sometimes left unprinted from
+choice; and after the introduction of typography the teaching and learning
+public accorded a preference to those scholars who constructed their
+system on more modern lines, and whose method was at once more
+intelligible and more efficient.
+
+Of all the names with which we have become familiar, the only one which
+seems to have survived is Johannes de Garlandia; and it is remarkable,
+again, that the two works from his pen which passed the London press, the
+_Verborum Explicatio_ and the _Synonyma_, are by no means comparable in
+merit or in interest to the Dictionary already noticed. Subsequently to
+the rise of the English Grammatical School the reputation and popularity
+of Garlandia evidently suffered a permanent decline, and we hear _and
+feel_ no more of him.
+
+A new generation, trained in foreign schools or under foreign tutors, set
+themselves the task of forming educational centres, and of introducing the
+people of England to a conversance with the foundations of learning and
+culture by more expeditious and effectual methods; and as from Scrooby in
+Lincolnshire a small knot of resolute men went forth in the _May Flower_
+to lay the first stone of that immense constitutional edifice, the United
+States of America, so from an humble school at Oxford sprang the pioneers
+of all English grammatical lore--Anniquil; his usher, Stanbridge;
+Stanbridge's pupil, Whittinton; and Whittinton's pupil, Lily.
+
+It is not too much to say that during three hundred years all our great
+men, all our nobility, all our princes, owed to this hereditary dynasty,
+as it were, the elementary portion of their scholastic and academical
+breeding, and that no section of our literature can boast of so long a
+celebrity and utility as the Grammatical Summary which is best known as
+Lily's _Short Introduction_, and which in most of its essentials
+corresponds with the system employed by those who preceded him and those
+who followed him almost within the recollection of our grandfathers. It
+was reserved for scholars of a very different temper and type to overthrow
+his ancient empire, and establish one of their own; and this is a
+revolution which dates from yesterday.
+
+At the period when the school at Magdalen was established by Bishop
+Waynflete, the teachers in our own country and on the Continent were
+working on nearly parallel lines, just as the religious service-books
+printed at Paris and Rouen were made, by a few subsidiary alterations, to
+answer the English use; and indeed in the case of the grammatical system
+of Sulpicius an impression was executed at Paris in 1511 for Wynkyn de
+Worde, and imported hither for sale, without any differences or variations
+from the text employed in the Parisian gymnasium and elsewhere through the
+French dominions. It was not till the English element in these books
+gained the ascendancy, having been introduced by furtive degrees and by
+way of occasional or incidental illustration, that a marked native
+character was stamped on our school-books. Ultimately, as we know, the
+Latin proportion sensibly diminished, and even a preponderant share of
+space was accorded to the vernacular.
+
+I have spoken of Ælius Donatus as an author whose Grammar enjoyed a long
+celebrity and an enormously wide acceptance, down from his own age to the
+date of the revival of learning. It was used throughout the Continent, in
+England, and in Scotland.
+
+But prior to our earliest race of native grammarians and philologists,
+there were several labourers in this great and fruitful field, who began,
+towards the latter end of the fifteenth century, to cast off the trammels
+of the Roman professor, and to set up little systems of their own, of
+course more or less built upon Donatus.
+
+Such an one was Guarini of Verona, whose _Regulæ Grammaticales_ were
+originally published at Venice in 1470, and are regarded as one of the
+earliest specimens of her prolific press. These rules were frequently
+reissued, and I have before me an edition of 1494.
+
+The book, which consists only of twenty-two leaves or forty-four pages,
+begins with describing the parts of speech, then takes the various sorts
+of verbs, and follows with the adverbs, participles, and so forth. There
+is a set of verses on the irregular nouns, and a second headed _Versus
+differentiales_ or synonyms; and some of the illustrations are given in
+Italian. The section on diphthongs forms an Appendix.
+
+I merely adduce a cursory notice of Guarini to keep the student in mind of
+the collateral progress of this class of learning abroad, while our own
+men were developing it among us with the occasional assistance of
+foreigners. Perhaps I may just copy out the following small specimen,
+where the glosses are in the writer's vernacular:--
+
+  "Largior   ris   per donare e p essere donato
+   Experior  ris   per puare e per essere puato
+   Ueneror   ris   per honorare e p essere honorato
+   Moror     ris   per aspectare e p eere aspectato
+   Osculor   ris   per basare e p essere basiato."
+
+In connection with Magdalen School, we see in the account-book of John
+Dorne, Oxford bookseller, for 1520, the class and range of literature
+which a dealer in those days found saleable. Among the strictly
+grammatical books occur the _A. B. C._ and the _Boys' Primer_; the
+productions, with which we are already familiar, of Whittinton,
+Stanbridge, Erasmus, Cicero, Terence, and Lucian, interspersed with some
+of the Fathers, service-books of the Church, classical authors of a less
+popular type, such as Lucan, Cornelius Nepos, and Pomponius Mela; and more
+or less abstruse treatises on logic, rhetoric, and theology. On the other
+hand, we have prognostications in English, almanacs, _Robin Hood_, the
+_Nutbrown Maid_, the _Squire of Low Degree_, _Sir Isumbras_, _Robert the
+Devil_, and ballads. There are, besides, the _Sermon of the Boy-Bishop_,
+the _Book of Cookery_, the _Book of Carving_, and an Anglo-French
+vocabulary.
+
+But I do not enter into these details. It was merely my intention to peep
+in at the shop, and see what a bookseller at one of the Universities
+nearly four centuries ago had in the way of school-literature. Perhaps
+next to the _A. B. C._ and the primers, the educational works of Erasmus
+were in greatest demand.
+
+This old ledger has a sort of living value, inasmuch as it carries us back
+with it to the very Oxford of the first race of teachers and grammarians,
+about whom I write. All of them, except perchance Anniquil, must have
+known Dorne and had transactions with him; and here is his ledger, upon
+which the eyes of some of them may have rested, still preserved, with its
+record of stock in hand--new copies damp from the printer, or remainders
+of former purchases, now scarcely extant, or, if so, shorn of their coeval
+glory by the schoolboy's thumb or the binder's knife.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+    Auxiliary books--_Vulgaria_ of Terence--His Comedies printed in
+    1497--Some of them popular in schools--HORACE--CICERO--His _Offices_
+    and _Old Age_ translated by Whittinton--VIRGIL--OVID--Specimens of
+    Whittinton's Cicero--The school Cato--Notices of other works designed
+    or employed for educational purposes.
+
+
+I. There is a class of books which, while they were not strictly intended
+for use in the preparation of the ordinary course of lessons, were most
+undoubtedly brought into constant requisition, at least by the higher
+forms or divisions, as aids to a familiarity with the dead languages, and
+eventually those of the Continent.
+
+The earliest and one of the most influential of these was the _Vulgaria_
+of Terence. As far back as the reign of Edward IV., I find it annexed to
+the _Compendium Grammaticæ_ of Johannes Anniquil, printed at Oxford about
+1483; and at least three other editions of it exist. It is on the
+interlinear plan, as the following extract will serve to indicate:--
+
+  "Here must I abyde allone this ij dayes
+   =Biduus hic manendu; est mihi soli.=
+
+   Though I may not touch it yet I may see
+   =Si non tangendi copia e videndi ta; erit.=
+
+   The dede selfe scheweth or telleth
+   =Res ipsa indicat.=
+
+   If I had tarayed a lytill while I hadd not found hym at home
+   =Paululu si cessasse eu domi no offendisse.="
+
+No one will be astonished or displeased to hear that Terence soon acquired
+great popularity among school-boys and a permanent rank as a text-book. In
+1497 Pynson printed all the Comedies, and a few years later selections
+were given with marginal glosses. In 1533 the celebrated Nicholas Udall,
+many years before he gave to the world the admirable comedy of _Ralph
+Roister Doister_, edited portions of the Latin poet with an English
+translation, doubtless for the benefit of the scholars at Eton; it was a
+volume which long continued a favourite, and passed through several
+impressions, both during the author's life and after his death.
+
+In 1598, a century subsequent to the appearance of the first, came a
+second complete version of the Comedies, from the pen of Richard Bernard
+of Axholme in Lincolnshire, and being more contemporary in its language
+and treatment, drove out of fashion the old Pynson. Bernard's remained in
+demand till the middle of the next century, and concurrently with it
+renderings of separate plays occasionally presented themselves.
+
+In 1588 the _Andria_ was brought out by Maurice Kyffin with marginal
+notes, his professed object being twofold, namely, to further the
+attainment of Latin by novices and the recovery of it by such as had
+forgotten the language. In 1627, Thomas Newman, apparently one of the
+masters of St. Paul's, prepared for the special behoof of students
+generally the _Eunuch_ and the _Andria_, dedicating his performance to the
+scholars of Paul's, to whom he wished increase in grace and learning. The
+treatment of these two favourite dramas was influenced, as we are
+expressly informed, by the idea and ambition of adapting them for
+theatrical exhibition at a school.
+
+But they were, at the same time, considered by our forefathers
+particularly well suited as vehicles for instruction, as well perhaps as
+for amusement. In the early days of Charles I., Dr. Webbe brought out an
+edition of them, both on a novel, principle of his own, which he had taken
+the precaution to patent. The safeguard proved superfluous, however, for
+the book never went into a second edition.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For the sake of grouping conveniently together the entire Anglo-Terentian
+literature, I shall conclude with a mention of the version, executed in
+1667 by Charles Hoole of six of the plays. It is in English and Latin,
+"for the use of young scholars," and was most probably done with a special
+view to Hoole's own school, which at this time was "near Lothbury Garden,
+London." He kept for a long series of years one of the leading proprietary
+establishments in the metropolis; but he was originally the principal of
+one at Rotherham in Yorkshire. We last hear of him as carrying on the same
+business in Goldsmith's Alley. This was in 1675. His career as a teacher
+must have extended over some thirty years.
+
+
+II. Leaving Terence, we may pass to Virgil, whose _Bucolics_ were
+published in 1512 with a dull Latin commentary, illustrating the
+construction of the verse and other critical points.
+
+No ancient English edition of Horace exists, either in the original
+language or a translation. But Whittinton admitted selections from him
+into his _Syntax_. In 1534 he translated Cicero's _Offices_ for the use of
+schools, printing the Latin and English face to face; and the treatise of
+_Old Age_ closely followed.
+
+In these attempts to draw the classics into use for educational purposes,
+the fine musical numbers of the ancient poet and the noble composition of
+the writer in prose offer a powerful contrast to the barbarous jargon and
+dissonant pedantry of the scholiast and editor, whose Latin exposition
+certainly tended in no way to assist the learner, either from the point
+of view of an interpreter or a model. For it must have been, in the
+absence of some one to expound the exposition, fully as puzzling to pupils
+as the most difficult passages of the Roman poets, while it was eminently
+mischievous in its influence on the formation of a Latin style.
+
+The teacher in all ages has been a prosaic and unimaginative being; and if
+the one who directed the studies of Virgil himself had glossed the works
+of those authors who lived before the Augustan era, he would have probably
+transmitted to us a labour as dry and unfruitful as those which make part
+of the reference library of English boys in the olden time.
+
+Except in a prose translation, which bears no mark of having been intended
+for boys, the _Æneid_ was not introduced among us for a very long period
+subsequently to the revival of learning, nor were the _Georgics_. A
+selection from Ovid's _Art of Love_ appeared in 1513; perhaps the whole
+was deemed too fescennine for the juvenile peruser.
+
+I shall add Cæsar, whose _Commentaries_ were printed in 1530, not because
+this invaluable book was intended as a medium for instruction in the
+seminaries and colleges, but just by the way, as the only other classic
+rendered into our tongue so early, on account of its probable interest in
+relation to France and to military science, and, once more, on account of
+the person who translated it, John Tiptoft, Earl of Worcester, an
+accomplished nobleman, who filled at one time a professorial chair in the
+University of Padua.
+
+The Cæsar, in fact, occupies an analogous position to the English editions
+of Cicero and the prose paraphrase of the _Æneid_ published by Caxton, and
+was intended for the use of those few cultivated minds which had imbibed
+in Italy and France a taste for elegant and refined studies.
+
+
+III. I have before me a copy of Whittinton's versions of the _Offices_ and
+_Old Age_ of Cicero, and I may take the opportunity to present to the
+reader a specimen of his performance. It is taken from the first book of
+the _Offices_:--
+
+  De Officiis Servandis in eos qui    Of offyces to be obserued agayne
+  intulerunt nobis iniuriam.          suche as haue done vs wronge
+
+  Svnt autem quædam officia           There be also certayne offyces
+  etiam aduersus eos seruada à        to be kepte agayne suche / of
+  quibus iniuriam acceperis. Est      whom a ma hath taken wrong.
+  enim ulciscendi & puniendi          For there is a maner of reuengynge
+  modus. Atq; haud scio an satis      and punysshyng, and I can not
+  sit eum, qui lacessierit, iniuriæ   tell whether it be suffycient
+  suæ poenitere, ut & ipse ne quid    for hym that hath done
+  tale posthac committat, & cæteri    wronge to be sory of his wronge /
+  sint ad iniuriam tardiores.         and that he offende no more so
+                                      after that. Also other shall be
+                                      the more lothe to do wronge.
+
+There are few English renderings of ancient literature which it is
+possible to regard as completely satisfactory; and it must be recollected,
+on the behalf of Whittinton, that he was among the pioneers in this
+laborious field. Let me conclude with a sample of his essay on the _De
+Senectute_--a _chef d'oeuvre_, which it is a sin to read in any idiom
+but its own.
+
+  Sequitur tertia vituperatio          The thyrde accusacion of olde
+  senectutis, quod eam carere dicunt   age foloweth. By cause it must
+  voluptatibus. O præclarum munus      forgo pleasures. O that excellent
+  ætatis, siquidem id aufert           benefyte of olde age: yf it
+  nobis, quod est in adolescentia      take away from vs that thynge /
+  vitiosissimum. Accipite suim         whiche in youth is moost vicious.
+  optimi adolescentes, ueterem         Therfore ye gentyll yonge men
+  orationem Archytæ Tarentini,         heare the olde sentence of Archytas
+  magni in primis, et præclari viri,   a Tarentyne / a great and
+  quæ mihi tradita est cum essem       a famous man amonges all other
+  adolescens Tarenti cum Q. Maximo.    / which was taught vnto me whan
+  Nulla capitaliore peste              I was a yonge man in the citye
+  quam corporis uoluptate hominibus    of Tarentu with Quintus Maximus.
+  dicebat à natura data....            He sayd that there was
+                                       not a more deedly poyson gyuen
+                                       to man by nature / than sensuall
+                                       pleasure of body....
+
+These two passages afford a fair idea of the capability of Whittinton for
+his task, and of the means which the English student of those days enjoyed
+for profiting by the lessons of antiquity and holding intercourse with the
+greatest minds of former ages, at the same time that it led the way to the
+purification of the current Latinity from mediæval barbarism and the
+heresies of the Dutch school.
+
+To be hypercritical in the judgment of these experimental, and of course
+imperfect, attempts to impart to the educational system in this island a
+better tone and to place it on an improved footing, would be ungracious
+and improper. The introduction of the Roman writers in prose and verse
+into our schools and universities was an important step in the right
+direction, and tended to counteract the monastic temper and element in our
+method of training.
+
+
+V. Outside the pale of the schoolroom, but still clearly designed for
+learners, one finds such literary fossils as the _Book of Cato_, the _Cato
+for Boys_, the _Eclogues_ of Mantuan, of which Bale speaks as popular in
+his day, and which Holofernes mentions in _Love's Labour's Lost_; various
+abridgments of the _Colloquia_ of Erasmus and his _Little Book of Good
+Manners for Children_ (another monument of the industry and scholarship of
+Whittinton); and, lastly, such elementary guides to mythology and history
+as Lydgate's _Interpretation of the Natures of Gods and Goddesses_, and
+the _Chronicle of all the Kings' Names that have reigned in England_,
+1530. With these I should perhaps couple the Latin _Æsop_ of 1502, with a
+commentary in the same language, and the later edition of which, in 1535,
+includes the _Fables_ of Poggius.
+
+Considering the state of our population and the restrictions on learning,
+it cannot be said that the market for works of reference and instruction
+was poorly supplied, and the remains which have descended to us of books
+published in England, many wholly or partly in that language, for the use
+of the young, certainly bespeak and establish an eager and wide demand on
+the part of our public and private seminaries in the fifteenth and
+following centuries.
+
+I take occasion to shew the beneficial share which Erasmus had in the
+promotion of culture in England in various ways, and the interest which he
+evinced in the establishment and success of St. Paul's School. Not only
+were his own works translated into English, and received with favour among
+the book-lovers of that age, but he ventured so far as to turn several of
+the _Dialogues_ of Lucian into Latin, encouraged by the proficiency which
+he had acquired during his first visit to England, in the original
+language, added perhaps to the satisfactory result of his later
+experiments as a teacher of Greek at Cambridge.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+    Influence of Erasmus and Sir Thomas More--Visits of the former to this
+    country--His friendship with Dean Colet--Establishment of various
+    schools in England--Foundation of St. Paul's by Colet--Statutes--Books
+    used in the school--Narrow lines--Notice of the old Cathedral School.
+
+
+I. We must not attempt, in fact, to consider the educational question in
+early England without studying very sedulously the Lives of Erasmus and
+Colet by Samuel Knight. The influence of Erasmus on our scholastic
+literature I believe to have been very great indeed. He came over to this
+country, it appears, in 1497, and spent a good deal of time at Oxford,
+where he acquired a knowledge of Greek. "While Erasmus remained at
+Oxford," says his biographer, "he became very intimate with all those who
+were of any Note for Learning; accounting them always his best friends,
+by whom he was most profited in his studies. And as he owns M. Colet did
+first engage him in the Study of Theology, so it is also well known that
+he embraced the favourable Opportunity he now had of learning the Greek
+Tongue, under the most Skilful Masters (viz.) William Grocyn, Thomas
+Linacre, and William Latimer. Grocyn is said by one who lived about this
+Time to have been the first Professor, or Publick Teacher of Greek in
+Oxford to a full Assembly of Young Students."
+
+Knight affords an interesting and tolerably copious account of Linacre, as
+well as of Grocyn; and in connection with the former he relates an
+anecdote, on the authority of Erasmus, about Bernard Andreas, tutor to
+Prince Arthur, son of Henry VII. But I shall not enter into these matters,
+as Linacre, though a great promoter of Greek authors, scarcely comes
+within my plan. Yet I may mention that among the friends whom the learned
+Hollander made here was Cuthbert Tunstall, afterwards Bishop of Durham,
+and author of the first book on arithmetic published in this country, and
+Richard Pace, who succeeded Colet in the Deanery of St. Paul's.
+
+There is, however, a passage which I may be suffered to transcribe, where,
+speaking of the time when Erasmus was contemplating a departure homeward,
+Knight observes:--
+
+"Before Erasmus left England, he laid the plan of his useful Tract _de
+conscribendis epistolis_, for the Service, and at the Suggestion of his
+noble Pupil the Lord William Montjoy, who had complained that there were
+no good Rules, or Examples of that kind, to which he could conform
+himself. Erasmus took the hint very kindly, and making his just
+Reflections, upon the emptiness of Franciscus Niger, and Marius
+Phalelfus,[2] whose Books upon that Argument were read in the common
+Schools, he seems resolv'd at his first leisure, to give a New Essay of
+that kind; and accordingly upon his first return to Paris he fell upon it,
+and finished it within twenty Days."
+
+So we see that, prior to the visit of Erasmus to us at the end of the
+fifteenth century, there were already polite letter-writers current, and
+current, too, as school-books. Erasmus came to the conclusion that he had
+done his own work too hastily, and the appearance of an edition of it in
+England about thirty years later, and likewise of a counterfeit, induced
+him to revise the undertaking, which was finally published at Basle in
+1545 in a volume with other analogous tracts by various writers.
+
+A story which Knight relates about his author's literary enterprise in the
+epistolary line is too amusing to be overlooked:--
+
+"In that Essay of the way of writing Epistles, Erasmus had put in two
+sorts of Declamations, one in the praise, the other in dispraise, of
+Matrimony, and asking his young Pupil L{d.} Montjoy how he lik'd that of
+the first sort. 'Oh sir,' says he, 'I like it so well, that you have made
+me resolve to marry quickly.' 'Ay!' but says Erasmus, 'you have read only
+one side, stay and read the other.' 'No,' replies L{d.} Montjoy, 'that
+side pleases me; take you the other!'" The subject is an obvious one for
+humorous controversy; but there is a similar idea in Rabelais, who makes
+his two chief characters debate the advantages and drawbacks of wedlock.
+
+Altogether, Erasmus must have done very much toward the advancement of a
+taste for Hellenic culture in our country, and his biographer apprises us
+that he exhorted the physicians of his time to study that language as more
+necessary to their profession than to any other. Yet the knowledge of the
+tongue was very sparingly diffused in England at and long after that time;
+and Turner, in the dedication of his Herbal to Queen Elizabeth in 1568,
+complains of the ignorance of the apothecaries of his day even of the
+Latin names of the herbs which they employed in their pharmacopoeia. The
+illustrious and erudite Dutchman did, doubtless, what he could, and made
+several of the classics more familiar and intelligible by new editions,
+with some of which he connected the names of English scholars and
+prelates; but the time had not arrived for any general movement.
+
+
+II. Knight, in his Life of Dean Colet, enumerates several of the schools
+which were founded shortly before the Reformation. "This noble impulse of
+Christian charity," says he, "in the founding of grammar schools, was one
+of the providential ways and means for bringing about the blessed
+reformation; and it is therefore observable, that, within thirty years
+before it, there were more grammar schools erected and endowed in England
+than had been in three hundred years preceding: one at Chichester by Dr.
+Edward Scory, bishop of that see, who left a farther benefaction to it by
+his last will, dated 8th December, 1502: another at Manchester by Hugh
+Oldham, Bishop of Exeter, who died 1519: another at Binton in
+Somersetshire, by Dr. Fitzjames, Bishop of London, and his brother, Sir
+John Fitzjames, lord chief justice of England: a fourth at Cirencester in
+Gloucestershire, by Thomas Ruthall, Bishop of Durham: a fifth at Roulston
+in Staffordshire, by Dr. Robert Sherborne, bishop of St. David's,
+predecessor to Dr. Colet in the deanery of St. Paul's: a sixth at
+Kingston-upon-Hull, by John Alcock, Bishop of Ely: a seventh at Sutton
+Colfield in Warwickshire, by Dr. Simon Harman (_alias_ Veysey), bishop of
+Exeter: an eighth at Farnworth in Lancashire, by Dr. William Smith, Bishop
+of Lincoln, born there: a ninth at Appleby in Westmoreland, by Stephen
+Langton, bishop of Winchester: a tenth at Ipswich in Suffolk by cardinal
+Wolsey: another at Wymbourn in Dorsetshire, by Margaret, countess of
+Richmond: another at Wolverhampton in Staffordshire, by Sir Stephen
+Jennings, mayor of London: another at Macclesfield, by Sir John Percival,
+mayor of London: as also another by the lady Thomasine his wife at St.
+Mary Wike in Devonshire, where she was born: and another at Walthamstow in
+Essex by George Monnox, mayor of London, 1515: besides several other
+schools in other parts of the kingdom."
+
+Knight concludes by saying that "the piety and charity of Protestants ran
+so fast in this channel, that in the next age there wanted rather a
+regulation of grammar schools than an increase of them."
+
+George Lily, son of the grammarian and schoolmaster, and canon of St.
+Paul's, refers doubtless to these benefactions when, in his _Chronicle_,
+he speaks of the encouragement of learning by the princes and nobility of
+England, and goes on to say that their good example was followed by Dr.
+John Colet, ... "who about this time (1510) erected a public school in
+London of an elegant structure, and endowed it with a large estate, for
+teaching gratis the sons of his fellow-citizens for ever."
+
+The foundation was for one hundred and seventy-three scholars--a number
+selected in remembrance of the miracle of the fishes.
+
+
+III. Colet drew up, or had drawn up, for the regulation of his new school
+the subjoined Rules and Orders, to be read to the parents before their
+children were admitted, and to be accepted by them:--
+
+"If youre chylde can rede and wryte Latyn and Englyshe suffycyently, so
+that he be able to rede and wryte his own lessons, then he shal be
+admitted into the schole for a scholar.
+
+"If youre chylde, after reasonable reason proved, be founde here unapte
+and unable to lernynge, than ye warned therof shal take hym awaye, that he
+occupye not oure rowme in vayne.
+
+"If he be apt to lerne, ye shal be contente that he continue here tyl he
+have competent literature.
+
+"If he absente vi dayes, and in that mean seeson ye shew not cause
+reasonable, (resonable cause is only sekenes) than his rowme to be voyde,
+without he be admitted agayne, and pay iiijd.
+
+"Also after cause shewed, if he contenewe to absente tyl the weke of
+admyssion in the next quarter, and then ye shew not the contenuance of the
+sekenes, then his rowme to be voyde, and he none of the schole tyl he be
+admytted agayne, and paye iiijd. for wryting his name.
+
+"Also if he fall thryse into absence, he shal be admytted no more.
+
+"Your chylde shal, on Chyldermas daye, wayte vpon the boy byshop at
+Powles, and offer there.
+
+"Also ye shal fynde him waxe in winter.
+
+"Also ye shal fynde him convenyent bokes to his lernynge.
+
+"If the offerer be content with these articles, than let his childe be
+admytted."
+
+The founder of St. Paul's, in his statutes, 1518, prescribed what Latin
+authors he would have read in the school. He recites, in the first place,
+the Latin version by Erasmus of his _Precepts_ and the _Copia Verborum_
+of the same Dutch scholar. He then proceeds to enumerate some of the early
+Christian writers, whose piety was superior to their Latinity, Lactantius,
+Prudentius, and others. But while he does not say that Virgil, Cicero,
+Sallust, and Terence are to be used, he utterly eschews and forbids such
+classics as Juvenal and Persius, whom he evidently indicates when he
+speaks of "Laten adulterate which ignorant, blinde foles brought into this
+worlde, and with the same hath dystained and poysonyd the olde Laten
+speche and the veray Romayne tongue which in the tyme of Tully and Salust,
+and Virgill, and Terence, was usid,"--which is so far reasonable from his
+standard; but he adds incongruously enough: "whiche also sainte Jerome,
+and sainte Ambrose, and saint Austen, and many holy doctors lernid in
+theyre tymes." Whereby we are left at liberty to infer that these holy
+doctors were on a par with Virgil and Sallust, Cicero and Terence.
+
+What sort of Latin would be current now if all the great writers had
+perished, and we had had only the works of the Fathers as text-books? We
+all have pretty similar beginnings, as the _prima stamina_ of a man and
+any other vertebrate are said to be undistinguishable to a certain point;
+and as St. Jerome learned his accidence of Donatus, so Virgil got his
+rudiments. But much as we owe to St. Jerome, it was a mischievous error to
+adopt him or such authors as Lactantius in a public school, where the real
+object was to instil a knowledge of the Latin language in its integrity
+and purity. It was a mischievous error, and it was, at the same time, a
+perfectly natural one. We are not to blame Colet and his coadjutors for
+having been so narrow and so biassed; but it must always be a matter of
+regret and surprise that St. Paul's, and all our other training
+institutions, public and proprietary, should, down to the present era,
+have been under the sway and management of men whose intellectual vision
+was as contracted and oblique as that of Colet, without the excuse which
+it is so easy to find for him.
+
+The rules for St. Paul's, which are set out at large by Knight, were
+unquestionably of a very austere character, though in harmony with the
+feeling of the time; and Knight, in his Life of the founder, ascribes the
+apparent harshness of the discipline enforced under his direction to the
+laudable motive of preparing boys for the troubles of the world, and
+inuring them to hardship. But Erasmus was not on the side of the
+martinets. For he explicitly condemns an undeserving strictness of
+discipline, which made no allowance for the difference in the tempers of
+boys; and another point with which he quarrelled was the horse-in-a-mill
+system and the way of learning by rote, which had begun to find favour
+both in his own country and with us.
+
+It is vain, however, to expect that there should have been many converts
+to such a man's opinions on educational questions at that period. Even in
+the small circle of his English friends and correspondents there was a
+wide diversity of sentiment. Sir Thomas More might agree with him mainly;
+but, on the other hand, Colet was clerical in his leaning and Spartan in
+his notions of scholastic life; and he deemed it good, as I have above
+said, to work on the tenderness of youth before it acquired corruption or
+prejudice, that "the new wine of Christ might be put into new bottles."
+
+
+IV. There can be no desire to deprive Colet of any portion of the honour
+which we owe to him for promoting the cause of education in London; but it
+would at the same time be an error to conclude that the good Dean was the
+first who established a school in the metropolis. The foundation which he
+established about 1510 consolidated and centralised the system, which down
+to that time had been weakly and loosely organised. Hear what Knight
+says:--
+
+"The state of schools in London before Dean Colet's foundation was to this
+effect: the Chancellor of Paul's (as in all the ancient cathedral
+churches) was master of the schools (_magister scholarum_), having the
+direction and government of literature, not only within the church, but
+within the whole city, so that all the masters and teachers of grammar
+depended on him, and were subject to him; particularly he was to find a
+fit master for the school of St. Paul, and present him to the Dean and
+Chapter, and then to give him possession, and at his own cost and charges
+to repair the houses and buildings belonging to the school. This master of
+the grammar school was to be a sober, honest man, of good and laudable
+learning.... He was in all intents the true vice-chancellor of the church,
+and was sometimes so called; and this was the original meaning of
+chancellors and vice-chancellors in the two universities or great schools
+of the kingdom."
+
+The same writer traces back St. Paul's school to Henry the First's reign,
+when the Bishop of London granted the schoolmaster for the time being a
+residence in the bell-tower, and bestowed on him the custody of the
+library of the church. A successor of this person had the monopoly of
+teaching school in London conferred on him by the Bishop of Winchester,
+saving the rights only of the schoolmasters of St. Mary-le-Bow and St.
+Martin-le-Grand.
+
+The old cathedral school, which that of Colet doubtless gradually
+extinguished, lay to the south of his, and appears curiously enough not to
+have occupied the basement, but to have been, as we should say, on the
+first floor, four shops being beneath it. It was close to Watling Street.
+A passage in the _Monumenta Franciscana_ shews that the site of Colet's
+original school, which perished in the Great Fire, had been in the
+possession of bookbinders, and in the immediate neighbourhood was the sign
+of the Black Eagle, which, as we learn from documentary testimony, was
+still there in 1550.
+
+At the epoch to which I am referring, the vocation of a bookbinder was, I
+think, invariably joined with that of a printer, and I apprehend that
+these shops formed part of a printing establishment.
+
+The _Black Eagle_ was an emporium for the sale of books, and it is to be
+recollected that in early days, where the typographical part was done in
+some more or less unfrequented quarter of the city, it was a common
+practice to have the volume on sale in a more public thoroughfare.
+
+St. Paul's Churchyard, in the days of Colet and in the infancy of his
+valuable endowment, was beyond question not only a place of great resort,
+but a favourite seat of the booksellers. For in the imprint to an edition
+of the _Hours of the Virgin_, printed at Paris, the copies are said to be
+on sale at London "apud bibliopolas in cimiterio sancti Pauli 1514;" and
+of this fact I could readily bring forward numerous other evidences.
+
+Besides the vendors of literature, however, the site soon became one of
+the places of settlement of the teachers of languages, to whom the
+immediate proximity of St. Paul's served as an useful introduction and
+advertisement; and in the time of Elizabeth a French school was
+established here, for the benefit of the general public, of course, but
+more especially, doubtless, with a view to such Paulines as might desire
+an extension of their studies.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+    Thomas Linacre prepares his Rudiments of Latin Grammar for the use of
+    the Princess Mary (1522)--Probably the earliest digest of the
+    kind--Cardinal Wolsey's edition of Lily's Grammar for the use of
+    Ipswich School (1529)--Inquiry into the priority of the Ipswich and
+    St. Paul's Grammars--First National Primer (1540)--Lily's _Short
+    Introduction of Grammar_ (1548)--Its re-issue by Queen Elizabeth
+    (1566-7)--Some account of its contents--Its failure.
+
+
+I. Thomas Linacre, physician to four successive sovereigns and tutor to
+the Princess Mary, is understood to have prepared for the service of his
+august pupil certain Rudiments of Grammar, doubtless in Latin, at the same
+time that Giles Du Wes or Dewes wrote for her his _Introductory_ to the
+French language. The biographer of Dean Colet informs his readers that the
+production of Linacre was translated into Latin by George Buchanan for
+Gilbert, Earl of Cassilis, whose studies he directed; but the book as
+printed is in that language, and bears no indication of a second hand in
+it. The undertaking, however, was deemed by Queen Catherine too obscure,
+and Ludovicus Vives was accordingly engaged to draw up something more
+simple and intelligible, which was the origin of his little book _De
+ratione studii puerilis_, where, from delicacy, he made a point of
+commending the labours of Linacre and the abridgment of the _Rudiments_ by
+Erasmus.
+
+The volume, edited by Linacre about 1522, appears, anyhow, to be entitled
+to rank as the earliest effort in the way of a grammatical digest; and,
+apart from its special destination, it was calculated to supply a want,
+and to find patrons beyond the range of the court.
+
+Except its utilisation by Buchanan for Lord Cassilis, we hear little or
+nothing of it, nevertheless, after its original publication by the royal
+printer. Perhaps it did not compete successfully with the editions of
+Lily, as they received from time to time improvements at the hands of
+professional experts, and united within certain limits the advantages of
+consolidation and completeness. The prestige of Lily had grown
+considerable, and in the case of a technical book it has always been
+difficult or impossible for an amateur to hold his ground against a
+specialist.
+
+
+II. Allowing for the possibility of editions of which we have no present
+knowledge having formerly existed, if they do not yet do so, it may be
+that Dean Colet caused some text-book to be prepared for the use of the
+scholars at St. Paul's; and I shall by and by adduce some evidence in
+favour of such an hypothesis. But, at any rate, in 1529 Cardinal Wolsey
+gave his sanction, and wrote a preface, to an impression of Lily's
+_Rudiments_ with certain alterations, more especially for the use of his
+school at Ipswich, but also, as the terms of the title state, for the
+benefit of all other similar institutions in the country.
+
+The Cardinal's preface is dated August 1, 1528. It is followed by the
+_Docendi Methodus_, the _Rules_, the _Articles of Faith_, _Precepts of
+Living_, _Apostles' Creed_, _Decalogue_, &c.; and the rest of the book is
+occupied by the _Introduction of the Eight Parts of Speech_ and the
+_Rudiments of Grammar_.
+
+Of this collection there was no exact reprint, but portions of the
+contents appear in the Antwerp impressions of 1535 and 1536, designed for
+the English learners in Flanders; and Lily's _Rudiments_, with and without
+the other accessories, were periodically republished even later than the
+so-called Oxford Grammar of 1709.
+
+Now, as St. Paul's was the more ancient foundation, it is allowable, at
+all events, to suspect that the book issued nominally for the Ipswich
+school was borrowed by the Cardinal or the person employed by him from one
+drawn up by Lily in his lifetime for Colet. St. Paul's had been
+established in 1510; the Dean survived till 1519; and surely so many years
+would hardly have elapsed without witnessing the preparation of some
+Pauline text-book on lines parallel to those of the Ipswich one of 1529,
+more particularly when we see that in the Preface to his 1534 _Rudiments_
+he speaks of the "new school of Paul's," and that in 1518 Erasmus had
+executed a Latin metrical version of the _Lord's Prayer_ and _Precepts of
+Good Living_ for the school under the title of _Christiani hominis
+Institutum_.
+
+The short paraphrase of the Lord's Prayer in English by Colet, which I
+have found at present only in an edition of the Salisbury Primer, 1532,
+was made for his own scholars, and had, of course, been in existence prior
+to 1519; so that we find ourselves groping in the dark a little in the
+inquiry which deals with such a fugitive and perishable description of
+literature, and have to do the best that we can with the fragmentary
+relics which survive or have been so far recovered.
+
+The _Coleti æditio_, &c., of 1534 had much in common with Wolsey's book;
+but the Dean of St. Paul's claims the honour of having adapted some
+portions of the Delectus to what he considered to be the special
+requirements of his own institution. For he says in the Proem:--
+
+"Al be it many have wryten, and have made certayne introducyons into Latyn
+speche, called _Donates_ and _Accidens_, in Latyn tongue and in Englysshe,
+in suche plenty that it shoulde seme to suffyse; yet never the lesse, for
+the love and zele that I have to the newe schole of Powles, and to the
+children of the same, somwhat have I also compyled of the mater; and of
+the viii. partes of grammer have made this lytell boke; ... in whiche
+lytell warke if any new thynges be of me, it is alonely that I have put
+these partes in a more clere ordre, and have made them a lytell more easy
+to yonge wyttes, than (me thynketh) they were before."
+
+The passage here quoted may be taken to supply a sort of testimony to the
+original publication of the Dean's alleged recension of the accepted text
+of Lily's _Introduction_ (including the _Rudiments_) not very long, if at
+all, posterior to 1510, as in 1534 St. Paul's had been founded a quarter
+of a century. The modification of the Grammar for Pauline use was almost
+unquestionably due to Lily, and merely the Proem the Dean's own.
+
+
+III. The St. Paul's book has, on the whole, a strong claim to precedence
+over that of 1529. But under any circumstances, in or before the
+last-named date, we possessed an uniform Grammar in lieu of the archaic
+sectional series of Stanbridge and Whittinton.
+
+But even that of Wolsey went no farther than to recommend itself to
+general acceptance. It had no official character. Nor was it till late in
+the protracted reign of Henry VIII. that a general Primer for the whole
+country was prepared and published. In 1540 a volume in two parts appeared
+under the royal authority, without any clue to the editor, reducing the
+text to a more convenient method and compass. This book is anonymous; but
+Thomas Hayne says in 1640 that it was done by sundry learned men, among
+whom he had heard that one was Dr. Leonard Cox, tutor to Prince Edward.
+Another probable coadjutor was John Palsgrave, author of the
+_Eclaircissement_.
+
+The Address to the Reader before the first part proceeded, no doubt, from
+the compiler's pen, and contains an energetic eulogy of Prince Edward, to
+whom "the tender babes of England" are exhorted to look up as a model and
+example. This portion includes the _Parts of Speech_ and other rudiments
+in English, while the second part contains a digested recension of the
+Latin series under the title of _A Compendious Institution of the whole
+Grammar_.
+
+This bipartite manual formed, of course, an improvement on the system
+formerly in vogue, which must have been very puzzling to boys. But it
+seems very doubtful indeed if this Primer of 1540 was practically
+recognised, or whether the Government took any measures to enforce what
+purported to have been done under its immediate sanction.
+
+Whoever they were who arranged for publication the Primer had probably a
+hand in the _Alphabetum Latino-Anglicum_ of 1543, which is here
+incidentally noticed, and which is more than it professes to be. For it
+comprises, in addition to a series of alphabets, the Lord's Prayer, the
+Salutation of the Virgin, the Commandments, the Apostles' Creed, and a few
+prayers, in Latin and English. It was, in fact, a supplement to the Primer
+itself.
+
+
+IV. In January 1547, Henry was succeeded by his son, and the change is
+marked by the substitution of _A Short Introduction of Grammar generally
+to be used_, in two parts, the English followed by the Latin, for the
+original Primer of 1540. A complaint appears to have arisen at the same
+time that the large book was inconvenient for beginners; and we are told
+that Fox the martyrologist was commissioned to prepare _Tables of Grammar_
+for the use, probably, of the lower forms in schools. But we know nothing
+farther of them; and the _Introduction_, to which they were designed as a
+companion, was not reprinted more than once in Edward's life. Nor is there
+any vestige of it till we arrive quite at the close of the rule of Mary,
+when the Paris press produced an edition under some circumstances not at
+present explainable, yet, of course, with the peculiarity of being
+entirely unofficial. So that when we sum up, it amounts to this, that the
+first and second types of the so-named universal Grammar, as settled in
+1540 and 1548 respectively, reached four impressions in seventeen years,
+not including that of 1557, which lies outside the series.
+
+Making due allowance for the far scantier population and the momentous
+difference of social conditions, this remains a strange phenomenon, if we
+reflect that, in addition to the public and private schools previously in
+existence, the Government of Edward had planted throughout the country
+the endowments of which Christ's Hospital is the most familiar type.
+
+But even when there was a change in the Administration in 1558, and the
+authority of Elizabeth was established in Church and State, the interest
+in educational development led to no revival of the _Introduction_, and,
+unless all intervening copies have perished, there was a clear lapse of
+ten years before the new Protestant _regime_ took steps to re-issue the
+book.
+
+This was in 1567. In the Preface very just stress is laid on the mischief
+proceeding from what is termed "a diversity of Grammars," and from
+different schoolmasters adopting different methods and books. The
+proclamation attached expresses at large the objects and advantages of the
+publication, while it certainly seems to claim for the Queen's father more
+credit than, looking at the circumstances, he deserved. For the Primer of
+1540 had been preceded by those of Linacre and Wolsey, just as the _Short
+Introduction_ of 1548 and 1567 was, in the main, a reproduction of Henry's
+book. But the same unqualified encomium is pronounced on Henry by John
+Palsgrave, the celebrated lexicographer and teacher of languages, in the
+prolix and fulsome dedication to his English _Acolastus_, 1540, which must
+have been written and in type when the copies of the Primer had scarcely
+left the binder's hands. Palsgrave does not intimate here any personal
+concern in the undertaking.
+
+The Preface of 1567 is followed by the Latin letters, the vowels and
+consonants, and the Greek letters; after which comes a prayer, "O Almighty
+God and merciful Father," which is still retained at some of our public
+schools. The _Introduction of the Eight Parts of Speech_ constitutes the
+body and remainder of the English part.
+
+There are six forms of grace before meat, and six others of grace after
+meat.
+
+The Latin section opens with the Greek alphabet, and proceeds to the parts
+of grammar, concluding with Erasmus's _De Ratione_. But, as I have stated
+more than once, this later text-book does not substantially vary from that
+of 1548. The royal proclamation granted the monopoly of printing to
+Reginald Wolfe, and forbad the employment of any other Grammar throughout
+her Highness's dominions. The document declares that Henry VIII., in the
+midst of weighty affairs belonging to his office, had not forgotten nor
+neglected the tender youth of his realm, but had, from a fervent zeal for
+the godly bringing up of the said youth, and a special desire that they
+might learn the Latin tongue more easily, instituted a new uniform
+Grammar; which was so far really the case, inasmuch as the 1540 volume was
+the first official one, and also at the date of its promulgation the most
+complete and satisfactory.
+
+
+V. But in examining this general Grammar for all England and the dominions
+annexed, one at once misses the graphic and amusing illustrations which
+present themselves in many of the earlier books which we have been
+studying. The examples, instead of being drawn from the occupations and
+various phases of everyday life, are almost without exception purely
+technical and commonplace. There is no allusion which one would welcome as
+casting an incidental light on contemporary history or manners. It is
+mostly a dead level. The learned men have done this! It makes us
+cheerful, amid the habitual dearth of something to leaven the text, to
+stumble upon a few of the little touches in the older books retained as an
+exception, such as: "Vivo in Anglia. Veni per Galliam in Italiam," or
+"Vixit Londini: Studuit Oxoniæ."
+
+How differently Horman in his _Vulgaria_, 1519, handled his subject, and
+his pages were intended for schoolboys and students too!
+
+The frequency with which the Primer was henceforth reprinted, contrasted
+with the very limited call for copies from 1540 to 1566, seems to furnish
+an indication that the book and the system were at last gaining ground,
+and beginning to meet with more general acceptance.
+
+But the irreconcilable diversity of opinions, which has always prevailed,
+respecting etymology, syntax, pronunciation, and other cardinal points,
+militated against the success on any very grand scale of an official
+Primer; and the Tudors, arbitrary and absolute as they were in all
+questions of political significance, were not prompted by the feeling of
+the time to resort in such a case as this to penal and peremptory
+legislation. The eighteenth century saw Lily's Grammar still more or less
+in vogue under the name of the original author, not to speak of the
+obligations of its successors to it; but the Tudor book, constructed in
+some measure out of it, and ushered into existence under the most
+auspicious and powerful patronage, sank after a not very robust or
+influential life of six decades (1540-1600) into complete oblivion.
+
+Our great Elizabeth has been dead near three hundred years, and no genuine
+popular demand for mental improvement has yet come from the people. In the
+sixteenth century--in the Queen's time and in her father's--the spirit
+which promoted education was based either on political or commercial
+motives.
+
+The universities and schools reared a succession of preceptors who
+deserted the monastic traditions, and to whom learning was a mere
+vocation. One large class of the English community sought to acquire the
+accomplishments which might be serviceable in the Government and at court;
+another limited its ambition to those which would enable them to prosper
+in trade or in the wars.
+
+
+V. A class of school-book destined for special use, besides those
+enumerated in another place, presents itself in the shape of grammatical
+works dedicated by their authors, not to particular institutions, but to
+particular localities or parts of the Empire. Edward Buries, who kept
+school at East Acton in Cromwell's day, accommodated his plan to the
+requirements of adults, but at the same time announces that it is printed
+for the advantage of the schools in the counties of Middlesex and
+Hertford, which strikes us as at once a curious limitation and a sanguine
+proposal, unless Buries was a Hertfordshire man. This was in 1652.
+
+A later writer was more catholic and ambitious in his flight; for in 1712
+John Brightland projected a Grammar of the English tongue "for the use of
+the schools of Great Britain _and Ireland_,"--a fact more particularly
+noticeable, because it is the first hint of any scheme comprehending the
+Emerald Isle. I allude elsewhere to the early Accidence drawn up for
+Scotland by Alexander Hume; and in 1647 the interests of the rising
+generation in Wales were specially considered by the unnamed introducer of
+a simplified Latin Primer _in usum juventutis Cambro-Britannicæ_, which
+aimed at a monopoly of the Principality without prejudice to persons
+beyond the border.
+
+Besides the Grammar itself, certain Manuals purported to be, not for
+general educational purposes, but for a given school, and even for a
+specified class in it. Such was the _English Introduction to the Latin
+Tongue_ for the use of the lower forms in Westminster School; and at
+Magdalen School, Oxford, they had, at least as far back as 1623, a small
+text-book on the declensions and conjugations. I take another opportunity
+to speak of a Latin phrase-book designed for Manchester in 1660, and of
+the printed examination papers, exhibiting the lines laid down at Merchant
+Taylors' about the same time. In a few cases a more elaborate compilation
+was framed, at all events originally, with the same restricted scope, like
+the _Roman Antiquities_ of Prideaux, in 1614, for Abingdon.
+
+Perhaps, however, the most conspicuous example of this localisation was
+the _Outlines of Rhetoric_ for St. Paul's, of which we meet with a third
+edition in 1659; and which must have been in connection with some new and
+temporary effort to enlarge the range of studies during the Protectorate,
+partly under the stimulus of the promoters of the famous _Musæum Minervæ_
+and the commencing taste for a more complex platform. For such subjects do
+not seem to have made part of the ordinary course of training anywhere
+since the mediæval period, when the Aristotelian system was paramount at
+our Universities; although, at the same time, among more advanced students
+philosophical treatises never ceased to possess interest and attract
+perusers. But the relevance of the handbook for St Paul's lies in its
+professed destination for the young.
+
+It is questionable whether, outside the Universities and the
+establishments affiliated upon them, the sciences were acquirable as part
+of the normal routine. At Oxford, in the reign of Henry VIII., they taught
+what was then termed Judicial Astronomy, which was a mere burlesque on the
+true study of the planetary bodies; and Logic was on the list of
+accomplishments within the reach of boys, who were sent up either to
+college or to school; for in _A Hundred Merry Tales_, 1526, the son of
+the rich franklin comes back home for the holidays, and declares, as the
+fruit of the time and money expended on his education at Oxford school,
+whither his indulgent father had sent him for two or three years, his
+conversance with subtleties and ability to prove the two chickens on the
+supper-table to be sophistically three.
+
+
+
+
+IX.
+
+    Merchant Taylors' School founded in 1561--Its limited scope and
+    stationary condition during two centuries and a half--The writer's
+    recollections of it from 1842 to 1850--William Dugard and his
+    troubles.
+
+
+I. I cannot enter very well, in a general view of the subject, into the
+history of all the civic foundations which rose up one by one subsequently
+to St. Paul's, such as the City of London School, the Mercers' and the
+Skinners', beyond the incidental notices which I have taken occasion to
+introduce of such institutions, as well as of the system of public grammar
+schools endowed by Edward VI. But I may be allowed to speak of one with
+which I enjoyed personal associations between the years 1842 and 1850, and
+to mention that in the third chapter of his _Autobiography_ Leigh Hunt
+sheds some interesting light on the condition of Christ's Hospital when
+Lamb, Coleridge, and himself were there in the last years of the last
+century.
+
+Christ's Hospital has produced some very eminent men, but whether by
+virtue of its system or in spite of it, I hardly venture to say. The
+biographer of the author of _Elia_ tells us what books his distinguished
+friend read at school; how little he learned, Lamb himself seems to
+suggest in that paper on "The Old and the New Schoolmaster."
+
+The origin of Merchant Taylors' School is thus described by Wilson:--
+
+"Towards the close of the year 1560, or early in the following spring, the
+Merchant Taylors' Company conceived the laudable design of founding a
+grammar school; and part of the manor of the Rose, in the parish of St.
+Lawrence-Pountney (a mansion which had successively belonged to the Duke
+of Buckingham, the Marquis of Exeter, and the Earls of Sussex), seeming
+eligible for the purpose, Mr. Richard Hills, a leading member of the
+court, generously contributed the sum of five hundred pounds towards the
+purchase of it; but the institution was not thoroughly organised till the
+24th September 1561, on which day the statutes were framed and a
+schoolmaster chosen."
+
+With the statutes I have no farther concern than with the clause which
+directs that the two hundred and fifty scholars, to which the school was
+limited, were "to be taught in manner & forme as is afore devised &
+appointed. But first see that they can the catechisme in English or Latyn,
+& that every of the said two hundred & fifty schollers can read perfectly
+& write competently, or els lett them not be admitted in no wise."
+
+It is rather curious that the hours of attendance were originally from
+seven till eleven A.M. and from one till five P.M., and that in winter the
+boys were to bring no candles of tallow, but candles of wax. This was
+following the statutes of Dean Colet. Thrice in the day there were
+prayers; but instead of one of the sixth form saying them for the rest, as
+was subsequently customary, each boy seems at first to have prayed for
+himself.
+
+The printed form usually employed was brief enough, and not, like the
+Manual prepared by Bishop Ken for Winchester, adapted for the use of "all
+other devout Christians."
+
+The staff consisted at the outset of a head-master and three ushers, whose
+united emoluments were forty pounds a year, and the first chief teacher of
+the school was Richard Mulcaster. It appears that the earliest
+Probation-Day, as it was termed, was in November 1564, when Dean Nowell
+and others examined the ushers and the boys with a very gratifying result.
+These appositions were renewed in 1565, and probably still continue from
+year to year. They commenced in 1564 at eight o'clock in the morning, and
+so they did in my time. The practice of visitation by the Court on this
+day seems to have ceased in 1606.
+
+Alderman Sir Thomas White, some time subsequently to the foundation of the
+school by the Company, augmented the endowment, so as to enable the
+institution to develop itself, and enlarge its sphere of utility in
+connection with Oxford University and in other ways. White was a member of
+the Court when the scheme was adopted, but he was not, strictly speaking,
+as he has been usually termed and considered, the founder of Merchant
+Taylors'.
+
+We do not arrive, meanwhile, at any clear or complete notion of the books
+which were used at the school, but it is to be inferred that Lily's
+Grammar was the Latin text-book. In the rules made for Probation-Day in
+1606-7, I find Æsop's _Fables_ in Greek, Tully's _Epistles_, and the
+_Dialogues_ of Corderius named as works in which the boys were to be
+tested. The subjects taken on this day were Greek, Latin, and dictation,
+writing being necessarily included. Neither Hebrew, nor arithmetic, nor
+the mathematics are enumerated; there are the six forms, but no monitors
+or prompters.
+
+The _School's Probation_ presents itself for the first time as a printed
+production, or at least as something compiled in book form, under the date
+of 1608. It is printed entire by Wilson; but he does not state, nor do I
+know, what original, whether printed or not, he employed.
+
+
+II. Probation-Day still continued in my time to be an important event--a
+sort of red-letter day in our calendar. The hour for assembling was eight
+o'clock, instead of nine; it had been half-past six while the school was
+exclusively composed of residents within a limited radius; but the
+enlarged time was a sore trial in the winter where one had to travel from
+a suburb, as I did from Old Brompton. They supplied breakfast at the
+place, not gratuitously, but at a fixed tariff. It would not have been
+much for a wealthy Company to provide an entertainment once or twice a
+year for two or three hundred lads at a shilling or so a head; but the
+Merchant Taylors, I think, have always been notorious for parsimony. Very
+little was accomplished before the meal, and after its completion we had
+to set to work, the old room upstairs being as ill-adapted for the purpose
+of an examination as can well be imagined, the boys having to use the
+forms as desks and to kneel in front of them. We were a very short
+distance from the Middle Ages. Matters were not much changed since the
+time of the original establishment of the charity. Indeed, it appears from
+Dugard's _School's Probation_, 1652, that in the seventeenth century the
+Company paid for some kind of collation:--
+
+"There shall be paid unto the Master of the School, for beer, ale, and new
+manchet-bread, with a dish of sweet butter, which hee shall have ready in
+the morning, with two fine glasses set upon the Table, and covered with
+two fair napkins, and two fine trenchers, with a knife laid upon each
+trencher, to the end that such as please may take part, to staie their
+stomachs until the end of the examination ... ijs."
+
+The number of boys was in 1652 comparatively limited; but of course
+without a revival of the ancient miracle two shillings' worth of victuals
+would not have gone far in allaying the hunger of a far smaller gathering,
+and this allowance must have simply been for such as had missed their meal
+at home, or desired additional refreshment.
+
+The old examination itself presents numerous points of curiosity, as we
+look at it through the present medium. Considerable stress seems to have
+been laid on dictation. The master opened, on the sudden, Cicero, the
+Greek Testament, Æsop's _Fables_ in Greek, and read a passage, which the
+boys of a particular form had to take down, and then turn into some other
+language, or into verse, or make verses upon it--a pretty piece of
+trifling, much like the nonsense-verses which we used to have to compose
+in my day, and as profitable.
+
+Some of the English sentences to be turned into Latin are odd enough:
+"Bacchus and Apollo send for Homer;" "I went to Colchester to eat
+oysters;" "My Uncle went to Oxford to buie gloves;" "The Atheist went to
+Amsterdam to chuse his religion." Others might have been autobiographical:
+"Marie was my sister, she dwelt at London;" "Elisabeth was my Aunt, she
+dwelt at York;" "Anna was my Grandmother, she dwelt at Worcester."
+
+In another place, under _Sententiæ Varietas_, there are five-and-twenty
+ways of describing in a sentence the great qualities of Cicero.
+
+Greek was certainly studied with a good deal of attention here in the
+early time, judging from the space which is devoted to it in the scheme of
+Dugard, in whose small volume the questions and theses in that language
+occupy twenty pages. Erasmus had, doubtless, had a large share in
+popularising among us the cultivation of Hellenic grammar and letters.
+
+Even when the present writer was at the school, Hebrew was by no means
+assiduously or scientifically followed, nor do I believe that on the staff
+of masters there was any one who properly understood the language. But it
+was part of the programme, and the late Sir Moses Montefiore, who usually
+attended on Speech and Prize Day, was the annual donor of a Hebrew medal.
+
+Speech-Day at Merchant Taylors' was the sole occasion on which the large
+schoolroom in Suffolk Lane was ever honoured by the presence of the fair
+sex. The lower end of the room was converted into an extempore stage, and
+the monitors and prompters took part in some recitation, or select scene
+from the Latin or Greek dramatists. At a later period French themes were
+introduced.
+
+As far back as the reign of Charles I., the large contribution which the
+ladies and other friends of the scholars made to the audience, and their
+imperfect acquaintance with the dead languages, rendered it a subject of
+regret and complaint that the entertainment was not given in the
+vernacular, and the writer of a small volume called _Ludus Ludi
+Litterarii_, 1672, purporting to report a series of speeches delivered at
+various breakings-up, states that the majority of them were in English on
+this very account. As early as the time of Henry VIII., the practice of
+exhibiting some dramatic performance at the close of the term, and usually
+at Christmas, was in vogue; but these spectacles were, it is to be
+suspected, almost uniformly in the original language of the classic
+author, or in the scholastic Latin of the period.
+
+A feeling in favour of a reform in these arrangements had, as has been
+mentioned, arisen when Hawkins wrote for the free school at Hadleigh in
+Suffolk his play entitled _Apollo Shroving_, 1627, where one of the
+characters desires the Prologue to speak what he has to say in honest
+English, for all their sakes, and describes the predilection for employing
+Latin as more appropriate to the University.
+
+Occasionally, instead of plays, there were musical entertainments; and the
+custom of signalising the termination of the school-work seems to have
+been followed by the private academies.
+
+But the antipathy to change and the temptation to a display of erudition
+have always proved too strong an obstacle to improvement; and when the
+writer was last present at this anniversary, the ancient precedent was
+still in force, and the Court of the Merchant Taylors and general company
+listened in respectful silence to interlocutions or monologues as
+mysterious to them as the Writing on the Wall.
+
+
+III. William Dugard, head-master from 1646 to 1660, so far as his light
+and information were capable of carrying him, did, no doubt, good service
+to the Company and institution with which he was during so many years
+associated. But, on the ground of misconduct and negligence, his employers
+thought proper, on the 27th December 1660, to discharge him from the place
+of chief schoolmaster, giving him, however, till the following Midsummer
+to find another appointment.
+
+Dugard states in _An humble Remonstrance Presented to the Right
+Worshipfull Company of Merchant-Tailors, Maii 15, 1661_, that the Company
+assigned no cause for their proceeding; but he says at the same time: "It
+is alleged in your Order, _That many Complaints have been frequently from
+time to time made to the Master and Wardens of the Company, and to the
+Court, by the parents and friends of the young Scholars, of the neglect of
+the chief-Master's dutie in that School, and of the breach of the
+Companie's Orders and Ordinances thereof_."
+
+To this Dugard replies that he had never heard of any complaints in all
+the seventeen years he had filled the post, and he declared his readiness
+to submit in silence if any parent could prove aught against him. He had
+been in the profession, he said, thirty-three years, and "in all places
+wherever I came, I have had ample testimonials of my faithfulness and
+diligence, and my scholars' proficiency."
+
+The writer attributes his fall to the presence among the members of the
+Court of persons unjustly hostile to him, who had represented that the
+school was suffering from his administration, and would go down unless
+some timely remedy was adopted.
+
+But Dugard averred that the decline of the school and the shrinkage of its
+numbers were due to the Company's order of March 16, 1659, which forbad
+him to admit any scholar who had not a warrant from the Master and
+Wardens, and the consequence was that parents, not caring to go to the
+Court, took their sons elsewhere. As many as sixty boys had been lost in
+this way within a twelvemonth, he maintains. "True it is," he pleads,
+"that an hundred years ago, when it was an hard matter to get a Scholar to
+read Greek, there was such an Order made, that no Scholar should be taught
+in the School, unless first admitted by the Company. But afterward there
+was found a necessity to dispense with that Order, and so it was with my
+Predecessors; which I can prove for above threescore years bygone. They
+(and my self too from them, untill the last year) had such an indulgence
+that did not limit or restrain them to admit quarterly-Scholars, who did
+not immediately depend on the Charity of the Company: and the Motto
+engraven on the School speaks as much; _Nulli præcludor, Tibi pateo_."
+
+The _Remonstrance_ did not please the Merchant Taylors, and in a second
+document, dated June 12, 1661, Dugard tried to soften what he had said;
+for his language, it must be allowed, was rather energetic, considering
+that he was in the hands of those who had the power to act as they judged
+fit.
+
+Whatever the precise result was, there are two or three curious points
+brought out in the course of the head-master's vindication, and one can
+hardly avoid a conclusion that the main cause of the discontent of the
+Court was not even so much the application of a portion of his time to
+literary pursuits, as the abuse of the permission to set up a
+printing-press by employing the machinery, intended only for the
+production of school text-books, for political publications of a
+republican stamp. This fact does not transpire in the tract itself, but is
+ascertained from the imprints to books; and moreover, in 1650, at the end
+of a periodical publication, he had announced himself as _Printer to the
+Council of State_; so that altogether the Merchant Taylors might be
+naturally afraid of incurring the displeasure of the new masters of
+England by retaining the holder of opinions hostile to the Stuarts.
+
+He had sold the press at the desire of the Company for £300 less than the
+cost; and this was by no means the full extent of his sacrifices and
+misfortunes. For he gives his principals to understand that he had grown
+lean by the observance of fast-days in accordance with their recent order;
+and, moreover, that during his nineteen years' term of office he had lost
+£800 by unpaid quarter wages, thus making it seem probable that he was
+directly responsible for the fees.
+
+Altogether, nothing worse than indiscretion, perhaps, was chargeable to
+Dugard. "I bless God for it," he expressly says, "I know the Divel himself
+cannot justly accuse me of any notorious or scandalous Crime."
+
+Probably not; but there are seasons when indiscretion is criminal, and
+besides his proclamation of his appointment at the time to the
+Commonwealth as their official printer, in 1657 there came from his press
+the reply of Milton to Salmasius, an anti-royalist manifesto not
+calculated to be palatable to the restored dynasty or to the civic
+feeling, and certainly, so far as one can form a judgment, an encroachment
+on the special objects and _raison d'être_ of Dugard's collateral
+occupation.
+
+
+
+
+X.
+
+    Successors of Lily--Thomas Robertson of York--Cultivation of the
+    living languages--Numerous works published in England upon them--Their
+    various uses--The Vocabularies for travellers and merchants--Rival
+    authors of Grammars--Different text-books employed at
+    schools--Milton's _Accidence_ (1669)--Old mode of advertising private
+    establishments.
+
+
+I. After the death of Lily his work was carried on and developed by other
+men, who gradually achieved the task of consolidating, or reducing into a
+more compact form, the rather perplexing series of elementary treatises
+edited by Whittinton. Among these followers of the Master of St. Paul's
+was a schoolmaster at Oxford, the Thomas Robertson of York whom I had
+lately occasion to name in connection with Ascensius, and who at all
+events produced in 1532 at Basle an edition of Lily's Grammar with a
+Preface and Notes.
+
+Robertson applauds, in his dedication to Dr. Longlond, Bishop of Lincoln,
+himself a man of letters, the system of Lily, and testifies to the
+excellent way in which the boys at Oxford prospered under his educational
+_regimen_. But, nevertheless, he does not conceal his notion and
+expectation of improving on his master; and indeed there is no doubt that
+we have here the earliest clear approach to our modern grammar-book,
+although the whole is in Latin, except certain quotations and names in
+Greek, as he compares the practice of the Greek poets with that of the
+Romans, much as Robert Etienne a little later pointed out the conformity
+of the French with the Greek. Philological parallels had become
+fashionable.
+
+In his section on _Derivatives_ Robertson has some matter, as to which the
+modern etymologist may form his own conclusions. This is a specimen:--
+
+  "Vox uocis, à voco.     Iucundus à iuuo.
+   Lex legis, à lego.     Iunior à iuuenis.
+   Rex regis, à rego.     Mobilis à moueo.
+   Sedes à sedeo.         Humanus ab homo.
+   Iumentum à iuuo.       Vomer à uomo.
+   Fomes à foueo.         Pedor à pede."
+
+Of the miscellaneous labourers in this field Robertson was one of the most
+conspicuous; nor did his name and work die with him, for his tables of
+_Irregular Verbs and Nouns_ were printed with Lily's _Rules_ at least as
+late as the reign of James I.
+
+It is out of my power to cross the boundary-line of conjecture when I
+offer the opinion that the Oxford employment of Robertson was on the old
+Magdalen staff.
+
+
+II. But there was no lack of instruments for carrying out the scheme of
+education in England, whatever the imperfections of it might be. There
+were, besides the ordinary pedagogue, whose accomplishments did not,
+perhaps, extend beyond the language of his own country, writing, and
+arithmetic, professors for French, Italian, and Dutch, and men whose
+training at college qualified them more or less to give instruction in
+Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. The German, Spanish, and Portuguese do not seem
+to have been much cultivated down to a comparatively recent date, which is
+the more extraordinary since our intercourse with all those countries was
+constant from the earliest period.
+
+There were certainly English versions of the Spanish grammars of Anthonio
+de Corro and Cesare Oudin made in the times of Elizabeth and her
+successor, as well as the original production by Lewis Owen, entitled,
+_The Key into the Spanish Tongue_. But these were assuredly never used as
+ordinary school-books, and were rather designed as manuals for travellers
+and literary students; and the same is predicable, I apprehend, of the
+anonymous Portuguese Dictionary and Grammar of 1701, which is framed on a
+scale hardly adapted for the requirements of the young.
+
+Yet at the same time these, and many more like the _Dutch Tutor_, the
+_Nether-Dutch Academy_, and so forth, were of eminent service in private
+tuition and select classes, where a pupil was placed with a coach for some
+special object, or to complete the studies which were not included in the
+school programmes.
+
+Moreover, it is not to be overlooked that in the polyglot vocabulary and
+phrase-book the student, either with or without the aid of a tutor,
+possessed in former times a very valuable machinery for gaining a
+knowledge of languages for conversational and commercial purposes; and
+these works sometimes comprised the German, as well as the more usual
+tongues employed in correspondence and intercourse. The title-page of one
+of them, published at Antwerp in 1576, expressly intimates its utility to
+all merchants; and a second of rather earlier date (1548) is specified as
+a book highly necessary to everybody desirous of learning the languages
+embraced in it, which are English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Flemish,
+German, and Latin--a remarkable complement, as very few are more than
+hexaglot.
+
+But these helps were of course outside the schoolroom, and were called
+into requisition chiefly by individuals whose vocations took them abroad,
+or rendered an acquaintance with foreign terms more or less imperative;
+and undoubtedly our extensive mercantile and diplomatic relations with all
+parts of the world made this class of supplementary instruction a
+livelihood for a very numerous body of teachers.
+
+Perhaps of all the philological undertakings of the kind, the most
+singular was that of Augustine Spalding, a merchant of London, who in 1614
+published a translation of some dialogues in the Malay dialect, from a
+book compiled by Arthusius of Dantzic in Latin, Malayan, and Malagassy;
+and he informs us that his object was to serve those who might have
+occasion to travel to the East Indies.
+
+
+II. Shakespear, in his conception of HOLOFERNES in "Love's Labour's Lost,"
+is supposed to have taken hints from one of the foreigners who settled in
+London in his time as teachers of languages, the celebrated JOHN FLORIO,
+who is best known as the first English translator of Montaigne, but who
+produced a good deal of useful professional work, and became intimate with
+many of the literary men of his day. We cannot be absolutely sure that
+Florio sat for Holofernes; but at any rate the dramatist has depicted in
+that character in a most inimitable style the priggish mannerist, as he
+knew and saw him.
+
+The City of London itself, with all its great industrial benefactions,
+abounded with private schools and with tutors for special objects. Some
+of them were authors, not only of school-books for the use of their own
+pupils, but of translations from the classics and from foreign writers;
+and they had their quarters in localities long since abandoned to other
+occupations, such as Bow Lane, Mugwell or Monkwell Street, Lothbury
+Garden, and St. Paul's Churchyard, where accommodation was once readily
+procurable at rents commensurate with their resources. Some of these men
+had originally presided over similar establishments in the provinces, and
+had come up to town, no doubt, from ambitious motives.
+
+Two of them, in Primers which they published in 1682 and 1688, when such
+distinctions were important, call their volumes the _Protestant School_
+and the _Protestant Schoolmaster_, in order to reassure parents, who
+distrusted Papists and Jacobites. A few years before, Nathaniel Strong,
+dating from the Hand and Pen, in Red-Cross Alley, on Great Tower Hill,
+launched what he somewhat unguardedly christened _The Perfect
+Schoolmaster_. This part of the metropolis was at that time rather thickly
+sown with teachers of all kinds; as you drew nearer to Wapping, the
+schools of geography and navigation became more conspicuous. It was about
+the period when Mr. Secretary Pepys was residing in Hart Street.
+
+In connection with these private schools on the east side of London, for
+the special advantage of those who desired to embark on a sea-faring,
+naval, military, or other technical career, there is a very characteristic
+and suggestive advertisement by one John Holwell at the end of an
+astrological tract published by him in 1683, where he states that he
+professes and teaches at his house on the east side of Spitalfields,
+opposite Dorset Street, next door to a glazier's, not merely such matters
+as arithmetic, geography, trigonometry, navigation, astronomy, dialling,
+gauging, surveying, fortification, and gunnery, but ASTROLOGY _in all its
+parts_; which appears to be an uncustomary combination, and to bespeak a
+separate class or department.
+
+Astrology, which was a sort of outgrowth and development from the judicial
+astronomy of the early Oxford schoolmen, had been a source of controversy
+since the time of Elizabeth, but had gained a footing in the following
+century through the exertions of several indefatigable advocates and
+writers, of whom William Lilly, John Partridge, and John Gadbury were the
+most eminent and influential. Lilly, during the Civil War, is said to have
+been consulted by both political parties; and he published a small library
+of pamphlets professing to see into futurity.
+
+
+III. There was a host of rival authors, some bringing general treatises in
+their hand, others special branches of the subject handled in a new
+fashion, from all parts of the kingdom to the London publishing firms. Dr.
+Walker, head-master of King Edward the Sixth's Grammar School at Louth in
+Lincolnshire, completed his monograph on Particles in 1655; it is the only
+work by which he is at present remembered; and it occasioned the joke that
+his epitaph should be: _Here lie Walker's Particles_.
+
+But even MILTON could not desist from entering into the competition, and,
+two years after the appearance of _Paradise Lost_, when the writer was, of
+course, sufficiently well known both as a political controversialist and a
+poet, yet scarcely so famous as he became and remains, came out a little
+volume called _Accidence Commenc'd Grammar_, of which the main object was
+to reduce into an English digest the Latin _Accidence and Grammar_, by
+which the illustrious writer declared and complained that ten years of an
+ordinary life were consumed.
+
+But advocates of particular theories had a very slender chance of success,
+even where their promoters were persons so distinguished as Ben Jonson and
+Milton, unless they possessed some adventitious interest or appealed to
+popular sentiment.
+
+_A Little Book for Little Children_, by Thomas White, minister of the
+Gospel, had an astonishing run, for instance; there were at least a dozen
+editions; but it was embellished with choice woodcuts of the Catnach
+school, and enlivened by a string of stories which, if they are not vapid
+and silly, are simply outrageous and revolting. The sole redeeming feature
+is, that among the alphabets occurs what is sometimes called "Tom Thumb's
+Alphabet,"--"A was an Archer, and shot at a Frog,"--which is not found in
+the earlier primers, so far as I know, and may have been specially written
+by White or for him.
+
+But the numerous experimental essays of ambitious schoolmasters and other
+friends to the cause of learning which found their way into type at
+various times, were, as a rule, speedily consigned to oblivion; the
+production of a successful school-book was a task demanding a rare union
+of tact in structure with influence in initiative quarters; and Lily's
+Primer, itself based on the labours of his predecessors, was generally
+adopted by the endowed schools throughout England, Wales and Scotland at
+first, and indeed till somewhere in the early years of the eighteenth
+century, with some modifications of detail and spelling, but at last in
+the form of the Eton or the Westminster Grammar, which Carlisle reports in
+1818 as in almost universal use in this country. The exceptions which he
+names were then very few, and we see that they were nearly always in
+favour of some text-book introduced by local agency.
+
+This was the case at Reading, where it appears that the system of teaching
+was founded on those of Westminster, Eton, and Winchester. At Aylesbury,
+Owen's _Latin Grammar_ and the Eton Greek Grammar used to be employed. At
+Bodmin, Valpy's _Greek Grammar_, and at Faversham, Lily's _Latin Primer_,
+edited by Ward, were preferred. At some minor schools, where a boy was
+intended for any of the great foundations, special books were placed in
+his hands to facilitate preparation.
+
+But the course of instruction at some of these institutions, outside the
+elementary stage, was remarkably liberal and extensive, and enabled a boy
+of ability to ground himself, at all events, very fairly in the Greek and
+Roman classics. This was, it must be borne in mind, however, the dawn of a
+new era--the first quarter of the nineteenth century.
+
+A class of men who influentially helped to carry on the succession of
+school-books and the slower process of amendment were the private tutors
+in noble or distinguished families, who, when their services were no
+longer required, if they did not obtain immediate preferment, received
+pupils or opened proprietary establishments. They were, for the most part,
+university graduates and persons of fair attainments, who were glad enough
+to introduce into print, with a double eye to their own scholars and the
+public, the system or theory with which they had started, and which in
+their hands underwent, perhaps, certain modifications.
+
+Matthias Prideaux, of Exeter College, Oxford, and A. Lane, M.A., were at
+the outset of their careers retainers of this kind in the great Devonshire
+family of Reynell. The former signalised himself by the _Introduction to
+History_, which, whatever our verdict upon it may be, was a highly
+successful venture, and, after serving its original purpose as a
+class-book for his private pupils, the sons of Sir Thomas Reynell, was
+printed and held the market for many years. Lane, who was a man of ability
+and intelligence, makes his patron, Sir Richard Reynell, Lord Chief
+Justice of Ireland, share with him the credit of his _Rational and Speedy
+Method of attaining to the Latin Tongue_, 1695, which he had been
+encouraged by Sir Richard to pursue with young Reynell, a boy of eight,
+and which formed, no doubt, the basis of his system when he embarked on
+tuition as a career. He presided at first over the free school at
+Leominster, but subsequently set up for himself at Mile End Green, where
+he would be at fuller liberty to follow his own bent.
+
+Lane desires us to believe that the progress made by his young pupil,
+while he was under his charge, was little less than miraculous; but an
+earlier writer, Christopher Syms, in his _Introduction to the Art of
+Teaching the Latin Speech_, 1634, gives hope to the dullest boy that, by
+the use of his method, he may acquire it in four years.
+
+From the sixteenth century downward, there seems to have been a succession
+of competitors to public favour and support in this, as in every other,
+department of activity; and among the whole crowd of aspirants there was
+not one who succeeded in discovering the true principles of the art till
+our own time.
+
+
+IV. The absence of newspapers or other ready means of communication
+necessitated a resort to a system of advertising educational
+establishments through the medium of broadsides, in which were set forth
+the advantages of particular institutions and the branches of knowledge in
+which instruction was to be had there. As early as 1562, Humphrey Baker,
+of London, published an arithmetical work entitled _The Wellspring of
+Sciences_, which was frequently reprinted both in his lifetime and after
+his decease; but he was a teacher of the art, as well as a writer upon it,
+and there is a printed sheet announcing his arrangements for receiving
+pupils, and giving lessons in that and various other subjects. For, as the
+terms of the document, herewith annexed, shew, Baker had in his employment
+other gentlemen, who assisted him in his scholastic labours:--
+
+"Such as are desirous, eyther themselves to learne, or to have theyr
+children or servants instructed in any of these Arts and Faculties heere
+under named: It may please them to repayre unto the house of _Humfry
+Baker_, dwelling on the North side of the Royall Exchange, next adjoyning
+to the signe of the shippe. Where they shall fynde the Professors of the
+said Artes, &c. Readie to doe their diligent endevours for a reasonable
+consideration. Also if any be minded to have their children boorded at the
+said house, for the speedier expedition of their learning, they shall be
+well and reasonably used, to theyr contentation.... The Arts and Faculties
+to be taught are these, ... God save the Queene."
+
+The case of Baker merely stands alone because we do not happen to be in
+possession of any similar contemporary testimony. But schoolmasters who
+resided at their own private houses found it, of course, indispensable to
+adopt some method or other of making their professional whereabouts known,
+as we find Peter Bales, the Elizabethan calligraphist, and author of the
+_Writing School-master_, 1590, notifying, at the foot of the title to his
+book, that it was to be sold at his house in the upper end of the Old
+Bailey, "where he teacheth the said Arts." Bales probably rented the
+house, and underlet such portions as he did not require; for at the end of
+Ripley's _Compound of Alchemy_, 1591, Rabbards, the translator, asks those
+who had any corrections to suggest in the text to send them to him at the
+house of Peter Bales.
+
+Preceptors naturally congregated near the centre of mercantile life.
+
+
+
+
+XI.
+
+    Proposed University of London in 1647--The _Museum Minervæ_ at Bethnal
+    Green--Its catholic character and liberal
+    programme--Calligraphy--Shorthand--Bright's system patented in
+    1588--Education in the provinces--The old school at
+    Manchester--Shakespear's _Sir Hugh Evans_ and _Holofernes_--William
+    Hazlitt's account of his Shropshire school in 1788.
+
+
+I. It is a fact, probably within the knowledge of very few, that two
+hundred years and more before the actual establishment of the University
+of London, a project for such an institution was mooted by an anonymous
+pamphleteer, who may be considered as a kind of pioneer, preceding the
+Benthams and Broughams.
+
+I hold in my hand _Motives Grounded upon the Word of God, and upon Honour,
+Profit, and Pleasure for the present Founding an University in the
+Metropolis, London_, 1647. It purports to be the work of "a true Lover of
+his Nation, and especially of the said City."
+
+The lines and object in this piece are purely clerical. The author
+maintains the insufficiency of the two existing Universities and the
+College in Ireland to rear as many "sons of the Prophets"--an euphemism
+for parsons--to attend upon the spiritual needs of the English and the
+Londoners.
+
+He puts down on paper statistics of the number of scholars at Oxford and
+Cambridge, and he argues that if the total were much larger--10,000
+instead of 5900--there would be no means of raising the 20,000 preachers
+necessary in his view to carry on the business of religion. He pleads the
+fall of Episcopacy in support of his scheme, as "we cannot hope," he says,
+"that so many will apply their studies to Divinity, and therefore have the
+greater need to maintain the more poor scholars at our Universities," or,
+in other words, the absence of the prizes in the lottery had taken the
+best men out of the market. In fact, the writer himself does not shrink
+altogether from presenting the commercial side of the question, for he
+observes:--"Without injury unto any, an University in London would
+increase London's Trading, and inrich London, as the Scholars do Cambridge
+and Oxford, where how many poor people also are benefited by the Colleges,
+yea, the countries round about them."
+
+So far, so good; but he, in the very next paragraph, strikes a chord which
+jars upon the ear. We see that he is a partisan of that theory which
+flourished here down to our own day, and which contributed so powerfully
+to retard and cripple our scholastic and academical studies. Hear what he
+says: "If here in London there be a College, in which _nothing but Latin_
+shall be spoken, and your children put into it, and from ten years old to
+twelve hear no other Language, in those two years they will be able to
+speak as good Latin as they do English, and as readily. The Roman children
+learned Latin as ours do English...;" and so he goes on as to Greek,
+Hebrew, Italian, French, and Spanish.
+
+The sole point here, in our modern estimation, is the admission of the
+three living languages into the curriculum, in order to qualify the
+students in later life to make themselves understood abroad either as
+merchants or as diplomatists. But here he was before his time. Nothing of
+the kind was to be attempted in England for generations. For generations
+Englishmen were to be instructed only in the dead tongues, and were to
+have not an English, but a Latin Grammar put into their hands age after
+age.
+
+He talks about the Roman youth learning Latin as we do English; but he
+failed, perhaps, to perceive that they did not learn British or Gaulish as
+we do Latin. His text is wealthy in Scriptural quotations and parallels;
+but whatever one may think of his notions regarding the details and
+advantages of such a plan, this unnamed "true Lover of his Nation" is
+entitled, at any rate, to the credit and distinction of having been
+apparently the first to suggest what we have now before us in the shape of
+an accomplished fact.
+
+It is not too much to assert, probably, that if the appearance of this
+tract had been followed by the execution of the ideas enunciated in it,
+the force of opinion would by this time have spared very little of the
+work of the original promoters.
+
+
+II. The _Musæum Minervæ_, instituted by Sir Balthazar Gerbier d'Ouvilly at
+Bethnal Green in 1635, presents a thorough contrast to those philanthropic
+or eleemosynary institutions of which I have lately spoken, inasmuch as it
+was a novel and costly apparatus of Continental origin, calculated only
+for the children of rich persons and for those who desired to complete
+themselves in various accomplishments. Lectures were delivered on several
+subjects, and printed afterwards for circulation; but the enterprise did
+not succeed, and the outbreak of the Civil War probably sealed its doom.
+Yet as late as 1649 the management, or the founder himself, issued a
+prospectus of the different branches of learning and culture which were
+taught at this establishment. The language of this document, which is
+curious enough to append entire, portends the approaching collapse, and
+reads like a final appeal to public spirit and patronage:--
+
+"To all Fathers of NOBLE FAMILIES and Lovers of VERTUE: Sir Balthazar
+Gerbier desires once more that the Publique may be pleased to take notice
+of his great labours and indeavours by the Erection of an Academy on
+Bednall Green without Aldgate. To teach _Hebrew_, _Greek_, _Latine_,
+_French_, _Italian_, _Spanish_, _High Dutch_, and _Low Dutch_, both
+Ancient and Modern _Histories_, joyntly with the Constitutions and
+Governments of the most famous _Empires_ and _Dominions_ in the World, the
+true Naturall and Experimentall _Philosophy_, the _Mathematicks_,
+_Arithmetick_, and the keeping _Bookes of Accounts_ by _Creditor_ and
+_Debitor_. All excellent _Handwriting, Geometrie, Cosmography, Geography,
+Perspective, Architecture, Secret Motions of Scenes, Fortifications, the
+besieging & Defending of Places, Fire-Works, Marches of Armies, Ordering
+of Battailes, Fencing, Vaulting, Riding the Great Horse, Musick, Playing
+on all sorts of Instruments, Dancing, Drawing, Painting, Limning, and
+Carving, &c._"
+
+It is at once apparent that the programme of the Bethnal Green Academy was
+too ambitious and expensive to suit moderate careers and limited
+resources. Perhaps if it had been so fortunate as to outlive the
+Restoration it might have proved a success, as the range was sufficiently
+capacious to accommodate those who contented themselves with ordinary
+school or college routine; those who preferred a study of the sciences and
+arts; and, again, such as desired a special professional training.
+
+The establishment of the _Musæum_ in 1635 had been inaugurated by a
+dramatic performance, which the Court honoured with its presence; and in
+the following year the _Constitutions_, as they are called, were printed.
+
+These give, but of course with more detail, the particulars which present
+themselves in the advertisement just noticed; and they also shew that
+there was a preparatory school attached to the _Musæum_, from which the
+pupils might be drafted into the higher one.
+
+The subjects taught exhibit a diversity of character and a width of
+sympathy which are powerfully at variance with the meagre programmes of
+the old-fashioned public foundations. They comprised Heraldry,
+Conveyancing, Common Law, Antiquities (including Numismatics),
+Agriculture, Arithmetic, Architecture, Fortification, Geography,
+Languages, and Elocution, with many more matters.
+
+It is worth remarking that now for the first time the German tongue was
+included in the list of those which were recommended and set down for
+study, while the Dutch also occurs in the list. Elocution or "the art of
+well-speaking," as it is termed, was also a novel feature; and, in point
+of fact, Gerbier, who had travelled much abroad and observed the superior
+educational systems of foreign countries, sought to introduce here the
+same catholic and liberal spirit, instead of the imperfect and cramped
+course of studies with which Englishmen were forced to be contented, and
+which had scarcely emerged from mediæval simplicity and crudity.
+
+The _Musæum Minervæ_, of which a Shropshire gentleman, Sir Francis
+Kinaston, of Oteley, was the first Regent, collapsed about 1650; but its
+example and influence survived, and it was the forerunner of a broader and
+more enlightened educational policy and of the modern type of training
+colleges, into which even those ancient endowed schools which remain have
+been compelled by the force of public opinion, one by one, to resolve
+themselves.
+
+These Academies present a very powerful contrast to the archaic school in
+the multiplicity of acquirements, and in the breadth or variety of
+culture which they afforded and encouraged. They betoken a development of
+social wants and refinements, and the force of influences received from
+surrounding countries. It was a supply which responded to a demand; and it
+helped to create or extend a field of literary industry in the form of
+technical publications dealing with the principal subjects, which the
+_Musæum Minervæ_ and other analogous institutions included in their
+scheme. To the treatises on Riding, Swimming, Drawing, Writing, and a few
+other arts were added Manuals for the use of those who studied, at the
+College or under private instructors, the sciences of Fencing, Vaulting,
+Small Sword Exercise, Fortification, and the accomplishments specified in
+the programme of the Minerva Museum. A constant succession of text-books
+for pupils in nearly all these branches of a polite education kept the
+makers and the vendors of them busy from the age of Elizabeth downward;
+and long lists might be furnished of contributions to every department,
+both by professional experts and by amateurs of practical experience.
+
+Ladies, who desired to learn anything special in excess of the narrow
+educational routine then deemed sufficient for the call of their sex,
+depended on private tutors, who usually waited upon them at their own
+homes. Thomas Greeting taught Mrs. Pepys the flageolet, for example, and
+the same lady had lessons in drawing from Alexander Browne, who made the
+diarist angry at first, because he was asked by Mrs. Pepys to stay dinner
+sometimes, and to sit at table with her husband.
+
+The importance of calligraphy was recognised long before the date of any
+literary monuments of its development. The earliest professor of the art
+who appeared in print among us was a Frenchman, Jean de Beauchesne, who
+resided in Blackfriars, and published in 1570 his writing-book, in which
+he affords specimens of all the usual hands, English and French secretary,
+Italian, Chancery, and Court. Even the extant productions of this class,
+including those of the immortal Cocker, would fill a considerable space in
+a bookcase; and many belonged to the calling without the parade of
+authorship, while of such fugitive performances the remains are apt to be
+incomplete, and to present us with a list of names far from exhaustive.
+
+In his "Pen's Triumph," 1660, Cocker, who is better remembered as an
+author on arithmetic, perhaps for no farther reason than the force of the
+adage, but who was also a lexicographer and a voluminous producer of
+writing-books, instructs his pupils and the public not merely in all the
+hands at that time employed for various objects, but how "to write with
+gold," which was, of course, no novelty, but had been more in vogue on the
+Continent than here.
+
+Entire works were executed in autograph MS. by experts, both in England
+and abroad, for the purpose of presentation to noble or royal personages;
+and Ballard gives a copious account of a lady, named Esther Inglis, who,
+in the early portion of the seventeenth century, signalised her talent and
+ingenuity in this way. Her work was remarkable for the minuteness and
+exquisite delicacy of its characters; but nearly all the professional
+writing-masters introduced into their copybooks bold and intricate
+designs, and figures of animals, for the sake of rendering the volumes
+more attractive, and illustrating the capabilities of the goose-quill.
+
+Among our foremost literary celebrities, Shakespear wrote the Court hand,
+judging from his signature, and Bacon and Ben Jonson the Italian.
+
+Charactery, or the art of shorthand, was introduced into the Nonconformist
+schools as a taught subject for the sake of enabling youths or others to
+take notes of sermons and lectures; and some of the discourses from the
+pulpit in the time of Elizabeth purport to have been printed from
+shorthand notes. Dr. Bright, who was the writer of a work on Melancholy
+long antecedent to Burton's, procured an exclusive right in 1588 to
+publish a system which he had invented for this purpose, and which we find
+described by him as "an art of short, swift, and secret writing." He set
+in motion an idea which met with such numerous imitators and improvers,
+that a catalogue of the publications on Tachygraphy down to the present
+date forms a volume of respectable dimensions. Bright was nearly a century
+before the more celebrated Rich, who flourished about the Restoration of
+the Stuarts, and whose cypher was adopted by Pepys in the composition of
+his diary.
+
+
+III. The public schools were not the first in emulating and continuing the
+policy which Gerbier had laboured so hard and so long to establish. On a
+less expensive and ostentatious scale certain private academies adopted
+the idea of supplementing the subjects taught in the great foundations by
+some, at least, of the manly or elegant arts which had figured in the old
+Bethnal Green prospectus.
+
+At the end of a Musical Entertainment, prepared in 1676 for recitation by
+some school-boys in the presence of certain persons of quality, the master
+favours us with some particulars of the subjects which pupils might take
+up in his establishment, and it is also inferable that the hours of study
+extended to at least five o'clock in the evening. He says in a kind of
+postscript to the printed tract:--
+
+"The Arts and Sciences taught and practis'd in the Academy are these.
+
+  _All sorts of Instruments, Singing and Dancing.
+  French and Italian.
+  The Mathematicks.
+  Grammar, Writing and Arithmetick.
+  Painting and Drawing.
+  Fencing, Vaulting and Wrastling._"
+
+This was an unusually liberal choice, and the Academy was evidently one
+designed more particularly for the children of noble or wealthy people. He
+adds:--
+
+"Or any young Gentleman design'd for Travel, there are persons of several
+Nations fit to instruct him in any Language.
+
+"Likewise any one that hath a desire to have any New Songs or Tunes, may
+be furnish'd by the same Person that serves his Majesty in the same
+Imployment."
+
+This is altogether worth attention. It is a pity that we cannot arrive at
+the name or locality of the college where all these advantages and
+temptations (in the way of buying your Songs of the King's own purveyor)
+were held out to the aspiring gentry of two centuries ago.
+
+
+IV. In all the great provincial centres there were, of course, educational
+institutes supported by local or royal endowment; and in all these the
+method of teaching and general policy followed that pursued in the
+metropolis, except that, as we shall presently see, some of the
+establishments in the country trod in the footsteps of the Academy just
+described more promptly and more cordially than St. Paul's or Merchant
+Taylors', which modified their constitutions only to save themselves from
+ruin.
+
+Of the seventeenth-century school at Manchester we gain an accidental
+glimpse and notion from the _Delectus of Latin Phrases_ which was prepared
+for use there by a former scholar, Thomas Bracebridge. It is a MS. volume
+of no interest or moment, unless it is locally and personally regarded;
+but one is apt to cherish every added fraction of light as to the state of
+education in the Midlands in former days; and this _Delectus_ carries us
+back precisely to the Restoration, so far as its mere date is concerned,
+but furnishes a fair idea of the sort of phrase-book which a Manchester
+teacher of 1660 thought suitable for the boys of his old school.
+
+In Sir Hugh Evans, the Welsh parson and schoolmaster, Shakespear has not
+improbably preserved to us some fragmentary reminiscences of his own
+school-days at Stratford. The probation through which William Page is put
+by Sir Hugh at his mother's instance might very well be a literal or close
+transcript from actual experience. With what mingled feelings the poet
+must have contemplated a class of men to whom such minds as his have ever
+owed so little!
+
+Both Sir Hugh and the Reverend Doctor Primrose may be accepted as
+provincial types of the clerical preceptor, as they seemed to two
+excellent observers in their respective centuries. We easily remark the
+difference between them and such a creation as Holofernes.
+
+The course of studies followed in the rural districts of England at a
+later period is illustrated by a letter from Hazlitt, the essayist, to his
+elder brother, the miniature-painter, when the former was attending a
+school at Wem in Shropshire in 1788. He was at that time ten years old.
+After stating that he had been learning to draw, he proceeds:--"Next
+Monday I shall begin to read Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ and Eutropius.... I
+began to cypher a fortnight after Christmas, and shall go into the rule
+of three next week.... I shall go through the whole cyphering book this
+summer, and then I am to learn Euclid. We go to school at nine every
+morning. Three boys begin by reading the Bible. Then I and two others show
+our exercises. We then read the Speaker [by Enfield]. Then we all set
+about our lessons.... At eleven we write and cypher. In the afternoon we
+stand for places at spelling, and I am almost always first.... I shall go
+to dancing this month."
+
+The glimpse which we here obtain of a small private seminary in a
+Shropshire village a hundred years ago affords a not unfavourable notion
+of the standard of provincial education. From another letter of Hazlitt a
+little later on (1790) it appears that the celebrated Dr. Lempriére, whose
+name the lad transformed into Dolounghpryée, was a visitor at the school;
+but he had not yet produced his Dictionary, of which the first edition was
+in 1792. It was still in use at Merchant Taylors' in 1850.
+
+The proprietary establishments for boys, which spread themselves by
+degrees over the land, formed a valuable succedaneum to the Edward and
+other endowed schools, and useful nurseries for pupils who aimed at more
+than elementary learning. But they at the same time proved a source of
+emulation and material improvement; and during the last fifty years the
+distance between the two systems has sensibly decreased.
+
+The great charities and other ancient foundations like St. Paul's,
+Merchant Taylors', Eton, Harrow, have only maintained their relative
+superiority by reforming and extending their prospectus; and there is
+scarcely a country town at the present moment without one or more private
+seminaries, where a better education is given than was within the reach of
+our grandfathers at any of the large public schools of the metropolis.
+
+Even in the time of Carlisle, who wrote in 1818, some of the principal
+institutions in the provinces were treading closely on the heels of
+Christ's Hospital and other endowments, and one or two, as at Dorchester,
+at Abingdon, and at Witton near Chester, seem to have been on a more
+liberal and enlightened footing.
+
+
+
+
+XII.
+
+    Educational condition of SCOTLAND--Beneficial influence of Knox and
+    his supporters--Buchanan and other early writers on grammar--Thomas
+    Ruddiman and his important contribution to the spread of elementary
+    teaching--Decline of culture during the Civil War.
+
+
+I. When we turn to Scotland, we find the compendium of the Grammar of
+Ælius Donatus, of which I have already furnished some account, in use
+there from time almost immemorial. It appears that the Scotish seminaries
+adopted this favourite class-book in common with those of England at least
+as far back as the time of Andrew of Wyntown, who was nearly contemporary
+with Langland and Chaucer. In his _Original Chronicle of Scotland_ he
+speaks of the Barnys (bairns) lering Donate at their beginning of Grammar;
+which is a very interesting and important piece of testimony in its way,
+since there is so little to enable us to form an opinion of the rise and
+growth of elementary learning in North Britain, although there may be just
+sufficient light cast incidentally or indirectly on the subject to lead us
+to judge that Scotland, if not indeed the North generally, was in this
+respect, as in others, far behind the Southern English.
+
+In Scotland, the influence of Knox and his supporters favoured the early
+institution of parochial schools throughout the country, where a class and
+range of instruction prevailed which, combined with native religious
+tendencies, had the effect of increasing, in comparison with England, the
+average of educated intelligence without developing much breadth of
+thought or much intellectual refinement.
+
+The aims of the parish schools are humble, and beyond its limited
+possibilities there are its impediments and its snares. In addition to
+schools, the friends of education in the North, as early as the reign of
+William III., commenced an agitation for the establishment of parochial
+libraries even in the Highlands. The movement was set on foot by certain
+ministers of the Presbyterian Church, and its basis and scope would have
+been narrow enough if the idea had been realised. But nothing beyond a
+discussion and some correspondence seems to have resulted at the moment.
+
+Nor do we, even as time goes on, find much information obtainable on this
+part of the subject. But both the systems and the books employed were for
+some centuries of foreign origin; and the grammatical publications of an
+Aberdeen man, John Vaus, whose name seems to be the earliest on the roll
+of native authors, were, so far as we at present know, without exception
+published, as well as written, in France, to which Scotland perhaps owed,
+among other matters, her adoption of the Continental law of Latin
+pronunciation.
+
+Vaus grounded his _Rudiments_, printed at Paris repeatedly about 1520, on
+the old _Doctrinale_ of Alexander Gallus, which bespeaks a backwardness of
+information, since at this date Lily's Grammar was already in use in the
+South, and even the systems of Whittinton and the other disciples of the
+Magdalen School method had been almost completely discarded there, except,
+perhaps, as occasional auxiliaries.
+
+At a later period, the eminent Scotsman Buchanan wrote his little work on
+Prosody, and two others of his countrymen, Andrew Symson and James
+Carmichael, reduced to a simpler plan the principles of elementary
+learning and the outlines of etymology.
+
+The first explicit attempt to produce a grammar in Scotland for the
+special use of that country is due, however, to Alexander Hume, who is
+known to us not only as an educational reformer, but as a philological
+student. His _New Grammar for the Use of the Scotish Youth_, 1612, was a
+popular compendium founded on Lily; it seems to have met with limited and
+brief acceptance, and his tract on the _Orthography and Congruity of the
+British Tongue_, which was a literary essay intended rather for the closet
+(to use the old-fashioned parlance), remained till lately in MS.
+
+
+II. But books of instruction and for employment in schools continued, down
+to the days of THOMAS RUDDIMAN, to be at once scarce and unsatisfactory,
+insomuch that, side by side with these and other unrecovered productions,
+it was found possible and convenient to keep in print the old text-books
+of Stanbridge, of which editions continued to be issued at intervals both
+here and in England down to the middle of the seventeenth century.
+
+Ruddiman may be considered as the apostle of scholastic education and
+literature in Scotland; and as he was not born till 1674, this amounts to
+a proposition that his country was at least two centuries behind England
+in knowledge and culture. Even Ruddiman was brought up at the parish
+school, and was, moreover, for some time a parochial teacher. But, partly
+by force of character and partly by good fortune, he extricated himself
+from his early associations, and became the Lily of the North. His
+_Rudiments of Grammar_ were published in 1714, when he was already in
+middle life; they were little more than the St. Paul's Primer calculated
+for the meridian of Edinburgh; but they proved eminently successful, and
+encouraged him to proceed with that more important philological enterprise
+the _Institutions of Latin Grammar_, which, like the disquisition of
+Alexander Hume recently mentioned, was an ordinary unprofessional piece
+of authorship.
+
+But, notwithstanding the useful labours of Ruddiman, his country, from
+political and other agencies, remained yet for a considerable length of
+time in a very stagnant condition, nor had any sensible improvement been
+achieved in the educational machinery of that portion of the empire within
+the recollection of those still living. Mental training and culture, as
+they are now understood, are the growth of the last half century. But the
+cost of such accomplishments as were taught at Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St.
+Andrews was lower than in England, and the standard higher than in
+Ireland; and from both countries pupils were often sent in former days to
+complete their education, where their parents could not have afforded the
+means to maintain them at Oxford or Cambridge. From a hundred to a hundred
+and thirty years since, the fees at Glasgow University did not exceed £20
+a year, and a frugal lad found seven or eight shillings a week sufficient
+for his board and lodging.
+
+
+III. Many causes contributed, toward the middle of the seventeenth
+century, to favour the disorganisation and decay of scholastic learning;
+but, above all, the outbreak of the Civil War, and the consequent
+disorder, depression, and inquietude, seem to have reduced the educational
+standard, and to have thrown the task of instruction, in a great number of
+cases, into the hands of the clergy, from the want of funds or the lack of
+inclination to support the former lay-teachers. The acute political
+crisis, which lasted without interruption from 1640 to the commencement of
+the Protectorate in 1653, affected even the ancient academical and civic
+endowments; and the two Universities, the noble foundations of Edward VI.,
+and the public seminaries instituted in London and other great centres by
+private munificence, suffered a common paralysis.
+
+The alliance between the Church and the schools was one formed or
+developed at a period of exceptional difficulty and pressure; but even
+when the immediate necessity for such a bond existed no longer, and
+affairs in England had returned to their normal state, the clergy saw too
+clearly the importance of the hold which they had gained on the national
+training and thought to allow education to pass back, farther than was
+avoidable, under lay control.
+
+In the time of the Commonwealth, and when Cromwell assumed the supreme
+authority, there were all over the country, throughout England and Wales,
+men in holy orders and in the enjoyment of benefices who combined with
+their sacerdotal functions, as many do still, the duties of schoolmasters
+and lecturers. Doubtless, among them there were some fairly qualified for
+the trust which they received and undertook; but the majority is alleged,
+in an authentic official document before me of 1654, to have been far
+otherwise. This State-paper is called "An Ordinance for the Ejection of
+Scandalous, Ignorant, and Insufficient Ministers and Schoolmasters," and
+was published in the autumn of the year above named.
+
+Two singular features it unquestionably possesses: the intimate
+association between the parson and the pedagogue, and the striking picture
+which it presents to our view of the lax and profligate condition of the
+class which Cromwell and his advisers saw thus clothed with the twofold
+responsibility of mental and spiritual tuition.
+
+The points on which the Commissioners of the Protectoral Government were
+authorised to inform themselves, and to exercise the discretion vested in
+them by the ordinance, reveal a very unsatisfactory and corrupt state of
+things, and the existence of abuses for which neither the Civil War nor
+the Republican administration can be thought to have been answerable.
+There is scarcely a vice or irregularity which is not named or implied in
+the instructions delivered to the Commission; and the encouragement of
+"Whitson-ales, Wakes, Morris-Dances, Maypoles, Stage-plays, or such like
+licentious practices," strikes one as relatively a very venial offence
+against good morals and professional decorum. But the antipathy to sports
+and dramatic exhibitions was an inheritance from the more rigid Puritans,
+and the Articles of Inquiry in the archidiaconal visitations of this
+period never forgot such profane infringements of clerical morality.
+
+The persons who were selected to sit on these committees for the several
+urban and provincial districts included many God-fearers of the
+prevailing type; but at the same time the choice was evidently made with
+some judgment and impartiality, and the printed lists exhibit a notable
+proportion of divines and others not likely to sanction or recommend too
+violent a course.
+
+In fact, so considerate was the temper of the Administration itself, that
+an express proviso was inserted in the ejecting ordinance, by which some
+of the stipend of the cure was to be set apart, where the minister and
+schoolmaster was judged incompetent, for the support of his family.
+
+Samuel Harmar, in his _Vox Populi, or Gloucestershire's Desire_, 1642,
+represents the want of proper maintenance for teachers, although many
+persons of moderate resources were willing to contribute liberally to the
+object; to the burden on families by reason of the gratuitous instruction
+of children, who, if they were but in the way of earning even twopence a
+day, might help themselves and their parents, whereas they wasted their
+time in playing about the streets, and acquired the habit of swearing and
+other immoral practices. The restriction of educational management, for
+the most part, to the clergy accounts for the dearth of literature
+shedding real and valuable light on the condition of the young and the
+state of schools in very early days; and Harmar's pamphlet is principally
+occupied with vapid theological ineptitudes. His main proposal was
+excellent; it declared for the establishment of schoolmasters in every
+parish throughout the country; but even this was merely what Knox and his
+supporters had long before advocated, and partly accomplished, in
+Scotland.
+
+There is a little volume by Richard Croft, Vicar of Stratford-on-Avon,
+being a sermon preached by him at the opening of the Free School of
+Feckenham in 1696, throughout the sixty-eight pages of which there is not
+an iota worthy of citation, nor a hint serviceable to my inquiry. How
+different it might have been, had a layman been the writer!
+
+
+
+
+XIII.
+
+    Female education--Women of quality taught at home--General illiteracy
+    of the sex--Strong clerical control--Ignorance of the rudiments of
+    knowledge among girls--Shakespear's daughters--Goldsmith's _Poems for
+    Young Ladies_--Rise of the Ladies' School--Political importance of the
+    training of women.
+
+
+I. The neglect of female education in the United Kingdom down to a recent
+date proceeded from an absence of any adequate or organisable machinery
+for the purpose, and from the complete monopoly of learning by men in
+early times. In Scotland this mischief was remedied to a certain extent
+much sooner than in England, owing to the institution of Academies, where
+both sexes received instruction under one roof from the same masters; and
+this circumstance may help to explain the general superiority of the
+Scots, within certain limits, to the Southern Britons in this respect,
+the better upbringing of the mother communicating itself to her children.
+
+Common academies for boys and girls were not wholly unknown in England,
+however, but they were of very rare occurrence, and have now become still
+rarer, as they barely exist at all except as dame-schools.
+
+Now-a-days, of course, the most elaborate and costly apparatus is provided
+for the mental cultivation and training of girls of all ranks; and the
+daughter of a citizen may acquire accomplishments which were long beyond
+the reach of daughters of kings. Formerly the lower classes of females
+remained as illiterate as the corresponding rank of men, and the studies
+of the gentlewoman were superintended by her parents and her tutor or her
+governess. But in the Middle Ages, and long after the revival of learning,
+the only persons capable of conducting the education of a lady who had
+emerged from the nursery and passed the rudimentary stage were
+ecclesiastics; and the laymen who gradually qualified themselves for the
+task, such as Ascham and Buchanan, were scholars of a scarce type, who
+had gained their proficiency in the gymnasia and universities of Italy,
+Germany, or France. The Italian influence was doubtless the earliest, but
+the German was the most powerful, and has proved the most lasting.
+
+In France from a very remote period the dame-school appears to have
+existed in some measure and form, for a fourteenth-century sculpture,
+already mentioned in the remarks on scholastic discipline, depicts an
+establishment of this kind--a petty school for boys kept by a woman. If
+there was any such thing among us, I have met with no record of it; but
+the practice, from the early intimacy between those countries, would be
+more apt to find its way first of all from the French into Scotland.
+
+To such as have had under their eyes the letters and other literary
+monuments which reveal to us the condition of the more cultivated section
+of the English female community in the old days, it seems superfluous to
+insist on the strange ignorance of the _principia_ of knowledge, and on
+the fallow state of the intellectual faculties which these evidences
+establish. The Paston and Plumpton Correspondence, Mrs. Green's _Letters
+of Illustrious Ladies_, and Sir Henry Ellis's three Series of Original
+Letters, may perhaps be quoted as affording an insight into the present
+aspect of the question before us; and I think that the most striking
+proofs of the inattention to female culture in this country are to be
+found in documents previous to the Reformation, when the influence brought
+to bear on the sex was almost exclusively monastic or clerical.
+
+The great political and religious movement which Henry VIII. was enabled
+by circumstances to carry through undoubtedly imparted a large share of
+lay feeling and prejudice to the educational system; and this tendency was
+promoted and strengthened during the short reign of Edward VI. by the
+foundation of chartered schools throughout the kingdom for the instruction
+of youth in grammar and other primordial matters.
+
+
+II. But the progress thus made did not sensibly affect the other sex.
+Girls still depended, as a rule, on the old methods and channels of
+learning; the arts of reading, writing, and arithmetic formed the ordinary
+routine and limit, unless an acquaintance with French, or even with
+Italian, happened to be added as a special accomplishment. Very
+occasionally a maiden of studious character was permitted to avail herself
+of the tutor maintained at home for her brothers, as was the case of the
+Honourable Mrs. North, a younger daughter of Lord North of Kirtling, who
+learned Latin and Greek in this manner; and from Margaret Roper to Mrs.
+Somerville, or indeed in the cases adduced by Ballard in his _Memoirs of
+Learned Ladies_, there were from time to time even in the old days
+splendid exceptions to the prevailing low level of female culture. But
+under any circumstances, until the period arrived when ladies were
+competent to undertake the tuition of ladies, all these matters
+necessarily devolved, in the first place, on the mother, and finally on a
+preceptor, who was necessarily a man, and most probably in holy orders.
+His contribution to the development of character was exceedingly
+preponderant, and was beyond doubt a most important factor in maintaining
+and extending the power of the Church, and indemnifying the clergy for
+the direct political influence of which the Reformation dispossessed them.
+
+The Ladies' School or College may be considered a product of the acute
+political distempers which accompanied the Civil War. Mistress Bathsua
+Makins, who had been governess to one of the daughters of Charles I.--the
+Princess Elizabeth--set up, after the fall of the King, an establishment
+at Putney, to which Evelyn mentions that he paid a visit in company with
+some ladies on the 17th May 1649; but I find no reference to this
+institution in Lysons. A similar case existed somewhat later at Highgate;
+and the admirers of Charles and Mary Lamb, at least, do not require to be
+told that in the little volume called "Mrs. Leicester's School," 1809,
+there are some interesting hints, both historical and autobiographical, in
+relation to the old-fashioned seminary at Amwell. But, as a rule, these
+agents in our later civilisation and social refinement, important as they
+were, have left behind them few, if any, traces of their existence and
+management. They bred those who were content to become, in course of
+time, the wives and mothers of England, and to study the arts of domestic
+life. In such are centred the strength and glory of the country; but their
+careers, like "the short and simple annals of the poor," have escaped
+literary commemoration.
+
+"A Gentleman of Cambridge," as he styles himself on the title of an
+English adaptation of the Abbé d'Ancourt's _Lady's Preceptor_, 1743,
+defines the qualifications then thought necessary and adequate for a young
+gentlewoman. He does not go beyond a thorough knowledge of English, an
+acquaintance with French and Italian, a familiarity with arithmetic and
+accounts, and the mastery of a good handwriting; and yet how few probably
+reached this moderate standard a century and a half ago--nay, how few
+reach it now!
+
+In the time of the early Stuarts, the training of girls in English country
+towns, if it is to be augured from that of the Shakespears at Stratford,
+even where the parents were in good circumstances and the father a man of
+literary tastes and occupations, was still extremely primitive and scanty.
+The poet's elder daughter, Susanna, seems to have just contrived to
+write, or rather print, her name; but Judith used a mark, and Mrs. Quiney,
+whose son became Judith's husband, did the same.
+
+Both the Quineys and the Shakespears were persons of substance and of
+local consideration; and in this case, at any rate, the explanation seems
+to be that such ignorance was usual, and did not prejudicially affect the
+position and prospects of a gentlewoman.
+
+The institution in England of elementary schools for girls only dates back
+to the neighbourhood of the Restoration; but the number of establishments
+long remained, doubtless, very limited, and the scheme of instruction
+equally narrow. The frontispiece to Anthony Huish's _Key to the Grammar
+School_, 1670, presents us with an interesting interior in the shape of a
+girls' school, where the mistress is seated at a desk surrounded by female
+pupils.
+
+Goldsmith's _Poems for Young Ladies_, "Devotional, Moral, and
+Entertaining," 1767, partly arose out of Dr. Fordyce's _Sermons for Young
+Women_. The editor assures his fair readers that the Muse in this case is
+not a syren, but a friend; and there is plenty of the religious element
+in the volume. But there are, on the other hand, extracts from Pope's
+_Homer_, stories from Ovid and Virgil, Addison's _Letter from Italy_, and
+a selection from Collins's _Oriental Eclogues_. The source from which it
+came was a guarantee that its pages would be agreeably and sensibly
+leavened with matters not divine; it surpasses the average intellectual
+nutriment provided for women a century ago. Dr. Goldsmith was a decided
+improvement on Dr. Watts, and he could scarcely escape from being so,
+whether he offered them his own poetical compositions, or, as in the
+present case, merely exercised his judgment in selecting from the works of
+others. No one can object to Pope's _Messiah_ or his _Universal Prayer_,
+which constitute the prominent features in the devotional section, when
+they are in such excellent company as Gay, Swift, and Thomson. But there
+is nothing in this volume to have prevented the editor offering a copy to
+either of the vicar's daughters.
+
+The universal and unchanging aim of the ecclesiastical authority is
+manifestly temporal, and Henry VIII. and his coadjutors, and their
+immediate successors in the foundation of Protestantism, acted wisely in
+making it part of their scheme to furnish the realm with public seminaries
+based on an improved footing in the earliest endowed grammar schools,
+which set the example to private individuals and corporate bodies.
+
+These schools, which, as we know, had been preceded--and doubtless
+suggested too--by that at Magdalen College, Oxford, and others framed on a
+humbler scale or (like the City of London and St. Paul's) under different
+auspices, opened the way to a partial secularisation of teaching
+throughout England. The preceptors employed were more often than not
+academical, unbeneficed graduates with a certain clerical bent; but the
+Statutes laid down rules for the management of the Charity and for the
+limitation of the subjects to be taught; and the scheme was assuredly at
+the outset, and continued down to the last thirty or forty years--in fact,
+within the recollection of the present writer--so narrow and imperfect,
+that it supplied what would now be regarded as the mere groundwork of a
+genteel education.
+
+
+III. But a farther and still more important step toward the emancipation
+of scholastic economy and discipline from Church control was taken when,
+first in Scotland, and subsequently, and also in a more limited degree, in
+England, after the union of the kingdoms, proprietary establishments were
+opened for boys or girls only, or for boys and girls, where the religious
+instruction, instead of being, as under the archaic conventual and Romish
+system, the primary feature, became a mere item on the prospectus, like
+Geography or History. This was the commencement of an entrance upon modern
+lines, and struck a fatal blow at the monastic and academical ideas of
+instruction, by widening the bias and range of studies, and liberating the
+intellect from religious trammels.
+
+The success and multiplication of these new institutions obliged the old
+endowments to reform themselves, and to meet the demands of the age; and
+the pressure was augmented, of course, by the concurrent rise of large
+public gymnasia of a novel stamp, as well as by the development of some of
+the already existing institutions conformably to the great changes in
+political and social life.
+
+The proprietary system, which had started by adopting, as a rule, the
+mixed method, or rather by the reception of pupils of both sexes under the
+same roof, was eventually, and, except so far as dame-schools were
+concerned, finally modified in favour of the dual plan, and independent
+colleges for young gentlemen and for young ladies were the result.
+
+In these latter the drift is certainly more and more lay; and as knowledge
+and culture spread, and the influence and fruits of masculine thought make
+themselves more and more appreciable, the Church in England will gradually
+loosen its grasp of the national intellect, and will probably owe to the
+higher education of women its collapse and downfall.
+
+The ladies of England have propped up the tottering edifice long enough,
+and no one whose opinion is worth entertaining will lament the inevitable
+issue. But whether the consequences of this vital movement will be
+otherwise beneficial, it has scarcely yet, perhaps, been in active
+operation a sufficient time to enable us to judge. If it involves the
+sacrifice in any important measure of feminine refinement and dependence,
+we shall be forced to confess that the help to be rendered by our
+daughters and grand-daughters to the cause of intellectual enfranchisement
+and victory will have been bought at a cruel price.
+
+As the old foundations discovered it to be imperative to comply with the
+growing philosophical temper in order to enable them to exist side by side
+with the improved types of school and teacher, so the successful conduct
+of ladies' colleges will become impossible in the future unless that
+liberality of doctrine and sentiment in all matters connected with
+theology which breathes around them and us is cordially recognised.
+
+A spirit of disaffection to clerical guidance and clerical imposts has for
+some time shown itself in Great Britain among those who are becoming, in
+the natural course of events, husbands, fathers, and ratepayers; the
+revolt of the other sex has also commenced; and the wise initiative of the
+Board School in excluding the Bible and Catechism from their programme
+must be ultimately obeyed by every school in the three kingdoms.
+
+The Bible is for scholars, not for school-folk; and, as Jeremy Bentham
+demonstrated nearly a century ago, the Catechism is trash.
+
+
+
+
+XIV.
+
+    The Abacus or A. B. C.--Its construction and use--The printed A. B.
+    C.--The first Protestant one (1553)--Spelling-books--Anecdotes of the
+    A. B. C.--_Propria quæ Maribus_ and _Johnny quæ Genus_--The Catechism
+    and Primer.
+
+
+I. The manner in which the earliest _Abaci_ were constructed and applied
+is precisely one of those points which, in the absence of specimens of
+remote date and documentary information as to their form and use, we have
+to elucidate, as far as possible, from casual allusions or internal
+testimony. The most ancient woodcuts representing a school interior
+display the method in which the master and pupils worked together; but
+here the latter appear, as I have stated elsewhere, to reiterate what
+their teacher reads from a book, or, in other words, the scene depicts a
+later stage in the educational course.
+
+In the _Jests of Scogin_, a popular work of the time of Henry VIII., and
+probably reliable as a faithful portraiture of the habits and notions of
+the latter half of the fifteenth and opening decades of the following
+century, one of the sections relates "How a Husbandman put his son to
+school with Scogin." From the text it is plain that the lad was very
+backward in his studies, or had commenced them unusually late, considering
+that it was the farmer's ambition to procure his admission into holy
+orders. "The slovenly boy," we are told, "would begin to learn his A. B.
+C. Scogin did give him a lesson of nine of the first letters of A. B. C.,
+and he was nine days in learning of them; and when he had learned the nine
+Christ-cross-row letters, the good scholar said, 'am ich past the worst
+now?'"
+
+The important feature in this passage is the reference to the
+Christ-cross-row, which contained the nine letters of the alphabet from A
+to I in the form of the Cross. The time consumed in this particular
+instance in the acquisition of a portion of the rudiments is, of course,
+ascribable to a pleasant hyperbole, or to the scholar's phenomenal
+density; but the _Abacus_ or Christ-cross-row was, no doubt, the first
+step in the ladder, and although it was superseded by the Horn-book and
+the Primer, it did not substantially disappear from use in petty schools
+till the present century. Its shape and functions, however, underwent a
+material change, and instead of being employed as a medium for grounding
+children in the Accidence, it became a vehicle for arithmetical purposes,
+and resembled a slate in form and dimensions, consisting of a small oblong
+wooden frame fitted with rows of balls of wood or bone strung on
+transverse wires. To those who, like the present writer, saw this
+apparatus in common use to induct the young into the art of counting, its
+pedigree was naturally unknown. It was an evolution from the contrivance
+which Scogin put into the hands of the country bumpkin whom he was engaged
+to prepare for the priesthood, and who, as we learn from subsequent
+passages in these Anecdotes, was actually ordained a deacon within a
+limited period.
+
+
+II. To the Abacus, prior to the Reformation, was added the printed A. B.
+C. accompanied by prayers and a metrical version of the Decalogue, and in
+1553 appeared the first Protestant A. B. C. and Catechism for the use of
+schools and the young. It is after this date and the accession of
+Elizabeth that we find a marked and permanent stimulus given to elementary
+literature; and the press from 1553 onward teemed with A. B. C.'s of all
+sorts; as, for instance, "an a. b. c. for children, with syllables, 1558;"
+"an a. b. c. in Latin," 1559; "the battle of A. B. C.," 1586; "the horn a.
+b. c., 1587;" and even the title itself grew popular, not only for manuals
+of other kinds, but for publishers' signs and ballads. There was "the aged
+man's A. B. C," the "Virgin's A. B. C.," and "the young man's A. B. C."
+
+Subsequently to the A. B. C. of 1553, there seems to be nothing actually
+extant of this nature till we come to _The Pathway to Reading, or the
+newest spelling A. B. C._ of Thomas Johnson, 1590, which I have not been
+able to inspect, but as to which there was a litigation between two
+publishers in the following year, seeming to shew its popularity and a
+brisk demand for copies.
+
+A few years later (1610) there is _A New Book of Spelling, with
+Syllables_, a series of alphabets, followed by the vowels, alphabetical
+arrangements of syllables, and remarks on vowels, in the course of which
+the writer furnishes us with an explanation of the virtue and force of the
+final _e_ in such monosyllables as _Babe_.
+
+From vowels he proceeds to the diphthong, where he animadverts on the
+abuse of the _w_ for the _u_. He then presents us with the Lord's Prayer,
+the Creed, the Decalogue, &c., as orthographical theses.
+
+At the end of the Scriptural selections we arrive at this curious heading:
+"Certain words devised alphabetically without sense, which whosoever will
+take the pains to learn, he may read at the first sight any English book
+that is laid before him." These words are divided into two classes,
+dissyllables and words of three and four syllables, and introduced by a
+few lines of introduction, in which the words are divided by way of
+guidance.
+
+The spelling-book of 1610 was printed for the Stationers' Company, by
+which it had been perhaps taken over; and as the Company did not usually
+have assigned to it any stock except old copyrights, there is little doubt
+that there were earlier impressions. At any rate, it is a Shakespearian
+volume, and, as the only manual for children or illiterate adults except
+the Protestant A. B. C. of 1553, it becomes interesting to consider that
+the great poet himself may have had a copy in his hands of some edition,
+if at least his scholastic researches ever went beyond the Horn-book and
+the Abacus.
+
+The volume may be regarded as a pioneer in the direction of English
+orthography and pronunciation; and when the author propounds that you
+might proceed from his pages to the Latin tongue, he does nothing more
+than follow in the steps of all teachers of that time, as well as of every
+other age and country down to almost yesterday.
+
+While I have the book before me, it may be worth while to transfer to
+these pages a specimen of it:--
+
+  kach, kech, kich, koch, kuch,
+  kash, kesh, kish, kosh, kush,
+  kath, keth, kith, koth, kuth.
+
+And so it runs through the alphabet. In the Lord's Prayer and other
+selections the syllables are also divided for the convenience and ease of
+the learner.
+
+The biographer of Dean Colet mentions that Mr. Stephen Penton, Principal
+of St. Edmund's Hall, Oxford, in the days of Charles II., published a
+Horn-book or A. B. C. for children. This, which Knight oddly characterises
+as a piece of humble condescension on the part of so worthy and noted a
+man, I have not yet seen.
+
+In Russia they have, or had very lately, the _stchoti_, a kind of Abacus,
+a small wooden frame strung with horizontal wires, on which slide a series
+of ivory balls, each wire representing a certain value from the kopeck
+upwards. This piece of machinery is used in all commercial transactions,
+whether they take place in shop, market, counting-house, or bank; and
+familiarity and practice enable the parties concerned to calculate the
+amount payable or receivable with equal ease and rapidity.
+
+There is a similar machine in use among the natives of British India, and
+also for mercantile purposes, not as a vehicle for acquiring the science
+of numbers in the schools.
+
+
+III. It is said to have been John Rightwise, second head-master of St.
+Paul's, and son-in-law of Lily, who introduced into his predecessor's book
+the _Propria quæ Maribus_ and _As in Præsenti_, to which were subsequently
+joined the Rules of Heteroclites or Irregular Nouns, probably digested
+from Whittinton by Robertson of York. This last section, from the
+commencing words, combined perhaps with the Christian name of Rightwise,
+was the origin of _Johnny quæ Genus_.
+
+But an early authority[3] claims for Lily himself the honour of having
+written the _Propria quæ Maribus_ and _As in Præsenti_, and informs us
+that Rightwise merely published them with a glossary.
+
+In some of the schools the course seems to have been to commence with the
+A. B. C. and Catechism, and then proceed to the Primer. At the end of the
+A. B. C. of 1757 are these lines:--
+
+  "This little Catechism learned
+    by heart (for so it ought),
+  The PRIMER next commanded is
+    for children to be taught."
+
+When I speak here of the _Primer_, I must take care to distinguish between
+the Service-book so styled and the Manual for the young. It is singular
+enough that the most ancient which has come under my eyes is of the age of
+Elizabeth, and includes not only the Catechism, but "the notable fairs in
+the Calendar," as matters "to be taught unto children."
+
+This type of Primer is very rare till we arrive at comparatively modern
+days. The mission which it was designed to fulfil was one precisely
+calculated to hinder its transmission to us.
+
+The practice of printing children's books on some more than usually
+substantial material is not so modern as may be supposed; for there is an
+A. B. C. published at Riga for the use of the German pupils, the German
+population preponderating there over the Russian or Polish, on paper
+closely resembling linen, and of a singularly durable texture; and this
+little volume belongs to the commencement of the last century, several
+generations before such a system was adopted in England.
+
+In the Preface to his _New English Grammar_, 1810, Hazlitt complains of
+the want of any undertaking of the kind, and it has not been really
+supplied till our own day, when the labours of the Philological and
+English Text Societies and the payment of increased attention to Early
+English Literature prepared the way to reform in a quarter where reform
+was so sadly needed.
+
+The same writer, while edition upon edition of the famous Grammar of
+Lindley Murray was pouring from the press, like Hayley's _Triumphs of
+Temper_ and Moore's _Loves of the Angels_, exposed the fallacies of the
+system, and lamented the mischief done by such erroneous doctrines.
+Murray, of whose lucubrations, now obsolete to petrifaction, sixty issues
+were exhausted between 1795 and 1859, aimed not only at popular
+instruction, but at literary dignity and scientific eminence; for during a
+portion of the time while his star was in the ascendant two parallel
+texts, a literary and an elementary one, were kept in print. Looking back
+from the vantage-ground which it is our privilege to occupy upon this
+phenomenon, we contemplate it not with the awe inspired by a mighty ruin,
+of which the remaining fragments are a gladdening and proud survival, but
+with a feeling of amazement that such a heresy in opinion and taste should
+have lived so long, and have been so lately dissipated.
+
+The hazy ideas of the old-fashioned schoolmaster on this particular part
+of his business are brought out in tolerably prominent relief in the reply
+to a gentleman who had expressed to Dr. Duncan of the Ciceronian Academy
+at Pimlico his wish that his son might learn English in lieu of Latin
+Grammar. "Sir," said the Doctor, "Grammar is Grammar all the world over."
+
+
+
+
+XV.
+
+    Ascham's _Schoolmaster_--Richard Mulcaster--The earliest Anglo-Latin
+    Dictionary--Ocland's _Anglorum Prælia_.
+
+
+I. The _Schoolmaster_, by Roger Ascham, is a work so celebrated and so
+classical, and has been so often reprinted, that it seems almost
+supererogatory to pass any remark upon its character and merits. It arose,
+as we all know, out of a conversation at Windsor in 1563 between Sir
+Richard Sackville, Treasurer of the Exchequer, and the author, and it is a
+literary treatise rather than a technical one. Ascham did not live to see
+it in type, nor was his patron spared to witness its completion in MS.; it
+was published in 1570 by the author's widow, and dedicated to Sir William
+Cecil, who was one of the party at Windsor when the idea was first
+ventilated. The opening paragraphs of the Preface, where Ascham describes
+the company at dinner, and Sackvile afterwards drawing him aside, and
+leading him to turn his thoughts to the production of such a book, are as
+famous and unforgettable as Latimer's noble and touching narrative to us,
+in one of his sermons before the King, of his boyhood and the obligations
+under which he lay to his father for sending him to a good school.
+
+Ascham's _Schoolmaster_, 1570, is a volume, as its title perhaps may
+import, for the teacher indeed rather than for the learner. It is a manual
+of valuable suggestions and counsels for the guidance and use of those
+under whose direction the course of school-work was carried out, although
+immediately it was designed for the benefit of Mr. Robert Sackville, the
+deceased Treasurer's grandson. The writer confesses his indebtedness to
+Sir John Cheke and to Sturmius, among the moderns, and to his old masters,
+as he calls them, Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero.
+
+Sir Richard Sackville, who was happily instrumental in persuading Ascham
+to undertake the task, told him that he had found the disadvantage in his
+own case of an imperfect education; "for a fond scholemaster," quoth he,
+"before I was fullie fourtene yeare olde, draue me so, with feare of
+beating, from all loue of learninge, as nowe, when I know what difference
+it is to haue learninge, and to haue little or none at all, I feele it my
+greatest greife, and finde it my greatest hurte, that euer came to me;
+that it was my so ill chance to light vpon so lewde a schoolmaster."
+
+Ascham was of his friend's opinion in regard to greater clemency and
+patience on the part of teachers, and he also preferred such text-books as
+_Cicero de Officiis_ to the Manuals compiled by Horman, Whittinton, and
+the rest of the old school of English grammarians. The passage in the
+_Schoolmaster_ where the author narrates his interview, before he went on
+his travels into Germany, with Lady Jane Grey at her father's house in
+Leicestershire, is familiar enough; it exhibits a converse case, so far as
+the severities of school-teachers are concerned; for that amiable and
+unfortunate woman found her only compensation for the harshness and rigour
+of her parents in a gentle and beloved tutor, "who," she told Ascham,
+"teacheth me so ientlie, so pleasantlie, with such faire allurements to
+learning, that I thinke all the tyme nothing whiles I am with him."
+
+One sees that Ascham, while loth to say too much on such a topic, did not
+cordially relish the old translations into English verse of some of the
+classics, even when the translator was such a man as Surrey or Chaucer;
+and there I agree with him, and indeed I think that many more are inclined
+so to do.
+
+Richard Mulcaster, first head-master of Merchant Taylors' School, and for
+several years after his retirement from that position principal of St.
+Paul's, was the author of two works of comparatively slight interest and
+importance at the present day, whatever estimate may have been formed of
+them by some of his learned contemporaries. Of the two "fruits of his
+writing," as he terms them, he dedicated the earlier, "Positions," 1581, a
+kind of introduction to the matter, to Queen Elizabeth, and the other,
+"The First Part of the Elementary," 1582, to Lord Leicester, in two rather
+turgid and verbose epistles. But it is a question whether either
+production met with much applause on its appearance, though ushered into
+notice under such influential auspices; certainly they never grew popular
+or reached a second impression. They were both calculated for the guidance
+of teachers, like Ascham's _Schoolmaster_; but they present a stiff and
+didactic frigidity, which is absent in the famous and favourite manual of
+his predecessor, who knew how to make us the partakers of his own learning
+in a more agreeable manner than the professional pedagogue. I think it
+very possible that the very few readers which the publications of
+Mulcaster have found have arrived at the conclusion of their labour
+without being much wiser than when they embarked in it. But, of the two, I
+prefer very decidedly the _Positions_, which are written in a more natural
+style, and contain occasional passages of interest. This gentleman lived
+to see the close of the long reign of which he had witnessed the opening,
+and to write some dull verses upon the death of the Queen.
+
+
+II. The early teacher and his pupils enjoyed, when the typographical art
+had been applied to the production of educational works previously
+accessible in a limited number of MSS., the considerable advantage of
+books of reference for Latin, Greek, French, and eventually Italian and
+other tongues. Within a year of each other (1499-1500), the _Ortus
+Vocabulorum_ and the _Promptorius Parvulorum_ furnished our schools, so
+far as Latin was concerned, with two excellent lexicons, both formed out
+of the best compilations of the kind current abroad. These were the
+Ainsworth and Riddle of our ancestors, who resorted to them where the
+required information was not forthcoming in the Primer or the Delectus.
+
+Both these phrase-books passed through a series of reprints between the
+commencement and middle of the sixteenth century. The former purports to
+have been grounded on the _Catholicon_ of Balbus, 1460, the _Cornucopia_
+of Perottus, the _Gemma Vocabulorum_, and the _Medulla Grammatices_, with
+additions by Ascensius. The _Promptorius_, or, as it is also called in
+some of the issues, _Promptuarium_, appears to be substantially identical
+with the _Medulla_.
+
+But the earliest regular Anglo-Latin Dictionary in our literature is that
+of Sir Thomas Elyot, first published in 1538, and frequently reprinted
+with additions by others from a variety of English and foreign sources,
+until it became the bulky folio known as COOPER'S THESAURUS. Elyot, the
+first compiler, tells us, in the dedication to Henry VIII. prefixed to the
+_editio princeps_, that he had accomplished about half his labour when it
+reached the royal ear through Master (subsequently Sir) Anthony Denny that
+he had such a project in hand; whereupon the King caused all possible
+facilities to be afforded him, and the books in the royal library to be
+open to his inspection. It is hard to say how far Elyot flatters his
+sovereign when he assures him that, after it was all done, he was so
+afraid of his Lexicon being faulty and imperfect, that he felt as if he
+could have torn the MS. to pieces, "had not the beames of your royal
+maiestie entred into my harte, by remembraunce of the comforte whiche I of
+your grace had lately receyued."
+
+In the epistle to Henry just referred to, the author pays a tribute to
+the encouragement which he had experienced from Lord Cromwell; and in the
+British Museum is the copy presented to the Lord Privy Seal, with a
+holograph Latin letter prefixed, in which hardly any form of adulation is
+spared, so far as Cromwell's virtues, magnanimity, culture, and other
+cognate qualities are concerned, and nothing is said about him being
+secondary to royalty in these matters, as in the printed inscription is
+expressed. But much, after all, is to be forgiven to a man of rank who in
+those days chose to consume his time, as Elyot did, in the pursuit of
+letters.
+
+The plan of the work is familiar enough, first, through the later
+impressions, which are among the commonest volumes in Early English
+literature; and, secondly, from the fact that the principle on which it is
+constructed is similar to that of Ainsworth and others. The main
+difference seems to be where certain Latin words, by an intelligible
+survival, continued in Elyot's day to bear a meaning which subsequently
+grew obsolete; as, for instance, in the case of _Aviarium_, "a thycke
+wodde without waye," although he at the same time adds the ordinary
+acceptation.
+
+Still the credit remains with Elyot, of course, of having supplied a model
+for many succeeding lexicographers and phraseologists; and if we turn, for
+example, to the _Dictionary for Children_, by John Withals, 1553, or the
+_Manipulus Vocabulorum_ of Levins, 1571, we see that the general plan is
+similar. Elyot, in fact, got rid of the tiresome and perplexing
+arrangement which renders the books of reference and instruction prior to
+his day, like the _Promptorius_ and the _Eclaircissement de la langue
+Françoise_, so uninviting to consult.
+
+Save in respect to development and extension, there is no substantial
+difference, in fact, between the dictionaries of Elyot and Littleton or of
+Littleton and Ainsworth. The general plan is the same, whereas in some of
+the early lexicons the arrangement is so obscure and defective as to
+render them comparatively useless for practical purposes. The old _Ortus
+Vocabulorum_, one of these archaic works of reference, had been largely
+formed out of the _Cornucopia_ of Perottus, and Cooper owed very
+considerable obligations to the Lexicon of Stephanus, which he was
+censured by a critic of his day for not properly acknowledging.
+
+The _Short Dictionary for Children_ by Withals, already specified,
+supplied the obvious need for a more portable work than either Elyot or
+Cooper. It met with a cordial response from the constituency to which it
+appealed, and was reprinted, with large additions and improvements, by
+successive editors down to the time of Charles I.
+
+Littleton, who brought out his Dictionary in 1678, was Rector of Chelsea.
+He includes the barbarous Latin for the first time.
+
+Robert Ainsworth, whose famous Latin Dictionary belongs to the reign of
+George II., having been first printed in 1736, planned his enterprise on a
+sensible and enduring basis, and earned for himself the reputation of a
+classic and a type. He had of course the advantage of all the improvements
+of Elyot, Cooper, and Littleton, besides the numerous other minor
+lexicographers, of whom he supplies an interesting chronological account
+in his preface; but his substantial quarto volume, "designed for the use
+of the British _Nations_," was a clear advance on its precursors. He gives
+not only the Latin-English and English-Latin appellatives, the Christian
+names of men and women, the proper names of places, the ancient Latin
+names of places, and the more modern names, but the Roman calendar, the
+Roman coins, weights and measures, and ancient law-terms. Of the preceding
+workers in the same field, whom he commemorates, he may very well have
+known some personally. The catalogue, enriched with biographical
+particulars, begins with the _Promptuarium Parvulorum_, and closes with
+Elisha Coles, embracing a period of nearly two centuries.
+
+
+III. The Latin Lexicon was an indispensable _vade-mecum_ where boys had to
+translate the classics of that language into English; and the taste for
+some of the Roman writers, including Ovid, so far from declining, appears
+in the time of Elizabeth to have spread in schools. The authors at whom
+the criticism is more particularly aimed may be guessed in the absence of
+the names; but the clerical party about 1580, being of opinion that these
+ancient productions were injurious to morality, availed themselves of a
+most singularly fortunate opportunity for substituting a work which should
+be to Latin versification what Lily's Grammar was to English accidence--a
+standard and a model.
+
+A year or two prior to the discovery of this pernicious influence,
+Christopher Ocland had printed a metrical narrative in doggerel metre of
+the martial achievements of the English people from the time of the
+Plantagenets down to that of Elizabeth, whom he places before Zenobia; and
+this gentleman or his friends had sufficient influence to procure, through
+the Lords Commissioners in Causes Ecclesiastical, letters-patent
+prescribing the use of his _Anglorum Prælia_ in all grammar-schools in
+England and Wales in lieu of the books of less moral authors. The
+privilege, dated May 7, 1582, was accorded in consideration not only of
+the freedom of Ocland's volume from profligacy, but of "the quality of the
+verse,"--an encomium quite seriously intended, in whatever degree it may
+strike us as ironical.
+
+This literary gem, which was to supersede Virgil, Ovid, Homer, and the
+rest of the heathens, was dedicated to Zenobia by the worthy writer in
+some lines which are a fair sample of the "quality of the verse." They
+begin:--
+
+  "Regia Nympha, soli [_sic_] moderatrix alma Britanni,
+     Quæ pace et vera religione nites,
+   Quæ vitæ meritis, morum & candore coruscans,
+     Zenobiam vincis, siqua vel ante fuit."
+
+Such was the Oclandian Muse which the Lords Commissioners in Causes
+Ecclesiastical accounted preferable to the compositions which were the
+glory of their own and the delight of every succeeding age!
+
+Despite the lofty patronage and auspicious circumstances under which the
+_Anglorum Prælia_ was launched on its proud career, the imbecility of the
+whole idea appears to have been promptly appreciated; and the "lascivious
+poets," whom it was to have effaced, continued, and to this day continue,
+"to corrupt the youth."
+
+
+
+
+XVI.
+
+    Ben Jonson and Shirley writers of Grammars--Some account of the
+    former--Thomas Hayne's Latin Grammar--A curious anecdote about it.
+
+
+I. The _English Grammar_ inserted among Ben Jonson's works in 1640, and
+also to be found in the modern editions, is not the production originally
+compiled by that eminent writer, but a series of notes and rough material
+collected perhaps for a new undertaking after the destruction of Jonson's
+books and MSS. by an accidental fire. It appears that the author had taken
+considerable trouble to collect together the literature of this class
+already existing in our own and other languages, with a view to comparison
+and improvement, and he was probably assisted by friends, as Howell speaks
+so early as 1620 of having borrowed for him Davis's Welsh Grammar, "to add
+to those many which he already had." Sir Francis Kinaston cites "his most
+learned and celebrated friend, Master Ben Jonson," as the possessor of a
+very ancient grammar written in the Saxon tongue and character, by way of
+illustrating what it could scarcely illustrate--the state of our language
+in the time of Chaucer. This book doubtless perished with the rest.
+
+The work in its present state is divided into chapters: _Of Grammar and
+the Parts_; _Of Letters and their Powers_; _Of the Vowels_; _Of the
+Consonants_, and so forth. In the third chapter, under Y, the writer
+remarks:--"Y is mere vowelish in our tongue, and hath only the power of an
+_i_, even where it obtains the seat of a consonant, as in _young_,
+_younker_, which the Dutch, whose primitive it is, write _junk_, _junker_.
+And so might we write _iouth_, _ies_, _ioke_...."
+
+"C is a letter," he says, "which our forefathers might very well have
+spared in our tongue; but since it hath obtained place both in our writing
+and language, we are not now to quarrel with _orthography_ or _custom_."
+Nor is _c_ the only member of the alphabet with which Jonson considers
+that we might have advantageously dispensed; for in a subsequent page he
+declares that "_q_ is a letter we might very well have spared in our
+_alphabet_, if we would but use the serviceable _k_ as he should be, and
+restore him to the right of reputation he had with our forefathers. For
+the English Saxon knew not this halting _q_, with her waiting woman _u_
+after her, but exprest
+
+  _quail_,}      {_kuail_,
+  _quest_,}  by  {_kuest_,
+  _quick_,}      {_kuick_,
+  _quill_,}      {_kuill_."
+
+In other words, Jonson, discarding _c_ and _q_, was with those who
+nowadays ask us to say _Kikero_, _Kelt_, _Kæsar_; and he seems also to be
+an advocate for such terminations as _st_ or _pt_ for _ed_ in _exprest_,
+_confest_, _profest_, _stopt_, _dropt_, _cropt_, wherein he has a follower
+in Mr. Furnivall.
+
+His demonstration of the manner in which the several letters ought to be
+sounded as pronounced is occasionally very amusing. "T," he informs the
+reader, "is sounded with the tongue striking the upper teeth." "P breaketh
+softly through the lips." "N ringeth somewhat more in the lips and nose."
+But of H he remarks: "Whether it be a letter or no, hath been much
+examined by the ancients, and by some of the Greek party too much
+condemned, and thrown out of the alphabet."
+
+This last piece of criticism should have its consoling effect on those
+among the moderns who also repudiate it, and may not be aware that they
+have the Greek party in Jonson's day on their side, only that the Greek
+party did not offer the deposed letter any substituted position.
+
+Jonson's _Grammar_, as we have it, is a book for scholars and
+philologists, however, rather than for the elementary stage of education.
+The method is discursive and the style obscure; and it is chiefly prizable
+as an evidence of the versatility, the extensive reading, and the
+perseverance of the author. He quotes among his examples Sir Thomas More,
+Gower, Lidgate, Fox's _Martyrs_, Harding's _Chronicle_, Chaucer, and Sir
+John Cheke.
+
+It is curious enough that Jonson's notion as to the superfluities of our
+alphabet is supported to some extent by the orthography sanctioned by M.
+Vimont in his _Relation de la Nouvelle France_, 1641, where he puts
+_Kebeck_ for _Quebec_; but the change must necessarily influence the
+pronunciation.
+
+Neither of these writers was avowedly an advocate of Phonography; but the
+adoption of that principle of spelling would necessarily involve the
+dispensation with certain letters which at present form part of the
+English A. B. C.
+
+In the dedication to Lord Herbert of his little book, JAMES SHIRLEY refers
+to the abundance of such treatises at that time before the public, "by
+which some," he says, "would prophetically imply the decay of learning, as
+if the root and foundation of art stood in need of warmth and reparation."
+But he furnishes no information respecting himself or the motives which
+led him to write the volume, although it is readily inferable that he did
+so to augment the slender income which he derived, after the closing of
+the theatres, from school-work in Whitefriars. Some of the illustrations
+are in such couplets as the subjoined:--
+
+  "In _di_, _do_, _dum_, the Gerunds chime and close,
+  _Um_, the first Supine, _u_ the latter shews."
+
+As late as 1726, Jenkin Thomas Phillipps reprinted Shirley's Grammar with
+additions. On the title-page of this edition it is said to be "for the
+use of Prince William."
+
+In 1640 Thomas Hayne published his _Grammatices Latinæ Compendium_. A copy
+before me was presented by the author to Charles II. when a boy, and has
+an autograph inscription on the blank page before the title to the young
+Prince. It also passed through the hands of his brother, James Duke of
+York, who has written _James Duke of Yorke_ in a childish hand on the
+fly-leaf. During the troubles it seems to have passed out of their hands,
+and was bought at Oxford on the 4th October 1647 by a later owner, who
+records the fact at the top of another page. It was subsequently at Stowe,
+and the fine old blue morocco binding betrays no sign of a schoolboy's
+thumbs.
+
+Hayne supplies a highly interesting survey of the progress and development
+of this branch of literature and learning in former days, and some of the
+later attempts made with a view to improve the method, and explains his
+own plan, which introduces the English and Latin in parallel columns, and
+systematises and tabulates the cases and declensions in a more lucid
+manner than the prior experiments. If we set it side by side with
+Whittinton's eleven divisions, we see that it is a great advance.
+
+From the commencement of the seventeenth century an increasing volume of
+literature calculated to assist the diffusion of useful and improving
+knowledge supplemented the books expressly designed for schools. These
+publications, belonging to nearly every department of science and inquiry,
+were often reproduced with the same steady regularity as the educational
+works themselves; and nothing more triumphantly establishes the unceasing
+progress of discovery and reform than the fact that the standard manuals
+of one century become the waste paper of the next.
+
+As one arrests a stray copy of Heylin's _Cosmography_, Godwin's _Roman
+Antiquities_, edited for the use of Abingdon School, Provost Rous's _Attic
+Archæology_, Prideaux's _Introduction to the Reading of Histories_, or any
+other book of the same stamp, on its passage from an old collection to the
+mill, a not unlikely reflection to arise is that, considering their
+straitened opportunities and the force of clerical influence, the culture
+and light of our ancestors were in fair relative proportion to our own.
+
+The literary thought and bias of the age were naturally affected by these
+shallow and meagre repertories of information, which were as far removed
+in scholarship from the _Roman Antiquities_ of Adams and the _Dictionary_
+of Lemprière as Adams and Lemprière are removed from Dr. Smith's series.
+
+
+
+
+XVII.
+
+    Limited acquaintance with the Greek language in England--Erasmus first
+    learns, and then teaches, Greek at Cambridge--Notices of a few
+    Philhellenists--Study of the language at Rhodes by Lily--Languid
+    interest in it among us--Disputes at Cambridge as to the
+    pronunciation--Remarks on this subject--The tract by John Kay--Few
+    books in the Greek character printed in England.
+
+
+I. The few scattered notices, which offer themselves in Warton and other
+authorities, of Englishmen of very remote days who entered on the study of
+the Greek tongue, tend mainly to illustrate the fact, how sparingly and
+imperfectly that noble and precious language was cultivated down to the
+age of Elizabeth; and of course this circumstance involves the almost
+complete neglect of it in our universities and academies. Warton himself
+cites a case in which a scholar travelled from Malmesbury to Canterbury in
+order to improve a rudimentary acquaintance with Greek which he had
+gained through a local monastic seminary.
+
+The first man who helped at all largely and sensibly to render Greek a
+part of the educational system was Lily the grammarian, who spent some
+years of his life at Rhodes, and introduced a study of the language into
+the routine of St. Paul's, whence it found its way by degrees to the other
+great foundations in London and in the provinces.
+
+The biographer of Colet has something to say on this subject:--
+
+"Such was the infelicity of those times, that the Greek tongue was not
+taught in any of our grammar-schools; nor was there thought to be any
+great need of it in the two Universities by the generality of scholars. It
+is worth notice that [John] Standish, who was a bitter enemy to Erasmus,
+in his declamation against him styles him _Græculus iste_; which was a
+long time after the phrase for an heretic."
+
+"But," he adds, "Dr. John Fisher ... was of another mind, and very
+sensible of this imperfection, which made him desirous to learn Greek in
+his declining years."
+
+The Bishop, however, who through Erasmus was recommended to William
+Latymer, one of the foremost Philhellenists of the day, could not persuade
+that scholar to enter on the task, as he considered the prelate too old to
+acquire the language; and Knight tells us that, in order to escape from
+the application, he advised Fisher to send for a professor out of Italy.
+
+Englishmen, even at a later period than this, occasionally went to
+Florence or elsewhere to learn Greek; but Erasmus made himself, with the
+assistance of Linacre, tolerably proficient in it, on the contrary, during
+his first visit to England in the time of Henry the Seventh (1497-8), and
+was sufficiently versed, at all events in the rudiments, to give lessons
+to others while he remained at Cambridge. Doubtless he did so in aid of
+his expenses.
+
+"In Cambridge," observes Knight, "Erasmus was the first who taught the
+Greek grammar. And so very low was the state of learning in that
+University, that (as he tells a friend) about the year 1485, the beginning
+of Henry the Seventh's reign, there was nothing taught in that public
+seminary besides Alexander's _Parva Logicalia_ (as they called them), the
+old axioms of Aristotle, and the questions of John Scotus."
+
+Erasmus himself was for some time Greek Reader at Cambridge, and was
+contemporary there with Richard Croke, of King's College, who did valuable
+service in promoting the cause of classical learning at that University,
+and published several tracts relating to the Greek literature and tongue,
+including _Introductiones ad Linguam Græcam_ and _Elementa Grammaticæ
+Græcæ_--the earliest attempts to place before students in a handy form the
+alphabet of the subject.
+
+At Oxford it was an Italian, Cornelius Vitellius, who became the first
+Greek professor, and William Grocyne, who with Latymer and Linacre was the
+earliest Greek scholar in England, was among his pupils.
+
+It is to be suspected that, while a man of genius like Erasmus could
+scarcely have failed to make something of whatever he seriously undertook,
+his conversance with Greek was always comparatively superficial, and it is
+merely an additional piece of evidence how little the language was
+cultivated at Cambridge at that epoch, that he was enabled to earn money
+as a teacher of it.
+
+It was not apparently till 1524 that Greek type was introduced into our
+printing-offices. Linacre's book _De Emendata Structura Latini Sermonis_,
+published in that year, is generally received as containing the first
+specimen found in any production of the English press. The Greek alphabet
+occurs in the Primer of 1548.
+
+
+II. Florence, Rome, Padua, and Rhodes were four great centres whither
+foreigners were then accustomed to resort for the study and mastery of
+Greek. In the _Life of Dean Colet_ it is shown how he travelled in Italy,
+and met with two of his countrymen at Florence, Grocyn and Linacre, and
+with a third at Rome, Lily, afterwards the famous grammarian, who, after
+learning Greek at Rhodes, had proceeded to Rome to render himself equally
+adept in Latin, so that, when he finally settled in London, he had served
+a laborious apprenticeship and taken unusual pains to become an instructor
+of others.
+
+Colet himself, it is to be noted, displayed in earlier life a bent
+towards theology and the Fathers, though he had scanty sympathy with the
+survivals whom he found around him, both at home and abroad, of the
+monastic schoolmen and expounders of the old divinity.
+
+"He had observed these schoolmen," says his biographer indeed, "to be a
+heavy set of formal fellows, that might pretend to anything rather than to
+wit and sense, for to argue so elaborately about the opinions and the very
+words of other men: to snarl in perpetual objections, and to distinguish
+and divide into a thousand niceties: this was rather the work of a poor
+and barren invention than anything else."
+
+Knight preserves a rather diverting anecdote of a preacher who spoke in
+his sermon before Henry VIII. against the Greek tongue, and of a
+conference which Henry caused to be arranged after the discourse, at which
+in his presence the divine and More should take opposite sides, the former
+attacking, and the latter vindicating, the language. More did his part,
+but the other fell down on his knees and begged the King's pardon,
+alleging that what he did was by the impulse of the Spirit. "Not the
+spirit of Christ," says the King to him, "but the spirit of infatuation."
+His majesty then asked him whether he had read anything of Erasmus, whom
+he assailed from the pulpit. He said "No." "Why then," says the King, "you
+are a very foolish fellow to censure what you never read." "I have read,"
+says he, "something they call _Moria_." "Yes," says Richard Pace, "may it
+please your highness, such a subject is fit for such a reader."
+
+The end of it was that the preacher declared himself on reflection more
+reconciled to the Greek, because it was derived from the Hebrew, and that
+Henry dispensed with his further attendance upon the Court.
+
+The feeling and taste for Greek culture which Lily, Erasmus, and others
+had introduced and encouraged, were promoted by the exertions of Sir John
+Cheke and Sir Thomas Smith at Cambridge, and by Dr. Kay or Caius; and a
+controversy, almost amounting to a quarrel, which Cheke had with Bishop
+Gardiner on Greek pronunciation, stimulated the movement by attracting
+public attention to the matter, and bringing into notice many Greek
+authors whose works had not hitherto been read.
+
+The literary contest between Cheke and Gardiner was printed abroad in
+1555, and only eleven years later a paraphrase of the _Phoenissæ_ of
+Euripides by George Gascoigne and Francis Kinwelmersh was performed at
+Gray's Inn.
+
+
+III. The tract published by the learned John Kay in 1574 on the
+pronunciation of Greek and Latin is rather pertinent to the present
+movement for varying the old fashion in this respect. Kay instances the
+cases of substituting _olli_ for _illi_, _queis_ for _quibus_, _mareito_
+for _marito_, _maxumè_ for _maximè_; and in Greek words, the ancients,
+says he, certainly said _Achilles_, _Tydes_, _Theses_, and _Ulisses_, not,
+as people sometimes now do, _Achillews_, _Tudews_, _Thesews_, and
+_Ulussews_. The author likewise refers to the employment of the aspirate
+in orthography, as in _hydropisis_, _thermæ_, _Bathonia_, and _Hybernia_,
+which used to be read _ydropisis_, _termæ_, _Batonia_, and _Ivernia_. He
+was clearly no advocate for the latter-day mode in England of hardening
+the _g_ and the _c_ as in _Regina_ and _Cicero_.
+
+But the fact is that, where there are no positive _data_ for fixing the
+standard or laying down any general principle, there can never be an end
+of the conflicting views and theories on this subject, and the best of
+them amount to little more than guess-work.
+
+The modes of pronouncing both the Greek and Latin languages have always
+probably varied, as they do yet, in different countries; and the Scots
+adhere to the Continental fashion as regards, at all events, the latter.
+
+Experience and practical observation seem to shew that every locality has
+a tendency to adapt its rules for sounding the dead tongues to those in
+force for sounding its current vocabulary; as a Roumanian lad, for
+instance, in learning Latin, will instinctively follow his native
+associations in giving utterance to diphthongs, vowels, and compound
+words. The Greek language, in respect to this point of view, occupies an
+anomalous position, because it enjoys a partial survivorship in the
+Neo-Hellenic dialect; and it has been natural to seek in the method
+employed by their modern representatives and descendants a key to that
+employed by the inhabitants of ancient Hellas in pronouncing words and
+particles, and, in short, to the grammatical laws by which their speech
+was regulated.
+
+It appears, however, that philologists have been disappointed in the
+results of this test, as the differences between the two idioms are often
+so wide and material. Yet, nevertheless, a Greek of the nineteenth century
+must be allowed to be a rather important witness in taking evidence on
+such a question, as the whole strength of received tradition and a _primâ
+facie_ argument are on his side; and when we find that he gives to the
+long E or [Greek: êta] the force of A, and to the diphthong [Greek: oi]
+that of E, we grow somewhat sceptical as to our right to impose on those
+particles a different function, especially seeing that the Ionic dialect
+and the metrical arrangement of the _Iliad_ ostensibly support this
+interchange of phonetic values. I need scarcely advert to the favourite
+theory that, so far as the Greek long E is concerned, it had its source in
+the vocal intonation of the sheep, which is, after all, far from an
+invariable standard.
+
+The Englishman, in dealing with such themes as foreign spelling and
+pronunciation, treads upon eggs, so to speak, as he lives within the
+knowledge of the whole world in a glass house of his own.
+
+
+IV. But scarcely any books in the Greek character were printed in England
+until Edward Grant, head-master of Westminster School, brought out his
+_Græcæ Linguæ Spicilegium_, or Greek Delectus, in 1575. It saw only a
+single edition, and is still a common book, not having been apparently
+successful; and the next attempt of the kind did not even appeal to the
+English student, though the work of a native of North Britain; for
+Alexander Scot published his _Universa Grammatica Græca_ at Lyons in a
+shape calculated to invite a yet more limited circulation than the essay
+of Grant.
+
+Perhaps one of the earliest English publications relative to the study of
+Greek poetry was the _Progymnasma Scholasticum_ of John Stockwood,
+published in 1596. Stockwood had been master of Tonbridge School, a
+foundation established by the Skinners' Company, and while he was there
+brought out one or two professional works. This was avowedly taken from
+the _Anthology_ of Stephanus, and presents a Greek-Latin interlinear text.
+
+Again, in 1631, William Burton, the Leicestershire historian, and a
+schoolmaster by profession, delivered at Gloucester Hall, Oxford, an
+oration on the origin and progress of Greek, which many years later, when
+he had charge of the school at Kingston-on-Thames, was edited by Gerard
+Langbaine. It was a scholarly thesis, and of no educational significance,
+except that it exhibited the survival of some languid interest in the
+topic at the University.
+
+Very few Greek authors found early translators here beyond the selections
+prepared for schools; but it is remarkable that the example in this way
+was set by a citizen of London, and a member of the Goldsmiths' Company,
+Thomas Niccols, who in 1550, at the instance of Sir John Cheke, undertook
+to put into English the History of Thucydides. This was almost a century
+before the version by Hobbes of Malmesbury.
+
+The partial translation of the _Iliad_ by Arthur Hall of Grantham, 1581,
+was taken from the French. But Chapman accomplished the feat of rendering
+the whole of Homer, as well as the _Georgics_ of Hesiod and the Neo-Greek
+_Hero and Leander_. At a later date, Thomas Grantham, a schoolmaster in
+Lothbury, who seems to have been in a state of perpetual warfare with his
+critics as to the merits of his fashion of teaching, brought out at his
+own expense, and possibly for the use of his own pupils, the first,
+second, and third books of the _Iliad_.
+
+The grand work of Herodotus was approached in 1584 by an anonymous writer,
+who completed only _Clio_ and _Euterpe_.
+
+But these intermittent and isolated cases shew how languid the feeling for
+Hellenic literature and history long remained in England; nor, when we
+regard the unsatisfactory character of the translations from the Greek,
+with rare exceptions, down to the present day, is it hard to see that the
+want was at least as largely due to incapacity on the part of scholars as
+to indifference on that of the public.
+
+Many of the schools employed a small elementary selection from the Greek
+writers, of which a fifth edition was printed in 1771.
+
+When Charles Lamb was at the Blue Coat School (1782-9), the Greek authors
+read there appear to have been Lucian and Xenophon, the former in a
+Selection from the _Dialogues_. The present writer, who was at Merchant
+Taylors' School from 1842 to 1850, used Xenophon, Homer, Euripides,
+Sophocles, and some volume of _Analecta_. When the school was founded in
+1561, it was difficult to find a boy to read Greek; but in the following
+century it enters rather prominently into the prospectus on
+Examination-day.
+
+All the great seminaries differ in their lists; the choice depends on the
+personal taste of the masters from time to time; and there is a certain
+virtue in traditional names.
+
+But the truth is that in England, after all, although this language has
+continued to be taught in all schools of any standing or pretension, the
+critical study and genuine appreciation of it have always been confined to
+a narrow circle of scholars; and nowadays there is a growing tendency to
+prefer the living languages, as they are called, to the dead.
+
+
+
+
+XVIII.
+
+    Ancient French school-books for English learners--Their historical and
+    philological interest--Succession of writers and teachers--Hollyband,
+    Florio, Delamothe, and others--Sketches of their work--Their imperfect
+    acquaintance with our language--Other publications of an educational
+    cast.
+
+
+I. Turning to the French language, there is a very singular relic of early
+times in the shape of an Anglo-Gallic Vocabulary of the end of the
+fifteenth century, in which the spelling of both languages is strikingly
+archaic:--
+
+    "Here is a good boke to lerne to speke french.
+     Vecy ung bon lievre a apprendre parler fraunchoys.
+     In the name of the fader of the sonne.
+     En nom du pere et du fils.
+     And of the holy goost I will begynne.
+     Et du saint esprit ie veuel comenchier.
+     To lerne to speke frenche.
+     A apprendre a parler franchoys."
+
+After this exordium follow the numbers, the names of precious stones,
+articles of merchandise, fruits, wines, &c. _Wine of rochell_ is rendered
+_vin de rosele_. What we know as _Beaune_ is called _byane_ in French and
+_beaune_ in English. On the fourth page, among "Other maner of speche in
+frenche," occur:--
+
+    "Sir god giue you good day.
+     Sire dieu vous doint bon iour.
+     Sir god giue you good euyn.
+     Sire dieu vous doint bon vespere.
+     Holde sir here it is.
+     Tenez sire le veez ey."
+
+The _z_ in _tenez_ seems to have been specially cut, for it is of a
+different font or case, and, curiously enough, in the next sentence it is
+wrongly inserted in _ditez_ (for _dites_). The question is asked how much
+one man owes another, and the reply is _ten shillings_, for which the
+French equivalent is taken to be _dix soulz_. But there were no shillings
+in England at that time; perhaps the writer was thinking of the skilling,
+with which our coin has no more than a nominal affinity.
+
+The _Eclaircissement de la langue Françoise_, by John Palsgrave, 1530, and
+the _Introductory to learn, pronounce, and speak the French tongue_, by
+Giles Du Wes or Dewes, written some years later for the use of the
+Princess Mary in the same way as Linacre's _Latin Grammar_ had been, are
+sufficiently familiar from their reproduction in modern times under the
+auspices of the French Government. Dewes was not improbably related to a
+person of the same name who acted as preceptor to the son of Cromwell,
+Earl of Essex. Both he and Palsgrave were professional teachers; but
+Palsgrave was a Londoner, who had completed his studies in the Parisian
+Gymnasium; and he at all events was a Latin, no less than a French
+scholar. In the dedication of his English version of the _Comedy of
+Acolastus_ to Henry VIII. in 1540, he speaks at some length, and in
+laudatory terms, of the official Primer issued in that year, and he also
+conveys to us the notion of being then advanced in life.
+
+Nearly, if not quite, contemporary with him and Dewes was Pierre du
+Ploiche, who in the time of Henry published a very curious little volume
+of more general scope, called _A Treatise in English and French right
+necessary and profitable for all young children_. Du Ploiche, when this
+work appeared, was residing in Trinity Lane, at the sign of the Rose. He
+gives us in parallel columns, the English on the left hand, and the French
+equivalent on the right, the _Catechism_, the _Litany and Suffrages_, and
+a series of _Prayers_. These occupy three sections; the fourth, fifth, and
+sixth sections are devoted to secular and familiar topics: _For to speake
+at the table_, _for to aske the way_, and _for to bie and sell_; and the
+concluding portion embraces the A. B. C. and Grammar.
+
+The English is pretty much on a par with that found in educational
+treatises produced by foreigners, and the French itself is decidedly of an
+archaic cast, though, doubtless, such as was generally recognised and
+understood in the sixteenth century. I shall pass over the religious
+divisions, and transcribe a few specimens from the three groups of
+dialogue on social or personal subjects.
+
+The third chapter, where the scene at a meal is depicted, affords, of
+course, some interesting suggestions and illustrations, yet little that is
+very new, except that we seem to get a glimpse of the practice, borrowed
+from monastic life, of some one reading aloud while the rest were at their
+repast. For one says: "Reade Maynerd, _Lisez Maynart_," to which the other
+rejoins: "Where shall I reade?" and the first answers: "There where your
+fellow lefte yesterday," so that it was apparently the custom to take
+turns. We perceive, too, that the dinner was both ushered in and wound up
+with very elaborate graces. In this dialogue, as well as in the next about
+asking the way, there is mention of almost every description of utensil,
+but no reference to the fork, which was not yet in general use.
+
+There is a delicate refinement of phraseology here and there, as where
+"You ly" is rendered "Vous espargnez la verité;" and Du Ploiche does not
+fail to advertise himself and his address, for when one of the
+interlocutors demands: "Where go you to schole?" the other is made to
+reply: "In trinytie lane at the signe of the Rose."
+
+The annexed extract from the same chapter may assist in fixing the date of
+the publication to 1544:--
+
+  "And you sir, from whence          "_Et vous seigneur, d'ou venez
+      com you?                            vous?_
+
+   I come from Bulloigne.             _Ie viens de Boulongne._
+
+   From Englande, from Germany.       _D'Engleterre, d'Allemaigne._
+
+   What newes?                        _Quelle nouuelles?_
+
+   I know none but good.              _Ie ne sçay rien que bien._
+
+   I harde say                        _i'ay ouy dire_
+
+   That the Englishe men              _que les anglois_
+
+   haue kylled many frenche men.      _ont occis beaucoup de François._
+
+   And where?                         _Et ou?_
+
+   Before Bulloigne.                  _Deuant Boulongne._
+
+   When came the newes?               _Quant vinrent tez nouuelle?_
+
+   This morninge by a post."          _A ce matin par vng poste._"
+
+The portion which yields this matter comprises all the incidents of a long
+journey, the arrival at the inn, the call for refreshment, the baiting and
+putting up of the horse, the retirement to rest, and the breakfast before
+departure in the morning.
+
+The sixth section, on buying and selling, exhibits no remarkable examples,
+or rather nothing that I can, with so large a choice, afford to cite, and
+the grammatical part follows the usual lines. The present treatise came
+to a new edition in 1578, but it does not seem to have been very
+successful.
+
+In point of fact, the taste and demand for such a class of hand-books or
+primers had not fully set in. With the reign of Elizabeth the habit of
+foreign travel and the consequent value of a conversance with languages,
+especially French and Italian, imparted the first marked stimulus and
+development to this class of literary enterprise.
+
+
+II. Claude Desainliens, who transformed himself into _Claudius Holy-Band_
+or _Hollyband_, and who seems in his earlier days to have had quarters
+over or adjoining the sign of the Lucrece in St. Paul's Churchyard, became
+a voluminous producer of the dictionaries, grammars, and phrase-books so
+popular in early times, and included in his range the Italian as well as
+the French series. Long after his death his works continued to be in
+demand, and were edited with improvements by others. Desainliens began, so
+far as I know, with his _French Littleton_ in 1566, and his French
+Dictionary was not printed till 1593. In 1581 he had moved from the
+Lucrece to the Golden Ball, just by.
+
+Perhaps of all his multifarious performances his _French_ and _Italian
+Schoolmasters_ were the two which met with the greatest favour; and the
+longer career of the former may perhaps be ascribed to the more general
+cultivation of the French language in England. The _Italian Schoolmaster_
+originally appeared in 1575 as an annex to a version of the story of
+_Arnalte and Lucenda_; but in the subsequent impressions of 1597 and 1608
+the philological portion occupies the place of honour, and the story is
+made to follow. In the former the rules for pronunciation and such matter
+as fell within his knowledge as an Italian may be passed as representing
+what was the correct practice and view at the period; it is with the
+English illustrations and equivalents that one is apt to be surprised and
+amused; and one, moreover, figures the occasional bewilderment even of an
+English pupil at the strange unidiomatic forms which Desainliens has
+adopted. In other words, instead of translating English into Italian, he
+has translated Italian into broken English; as, for instance, where in a
+dialogue a man is inquiring the way to London, we find at the conclusion
+such pure _Italicisms_ as _Have me recommended_: _I am yours_: _Remaine
+with God_. Then, again, terms are misapplied, of course, as thus: "Tell me
+deere fellowe, is it yet farre to the citie?" And when he has entered his
+inn, he calls to the host: "Bring me for to wash my hands and face." At
+the same time the pages of this and similar volumes abound with fruitful
+illustrations of all kinds, which we should have been very sorry indeed to
+lose; and it is to be recollected that the English gloss was secondary,
+and that the bizarre style and texture of this class of book arose from
+the aim at enabling the learner to be prepared for all sorts of occasions
+and every variety of conversational topic. The author consequently leads
+him through the different occupations and incidents of life, and imagines
+successive interviews and dialogues with such persons as he would be
+likely to encounter. In the parley with a farrier, it comes out that the
+charge for shoeing a horse was fivepence a foot; and in the section _Per
+maritarsi = To be married_, Hollyband starts by rendering _O bella
+giovane_ "Ho fair maiden." He urges her to be prompt in her decision by
+citing the proverb, "Ladie, whilest the iron is hote, it must be wrought."
+
+Much of the matter introduced by Desainliens is highly curious and even
+important. I shall transcribe a section or two, as they are brief, for the
+sake of the English suggestions:--
+
+  "_To sing and daunce._
+
+  "O fellowes, I wish that wee shoulde sing a song, and I will take the
+        lute.
+  Let vs sing and daunce, when you will.
+  Mystres, will it please you to daunce a galliard with me? pray you
+        therefore.
+  I cannot daunce after the Italian fashion.
+  We shall daunce after the high Dutch.
+  Go to, play a galliard vpon the violl.
+  I would rather vpon the virginals....
+
+  _Of the Booke binder._
+
+  Shew me an Italian, and English bookes and of the best print.
+  I have none bound at this present.
+  Bind me this with silke and claspes....
+  Reach me royall paper to write.
+  Neede you any ynke and bombash?
+  No, but wast paper, & of that which wee call drinking paper....
+
+  _Of the Shoemaker._
+
+  I would you shoulde make mee a paire of bootes, a ierkin, and a paire of
+        shoes, pantofles, mules, and buskins.
+  We will make the sir, & of good leather.
+  See this faire shooing.
+  Put on those pompes...."
+
+After all, possibly, such publications as that before me are chiefly
+valuable for a purpose for which they were not designed--for the bounteous
+light which they shed on our old English customs and notions; and I do not
+think that they have been hitherto fully brought into employment. It is
+obviously impossible for me, however, in the present case to remedy this
+shortcoming, more particularly as the quotations suffer by curtailment or
+paraphrase.
+
+The _Arnalte and Lucenda_ takes up the major part of the volume, and must
+be said to be freer from grammatical inaccuracies than that division of
+the book devoted to grammar. Nor could a man live in London without
+catching some of the colloquialisms current among its residents. In his
+_Italian Phrases_ we meet on the English side of the page with: "Hee
+looketh rather like a cutter or fencer then," and "He goeth accompanied
+with Roisters and cutters."
+
+The French Dictionary of Desainliens was entirely superseded by that of
+Randle Cotgrave in 1611. The latter spared no pains to make his book a
+really valuable performance; he invited help from others, and modelled his
+labours on a fairly intelligible plan, and it remains to this day in the
+enlarged edition by Howell a standard and indispensable work of reference.
+It was the only one available for the school-boy and student for a
+considerable length of time.
+
+
+III. Delamothe and Erondelle were contemporary with Desainliens, and may
+have been equally eminent and successful as teachers; but they did not
+display the same degree of literary activity. The former indeed produced
+nothing but a _French Alphabet_ (1595). Pierre Erondelle was a native of
+Normandy; and besides new and improved editions of his predecessor
+Desainliens, he brought out in 1605 a quaint book of lessons for the
+acquisition of French, which he called _The French Garden for English
+Ladies and Gentlemen to walk in; Or A Summer day's Labour_. The volume
+mainly consists of thirteen dialogues in French and English, embracing the
+various occupations of the day, from the first rising in the morning till
+bedtime. Some of the conversations are remarkable for their archaic
+_naiveté_ so far as English ideas of decorum in speech are concerned; but
+they are nothing more than the plainness of phrase which was once
+recognised both here and on the Continent, and the banishment of which
+has, at all events, not of itself added to our morality. Sterne, in his
+_Sentimental Journey_, signalises as a French trait the incident of the
+lady of quality with whom he drove in her carriage; but he must have been
+aware that the tone in the same circles at home was equally pronounced;
+and editors of the earlier Georgian literature have to exercise a pruning
+hand in dealing with MSS. to be presented now-a-days to public view.
+
+Another of these foreign professors was Jacques Bellot, who published
+several educational works for the instruction of the English in the French
+grammar and language. Among these _Le Jardin de Vertu et Bonnes Moeurs_,
+1581, where the English and French are given, as usual, in parallel
+columns, is the most remarkable. There is a Table of _Errata_ for both
+languages; but that for the English might, from a native point of view, be
+indefinitely extended, as Bellot proves himself as incapable of
+comprehending our idiom as the rest of his countrymen. He renders "La
+memoire du prodigue est nulle" by "Of the prodigall ther is no memory,"
+and "La seulle vertu est la vraye noblesse" by "The only vertue, is the
+true nobilitie."
+
+The writer trips, as may be conjectured, just in those nice points in
+which even an Englishman is not always at home.
+
+New and improved systems were continually submitted to the public, or
+rather, in the language of those days, to the Nobility and Gentry. In
+1634, the Grammar of Charles Maupas of Blois, an esteemed and experienced
+teacher, who during a career of thirty years numbered among his pupils
+many of the young men of family in Holland as well as in England, was
+adapted by William Aufield for the use of his countrymen. The original is
+still regarded as a standard work, though discarded by the schools. Both
+the French and English are of the antique cast, of course, and many of
+the examples and much of the phraseology are obsolete; but the book was
+written for Frenchmen and translated for Englishmen, to both of whom the
+speech of these days would have seemed at least equally strange, and
+proved not less embarrassing.
+
+The pages of Maupas, as he is presented to us in his English dress,
+acquire an oddity and an almost humorous side, which are absent from the
+French text itself; as, for instance:--
+
+    "Of making Stop.
+
+    "Holà, ho there, prou well, well, so so; assez enough, enough;
+    demeure, arreste, stay, stay, budge not."
+
+
+    "Of feeling Pain.
+
+    "Aou, haou, aouf, ah, of, alas. The same words will serve in English."
+
+
+    "Of Joy.
+
+    "Gay, deliait, alaigrement, heighday, as a man woud wish, merrily
+    then."
+
+Claudius Mauger and Paul Festeau were two other professors at a somewhat
+later date, who endeavoured to secure patronage for their methods and
+books by throwing special temptations in the way of customers. The former,
+who seems to have been resident in London, introduced into his pages as
+an attractive novelty a series of Dialogues illustrative of English
+exploits by land and sea, as well as of contemporary French history, while
+Festeau baited his hook with the two scarcely reconcilable assurances that
+his plan was the exactest possible for attaining the purity and eloquence
+of the French tongue, as it was spoken about 1660 in the Court of France,
+and that Blois, his native place, was the city "where the true tone of the
+French tongue was found by the unanimous consent of all Frenchmen."
+
+
+
+
+XIX.
+
+    Foreigners' English.
+
+
+I. A good deal has been incidentally heard of the habitual infelicity of
+the natives of other European countries where it has been a question of
+the treatment of our language either colloquially or with a literary
+object. This was a source of difficulty which must have been generally
+appreciated; but no one appears to have essayed to come to the succour of
+the distressed, till in 1578 Jacques Bellot, already mentioned, and the
+author of a French Grammar printed in 1578, announced in 1580 _The English
+Schoolmaster, for teaching strangers to pronounce English_. That such a
+book was published is probable enough, but it is not at present known; and
+we have meanwhile to content ourselves with speculating what kind of
+affair such an undertaking could have been, where the writer was a foreign
+teacher so ignorant of our language! But it was not amiss for Bellot to
+try his hand in the absence of any other adventurer; nor was it till after
+the Restoration that a second experiment was made in the same direction by
+James Howell, the tolerably celebrated author of the _Familiar Letters_,
+who brought out in 1662 _A New English Grammar, prescribing as certain
+rules as the language will bear, for foreigners to learn English_. This
+was nearly a century after Bellot; and Howell was both a linguist and a
+scholar.
+
+Like many other laudable endeavours, however, the proffered help was not
+much appreciated; and although the Germans, Dutch, and Russians have
+within the last quarter of a century made remarkable progress in the study
+of English, the French and other Continental nations remain unable or
+indisposed to conquer their ancient prejudices. Doubtless, the closer
+affinity between the languages of Germany and the Low Countries and our
+own considerably facilitated the mastery of English by the Teutonic
+community; and it was principally in Flanders that the earliest attention
+was paid to those highly valuable polyglot hand-books for travellers and
+students, into which the English, as a rule, was admitted more on account,
+probably, of its service to the foreign visitor in England than for the
+sake of the Englishman abroad, as had been the case with certain early
+vocabularies and primers elsewhere noticed.
+
+In the old plays the foreigner is invariably introduced making,
+consciously or otherwise, the most alarming havoc in our vocabulary and
+grammar; but the dramatist seems, as a rule, to have drawn a good deal on
+his own fancy instead of borrowing from life; and such is the case, it
+must be said, even with Shakespear's _Dr. Caius_, who speaks broken
+English, but hardly a Frenchman's broken English. The _Duke de Jarmany_ of
+the same writer would probably have had the same nondescript gibberish put
+into his mouth had he been brought on the stage; this sort of _dramatis
+persona_ was among the comic effects.
+
+The Mrs. Plawnish of a modern novelist thought that bad English might be
+good French; but the jargon of Caius is _sui generis_; he "hacks our
+English." as mine host puts it, but not naturally, although Shakespear
+must have had the opportunity of studying such a character from the
+original. But he even confers on the French doctor in the _Merry Wives_
+the very name of an actual English one, who was living in his boyhood, and
+who was not merely a contributor to literature, but a writer on
+philological subjects; so that those who had been acquainted with the real
+Caius were apt to feel some mystification at his dramatic presentment,
+claiming a nationality which did not belong to him, and murdering a
+language which was his own.
+
+As regards the familiarity of the French and Germans with our idiom, the
+position is changed; for while that of the former remains nearly
+stationary, that of Germany has grown more accurate and more general.
+
+
+II. But the conversance with our language in former times, even among
+those who devoted their attention to philology and instruction, was
+excessively scanty and inexact. If no more than a bare quotation,
+example, or equivalent in English is given, the solecisms are sometimes
+ludicrous in the extreme; and this branch of the subject is sufficiently
+interesting and novel to induce me, before I conclude my inquiry, to shew
+somewhat farther than I have done in the account of the foreign professors
+of languages settled in London during the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, the ignorance of English exhibited by two distinct classes of
+writers, namely, by foreigners occupying among us of old the position of
+tutors or teachers, and by the authors of publications designed for
+employment by ourselves visiting the Continent, or by our neighbours
+coming hither.
+
+The notions entertained by educated professional Frenchmen, and even by
+Hollanders and Germans, about our grammar and idiom were from the outset
+down nearly to the present century of the vaguest and most puerile
+character. Perhaps one of the most edifying monuments of this inveterate
+repugnance to the acquisition of so much as the alphabet of our poor
+tongue is to be found in a volume printed at Nürnberg so late as 1744
+under the title _Representation of the High-landers who arrived at the
+Camp of the Confederated Army_, 1743, where beneath the first of a series
+of plates occurs this elucidation: "The Highlanders in their accostumes
+clothes and downwards hanging cloak." The explanatory description of the
+next engraving is "A High-lander who puts on his cloak about his
+schoulders, when weather is sed to rain." These solecisms of course arose
+from the incompetence of the foreign artist or publisher, or both; but
+even where an ignorant typographer in a Continental town was employed to
+set up an English book by the author himself, the liability to blunders
+was very great, and we are not to be surprised at slips of the press in
+such a work as Bishop Hooper's _Declaration of the Commandments_, printed
+at Zurich in 1549, when at the end the writer apprises us that "the
+setters of the print understand not one word of our speech!"
+
+The most diverting illustrations of the jargon which was intended to pass
+for good conversational English abound in the pocket-guides and
+dictionaries, of which some went through several editions, and were
+evidently in great request by the sections of society to which they
+appealed. One of them is an octoglot vocabulary, 1548, and a second a
+series of Colloquies in six languages, accompanied by a dictionary, 1576.
+The English examples in the latter are highly curious, as affording an
+insight into our language as it was spoken at that date by foreign
+students and visitors; and, in point of fact, it is hard to choose between
+the two, which is the more remarkable. Let us take the Preface to the
+earlier publication from an impression of 1631 before me:--
+
+    "TO THE READER.
+
+    "Beloved Reader this boocke is so need full and profitable / and the
+    vsance of the same so necessarie / that his goodnes euen of learned
+    men / is not fullie to be praised for ther is noman in France / nor in
+    thes Nederland / nor in Spayne / or in Italie handling in these
+    Netherlandes which hat not neede of the eight speaches that here in
+    are writen and declared: Fer whether thad any man doo marchandise / or
+    that hee do handle in the Court / or that hee fo lowe the warres or
+    that hee be a trauailling man / hy should neede to haue an
+    interpretour / for som of theese eight speaches. The which wee
+    considering have at our great cost and to your great profite / brought
+    the same speaches here in suchwise to gether / and set them in order /
+    so that you fromyence fouath shall not neede eny interpretour / but
+    shalbe able to speake them your self / ...."
+
+An extract from one of the interlocutions must suffice:--
+
+    "_D._ Peeter / is that your sone?
+
+     _P._ Yea it is my sonne.
+
+     _D._ it is a goodlie childe. God let hun al wayes prosper in virtue.
+
+     _P._ I thancke you coosen.
+
+     _D._ Doth he not go to the scole?
+
+     _P._ Yes / hee learneth to speake French.
+
+     _D._ Doth hee? it is very well done. John / can you well speake
+          French?
+
+     _J._ Not very well coosen, but I learne.
+
+     _D._ Wher go you too schoole?
+
+     _J._ In the Lumbeardes streat.
+
+     _D._ Have you gon long too schoole?
+
+     _J._ About half a yeare."
+
+So the dialogue goes on, and there is a series of them.
+
+
+III. A second exemplification of the superlative obstacles which persons
+born out of England have at all periods encountered in the endeavour to
+comprehend on their own part, and render intelligible to others, our
+insular speech, is taken from the Italian Grammar of Henry Pleunus,
+printed at Leghorn at the end of the seventeenth century.
+
+Now, here, in lieu of the alleged width of acceptability, which meets the
+eye in the traveller's pocket-dictionary just described, we get a positive
+assurance that the author was a master of the English tongue; and it may
+be predicated of him that, compared with the majority of foreigners, he
+exhibits a proficiency very considerably above the average, though we
+honestly believe it to be grossly improbable that "every one speaks
+English at Legorne," as he says in one of the Anglo-Italian dialogues.
+There can be no desire to be hypercritical in judging such a production,
+or to lay stress on occasional slips of spelling and prosody; but the
+English of Pleunus very often strikes one--nor is it surprising that it
+should be so--as Italian literally rendered. He probably never attained an
+idiomatic phraseology; and one would have said less about it, had it not
+been for that sort of professorial assumption on the title-page.
+
+Going back in order of time, I shall furnish some specimens of the
+tetraglot _History of Aurelio and of Isabel Daughter to the King of
+Scotland_, translated from the Spanish, and printed in 1556 at Antwerp. I
+propose to quote a passage where two knights in love with Isabel propose
+to cast lots for her:--"I fynde none occasion that is so iuste, that by
+the same lof you, or you of me maye complayne vs: inasmuch that euery one
+of vs by him selfe is ynoughe more bounde vnto the loue, that he beareth
+to Isabell, then vnto any other bounde of frendshippe. And therfore I see
+not, that I for respecte of you, nor you also for mine to be ought to
+withdrawe from the high enterprise alreadie by vs begonne. Nor in likewise
+might be called a vertuouse worke, that we both together in one place
+sould displane the louingly sailes [_voilles amoureuses_ in the French
+column], for that shoulde be to defile, that so great betwene vs and more,
+then of brother conioyned frendship."
+
+Here it is not so conspicuously the orthography that is at fault, as the
+composition and syntax. But up and down this little book, too, there are
+some drolleries of spelling. The translator from the Spanish of Juan de
+Flores, whoever he was (a Frenchman probably), understood French and
+Italian; but surely his conversance with the remaining tongue was on a par
+with that of the majority of his Continental fellow-dwellers then,
+before, and since; and doubtless his printer has not failed to contribute
+to the barbarous unintelligibility of the English text. This is the book
+to which Collins the poet mistakenly informed Warton that Shakespear had
+resorted for the story of the _Tempest_.
+
+But a far stranger monument of orthographical and grammatical heresies
+exists in _The historijke Pvrtreatvres of the woll[4] Bible_, printed at
+Lyons in 1553. It is a series of woodcuts, with a quatrain in English
+beneath each picture descriptive of its meaning, and is introduced by an
+elaborate epistle by Peter Derendel and an Address from the printer to the
+reader. Both, however, probably proceeded from the pen of Derendel, who
+was doubtless connected with Pierre Erondelle, a well-known preceptor in
+London at a somewhat later date.
+
+The verses which occur throughout the volume are literal translations,
+presumably by Erondelle, from the French, and are singular enough, and
+might have tempted quotation; but, eccentric as they are, they are
+completely thrown into the background by the _prolegomena_, and more
+especially by the preface purporting to come from the printer of the work,
+which is the common set of blocks relating to Biblical subjects, made in
+the present case to accompany an English letterpress.
+
+I will transcribe only the commencement of the preface, whoseever it may
+be:--"The affection mine all waies towarde the hartlie ernest, louing
+reader, being cotinuallie commaunded of the dutie of mi profession, mai
+not but dailie go about to satisfie the in this, withe thow desirest and
+lookest for in mi vacation, the withe, to mai please the, I wolde it were
+to mi minde so free and licentiouse streched at large, as it is be the
+mishappe of the time restrained."
+
+The discovery of Moses by Pharaoh's daughter is thus poetically set
+forth:--
+
+  "The kinges daughter fonde him in great pitie
+   The russhes amonge, withe to him fauourable,
+   As god did please, him to saue thought worthie,
+   His owne mother giuing him for noorce able."
+
+Once more, the fall of Abimelech in _Judges_ ix. is portrayed after the
+ensuing fashion:--
+
+  "Hauing killed his bretherne on a stone,
+   Abimelech was forced ielde the ghoast:
+   For besieging with for warre Thebes, anon
+   A strocke he had, of a woman with lost."
+
+The spelling and the syntax in these examples are equally outrageous; yet
+they are possibly not more so than might be expected from persons unversed
+in the intricacies and anomalies of our language. But the point is, that
+the undertaking was executed for the special behoof, not alone of English
+residents abroad, but also of English students of sacred history at home;
+for there was nothing of the class at that time in our literature or our
+art. It is almost incomprehensible on what ground English was selected, as
+French would have been as serviceable to the educated reader here, while
+the Anglo-Gallic _patois_ must have proved a puzzle to all alike.
+
+The early English educational books produced by foreign printers were not
+quite invariably so wide of the mark in an idiomatic respect. Some of them
+were doubtless read in proof by the English author or editor; and such may
+have been the case with a version of the _Short Catechisme_ of Cardinal
+Bellarmine published in 1614 at Augsburgh, where the slips do not exceed
+an ordinary Table of Errata.
+
+Now and then, too, the writer himself was alone responsible for the
+eccentricities which presented themselves in his book, as where
+Stanyhurst, in his version of the _Æneid_, published at Leyden in 1582,
+renders the opening lines of Book the Second thus:--
+
+  "With tentive list'ning each wight was setled in harckning;
+   Then father Æneas chronicled from loftie bed hautie.
+   You me bid, O Princesse, too scarrifie a festered old soare,
+   How that the Troians wear prest by Grecian armie."
+
+Here it was the idiosyncrasy of the Briton which reduced a translation to
+a burlesque, and disregarded the canons of his own language, as well as
+taste and propriety in diction. For the entire work is cast in a similar
+mould, and is heterodox in almost every particular; some passages are too
+grossly absurd even for an Irishman who had spent most of his life in
+Belgium or Holland.
+
+
+
+
+XX.
+
+    Origin and spirit of Phonography--William Bullokar the earliest
+    regular advocate of it--Charles Butler--Dr. Jones and his theory
+    examined.
+
+
+I. The phonetic system of orthography, which may be regarded as empirical
+and fallacious, only forms part of such an inquiry as the present by
+reason of the presence in our earlier literature of a few books which were
+apparently designed, more or less, for educational purposes.
+
+The fundamental theory of the promoters of this principle, both in former
+times and in our own, seems to have been that the sound should govern the
+written character, and that all laws of philology and grammar should defer
+to popular pronunciation. It is, of course, begging the question, in the
+first place; and one of the warmest enthusiasts on the subject admits that
+the very pronunciation, which is the product of sound, and on which he
+relies, differs in different localities.
+
+The writers on behalf of phonetics possessed, no doubt, their own honest
+convictions; but they have at no period succeeded in carrying with them
+any appreciable number of disciples. Between 1580 and 1634, William
+Bullokar and Charles Butler endeavoured at various dates to establish
+their peculiar creed; but it never gained footing or currency, and its
+influence has left no trace on our language, except in the literary or
+calligraphic essays of persons unable to read and write, or in one or two
+isolated cases where the new heresy for the moment infected a man like
+Churchyard, the old soldier-poet, for on no other hypothesis can we
+explain the uncouth spelling of his little poem on the Irish Rebellion of
+1598, which is an orthographical abortion, out of harmony with the usual
+style of the author, and surpassing in foolishness the wildest suggestions
+of the professed adherents and supporters of the doctrine.
+
+Bullokar published his large Grammar in 1580, and his Brief one in 1586;
+and he also put forth in 1585 a version of Æsop's Fables, the title of
+which is a curiosity:--"Æsopz Fablz in Tru Ortography with Grammar-Notz.
+Her-vntoo ar also iooined the Short Sentencz of the Wyz Cato: both of
+which Autorz are translated out-of Latin intoo English by William
+Bullokar.
+
+  Gev' God the praiz
+  That teacheth all waiz.
+  When Truth trieth,
+  Erroor flieth."
+
+Butler became a convert in later life to the views previously entertained
+and promulgated by Bullokar, bringing out a third edition of his _History
+of Bees_ in 1634, adapted to the new standard; and in his _English
+Grammar_, published a twelvemonth before, he enunciated the same
+orthographical dogmas. He was of Magdalen College, Oxford, and prepared,
+as early as 1600, a Latin text-book on Rhetoric for the use of his
+College. This was more popular and successful than his phonetic excursus,
+and is quoted even still now and again, because it contains a slight
+allusion to Shakespear.
+
+But perhaps the most strenuous and elaborate attempt to reform us in this
+particular direction was made by Dr. Jones, who drew up a _Practical
+Phonography_, "Or the New Art of Rightly Spelling and Writing Words by the
+Sound thereof," for the use of the Duke of Gloucester, son of Queen Anne,
+somewhere before 1701, in which year he communicated the fruit of his
+researches to the public. His description of the art as a new one must be
+interpreted by his ignorance of the previous labours of Bullokar and
+Butler, and as a proof that the proposal had met with no response; and the
+fact that the Doctor's own volume is almost unknown may be capable of a
+similar explanation.
+
+I have no means of judging what kind of reception was accorded to Dr.
+Jones at the time; but the tone of that gentleman's Preface was certainly
+not propitiatory or diffident; for he freely speaks of the miserable
+ignorance of the world and of his own condescension to the undertaking, in
+order to remove or enlighten it; and yet, from another point of view, he
+addressed himself to the task of instituting a grammatical code based on
+that very ignorance of which he complains. For you have not to travel
+beyond the introductory remarks to stumble on the following directions for
+the pronunciation and _ergo_ the spelling of half-a-dozen familiar words
+and proper names:--_Aron_, _baut_ (bought), _Mair_, _Dixnary_, _pais_
+(pays), and _Wooster_; and at the same time on the very threshold of his
+text he allows "that English Speech is the Art of signifying the Mind by
+human Voice, as it is commonly used in England, (particularly in London,
+the Universities, or at Court)."
+
+Dr. Jones was a learned and well read medical man, and the monument of his
+erudition and scholarship lies before me in the shape of this portentous
+volume of 144 pages, which, if the young Duke had not died from another
+cause, might have proved fatal to him and to his royal mother's hopes of a
+successor in the Stuart line.
+
+That our national pronunciation is slovenly and against philological laws,
+nobody will probably deny; but it would not be an improvement or a gain to
+corrupt our written language by levelling it down to our spoken one.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Abacus, 209-15.
+
+  A. B. C., 88, 209-15, 234-7.
+
+  Abingdon School, 132, 183.
+
+  Absence from school severely treated, 108-9.
+
+  Academies, private, 143-4, 170-4, 178-83.
+
+  Accomplishments taught at the _Musæum Minervæ_, 170-4.
+
+  ---- at a private academy in 1676, 178-9.
+
+  _Acolastus_, 127, 257.
+
+  Addison's _Letter from Italy_, 203.
+
+  Æsop, 48, 99, 139, 141, 287.
+
+  Ainsworth, Robert, 229-30.
+
+  Aldus, 76.
+
+  Ale, 140.
+
+  Alexander de Villâ Dei, 45-6, 243-4.
+
+  Alfric, Archbishop, his _Colloquy_, 30.
+
+  Allibone, John, 12.
+
+  Alphabet, Jonson's remarks on our, 234-6.
+
+  _Alphabetum Latino-Anglicum_, 1543, 124.
+
+  America, 33-4.
+
+  American Plantations, 17, 84.
+
+  Amwell, 51-3, 200.
+
+  Andreas, Bernardus, 68, 102.
+
+  Andrew of Wyntown, 184.
+
+  Anglo-Gallic dictionary, 35.
+
+  ---- _vocabulary_, 255.
+
+  Anglo-Latin literature, 72.
+
+  Anniquil, John, schoolmaster and grammarian, 11, 51-3, 91.
+
+  _Apollo Shroving_, 1627, 144.
+
+  Apothecaries, early, ignorance of, 105.
+
+  Appleby, 107.
+
+  Appositions, 138.
+
+  Aristotle, 244.
+
+  Arithmetic, 163-4.
+
+  Arthur, Prince, son of Henry VII., 68, 102.
+
+  Arthusius, Gotardus, 155.
+
+  Ascensius, Jod. Badius, 78-80.
+
+  Ascham, Roger, 12, 19, 196, 220-3.
+
+  _As in præsenti_, 216.
+
+  Astrology, 157-8.
+
+  Astronomy, judicial, 133, 157.
+
+  Aufield, W., 268-9.
+
+  _Aurelio and Isabel, History of_, 1556, 279-81.
+
+  _Aviarium_, 227-8.
+
+  Aylesbury, 160.
+
+
+  Bacon, Francis, 177.
+
+  Baker, Humphrey, 163-4.
+
+  Bailey, Old, 165.
+
+  Balbus, Johannes, 50, 225.
+
+  Bale, Bishop, 98.
+
+  Bales, Peter, 165.
+
+  Barchby, John, 73.
+
+  Barclay, Alexander, 12.
+
+  Beaune, 256.
+
+  Bebelius of Basle, 81.
+
+  Beer, 140.
+
+  Bellarmine's (Cardinal) _Catechism_, 284.
+
+  Bellomayus, Johannes, 73.
+
+  Bellot, Jacques, 267-8, 271-2.
+
+  _Bellum Grammaticale_, 82.
+
+  Berkshire, 160.
+
+  Bethnal Green, 133, 170-1.
+
+  Bible, the, in schools, 205-8.
+
+  _Black Eagle_ in St. Paul's Churchyard, 115.
+
+  Blue Coat School, 253.
+
+  Board Schools, wise policy of the, 207.
+
+  Bodley, Sir Thomas, 10-11.
+
+  Bodmin, 161.
+
+  Bookbinders, 114-15, 264.
+
+  Borde, Andrew, 210-11.
+
+  Boulogne, 260.
+
+  Bow Lane, 156.
+
+  Boy-bishop at St. Paul's, 109.
+
+  Bracebridge, Thomas, 180.
+
+  Brackley, Waynflete's school at, 11.
+
+  Bread, manchet, 140.
+
+  Bright, Timothy, 177.
+
+  Brightland, John, 131.
+
+  Browne, Alexander, 175.
+
+  Buchanan, George, 117, 196.
+
+  Buckinghamshire, 160.
+
+  Bullokar, William, 286-7.
+
+  Burles, Edward, 131.
+
+  Burney, Charles, 23.
+
+  Busby, Dr., 18, 21-3.
+
+  Buskins, 265.
+
+  Butler, Charles, 286-7.
+
+  Butter, sweet, in 1652, 140.
+
+
+  Caius, or Kay, John, 247-8, 273-4.
+
+  Calligraphy, 165, 175-6.
+
+  Cambridge, 243-4.
+
+  Canterbury, 241.
+
+  Carmichael, James, 187.
+
+  Carving, 171.
+
+  Cassilis, Gilbert, Earl of, 117-18.
+
+  Catechism, the, 207-8, 216.
+
+  Cathedral schools, 7-9, 113.
+
+  Catherine of Aragon, 118.
+
+  Cato, Dionysius, 98, 287.
+
+  Caxton, W., his prose _Æneid_, 95-6.
+
+  Cecil, W., Lord Burleigh, 19, 220.
+
+  Chancellor of St. Paul's, 113.
+
+  Chapman, George, 252.
+
+  Charactery, 177.
+
+  Charles II. and Dr. Busby, 21.
+
+  Charterhouse, 76.
+
+  Chaucer, 223.
+
+  Cheke, Sir John, 82, 221, 247-8.
+
+  Chichester, 106.
+
+  Childermass, 109.
+
+  Christ's Hospital, 126, 135-6, 253-4.
+
+  Christ-cross-row, 210-11.
+
+  Church, salutary influence of the early, 5 _et seq._
+
+  Churchyard, Thomas, 286.
+
+  Cicero, 18, 94, 96 _et seq._, 110, 139, 141-2.
+
+  Ciceronian Academy, 219.
+
+  Cirencester, 108.
+
+  City of London School, 135, 204.
+
+  Civil War in Great Britain, influence of the, 190, 200.
+
+  Classic authors read in England in 1520, 88.
+
+  ---- in 1563, 221.
+
+  ---- used at St. Paul's, 110.
+
+  ---- at Merchant Taylors', &c., 251, 253-4.
+
+  ---- at a provincial school in 1788, 181.
+
+  ---- by ladies, 199, 203.
+
+  ---- attempt to supersede, in 1582, 231-2.
+
+  Clerical control over education, 3, 5-7, 190-2, 195-208.
+
+  Cocker, Edward, 175-6.
+
+  Coleridge, S. T., 136.
+
+  Colet, Dean, 8, 103, 108-14, 120-2.
+
+  Collation at Merchant Taylors' on Probation Day, 140.
+
+  College education in Scotland, former cost of, 189.
+
+  Collins, W., 281.
+
+  Collins's _Oriental Eclogues_, 203.
+
+  Columbus, C., 33.
+
+  Comparative study of Latin and English, 72.
+
+  Conventual schools, 6-7.
+
+  Cooper's _Thesaurus_, 226, 228-9.
+
+  Corderius, M., 139.
+
+  Cornwall, 161.
+
+  Corporal punishment in schools, 18-26, 30.
+
+  ---- petitions to Parliament against it, 25.
+
+  Coster, Laurence, 54.
+
+  Cox, Leonard, 123.
+
+  Croft, Richard, 194.
+
+  Croke, Richard, 244.
+
+  Cromwell, Oliver, 191-2.
+
+  ---- Thomas, Earl of Essex, 227, 257.
+
+
+  Dame-schools, 196-7, 202, 206.
+
+  Dancing, 171, 178.
+
+  Davies's Welsh Grammar, 233.
+
+  Decalogue, 120-1.
+
+  _De Conscribendis Epistolis_, by Erasmus, 103-4.
+
+  ---- an anecdote about the book, 104.
+
+  De Corro, Anthonio, 153.
+
+  De Flores, Juan, 279-81.
+
+  Delamothe, G., 266.
+
+  Denny, Sir Anthony, 226.
+
+  Derendel, Peter, 281.
+
+  Desainliens, Claude, 261-6.
+
+  Despauterius, 46.
+
+  Dialogues of Lucian translated into Latin by Erasmus, 100.
+
+  ---- in English and French, 258-9.
+
+  ---- in English and Italian, 263-5, 279.
+
+  Dickens's _Mrs. Plawnish_, 273.
+
+  Dictionaries, early, 27 _et seq._, 225-30.
+
+  Dictionary, definition of a, 32.
+
+  ---- of Johannes de Garlandia, 32-4.
+
+  Discipline, severity of early, 17-26, 108-12.
+
+  _Doctrinale_ of Alexander de Villâ Dei, 45-6, 186.
+
+  Donatus, Ælius, 46-9, 50, 86, 121, 184.
+
+  Dorchester, 183.
+
+  Dorne, John, 39, 87-9.
+
+  Dorset Street, Spitalfields, 157.
+
+  D'Ouvilly, Sir Balthazar Gerbier, 170-4.
+
+  Drawing, 171, 175.
+
+  Dugard, William, 140, 145-9.
+
+  Duncan, Dr., 219.
+
+  Du Ploiche, Pierre, 258-61.
+
+  Dutch language, 153, 171, 173.
+
+  Du Wes or Dewes, Giles, 117, 257.
+
+  Dyonisie de Mountchensy, 36.
+
+
+  East Indies, 155.
+
+  Edward the Confessor, 17.
+
+  ---- I. 35.
+
+  ---- VI., 123-6, 135.
+
+  Elizabeth, Queen, 126, 130, 230-2, 241.
+
+  Elyot, Sir Thomas, 226-9.
+
+  Endowed grammar schools of Edward VI., 126.
+
+  English school-books printed abroad, 85, 273.
+
+  Erasmus, Desiderius, 99, 103, 118, 120, 127, 244-5, 247.
+
+  Erondelle, Pierre, 266-7, 281-2.
+
+  Eton, 18-19, 21.
+
+  ---- Grammar, 160.
+
+  Etymology, 151.
+
+  Euripides, 248, 254.
+
+  Evans, Sir Hugh, 180-1.
+
+  Exchange, Royal, 164.
+
+
+  Farriery, 263.
+
+  Faversham, 161.
+
+  Feckenham, 194.
+
+  Female influence, 206-8.
+
+  Festeau, Paul, 269-70.
+
+  Fish, 76-7.
+
+  Fisher, Bishop, 242-3.
+
+  Fitzjames, Bishop, 106.
+
+  ---- Lord Chief Justice, 106.
+
+  Fitzstephen, W., 15.
+
+  Flageolet, 175.
+
+  Flanders, 273.
+
+  Florence, 245.
+
+  Florio, John, 155.
+
+  Foreign influence, 3, 38 _et seq._, 66, 170-4.
+
+  ---- ignorance of English, 273-84.
+
+  Founders of schools at the Reformation, 106.
+
+  Fox, John, 125.
+
+  Free school at Oxford, 60.
+
+  Free school at Feckenham, 194.
+
+  French dame-schools, 197.
+
+  ---- influence, 3, 257-62, 266-70.
+
+  ---- _Introductory_, by G. Du Wes, 117.
+
+  ---- knowledge of English, 274, 280 _et seq._
+
+  ---- language, 153, 254 _et seq._, 270.
+
+  ---- orthography, 35-6.
+
+  ---- school in St. Paul's Churchyard, 116.
+
+  Frobenius, 76.
+
+  Frorne = frozen, 76.
+
+
+  Gadbury, John, 158.
+
+  Gardiner, Bishop, 82, 247-8.
+
+  Gascoigne, George, 248.
+
+  _Gemma Vocabulorum_, 225.
+
+  Geneva, English residents at, 10.
+
+  _Gentleman's Calling, The_, 13.
+
+  German influence, 197.
+
+  ---- language, 152, 171, 173.
+
+  ---- population of Riga, 217.
+
+  Germany, 222, 274.
+
+  _Gloucestershire's Desire_, 1642, 193.
+
+  Gold, writing with, 176.
+
+  Golden Ball in St. Paul's Churchyard, 262.
+
+  Goldsmith's Alley, 94.
+
+  Goldsmith's _Poems for Young Ladies_, 202-3.
+
+  _Gradus comparationum_, 73.
+
+  Grammar schools, endowed, 126.
+
+  _Grammatica Initialis_, 1509, 14.
+
+  Grant, Edward, 251.
+
+  Grantham, Lincolnshire, 252.
+
+  Grantham, Thomas, 253.
+
+  Gray's Inn, 248.
+
+  Greek language, 241-54.
+
+  ----, study of the, at Oxford, 101-5, 244.
+
+  ---- taught at Cambridge by Erasmus, 100, 243-5.
+
+  ---- taught at public schools, 141-2, 161, 251, 253-4.
+
+  ---- taught by private tutors, 153.
+
+  Greeting, Thomas, 175.
+
+  Grey, Lady Jane, 222.
+
+  Grocyn, W., 102, 244-5.
+
+  Guarini of Verona, 86-7.
+
+  Guarna, Andrea, 82.
+
+
+  Hadleigh, Suffolk, 144.
+
+  Hall, Arthur, of Grantham, 252.
+
+  Harmar, Samuel, 193-4.
+
+  Hart Street, 157.
+
+  Hawkins, William, 144.
+
+  Hayne, Thomas, 216, 238-9.
+
+  Hazlitt, William, 181-2.
+
+  ---- Mr. Registrar, 281, note.
+
+  Hebrew, 142, 153, 168.
+
+  Henry VII., 68, 245.
+
+  ---- VIII., 68, 123-4 126, 128, 133, 143, 198, 205, 226-7, 246-7, 257-8.
+
+  Hereditary succession of teachers, 84.
+
+  Herefordshire, 162.
+
+  _Hero and Leander_ of Musæus, 253.
+
+  Herodotus, 253.
+
+  Hertfordshire, 131.
+
+  Highgate, 200.
+
+  Highlanders, 276.
+
+  Hills, Richard, 136.
+
+  Holidays, ancient school, 15-17.
+
+  Holofernes, Shakespear's, 99, 155.
+
+  Holt, John, 70-1.
+
+  Holwell, John, 157.
+
+  Homer, 250, 252-4.
+
+  Hoole, Charles, 93-4.
+
+  Hooper, Bishop, 276.
+
+  Horace, 64, 94.
+
+  Horman, William, 73-8, 129, 222.
+
+  ---- his literary quarrel with Lily and others, 81-2.
+
+  ---- extracts from his _Vulgaria_, 74-8.
+
+  Horn-book, 211, 212.
+
+  _Hours of the Virgin_, 1514, 115.
+
+  Howell, James, 233.
+
+  Hume, Alexander, 131, 187.
+
+  _Hundred Merry Tales_, 133-4.
+
+  Hunt, Leigh, 135.
+
+
+  Illustrated children's books, 159.
+
+  Indian abacus, 215.
+
+  Inglis, Esther, 176.
+
+  Ingulphus, 17-18.
+
+  Ink, 76.
+
+  Instruction, mediæval method of, 14, 30.
+
+  Ipswich, Wolsey's school at, 107, 119-20.
+
+  Ireland, 131, 189, 284, 286.
+
+  Italian influence, 3, 86-7, 197, 242-3, 245, 261-6, 278-9.
+
+  ---- language, 152 _et seq._, 261-6.
+
+  ---- hand, 177.
+
+
+  Jerome, St., 46, 110-11.
+
+  Jesus College, Cambridge, 11-12.
+
+  _Johnny Quæ Genus_, 216.
+
+  Johannes de Garlandia, 32-4, 83.
+
+  Johnson, Thomas, 212.
+
+  Jones, Dr., 287-9.
+
+  Jonson, Benjamin, 177, 233-6.
+
+  Julius Cæsar, 95-6.
+
+
+  Ken, Bishop, 137.
+
+  Kent, 161.
+
+  Kinaston, Sir Francis, 173, 233.
+
+  Kingston-upon-Hull, 106.
+
+  ---- Thames, 252.
+
+  Kinwelmersh, Francis, 248.
+
+  Knox, John, 185, 194.
+
+  Kyffin, Maurice, 92.
+
+
+  Ladies, 175.
+
+  ---- colleges for, 200 _et seq._
+
+  Ladies' lapdogs, 77.
+
+  Lamb, Charles, 136, 200, 253-4.
+
+  ---- Mary, 200.
+
+  Lancashire, 106.
+
+  Lane, A., 162-3.
+
+  Languages, living, taught in England, 152 _et seq._, 168, 171, 173.
+
+  Latimer, Bishop, 221.
+
+  ---- W., 102.
+
+  Latin language, 72, 152, 155, 162-3, 229-30.
+
+  ---- authors used at St. Paul's, 109-10.
+
+  ---- barbarous or low, 228.
+
+  Laureateship, ancient, 67.
+
+  Lawrence Pountney, St., 136.
+
+  Leghorn, English at, 278-9.
+
+  Lemprière, Dr., 182.
+
+  Leominster, 162.
+
+  Letter-writing, 103.
+
+  Levins, Peter, 228.
+
+  Lexicons, 225-30.
+
+  Libraries, parochial, proposed in Scotland, 185-6.
+
+  Lichfield, 60.
+
+  Life, mediæval, illustrated by ancient school-books, 31-2, 75-8.
+
+  ---- English, of the 16th and 17th centuries illustrated, 259 _et seq._
+
+  Lilly, William, the astrologer, 158.
+
+  Lily, George, 107.
+
+  ---- William, 44, 60, 81, 84-5, 118-22, 124, 139, 150-2, 161, 186, 216,
+        242, 245, 247.
+
+  Linacre, Thomas, 102, 117-18, 244-5, 257.
+
+  Lincolnshire, 158.
+
+  Littleton, Adam, 229.
+
+  Logic, 133-4.
+
+  Lombard Street, 278.
+
+  London, localities of, 76, 77-8, 93-4, 113-16, 156, 162, 164-5, 258-9,
+        261-2, 278.
+
+  ---- proposed University of, in 1647-8, 166-9.
+
+  Longlond, Dr., Bishop of Lincoln, 151.
+
+  Lord's Prayer, 120-1.
+
+  Lothbury Garden, 93, 156.
+
+  Louth, Lincolnshire, 158.
+
+  Lucian, 101, 254.
+
+  _Ludus Ludi Litterarii_, 1672, 144.
+
+  Lydgate, John, 37, 42-3, 99.
+
+
+  Magdalen College School, Oxford, 11-12, 51, 70, 84-5, 132, 152, 204.
+
+  Makins, Bathsua, 200.
+
+  Malagasy language, 155.
+
+  Malayan language, 155.
+
+  Malmesbury, 241.
+
+  Manchester, 106, 132, 180.
+
+  Manchet bread, 140.
+
+  Mantuan, Eclogues of, 98.
+
+  Mary, Princess, afterwards Queen, 117, 125, 257.
+
+  Mauger, Claudius, 269-70.
+
+  Maupas, Charles, 268-9.
+
+  _May-Flower_, the, 84.
+
+  Maypoles, 192.
+
+  Mayor of London, 77.
+
+  Meals, graces at, 259.
+
+  ---- reading at, 259.
+
+  _Medulla Grammatices_, 225.
+
+  Mercers' School, 135.
+
+  Merchant Taylors' School, 16, 21, 132, 136-42, 144-9, 223-4.
+
+  Middlesex, 131.
+
+  Mile-End Green, 162.
+
+  Military science, 171.
+
+  _Milk for Children_, 70.
+
+  Milton, John, 158-9.
+
+  Miracle of the fishes, 108.
+
+  Monastic or conventual schools, 6-7.
+
+  Montefiore, Sir Moses, 143.
+
+  _Monumenta Franciscana_ quoted, 114.
+
+  More, Sir Thomas, 65, 70, 112, 246.
+
+  Morris dances, 192.
+
+  Morris, Richard, 45.
+
+  Motto of Merchant Taylors' School, 147.
+
+  Mountjoy, Lord William, 103.
+
+  Mrs. Leicester's school, 200.
+
+  Mugwell or Monkwell Street, 156.
+
+  Mulcaster, Richard, 138, 223-4.
+
+  Mules, 265.
+
+  Murray, Lindley, 45, 218-19.
+
+  _Musæum Minervæ_ at Bethnal Green, 133, 170-4.
+
+  Musæus, 253.
+
+  Music taught in the conventual schools, 7.
+
+  ---- to ladies by private masters, 175.
+
+
+  Nash, Thomas, quoted, 19-20.
+
+  Neckam, Alexander, 32.
+
+  Neo-Hellenic, 249, 253.
+
+  Netherlands, 273, 279.
+
+  Newman, Thomas, 92.
+
+  Niger, Franciscus, 103.
+
+  _Nominale_, the, 27 _et seq._
+
+  Nonsense-verses, 141.
+
+  Norths of Kirtling, the, 199.
+
+  Nowell, Alexander, Dean of St. Paul's, 138.
+
+
+  Ocland, Christopher, 230-2.
+
+  Old Brompton, 140.
+
+  Oral instruction, 14.
+
+  _Ortus Vocabulorum_, 225, 228.
+
+  Oudin, Cesare, 153.
+
+  Ovid, 95.
+
+  Owen, Lewis, 153.
+
+  Oxford, Waynflete's school at, 11, 12, 51, 60, 68.
+
+  ---- ancient educational machinery at, 17, 133-4, 151.
+
+  ---- Grammar of, 1709, 120.
+
+
+  Pace, Richard, 102, 247.
+
+  Padua, 245.
+
+  Painting, 171.
+
+  Palsgrave, John, 123, 127, 228.
+
+  Pantofles, 265.
+
+  Paper, manufacture of, 75.
+
+  ---- different sizes of, 75.
+
+  ---- royal, 264.
+
+  ---- blotting, 264.
+
+  Paris under Philip Augustus, 33-4.
+
+  Parish churches in London, 78.
+
+  ---- schools in England, 194.
+
+  ---- ---- in Scotland, 185.
+
+  ---- libraries proposed in Scotland, 185.
+
+  Partridge, John, 158.
+
+  _Parvula_, 69-70.
+
+  _Parvulorum Institutio_, 52.
+
+  Penton, Stephen, 215.
+
+  Pepys, S., 157, 175.
+
+  ---- Mrs., 175.
+
+  Percy, Bishop, 7.
+
+  Perottus, Nicolaus, 39-40, 225.
+
+  Pes (foot) derived from the Greek, 33.
+
+  _Phænissæ_ of Euripides, 248.
+
+  Philelphus, Franciscus, 103.
+
+  Phonography, 237, 285-9.
+
+  Pictorial vocabulary, 35.
+
+  Play-days _v._ holy-days, 16.
+
+  Pleunus, Henry, 278-9.
+
+  Poggius (Poggio Bracciolini), 99.
+
+  Polyglot vocabularies, 153-4, 276-80.
+
+  Pope, Alexander, 205.
+
+  Popular literature of 1520, 88.
+
+  _Portraitures of the Bible_, 1553, 281-3.
+
+  Portuguese language, 153.
+
+  Prayers at public schools, 137.
+
+  Prices of provisions, 65.
+
+  Prideaux, M., 132, 162, 239.
+
+  Primer, National, of 1540, 123 _et seq._
+
+  ---- Salisbury, 121.
+
+  ---- for children, 211, 214.
+
+  Primrose, Dr., Goldsmith's, 81, 205.
+
+  Printing, notices relative to, 75.
+
+  Printing-press, private, attached to Merchant Taylors' School, 148-9.
+
+  Probation-Day, 139-42.
+
+  Professors of foreign languages, 153.
+
+  _Promptorius Parvulorum_, 225.
+
+  Pronunciation of Greek and Latin, 248-51.
+
+  _Propria quæ maribus_, 276.
+
+  Proprietary schools, 162, 195-6, 202, 206.
+
+  Protestant refugees at Geneva, 10.
+
+  ---- A. B. C., first, 1553, 212.
+
+  Provincial schools, 132, 160, 179-183.
+
+  ---- culture, 201-2.
+
+  Pumps, 265.
+
+  Punctuation, early, 79-80.
+
+  Putney, 200.
+
+
+  Quarter-wages, 148-9.
+
+  Quiney, Mrs., 202.
+
+
+  Rabbards, R., 165.
+
+  Rabelais, 104.
+
+  Reading, 160.
+
+  Reference, early books of, 239-40.
+
+  Religious character of early teaching, 6-8.
+
+  Remedies or holy-days, 15-17.
+
+  Reynell, Sir Richard, 162.
+
+  ---- Sir Thomas, 162.
+
+  Rhetoric, 132.
+
+  Rhodes, 242, 245.
+
+  Richmond and Derby, Margaret, Countess of, 217.
+
+  Riding the Great Horse, 171.
+
+  Riga, 107.
+
+  Rightwise, John, 216.
+
+  Ripley's _Compound of Alchemy_, 165.
+
+  Robertson, Thomas, of York, 81, 150-2.
+
+  Rochelle, 256.
+
+  _Roman Antiquities_ of Prideaux, 132.
+
+  ---- of Adams, 240.
+
+  ---- coins, weights, and measures, 230.
+
+  Rome, 245.
+
+  Rood, Theodore, 51.
+
+  Roper, Margaret, 199.
+
+  Rose, Manor of the, 136.
+
+  ---- sign of the, 258-9.
+
+  Roulston, Staffordshire, 106.
+
+  Ruddiman, Thomas, 187-9.
+
+  Russian abacus, 215.
+
+
+  Sackville, Sir Richard, 19, 220-2.
+
+  ---- Mr. Robert, 221.
+
+  Salaries of schoolmasters in 1561, 138.
+
+  School children (parish) in 1642, 194.
+
+  School of fish, 76.
+
+  Schools, monastic or conventual, 6-7.
+
+  ----, cathedral, 7-9, 113.
+
+  ---- established in England, 1502-15, 105-8, 210.
+
+  ---- ---- by Edward VI., 126.
+
+  Schoolmaster, the old and new, 23-6.
+
+  ---- of Old St. Paul's, 113-14.
+
+  Schoolmasters under the Commonwealth, 191-2.
+
+  Scogin, Jests of, 210-11.
+
+  Scot, Alexander, 251.
+
+  Scotland, 131, 184-9, 195, 197, 205, 279.
+
+  Scotus, Joh., 244.
+
+  Scrooby, Lincolnshire, 84.
+
+  Secularisation of teaching, 204-8.
+
+  Shakespear, W., 99, 155, 177, 180-1, 201-2, 281.
+
+  ---- his _Dr. Caius_ and _Duke de Jarmany_, 273-4.
+
+  _Ship of Fools_, 12.
+
+  Shirley, James, 237-8.
+
+  Shoemaker, dialogue with a, in 1597, 265.
+
+  _Short Introduction of Grammar_, by Lily, 84.
+
+  Shropshire, 173, 181-2.
+
+  Shropshire school in 1788, 181-2.
+
+  Skinners' school at Tonbridge, 135, 251.
+
+  Smith, Sir Thomas, 247.
+
+  Smith's series of dictionaries, &c., 240.
+
+  Sneezing, folklore of, 78.
+
+  Somersetshire, 106.
+
+  Somerville, Mrs., 199.
+
+  Spalding, Augustine, 155.
+
+  Spanish language, 153.
+
+  Speech-Day at Merchant Taylors', 143.
+
+  Speeches at breaking-up, 143-5.
+
+  _Spelling A. B. C._, 1590, 212.
+
+  Spitalfields, 157.
+
+  Staffordshire, 106-7.
+
+  Stage-plays in 1654, 192.
+
+  Stanbridge, John, 11, 39, 44, 53-9, 71, 122.
+
+  Standish, John, 242.
+
+  _Stans puer ad mensam_, 42-3.
+
+  Stanyhurst's Virgil, 284.
+
+  Sterne's _Sentimental Journey_, 267.
+
+  St. Martin's-le-Grand, 114.
+
+  St. Mary-le-Bow, 114.
+
+  St. Mary Wike, Devonshire, 107.
+
+  St. Paul's Church, 77.
+
+  ---- Churchyard, 115-16, 156, 261-2.
+
+  ---- School (old), 8, 113.
+
+  ---- ---- (Colet's), 100 _et seq._, 120-2, 132-3, 204, 216, 223, 242.
+
+  Stockwood, John, 251.
+
+  Stratford-on-Avon, 181, 194.
+
+  Strong, Nathaniel, 156.
+
+  Studies at the _Musæum Minervæ_, 171-2.
+
+  Sturmius, Johannes, 221.
+
+  Subjects taught in mediæval schools, 9-10.
+
+  ---- at St. Paul's and Merchant Taylors', 109-10, 137, 139, 141-2.
+
+  ---- at provincial schools, 181-2.
+
+  Sulpicius, Johannes, 40-4, 50.
+
+  Surrey, 200.
+
+  ---- Lord, 223.
+
+  Survival of early English system of holidays in the United States, 17.
+
+  Sutton Colfield, 106.
+
+  Syms, Christopher, 163.
+
+
+  _Tables of Grammar_, by John Fox, 125.
+
+  Teachers, foreign, 5, 66.
+
+  Terence, 46, 51, 90-4.
+
+  Testament, Greek, 141.
+
+  Theology in schools, 205-8.
+
+  Thucydides, 252.
+
+  Tiptoft, John, Earl of Worcester, 96.
+
+  Tom Thumb's Alphabet, 159.
+
+  Tonbridge, Skinners' School at, 135, 251.
+
+  Tree of Knowledge, the, 13.
+
+  Trinity Lane, 258-9.
+
+  Tumbler, a dog, 77.
+
+  Tunstall, Bishop, 102.
+
+  Turner, Dr., 105.
+
+  Tusser, Thomas, 18-19.
+
+  Tutors, 161-3.
+
+
+  Udall, Nicolas, 19, 21.
+
+  Union, educational results of the, 3.
+
+  United States, system of holidays in the, 17.
+
+  University of London, proposed, in 1647-8, 166-9.
+
+
+  Vacation, modern, not formerly understood, 16.
+
+  Valpy's Greek Grammar, 161.
+
+  Vaus, John, 186.
+
+  Vergil, Polydore, 44.
+
+  Vimont, M., 236.
+
+  Virgil, 43-4, 94-5, 110-11, 284.
+
+  Vitellius, Cornelius, 244.
+
+  Vives, Ludovicus, 118.
+
+  Vocabularies, 27 _et seq._
+
+  ---- polyglot, 153-4.
+
+
+  Wakes, 192.
+
+  Wales, 131, 233.
+
+  Walker, William, 158.
+
+  Walter de Biblesworth, 35.
+
+  Wapping, 156.
+
+  Warwickshire, 60, 194.
+
+  Watling Street, 114.
+
+  Wax candles taken by boys to school, 109, 137.
+
+  Waynflete, early school at, 11.
+
+  ---- Bishop, 11, 85.
+
+  Welsh Grammar, 233
+
+  Wem, Salop, 181.
+
+  Westbury, Lord Chancellor, 281, note.
+
+  Westminster, 17.
+
+  ---- School, 21, 132.
+
+  ---- Grammar, 160.
+
+  West Point School, U.S., 17.
+
+  White, Thomas, 159.
+
+  ---- Sir Thomas, 138.
+
+  Whitsun-ales, 192.
+
+  Whittinton, Robert, 39, 44, 60-8, 81-2, 94, 96-9, 122, 186, 222.
+
+  ---- his series of grammatical treatises described, 60-6.
+
+  Winchester School, 137.
+
+  Wines, 256.
+
+  Withals, John, 228-9.
+
+  Witton School, near Chester, 183.
+
+  Wolfe, Reginald, 127.
+
+  Wolsey, Cardinal, 107, 119-20.
+
+  Wolverhampton, 107.
+
+  Women, education of, 4, 195-208.
+
+  ---- notices of, 77.
+
+  Word-books, 27 _et seq._
+
+  Writing, 175-7.
+
+  ---- books, abundance of, 175.
+
+
+  Xenophon, 254.
+
+
+  Zenobia, Queen Elizabeth preferred to, 231.
+
+
+BALLANTYNE PRESS: EDINBURGH AND LONDON
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] There is some sort of evidence that the Grammar of Perottus was in
+demand here in England as a work of reference and instruction; for I find
+it in the interesting account-book of John Dorne of Oxford for 1520. It is
+bracketed with the _Vulgaria_ of Whittinton and the _Vocabula_ and
+_Accidence_ of Stanbridge as having fetched, the four together, 3s. It is
+described as being in leather binding, in quarto.
+
+[2] Knight refers to the _Epistolæ_ of Franciscus Philelphus, printed at
+Milan in 1471.
+
+[3] Introduction to Hayne's _Latin Grammar_, 1640.
+
+[4] It may be worth while to note that the use of _woll_ for _whole_ was
+not an unusual type of orthography and pronunciation in early English.
+Thus, in the _Interlude of the Four Elements_ (1519), we have:--
+
+  "For, as I said, they have none iron,
+   Whereby they should in the earth mine,
+   To search for any _wore_."
+
+And in the _Image of Hypocrisy_, part 3, Robin Hood is called _Robyn
+Whode_. Lord Chancellor Westbury used to pronounce _whole_ in the same
+way, and he would also say _whot_ for _hot_. When Mr. Registrar Hazlitt
+was engaged with him on the Bankruptcy Bill, he remarked more than once:
+"I am sick, Hazlitt, of the _woll_ business."
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+Passages in Gothic font are indicated by =font=.
+
+Superscripted characters are indicated by {superscript}.
+
+The original text includes letters with diacritical marks that are not
+represented in this text version.
+
+The original text includes Greek characters. For this text version these
+letters have been replaced with transliterations.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Schools, School-Books and Schoolmasters, by 
+W. Carew Hazlitt
+
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